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= Partial Terms of Endearment =
" Partial Terms of Endearment " is the 21st and final episode of the eighth season of the animated comedy series Family Guy . Directed by Joseph Lee and written by Danny Smith , the episode originally aired on BBC Three in the United Kingdom on June 20 , 2010 , and has not been allowed to air in the United States on Fox , the original television network of the series , due to its controversial nature . This is the last episode that is presented in standard format , the rest of the series uses high definition format and it is the final episode to have the current opening sequence which was updated during the second season . In the episode , Lois is approached by an old friend from college who asks her to become a surrogate mother . After arguing with her husband Peter who is against the idea , Lois decides to become a gestational carrier and undergoes in vitro fertilisation . However , while Lois is pregnant , the biological parents are killed in an automobile accident . Lois and Peter have to decide whether to abort the fetus , or carry it to term and give the baby up for adoption . Peter attempts to persuade his wife to get an abortion but changes his mind after pro @-@ life activists convince him that abortion is murder . Despite Peter 's objections , Lois goes ahead with the abortion .
The episode was banned from airing on the Fox Broadcasting Company due to concerns over its portrayal of the controversial subject of abortion . This is the second episode of Family Guy to be prevented from airing during the episode 's respective regular season run ; the first episode was the third season 's " When You Wish Upon a Weinstein " . Unlike that episode , Cartoon Network 's adult @-@ oriented block Adult Swim refused to air it upon Fox 's request . It was first announced at the 2009 San Diego Comic @-@ Con International .
Critical responses to the episode were mostly positive ; critics praised the storyline , cultural references and its assessment of the subject of abortion . The episode was watched in just under a million homes in its original airing in the United Kingdom . Guest performances included Gary Beach , Jackson Douglas , Phil LaMarr , Will Sasso , Julia Sweeney , Wil Wheaton and Michael York , along with several recurring guest voice actors for the series . " Partial Terms of Endearment " was released on DVD in the United States , along with Seth and Alex Almost @-@ Live Comedy Show , on September 28 , 2010 . Even though this episode was placed at the end of season 8 , the episode was placed between " Go Stewie Go " and " Peter @-@ assment " in the UK .
= = Plot = =
While attending her college reunion at Salve Regina University with Peter , Lois spots her old roommate , Naomi Robinson , with whom she had a brief lesbian relationship in college . Peter is shocked but excited to discover that Lois was bisexual in college . Naomi indicates that she would like to discuss an important matter with them at their home . Assuming that he will participate in a threesome with Lois and Naomi , Peter sends Chris , Meg , Stewie , and Brian out of the house . After Naomi arrives , she introduces her husband Dale . Peter expects that they will now be participating in an orgy , and tries to seduce the three of them while dressed in various costumes . When they clear the air to a dismayed Peter that they 're not there for sex , Naomi and Dale tell Lois and Peter they 've had trouble conceiving and ask Lois to be a surrogate mother for them , and Lois considers the matter .
As the family eats breakfast the next morning , Lois reveals her intention to become a surrogate mother for Naomi and Dale , causing Peter to become upset at the thought of her being pregnant for nine months . Despite this , Lois decides to go to Dr. Hartman to have the in vitro fertilization performed , enduring more of Dr. Hartman 's shtick involving celebrity crossbreeds and having a tribe of bush men implant the egg with blowguns . A pregnancy test comes back positive the next day , and a furious Peter attempts to cause Lois to have a miscarriage before ultimately confronting her about the pregnancy . While she continues asserting her intention to provide a child to Naomi and Dale , Quahog 5 News suddenly reveals that Naomi and Dale died in a car crash . Devastated by the announcement , Lois questions whether she should have an abortion or continue with the pregnancy and put the baby up for adoption .
In an attempt to come to a decision , Lois and Peter decide to visit the local family @-@ planning center , and ultimately decide to abort the embryo . However , as Peter exits the center he encounters an anti @-@ abortion rally , where he is shown an anti @-@ abortion video by one of the protesters . The video causes him to reconsider about aborting the unborn baby . Returning home , Lois continues to advocate her right to choose , while Peter now attempts to argue the unborn child 's right to life and whether Lois has the responsibility of carrying it to term . At their wits ' end , the two decide to discuss the matter , once and for all . The next day , Lois talks with the family about " the wonderful new member of the Griffin family " , but then , after a few seconds of silence , Peter turns to the camera and says to the audience " We had the abortion " , promptly ending the episode .
= = Production and development = =
The episode was first announced at the 2009 San Diego Comic @-@ Con International on July 25 , 2009 , by series creator and executive producer Seth MacFarlane . It was written by fellow executive producer and series regular Danny Smith and directed by Joseph Lee , during the show 's eighth production season . The storyline was pitched by series regular Tom Devanney , and periodically references Billions and Billions ( 1997 ) , a book of essays by Carl Sagan . Seth MacFarlane asked Danny Smith to read Sagan 's essay , " Abortion : Is It Possible to Be Both ' Pro @-@ Life ' and ' Pro @-@ Choice ' " , before beginning to write the script . The episode was originally intended to air along with the rest of the eighth season schedule , and was approved for production by 20th Century Fox . However , the Fox Broadcasting Company asserted their right not to air the episode due to the subject matter . This was the second time that MacFarlane had been warned by Fox about the sensitive nature of an episode 's subject . Previously , the network had also disapproved of the season 3 episode " When You Wish Upon a Weinstein " , which was originally prevented from airing on Fox , but finally aired on Adult Swim , and eventually on Fox more than four years after it was rejected . Thinking the same would happen with " Partial Terms of Endearment " , MacFarlane believed that Fox would eventually run the episode on their network , stating , " Most of the time these things turn out to be nothing . " In a statement released by Fox , they noted their full support of " the producers ' right to make the episode and distribute it in whatever way they want . "
At the 2009 San Diego Comic @-@ Con International , MacFarlane announced that the episode would become available on a special DVD release , with series producer Kara Vallow confirming the release would be available on September 28 , 2010 , along with Seth and Alex 's Almost Live Comedy Show . A month after the announcement , Kevin Reilly , President of Fox Entertainment , stated that the final decision not to air the episode was largely due to concerns about finances and advertisers : " Of all the issues , [ abortion ] is the one that seems to be the most of a hot button . Particularly at that moment in time , the economy was really struggling and there were a lot of very tough conversations going on with clients . " Reilly said that " the advertisers know what they ’ re getting " with Family Guy , and he thought that the episode handled the subject fine , but " this one felt like it could cause trouble , and it was just not worth it . " Despite the concerns in the U.S. about the episode , it aired on June 20 , 2010 , on BBC Three in the UK , as a part of the season 's regularly scheduled Sunday night run on the station . Although it was originally speculated that Adult Swim might air the episode , Fox stated that there were no plans to air it on their network . Several months before the episode debuted on television , the script was performed in a live table read at the Ricardo Montalbán Theatre in Hollywood , California on August 12 , 2009 . The special reading was attended by Academy of Television Arts and Sciences voters on the heels of the 61st Primetime Emmy Awards . Family Guy was nominated for Outstanding Comedy Series , becoming the first animated program to be nominated in the category since The Flintstones in 1961 . Commenting about the event , MacFarlane said , " We did this to drum up Emmy votes , so we could lose by fewer votes . "
In addition to the regular cast , actor Jackson Douglas , husband of Alex Borstein , appeared in the episode as Dale Robinson , actress Julia Sweeney appeared as Naomi Robinson , actress Rutina Wesley appeared as Cheryl , actor Wil Wheaton cameoed as an anti @-@ abortion protester and actor Michael York voiced the nature narrator . Actor Gary Beach , voice actor Phil LaMarr , and comedian / actor Will Sasso guest starred as various characters . Recurring guest voice actress Alexandra Breckenridge , actor Ralph Garman , and writers Danny Smith , Alec Sulkin and John Viener made minor appearances throughout the episode . Recurring guest cast member Patrick Warburton guest appeared in the episode as well . This episode marked Sweeney 's first guest appearance since the season two episode " Wasted Talent " .
" Partial Terms of Endearment " , along with Seth and Alex Almost @-@ Live Comedy Show , was released on DVD in the United States on September 28 , 2010 . The set includes a brief audio commentary by Seth MacFarlane , voice actress Alex Borstein , writer Danny Smith and director Joseph Lee , as well as animatics , a table read of the episode , and nine downloadable original Family Guy songs . It was also released for digital retail in the United States the same day without the bonus features included on the DVD .
= = Cultural references = =
In the opening scene of the episode , Peter and Lois are shown entering her alma mater at Salve Regina University in Newport , Rhode Island . Later , after they are approached by Lois 's ex @-@ roommate Naomi and her husband Dale , Lois announces her intention to carry the couple 's baby , causing Peter to question why Lois is the one who has to become the couple 's surrogate . Their daughter , Meg , suggests that she could carry the baby herself , but Lois objects due to Meg 's inability to have a boyfriend " for more than a few weeks . " Meg notes her relationship with Sesame Street character Count von Count , who only left her after discovering she had at least three nipples .
Before Lois prepares to undergo in vitro fertilization , Dr. Hartman shows her several photos of babies conceived by celebrity couples , including actress Shelley Duvall and singer @-@ songwriter James Blunt ; actress Hilary Swank and actor Gary Busey ; Olympic medalist Florence Griffith @-@ Joyner and physicist Stephen Hawking ; and actress , writer and comedian Tina Fey and actor Joaquin Phoenix . Beginning the procedure , Lois objects to Dr. Hartman 's method of embryonic insertion . In response , he replies , " Well , perhaps you could tell them — if only you spoke Hovitos , " a reference to Raiders of the Lost Ark . Later , in an attempt to cause Lois to have a miscarriage , Peter lays down a series of Grey 's Anatomy DVDs in order to lure Lois into being punched in the stomach by the " Acme Miscarriage Kit " , a boxing glove attached to a crossbow . In a reference to the Looney Tunes and Merrie Melodies cartoon series Wile E. Coyote and Road Runner , Peter ultimately ends up missing with the crossbow , causing the glove to bounce and hit a large rock and land inches in front of him as he is standing on a narrow cliff . The ground then drops out from underneath his feet , causing him to fall like Wile E. Coyote .
As Peter exits the abortion clinic , he notices a pro @-@ life rally nearby . At the rally , a protester shows Peter a video tape discouraging abortion ( as a reference to the cult classic 1936 American propaganda exploitation film Reefer Madness ) , portraying it as murder , larceny , jaywalking and securities fraud . The tape claims that abortion prevented Nazi leader Adolf Hitler 's would @-@ be assassin , a fourth Stooge brother , of The Three Stooges , and Islamic extremist Osama bin Laden 's America @-@ loving brother from being born .
= = Reception = =
The episode was viewed in just under a million homes in its original airing on BBC Three in the United Kingdom , earning an audience share of 5 @.@ 7 percent , despite airing simultaneously with Desperate Housewives on E4 . The reception of the episode represented a slight decrease from the previous week 's ratings . In a review of the episode 's original broadcast , The Mail on Sunday rated the double bill of " Partial Terms of Endearment " and " Go Stewie Go " as four out of five stars .
Reviews of the episode 's release on DVD were mostly positive , calling the episode " wickedly funny , no matter how offensive . " Frazier Moore of the Associated Press commented that " What , in other hands , could have been a serious , even heart @-@ wrenching story is on Family Guy a devilish burlesque — not to mention a wickedly astute examination of the current abortion clash . " Moore also noted , however , that " the uninitiated , the faint @-@ of @-@ heart and , most of all , the anti @-@ abortion crowd should maybe choose to take a pass . " Dave Itzkoff of The New York Times deemed the episode " typical of that audacious Fox animated comedy , teeming with rapid @-@ fire jokes and willfully offensive non sequiturs about disabled animals , God , Nazis , bodily functions and the sexual habits of ' Sesame Street ' characters . " In a slightly more mixed review of the DVD release , Cindy White of IGN criticized the episode for its shock value , but appreciated " that the writers didn 't cop out in the end , and actually picked a side . " White went on to comment that it was " hard to believe that the writers ever expected ' Partial Terms of Endearment ' to make it to air " and that " even devoted , longtime fans of the show may be a little uncomfortable with the subject matter . " White gave the release a 7 out of 10 rating . Assessing Family Guy 's impact on television , Mary Elizabeth Williams of Salon commented on the portrayal of abortion : " That Family Guy , that doofy , generally unfunny bastion of sophomoric jokes , should be one of the few shows brave enough to even address the topic is bananas [ ... ] And that Fox wouldn 't air the episode says we 're still a long way from having anybody on ' Glee ' or ' The Office ' or ' House ' look at those telltale lines on the stick and finally decide what millions of American women have — that they 're just not ready for motherhood . "
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= SMS Kronprinzessin Erzherzogin Stephanie =
SMS Kronprinzessin Erzherzogin Stephanie was an ironclad warship built for the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy in the 1880s , the last vessel of that type to be built for Austria @-@ Hungary . The ship , named for Archduchess Stephanie , Crown Princess of Austria , was laid down in November 1884 , was launched in April 1887 and completed in July 1889 . She was armed with a pair of 30 @.@ 5 @-@ centimeter ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) guns in open barbettes and had a top speed of 17 knots ( 31 km / h ; 20 mph ) . Her service was limited , in large part due to the rapid pace of naval development in the 1890s , which quickly rendered her obsolescent . As a result , her career was generally limited to routine training and the occasional visit to foreign countries . In 1897 , she took part in an international naval demonstration to force a compromise over Greek and Ottoman claims to the island of Crete . Kronprinzessin Erzherzogin Stephanie was decommissioned in 1905 , hulked in 1910 , and converted into a barracks ship in 1914 . After Austria @-@ Hungary 's defeat in World War I , the ship was transferred to Italy as a war prize and was eventually broken up for scrap in 1926 .
= = Design = =
In the decades that followed the Austrian victory at the Battle of Lissa in 1866 , naval expenditure in the Austro @-@ Hungarian Empire were drastically reduced , in large part due to the veto power the Hungarian half of the empire held . Surrounded by potentially hostile countries powers on land , the Austro @-@ Hungarian Empire was more concerned with these threats , and so naval development was not prioritized . Admiral Friedrich von Pöck argued for several years to improve the strength of the Austro @-@ Hungarian fleet , finally winning authorization to build the center battery ship Tegetthoff in 1875 . He spent another six years trying in vain to secure a sister ship to Tegetthoff . In 1881 , he called for a fleet of eleven armored warships in 1881 . Pöck ultimately had to resort to budgetary sleight of hand , appropriating funds that had been allocated to modernize the ironclad Erzherzog Ferdinand Max to build an entirely new vessel . He attempted to conceal the deception by referring to the ship officially as Ferdinand Max , though the actual Ferdinand Max was still anchored in Pola as a school ship .
= = = General characteristics and machinery = = =
Kronprinzessin Erzherzogin Stephanie was 85 @.@ 36 meters ( 280 ft 1 in ) long between perpendiculars and 87 @.@ 24 m ( 286 ft 3 in ) long overall . She had a beam of 17 @.@ 06 m ( 56 ft 0 in ) and a draft of 6 @.@ 6 m ( 21 ft 8 in ) , and she displaced 5 @,@ 075 metric tons ( 4 @,@ 995 long tons ) . Her hull was constructed with transverse and longitudinal steel frames and was extensively subdivided into watertight compartments to improve the ship 's resistance to flooding . The ship was equipped with a ram bow that was manufactured in Germany by Krupp . She was fitted with two pole masts equipped with fighting tops for some of her light guns . Her crew number 430 officers and enlisted men .
The ship was powered by a pair of compound steam engines driving two screw propellers ; the engines were built by Maudslay , Sons and Field of Britain . The number and type of the coal @-@ fired boilers that provided steam for the engines have not survived , though they were trunked into two funnels . Her propulsion system was rated to provide 8 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 6 @,@ 000 kW ) for a top speed of 17 knots ( 31 km / h ; 20 mph ) .
= = = Armament and armor = = =
Kronprinzessin Erzherzogin Stephanie was armed with a main battery of two 30 @.@ 5 @-@ centimeter ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) 35 @-@ caliber guns mounted singly in an open barbette . They were placed forward in sponsons over the battery deck to maximize end @-@ on fire . The guns were manufactured by Krupp , while the carriages that carried them were built by Armstrong Mitchell & Co . The guns fired a 450 @-@ kilogram ( 990 lb ) shell using a 140 kg ( 310 lb ) charge of brown powder , which produced a muzzle velocity of 530 metres per second ( 1 @,@ 700 ft / s ) . While the open barbettes provided a wide field of fire for the slow @-@ firing guns , they were rapidly rendered obsolete by the successful application of quick @-@ firing ( QF ) technology to large @-@ caliber artillery pieces .
The main battery was supported by a secondary battery of six 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) 35 @-@ caliber guns , also built by Krupp . These were mounted in gun ports amidships , three on each side . She carried nine 47 mm ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) QF guns for close @-@ range defense against torpedo boats ; seven were 44 @-@ caliber guns and the other two were shorter 33 @-@ caliber pieces , all built by Hotchkiss . Her gun armament was rounded out by a pair of 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) 44 @-@ caliber QF guns and a pair of 7 cm ( 2 @.@ 8 in ) 15 @-@ caliber landing guns for use by landing parties . As was customary for capital ships of the period , she carried four 40 cm ( 16 in ) torpedo tubes ; one was mounted in the bow , another in the stern , and one on each broadside .
Kronprinzessin Erzherzogin Stephanie was protected with compound armor manufactured by the Dillinger Hütte works in Germany . The ship was protected by an armored belt that was 229 mm ( 9 @.@ 0 in ) thick . The barbette for the main battery was 283 mm ( 11 @.@ 1 in ) thick , and the conning tower had sides that were 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) thick .
= = Service history = =
Kronprinzessin Erzherzogin Stephanie was built by the Stabilimento Tecnico Triestino shipyard in Trieste . Her keel was laid down on 12 November 1884 , the last ironclad to be laid down for the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy . She was launched on 14 April 1887 and completed in July 1889 . The following year , the German emperor , Kaiser Wilhelm II , invited the Austro @-@ Hungarian fleet to take part in the annual fleet training exercises in August . Kronprinzessin Erzherzogin Stephanie , the ironclad Kronprinz Erzherzog Rudolf , and the protected cruiser Kaiser Franz Joseph I were sent to Germany under the command of Rear Admiral Johann von Hinke . While en route , the squadron made visits in Gibraltar and Britain ; during the latter stop , the ships took part in the Cowes Regatta , where they were reviewed by Queen Victoria . The ships also stopped in Copenhagen , Denmark and Karlskrona , Sweden . During the voyage back to Austria @-@ Hungary , the squadron visited Cherbourg , France and Palermo , Italy .
Celebrations to honor the 400th anniversary of Christopher Columbus 's first trans @-@ Atlantic voyage were held in several countries ; Kronprinzessin Erzherzogin Stephanie , Kronprinz Erzherzog Rudolf , and Kaiser Franz Joseph I represented Austria @-@ Hungary during the ceremonies in Genoa , Italy , Columbus 's birthplace . During the 1893 fleet maneuvers , Kronprinzessin Erzherzogin Stephanie was mobilized to train alongside the ironclads Kronprinz Erzherzog Rudolf , Prinz Eugen , Kaiser Max , and Don Juan d 'Austria , among other vessels . Kronprinzessin Erzherzogin Stephanie took part in an international naval demonstration off Crete in 1897 during a period of tension between Greece and the Ottoman Empire that culminated in the Greco @-@ Turkish War . The Austro @-@ Hungarian contingent , which also included the armored cruiser Kaiserin und Königin Maria Theresia , and the torpedo cruisers Tiger , Leopard , and Sebenico , three destroyers , and eight torpedo boats , was the third largest squadron to take part in the demonstration , after the British and Italian fleets . Austria @-@ Hungary , displeased with the settlement that left Crete with a Greek ruler but nominally under Turkish control , withdrew its ships in March 1898 , before the other members of the international fleet .
Already by 1898 , the ship was regarded by the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy as a second @-@ rate vessel , after less than 10 years in service . The rapid pace of naval development in the late 19th century had quickly rendered her obsolescent . She was decommissioned in 1905 , In 1908 , the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy attempted to sell the ship , Kronprinz Erzherzog Rudolf , and Tegetthoff to Uruguay in an attempt to raise funds for new projects , but the deal fell through . In 1910 , she was hulked and became a barracks ship for the mine warfare school in 1914 , and served in this role for the duration of World War I. Following the conclusion of the conflict , Kronprinzessin Erzherzogin Stephanie was ceded to Italy as a war prize in 1920 and eventually broken up for scrap in 1926 .
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= Yank Adams =
Frank B. Adams ( December 19 , 1847 – after January 1923 ) , commonly known as Yank Adams , was a professional carom billiards player who specialized in finger billiards , in which a player directly manipulates the balls with his or her hands , instead of using an implement such as a cue stick , often by twisting the ball between one 's thumb and middle finger . Adams , who was sometimes billed as the " Digital Billiard Wonder " , has been called the " greatest of all digit billiards players " , and the " champion digital billiardist of the World . " George F. Slosson , a top billiards player of Adams ' era , named him the " greatest exhibition player who ever lived . " Adams ' exhibitions drew audiences of 1 @,@ 000 or more , leaving standing room only , even in small venues .
Adams ' career began when he found his aptitude for bowling translated to the playing of billiards . One day when he was 25 years old , he picked up some billiard balls and began to " bowl " on the table and soon discovered he could manipulate the balls with great accuracy in this manner . Largely self @-@ taught , Adams thereafter amassed a large repertoire of finger billiards shots . He engaged a manager and began to give performances , his first was at an engagement in New York City . Later , Adams traveled extensively , giving exhibitions and taking on challengers in cities across the United States and some in Europe . During his travels , Adams performed before the Vanderbilts , the Goulds , three U.S. Presidents , the Prince of Wales in London , and the Comte de Paris in Paris . One of the largest matches ever played of any form of billiards took place at Manhattan 's Gilmore 's Gardens in 1878 . Adams played using his fingers against William Sexton , the reigning cue champion of the world , who used a cue ; Adams won the three @-@ day competition in the game of straight rail .
= = Early life = =
Adams was raised in Norwich , Connecticut , which led to him being nicknamed " Yank " later in life . From a young age , he exhibited the substantial hand strength required for finger billiards . When he was less than a year old , he could hurt his mother with his grip ; she gave him chunks of bread to squeeze instead . Adams was large for his age , and in 1863 , he disguised his youth , and joined the Eighteenth Connecticut Volunteers , with whom he served for three years , fighting for the Union in the American Civil War . After being discharged , Adams worked as a carpenter from 1872 to 1875 , and then became a traveling salesman for the American Sterling @-@ Silver Company .
= = = Beginnings in billiards = = =
Adams finger billiards and exhibition work had its germination in his early bowling interest . By the time he was 17 , Adams was an adept bowler ; he often gave informal exhibitions of bowling tricks such as " cocked hat " , " back frame " , and letting the head pin remain standing . In a 1913 interview , Adams said that , " [ i ] n those days we rolled what was termed ' skew ball ' , similar to the english put on a cue ball in Billiards . "
When Adams was 25 he was employed as a traveling salesman for the Derby Silver Company in New York . One day , while he was waiting for customers in a Poughkeepsie hotel , he strolled into a billiard room , took six pool balls over to a billiard table , and commenced to " bowl " . The attention of everyone in the room was attracted by the manner in which Adams made the ball travel . One man asked for the privilege of placing the balls in a certain position for Adams to bowl at ; Adams made the shot easily . This started Adams ' career as a finger billiard expert . In the next town he traveled to , he hired a table , performed the same stunts with the balls , and added a few new shots . For three months after that Adams practiced various shots each day , and some of the shots he developed during that time became part of his regular exhibition repertoire .
When he returned to New York , Adams met with Maurice Daly , then the " dean of billiards " . Daly listened to Adams ' story , and said that he was not aware that any startling shots could be accomplished using only the hands . Daly offered Adams a set of four balls , and sat down to watch Adams . After 12 shots , Daly became greatly interested , often asking Adams to repeat shots . At the end of the performance , Daly told Adams that if he ever entertained any idea of entering the billiards field he would give Adams an engagement at his room .
= = Professional career = =
= = = International success = = =
As Adams became more involved with billiards , he gave up his job with the silver company . Adams went to Sexton 's billiard parlor in the Bowery and Sexton employed Adams at Miner 's Bowery Theater at $ 115 a week . Adams sought to employ a manager as was typical of billiards professionals of the time ; he was taken on by Billy O 'Brien , a well known sports authority and one @-@ time pugilist who managed Dominick McCaffrey later in his career . O 'Brien organized an exhibition tour of the United States for Adams . Three months into the tour , Adams reached Chicago , where he played a three @-@ week engagement for Billy Emmett at $ 500 a week . After leaving the stage , Adams opened at O 'Connor 's billiard room , at Fourteenth Street and Fourth Avenue , where he played nightly for a year . Adams then resumed traveling , and gave exhibitions in nearly every city in the United States and a large number of cities in Europe .
In 1868 Adams appeared before the Prince of Wales in London and the Comte de Paris in Paris . While in London , John Roberts , Jr. offered Adams $ 300 per week for one year to play afternoon and evening at his Argyle Rooms . After playing for the Comte de Paris , the Frenchmen wanted Adams to state his figures for an indefinite period . Adams also played for three Presidents of the United States ; while in New York he was paid $ 100 per night by the Vanderbilt and Gould families . Bullocks Billiard Guide said that Adams had earned more than $ 70 @,@ 000 for exhibition alone over seven years , which was more than the combined earnings of all other listed billiardists . Though champion players with cues sometimes dabbled in finger billiards , it was said even of such greats as Jacob Schaefer , George Slosson , and Eugene Carter that " their work , compared with that of the Finger Wonder , is like a novice playing an expert . "
= = = Public exhibitions = = =
Adams ' first major public exhibition in New York was held on January 31 , 1878 , at the Union Square Billiard Rooms before a large audience ; he performed there nightly for a week . Reporting on the first night of the event , The New York Times wrote :
The intricacy of the various shots he played , as well as the marvelous accuracy with which they were executed , frequently roused the spectators to an unusual pitch of enthusiasm .... Many of Adams ' shots are entirely new , never having been attempted before by any billiards expert . Among them may be mentioned the wonderful " bottle " shot with which last evening 's exhibition was brought to a close . Two soda @-@ water bottles were placed at the head of the left @-@ hand rail , about a foot apart , a red ball being placed in the mouth of each bottle . A white ball was next placed against the right @-@ hand rail , directly opposite the lower bottle . Everything being in readiness , Adams then took the remaining white ball in his hand , and masseing upon the ball in the mouth of the upper bottle , jumped his ball to the ball in the mouth of the other bottle , whence , falling upon the table it was carried by a reverse " English " to the middle of the top rail , whence it glided with unerring accuracy to the right @-@ hand rail and caromed upon the first @-@ mentioned white ball , its successful execution being greeted with great applause .
= = = Competitive play and rivalries = = =
= = = = M. Adrian Izar = = = =
Prior to Adams ' performances , finger billiards had been demonstrated in New York by French player M. Adrien Izar , who had astonished spectators with an exhibition held on September 20 , 1875 , before which the game was little known in the United States . In France and England , Izar was considered the game 's champion player . The night before his 1878 exhibition , Adams received a telegram in which Izar challenged him to play for the championship and named Chicago as the venue for contest . Adams replied that he was unwilling to leave New York at that time , but that he would pay Izar 's expenses to travel to New York . Adams later issued the following statement to newspapers :
I have never intended to play a public match in my line , having never arrogated to myself a superiority above other hand billiard players , although I have deemed myself the equal of any one living in my line , not excepting Mons . Izar , by whom continually letters are written , whose contents have for their purpose a derogation of my skill . That this may be checked , and summarily , I would state that I am willing to play Mons . Izar a match game for $ 500 a side , in New York City , Boston or Chicago , on a 5x10 table , full size balls and Collender cushion ; the championship and gate money to be awarded the player showing the greatest variety of shots in connection with accuracy , and in all giving the most interesting exhibition of finger billiards .
= = = = William Sexton = = = =
On March 15 , 1878 , a billiards match of straight rail began that lasted three days at the game The match was between Adams and William Sexton , then the cue champion of the world , at Manhattan 's Gilmore 's Gardens — the predecessor venue of Madison Square Garden . The match pitted Adams ' finger billiards against Sexton using a cue , for a purse of $ 500 . The audience was one of the largest that had ever witnessed a billiards game . The terms of the contest stated that on each day of the match , Adams was required to score 2 @,@ 000 points , while Sexton needed only 1 @,@ 000 .
On the first day of the match , Adams scored 1 @,@ 110 points using finger billiards . Despite Adams ' impressive opening performance , by the third day of the match , Sexton was far in the lead . In Dewey @-@ Defeats @-@ Truman @-@ style , many newspapers reported that Sexton won the tournament , as their reporters left the venue at a time when Sexton had a seemingly indomitable lead and before the match was over . The New York Times , for example , reported that Sexton won the match , though they leavened the result by reporting that despite the prize fund , it was a " friendly match " , geared toward exhibition , and that " Adams could undoubtedly have run the game out on three occasions , but preferred to make ' display ' shots in place of his usual " nurse " play , against which a cue player stands no chance whatever . " However , with Sexton needed only seven points to win the championship , Adams stepped to the table and ran out , making 1 @,@ 181 points in a row to win the match .
= = = = Louis Shaw = = = =
Adams ' chief professional rivalry in later years was with Louis Shaw . In 1891 Adams and Shaw disagreed about the format of the finger billiards championship which they would both contest that year . Adams wanted the match to be played for a $ 500 stake , while Shaw wanted the receipts to be donated to the local firemen 's fund .
= = = Other accomplishments = = =
In 1879 , Adams was chosen to be the official referee for the championship Collender Billiard Tournament held at Tammany Hall . It was contested by top players Marice Daly , Albert Garnier , Eugene Carter , A. P. Rudolphe , Randolph Heiser , William Sexton , George F. Slosson , and " the Wizard " , Jacob Schaefer , Sr. at the newly introduced carom billiards discipline called the champion 's game , an intermediary game between straight rail and balkine .
In 1889 , Adams broke the world record run for successive straight rail points in a match with champion player Jacob Schaefer , Sr. , in which Adams scored 4 @,@ 962 counts in a row , which was 2 @,@ 400 points more than any prior competition high run , albeit with his fingers rather than with a cue . Adams stated in an interview in his later years that his personal high run was 6 @,@ 900 consecutive straight rail counts .
In 1890 , Adams returned to Paris after signing a contract with Eugene Carter to play at Carter 's billiard academy for thirteen weeks at 1 @,@ 000 francs ( approximately $ 200 ) per week . Afterwards , Adams went in London , under the management of M. Farini , to play at the room of John Roberts , Jr . On a previous trip to London in 1887 , Roberts offered Adams £ 60 a week for six months to give exhibitions , but Adams declined , citing a need to superintend his sporting journal .
Adams was the editor and proprietor of The Chicago Sporting Journal , and the general manager of the New York Sporting and Theatrical Journal . Through his association with the sporting journals , Adams was an intermediary for the issuance of challenge matches , such as boxing bouts . He held the winning stake and distributed the winnings upon the event 's conclusion . Adams owned a number of billiard parlors during his lifetime , including two in Chicago — one named the White Elephant , another called the Academy Billiard Hall , and one on Union Square at 60 East 14th Street in New York City . Adams ' business cards , in 1877 , said , " Yank Adams , champion finger billiardist of the world . Residence immaterial . "
= = = Later life = = =
Adams continued to give exhibitions and was still able to perform well into his later years . For example , the New Rochelle Pioneer newspaper reported that Adams gave an exhibition on December 21 , 1915 at 68 years of age , at Chamberlain 's Derby Billiard Academy in New Rochelle , New York , and that he was " at his best and made some exceptionally brilliant shots in the presence of 300 lovers of the game . While at the table he kept up a continuous humorous monologue to the great pleasure of his audience . " In 1919 , when Adans was 71 , the Brooklyn Daily Eagle reported that he gave an exhibition before a large audience at Lawler Brothers Billiard Academy of Brooklyn .
In 1923 , when Adams was 76 , the following newspaper story appeared in The Salt Lake Tribune , telling of his whereabouts :
Perhaps you old fellows , too , thought Yank had passed on , but he turned up in New York the other day and is now spending his last days in a Bronx flat . There was a time when Yank Adams was known in every billiard room in America . He was as much at home in Eddie Graney 's room at San Francisco as at Tom Foley 's in Chicago of Maurice Daly 's in New York , and he knew all the billiard players and big and little room keepers from coast to coast . When the history of billiards is written and the names of Willie Hoppe , old and young Jake Schaefer and Welker Cochran are included with others of the great exponents of the indoor sport , there will be a distinct division for one man — the man who did the impossible , who could make the ivories travel the wrong way , or , in the language of the billiard realm , " make ' em talk all languages . " That man is Frank B. Adams , known the world over as " Yank " Adams , at one time and even now the world 's only finger billiardist who can make all the apparently impossible shots on the table without the aid of a cue . Adams is 76 years old , and after fifty years of exhibitions all over the world has retired from active work to live in the Bronx and conduct a billiard academy of his own at Burnside and Creston avenues in New York with his business manager for the last ten years , Samuel Polakoff . Yank now lives at 635 West 136th street In New York . When I told Tom Foley , the daddy of all the roommkeepers , that Yank Adams was back in the business he laughed and said : " I thought Yank had cashed in . But he 's like all those billiard players . They never die . "
= = Style of play = =
Adams played only with his fingers , disdaining the cue stick entirely . He was known for his skill at finger billiards and for the quickness of his play . In exhibitions it was sometimes advertised that Adams would attempt to make 100 shots in 100 seconds . He would always begin by " feeling out " the cushions on the table , as the speed of the tables varied almost nightly , some fast and some slow .
Adams would sometimes accept challenge matches at his performances . For example , at an exhibition held in Omaha , Nebraska , on November 20 , 1889 , Adams played against twenty of the best players in the city . Adams manipulated the balls with his fingers , while his opponents used cues and were given a handicap equivalent to a 1 @,@ 000 point lead .
Adams performed about 80 shots per exhibition . He had a large repertoire of practiced shots — more than 500 — affording him the luxury to not having to repeat a single shot during a week @-@ long exhibition . The abundance of shots was unusual , and was described by one sports writer as " more extensive than the entire billiard fraternity put together " . The following description of Adams ' shots appeared in an 1891 newspaper article , which highlighted them as , " among his difficult feats " :
Two quart wine bottles are placed at the short end of the table , three feet apart ; a ball is placed on the top of each bottle , and a third ball , six feet from the bottles in the opposite corner . Adams makes the hand ball jump from bottle to bottle then to take an English in space , counting on the third bail , a double shot .
Fifteen balls are placed in a line , three inches apart . On the last ball is placed a piece of chalk , while two feet from the other end , at a square angle , is placed a single ball . Yank drops the hand ball with a Massé twist , which , after hitting the single ball , describes a semi @-@ circle , taken the cushion first , then makes a carrom on the fifteen balls , but is played with such a delicate calculation as barely to reach the last ball ; in fact , freezes against it so gently as not to dislodge the chalk previously placed thereon .
A derby hat is placed on the table , under which is a ball . One foot from the hat are two balls a foot apart , which he carroms on , the hand ball continues striking the rim of the hat , forces it up , and goes under making the stroke on the third ball , then returns from under the hat when it rocks the second time .
He also stand at the head of the table , throwing the balls with a hundred @-@ yard force but has them stop eight feet away in such a position as to spell his name .
In an article in the St. Paul Daily Globe , the reporter summed up the events of Adams ' exhibition on April 26 , 1888 :
The great finger billiard exhibition came off last night at the Standard billiard hall to a packed house , and those who saw Yank Adams handle the spheres were more than delighted .... Shot after shot were made in lightning rapidity , spotting the ball , running the whole length of the rail , crossing over , with two cushions and counting , going under hats and in between them , cutting the letter S and making the carom , jump shots , masses and hundreds of others too complicated to put in type . Mr. A.M. Doherty played a game with the exhibitor , and at twenty @-@ eight points left the balls in a scattered position , which were gathered at one shot by Mr. Adams , who made fifty shots in sixty seconds . What seemed his most difficult shot was that of placing fifteen balls in a line , and a piece of chalk on the last ball . The hand ball was then dropped a distance of two feet , described a semi @-@ circle , making a carom on all of the balls and freezing against the last ball . Adams ' finger shots discount Schaeffer , Slosson and J. Carter combined .
The public flocked to Adams ' exhibitions ; often the pool room where he was performing could barely contain the crowd . When Adams performed in Rochester , New York in 1892 , the local paper reported that " [ n ] o man in these broad acres can draw the crowd " Yank " Adams does when an exhibition with the ivories is the card . Last night 's crowd was banked up , against the walls , twenty deep in someplaces and many witnessed the exhibition from the table tops and window ledges . "
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= James I of Scotland =
James I ( late July 1394 – 21 February 1437 ) , King of Scotland from 1406 , was the son of King Robert III and Annabella Drummond . He was the last of three sons . By the time he was eight , both of his elder brothers were dead — Robert had died in infancy but David , Duke of Rothesay died suspiciously in Falkland Castle while being detained by his uncle , Robert , Duke of Albany . Although parliament exonerated Albany , fears for James 's safety grew during the winter of 1405 – 1406 and plans were made to send him to France . In February 1406 , James was accompanying nobles close to his father when they clashed with supporters of Archibald , 4th Earl of Douglas , forcing the prince to take refuge in the castle of the Bass Rock , a small islet in the Firth of Forth . He remained there until mid @-@ March , when he boarded a vessel bound for France , but on 22 March while off the English coast , pirates captured the ship and delivered James to Henry IV of England . Two weeks later , on 4 April the ailing Robert III died , and the 12 @-@ year @-@ old uncrowned King of Scots began his 18 @-@ year detention .
James was given a good education at the English Court , where he developed respect for English methods of governance and for Henry V to the extent that he served in the English army against the French during 1420 – 1421 . The Scottish King 's cousin , Murdoch Stewart , Albany 's son , a captive in England since 1402 , was traded for Henry Percy , Earl of Northumberland in 1416 . Eight more years passed before James was ransomed , by which time Murdoch had succeeded his father to the dukedom and the governorship of Scotland . James married Joan Beaufort , daughter of the Earl of Somerset in February 1424 shortly before his release in April when they journeyed to Scotland . This was not altogether a popular re @-@ entry to Scottish affairs , since James had fought on behalf of Henry V and at times against Scottish forces in France . Noble families would now not only have to pay increased taxes to cover the £ 40 @,@ 000 ransom repayments but would also have to provide hostages as security . Despite this , James held qualities that were admired . The contemporary Scotichronicon by Walter Bower described James as excelling at sport and appreciative of literature and music . Unlike his father and grandfather he did not take mistresses , but had many children by his consort , Queen Joan . The King had a strong desire to impose law and order on his subjects , but applied it selectively at times .
To bolster his authority and secure the position of the crown , James launched pre @-@ emptive attacks on some of his nobles beginning in 1425 with his close kinsmen the Albany Stewarts resulting in the execution of Duke Murdoch and his sons . In 1428 James detained Alexander , Lord of the Isles , while attending a parliament in Inverness . Archibald , 5th Earl of Douglas , was arrested in 1431 , followed by George , Earl of March , in 1434 . The plight of the ransom hostages held in England was ignored and the repayment money was diverted into the construction of Linlithgow Palace and other grandiose schemes .
In August 1436 , James failed humiliatingly in his siege of the English @-@ held Roxburgh Castle and then faced an ineffective attempt by Sir Robert Graham to arrest him at a general council . James was murdered at Perth on the night of 20 / 21 February 1437 in a failed coup by his uncle and former ally Walter Stewart , Earl of Atholl . Queen Joan , although wounded , managed to evade the attackers and was eventually reunited with her son James II in Edinburgh Castle .
= = Prince and Steward of Scotland = =
James was probably born in late July 1394 at Dunfermline Abbey , 27 years after the marriage of his parents Robert III and Annabella Drummond . It was also at Dunfermline under his mother 's care that James would have spent most of his early childhood . The prince was seven years old when his mother died in 1401 and a year later his elder brother David , Duke of Rothesay was probably murdered by their uncle Robert Stewart , Duke of Albany after being held at Albany 's Falkland Castle . Prince James , now heir to the throne , was the only impediment to the transfer of the royal line to the Albany Stewarts . In 1402 Albany and his close Black Douglas ally Archibald , 4th Earl of Douglas were absolved of any involvement in Rothesay 's death clearing the way for Albany 's re @-@ appointed as the king 's lieutenant . Albany rewarded Douglas for his support by allowing him to resume hostilities in England . The Albany and Douglas affinity received a serious reversal in September 1402 when their large army was defeated by the English at Homildon and numerous prominent nobles and their followers were captured . These included Douglas himself , Albany 's son Murdoch , and the earls of Moray , Angus and Orkney . That same year , as well as the death of Rothesay , Alexander Leslie , Earl of Ross and Malcolm Drummond , lord of Mar had also died . The void created by these events was inevitably filled by lesser men who had not previously been conspicuously politically active . In the years between 1402 and 1406 , the northern earldoms of Ross , Moray and Mar were without adult leadership and with Murdoch Stewart , the Justiciar for the territory north of the Forth , a prisoner in England , Albany found himself reluctantly having to form an alliance with his brother Alexander Stewart , Earl of Buchan and Buchan 's son , also called Alexander to hold back the ambitions of the Lord of the Isles . Douglas 's absence from his power base in the Lothians and the Scottish Marches encouraged King Robert 's close allies Henry Sinclair , Earl of Orkney and Sir David Fleming of Biggar to take full advantage to become the principal political force in that region .
In December 1404 the king granted the royal Stewart lands in the west , in Ayrshire and around the Firth of Clyde , to James in regality protecting them from outside interference and providing the prince with a territorial centre should the need arise . Yet , in 1405 James was under the protection and tutelage of Bishop Henry Wardlaw of St Andrews on the country 's east coast . Douglas animosity was intensifying because of the activities of Orkney and Fleming who continued to expand their involvement in border politics and foreign relations with England . Although a decision to send the young prince to France and out of Albany 's reach was taken in the winter of 1405 – 06 , James 's departure from Scotland was unplanned . In February 1406 Bishop Wardlaw released James to Orkney and Fleming who , with their large force of Lothian adherents , proceeded into hostile Douglas east Lothian . James 's custodians may have been giving a demonstration of royal approval to further their interests in Douglas country . This provoked a fierce response from James Douglas of Balvenie and his supporters who , at a place called Long Hermiston Muir , engaged with and killed Fleming while Orkney and James escaped to the comparative safety of the Bass Rock islet in the Firth of Forth . They endured more than a month there before boarding the France @-@ bound Maryenknyght , a ship from Danzig . On 22 March 1406 the ship was taken by English pirates and James became the hostage of King Henry IV of England . Robert III was at Rothesay Castle when he learned of his son 's capture , and he died soon after on 4 April 1406 and was buried in the Stewart foundation abbey of Paisley .
= = King in captivity = =
James , now the uncrowned King of Scots , began what proved to be his 18 @-@ year period as a hostage while at the same time Albany transitioned from his position of lieutenant to that of governor . Albany took James 's lands under his own control depriving the king of income and any of the regalia of his position and was referred to in records as ' the son of the late king ' . The king had a small household of Scots that included Henry Sinclair , Earl of Orkney , Alexander Seaton , the nephew of Sir David Fleming , and Orkney 's brother John Sinclair following the earl 's return to Scotland . In time , James 's household — now paid for by the English — changed from high ranking individuals to less notable men . Henry IV treated the young James well , providing him with a good education . James was ideally placed to observe Henry 's methods of kingship and political control having probably been admitted into the royal household on reaching adulthood . James used personal visits from his nobles coupled with letters to individuals to maintain his visibility in his kingdom . Henry died in 1413 and his son , Henry V , immediately ended James 's comparative freedom initially holding him in the Tower of London along with the other Scottish prisoners . One of these prisoners was James 's cousin , Murdoch Stewart , Albany 's son , who had been captured in 1402 at the Battle of Homildon Hill . Initially held apart but from 1413 until Murdoch 's release in 1415 they were together in the Tower and at Windsor Castle .
By 1420 , James 's standing at Henry V 's court improved greatly ; he ceased to be regarded as a hostage and more of a guest . James 's value to Henry became apparent in 1420 when he accompanied the English king to France where his presence was used against the Scots fighting on the Dauphinist side . Following the English success at the siege of Melun , a town southeast of Paris , the contingent of Scots were hanged for treason against their king . After his return to England , James attended Queen Catherine 's coronation on 23 February 1421 receiving an honoured position of sitting immediately on the queen 's left at the coronation banquet . In March , Henry began a circuit of the important towns in England as a show of strength and it was during this tour that James was knighted on Saint George 's day . By July , the two kings were back campaigning in France where James , evidently approving of Henry 's methods of kingship , seemed content to endorse the English king 's desire for the French crown . Henry appointed the Duke of Bedford and James as the joint commanders of the siege of Dreux on 18 July 1421 and on 20 August they received the surrender of the garrison . Henry died of dysentery on 31 August 1422 and in September James was part of the escort taking the English king 's body back to London .
The regency council of the infant King Henry VI was inclined to have James released as soon as possible . In the early months of 1423 their attempts to resolve the issue met with little response from the Scots , clearly influenced by the Albany Stewarts and adherents . Archibald , Earl of Douglas was an astute and adaptable power in Southern Scotland whose influence even eclipsed that of the Albany Stewarts . Despite his complicity in James 's brother 's death in Albany 's castle in 1402 Douglas was still able to engage with the king . From 1421 , Douglas had been in regular contact with James and they formed an alliance that was to prove pivotal in 1423 . Although Douglas was the pre @-@ eminent Scottish magnate his position in the borders and Lothians was jeopardized — not only did he have to forcibly retake Edinburgh Castle from his own designated warden but was very likely under threat from the earls of Angus and March . In return for James 's endorsement of Douglas 's position in the kingdom , the earl was able to deliver his affinity in the cause of the king 's home @-@ coming . Also , the relationship between Murdoch — now Duke of Albany following his father 's death in 1420 — and his own appointee Bishop William Lauder seemed to be under strain perhaps evidence of an influential grouping at odds with Murdoch 's stance . Pressure from these advocates for the king almost certainly compelled Murdoch to agree to a general council in August 1423 when it was agreed that a mission should be sent to England to negotiate James 's release . James 's relationship with the House of Lancaster changed in February 1423 when he married Joan Beaufort , a cousin of Henry VI and the niece of Thomas , Duke of Exeter and Henry , Bishop of Winchester . A ransom treaty of £ 40 @,@ 000 sterling ( less a dowry remittance of 10 @,@ 000 marks ) was agreed at Durham on 28 March 1424 to which James attached his own seal . The king and queen escorted by English and Scottish nobles reached Melrose Abbey on 5 April and were met by Albany who relinquished his governor 's seal of office .
= = Personal rule = =
= = = First acts = = =
Throughout the 15th century , Scottish kings suffered from a lack of crown revenue and James 's reign was no exception . The Albany regency had also been constrained with Duke Robert owed his fees of governorship . For the nobility , royal patronage ceased entirely following James 's capture ; irregular forms of political favours emerged with Albany allowing nobles such as the earl of Douglas and his brother James to remove funds from the customs . It was against this backdrop that James 's coronation took place at Scone on 21 May 1424 . The coronation parliament of the Three Estates witnessed the king perform a knighthood ceremony for eighteen prominent nobles including Alexander Stewart , Murdoch 's son ; an event probably intended to foster loyalty to the crown within the political community . Called primarily to discuss issues surrounding the finance of the ransom payments , the parliament heard James underline his position and authority as monarch . He ensured the passing of legislation designed to substantially improve crown income by revoking the patronage of royal predecessors and guardians . The earls of Douglas and Mar were immediately affected by this when their ability to remove large sums from the customs was blocked . Despite this , James was still dependent on the nobility — especially Douglas — for its support and initially adopted a less confrontational stance . The early exception to this was Walter Stewart , Albany 's son . Walter was the heir to the earldom of Lennox and had been in open revolt against his father during 1423 for not giving way to his younger brother Alexander for this title . He also disagreed with his father 's acquiescence to the return of James to Scotland . James had Walter arrested on 13 May 1424 and imprisoned on the Bass Rock — at this time , this was probably in Murdoch 's interests as well as James 's . It is probable that the king felt unable to move against the rest of the Albany Stewarts while Murdoch 's brother , John Stewart , Earl of Buchan and Archibald , Earl of Douglas were fighting the English on the Dauphinist cause in France . Buchan , a leader with an international reputation , commanded the large Scottish army but both he and Douglas fell at the Battle of Verneuil in August 1424 and the Scottish army routed . The loss of his brother and the large fighting force left Murdoch politically exposed .
= = = A ruthless and acquisitive king = = =
Douglas 's death at Verneuill was to weaken the position of his son Archibald , the 5th earl . On 12 October 1424 , the king and Archibald met at Melrose Abbey ostensibly to agree the appointment of John Fogo , a monk of Melrose , to the abbacy . The meeting may also have been intended as an official acceptance of Douglas but it signalled a change in the Black Douglas predominance vis @-@ a @-@ vis the crown and other nobles . Important Douglas allies died in France and some of their heirs realigned with rival nobles through blood ties while at the same time Douglas experienced a loosening of allegiances in the Lothians and , with the loss of his command over Edinburgh Castle , this all served to improve James 's position . Even though , James continued to retain Black Douglas support allowing him to begin a campaign of political alienation of Albany and his family . The king 's rancor directed at Duke Murdoch had its roots in the past — Duke Robert was responsible for his brother David 's death and neither Robert nor Murdoch exerted themselves in negotiating James 's release and must have left the king with the suspicion that they held aspirations for the throne itself . Buchan 's lands did not fall to the Albany Stewarts but were forfeited by the crown , Albany 's father @-@ in @-@ law , Duncan , Earl of Lennox was imprisoned and in December the duke 's main ally Alexander Stewart , Earl of Mar settled his differences with the king . An acrimonious sitting of parliament in March 1425 precipitated the arrest of Murdoch , Isabella , his wife , and his son Alexander — of Albany 's other sons Walter was already in prison and James , his youngest , also known as James the Fat , escaped into the Lennox .
James the Fat led the men of Lennox and Argyll in open rebellion against the crown and this may have been what the king needed to bring a charge of treason against the Albany Stewarts . Murdoch , his sons Walter and Alexander and Duncan , Earl of Lennox were in Stirling Castle for their trial on 18 May at a specially convened parliament . An assize of seven earls and fourteen lesser nobles were appointed to hear the evidence that linked the prisoners to the rebellion in the Lennox . The four men were condemned , Walter on 24 May and the others on 25 May and immediately beheaded in ' front of the castle ' . James demonstrated a ruthless and avaricious side to his nature in the destruction of his close family , the Albany Stewarts , that yielded the three forfeited earldoms of Fife , Menteith and Lennox . An enquiry set up by James in 1424 into the dispersal of crown estates since the reign of Robert I exposed legal defects in a number of transactions where the earldoms of Mar , March and Strathearn together with the Black Douglas lordships of Selkirk and Wigtown were found to be problematic . Strathearn and March were forfeited in 1427 and 1435 respectively . Mar was forfeited in 1435 on the earl 's death without heir which also meant that the lordships of Garioch and Badenoch reverted to the crown . James sought to boost his income further through taxation and succeeded in getting parliament to pass legislation in 1424 for a tax to go towards paying off the ransom — £ 26 @,@ 000 was raised but James sent only £ 12 @,@ 000 to England . By 1429 , James stopped the ransom payments completely and used the remainder of the taxation on buying cannons and luxury goods from Flanders . Following a fire in the castle of Linlithgow in 1425 , funds were also diverted to the building of Linlithgow Palace which continued until James 's death in 1437 and absorbed an estimated one tenth of royal income .
= = = Relations with the church = = =
James asserted his authority not only over the nobility but also upon the Church and lamented that King David I 's benevolence towards the Church proved costly to his successors and that he was ' a sair sanct to the croun ' . James also considered that the monastic institutions in particular needed improvement and that they should return to being strictly ordered communities . Part of James 's solution was to create an assembly of overseeing abbots and followed this up by establishing a Carthusian priory at Perth to provide other religious houses with an example of internal conduct . He also sought to influence Church attitudes to his policies by having his own clerics appointed to the bishoprics of Dunblane , Dunkeld , Glasgow and Moray . In March 1425 , James 's parliament directed that all bishops must instruct their clerics to offer up prayers for the king and his family ; a year later , parliament toughened up this edict insisting that the prayers be given at every mass under sanction of a fine and severe rebuke . This same parliament legislated that every person in Scotland should ' be governed under the king 's laws and statutes of this realm only ' . From this , laws were enacted in 1426 to restrict the actions of prelates whether it was to regulate their need to travel to the Roman Curia or their ability to purchase additional ecclesiastical positions while there . In James 's parliament of July 1427 , it is evident that statute being enacted had the purpose of reducing the powers of the church jurisdiction .
On 25 July 1431 , the general council of the Church convened in Basel but its initial full meeting did not take place until 14 December by which time Pope Eugenius and the council were in complete disagreement . It was the council and not the pope who requested that James send representatives of the Scottish church and it is known that two delegates — Abbot Thomas Livingston of Dundrenanan and John de Winchester , canon of Moray and a servant of the king — were in attendance in November and December 1432 . In 1433 James , this time in response to a summons by the pope , appointed two bishops , two abbots and four dignatories to attend the council . Twenty – eight Scottish ecclesiasts attended at intervals from 1434 to 1437 but the majority of the higher ranking churchmen sent proxy attendees but Bishops John Cameron of Glasgow and John de Crannach of Brechin attended in person as did Abbot Patrick Wotherspoon of Holyrood . Even in the midst of the Basel general council , Pope Eugenius instructed his legate , Bishop Antonio Altan of Urbino , to meet with James to raise the issue of the king 's controversial anti @-@ barratry laws of 1426 . The Bishop of Urbino arrived in Scotland in December 1436 and apparently a reconciliation between James and the papal legate had taken place by the middle of February 1437 but the events of 21 February when James was assassinated prevented the legate from completing his commission .
= = = The Highland problem = = =
In July 1428 , the king convened a general council at Perth aimed at obtaining finance for an expedition to the Highlands against the semi @-@ autonomous Lord of the Isles . The council initially resisted granting James the funds — even with royal support from the powerful Earls of Mar and Atholl — it eventually gave in to the king ’ s wishes . Although it seemed that an all @-@ out attack on the Gaels of the north was not the king 's intention , James had resolved to use a degree of force to strengthen royal authority . He told the assembly :
The leaders of the Gaelic kindreds in the north and west were summoned by James ostensibly to a sitting of parliament in Inverness . Of those assembled the king arrested around 50 of them including Alexander , the third Lord of the Isles and his mother , Mary , Countess of Ross around 24 August . A few were executed but the remainder , with the exception of Alexander and his mother , quickly released . During Alexander ’ s captivity James attempted to split Clann Dòmhnall — Alexander 's uncle John Mór was approached by an agent of the king to take the clan leadership but his refusal to have any dealings with the king while his nephew was held prisoner led to John Mór 's attempted arrest and death .
The king 's need for allies in the west and north led him to soften his approach towards the Lord of the Isles and , hoping that Alexander would now become a loyal servant of the crown , he was given his freedom . Alexander , probably under pressure from his close kinsmen Donald Balloch , John Mór 's son , and Alasdair Carrach of Lochaber , led a rebellion attacking the castle and burgh of Inverness in spring 1429 . The crisis deepened when a fleet from the Lordship was dispatched to bring James the Fat back from Ulster ' to convey him home that he might be king ' . With James ’ s intention to form an alliance with the Ulster O 'Donnells of Tyreconnell against the MacDonalds , the English became distrustful of the Scottish king ’ s motives and they themselves tried to bring James the Fat to England . Before he could become an active player , James the Fat died suddenly releasing James to prepare for decisive action against the Lordship .
The armies met on 21 June in Lochaber and Alexander , suffering the defection of Clan Chattan ( the MacKintoshes ) and Clan Cameron , was heavily defeated . Alexander escaped probably to Islay but James continued his assault on the Lordship by taking the strongholds of Dingwall and Urquhart castles in July . The king pushed home his advantage when an army reinforced with artillery was dispatched to the isles . Alexander probably realised that his position was hopeless and tried to negotiate terms of surrender but James demanded and received his total submission . From August 1429 the king delegated royal authority to Alexander Stewart , Earl of Mar for the keeping of the peace in the north and west . The Islesmen rose again in September 1431 and inflicted two important defeats on the king 's men — Mar 's army was beaten at Inverlochy and Angus Moray ’ s in a fierce battle near Tongue in Caithness . This was a serious setback for James and his credibility was adversely affected . In 1431 , before the September uprising , the king had arrested two of his nephews , John Kennedy of Carrick and Archibald , Earl of Douglas possibly as a result of a conflict between John and his uncle , Thomas Kennedy in which Douglas may have become involved . Douglas 's arrest had raised tensions in the country and James acted to reduce the unrest by freeing the earl on 29 September — it was quite likely that the king made the earl 's release conditional on support at the forthcoming parliament at Perth at which James intended to push for further funding for the campaign against the Lordship . Parliament was in no mood to allow James unconditional backing — he was allowed a tax to fund his Highland campaign but parliament retained full control over the levy . The rules parliament attached to the taxation indicated a robust stand against further conflict in the north and probably led to the turnaround that took place on 22 October when the king ' forgave the offence of each earl , namely Douglas and Ross [ i.e. Alexander ] ' . For Douglas this was a formal acknowledgement of his having already been freed three weeks earlier but for Alexander this was a total reversal of crown policy towards the Lordship . Four summer campaigns against the Lordship were now officially at an end with James 's wishes having effectively been blocked by parliament .
= = = Foreign policy = = =
James 's release in 1424 did not herald a new Scottish relationship with its southern neighbour . He didn 't become the submissive king that the English council had hoped for but instead emerged as a confident and independently @-@ minded European monarch . The only substantive matters of contention between the two kingdoms were the payments due under the terms of James 's release and the renewal of the truce that would expire in 1430 . In 1428 after setbacks on the battlefield Charles VII of France sent his ambassador Regnault of Chartres , Archbishop of Rheims to Scotland to persuade James to renew the Auld Alliance — the terms were to include the marriage of the princess Margaret to Louis , the dauphin of France , and a gift of the province of Saintonge to James . The ratification of the treaty by Charles took place in October 1428 and James , now with the intended marriage of his daughter into the French royal family and the possession of French lands , had his political importance in Europe boosted .
The effectiveness of the alliance with France had virtually ceased after Verneuil and its renewal in 1428 did not alter that — James adopted a much more non @-@ aligned position with England , France and Burgandy while at the same time opening up diplomatic contacts with Aragon , Austria , Castile , Denmark , Milan , Naples and the Vatican . Generally , Scotto – English relations were relatively amiable and an extension of the truce until 1436 helped the English cause in France and the promises made in 1428 of a Scottish army to help Charles VII and the marriage of James 's eldest daughter to the French king 's son Louis were unrealised . James had to balance his European responses carefully – England 's ally , the Duke of Burgundy whose possessions included Scotland 's major trading partners , the Low Countries , ensured support for France would be muted . The truce with England expired in May 1436 but James 's perception of the Anglo @-@ French conflict changed following a realignment of the combatants . The breakdown of the talks between England and France in 1435 precipitated an alliance between Burgundy and France and a request from France for Scottish involvement in the war and for the fulfilment of the promised marriage of Princess Margaret to the Dauphin . In the spring of 1436 Princess Margaret sailed to France and in August Scotland entered the war with James leading a large army to lay siege to the English enclave of Roxburgh Castle . The campaign was to prove pivotal , the Book of Pluscarden describes ' a detestable split and most unworthy difference arising from jealosy ' within the Scottish camp and the historian Michael Brown explains that a contemporary source has James appointing his young and inexperienced cousin Robert Stewart of Atholl as the constable of the host ahead of the experienced march wardens , the earls of Douglas and Angus . Brown explains that both earls possessed considerable local interests and that the effects of such a large army living off the land may have created considerable resentment and hostility in the area . When the militant prelates of York and Durham together with the Earl of Northumberland took their forces into the marches to relieve the fortress , the Scots swiftly retreated — a chronicle written a year later said that the Scots ' had fled wretchedly and ignominiously ' — but the effects and the manner of the defeat and the loss of their expensive artillery was a major reversal for James both in terms of foreign policy and internal authority .
= = Assassination = =
= = = Background = = =
Walter Stewart was the youngest of Robert II 's sons and the only one not to have been provided with an earldom during his father 's lifetime . Walter 's brother , David , earl of Strathearn and Caithness had died before 5 March 1389 when his daughter Euphemia was first recorded as countess of Strathearn . Walter , now ward to his niece , administered Strathearn for the next decade and a half during which time he aided his brother Robert , Earl of Fife and Guardian of Scotland by enforcing law and order upon another brother Alexander , lord of Badenoch — he again supported Robert ( now Duke of Albany ) against their nephew , David , Duke of Rothesay in 1402 . Albany most likely engineered the marriage of Euphemia to one of his affinity , Patrick Graham and by doing so ended Walter 's involvement in Strathearn . Duke Robert , possibly to make up for the loss of the fruits of Strathearn , made Walter earl of Atholl and Lord of Methven . In 1413 , Graham was killed in a quarrel with his own principal servant in the earldom , John Drummond .
The Drummond kindred were close to Atholl and the earl 's renewed involvement in Strathearn as ward to Graham 's son despite strong opposition from Albany hint at Atholl 's possible party to the murder . The bad blood now existing between Albany and Atholl led James on his return to Scotland in 1424 to ally himself with Earl Walter , his uncle . Atholl participated at the assize that sat over the 24 / 25 May 1425 that tried and found the prominent members of the Albany Stewarts guilty of rebellion — their executions followed swiftly .
James granted Atholl the positions of Sheriff of Perth and Justicier and also the earldom of Strathearn but this , significantly , in life @-@ rent only — acts that confirmed Earl Walter 's policing remit given by Albany and his already effective grip on Strathearn . Atholl 's elder son , David had been one of the hostages sent to England as a condition of James 's release and had died there in 1434 — his younger son , Alan died in the king 's service at the Battle of Inverlochy in 1431 . David 's son Robert was now Atholl 's heir and both were now in line to the throne after the young Prince James . James continued to show favour to Atholl and appointed his grandson Robert as his personal chamberlain but by 1437 , after a series of setbacks at the hands of James , the earl and Robert probably viewed the king 's actions as a prelude to further acquisitions at Atholl 's expense . Atholl 's hold on the rich earldom of Strathearn was weak and both he and Robert would have realised that after the earl 's death Strathearn would have reverted to the crown . This meant that Robert 's holdings would have been the relatively impoverished earldoms of Caithness and Atholl and amounted to no more than what was in the Earl Walter 's possession in the years between 1406 and 1416 .
The retreat from Roxburgh exposed the king to questions regarding his control over his subjects , his military competence and his diplomatic abilities yet he remained determined to continue with the war against England . Just two months after the Roxburgh fiasco , James called a general council in October 1436 to finance further hostilities through more taxation . The estates firmly resisted this and their opposition was articulated by their speaker Sir Robert Graham , a former Albany attendant but now a servant of Atholl . The council then witnessed an unsuccessful attempt by Graham to arrest the king resulting in the knight 's imprisonment followed by banishment but James did not see Graham 's actions as part of any extended threat . In January 1437 , Atholl received yet another rebuff in his own heartlands when James overturned the chapter of Dunkeld Cathedral whose nominee was replaced by the king 's nephew and firm supporter , James Kennedy .
= = = Conspiracy and regicide = = =
The reaction against the king at the general council had shown Atholl that James was not only on the back @-@ foot but his political standing had received a huge set @-@ back and may have convinced the earl that James 's death was now a viable course of action . Atholl had seen how assertive action by two of his brothers at different times had allowed them to take control of the kingdom and that as James 's nearest adult relative , the earl must have considered that decisive intervention on his part at this time could prove to be equally successful .
The destruction of the Albany Stewarts in 1425 appears to have played a significant part in the conspiracy against the king . Their judicial killing and forfeiture of their lands impacted on the servants who administered and depended on these estates for their living . The vacuum left by this was filled by Atholl in whose employment many of these disaffected Albany men appear . These included Sir Robert Graham who only three months earlier had attempted to arrest the king at the Perth council , and the brothers Christopher and Robert Chambers . Even although Robert Chambers was a member of the Royal household , the old Albany ties were stronger .
A general council was held in Atholl 's heartland in Perth on 4 February 1437 and crucially for the conspirators , the king and queen had remained in the town at their lodgings in the Blackfriars monastery . In the evening of 20 February 1437 the king and queen were in their rooms and separated from most of their servants . Atholl 's grandson and heir Robert Stewart , the king 's chamberlain , allowed his co @-@ conspirators — thought to number about thirty — led by Robert Graham and the Chambers brothers access to the building . James was alerted to the men 's presence giving the king time to hide in a sewer tunnel but with its exit recently blocked off to prevent tennis balls getting lost , James was trapped and killed .
= = = Aftermath = = =
The assassins had achieved their priority in killing the king but the queen , although wounded , had escaped . Importantly , the six @-@ year @-@ old king , now James II , had been safeguarded from Atholl 's control by the removal of the earl 's associate , John Spens , from his role as James 's custodian . Spens vanished from the records following the regicide but the re @-@ allocation of his positions and lands immediately following the murder indicate his part in the plot . Yet , in the chaos following the murder , it appeared that the queen 's attempt to position herself as regent was not guaranteed . No surviving documentation exists that suggest that there was any general feeling of horror or condemnation aimed at the murderers . It was possible that had the botched attempt at killing the queen succeeded and had Atholl taken control of the young king then his attempted coup might have succeeded . The queen 's small group of loyal supporters that included the Earl of Angus and William Crichton ensured her continued hold of James . This in itself greatly reinforced her situation but Atholl still had followers . By the first week of March neither side seemed to have ascendancy and the Bishop of Urbino , the pope 's envoy , called for the council to pursue a peaceful outcome .
Despite this by the middle of March it is probable that both Angus and Crichton had mobilised to move against Atholl . It is equally likely that Atholl had gathered his forces to resist encursions into his heartlands — on 7 March the queen and the council entreated the burgess ' of Perth to resist the forces of the ' feloune traitors ' .
The position of Atholl and his circle of close supporters only collapsed after Earl Walter 's heir Robert Stewart had been captured and who , in Shirley 's account , confessed to his part in the crime . Walter was taken prisoner by Angus and held at the Edinburgh Tolbooth where he was tried and beheaded on 26 March 1437 , the day after the coronation of the young James II . Sir Robert Graham , the leader of the band of assassins was captured by former Atholl allies and was tried at a session of the council sitting at Stirling castle and subsequently executed sometime shortly after 9 April .
Queen Joan 's pursuit of the regency ended probably at the council of June 1437 when Archibald , 5th Earl of Douglas was appointed to act as lieutenant @-@ general of the kingdom .
King James ' embalmed heart may have been taken on pilgrimage to the Holy Land following his interment at Perth Charterhouse , as the Exchequer Rolls of Scotland for 1443 note the payment of £ 90 to cover the costs of a knight of the Order of St John who had returned it to the Charterhouse from the Island of Rhodes .
= = Historiography = =
James was a paradoxical figure . Although a prisoner of England he still received a good education and developed into a cultured individual becoming a poet , an accomplished musician and skilled in sports . Walter Bower , abbot of Inchcolm , lists James 's qualities as a musician — ' not just as an enthusiastic amateur ' but a master , ' another Orpheus . ' His mastery included the organ , drum , flute and lyre . James 's sporting abilities such as wrestling , hammer throwing , archery and jousting are also listed by Bower . He described James as possessing an ' eagerness ' in ' literary composition and writing ' , the best known of which is his love poem , The Kingis Quair . Bower characterised the king as ' a tower , a lion , a light , a jewel , a pillar and a leader ' and was ' our law giver king ' who ended the ' thieving , dishonest conduct and plundering ' .
Abbot Bower also described the king as capable of stabbing a near relative through the hand for creating a disturbance at court . The abbot was generally supportive of James but that he and others ' regretted the demise of the Albany Stewarts and that he was confounded by James 's greed for territory and wealth . Although Bower didn 't dwell at length on the negative aspects of James 's character he alluded to the dismay of even those close to the king at his harsh regime . John Shirley 's account of the events leading up to James 's murder in the work The Dethe of the Kynge of Scotis provided an accurate narrative of politics in Scotland and which must have depended upon knowledgeable witnesses . The Dethe describes James as ' tyrannous ' and whose actions were motivated by revenge and ' covetise . . . than for anny laweful cawse ' . Shirley agrees with Bower as far as the Albany Stewarts were concerned when he wrote that the Albanys ' whos dethe the people of the land sore grutched and mowrned ' . Writing nearly a century later both the chroniclers John Mair and Hector Boece relied extensively on Bower for their own narratives . They described James as the embodiment of good monarchy with Mair 's eulogy that James ' ... indeed excelled by far in virtue his father , grandfather and his great @-@ grandfather nor will I give precedence over the first James to any of the Stewarts ' while Boece in similar vein calls James the ' maist vertuous Prince that evir was afoir his days ' . Late in the 16th century the early historians George Buchanan and Bishop John Lesley from opposite ends of the religious spectrum both looked favourably on James 's reign but were uneasily mindful of an enduring aggressive history regarding the king .
The first 20th century history of James I was written by E.W.M. Balfour @-@ Melville in 1936 and continued the theme of James as the strong upholder of law and order and when describing Albany 's trial and execution he writes ' the King had proved that high rank was no defence for lawlessness ; the crown was enriched by the revenues of Fife , Menteith and Lennox ' . Balfour @-@ Melville views James as a lawmaker and a ' reformer ' whose legislation was aimed at not only increasing the position of the king but of parliament . Michael Lynch describes how James 's positive reputation began immediately after his death when the Bishop of Urbino kissed James 's wounds and declared him to be a martyr . He suggests that the praise of the pro @-@ James Scottish chroniclers and also of some modern historians to ' find strong king 's to applaud ' should not diminish the extent of parliament 's ability to restrain the king nor minimise the confrontation that took place between James and a more self @-@ assured parliament . Stephen Boardman takes the view that by the time of his death James had succeeded in breaking down the constraints on the exercise of royal authority which were rooted in the ' settlement of the kingdom ' by Robert II . Christine McGladdery describes how opposing views were the result of ' competing propaganda after the murder ' . To those who were glad to see the king dead , James was a tyrant who without reason aggressively assailed the nobility imposing forfeiture on their estates and who ' failed to deliver justice to his people ' . She also provides the opposite viewpoint that the king was seen as giving ' strong leadership against magnate excesses ' and that the murder ' was a disaster for the Scottish people , leaving them to endure the instability of years of consequent faction fighting ' . McGladdery continues that James was the example for the Stewart kings to follow by putting ' Scotland firmly within a European context ' . Michael Brown describes James as an ' able , aggressive and opportunistic politician ' whose chief aim was to establish a monarchy that had stature and was free from the confrontations that had beset his father 's reign . He characterises James as ' capable of highly effective short @-@ term interventions ' yet had failed to achieve a position of unqualified authority . Brown writes that James had come to power after ' fifty years when kings looked like magnates and magnates acted like kings ' and succeeded in completely changing the outlook and objectives of the monarchy . His policy of reducing the power and influence of the magnates , continued by his son James II , led to a more subordinate nobility . Alexander Grant repudiates James 's reputation as the ' law giver ' and explains that nearly all of the king 's legislation were reconstructs of laws laid down by previous monarchs and concludes that ' the idea of James 's return in 1424 marks a turning @-@ point in the development of Scots law is an exaggeration ' . At James 's death only the Douglases of the predominant magnatial houses was left and , according to Grant , this reduction was the most far @-@ reaching change to the nobility and was ' by far the most important consequence of James I 's reign ' .
= = Marriage and issue = =
On February 2 , 1424 , he married , in London , Joan Beaufort , daughter of John Beaufort , 1st Earl of Somerset and Margaret Holland . Together they had eight children :
Margaret Stewart ( 1424 - 16 August 1445 ) , married the Dauphin Louis , future Louis XI of France , at Tours , 24 June 1436 .
Isabella Stewart ( 1426 - 13 October 1494 / 5 March 1499 ) , married Francis I , Duke of Brittany , at Auray , 30 October 1442 .
Joan Stewart ( 1428 - aft . 16 October 1486 ) ; she was deaf and dumb , known as " the dumb lady of Dalkeith " . Married on 1459 to James Douglas , 1st Earl of Morton ( + 1493 ) .
Alexander Stewart , Duke of Rothesay ( born and died 16 October 1430 ) , elder twin of James II .
James II of Scotland ( 16 October 1430 - 3 August 1460 ) .
Eleanor Stewart ( 1433 - 20 November 1480 ) , married Sigismund , Archduke of Austria , at Merano , 12 February 1449 .
Mary Stewart , Countess of Buchan ( 1434 / 35 – 20 March 1465 ) , married Wolfert VI of Borselen in 1444 .
Annabella Stewart ( 1436 - 1509 ) , married firstly 14 December 1447 Louis of Savoy , Count of Geneva , secondly in 1458 George Gordon , 2nd Earl of Huntly .
= = Ancestry = =
= = Fictional portrayals = =
James I has been depicted in plays , historical novels and short stories . They include :
The Caged Lion ( 1870 ) by Charlotte Mary Yonge . The novel depicts the captivity of James I in the Kingdom of England , with the main events taking place in 1421 @-@ 1422 . A friendly relationship with Henry V of England is prominently featured . Catherine of Valois and Richard Whittington are the most prominent among the secondary characters .
A King 's Tragedy ( 1905 ) by May Wynne . The novel depicts events of the years 1436 @-@ 1437 . The action leads to the assassination of James I. Catherine Douglas is among the characters featured .
Lion Let Loose ( 1967 ) by Nigel Tranter . Covers the life of James I from c . 1405 to his death in 1437 .
A Royal Poet ( 1819 ) by Washington Irving . The author muses over the greatness of James I while on an excursion to Windsor Castle , mentioning two of his poems : " The Kingis Quair " and " Christ ’ s Kirk of the Green " .
James I : The Key Will Keep The Lock ( 2014 ) by Rona Munro . A co @-@ production between the National Theatre of Scotland , Edinburgh International Festival and the National Theatre of Great Britain . The James Plays – James I , James II and James III – are a trio of history plays by Rona Munro . Each play stands alone as a vision of a country tussling with its past and future . This play focuses on the personal development of James I after his release by Henry V of England , his marriage to Joan and the struggles with the noble families in order to establish his authority in Scotland .
= = Explanatory notes = =
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= PlayStation =
PlayStation ( Japanese : プレイステーション , Hepburn : Pureisutēshon , officially abbreviated PS ) is a series of video game consoles created and owned by Sony Interactive Entertainment . The brand was first introduced on December 3 , 1994 in Japan with the launch of the original PlayStation console . It now consists of four home consoles , as well as a media center , an online service , a line of controllers , two handhelds and a phone , as well as multiple magazines .
The original console in the series , the PlayStation , was the first video game console to ship 100 million units , 9 years and 6 months after its initial launch . Its successor , the PlayStation 2 , was released in 2000 . The PlayStation 2 is the best @-@ selling home console to date , having reached over 155 million units sold as of December 28 , 2012 . Sony 's next console , the PlayStation 3 , was released in 2006 and has sold over 80 million consoles worldwide as of November 2013 . Sony 's latest console , the PlayStation 4 , was released in 2013 , selling 1 million consoles in its first 24 hours on sale , becoming the fastest selling console in history .
The first handheld game console in the PlayStation series ( called the PlayStation Portable , or PSP ) , sold a total of 80 million units worldwide by November 2013 . Its successor , the PlayStation Vita , which launched in Japan on December 17 , 2011 and in most other major territories in February 2012 , had sold over 4 million units by January 2013 . PlayStation TV is a microconsole and a non @-@ portable variant of the PlayStation Vita handheld game console . Other hardware released as part of the PlayStation series includes the PSX , a digital video recorder which was integrated with the PlayStation and PlayStation 2 , though it was short lived due to its high price and was never released outside Japan , as well as a Sony Bravia television set which has an integrated PlayStation 2 . The main series of controllers utilized by the PlayStation series is the DualShock , which is a line of vibration @-@ feedback gamepad having sold 28 million controllers as of June 28 , 2008 .
The PlayStation Network is an online service with over 110 million users worldwide ( as of July 2013 ) . It comprises an online virtual market , the PlayStation Store , which allows the purchase and download of games and various forms of multimedia , a subscription @-@ based online service known as PlayStation Plus and a social gaming networking service called PlayStation Home , which had over 41 million users worldwide at the time of its closure in March 2015 . PlayStation Mobile ( formerly PlayStation Suite ) is a software framework that provides PlayStation content on mobile devices . Version 1.xx supports both PlayStation Vita , PlayStation TV and certain devices that run the Android operating system , whereas version 2 @.@ 00 released in 2014 would only target PlayStation Vita and ( optionally ) PlayStation TV . Content set to be released under the framework consist of only original PlayStation games currently .
7th generation PlayStation products also use the XrossMediaBar , which is an award @-@ winning graphical user interface . A new touch screen @-@ based user interface called LiveArea was launched for the PlayStation Vita , which integrates social networking elements into the interface . Additionally , PlayStation 2 and original PlayStation 3 consoles also featured support for Linux @-@ based operating systems , though this has since been discontinued . The series has also been known for its numerous marketing campaigns , the latest of which being the " Greatness Awaits " commercials in the United States .
The series also has a strong line @-@ up of first @-@ party titles due to Sony Interactive Entertainment Worldwide Studios , a group of fifteen first @-@ party developers owned by Sony Interactive Entertainment which are dedicated to developing first @-@ party games for the series . In addition , the series features various budget re @-@ releases of titles by Sony with different names for each region ; these include the Greatest Hits , Platinum , Essentials , Favorites ( this in Latin America ) and The Best ranges of titles .
= = History = =
= = = Origins = = =
PlayStation was the brainchild of Ken Kutaragi , a Sony executive who had just finished managing one of the company 's hardware engineering divisions at that time and would later be dubbed as " The Father of the PlayStation " .
The console 's origins date back to 1988 where it was originally a joint project between Nintendo and Sony to create a CD @-@ ROM for the Super Famicom . Although Nintendo denied the existence of the Sony deal as late as March 1991 , Sony revealed a Super Famicom with a built @-@ in CD @-@ ROM drive , that incorporated Green Book technology or CD @-@ i , called " Play Station " ( also known as SNES @-@ CD ) at the Consumer Electronics Show in June 1991 . However , a day after the announcement at CES , Nintendo announced that it would be breaking its partnership with Sony , opting to go with Philips instead but using the same technology . The deal was broken by Nintendo after they were unable to come to an agreement on how revenue would be split between the two companies . The breaking of the partnership infuriated Sony President Norio Ohga , who responded by appointing Kutaragi with the responsibility of developing the PlayStation project to rival Nintendo .
At that time , negotiations were still on @-@ going between Nintendo and Sony , with Nintendo offering Sony a " non @-@ gaming role " regarding their new partnership with Philips . This proposal was swiftly rejected by Kutaragi who was facing increasing criticism over his work with regard to entering the video game industry from within Sony . Negotiations officially ended in May 1992 and in order to decide the fate of the PlayStation project , a meeting was held in June 1992 , consisting of Sony President Ohga , PlayStation Head Kutaragi and several senior members of Sony 's board . At the meeting , Kutaragi unveiled a proprietary CD @-@ ROM @-@ based system he had been working on which involved playing video games with 3D graphics to the board . Eventually , Sony President Ohga decided to retain the project after being reminded by Kutaragi of the humiliation he suffered from Nintendo . Nevertheless , due to strong opposition from a majority present at the meeting as well as widespread internal opposition to the project by the older generation of Sony executives , Kutaragi and his team had to be shifted from Sony 's headquarters to Sony Music , a completely separate financial entity owned by Sony , so as to retain the project and maintain relationships with Philips for the MMCD development project ( which helped lead to the creation of the DVD ) .
According to SCE 's producer Ryoji Akagawa and chairman Shigeo Maruyama , there was uncertainty over whether the console should primarily focus on 2D sprite graphics or 3D polygon graphics . It was only after witnessing the success of Sega 's Virtua Fighter in Japanese arcades that " the direction of the PlayStation became instantly clear " and 3D polygon graphics became the console 's primary focus .
= = = Formation of Sony Computer Entertainment = = =
At Sony Music , Kutaragi worked closely with Shigeo Maruyama , the CEO of Sony Music , and with Akira Sato to form Sony Computer Entertainment , Inc . ( SCEI ) on November 16 , 1993 . A building block of SCEI was its initial partnership with Sony Music which helped SCEI attract creative talent to the company as well as assist SCEI in manufacturing , marketing and producing discs , something that Sony Music had been doing with Music Discs . The final two key members of SCEI were Terry Tokunaka , the President of SCEI from Sony 's headquarters , and Olaf Olafsson . Olafsson was CEO and president of New York @-@ based Sony Interactive Entertainment which was the mother company for the 1994 @-@ founded Sony Computer Entertainment of America ( SCEA ) .
The PlayStation project , SCEI 's first official project , was finally given the green light by Sony executives in 1993 after a few years of development . Also in 1993 , Phil Harrison , who would later become President of Sony Computer Entertainment Worldwide Studios , was recruited into SCEI to attract developers and publishers to produce games for their new PlayStation platform .
After a demonstration of Sony 's distribution plan as well as tech demos of its new console to game publishers and developers in a hotel in Tokyo in 1994 , numerous developers began to approach PlayStation . Two of whom later became major partners were Electronic Arts in the West and Namco in Japan . One of the factors which attracted developers to the platform was the use of a 3D @-@ capable , CD @-@ ROM @-@ based console which was much cheaper and easier to manufacture for in comparison to Nintendo 's rival console , which used cartridge systems . The project eventually hit Japanese stores in December 1994 and gained massive sales due to its lower price point than its competitor , the Sega Saturn . Popularity of the console spread after its release worldwide in North America and Europe .
= = Home consoles = =
= = = PlayStation = = =
The original PlayStation , released on December 3 , 1994 , was the first of the ubiquitous PlayStation series of console and hand @-@ held game devices . It has included successor consoles and upgrades including the Net Yaroze ( a special black PlayStation with tools and instructions to program PlayStation games and applications ) , " PSone " ( a smaller version of the original ) and the PocketStation ( a handheld which enhances PlayStation games and also acts as a memory card ) . It was part of the fifth generation of video game consoles competing against the Sega Saturn and the Nintendo 64 . By December 2003 , the PlayStation and PSone had shipped a combined total of 102 @.@ 49 million units , eventually becoming the first video game console to sell 120 million units .
= = = = PSone = = = =
Released on July 7 , 2000 , concurrently with its successor the PlayStation 2 , the PSone was a considerably smaller , redesigned version of the original PlayStation video game console . The PSone went on to outsell all @-@ other consoles , including its successor , throughout the remainder of the year . It featured two main changes from its predecessor , the first being a cosmetic change to the console and the second being the home menu 's Graphical User Interface ; a variation of the GUI previously used only on PAL consoles up to that point .
= = = PlayStation 2 = = =
Released in 2000 , 15 months after the Dreamcast and a year before its other competitors , the Xbox and the Nintendo GameCube , the PlayStation 2 is part of the sixth generation of video game consoles , and is backwards @-@ compatible with most original PlayStation games . Like its predecessor , it has received a slimmer redesign , and was also released built into the PSX DVR and the Sony BRAVIA KDL22PX300 HDTV . It is the most successful home console in the world , having sold over 155 million units sold as of December 28 , 2012 . On November 29 , 2005 , the PS2 became the fastest game console to reach 100 million units shipped , accomplishing the feat within 5 years and 9 months from its launch . This achievement occurred faster than its predecessor , the PlayStation , which took " 9 years and 6 months since launch " to reach the same figure . PlayStation 2 shipments in Japan ended on December 28 , 2012 . The Guardian reported on January 4 , 2013 that PS2 production had ended worldwide . But studies show that many people all around the world still own one even if it is no longer in use . PlayStation 2 has been ranked as the best selling console of all time as of 2015 .
= = = = Slimline model = = = =
Released in 2004 , four years after the launch of the original PlayStation 2 , the PlayStation 2 Slimline was the first major redesign of the PlayStation 2 . Compared to its predecessor , the Slimline was smaller , thinner , quieter and also included a built @-@ in Ethernet port ( in some markets it also has an integrated modem ) . In 2007 , Sony began shipping a revision of the Slimline which was lighter than the original Slimline together with a lighter AC adapter . In 2008 , Sony released yet another revision of the Slimline which had an overhauled internal design incorporating the power supply into the console itself like the original PlayStation 2 resulting in a further reduced total weight of the console .
= = = PlayStation 3 = = =
Released on November 17 , 2006 in North America , the PlayStation 3 is a seventh generation game console from Sony . It competes with the Microsoft Xbox 360 and the Nintendo Wii . The PS3 is the first console in the series to introduce the use of motion @-@ sensing technology through its Sixaxis wireless controller . The console also incorporates a Blu @-@ ray Disc player and features high @-@ definition resolution . The PS3 was originally offered with either a 20 GB or 60 GB hard drive , but over the years its capacity increased in increments available up to 500 GB . The PlayStation 3 has sold over 80 million consoles worldwide as of November 2013 .
= = = = Slim model = = = =
Like its predecessors , the PlayStation 3 was re @-@ released in 2009 as a " slim " model . The redesigned model is 33 % smaller , 36 % lighter , and consumes 34 % to 45 % less power than previous models . In addition , it features a redesigned cooling system and a smaller Cell processor which was moved to a 45nm manufacturing process . It sold in excess of a million units within its first 3 weeks on sale . The redesign also features support for CEC ( more commonly referred to by its manufacturer brandings of BraviaSync , VIERA Link , EasyLink and others ) which allows control of the console over HDMI by using the remote control as the controller . The PS3 slim also runs quieter and is cooler than previous models due to its 45 nm Cell . The PS3 Slim no longer has the " main power " switch ( similar to PlayStation 2 slim ) , like the previous PS3 models , which was located at the back of the console . It was officially released on September 1 , 2009 in North America and Europe and on September 3 , 2009 in Japan , Australia and New Zealand .
= = = = Super Slim model = = = =
In 2012 , Sony revealed a new " Super Slim " PlayStation 3 . The new console , with a completely redesigned case which has a sliding door covering the disc drive ( which has been moved to the top of the console ) , is 4 @.@ 3 pounds , almost three pounds lighter than the previous " slim " model . The console comes with either 12GB flash memory or a 250GB , 500GB hard drive . Several bundles which include a Super Slim PS3 and a selection of games are available .
= = = PlayStation 4 = = =
The PlayStation 4 ( PS4 ) is the latest video game console from Sony Computer Entertainment announced at a press conference on February 20 , 2013 . In the meeting , Sony revealed some hardware specifications of the new console . The eighth @-@ generation system , launched in the fourth quarter of 2013 , introduced the x86 architecture to the PlayStation series . According to lead system architect , Mark Cerny , development on the PlayStation 4 began as early as 2008 . PlayStation Europe CEO Jim Ryan emphasized in 2011 that Sony wanted to avoid launching the next @-@ generation console behind the competition .
Among the new applications and services , Sony introduced the PlayStation App , allowing PS4 owners to turn smartphones and tablets into a second screen to enhance gameplay . The company also plans to debut PlayStation Now game streaming service , powered by technology from Gaikai . By incorporating a share button on the new controller and making it possible to view in @-@ game content being streamed live from friends , Sony plans to place more focus on social gameplay as well . The PlayStation 4 was first released in North America on November 15 , 2013 .
= = = Comparison = = =
= = Handheld systems = =
= = = PocketStation = = =
The PocketStation was a miniature game console created by SCE as a peripheral for the original PlayStation . Released exclusively in Japan on December 23 , 1999 , it featured a monochrome LCD , a speaker , a real @-@ time clock and infrared communication capability . It could also be used as a standard PlayStation memory card by connecting it to a PlayStation memory card slot . It was extremely popular in Japan and Sony originally had plans to release it in the United States but the plan was ultimately scrapped due to various manufacturing and supply @-@ and @-@ demand problems .
= = = PlayStation Portable = = =
The PlayStation Portable ( PSP ) was Sony 's first handheld console to compete with Nintendo 's DS console . The original model ( PSP @-@ 1000 ) was released in December 2004 and March 2005 , The console is the first to utilize a new proprietary optical storage medium known as Universal Media Disc ( UMD ) , which can store both games and movies . It contains 32 MB of internal flash memory storage , expandable via Memory Stick PRO Duo cards . It has a similar control layout to the PS3 with its PlayStation logo button and its ( ' Triangle ' ) , ( ' Circle / O ' ) , ( ' Cross / X ' ) and ( ' Square ' ) buttons in their white @-@ colored forms .
= = = = PSP @-@ 2000 and PSP @-@ 3000 models = = = =
The PSP @-@ 2000 ( also known as the Slim & Lite in PAL territories ) was the first major hardware revision of the PlayStation Portable , released in September 2007 . The 2000 series was 33 % lighter and 19 % slimmer than the original PlayStation Portable . The capacity of the battery was also reduced by ⅓ but the run time remained the same as the previous model due to lower power consumption . Older model batteries will still work and they extend the amount of playing time . The PSP Slim & Lite has a new gloss finish . Its serial port was also modified in order to accommodate a new video @-@ out feature ( while rendering older PSP remote controls incompatible ) . On a PSP @-@ 2000 , PSP games will only output to external monitors or TVs in progressive scan mode , so that televisions incapable of supporting progressive scan will not display PSP games ; non @-@ game video will output in either progressive or interlaced mode . USB charging was also made possible . Buttons are also reportedly more responsive on the PSP @-@ 2000 . In 2008 , Sony released a second hardware revision called the PSP @-@ 3000 which included several features that were not present in the PSP @-@ 2000 , such as a built @-@ in microphone and upgraded screen , as well as the ability to output PSP games in interlaced mode .
= = = = PSP Go model = = = =
Released in October 2009 , the PSP Go is the biggest redesign of the PlayStation Portable to date . Unlike previous PSP models , the PSP Go does not feature a UMD drive but instead has 16 GB of internal flash memory to store games , videos and other media . This can be extended by up to 32GB with the use of a Memory Stick Micro ( M2 ) flash card . Also unlike previous PSP models , the PSP Go 's rechargeable battery is not removable or replaceable by the user . The unit is 43 % lighter and 56 % smaller than the original PSP @-@ 1000 , and 16 % lighter and 35 % smaller than the PSP @-@ 3000 . It has a 3 @.@ 8 " 480 × 272 LCD ( compared to the larger 4 @.@ 3 " 480 × 272 pixel LCD on previous PSP models ) . The screen slides up to reveal the main controls . The overall shape and sliding mechanism are similar to that of Sony 's mylo COM @-@ 2 internet device . The PSP Go is being produced and sold concurrently with its predecessor the PSP @-@ 3000 although it will not replace it . All games on the PSP Go must be purchased and downloaded from the PlayStation Store as the handheld is not compatible with the original PSP 's physical media , the Universal Media Disc . The handheld also features connectivity with the PlayStation 3 's controllers the Sixaxis and DualShock 3 via Bluetooth connection .
= = = = PSP @-@ E1000 model = = = =
The PSP @-@ E1000 is a budget @-@ focused PSP model which , unlike previous PSP models , does not feature Wi @-@ Fi or stereo speakers ( replaced by a single mono speaker ) and has a matte " charcoal black " finish similar to the slim PlayStation 3 . The E1000 was announced at Gamescom 2011 and available across the PAL region for an RRP of € 99 @.@ 99 .
= = = PlayStation Vita = = =
Released in Japan on December 17 , 2011 and North America on February 22 , 2012 , the PlayStation Vita was previously codenamed Next Generation Portable ( NGP ) . It was officially unveiled by Sony on January 27 , 2011 at the PlayStation Meeting 2011 . The original model of the handheld , the PCH @-@ 1000 series features a 5 @-@ inch OLED touchscreen , two analog sticks , a rear touchpad , Sixaxis motion sensing and a 4 core ARM Cortex @-@ A9 MPCore processor .
The new PCH @-@ 2000 series system is a lighter redesign of the device that was announced at the SCEJA Press Conference in September 2013 prior to the Tokyo Game Show . This model is 20 % thinner and 15 % lighter compared to the original model , has an additional hour of battery life , an LCD instead of OLED , includes a micro USB Type B port , 1GB of internal storage memory . It was released in Japan on October 10 , 2013 in six colors : white , black , pink , yellow , blue , and olive green , and in North America on May 6 , 2014 .
= = Other hardware = =
= = = PSX ( 2003 ) = = =
Released solely in Japan in 2003 , the Sony PSX was a fully integrated DVR and PlayStation 2 video game console . It was the first Sony product to utilize the XrossMediaBar ( XMB ) and can be linked with a PlayStation Portable to transfer videos and music via USB . It also features software for video , photo and audio editing . PSX supports online game compatibility using an internal broadband adapter . Games that utilize the PS2 HDD ( for example , Final Fantasy XI ) are supported as well . It was the first product released by Sony under the PlayStation brand that did not include a controller with the device itself .
= = = Television sets = = =
Released in 2010 , the Sony BRAVIA KDL22PX300 is a 22 inch 720p television which incorporates a PlayStation 2 console , along with 4 HDMI ports .
A 24 inch 1080p PlayStation branded 3D television , officially called the PlayStation 3D Display , was released in late 2011 . A feature of this 3D television is SimulView . During multiplayer games , each player will only see their respective screen ( in full HD ) appear on the television through their respective 3D glasses , instead of seeing a split screen ( e.g. player 1 will only see player 1 's screen displayed through their 3D glasses ) .
= = = Sony Ericsson Xperia Play = = =
The Xperia Play is an Android @-@ powered smartphone with a slide @-@ up gamepad resembling the PSP Go developed by Sony Ericsson aimed at gamers , and is the first to be PlayStation Certified . Also can download PlayStation Suite App .
= = = Sony Tablets = = =
Sony Tablets are PlayStation Certified Android tablets , released in 2011 , 2012 , and 2013 . They offer connectivity with PlayStation 3 controllers , and integrate with the PlayStation network using a proprietary application . The following models were released between 2011 and 2013 : S , Sony Tablet S , Sony Tablet P , Xperia Tablet S and Xperia Tablet Z.
= = = PlayStation TV = = =
PlayStation TV , known in Asia as PlayStation Vita TV , is a microconsole and a non @-@ portable variant of the PlayStation Vita handheld . It was announced on September 9 , 2013 at a Sony Computer Entertainment Japan presentation . Instead of featuring a display screen , the console connects to a television via HDMI . Users can play using a DualShock 3 controller , although due to the difference in features between the controller and the handheld , certain games are not compatible with PS TV , such as those that are dependent on the system 's touch @-@ screen , rear touchpad , microphone or camera . The device is said to be compatible with over 100 Vita games , as well as various digital PlayStation Portable , PlayStation and PC Engine titles . The system supports Remote Play compatibility with the PlayStation 4 , allowing players to stream games from the PS4 to a separate TV connected to PS TV , and also allows users to stream content from video services such as Hulu and Niconico , as well as access the PlayStation Store . The system was released in Japan on November 14 , 2013 , in North America on October 14 , 2014 , and in Europe and Australasia on November 14 , 2014 .
= = = PlayStation VR = = =
PlayStation VR is an upcoming virtual reality device that is produced by Sony Computer Entertainment . It makes two sets of images , one being visible on a TV and one for the headset . The PlayStation VR includes 3D audio technology so you can hear from all angles . Some of the prominent features for the PlayStation VR is that it includes a 5 @.@ 7 inch 1920 X RGB X 1080 resolution OLED display . It also can handle 120fps which can eliminate blur and produce a smooth image . The device is also known for its low latency build to less than 18ms . The speculated date of release is October 2016 .
= = Games = =
Each console has a variety of games . Most games released on the original PlayStation are backwards compatible and can be played directly on its successors , the PlayStation 2 , PSX and PlayStation 3 . Some of these games can also be played on the PlayStation Portable but they must be purchased and downloaded from a list of PSone Classics from the PlayStation Store . Games released on the PlayStation 2 can currently only be played on the original console as well as the PSX and the early models of the PlayStation 3 which are backwards compatible . The PlayStation 3 has two types of games , those released on Blu @-@ ray Discs and downloadable games from the PlayStation Store . The PlayStation Portable consists of numerous games available on both its physical media , the Universal Media Disc and the Digital Download from the PlayStation Store . However , some games are only available on the UMD while others are only available on the PlayStation Store . The PlayStation Vita consists of games available on both its physical media , the PlayStation Vita card and digital download from the PlayStation Store .
= = = First party games = = =
Sony Computer Entertainment Worldwide Studios is a group of video game developers owned by Sony Computer Entertainment . It is dedicated to developing video games exclusively for the PlayStation series of consoles . The series has produced several best @-@ selling franchises such as the Gran Turismo series of racing video games as well as critically acclaimed titles such as the Uncharted series . Other notable franchises include God of War , Twisted Metal and more recently , LittleBigPlanet ( series ) , InFAMOUS , and MotorStorm .
= = = Re @-@ releases = = =
Greatest Hits ( North America ) , Platinum Range ( PAL territories ) and The Best ( Japan and Asia ) are video games for the Sony PlayStation , PlayStation 2 , PlayStation 3 , and PlayStation Portable consoles that have been officially re @-@ released at a lower price by Sony . Each region has its own qualifications to enter the re @-@ release program . Initially , during the PlayStation era , a game had to sell at least 150 @,@ 000 copies ( later 250 @,@ 000 ) and be on the market for at least a year to enter the Greatest Hits range . During the PlayStation 2 era , the requirements increased with the minimum number of copies sold increasing to 400 @,@ 000 and the game had to be on the market for at least 9 months . For the PlayStation Portable , games had to be on the market for at least 9 months with 250 @,@ 000 copies or more sold . Currently , a PlayStation 3 game must be on the market for 10 months and sell at least 500 @,@ 000 copies to meet the Greatest Hits criteria . PSone Classics were games that were released originally on the PlayStation and have been re @-@ released on the PlayStation Store for the PlayStation 3 and PlayStation Portable . Classics HD are compilations of PlayStation 2 games that have been remastered for the PlayStation 3 on a single disc with additional features such as upscaled graphics , PlayStation Move support , 3D support and PlayStation Network trophies . PlayStation Mobile ( formerly PlayStation Suite ) is a cross @-@ platform , cross @-@ device software framework aimed at providing PlayStation content , currently original PlayStation games , across several devices including PlayStation Certified Android devices as well as the PlayStation Vita .
= = Online services = =
= = = PlayStation 2 online service = = =
Online gaming on PlayStation consoles first started in July 2001 with the release of PlayStation 2 's unnamed online service in Japan . Later in August 2002 saw its release in North America , followed by the European release in June 2003 . This service was shutdown on the 31st of March 2016 .
= = = PlayStation Network = = =
Released in 2006 , the PlayStation Network is an online service focusing on online multiplayer gaming and digital media delivery . The service is provided and run by Sony Computer Entertainment for use with the PlayStation 3 , and was later implemented on the PlayStation Portable , PlayStation Vita and PlayStation 4 video game consoles . The service currently has over 110 million users worldwide ( as of July 2013 ) . The Sony Entertainment Network provides other features for users like PlayStation Home , PlayStation Store , and Trophies .
= = = PlayStation Store = = =
The PlayStation Store is an online virtual market available to users of the PlayStation 3 and PlayStation Portable game consoles via the PlayStation Network . The store uses both physical currency and PlayStation Network Cards . The PlayStation Store 's gaming content is updated every Tuesday and offers a range of downloadable content both for purchase and available free of charge . Available content includes full games , add @-@ on content , playable demos , themes and game and movie trailers . The service is accessible through an icon on the XMB on the PS3 and PSP . The PS3 store can also be accessed on the PSP via a Remote Play connection to the PS3 . The PSP store is also available via the PC application , Media Go . As of September 24 , 2009 , there have been over 600 million downloads from the PlayStation Store worldwide .
Video content such as films and television shows are also available from the PlayStation Store on the PlayStation 3 and PSP and will be made available on some new Sony BRAVIA televisions , VAIO laptop computers and Sony Blu @-@ ray Disc players from February 2010 .
= = = Life with PlayStation = = =
Life with PlayStation was a Folding @ home application available for PlayStation 3 which connected to Stanford University ’ s Folding @ home distributed computer network and allowed the user to donate their console 's spare processing cycles to the project . Folding @ home is supported by Stanford University and volunteers make a contribution to society by donating computing power to this project . Research made by the project may eventually contribute to the creation of vital cures . The Folding @ home client was developed by Sony Computer Entertainment in collaboration with Stanford University . Life with PlayStation also consisted of a 3D virtual view of the Earth and contained current weather and news information of various cities and countries from around the world , as well as a World Heritage channel which offered information about historical sites , and the United Village channel which is a project designed to share information about communities and cultures worldwide . As of PlayStation 3 system software update version 4 @.@ 30 on October 24 , 2012 , the Life With PlayStation project has ended .
= = = PlayStation Plus = = =
PlayStation Plus , a subscription @-@ based service on the PlayStation Network , compliments the standard PSN services . It enables an auto @-@ download feature which allows the console to automatically download game patches and system software updates . Subscribers also gain early or exclusive access to some betas , game demos , premium downloadable content ( such as full game trials of retail games like Infamous and LittleBigPlanet ) and other PlayStation Store items , as well as a free subscription to Qore . Other downloadable items include PlayStation Store discounts and free PlayStation Network games , PSone Classics , PlayStation Minis , themes and avatars .
= = = PlayStation Blog = = =
PlayStation Blog is an online PlayStation focused gaming blog which is part of the PlayStation Network . It was launched on June 11 , 2007 and since its launch , has featured in numerous interviews with third @-@ party companies such as Square Enix . It also has posts from high @-@ ranking Sony Computer Entertainment executives such as Jack Tretton , President and Chief Executive Officer of Sony Computer Entertainment . A sub @-@ site of the blog called PlayStation Blog Share was launched on March 17 , 2010 and allowed readers of the blog as well as users of the PlayStation Blog to submit ideas to the PlayStation team about anything PlayStation @-@ related and vote on the ideas of other submissions .
= = = PlayStation App = = =
The PlayStation App is an application that was released on January 11 , 2011 in several European countries for iOS ( version 4 and above ) and for Android ( version 1 @.@ 6 and above ) , and has been installed more than 3 @.@ 6 million times as of March 2 , 2014 . It allows users to view their trophies , see which of their PSN friends are online and read up to date information about PlayStation . It does not feature any gaming functionality .
= = = PlayStation Mobile = = =
The PlayStation Mobile ( formerly PlayStation Suite ) is a software framework that will be used to provide downloadable PlayStation content to devices running Android 2 @.@ 3 and above as well as the PlayStation Vita . The framework will be cross @-@ platform and cross @-@ device , which is what Sony calls " hardware @-@ neutral " . It is currently set to release before the end of calendar year 2011 . In addition , Android devices that have been certified to be able to play back PlayStation Suite content smoothly will be certified with the PlayStation Certified certification .
= = = PlayStation Now = = =
PlayStation Now ( PS Now ) is a Gaikai @-@ based video game streaming service used to provide PlayStation gaming content to PlayStation 3 ( PS3 ) , PlayStation 4 ( PS4 ) , PlayStation Vita , PlayStation TV and BRAVIA televisions . The service currently allows users to pay for access to a selection of original PlayStation 3 titles on either a per @-@ game basis or via a subscription . PlayStation Now was announced on January 7 , 2014 at the 2014 Consumer Electronic Show . At CES , Sony presented demos of The Last of Us , God of War : Ascension , Puppeteer and Beyond : Two Souls , playable through PS Now on Bravia TVs and PlayStation Vitas . PlayStation Now was launched in Open Beta in the United States and Canada on PS4 on July 31 , 2014 , on PS3 on September 18 , 2014 , on PS Vita and PS TV on October 14 , 2014 , with support for select 2014 Bravia TVs coming later in the year .
= = = Online social networking services = = =
= = = = PlayStation Home = = = =
PlayStation Home is a community @-@ based social gaming networking service for the PlayStation 3 on the PlayStation Network ( PSN ) . It is available directly from the PlayStation 3 XrossMediaBar . Membership is free , and only requires a PSN account . Home has been in development since early 2005 and started an open public beta test on December 11 , 2008 . Home allows users to create a custom avatar , which can be made to suit the user 's preference . Users can decorate their avatar 's personal apartment ( " HomeSpace " ) with default , bought , or won items . They can travel throughout the Home world ( except cross region ) , which is constantly updated by Sony and partners . Each part of the world is known as a space . Public spaces can just be for display , fun , or for meeting people . Home features many mini @-@ games which can be single player or multiplayer . Users can shop for new items to express themselves more through their avatars or HomeSpace . Home features video screens in many places for advertising , but the main video content is shown at the theatre for entertainment . Home plays host to a variety of special events which range from prize @-@ giving events to entertaining events . Users can also use Home to connect with friends and customize content . Xi , a once notable feature of Home , is the world 's first console based Alternate Reality Game that took place in secret areas in Home and was created by nDreams .
= = = = Room for PlayStation Portable = = = =
" Room " ( officially spelled as R ∞ M with capital letters and the infinity symbol in place of the " oo " ) was being beta tested in Japan from October 2009 to April 2010 . Development of Room has been halted on April 15 , 2010 due to negative feedback from the community . Announced at TGS 2009 , it was supposed to be a similar service to the PlayStation Home and was being developed for the PSP . Launching directly from the PlayStation Network section of the XMB was also to be enabled . Just like in Home , PSP owners would have been able to invite other PSP owners into their rooms to " enjoy real time communication . " A closed beta test had begun in Q4 2009 in Japan .
= = Software = =
= = = XrossMediaBar = = =
The XrossMediaBar , originally used on the PSX , is a graphical user interface currently used for the PlayStation 3 and PlayStation Portable , as well as a variety of other Sony devices . The interface features icons that are spread horizontally across the screen . Navigation moves the icons instead of a cursor . These icons are used as categories to organize the options available to the user . When an icon is selected on the horizontal bar , several more appear vertically , above and below it ( selectable by the up and down directions on a directional pad ) . The XMB can also be accessed in @-@ game albeit with restrictions , it allows players to access certain areas of the XMB menu from within the game and is only available for the PlayStation 3 . Although the capacity to play users ' own music in @-@ game was added with this update , the feature is dependent on game developers who must either enable the feature in their games or update existing games .
= = = LiveArea = = =
LiveArea , designed to be used on the PlayStation Vita , is a graphical user interface set to incorporate various social networking features via the PlayStation Network . It has been designed specifically as a touchscreen user interface for users .
= = = Linux operating systems = = =
= = = = Linux for PlayStation 2 = = = =
In 2002 , Sony released the first useful and fully functioning operating system for a video game console , after the Net Yaroze experiment for the original PlayStation . The kit , which included an internal hard disk drive and the necessary software tools , turned the PlayStation 2 into a full @-@ fledged computer system running Linux . Users can utilize a network adapter to connect the PlayStation 2 to the internet , a monitor cable adaptor to connect the PlayStation 2 to computer monitors as well as a USB Keyboard and Mouse which can be used to control Linux on the PlayStation 2 .
= = = = Linux for PlayStation 3 = = = =
The PlayStation 3 ( excluding PlayStation 3 Slim ) also supports running Linux OS on firmwares prior to 3 @.@ 21 without the need for buying additional hardware purchase . Yellow Dog Linux provides an official distribution that can be downloaded , and other distributions such as Fedora , Gentoo and Ubuntu have been successfully installed and operated on the console . The use of Linux on the PlayStation 3 allowed users to access 6 of the 7 Synergistic Processing Elements ; Sony implemented a hypervisor restricting access to the RSX . The feature to install a second operating system on a PlayStation 3 was removed in a firmware update released in 2010 .
= = Controllers = =
= = = Early PlayStation controllers = = =
Released in 1994 , the PlayStation control pad was the first controller made for the original PlayStation . It featured a basic design of a D @-@ pad , 4 main select buttons ( ( ' Green Triangle ' ) , ( ' Red Circle / Red O ' ) ) , ( ' Blue Cross / Blue X ' ) and ( ' Pink Square ' ) , and start and select buttons on the face . ' Shoulder buttons ' are also featured on the top [ L1 , L2 , R1 , R2 ] ( named by the side [ L = Left , R = Right ] and 1 and 2 [ top and bottom ] ) . In 1996 , Sony released the PlayStation Analog Joystick for use with flight simulation games . The original digital controller was then replaced by the Dual Analog in 1997 , which added two analog sticks based on the same potentiometer technology as the Analog Joystick . This controller was then also succeeded by the DualShock controller .
= = = DualShock series and Sixaxis = = =
Released in 1998 , the DualShock controller for the PlayStation succeeded its predecessor , the Dual Analog , and would go on to become the longest running series of controllers for the PlayStation brand . In addition to the inputs of the original , digital , controller ( , , , , L1 , L2 , R1 , R2 , Start , Select and a D @-@ pad ) , the DualShock featured two analog sticks in a similar fashion to the previous Dual Analog controller , which can also be depressed to activate the L3 and R3 buttons .
The DualShock series consists of four controllers : the DualShock which was the fourth controller released for the PlayStation ; the DualShock 2 , the only standard controller released for the PlayStation 2 , and the DualShock 3 , the second and current controller released for the PlayStation 3 , and the DualShock 4 , which went through a massive redesign and is the default input of the PlayStation 4 , and upon release was compatible with the PS3 originally only via USB and eventually with a firmware update , Bluetooth connectivity was enabled . The Sixaxis was the first official controller for the PlayStation 3 , and is based on the same design as the DualShock series ( but lacking the vibration motors of the DualShock series of controllers ) .
Like the Dual Analog , the DualShock and DualShock 2 feature an " Analog " button between the analog sticks that toggles the analog sticks on and off ( for use with games which support only the digital input of the original controller ) . On the PlayStation 3 Sixaxis and DualShock 3 controllers , the analog sticks are always enabled . Beginning with the Sixaxis , a ' PlayStation button ' ( which featured the incorporated PS logo and is similar in function to the Xbox 360 " Guide " button ) was included on controllers . The PlayStation button replaces the " Analog " button of the DualShock and DualShock 2 controllers . Pressing the PS button on the PS3 brings up the XMB , while holding it down brings up system options ( such as quit the game , change controller settings , turn off the system , and turn off the controller ) .
= = = PlayStation Move = = =
PlayStation Move is a motion @-@ sensing game controller platform for the PlayStation 3 video game console by Sony Computer Entertainment ( SCE ) . Based on the handheld motion controller wand , PlayStation Move uses the PlayStation Eye webcam to track the wand 's position and the inertial sensors in the wand to detect its motion . First revealed on June 2 , 2009 , PlayStation Move was launched in Q3 / Q4 2010 . Hardware available at launch included the main PlayStation Move motion controller and an optional PlayStation Move sub @-@ controller . Although PlayStation Move is implemented on the existing PlayStation 3 console , Sony states that it is treating Move 's debut as its own major " platform launch " , planning an aggressive marketing campaign to support it . In addition to selling the controllers individually , Sony also plans to provide several different bundle options for PlayStation Move hardware ; including a starter kit with a PS Eye , a Move motion controller , and a demo / sampler disc , priced under US $ 100 ; a full console pack with a PS3 console , DualShock 3 gamepad , PS Eye , and Move motion controller ; and bundles of a Move motion controller with select games .
= = Media = =
= = = Magazines = = =
The PlayStation brand has a wide series of magazines , from across different continents , covering PlayStation related articles and stories . Many of these magazines work closely with Sony and thus often come with demo discs for PlayStation games . Currently there are three magazines still in circulation namely PlayStation : The Official Magazine , PlayStation Official Magazine , Official PlayStation Magazine ( Australia ) . However , over the years , many PlayStation magazines have spawned while a few have also become defunct , these include the Official U.S. PlayStation Magazine , Official UK PlayStation Magazine , Official UK PlayStation 2 Magazine .
= = = CD ROM Magazine = = =
PlayStation Underground was a non @-@ traditional magazine that Sony Computer Entertainment America produced and published between Spring 1997 to Spring 2001 . Subscribers received two PlayStation CDs , along with a booklet and colorful packaging every quarter . The CDs contained interviews , cheats , programmers moves , game demos and one @-@ of @-@ a @-@ kind Memory Card saves . Several issues showed how a game was created from basic design to final product . Since the CDs could only be run on a PlayStation , it proved a useful marketing tool which spawned a line of PlayStation Underground JamPacks Demo CDs and which contained highlights from recent issues of PlayStation Underground , along with seemingly as many game demos that could be packed on a single CD . Unlike PlayStation Underground these were available in most stores for $ 4 @.@ 95 , were published twice a year in Summer and Winter and usually spotlighted newly released or coming soon games . By 2001 , Sony had decided to phase out Underground to focus on the JamPacks with the release of the PlayStation 2 . PlayStation Underground CDs are mainly in the hands of collectors these days .
= = Marketing = =
The PlayStation has been known for several advertising campaigns .
= = = Slogans = = =
Advertising slogans used for each PlayStation console iteration :
PlayStation
" eNoS Lives " ( The first letter ' E ' was printed in red to denote the word , ready . Enos stood for Ready , Ninth of September )
" U R Not e " ( The letter ' E ' was printed in red to denote the word , ready , as in You Are Not Ready )
" Do Not Underestimate The Power of PlayStation . " ( From the S.A.P.S. - Society Against PlayStation — series of adverts )
" Playstation " ( Seen on several PlayStation systems and games commercials )
PSone
" Wherever , Whenever , Forever . "
PlayStation 2
" The Beginning . "
" Live In Yur Wrld , Ply In urs . " ( The PlayStation face button icons were used to denote certain letters : Live In Your World , Play In Ours )
" ( Welcome to the ) Third Place . "
" Fun , Anyone ? "
" The ultimate just got better – PlayStation 9 – teleport yours today . "
PlayStation Portable
" PSP Hellz Yeah " ( PSP @-@ 1000 Series )
" Dude , Get Your Own ... " ( PSP @-@ 2000 Series )
" Everywhere Just Got Better " ( PSP @-@ 3000 Series and PSPgo )
" It 's GO Time " ( PSPgo )
" Your Whole World In Your Hands " ( UK & Europe Territories )
" Step Your Game Up " ( US Territory , PSP @-@ 3000 Series and PSPgo )
PlayStation 3
" The Wait Is Over "
" Welcome Chang3 " ( the number three is used to denote an ' e ' and was printed in red )
" This is Living . "
" Play B3yond " ( the number three is used to denote an ' e ' and was printed in red )
" It Only Does Everything " ( US Commercials ) ( PS3 Slim )
" The Game Is Just The Start . Start PS3 . " ( EU countries )
" Long Live Play " ( PS3 Slim )
" Never Stop Playing " ( PS3 Slim )
" Greatness Awaits " ( PS3 SuperSlim )
PlayStation Move
" This Changes Everything " .
" Move Into The Action "
PlayStation Network
" Download , Play , Connect . "
PlayStation Vita
" Never Stop Playing . "
" The World is in Play . " ( EU only )
PlayStation 4
" See the Future "
" Push the boundaries of Play "
" Greatness Awaits "
" This is 4 the Players "
" Where the Greatest Play "
= = = Notable advertising campaigns = = =
= = = = It Only Does Everything = = = =
The most notable of recent PlayStation commercials is the series of " It Only Does Everything " commercials featuring a fictional character called Kevin Butler who is a Vice President at PlayStation . These commercials usually advertise the PlayStation 3 and its games through a series of comedic answers to " Dear PlayStation " queries . These commercials garnered popularity among gamers , though its debut commercial received criticism from the Nigerian government due to a reference to the common 419 scams originating in Nigeria . Sony issued an apology and a new version of the advert with the offending line changed was produced .
A spin @-@ off of the campaign has been created for the PlayStation Portable which features similar campaign commercials called the " Step Your Game Up " campaign featuring a fictional teenage character named Marcus Rivers acting in a similar fashion to Kevin Butler but answering the " Dear PlayStation " queries about the PSP .
= = = = Netherlands Ceramic White PSP Commercials = = = =
In July 2006 , an advertising campaign in the Netherlands was released in which a white model dressed entirely in white and a black model dressed entirely in black was used to compare Sony 's new Ceramic White PSP and the original Piano Black PSP . This series of ads depicted both models fighting with each other and drew criticism from the media for being racist , though Sony maintains that the ad did not feature any racist message .
= = = = All I want for Xmas is a PSP = = = =
In November 2006 , a marketing company employed by Sony 's American division created a website entitled " All I want for Xmas is a PSP " , designed to promote the PSP virally . The site contained a blog which was purportedly written by " Charlie " , a teenage boy attempting to get his friend Jeremy 's parents to buy him a PSP , and providing a " music video " of either Charlie or Jeremy " rapping " about the PSP . Visitors to the website quickly recognized that the website was registered to a marketing company , exposing the campaign on sites such as YouTube and digg . Sony was forced to admit that the site was in fact a marketing campaign and in an interview with next @-@ gen.biz , Sony admitted that the idea was " poorly executed " .
= = Reception = =
In 2005 , Australian newspaper The Age wrote an article about the PlayStation brand . Among the numerous interviews conducted with various people in the industry was an interview with Dr Jeffrey Brand , associate professor in communication and media at Bond University who said , " PlayStation re @-@ ignited our imagination with video games " . Game designers Yoshiki Okamoto called the brand " revolutionary — PlayStation has changed gaming , distribution , sales , image and more " , while Evan Wells of Naughty Dog said " PlayStation is responsible for making playing games cool . "
In 2009 , ViTrue , Inc. listed the PlayStation brand as number 13 on their " The Vitrue 100 : Top Social Brands of 2009 " . The ranking was based on various aspects mainly dealing with popular social media sites in aspects such as Social Networking , Video Sharing , Photo Sharing and Blogs .
In 2010 , Gizmodo stated that the PlayStation brand was one of the last Sony products to completely stand apart from its competitors , stating that " If you ask the average person on the street what their favorite Sony product is , more often than not you 'll hear PlayStation " . As of April 2012 , the PlayStation brand is the " most followed " brand on social networking site , Facebook , with over 22 million fans and followers in total which is more than any other brand in the entertainment industry . A study by Greenlight 's Entertainment Retail has also shown that the PlayStation brand is the most interactive making 634 posts and tweets on social networking sites Facebook and Twitter .
In July 2014 , Sony boasted in a company release video that the PlayStation 3 , PlayStation 4 and PlayStation Vita sold a combined total of 100 million units . It was announced at Tokyo Game Show on September 1 , 2014 , that PlayStation home game consoles claim 78 % market share of all home consoles in Japan .
As of 2015 , PlayStation is the strongest selling console brand worldwide .
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= EarthBound =
EarthBound , known as Mother 2 in Japan , is a 1994 Japanese role @-@ playing video game co @-@ developed by Ape Inc. and HAL Laboratory and published by Nintendo for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System video game console . As Ness and his party of four , the player travels the world to collect melodies en route to defeating the evil alien force Giygas . It is the second game of the Mother series , and the only one to be released in the English language until its predecessor was released under the name EarthBound Beginnings in 2015 as part of Wii U 's Virtual Console . EarthBound was released in Japan on August 27 , 1994 , and in North America on June 5 , 1995 .
The game had a lengthy development period which spanned five years . Its making involved a number of Japanese luminaries , including writer Shigesato Itoi , musician / songwriter Keiichi Suzuki , sound designer Hirokazu Tanaka , and future Nintendo president Satoru Iwata . Themed around an idiosyncratic portrayal of Americana and Western culture , it subverted popular role @-@ playing game traditions by featuring a real world setting while parodying numerous staples of the genre . Itoi , who directed the game , wanted it to reach non @-@ gamers with its intentionally goofy tone . It was heavily marketed upon release via a promotional campaign which sardonically proclaimed " this game stinks " .
Initial reviewers had little praise for EarthBound in the United States , where it sold half as many copies as in Japan . Critics attribute this to a combination of the game 's simple graphics , the satirical marketing campaign , and a lack of market interest in the genre . In the ensuing years , a dedicated fan community spawned which advocated for the series . Starting in 1999 , Ness became a featured character in each of the Super Smash Bros. series of video games which furthered public knowledge of EarthBound . Upon retrospection , the game received wide critical acclaim , and was deemed by many to be a timeless classic . A Japan @-@ only sequel , Mother 3 , was released for the Game Boy Advance in 2006 . In 2013 , EarthBound was reissued and given a worldwide release for the Wii U Virtual Console following many years of fan lobbying , marking its debut in many territories including Europe .
= = Gameplay = =
EarthBound features many traditional role @-@ playing game elements : the player controls a party of characters who travel through the game 's two @-@ dimensional world composed of villages , cities , caves , and dungeons . Along the way , the player fights battles against enemies and the party receives experience points for victories . If enough experience points are acquired , a character 's level will increase . This pseudo @-@ randomly increases the character 's attributes , such as offense , defense , and the maximum hit points ( HP ) and psychic points ( PP ) of each character . Rather than using an overworld map screen like most console RPGs of its era , the world is entirely seamless , with no differentiation between towns and the outside world . Another non @-@ traditional element is the perspective used for the world . The game uses oblique projection , while most 2D RPGs use a " top down " view on a grid or an isometric perspective .
Unlike its predecessor , EarthBound does not use random encounters . When physical contact occurs between a character and an enemy , the screen dissolves into battle mode . In combat , characters and enemies possess a certain amount of HP . Blows to an enemy reduce the amount of HP . Once an enemy 's HP reach zero , that enemy is defeated . If a specific type of enemy is defeated , there is a chance that the character will receive an item after the battle . In battle , the player is allowed to choose specific actions for their characters . These actions can include attacking , healing , spying ( reveals enemy weakness / strengths ) , mirroring ( emulate a specific enemy ) , and running away . Characters can also use special PSI attacks that require PP . Once each character is assigned a command , the characters and enemies perform their actions in a set order , determined by character speed . Whenever a character receives damage , the HP box gradually " rolls " down , similar to an odometer . This allows players an opportunity to heal the character or win the battle before the counter hits zero , after which the character is knocked unconscious . If all characters are rendered unconscious , the game transitions to an endgame screen , asking if the player wants to continue . An affirmative response brings Ness , conscious , back to the last telephone he saved from , with half the money on his person at the time of his defeat , and with other party members showing as still unconscious . Because battles are not random , tactical advantages can be gained . If the player physically contacts an enemy from behind ( indicated by a translucent green swirl which fills the screen ) , the player is given a first @-@ strike priority . However , this also applies to enemies , who can also engage the party from behind ( in this case , the swirl is red ) . Neutral priority is indicated by a gray swirl . Additionally , as Ness and his friends become stronger , battles with weaker enemies are eventually won automatically , forgoing the battle sequence , and weaker monsters will begin to flee from Ness and his friends rather than chase them .
Currency is indirectly received from Ness ' father , who can also save the game 's progress . Each time the party wins a battle , Ness ' father deposits money in an account that can be withdrawn at ATMs . In towns , players can visit various stores where weapons , armor , and items can be bought . Weapons and armor can be equipped to increase character strength and defense , respectively . In addition , items can be used for a number of purposes , such as healing . Towns also contain several other useful facilities such as hospitals where players can be healed for a fee .
= = Plot = =
The game took place a few years later after the events of Mother . The player starts as a young boy named Ness as he investigates a nearby meteorite crash with his neighbor , Pokey . He finds that an alien force , Giygas , has enveloped and consumed the world in hatred and consequently turned animals , humans , and objects into malicious creatures . A bee from the future instructs Ness to collect melodies in a Sound Stone to preemptively stop the force . While visiting these eight Sanctuaries , Ness meets three other kids named Paula , Jeff , and Poo — " a psychic girl , an eccentric inventor , and a ponytailed martial artist " , respectively — who join his party . Along the way , Ness visits the cultists of Happy Happy Village , where he saves Paula , and the zombie @-@ infested Threed , where the two of them fall prey to a trap . After Paula telepathically instructs Jeff in a Winters boarding school to rescue them , they continue to the city of Fourside and the seaside resort Summers . Meanwhile , Poo , the prince of Dalaam , partakes in a violent meditation called " Mu Training " before joining the party as well . The party continues to travel to the Scaraba desert , the Deep Darkness swamp and a forgotten underworld where dinosaurs live and as the Sound Stone is eventually filled , Ness visits Magicant alone , a surreal location in his mind where he fights his personal dark side . Upon returning to Eagleland , he and his party travel back in time to fight a young Giygas , a battle known for its " feeling of isolation , ... incomprehensible attacks , ... buzzing static " and reliance on prayer .
= = Development = =
The first Mother was released for the NES in 1989 . Its sequel , Mother 2 , or EarthBound , was developed over five years by Ape ( later Creatures ) and HAL , and published through Nintendo . The game was written and designed by Japanese author , musician , and advertiser Shigesato Itoi , and produced by Satoru Iwata , who became Nintendo 's president and CEO . Mother 2 was made with a development team different from that of the original game , and most of its members were unmarried and willing to work all night on the project . Mother 2 's development took much longer than planned and came under repeated threat of cancellation . Itoi has said that the project 's dire straits were resolved when Iwata joined the team . Ape 's programming team had more members than HAL on the project . The HAL team ( led by lead programmer Iwata ) worked on the game programming , while the Ape team ( led by lead programmer Kouji Malta ) worked on specific data , such as the text and maps . They spent biweekly retreats together at the HAL office in view of Mount Fuji .
The game continues Mother 's story in that Giygas reappears as the antagonist ( and thus did not die at the end of Mother ) and the player has the option of choosing whether to continue the protagonist 's story by choosing whether to name their player @-@ character the same as the original . He considered interstellar and interplanetary space travel instead of the confines of a single planet in the new game . After four months , Itoi scrapped the idea as cliché . Itoi sought to make a game that would appeal to populations that were playing games less , such as girls .
The Mother series titles are built on what Itoi considered " reckless wildness " , where he would offer ideas that encouraged his staff to contribute new ways of portraying scenes in the video game medium . He saw the titles foremost as games and not " big scenario scripts " . Itoi has said that he wanted the player feel emotions such as " distraught " when playing the game . The game 's writing was intentionally " quirky and goofy " in character , and written in the Japanese kana script so as to give dialogue a conversational feel . Itoi thought of the default player @-@ character names when he did not like his team 's suggestions . Many of the characters were based on real life personalities . For instance , the desert miners were modeled on specific executives from a Japanese construction company . The final battle dialogue with Giygas was based on Itoi 's recollections of a traumatic scene from the Shintoho film The Military Policeman and the Dismembered Beauty that he had accidentally seen in his childhood . Itoi referred to the battle background animations as a " video drug " . The same specialist made nearly 200 of these animations , working solely on backgrounds for two years .
The idea for the rolling HP meter began with pachinko balls that would drop balls off the screen upon being hit . This did not work as well for characters with high health . Instead , around 1990 , they chose an odometer @-@ style hit points counter . The bicycle was one of the harder elements to implement — it used controls similar to a tank before it was tweaked . Iwata felt that the Ape programmers were particularly willing to tackle such challenges . The programmers also found difficulty implementing the in @-@ game delivery service , where the delivery person had to navigate around obstacles to reach the player . They thought it would be funny to have the delivery person run through obstacles in a hurry on his way off @-@ screen . The unusual maps laid out with diagonal streets in oblique projection required extra attention from the artists . Itoi specifically chose against having an overworld map , and didn 't want to artificially distinguish between towns and other areas . Instead , he worked to make each town unique . His own favorite town was Threed , though it was Summers before then .
Mother 2 was designed to fit within an eight megabit limit , but was expanded in size and scope twice : first to 12 megabits and second to 24 megabits . The game was originally scheduled for release in January 1993 on a 12 megabit cartridge . It was finished around May 1994 and the Japanese release was set for August 27 , 1994 . With the extra few months , the team played the game and added small , personal touches . Itoi told Weekly Famitsu that Shigeru Miyamoto liked the game and that it was the first role @-@ playing game that Miyamoto had completed . Mother 2 would release in North America about a year later .
= = = North American release = = =
As was traditional for Nintendo , Mother 2 was developed in Japan and localized in the United States , a process in which the game is translated into English for Western audiences . As the only game in the Mother series to be released in North America at the time , its title " Mother 2 " was changed to " EarthBound " to avoid confusion about what it was a sequel to .
Nintendo of America 's Dan Owsen began the English localization project and converted about ten percent of the script before moving to another project . Marcus Lindblom filled Owsen 's position around January 1995 . Lindblom credits Owsen with coining some of the game 's " most iconic phrases " , such as " say fuzzy pickles " . Lindblom himself was given liberties to make the script " as weird as [ he ] wanted " , as Nintendo wanted the script to be more American than a direct translation would be . He worked alone and with great latitude due to no divisional hierarchies . Lindblom was aided by Japanese writer Masayuki Miura , who translated the Japanese script and contextualized its tone , which Lindblom positively described as " a glass half full " .
Lindblom was challenged by the task of culturally translating " an outsider 's view of the U.S. " for an American audience . He also sought to stay true to the original text , though he never met or spoke with Itoi . In addition to reworking the original puns and humor , Lindblom added private jokes and American cultural allusions to Bugs Bunny , comedian Benny Hill , and This Is Spinal Tap . Apart from the dialogue , he wrote the rest of the game 's text , including combat prompts and item names . As one of several Easter eggs , he named a non @-@ player character for his daughter , Nico , who was born during development . While Lindblom took the day off for her birth , he proceeded to work 14 @-@ hour days without weekends for the next month . The game also includes protection against piracy that , when triggered , increases enemy counts to make the game less enjoyable . Additionally , right before players reach the end of the pirated copy 's story , their game resets and deletes its saved file in an act that IGN declared " arguably the most devious and notorious example of ' creative ' copy protection " .
Under directives from Nintendo , Lindblom worked with the Japanese artists and programmers to remove references to intellectual property , religion , and alcohol from the American release , such as a truck 's Coca @-@ Cola logo , the red crosses on hospitals , and crosses on tombstones . Alcohol became coffee , Ness was no longer nude in the Magicant area as seen in the image , and the Happy Happyist blue cultists were made to look less like Ku Klux Klansmen . The team was not concerned with music licensing issues and considered itself somewhat protected under the guise of parody . Lindblom recalled that the music did not need many changes . The graphical fixes were not finished until March 1995 , and the game was not fully playable until May . EarthBound was released on June 5 , 1995 in North America .
Though Nintendo spent about $ 2 million on marketing , the American release was ultimately viewed as unsuccessful within Nintendo . The game 's atypical marketing campaign was derived from the game 's unusual humor . As part of Nintendo 's larger " Play It Loud " campaign , EarthBound 's " this game stinks " campaign included foul @-@ smelling scratch and sniff advertisements . 1UP.com called the scratch and sniff advertising campaign " infamously ill @-@ conceived " , and Digital Trends described the campaign as " bizarre " and " based around fart jokes " . GamePro reported that they received more reader complaints about the game 's scratch and sniff ad than about any other 1995 advertisement . The campaign was also expensive . It emphasized magazine advertisements and had the extra cost of the strategy guide included with each game . Aaron Linde of Shacknews wrote that the price of the packaged game curtailed sales . Between the poor sales and the phasing out of the Super NES , the game did not receive a European release .
Lindblom and his team were devastated by the release 's poor critical response and sales . He recalled that the game was hurt by reception of its graphics as " simplistic " at a time when critics placed high importance on graphics quality . Lindblom felt that the game 's changes to the RPG formula ( e.g. , the rolling HP meter and fleeing enemies ) were ignored in the following years , though he thought the game had aged well at the time of its Virtual Console re @-@ release in 2013 .
= = = Music = = =
Mother composers Keiichi Suzuki and Hirokazu Tanaka returned to make the EarthBound soundtrack , along with newcomers Hiroshi Kanazu and Toshiyuki Ueno . In comparison with Mother , Itoi said that EarthBound had more " jazzy " pieces . Suzuki told Weekly Famitsu that the Super NES afforded the team more creative freedom with its eight @-@ channel ADPCM based SPC700 , as opposed to the old Nintendo Entertainment System 's restriction of five channels of basic waveforms . This entailed higher sound quality and music that sounds closer to his regular compositions . Itoi believes that EarthBound may be the first video game to use vibrato , or " string @-@ bending " , in its music . The soundtrack was released by Sony Records on November 2 , 1994 .
In Suzuki 's songwriting process , he would first compose on a synthesizer before working with programmers to get it in the game . His personal pieces play when the player is walking about the map , out of battle . Suzuki 's favorite piece is the music that plays while the player is on a bicycle , which he composed in advance of this job but found appropriate to include . He wrote over 100 pieces , but much of it was not included in the game . The team wrote enough music as to fill eight megabits of the 24 megabit cartridge — about two compact discs .
According to Tanaka , the Beach Boys were repeatedly referenced between him and Suzuki , and that he would often listen to co @-@ founder Brian Wilson 's 1988 eponymous album while on the way to Suzuki 's home . Suzuki has stated that the percussive arranging in the game 's soundtrack was based on the Beach Boys ' albums Smile ( unreleased ) and Smiley Smile ( 1967 ) , which both contained American themes shared with Van Dyke Parks ' Song Cycle ( 1968 ) . To Suzuki , Smile evoked the bright and dark aspects of America , while Song Cycle displayed a hazy sound mixed with American humor and hints of Ray Bradbury , a style which he considered essential to the soundtrack of Mother . Tanaka recalls Randy Newman being the first quintessentially American composer he could think of , and that his albums Little Criminals ( 1977 ) and Land of Dreams ( 1988 ) were influential . While Suzuki corroborated with his own affinity for Harry Nilsson 's Nilsson Sings Newman ( 1970 ) , he also cited John Lennon as a strong influence due to the common theme of love in his music , which was also a prominent theme in the game , and that his album John Lennon / Plastic Ono Band ( 1970 ) helped him to avoid excessive instrumentation over the SNES 's technical constraints .
The soundtrack contains direct musical quotations of some classical and folk music ; the composers also derived a few samples culled from other sources including commercial pop and rock music . The texture of the work was partially influenced by some salsa , reggae , and dub music . Speaking about Frank Zappa 's Make a Jazz Noise Here ( 1991 ) , Tanaka felt that Zappa would have been the best at creating a live performance of Mother music , but could not detail Zappa 's specific influence on EarthBound . Additionally , he felt that the mix tape Wired Magazine Presents : Music Futurists ( 1999 ) presented a particular selection of artists which embody the ethos of EarthBound , running the gamut from space age composer Esquivel to avant @-@ garde trumpeter Ben Neill , along with innovators Sun Ra , Steve Reich , Todd Rundgren , Brian Eno , and Can . Tanaka also mentioned that he listened to the various artists compilation Stay Awake : Various Interpretations of Music from Vintage Disney Films ( 1988 ) heavily during EarthBound 's development . Miscellaneous influences on Suzuki and Tanaka for EarthBound include the music of Michael Nyman , Miklós Rózsa 's film score for The Lost Weekend ( 1948 ) , and albums by various other pop / rock musicians .
= = Reception = =
The game originally received little critical praise from the American press , and sold poorly in the United States : around 140 @,@ 000 copies , as compared to twice as many in Japan . Kotaku described EarthBound 's 1995 American release as " a dud " and blamed the low sales on " a bizarre marketing campaign " and graphics " cartoonish " beyond the average taste of players . The game was released when RPGs were not popular in the United States , and visual taste in RPGs was closer to Chrono Trigger and Final Fantasy VI . The game was especially expensive due to the included strategy guide . While the game piggybacked on Itoi 's celebrity in Japan , it became a " curio " for European audiences .
Multiple reviewers described the game as " original " or " unique " and praised its script 's range of emotions and humor . IGN 's Scott Thompson said the game teetered between solemn and audacious in its dialogue and gameplay , and noted its deviance from RPG tropes in aspects such as choice of attacks in battle . He found the game both " bizarre and memorable " . Official Nintendo Magazine 's Simon Parkin thought the game 's script was its best asset , as " one of the medium 's strongest and idiosyncratic storylines " that fluctuated " between humorous and poignant " . GameZone 's David Sanchez thought its script was " clever " and " sharp " , as it displayed a wide range of emotions that made him want to talk to all non @-@ player characters . GamesTM wrote that the game designers spoke with their players through the non @-@ playable characters , and noted how Itoi 's interests shaped the script , its allusions to popular culture , and its " strangely existential narrative framework " .
Critics praised its " real world " setting , which was seen as an uncommon choice . IGN 's Thompson noted its 1990s homage as " a love letter to 20th @-@ century Americana " , with a payphone as a save point , ATMs to transfer money , yo @-@ yos as weapons , skateboarders and hippies as enemies , and references to classic rock bands . Official Nintendo Magazine 's Parkin noted the theme 's distance from the " knights and dragons " common to the Japanese role @-@ playing game genre . Reviewers noted the game 's steep difficulty . IGN 's Thompson wrote that the beginning was the hardest , and that aspects such as limited inventory , experience grinds , and monetary penalties upon death were unfriendly for players new to Japanese RPGs . He also cited the quick respawn time for foes and ultimate need to not avoid battles given the difficulty of bosses .
Reviewers described the game 's ambiance as cheery and full of charm . David Sanchez of GameZone thought the game 's self @-@ awareness added to its charm , where the player learned through the game 's poking lighthearted fun . He added that the music was an " absolute delight " and complimented its range from space sounds to themes to " bizarre " battle tracks that varied with the enemy type . GamesTM wrote that the game 's reputation comes from the " consistent ... visual language " in its Charles M. Schulz @-@ esque character and world design . Kotaku 's Jason Schreier found the ending unsatisfying and unrelieving , despite finding the ending credits with its character curtain call and photo album of " fuzzy pickles " moments all " wonderful " .
Of the original reviewers , Nicholas Dean Des Barres of DieHard GameFan wrote that EarthBound was not as impressive as Final Fantasy III , although just as fun . He praised the game 's humor and wrote that the game completely defied his first impressions . Des Barres wrote that " past the graphics " , which were purposefully 8 @-@ bit for nostalgia , the game is not an " entry level " or a " child 's " RPG , but " highly intelligent " and " captivating " . The Brazilian Super GamePower explained that those expecting a Dungeons and Dragons @-@ style RPG will be disappointed by the childish visuals , which were unlike other 16 @-@ bit games . They wrote that the American humor was too mature and that the gameplay was too immature , as if for beginners . GamePro gave the game a mixed review , commenting that " The lack of a convincing story line and the dull NES @-@ clone graphics ... will make serious RPG fans a little cautious about approaching EarthBound . " They said the " saving graces are the fairly good music " and " hilarious adult humor " but added that " the humor is too mature for little kids , and the gameplay is too immature for older gamers . "
Reviewing the game years after its release , IGN 's Scott Thompson wrote that EarthBound balances " dark Lovecraftian apocalypse and silly lightheartedness " , and was just as interesting nearly a decade after its original release . While he lamented a lack of " visual feedback " in battle animations , he felt the game had innovations that still feel " smart and unique " : the rolling HP meter and lack of random battles . Thompson also noted that technical issues like animation slowdown with multiple enemies on @-@ screen went unfixed in the rerelease . Official Nintendo Magazine 's Parkin found the game to provide a more potent experience than developers with more resources and thought its battle sequences were " sleek " . Nintendo World Report 's Justin Baker was surprised by the " excellent " battle system and controls , which he found to be underreported in other reviews despite their streamlined , grind @-@ reducing convenience . He wrote that some of the menu interactions were clunky . GamesTM felt that the game was " far from revolutionary " , compared to Final Fantasy VI and Chrono Trigger , and that its battle scenes were unexciting . The magazine compared the game 's " chosen one " story to a " throwaway Link 's Awakening / Goonies hybrid narrative " . Reviewers praised Nintendo for digitizing the Player 's Guide , though IGN noted that it was technically easier to view it on another tablet rather than switching the Wii U 's view mode . Multiple reviewers concluded that the game had aged well .
= = Legacy = =
Since its release , the game 's English localization has found praise . Localization reviewer Clyde Mandelin described the Japanese @-@ to @-@ English conversion as " top @-@ notch for its time " . Kotaku found the localization " funny , clever , and evocative " , and 1UP.com said it was " unusually excellent " for the time . IGN wrote that Nintendo was " dead wrong " for believing that Americans would not be interested in " such a chaotic and satirical world " . Critics consider the game one of the weirdest and most surreal role @-@ playing games . Examples include using items such as the Pencil Eraser to remove pencil statues , experiencing in @-@ game hallucinations , meeting " a man who turned himself into a dungeon " , and battling piles of vomit , taxi cabs , and walking nooses .
EarthBound was listed in 1001 Video Games You Must Play Before You Die , where Christian Donlan wrote that the game is " name @-@ checked by the video gaming cognoscenti more often than it 's actually been played " . Similarly , Eurogamer 's Simon Parkin described it as a " sacred cow amongst gaming 's cognoscenti " . Mott called the game " utterly brilliant " and praised its overworld and battle system . Kotaku described aspects of the game 's story , such as the " Mr. Saturn coffee break " , as " poignant " . Jeremy Parish of USgamer called EarthBound " the all @-@ time champion " of self @-@ aware games that " warp ... perceptions and boundaries " and break the fourth wall , citing its frequent internal commentary about the medium and the final scenes where the player is directly addressed by the game . He thought the final scene was " perhaps the most clever and powerful moment in a clever and powerful game " . David Sanchez of GameZone wrote that EarthBound " went places no other game would " in the 1990s or even in the present day , including " trolling " the player " before trolling was cool " . Author Hiromi Kawakami told Itoi that she had played the game " about 80 times " . GamesTM said the game felt fresh because of its reliance on " personal experiences " made it " exactly the sort of title that would thrive today as an indie hit " . He called this accomplishment " remarkable " and credited Nintendo 's commitment to the " voices of creators " . IGN 's Nadia Oxford said that nearly two decades since the release , its final boss fight against Giygas continues to be " one of the most epic video game standoffs of all time " and noted its emotional impact . Kotaku wrote that the game was content to make the player " feel lonely " , and , overall , was special not for any individual aspect but for its method of using the video game medium to explore ideas impossible to explore in other media .
Critics consider EarthBound a " classic " or " must @-@ play " among video games . The game was included top 50 games of all time lists , including that of Famitsu readers in 2006 and IGN readers in 2005 and 2006 . IGN ranks EarthBound 13th in its top 100 SNES games and 26th among all games , crediting its " distinct and unforgettable " in @-@ game world , perspective on Americanism , unconventional settings , and 1960s music . Gamasutra named the game one of its 20 " essential " Japanese role @-@ playing games . The rerelease was Justin Haywald of GameSpot 's game of the year , and Nintendo Life 's Virtual Console game of the year . GameZone said it " would be a great disservice " to merely call EarthBound " a gem " . GamesTM noted that the few British players who imported the game regarded it as " a retro classic " . IGN 's Scott Thompson too appraised the game as " the true definition of a classic " .
Several critics referred to the game as among their all @-@ time favorites . EarthBound has been cited as an official influence on video games Costume Quest , South Park : The Stick of Truth ( via series creator Trey Parker ) , Lisa , Kyoto Wild , Citizens of Earth , and Undertale . Additionally , EarthBound has been reported as an unofficial influence on Contact .
= = = Fandom = = =
EarthBound is known for having a cult following , which developed over time well after its release . Colin Campbell of Polygon wrote that " few gaming communities are as passionate and active " as EarthBound 's , and 1UP.com 's Bob Mackey wrote that no game was as poised to have a cult following . IGN 's Lucas M. Thomas wrote in 2006 that EarthBound 's " persistent " , " ambitious " , and " religiously dedicated collective of hardcore fans " would be among the first groups to influence Nintendo 's decision @-@ making through their purchasing power on Virtual Console . Digital Trends 's Anthony John Agnello wrote that " no video game fans have suffered as much as EarthBound fans " , and cited Nintendo 's reluctance to release Mother series games in North America . IGN described the series as neglected by Nintendo in North America for similar reasons . Nintendo president Satoru Iwata later credited the community response on their online Miiverse social platform as leading to EarthBound 's eventual rerelease on their Virtual Console platform . Physical copies of EarthBound were hard to find before the rerelease , and in 2013 , were worth twice its initial retail price .
Wired described the amount of EarthBound " fan art , videos , and tributes on fan sites like EarthBound Central or Starmen.net " as mountainous . Reid Young of Starmen.net and Fangamer credits EarthBound 's popularity to its " labor of love " nature , with a " double @-@ coat of thoughtfulness and care " across all aspects of the game by a development team that appeared to love their work . Young started the fansite that would become Starmen.net in 1997 while in middle school . It became " the definitive fan community for EarthBound on the web " and had " almost inexplicable " growth . Shacknews described the site 's collection of fan @-@ made media as " absolutely massive " . It also provided a place to aggregate information on the Mother series and to coordinate fan actions .
The EarthBound fan community at Starmen.net coalesced with the intent to have Nintendo of America acknowledge the Mother series . The community drafted several thousand @-@ person petitions for specific English @-@ language Mother series releases , but in time , their request shifted to no demand at all , wanting only their interest to be recognized by Nintendo . A 2007 campaign for a Mother 3 English localization led to the creation of a full @-@ color , 270 @-@ page art book — The EarthBound Anthology — sent to Nintendo and press outlets as demonstration of consumer interest . Shacknews called it more of a proposal than a collection of fan art , and " the greatest gaming love letter ever created " . Upon " little " response from Nintendo , they decided to localize the game themselves . Starmen.net co @-@ founder and professional game translator Clyde " Tomato " Mandelin led the project from its November 2006 announcement to October 2008 finish . They then printed a " professional quality strategy guide " through Fangamer , a video game merchandising site that spun off from Starmen.net. The Verge cited the effort as proof of the fan base 's dedication .
Other fan efforts include EarthBound , USA , a full @-@ length documentary on Starmen.net and the fan community , and Mother 4 , a fan @-@ produced sequel to the Mother series that went into production when Itoi definitively " declared " that he was done with the series . After following the fan community from afar , Lindblom came out to fans in mid @-@ 2012 and the press became interested in his work . He had planned a book about the game 's development , release , and fandom before a reply from Nintendo discouraged him from pursuing the idea . He plans to continue to communicate directly with the community about the game 's history .
= = = Ness = = =
EarthBound 's Ness became widely known from his later appearance as an ensemble cast member in the Super Smash Bros. series , including the original Super Smash Bros. and its sequels : Melee , Brawl , and 3DS / Wii U. Ness was among the biggest surprise inclusions in the original 1999 Super Smash Bros. , which gave Mother series fans " hope for the future " of the series . IGN wrote that Ness was " one of the most powerful characters " when players perfected his odd controls and psychic powers . In Europe , which did not see an EarthBound release , Ness was better known for his role in the fighting game than for his original role in the role @-@ playing game .
He returned in the 2001 Melee with two other references to EarthBound : Mr. Saturn items , which could be tossed at enemies , and an unlockable battle arena based on the EarthBound city of Fourside . Ness was joined by Mother 3 's Lucas in Brawl . In 2012 , Official Nintendo Magazine 's Thomas East wrote that Ness was an unpopular character in the series and should be removed from future installments . Ness returned in 3DS / Wii U , the sequel to Brawl , and Lucas was added later as downloadable content . Nintendo also produced Ness and Lucas Amiibo figurines .
= = = Sequels and rerelease = = =
A sequel to EarthBound was announced for the Nintendo 64 in 1996 as Mother 3 ( EarthBound 64 in North America ) . It was slated for release on the 64DD , an expansion peripheral for the Nintendo 64 that used a magneto @-@ optical drive . In development hell , the game struggled to find a firm release date and in 2000 , was later cancelled altogether when the 64DD flopped .
In April 2003 , a Japanese television advertisement revealed that a combined Mother 1 + 2 cartridge and Mother 3 were in development for the Game Boy Advance . The latter abandoned the Nintendo 64 version 's 3D , but kept its plot . Mother 3 was released in Japan in 2006 , whereupon it became a bestseller . It did not receive a North American release on the basis that it would not sell . Around Mother 3 's 2006 release , Itoi stated that he had no plans to make Mother 4 , which he has reaffirmed repeatedly . IGN described the series as neglected by Nintendo in North America , as Mother 1 , Mother 1 + 2 , and Mother 3 were not released outside Japan . Despite this , Ness ' recurrence in the Super Smash Bros. series signaled favorable odds for the future of the Mother series .
At the outset of the Wii 's Virtual Console platform in 2006 , IGN rated EarthBound as having a " very high " probability of a release on the digital distribution platform , adding that " Nintendo is listening " . Though the game was rated the most desired Virtual Console release in a Nintendo Power poll , rated for release by the ESRB , and able to be published with little effort , the Wii version did not materialize . The game was commonly believed to be withheld from rerelease due to music licensing concerns , and the Starmen.net community was told that " undisclosed legal hangups " were preventing the release . English localizer Marcus Lindblom instead hypothesized that Nintendo did not realize the magnitude of the game 's popular support and did not consider it a priority project . In 2008 , Nintendo removed the game 's demo from the Masterpieces collection of the North American release of Super Smash Bros. Brawl .
At the end of 2012 , Itoi announced that the rerelease was moving forward , and a January 2013 Nintendo Direct presentation announced the Japanese rerelease for the Wii U Virtual Console as part of a celebration of anniversaries of the NES and Mother 2 . Following the Japanese March 20 , 2013 release and citing fan interest on Nintendo 's Miiverse social platform , company president Satoru Iwata announced a North American and European release of EarthBound , which was released July 18 , 2013 alongside a digitized and free online version of the game 's original Player 's Guide . The game was a " top @-@ seller " on the Wii U Virtual Console . Kotaku users and first @-@ time EarthBound players had an " overwhelmingly positive " response to the game . Simon Parkin wrote that the game 's rerelease was a " momentous occasion " as the return of " one of Nintendo 's few remaining lost classics " after 20 years . EarthBound was later released as a Virtual Console title on the New Nintendo 3DS on March 3 , 2016 in Europe , and on March 24 , 2016 in North America .
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= Darvin Moon =
Darvin Moon ( born October 1 , 1963 ) is an American self @-@ employed logger and amateur poker player who was the runner @-@ up of the 2009 World Series of Poker ( WSOP ) US $ 10 @,@ 000 no @-@ limit Texas hold 'em main event . It was his first time playing in the World Series of Poker . Moon , who taught himself how to play poker , ran a small logging company in the Maryland Panhandle before earning a 2009 World Series seat by winning a $ 130 satellite tournament .
Moon earned the chip lead early in the tournament , and eventually entered the final table as the chip leader , with about 30 percent of the chips in play . Although Moon briefly lost the lead , he eventually regained it after eliminating veteran players like Steve Begleiter and Phil Ivey . Moon ultimately lost heads up against Joe Cada , earning Moon US $ 5 @.@ 18 million for his second @-@ place finish .
Although some criticized his playing style and lack of experience , Moon was also praised for his working stiff personality and self @-@ deprecating manner . Moon participated in the 2010 National Heads @-@ Up Poker Championship , but lost in the second round to Annie Duke . He also competed in the 2010 World Series of Poker main event , but was eliminated on the second day .
= = Early life = =
Darvin Moon lives in the western Maryland town of Oakland , at the foot of Backbone Mountain . Prior to entering the World Series of Poker , Moon lived in a 14 by 70 feet ( 4 @.@ 3 by 21 @.@ 3 m ) trailer with his wife , Wendy . Moon owns and operates a small logging company with other family members . Most of his days were spent in pine forests scattered throughout the Maryland Panhandle . Moon taught himself how to play poker , and he first started playing with his grandfather at a young age . He started playing frequently around 2006 and studied the game by watching televised poker . Moon regularly played home games at such places as fire departments , Elks Lodges and American Legion buildings .
= = 2009 WSOP = =
Darvin Moon earned his seat in the 2009 World Series of Poker no @-@ limit Texas hold 'em main event by winning a $ 130 satellite tournament at the Wheeling Island Casino in Wheeling , West Virginia . He lost two Wheeling Island tournaments before finishing in first place on his third attempt , winning a $ 10 @,@ 000 main event seat and $ 6 @,@ 000 for expenses . The event marked Moon ’ s first time playing in the WSOP , as well as visiting Las Vegas , Nevada and riding in a commercial plane . Due to the poor economy 's impact on the logging business , Moon considered keeping the $ 10 @,@ 000 instead of entering the tournament , but decided to play after visiting the Rio All Suite Hotel and Casino and watching World Series games there .
On the first day of the tournament , Moon was dealt pocket aces six times and got three @-@ of @-@ a @-@ kind on the flop three times . He performed well on the first day and continued a successful streak throughout the tournament , although he himself proclaimed it was luck . He eliminated several professional poker players during the tournament , including David Benyamine . He eventually obtained the chip lead and kept it until the seventh day of play . At that time he fell to tenth place , but won a few big hands to recover and ended the day back in the lead . He eliminated Billy Kopp in one of the biggest hands in the tournament when his Q ♦ J ♦ led to a higher flush than Kopp 's 5 ♦ 3 ♦ . Moon entered the final table as the chip leader , holding 58 @.@ 6 million chips , or about 30 percent of the chips in play .
During the final table , Moon eliminated Steve Begleiter and seasoned pro Phil Ivey . In both cases , Moon was behind but caught cards to win ; Ivey lost with A @-@ K to Moon 's A @-@ Q when a queen came up on the flop , and Begleiter 's pocket queens lost to Moon 's A @-@ Q when he caught an ace on the river . Moon lost the chip lead during the November Nine game , but his knockout win against Begleiter brought him back into the chip lead with 63 @.@ 9 million chips . He made it to the final two players and went heads up against Joe Cada , with Moon at 58 @.@ 85 million and Cada at 135 @.@ 95 million . Moon briefly recovered the chip lead from Cada , but lost it during the 79th heads @-@ up hand , where Cada bet 3 million chips with his J @-@ 9 on a 10 @-@ 5 @-@ 9 @-@ 10 turn after the flop was checked , Moon check @-@ raised all in with 8 @-@ 7 . Cada called with his remaining 58 million chips , won the hand and regained the chip lead and the momentum for the duration of the match .
Commentators later criticized Moon for making such an expensive bluff for a small pot , and Moon seemed visibly disappointed after the game . Storms Reback , of All In Magazine , said the hand was a crucial moment for Moon , and that his fatigue from it may have resulted in a bad call at the final hand of the tournament . After 18 hours of play , Moon ended up finishing second against Cada when his Q ♦ J ♦ succumbed to Cada 's 9 ♦ 9 ♣ . He won $ 5 @,@ 182 @,@ 601 for his second @-@ place finish .
After the tournament ended , Moon was congratulated by professional poker player Phil Hellmuth , who said , " I 'm proud of you , Darvin . " Some were critical of both Moon and Cada . Mike Matusow , a professional poker player with a reputation for trash @-@ talking , called the heads @-@ up contest between the two " a new low for poker as a skilled game " . Storms Reback , of All In Magazine , said Moon was " out of his league " at the tournament , and made a number of questionable calls and bets . As an example , Reback cited a hand in which Moon attempted to bluff by re @-@ raising a bet by Begleiter for 15 million chips , then folding when Begleiter went all in for an additional 6 million , even though Moon was getting better than 7 @-@ to @-@ 1 odds on his money . Moon said he planned to spend some of his World Series winnings on putting relatives through college and charitable contributions to his home town , including a new youth ball field and recreation center . Moon said of his victory , " We ain 't gonna change . The next time you see us , we 'll be wearing jeans and everything else , like we always have . "
= = Post @-@ WSOP poker career = =
Moon played few major poker games since the 2009 World Series of Poker , preferring instead to play local games among friends in the Oakland area . When asked how he had done in those games , Moon replied , " I 've done all right . I 've held my own . " Moon joined 63 other players in the 2010 National Heads @-@ Up Poker Championship at the Caesars Palace in Las Vegas . He paid the $ 20 @,@ 000 buy @-@ in from his personal funds . Moon was paired against online qualifier William Huntress in the first round of the tournament on March 5 . ESPN writer Gary Wise said Huntress stood " as good a chance of toppling an invited player as any qualifier ever has " , and questioned why Moon participated in the tournament given Moon 's past claims of disinterest in media exposure and sponsorship . However , PokerNews.com writer Mickey Doft predicted Moon would do well in the tournament due to his unpredictable play . Moon defeated Huntress when his K ♦ 10 ♣ held out against Huntress ' J ♣ 8 ♠ . The flop was A ♣ Q ♣ 4 ♣ , giving Huntress the better draw , but Moon won with king @-@ high when another club failed to come on the turn or river , advancing Moon to the second round . He lost in that round to Annie Duke , whose three Kings bested Moon 's two pair of Queens and Tens . Duke went on to win the tournament .
In August 2010 , Moon joined Chris Moneymaker and Jonathan Duhamel in hosting the Mega Stack Series XVII , a live poker tournament at Foxwoods Resort Casino that drew 2 @,@ 200 participants and had a total prize pool of more than $ 1 million . The next month , Moon entered the 2010 World Series of Poker no @-@ limit Texas hold @-@ em main event . Early in the tournament , Moon doubled up with pocket kings against a player with pocket jacks . He was eliminated on day two , however , after moving all in with 10 ♦ 9 ♦ on a 9 ♣ 4 ♣ 2 ♣ flop . His opponent had pocket aces , and Moon received no help with a K ♦ turn and 5 ♦ river . Leaving the poker room , he said to his wife , " At least the pressure 's off , honey . "
In 2011 , Moon accepted a deal to become Tour Ambassador for Heartland Poker Tour , wearing the patch of the nationally @-@ televised tour and playing in several HPT events . HPT President Todd Anderson of Moon : " Darvin is our kind of guy . He 's worked hard his entire life and now lives the dream that attracts so many to the game . " Moon became a fan favorite among HPT 's tour regulars when he declined an invitation for the November Nine taping in 2010 to play an HPT stop in Iowa . A last minute replacement for an ill Scotty Nguyen , Moon bonded with HPT ’ s crew and players . Moon said , " I 'm very comfortable with the HPT folks . They 're like family . "
= = Personality and style = =
Moon displayed what he described as a humble and self @-@ deprecating manner during the World Series of Poker , repeatedly acknowledging his lack of poker experience throughout the tournament , and often attributing his success to luck and a high number of strong cards , rather than talent . Moon adopted a phrase , " If I win , I win . If I lose , I lose , " which reflected his casual approach to the game . Moon also said one of his philosophies was , " Make the other guy pay to see the cards " , a strategy attributed to many re @-@ raises Moon made during the 2009 WSOP despite weak hands . Moon had almost no experience in heads @-@ up poker , which some commentators said factored into his loss against Cada in the final hours of the 2009 World Series . Many fans and commentators praised his working stiff style , with some dubbing him " Darvin Gump " , a reference to the underdog protagonist of the 1994 drama film , Forrest Gump . Moon has also been nicknamed the " Luddite Logger " because of his distaste for anything technological , including credit cards and online poker . Moon refused to sign a sponsorship deal with an Internet poker company during the 2009 tournament because he said he did not want to answer to anybody . Moon wore a New Orleans Saints hat throughout the tournament because , " I like cheering for the underdog . " Moon was invited to guest at the Saints games for their entire playoff run , and watched them win Super Bowl XLIV against the Indianapolis Colts in Miami .
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= Synchrony ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" Synchrony " is the nineteenth episode of the fourth season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It was written by Howard Gordon and David Greenwalt and directed by James Charleston . The episode aired in the United States on April 13 , 1997 on the Fox network . The episode is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story , a stand @-@ alone plot which is unconnected to the series ' wider mythology . " Synchrony " earned a Nielsen rating of 11 @.@ 3 , being watched by 18 @.@ 09 million people upon its initial broadcast . The episode received mixed to positive reviews from television critics .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . In this episode , Mulder and Scully investigate a murder for which the suspect presents an incredible alibi — that the death was foretold by an old man able to see into the future . Upon investigating the case , the duo discover an increasingly bizarre series of events that leads Mulder to believe time travel is involved .
Gordon and Greenwalt wrote the episode after being inspired by an article in Scientific American about time travel and quantum physics . The idea of a scientist trying to stop the invention of something terrible was inspired by Manhattan Project physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer , who complained to Harry S. Truman about the 1945 atomic bombings of Japan .
= = Plot = =
In Cambridge , Massachusetts , MIT cryogenics researchers Jason Nichols ( Joseph Fuqua ) and Lucas Menand ( Jed Rees ) become embroiled in an argument as they walk down a city street . They are approached by an old man ( Michael Fairman ) , who warns Menand that he will be run over by a bus at 11 : 46 pm that evening , but Menand ignores him . After the man is arrested by campus security , his prophecy is proven true when Jason tries , but fails , to save Menand , who is promptly run over by a bus and killed at the exact time ( 11 : 46 pm ) .
Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) investigate the case , learning that Jason was taken into custody after the bus driver told police that he pushed Menand into the path of his vehicle . However , Jason tells authorities that he was trying to save Menand . The security guard who arrested the old man is found frozen to death after exposure to a chemical refrigerant . Mulder interviews Jason , who explains Menand threatened to go public with a claim that Jason had falsified data on a research paper .
The old man kills Dr. Yonechi ( Hiro Kanagawa ) , a Japanese researcher , by pricking him with a metallic stylus , introducing an unknown chemical into his body . The agents approach Nichols ' girlfriend and colleague , Lisa Ianelli ( Susan Lee Hoffman ) , who recognizes the chemical compound as a rapid freezing agent that Jason had been engineering for years . However , she claims that the compound has not yet been invented and that if Yonechi was injected with the chemical , he may not be dead . With Lisa 's help , Scully and a team of medical personnel successfully resuscitate Yonechi , only for his body temperature to rapidly increase until he bursts into flames . Police receive a tip that the old man is living at a nearby hotel . Inside the old man 's room , the agents discover a faded color photograph picturing Jason , Yonechi and Lisa toasting champagne glasses in the cryology lab . Mulder realizes from the picture that the old man is a time traveller who is attempting to alter that future , and that he is none other than Jason Nichols .
Lisa locates the elderly man and confronts him ; however , he injects her with the chemical after explaining that Lisa will be responsible for the coming future . Scully successfully resuscitates Lisa . Jason confronts his elderly self in the computer mainframe room at the cryogenic lab , where the old man has erased all of Jason 's files from the computer . The old man tells Jason that the success of their research made time travel possible , but also plunged the world into chaos . Jason lunges at the old man , choking him . Wrapping his arms around his younger self , the old man bursts into flames , and the fire consumes them both . Later , Lisa sets to work at the cryonics lab , attempting to reconstruct the chemical compound .
= = Development = =
After Howard Gordon and Chris Carter finished their work on " Unrequited " , Carter introduced Gordon to David Greenwalt , who had been added to The X @-@ Files producers , and asked the duo to create a script for an upcoming episode . Gordon and Greenwalt got together in Simi Valley and had difficulties in creating a good plot ; the one they initially worked with the most , involving a prisoner that gets free by changing his body with another man , was eventually discarded as Gordon felt it was too similar to other episodes written by him . Eventually the duo saw an article in Scientific American about time travel and decided to work with that , following the magazine 's reports that , while classical physics does not allow for temporal displacement to happen , quantum physics does allow for the possibility .
Gordon decided that to make " time travel in an X @-@ Files way " , the best way was with " a guy that turns out to be you " . He therefore added the plot about a regretful scientist trying to stop developments from ever occurring . The scientist 's character was inspired by a story Gordon heard about Manhattan Project physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer berating Harry S. Truman on the 1945 atomic bombings of Japan , and the writer wondered " What if Oppenheimer could go back to the past and ' uninvent ' the bomb ? " . Eventually Gordon and Greenwalt found another philosophical question that becomes Jason 's motivation to halt his own research — " Life itself is about the unknown and discovering what is in front of us . But if everyone , or maybe some people , knew what would happen , that would create a new set of horrors , and it would need to be stopped " . The script took over a week of writing , with sessions of 15 daily hours and the contributions of John Shiban , Frank Spotnitz and Ken Horton . Gordon was still reworking the teleplay the weekend before shooting began in Vancouver , including the removal of two " useless characters " that included a Stephen Hawking @-@ inspired scientist in a wheelchair . David Duchovny declared that a few scenes were created during production " because no one could know if the audience understood what was happening " .
Gordon stated that " In the end , I think it worked , but it 's getting there that 's really difficult . " The experience was hard enough for Gordon to consider giving up and not delivering the script at all , and he eventually swore he would never work with time travel again .
= = Reception = =
" Synchrony " originally aired on the Fox network on April 13 , 1997 . This episode earned a Nielsen rating of 11 @.@ 3 , with an 18 share , meaning that roughly 11 @.@ 3 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 18 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . It was viewed by 18 @.@ 01 million viewers .
The A.V. Club 's Zack Handlen rated the episode a " B- " . Handlen considered that while " ' Synchrony ' has all the pieces of my favorite kind of episode , [ it ] doesn 't really work as well as it should " due to an emotional detachment that made him not care about the scientists and their story , and his finding Old Jason 's actions to be illogical . Paula Vitaris from Cinefantastique gave " Synchrony " two out of four stars , considering it a middling episode with some effective moments , but complaining about plot holes , " not particularly compelling " supporting characters , and feeling that time travel " takes away from the reality that is this show 's foundation " . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode two and a half stars out of five , praising the " high concept that is told without pretension " . The two also called the episode " solid and watchable " despite flaws such as the underdevelopment of the script and not fully exploring the " concept with such potential " that is time travel .
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= Old Trafford =
Old Trafford is a football stadium in Old Trafford , Greater Manchester , England , and the home of Manchester United . With a capacity of 75 @,@ 635 , it is the largest club stadium of any football team in the United Kingdom , the third @-@ largest stadium and the second @-@ largest football stadium in the United Kingdom , and the eleventh @-@ largest in Europe . It is about 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 800 m ) from Old Trafford Cricket Ground and the adjacent tram stop .
Nicknamed " The Theatre of Dreams " by Bobby Charlton , Old Trafford has been United 's home ground since 1910 , although from 1941 to 1949 the club shared Maine Road with local rivals Manchester City as a result of Second World War bomb damage . Old Trafford underwent several expansions in the 1990s and 2000s , including the addition of extra tiers to the North , West and East Stands , almost returning the stadium to its original capacity of 80 @,@ 000 . Future expansion is likely to involve the addition of a second tier to the South Stand , which would raise the capacity to around 95 @,@ 000 . The stadium 's record attendance was recorded in 1939 , when 76 @,@ 962 spectators watched the FA Cup semi @-@ final between Wolverhampton Wanderers and Grimsby Town .
Old Trafford has hosted FA Cup semi @-@ finals , England fixtures , matches at the 1966 World Cup and Euro 96 and the 2003 Champions League Final , as well as rugby league 's annual Super League Grand Final and the final of two Rugby League World Cups . It also hosted football matches at the 2012 Summer Olympics , including women 's international football for the first time in its history .
= = History = =
= = = Construction and early years = = =
Before 1902 , Manchester United were known as Newton Heath , during which time they first played their football matches at North Road and then Bank Street in Clayton . However , both grounds were blighted by wretched conditions , the pitches ranging from gravel to marsh , while Bank Street suffered from clouds of fumes from its neighbouring factories . Therefore , following the club 's rescue from near @-@ bankruptcy and renaming , the new chairman John Henry Davies decided in 1909 that the Bank Street ground was not fit for a team that had recently won the First Division and FA Cup , so he donated funds for the construction of a new stadium . Not one to spend money frivolously , Davies scouted around Manchester for an appropriate site , before settling on a patch of land adjacent to the Bridgewater Canal , just off the north end of the Warwick Road in Old Trafford .
Designed by Scottish architect Archibald Leitch , who designed several other stadia , the ground was originally designed with a capacity of 100 @,@ 000 spectators and featured seating in the south stand under cover , while the remaining three stands were left as terraces and uncovered . Including the purchase of the land , the construction of the stadium was originally to have cost £ 60 @,@ 000 all told . However , as costs began to rise , to reach the intended capacity would have cost an extra £ 30 @,@ 000 over the original estimate and , at the suggestion of club secretary J. J. Bentley , the capacity was reduced to approximately 80 @,@ 000 . Nevertheless , at a time when transfer fees were still around the £ 1 @,@ 000 mark , the cost of construction only served to reinforce the club 's " Moneybags United " epithet , with which they had been tarred since Davies had taken over as chairman .
In May 1908 , Archibald Leitch wrote to the Cheshire Lines Committee ( CLC ) – who had a rail depot adjacent to the proposed site for the football ground – in an attempt to persuade them to subsidise construction of the grandstand alongside the railway line . The subsidy would have come to the sum of £ 10 @,@ 000 , to be paid back at the rate of £ 2 @,@ 000 per annum for five years or half of the gate receipts for the grandstand each year until the loan was repaid . However , despite guarantees for the loan coming from the club itself and two local breweries , both chaired by club chairman John Henry Davies , the Cheshire Lines Committee turned the proposal down . The CLC had planned to build a new station adjacent to the new stadium , with the promise of an anticipated £ 2 @,@ 750 per annum in fares offsetting the £ 9 @,@ 800 cost of building the station . The station – Trafford Park – was eventually built , but further down the line than originally planned . The CLC later constructed a modest station with one timber @-@ built platform immediately adjacent to the stadium and this opened on 21 August 1935 . It was initially named United Football Ground , but was renamed Old Trafford Football Ground in early 1936 . It was served on match days only by a shuttle service of steam trains from Manchester Central railway station . It is currently known as Manchester United Football Ground .
Construction was carried out by Messrs Brameld and Smith of Manchester and development was completed in late 1909 . The stadium hosted its inaugural game on 19 February 1910 , with United playing host to Liverpool . However , the home side were unable to provide their fans with a win to mark the occasion , as Liverpool won 4 – 3 . A journalist at the game reported the stadium as " the most handsomest [ sic ] , the most spacious and the most remarkable arena I have ever seen . As a football ground it is unrivalled in the world , it is an honour to Manchester and the home of a team who can do wonders when they are so disposed " .
Before the construction of Wembley Stadium in 1923 , the FA Cup Final was hosted by a number of different grounds around England including Old Trafford . The first of these was the 1911 FA Cup Final replay between Bradford City and Newcastle United , after the original tie at Crystal Palace finished as a no @-@ score draw after extra time . Bradford won 1 – 0 , the goal scored by Jimmy Speirs , in a match watched by 58 @,@ 000 people . The ground 's second FA Cup Final was the 1915 final between Sheffield United and Chelsea . Sheffield United won the match 3 – 0 in front of nearly 50 @,@ 000 spectators , most of whom were in the military , leading to the final being nicknamed " the Khaki Cup Final " . On 27 December 1920 , Old Trafford played host to its largest pre @-@ Second World War attendance for a United league match , as 70 @,@ 504 spectators watched the Red Devils lose 3 – 1 to Aston Villa . The ground hosted its first international football match later that decade , when England lost 1 – 0 to Scotland in front of 49 @,@ 429 spectators on 17 April 1926 . Unusually , the record attendance at Old Trafford is not for a Manchester United home game . Instead , on 25 March 1939 , 76 @,@ 962 people watched an FA Cup semi @-@ final between Wolverhampton Wanderers and Grimsby Town .
= = = Wartime bombing = = =
In 1936 , as part of a £ 35 @,@ 000 refurbishment , an 80 @-@ yard @-@ long roof was added to the United Road stand ( now the Sir Alex Ferguson Stand ) for the first time , while roofs were added to the south corners in 1938 . Upon the outbreak of the Second World War , Old Trafford was requisitioned by the military to be used as a depot . Football continued to be played at the stadium , but a German bombing raid on Trafford Park on 22 December 1940 damaged the stadium to the extent that a Christmas day fixture against Stockport County had to be switched to Stockport 's ground . Football resumed at Old Trafford on 8 March 1941 , but another German raid on 11 March 1941 destroyed much of the stadium , notably the main stand ( now the South Stand ) , forcing the club 's operations to move to Cornbrook Cold Storage , owned by United chairman James W. Gibson . After pressure from Gibson , the War Damage Commission granted Manchester United £ 4 @,@ 800 to remove the debris and £ 17 @,@ 478 to rebuild the stands . During the reconstruction of the stadium , Manchester United played their " home " games at Maine Road , the home of their cross @-@ town rivals , Manchester City , at a cost of £ 5 @,@ 000 a year plus a percentage of the gate receipts . The club was now £ 15 @,@ 000 in debt , not helped by the rental of Maine Road , and the Labour MP for Stoke , Ellis Smith , petitioned the Government to increase the club 's compensation package , but it was in vain . Though Old Trafford was reopened , albeit without cover , in 1949 , it meant that a league game had not been played at the stadium for nearly 10 years . United 's first game back at Old Trafford was played on 24 August 1949 , as 41 @,@ 748 spectators witnessed a 3 – 0 victory over Bolton Wanderers .
= = = Completion of the master plan = = =
A roof was restored to the Main Stand by 1951 and , soon after , the three remaining stands were covered , the operation culminating with the addition of a roof to the Stretford End ( now the West Stand ) in 1959 . The club also invested £ 40 @,@ 000 in the installation of proper floodlighting , so that they would be able to use the stadium for the European games that were played in the late evening of weekdays , instead of having to play at Maine Road . In order to avoid obtrusive shadows being cast on the pitch , two sections of the Main Stand roof were cut away . The first match to be played under floodlights at Old Trafford was a First Division match between Manchester United and Bolton Wanderers on 25 March 1957 .
However , although the spectators would now be able to see the players at night , they still suffered from the problem of obstructed views caused by the pillars that supported the roofs . With the 1966 FIFA World Cup fast approaching , this prompted the United directors to completely redesign the United Road ( north ) stand . The old roof pillars were replaced in 1965 with modern @-@ style cantilevering on top of the roof , allowing every spectator a completely unobstructed view , while it was also expanded to hold 20 @,@ 000 spectators ( 10 @,@ 000 seated and 10 @,@ 000 standing in front ) at a cost of £ 350 @,@ 000 . The architects of the new stand , Mather and Nutter ( now Atherden Fuller ) , rearranged the organisation of the stand to have terracing at the front , a larger seated area towards the back , and the first private boxes at a British football ground . The east stand – the only remaining uncovered stand – was developed in the same style in 1973 . With the first two stands converted to cantilevers , the club 's owners devised a long @-@ term plan to do the same to the other two stands and convert the stadium into a bowl @-@ like arena . Such an undertaking would serve to increase the atmosphere within the ground by containing the crowd 's noise and focusing it onto the pitch , where the players would feel the full effects of a capacity crowd . Meanwhile , the stadium hosted its third FA Cup Final , hosting 62 @,@ 078 spectators for the replay of the 1970 final between Chelsea and Leeds United ; Chelsea won the match 2 – 1 . The ground also hosted the second leg of the 1968 Intercontinental Cup , which saw Estudiantes de La Plata win the cup after a 1 – 1 draw . The 1970s saw the dramatic rise of football hooliganism in Britain , and a knife @-@ throwing incident in 1971 forcing the club to erect the country 's first perimeter fence , restricting fans from the Old Trafford pitch .
1973 saw the completion of the roof around the circumference of the stadium , along with the addition of 5 @,@ 500 seats to the Scoreboard End and the replacement of the old manual scoreboard with an electronic one in the north @-@ east corner . Then , in 1975 , a £ 3 million expansion was begun , starting with the addition of the Executive Suite to the Main Stand . The suite 's restaurant overlooked the pitch , but the view was still obstructed by the roof pillars . Therefore , in kind with the roofs of the United Road Stand and the Scoreboard End , the Main Stand roof was replaced with a cantilever design . The Executive Suite and cantilever roof were then extended to the full length of the stand , allowing for the relocation of the club offices from the south @-@ east corner to the Main Stand . The south @-@ east quadrant was then removed and replaced in 1985 with a seated section bringing the total seating capacity of the stadium to 25 @,@ 686 ( 56 @,@ 385 overall ) . The completion of the cantilever roof around three sides of the stadium allowed for the replacement of the old floodlight pylons , and the attachment of a row of floodlights around the inner rim of the roof in 1987 .
= = = Conversion to all @-@ seater = = =
With every subsequent improvement made to the ground since the Second World War , the capacity steadily declined . By the 1980s , the capacity had dropped from the original 80 @,@ 000 to approximately 60 @,@ 000 . The capacity dropped still further in 1990 , when the Taylor Report recommended , and the government demanded that all First and Second Division stadia be converted to all @-@ seaters . This meant that £ 3 – 5 million plans to replace the Stretford End with a brand new stand with an all @-@ standing terrace at the front and a cantilever roof to link with the rest of the ground had to be drastically altered . This forced redevelopment , including the removal of the terraces at the front of the other three stands , not only increased the cost to around £ 10 million , but also reduced the capacity of Old Trafford to an all @-@ time low of around 44 @,@ 000 . In addition , the club was told in 1992 that they would only receive £ 1 @.@ 4 million of a possible £ 2 million from the Football Trust to be put towards work related to the Taylor Report .
The club 's resurgence in success and increase in popularity in the early 1990s ensured that further development would have to occur . In 1995 , the 30 @-@ year @-@ old North Stand was demolished and work quickly began on a new stand , to be ready in time for Old Trafford to host three group games , a quarter @-@ final and a semi @-@ final at Euro 96 . The club purchased the Trafford Park trading estate , a 20 @-@ acre ( 81 @,@ 000 m2 ) site on the other site of United Road , for £ 9 @.@ 2 million in March 1995 . Construction began in June 1995 and was completed by May 1996 , with the first two of the three phases of the stand opening during the season . Designed by Atherden Fuller , with Hilstone Laurie as project and construction managers and Campbell Reith Hill as structural engineers , the new three @-@ tiered stand cost a total of £ 18 @.@ 65 million to build and had a capacity of about 25 @,@ 500 , raising the capacity of the entire ground to more than 55 @,@ 000 . The cantilever roof would also be the largest in Europe , measuring 58 @.@ 5 m ( 192 ft ) from the back wall to the front edge . Further success over the next few years guaranteed yet more development . First , a second tier was added to the East Stand . Opened in January 2000 , the stadium 's capacity was temporarily increased to about 61 @,@ 000 until the opening of the West Stand 's second tier , which added yet another 7 @,@ 000 seats , bringing the capacity to 68 @,@ 217 . It was now not only the biggest club stadium in England but the biggest in all of the United Kingdom . Old Trafford hosted its first major European final three years later , playing host to the 2003 UEFA Champions League Final between Milan and Juventus .
From 2001 to 2007 , following the demolition of the old Wembley Stadium , the England national football team was forced to play its games elsewhere . During that time , the team toured the country , playing their matches at various grounds from Villa Park in Birmingham to St James ' Park in Newcastle . From 2003 to 2007 , Old Trafford hosted 12 of England 's 23 home matches , more than any other stadium . The latest international to be held at Old Trafford was England 's 1 – 0 loss to Spain on 7 February 2007 . The match was played in front of a crowd of 58 @,@ 207 .
= = = 2006 expansion = = =
Old Trafford 's most recent expansion , which took place between July 2005 and May 2006 , saw an increase of around 8 @,@ 000 seats with the addition of second tiers to both the north @-@ west and north @-@ east quadrants of the ground . Part of the new seating was used for the first time on 26 March 2006 , when an attendance of 69 @,@ 070 became a new Premier League record . The record continued to be pushed upwards before reaching its current peak on 31 March 2007 , when 76 @,@ 098 spectators saw United beat Blackburn Rovers 4 – 1 , meaning that just 114 seats ( 0 @.@ 15 % of the total capacity of 76 @,@ 212 ) were left unoccupied . In 2009 , a reorganisation of the seating in the stadium resulted in a reduction of the capacity by 255 to 75 @,@ 957 , meaning that the club 's home attendance record would stand at least until the next expansion .
Old Trafford celebrated its 100th anniversary on 19 February 2010 . In recognition of the occasion , Manchester United 's official website ran a feature in which a memorable moment from the stadium 's history was highlighted on each of the 100 days leading up to the anniversary . From these 100 moments , the top 10 were chosen by a panel including club statistician Cliff Butler , journalist David Meek , and former players Pat Crerand and Wilf McGuinness . At Old Trafford itself , an art competition was run for pupils from three local schools to create their own depictions of the stadium in the past , present and future . Winning paintings were put on permanent display on the concourse of the Old Trafford family stand , and the winners were presented with awards by artist Harold Riley on 22 February . An exhibition about the stadium at the club museum was opened by former goalkeeper Jack Crompton and chief executive David Gill on 19 February . The exhibition highlighted the history of the stadium and features memorabilia from its past , including a programme from the inaugural match and a 1 : 220 scale model hand @-@ built by model artist Peter Oldfield @-@ Edwards . Finally , at Manchester United 's home match against Fulham on 14 March , fans at the game received a replica copy of the programme from the first Old Trafford match , and half @-@ time saw relatives of the players who took part in the first game – as well as those of the club chairman John Henry Davies and stadium architect Archibald Leitch – taking part in the burial of a time capsule of Manchester United memorabilia near the centre tunnel . Only relatives of winger Billy Meredith , wing @-@ half Dick Duckworth and club secretary Ernest Mangnall could not be found .
Old Trafford was used as a venue for several matches in the football competition at the 2012 Summer Olympics . The stadium hosted five group games , a quarter @-@ final and a semi @-@ final in the men 's tournament , and one group game and a semi @-@ final in the women 's tournament , the first women 's international matches to be played there . Since 2006 , Old Trafford has also been used as the venue for Soccer Aid , a biennial charity match initially organised by singer Robbie Williams and actor Jonathan Wilkes ; however , in 2008 , the match was played at Wembley Stadium .
= = Structure and facilities = =
The Old Trafford pitch is surrounded by four covered all @-@ seater stands , officially known as the Sir Alex Ferguson ( North ) , East , Sir Bobby Charlton ( South ) and West Stands . Each stand has at least two tiers , with the exception of the Sir Bobby Charlton Stand , which only has one tier due to construction restrictions . The lower tier of each stand is split into Lower and Upper sections , the Lower sections having been converted from terracing in the early 1990s .
= = = Sir Alex Ferguson Stand = = =
The Sir Alex Ferguson Stand , formerly known as the United Road stand and the North Stand , runs over the top of United Road . The stand is three tiers tall , and can hold about 26 @,@ 000 spectators , the most of the four stands . It can also accommodate a few fans in executive boxes and hospitality suites . It opened in its current state in 1996 , having previously been a single @-@ tiered stand . As the ground 's main stand , it houses many of the ground 's more popular facilities , including the Red Café ( a Manchester United theme restaurant / bar ) and the Manchester United museum and trophy room . Originally opened in 1986 as the first of its kind in the world , the Manchester United museum was in the south @-@ east corner of the ground until it moved to the redeveloped North Stand in 1998 . The museum was opened by Pelé on 11 April 1998 , since when numbers of visitors have jumped from 192 @,@ 000 in 1998 to more than 300 @,@ 000 visitors in 2009 .
The North Stand was renamed as the Sir Alex Ferguson Stand on 5 November 2011 , in honour of Alex Ferguson 's 25 years as manager of the club . A 9 @-@ foot ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) statue of Ferguson , sculpted by Philip Jackson , was erected outside the stand on 23 November 2012 in recognition of his status as Manchester United 's longest @-@ serving manager .
= = = Sir Bobby Charlton Stand = = =
Opposite the Sir Alex Ferguson Stand is the Sir Bobby Charlton Stand , formerly Old Trafford 's main stand and previously known as the South Stand . Although only a single @-@ tiered stand , the Sir Bobby Charlton Stand contains most of the ground 's executive suites , and also plays host to any VIPs who may come to watch the match . Members of the media are seated in the middle of the Upper South Stand to give them the best view of the match . The television gantry is also in the Sir Bobby Charlton Stand , so the Sir Bobby Charlton Stand is the one that gets shown on television least often . Television studios are located at either end of the Sir Bobby Charlton Stand , with the club 's in @-@ house television station , MUTV , in the East studio and other television stations , such as the BBC and Sky , in the West studio .
The dugout is in the centre of the Sir Bobby Charlton Stand , raised above pitch level to give the manager and his coaches an elevated view of the game . Each team 's dugout flanks the old players ' tunnel , which was used until 1993 . The old tunnel is the only remaining part of the original 1910 stadium , having survived the bombing that destroyed much of the stadium during the Second World War . On 6 February 2008 , the tunnel was renamed the Munich Tunnel , as a memorial for the 50th anniversary of the 1958 Munich air disaster . The current tunnel is in the South @-@ West corner of the ground , and doubles as an entrance for the emergency services . In the event that large vehicles require access , the seating above the tunnel can be raised by up to 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) . The tunnel leads up to the players ' dressing room , via the television interview area , and the players ' lounge .
On 3 April 2016 , the South Stand was renamed the Sir Bobby Charlton Stand before kick @-@ off of the Premier League home match against Everton , in honour of Manchester United legend Sir Bobby Charlton who made his Manchester United debut 60 years ago .
= = = West Stand = = =
Perhaps the best @-@ known stand at Old Trafford is the West Stand , also known as the Stretford End . Traditionally , the stand is where the hard @-@ core United fans are located , and also the ones who make the most noise . Originally designed to hold 20 @,@ 000 fans , the Stretford End was the last stand to be covered and also the last remaining all @-@ terraced stand at the ground before the forced upgrade to seating in the early 1990s . The reconstruction of the Stretford End , which took place during the 1992 – 93 season , was carried out by Alfred McAlpine . When the second tier was added to the Stretford End in 2000 , many fans from the old " K Stand " moved there , and decided to hang banners and flags from the barrier at the front of the tier . So ingrained in Manchester United culture is the Stretford End , that Denis Law was given the nickname " King of the Stretford End " , and there is now a statue of Law on the concourse of the stand 's upper tier .
= = = East Stand = = =
The East Stand at Old Trafford was the second to be converted to a cantilever roof , following the Sir Alex Ferguson Stand . It is also commonly referred to as the Scoreboard End , as it was the location of the scoreboard . The East Stand can currently hold nearly 12 @,@ 000 fans , and is the location of both the disabled fans section and the away section ; an experiment involving the relocation of away fans to the third tier of the Sir Alex Ferguson Stand was conducted during the 2011 – 12 season , but the results of the experiments could not be ascertained in time to make the move permanent for the 2012 – 13 season . The disabled section provides for up to 170 fans , with free seats for carers . Old Trafford was formerly divided into sections , with each section sequentially assigned a letter of the alphabet . Although every section had a letter , it is the K Stand that is the most commonly referred to today . The K Stand fans were renowned for their vocal support for the club , and a large array of chants and songs , though many of them have relocated to the second tier of the West Stand .
The East Stand has a tinted glass façade , behind which the club 's administrative centre is located . These offices are the home to the staff of Inside United , the official Manchester United magazine , the club 's official website , and its other administrative departments . Images and advertisements are often emblazoned on the front of the East Stand , most often advertising products and services provided by the club 's sponsors , though a tribute to the Busby Babes was displayed in February 2008 to commemorate the 50th anniversary of the Munich air disaster . Above the megastore is a statue of Sir Matt Busby , who was Manchester United 's longest @-@ serving manager until he was surpassed by Sir Alex Ferguson in 2010 . There is also a plaque dedicated to the victims of the Munich air disaster on the south end of the East Stand , while the Munich Clock is at the junction of the East and South Stands . On 29 May 2008 , to celebrate the 40th anniversary of Manchester United 's first European Cup title , a statue of the club 's " holy trinity " of George Best , Denis Law and Bobby Charlton , entitled " The United Trinity " , was unveiled across Sir Matt Busby Way from the East Stand , directly opposite the statue of Busby .
The Manchester United club shop has had six different locations since it was first opened . Originally , the shop was a small hut near to the railway line that runs alongside the ground . The shop was then moved along the length of the South Stand , stopping first opposite where away fans enter the ground , and then residing in the building that would later become the club 's merchandising office . A surge in the club 's popularity in the early 1990s led to another move , this time to the forecourt of the West Stand . With this move came a great expansion and the conversion from a small shop to a " megastore " . Alex Ferguson opened the new megastore on 3 December 1994 . The most recent moves came in the late 1990s , as the West Stand required room to expand to a second tier , and that meant the demolition of the megastore . The store was moved to a temporary site opposite the East Stand , before taking up a 17 @,@ 000 square feet ( 1 @,@ 600 m2 ) permanent residence in the ground floor of the expanded East Stand in 2000 . The floor space of the megastore was owned by United 's kit sponsors , Nike , who operated the store until the expiry of their sponsorship deal at the end of July 2015 , when ownership reverted to the club .
= = = Pitch and surroundings = = =
The pitch at the ground measures approximately 105 metres ( 115 yd ) long by 68 metres ( 74 yd ) wide , with a few metres of run @-@ off space on each side . The centre of the pitch is about nine inches higher than the edges , allowing surface water to run off more easily . As at many modern grounds , 10 inches ( 25 cm ) under the pitch is an underground heating system , composed of 23 miles ( 37 km ) of plastic pipes . Former club manager Alex Ferguson often requested that the pitch be relaid , most notably half @-@ way through the 1998 – 99 season , when the team won the Treble , at a cost of about £ 250 @,@ 000 each time . The grass at Old Trafford is watered regularly , though less on wet days , and mowed three times a week between April and November , and once a week from November to March .
In the mid @-@ 1980s , when Manchester United Football Club owned the Manchester Giants , Manchester 's basketball franchise , there were plans to build a 9 @,@ 000 @-@ seater indoor arena on the site of what is now Car Park E1 . However , the chairman at the time , Martin Edwards , did not have the funds to take on such a project , and the basketball franchise was eventually sold . In August 2009 , the car park became home to the Hublot clock tower , a 10 @-@ metre ( 32 ft 10 in ) -tall tower in the shape of the Hublot logo , which houses four 2 @-@ metre ( 6 ft 7 in ) -diameter clock faces , the largest ever made by the company .
The east side of the stadium is also the site of Hotel Football , a football @-@ themed hotel and fan clubhouse conceived by former Manchester United captain Gary Neville . The building is located on the east side of Sir Matt Busby Way and on the opposite side of the Bridgewater Canal from the stadium , and can accommodate up to 1 @,@ 500 supporters . It opened in the summer of 2015 . The venture is conducted separately from the club and was funded in part by proceeds from Neville 's testimonial match .
= = Future = =
In 2009 , it was reported that United continued to harbour plans to increase the capacity of the stadium further , with the next stage pointing to a redevelopment of the Sir Bobby Charlton Stand , which , unlike the rest of the stadium , remains single tier . A replication of the Sir Alex Ferguson Stand development and North @-@ East and North @-@ West Quadrants would see the stadium 's capacity rise to an estimated 95 @,@ 000 , which would give it a greater capacity than Wembley Stadium ( 90 @,@ 000 ) . Any such development is likely to cost around £ 100m , due to the proximity of the railway line that runs adjacent to the stadium , and the corresponding need to build over it and thus purchase up to 50 houses on the other side of the railway . Nevertheless , the Manchester United group property manager confirmed that expansion plans are in the pipeline – linked to profits made from the club 's property holdings around Manchester – saying " There is a strategic plan for the stadium ... It is not our intention to stand still " . One criticism of the plans , however , is that increasing the height of the Sir Bobby Charlton Stand would further reduce the amount of light coming onto the pitch , which has caused problems in similarly large stadia – such as Wembley Stadium , the Santiago Bernabéu Stadium and the San Siro ; according to Alex Ferguson , the developments on the other stands have already caused problems . It was also suggested that , should such an expansion take place , Old Trafford could be used instead of Wembley for big matches such as England internationals – in order to increase the ability of fans in the north of the country to watch England play ; and FA Cup semi @-@ finals – to maintain the prestige of the national stadium for the final .
In March 2016 ( ten years after the previous redevelopment ) , talk of the redevelopment of the Sir Bobby Charlton Stand re @-@ emerged . The stadium 's provision for disabled fans is below standards required by regulations . Increasing capacity for disabled supporters is estimated to reduced overall capacity by 3 @,@ 000 . Five different solutions have been considered for the summer of 2017 . One option is to increase the capacity up to 80 @,@ 000 by adding a second tier to the Sir Bobby Charlton Stand , bringing it to a similar height to the Sir Alex Ferguson Stand opposite but without a third level . Replication of the corner stands on the other side of the stadium would further increase the stadium 's capacity to 88 @,@ 000 and increase the number of executive facilities . Housing on Railway Road and the railway line itself have previously impeded improvements to this stand but the demolition of housing and engineering advances mean that the additional tier could now be built at reduced cost .
= = Other uses = =
Old Trafford has also been used for purposes other than football . Before the Old Trafford football stadium was built , the site was used for games of shinty , the traditional game of the Scottish Highlands . During the First World War , the stadium was used by American soldiers for games of baseball . On 17 September 1981 , the North Section of cricket 's Lambert & Butler Floodlit Competition was played there ; in the semi @-@ finals , Nottinghamshire defeated Derbyshire and Lancashire beat Yorkshire , before Lancashire beat Nottinghamshire by 8 runs in the final to reach the national final , played between the other regional winners at Stamford Bridge the next day .
Old Trafford has played host to both codes of rugby football , although league is played there with greater regularity than union . The Super League grand final has been played at Old Trafford every year since the introduction of the playoff system in 1998 , and is set to continue to do so until 2017 ; the first rugby league match to be played at Old Trafford was held during the 1924 – 25 season , when a Lancashire representative side hosted the New Zealand national team , with Manchester United receiving 20 per cent of the gate receipts . The first league match to be held at Old Trafford came in November 1958 , with Salford playing against Leeds under floodlights in front of 8 @,@ 000 spectators .
The first rugby league Test match played at Old Trafford came in 1986 , when Australia beat Great Britain 38 – 16 in front of 50 @,@ 583 spectators in the first test of the 1986 Kangaroo tour . The 1989 World Club Challenge was played at Old Trafford on 4 October 1989 , with 30 @,@ 768 spectators watching Widnes beat the Canberra Raiders 30 – 18 . Old Trafford also hosted the second Great Britain vs Australia Ashes tests on both the 1990 and 1994 Kangaroo Tours . The stadium also hosted the semi @-@ final between England and Wales at the 1995 Rugby League World Cup ; England won 25 @-@ 10 in front of 30 @,@ 042 fans . The final rugby league international played at Old Trafford in the 1990s saw Great Britain record their only win over Australia at the ground in 1997 in the second test of the Super League Test series in front of 40 @,@ 324 fans .
When the Rugby League World Cup was hosted by Great Britain , Ireland and France in 2000 , Old Trafford was chosen as the venue for the final ; the match was contested by Australia and New Zealand , and resulted in a 40 – 12 win for Australia , watched by 44 @,@ 329 spectators . Old Trafford was also chosen to host the 2013 Rugby League World Cup Final . The game , played on 30 November , was won by Australia 34 – 2 over defending champions New Zealand , and attracted a crowd of 74 @,@ 468 , a world record for a rugby league international . During the game , Australia winger Brett Morris suffered a heavy crash into the advertising boards at the Stretford End , emphasising questions raised pre @-@ match over the safety of Old Trafford as a rugby league venue , in particular the short in @-@ goal areas and the slope around the perimeter .
Old Trafford hosted its first rugby union international in 1997 , when New Zealand defeated England 25 – 8 . A second match was played at Old Trafford on 6 June 2009 , when England beat Argentina 37 – 15 . The stadium was one of 12 confirmed venues set to host matches of the 2015 Rugby World Cup ; however , in April 2013 United pulled out of the contract over concerns about pitch quality and not wanting to compromise their relationship with the 13 @-@ man code . In October 1993 , a WBC – WBO Super @-@ Middleweight unification fight was held at the ground , with around 42 @,@ 000 people paying to watch WBO champion Chris Eubank fight WBC champion Nigel Benn .
Aside from sporting uses , several concerts have been played at Old Trafford , with such big names as Bon Jovi , Genesis , Bruce Springsteen , Status Quo , Rod Stewart and Simply Red playing . An edition of Songs of Praise was recorded there in September 1994 . Old Trafford is also regularly used for private functions , particularly weddings , Christmas parties and business conferences . The first wedding at the ground was held in the Premier Suite in February 1996 .
= = Records = =
The highest attendance recorded at Old Trafford was 76 @,@ 962 for an FA Cup semi @-@ final between Wolverhampton Wanderers and Grimsby Town on 25 March 1939 . However , this was before the ground was converted to an all @-@ seater stadium , allowing many more people to fit into the stadium . Old Trafford 's record attendance as an all @-@ seater stadium currently stands at 76 @,@ 098 , set at a Premier League game between Manchester United and Blackburn Rovers on 31 March 2007 . This is also the Premier League 's record attendance . Old Trafford 's record attendance for a non @-@ competitive game is 74 @,@ 731 , set on 5 August 2011 for a pre @-@ season testimonial between Manchester United and New York Cosmos . The lowest recorded attendance at a competitive game at Old Trafford in the post @-@ War era was 11 @,@ 968 , as United beat Fulham 3 – 0 on 29 April 1950 . However , on 7 May 1921 , the ground hosted a Second Division match between Stockport County and Leicester City for which the official attendance was just 13 . This figure is slightly misleading as the ground also contained many of the 10 @,@ 000 spectators who had stayed behind after watching the match between Manchester United and Derby County earlier that day .
The highest average attendance at Old Trafford over a league season was 75 @,@ 826 , set in the 2006 – 07 season . The greatest total attendance at Old Trafford came two seasons later , as 2 @,@ 197 @,@ 429 people watched Manchester United win the Premier League for the third year in a row , the League Cup , and reach the final of the UEFA Champions League and the semi @-@ finals of the FA Cup . The lowest average attendance at Old Trafford came in the 1930 – 31 season , when an average of 11 @,@ 685 spectators watched each game .
= = Transport = =
Adjacent to the Sir Bobby Charlton Stand of the stadium is Manchester United Football Ground railway station . The station is between the Deansgate and Trafford Park stations on the Southern Route of Northern Rail 's Liverpool to Manchester line , and is only open on matchdays . The ground is also serviced by both the Altrincham , Eccles and East Didsbury lines of the Manchester Metrolink network , with the nearest stops being Exchange Quay at nearby Salford Quays , and Old Trafford , which it shares with the Old Trafford Cricket Ground . Both stops are a five @-@ minute walk from the football ground . There are plans for the Wharfside tram stop to be built on Trafford Wharf Road , which is within close proximity of the stadium . The stop will link the proposed Trafford Park Line to the existing Pomona station , on the Eccles – Piccadilly Line .
Buses 255 and 256 , which are run by Stagecoach Manchester and 263 , which is run by Arriva North West run from Piccadilly Gardens in Manchester to Chester Road , stopping near Sir Matt Busby Way , while Stagecoach 's 250 service stop outside Old Trafford on Wharfside Way and X50 service stops across from Old Trafford on Water 's Reach . There are also additional match buses on the 255 service , which run between Old Trafford and Manchester city centre . Other services that serve Old Trafford are Arriva 's 79 service ( Stretford – Swinton ) , which stops on Chester Road and 245 ( Altrincham – Exchange Quay ) , which stops on Trafford Wharf Road , plus First Greater Manchester service 53 ( Cheetham – Pendleton ) and Stagecoach 's 84 service ( Withington Hospital – Manchester ) , which stop at nearby Trafford Bar tram stop . Visitors to the ground travelling by car can park in any of the ground 's car parks , which are all within 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) of the stadium .
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= Jonathon Band =
Admiral Sir Jonathon Band GCB , DL ( born 2 February 1950 ) was the First Sea Lord and Chief of the Naval Staff from 2006 to 2009 , the most senior serving officer in the Royal Navy . Before serving as First Sea Lord he was Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief Fleet . Since becoming First Sea Lord , Band had been a firm advocate of the creation of new ships to meet new threats and maintain the status of the Royal Navy as one of the world 's leading naval forces .
= = Early life = =
Born the son of Victor and Muriel Band , Band attended two independent schools : Brambletye School , a preparatory school , in Ashurst Wood , West Sussex , and from the age of thirteen , Haileybury and Imperial Service College . He entered the Royal Navy in 1967 , before undertaking sea training in the Far East . He returned to the UK on an undergraduate programme and studied for three years at the University of Exeter , gaining a BA in 1972 .
= = Early naval career = =
After graduating from Exeter , Band served in junior officer appointments in HMS Lewiston and HMS Rothesay . He was confirmed in the rank of sub @-@ lieutenant on 1 September 1971 . In the mid 1970s , he undertook an exchange programme with the United States Navy and served on board the guided missile cruiser , USS Belknap , which is now no longer in service . He was promoted to lieutenant on 30 January 1974 . Following warfare training in 1976 and 1977 he served for two years as the principal warfare officer and operations officer on board the frigate HMS Eskimo . This appointment included deployments to the West Indies and South Atlantic .
From 1979 and 1981 he commanded the minesweeper HMS Soberton for nearly two years in the Fishery Protection Squadron around the British coast . Between 1981 and 1983 he also served as flag lieutenant to Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief Fleet , a period where he was involved in the Falklands War . Promoted to the rank of commander on 30 June 1983 , he assumed command of the frigate HMS Phoebe . The frigate operated in NATO waters , at the time of the RN ’ s first operational experience with surface ship towed passive sonar . In 1985 he attended the Joint Services Defence College and was soon appointed to the Defence Staff in the Ministry of Defence in the Directorate of Defence Policy . Promoted to captain on 30 June 1988 , he left the Directorate of Policy and commanded HMS Norfolk . He was also responsible for helping re @-@ equip 9th Frigate Squadron , the first Type 23 frigate squadron .
In 1991 , he became the Assistant Director Navy Plans and Programmes in the Ministry of Defence , a period that saw the implementation of the “ Options for Change ” Review . In 1994 he was a member of the Defence Costs Study ( Front Line First ) Secretariat . He was appointed Aide @-@ de @-@ Camp to the Queen on 9 April 1995 . His last sea command was that of HMS Illustrious , the aircraft carrier , between 1995 and 1997 . The period included two operational deployments to the Adriatic in which he and Illustrious supported the intervention of the U.S. , the United Nations , and NATO operations in Bosnia .
In May 1997 he was elevated to flag rank and promoted to rear admiral . He returned to the Ministry of Defence as Assistant Chief of the Naval Staff . This appointment included the period of the Strategic Defence Review , in which he was heavily involved in the Royal Navy 's contributions to the review . He left this appointment in December 1999 and assumed the position of team leader of the Defence Education and Training Study in January 2000 with the rank of vice admiral .
= = Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief Fleet = =
After a tour as Deputy Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief Fleet from May 2001 , Band was promoted to full admiral and served as Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief Fleet , responsible for the preparation and operation of the ships , submarines and aircraft of the Royal Navy based at Northwood between August 2002 and November 2005 . In that post he was involved in the planning of the Iraq War and also had a NATO command as Commander Allied Maritime Component Command , Northwood . He was appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath in the 2002 New Year Honours .
In 2003 he spoke out for the crew of the HMS Turbulent , for their efforts on achieving the longest deployment time of a submarine . Turbulent was away for more than ten months and he stated " They are a huge credit . The submarine has done the equivalent of going twice around the world . " In March 2004 he spent several weeks touring naval facilities and ships in the Caribbean , including Antigua .
In the Trafalgar 200 celebrations , celebrating the British victory at the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805 , Band attended the ceremonies and the fleet review in the UK . In an interview , he stated :
Trafalgar 200 is important internationally . It celebrates the fact that mariners are a great club of people who have a joint respect for the sea . There is no greater connecting medium in the world than the ocean , and it unites us
= = First Sea Lord = =
In February 2006 Band took over the positions of First Sea Lord and Chief of Naval Staff from Admiral Sir Alan West and in a press statement set out the Navy 's priorities in the 21st century . Upon taking up the post of First Sea Lord he became the professional head of the Royal Navy . Band is a proponent for the Sustained surface combatant capability and the creation of new ships to maintain the Royal Navy as one of the world 's leading navies . These include the new Type 45 destroyer and the Royal Navy CVF programme , designed to replace the UK 's current aircraft carriers .
In June 2006 he went on a fact finding and diplomatic mission to Pakistan where he met the head of the Pakistan Air Force , the head of the Pakistan Navy and the Army Chief of Staff . On the following day he met with the President of Sri Lanka Mahinda Rajapaksa . In November 2006 he attended a press conference on HMS Illustrious , which was moored in the River Thames at Greenwich . He announced that the 25th anniversary of the Falklands War would be commemorated across 8 @,@ 000 miles and four time zones – in London , Pangbourne and the Falkland Islands – from 14 to 17 June 2007 .
In February 2007 , at a journalists ' briefing , he warned that the Royal Navy needed another £ 1 billion to meet future foreign policy demands and appealed to the Government for additional funding , a third of the navy 's annual operating budget , to spend on building more modern ships . In a later interview with the Daily Telegraph he said that an increase of more than 30 per cent in the fleet 's day @-@ to @-@ day budget was necessary to pay for better sailors ' wages , the running of ships and improved accommodation . He threatened to resign as head of the navy if the Government failed to agree to pay for two new aircraft carriers – the Royal Navy CVF programme , which it had previously promised .
In May 2007 the Government gave the £ 3.9bn go @-@ ahead for the new aircraft carriers . Band said :
This is a significant decision to invest in the future , to be able to deliver air power around the world . I am entirely content that the country will get the navy it deserves ; a powerful navy for the future ; which is entirely right because we are a large player on the world scene .
In 2007 he was awarded an honorary degree in law from the University of Portsmouth . He was appointed Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath in the 2008 Birthday Honours and succeeded by Mark Stanhope as First Sea Lord on 21 July 2009 .
= = Later professional life = =
In early 2009 Band became a patron for the International Scott Centenary Expedition 2012 ; their aim is to commemorate the 100th anniversary of Scott 's race to the South Pole and the subsequent deaths of the polar party on the Ross Ice Shelf . He became a Deputy Lieutenant of Hampshire on 27 November 2009 and a non @-@ executive director of the cruise company , Carnival Corporation & plc , in April 2010 .
Band has also become a non @-@ executive director of the British arm of the American defense contractor Lockheed Martin who produce the F35 @-@ B aircraft which will be utilized on the new aircraft carriers . He is also a Younger Brother of Trinity House and a liveryman of the Shipwrights ' Company .
= = Personal life = =
In 1979 he married Sarah Asbury : they have two daughters and live in Southsea , Portsmouth .
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= Arsenal Stadium =
Arsenal Stadium was a football stadium in Highbury , North London , which was previously the home ground of Arsenal Football Club between 6 September 1913 and 7 May 2006 . It was mainly known as " Highbury " due to its location and was given the affectionate nickname of the " Home of Football " by the club .
It was originally built in 1913 on the site of a local college 's recreation ground and was significantly redeveloped twice . The first reconstruction came in the 1930s from which the Art Deco East and West Stands date . There was a second development ; the first phase was completed in 1989 which added executive boxes to the Clock End , and afterward in 1993 a new North Bank Stand was constructed , both following the recommendations of the Taylor Report which replaced the terraces to make the stadium an all @-@ seater with four stands . However , further attempts to expand the stadium were blocked by the community , and the resulting reduction in capacity and matchday revenue eventually led to Arsenal opting to build a new stadium , to become known as the Emirates Stadium in nearby Islington . After the club moved to their new stadium upon the conclusion of the 2005 @-@ 06 season , Highbury was redeveloped as a residential development known as Highbury Square , with the Clock End and North Bank stands being demolished ; parts of the East and West Stands remained and were incorporated into the new development due to their listed status .
The stadium also hosted international matches – both for England and in the 1948 Summer Olympics – and FA Cup semi @-@ finals , as well as boxing , baseball and cricket matches . Its presence also led to the local London Underground station being renamed to Arsenal in 1932 , making it the only station on the Underground network to be named after a football club .
In addition to its architecture , the stadium was known for its small but immaculate pitch and for the famous clock which was positioned in the southern side of the ground since its introduction in 1930 .
= = History = =
The original stadium was built in 1913 , when Woolwich Arsenal moved from the Manor Ground in Plumstead , South East London to Highbury , leasing the recreation fields of St John 's College of Divinity for £ 20 @,@ 000 . The lease negotiation also agreed that no matches were to be played on " holy days " and that no " intoxicating liquor " would be sold at the stadium ; however , these stipulations were dropped within a year . The stadium was hurriedly built over the summer of that year , and was designed by Archibald Leitch , architect of many other football grounds of that era . It featured a single stand on the eastern side and the other three sides had banked terracing . The new stadium cost £ 125 @,@ 000 . It opened whilst not fully complete , with Arsenal 's first match of the 1913 – 14 season , a 2 – 1 Second Division win against Leicester Fosse on 6 September 1913 . Leicester 's Tommy Benfield scored the first goal at the new ground while George Jobey was the first Arsenal player to do so . Highbury hosted its first England match in 1920 .
The Australian rugby league team suffered the first loss of their 1921 – 22 Kangaroo tour of Great Britain at Highbury to an English side 4 points to 5 before approximately 12 @,@ 000 spectators .
Arsenal bought the stadium site outright in 1925 , for £ 64 @,@ 000 .
No significant portion of Leitch 's original stadium remains today following a series of bold redevelopments during the 1930s . The idea was to create a ground for London that could capture the grandeur of Villa Park , home of Birmingham club Aston Villa . The Highbury project was ambitious in its scale and reach , the first stand completed being the West Stand , designed by Claude Waterlow Ferrier and William Binnie in the Art Deco style which opened in 1932 . On 5 November the same year the local Tube station was renamed from Gillespie Road to Arsenal . Leitch 's main stand was demolished to make way for a new East Stand , matching the West , in 1936 . The West Stand cost £ 45 @,@ 000 while the East Stand went far over budget and ended up costing £ 130 @,@ 000 , mainly thanks to the expense of the facade . The North Bank terrace was given a roof and the southern terrace had a clock fitted to its front , giving it the name the Clock End .
During the 1948 Summer Olympics , the stadium hosted the football preliminaries . For the next 50 years , the stadium changed little , although during the Second World War the North Bank terrace was bombed and had to be rebuilt ; the roof was not restored until 1956 . Floodlights were fitted in 1951 , with the first floodlit match being a friendly against Hapoel Tel Aviv on 19 September of that year . The floodlights that adorn Dalymount Park , once stood at the Arsenal stadium . They were shipped to Dublin in 1962 . The inaugural floodlit match saw Arsenal beat Bohemians 3 – 8 . Undersoil heating was added in 1964 . Unlike at many other grounds , Arsenal refused to install perimeter fencing , even at the height of hooliganism in the 1980s , which made it ineligible for use as an FA Cup semi @-@ final venue .
Before the Taylor report and the era of all @-@ seater stadiums in Britain , both the North Bank and Clock End consisted of terracing , and the stadium often saw crowds of up to 60 @,@ 000 or more ; its largest attendance was 73 @,@ 295 on 9 March 1935 when Arsenal played Sunderland in the First Division ; the game finished 0 – 0 . When the ground was initially constructed , it was to " accommodate 90 @,@ 000 spectators " .
The Clock End was redeveloped in 1988 / 89 with the addition of a roof and 48 executive boxes [ 4 ] , while seating was fitted into the remaining standing area in 1993 .
In the early 1990s , the Taylor report on the Hillsborough disaster was published , which recommended that football stadia become all @-@ seater . The North Bank , which had become home of Arsenal 's most passionate supporters , was demolished at the end of the 1991 – 92 season . During redevelopment , a giant mural of fans was placed behind the goal at that end , to give the illusion that the players were kicking towards a crowd rather than a construction site . The mural initially attracted criticism for its absence of black fans , which was quickly rectified . Populous ( then LOBB Partnership ) designed all @-@ seater two @-@ tier North Bank Stand , the last area of Highbury to be refurbished , which was opened in August 1993 at a cost of £ 20 million amid strong opposition from local residents . The new North Bank Stand contained a museum and a concourse with video arcades , bars , confectionery counters , souvenir shops and fast @-@ food stands . The old stand had received a fitting send off with a 5 – 1 defeat of Southampton , though the new stand had a less auspicious start , the first game being a surprise 0 – 3 defeat to Coventry City with all 3 goals coming from striker Micky Quinn . The first victory came 10 days later against Leeds United .
= = Structure = =
At the time of its closure , the stadium consisted of four separate all @-@ seater stands ; the pitch was aligned north @-@ south , with the North Bank Stand ( formerly the Laundry End ) and South Stand ( popularly known as the Clock End ) at the ends of the field . The East and West Stands ran alongside the pitch and are two of the few examples of British football stands designed in the Art Deco style . The East Stand incorporated the club 's offices and was well known for its marble halls ( though the floors were actually terrazzo ) which are often cited in media depictions of the stadium , and the facade that faces onto Avenell Road . The East Stand is considered architecturally significant enough to have been designated a Grade II listed building .
The stadium 's main entrances were on Gillespie Road , Avenell Road and Highbury Hill . When it closed , Highbury had a capacity of 38 @,@ 419 ( approximately 12 @,@ 500 in the North Bank , 11 @,@ 000 in the West Stand , 9 @,@ 000 in the East Stand and 6 @,@ 000 in the Clock End ) , all seated , and had Jumbotron screens in the south @-@ east and north @-@ west corners .
Arsenal Stadium was well known for its very small immaculately @-@ kept pitch , which measured only 109 × 73 yards ( 100 × 67 metres ) . Arsenal 's groundsmen , Steve Braddock and his successor Paul Burgess , have won the FA Premier League 's Groundsman of the Year award several times for their work on the stadium .
= = Closure and redevelopment = =
The post @-@ Taylor capacity of Highbury was limited to 38 @,@ 419 , while Arsenal 's success during the 1990s and 2000s meant that virtually every home match was filled to near capacity . Restrictions , such as the East Stand 's status as a listed building and the fact the stadium was surrounded on all sides by a residential area , made any future expansion of Highbury difficult and expensive , although the club 's directors would have liked to have kept Arsenal at a modernized and expanded Highbury . In October 2004 , it was confirmed that the new stadium would be called the Emirates Stadium as part of a sponsorship deal with Emirates Airlines .
In October 1998 , just after Arsenal started playing Champions League games at Wembley , the club made an unsuccessful bid to buy the stadium and make it their permanent home to share with the England national football team , although at the time Wembley was two years away from closure for a redevelopment which was not completed until more than six years later .
In November 1999 , Arsenal decided to leave Highbury and construct a new 60 @,@ 000 @-@ seat stadium in nearby Ashburton Grove , which opened in July 2006 . Arsenal 's offices were moved to a new building , Highbury House , which was named in commemoration of the former stadium .
For their final season at Highbury ( 2005 – 06 ) Arsenal ran a series of promotions honouring the stadium 's legacy . A commemorative logo was designed featuring the club 's traditional Art Deco crest from the 1930s , and the club 's history at Highbury was celebrated through a series of themed matchdays . On the field , Arsenal temporarily set aside their traditional red shirts with white sleeves for the season and adopted a solid redcurrant shirt , the colour they wore during their first season at Highbury in 1913 – 14 .
Arsenal 's final game at the stadium was their FA Premier League match on 7 May 2006 against Wigan Athletic , the last game of the season . The team needed to better the result of neighbours Tottenham Hotspur to again secure qualification for the Champions League . Having been 2 – 1 behind , a hat trick by captain and all @-@ time leading goal scorer Thierry Henry secured qualification , with Henry kneeling down to kiss the turf on scoring what proved to be the final goal seen at the stadium . The last goal scored in a regulation game at the stadium came in a Football Aid charity match when lifelong fan Alan Alger scored a penalty in the final minute of a fixture played on Thursday 8 June 2006 ( exactly one month and one day after Henry 's goal ) . After the stadium 's closure , Arsenal held an auction to sell off many of the stadium 's parts , including pieces of the pitch , the goalposts and former manager George Graham 's desk . Sale of the stadium 's seats had to be cancelled after it was found they contained trace amounts of the toxic metal cadmium .
As of 2010 , Arsenal Stadium was redeveloped and converted into flats in a project known as " Highbury Square " , a scheme that had 711 properties built on the site . The North Bank and Clock End stands were demolished . The exteriors of the listed Art Deco East Stand and the matching West Stand were preserved and incorporated into the new developments , while the rest of the stands ' structures were removed , and the pitch became a communal garden . In October 2005 the proposed flats went on sale ; as of May 2006 all properties in the North , East and West Stands had been taken .
Arsenal 's famous clock was moved from Highbury to the outer side of the new stadium , with a new larger version of the feature added inside the ground in August 2010 . At the same time as the unveiling of the new clock , the south stands at the venue were also renamed Clock End inline with the same name previously used at Highbury .
= = Other roles = =
As well as being home to Arsenal , it also hosted games as home stadium for England matches ; 12 internationals were played at Highbury from 1920 to 1961 , most of them being friendlies . These included both England 's first full home international against opposition outside of Great Britain and Ireland ( Belgium in 1923 ) , and the " Battle of Highbury " , England 's 3 – 2 win over World Champions Italy in 1934 , where a record seven Arsenal players started the match , the most players from a single club to play in an England fixture . Highbury was also used as a football venue for two matches in the 1948 London Olympics – a first @-@ round match and a quarter @-@ final . It was also provisionally named as one of London 's two host stadiums for the 1966 FIFA World Cup ( along with Wembley ) , but was eventually dropped with White City Stadium taking the role instead . By the time of Euro 96 , the pitch had been ruled too small for international football and the stadium would have been ineligible .
Highbury was the venue for twelve FA Cup semi @-@ finals as a neutral ground , the first in 1929 and the last in 1997 , although between 1984 and 1992 it was off the FA 's list of approved venues , after Arsenal 's refusal to install perimeter fencing following a pitch invasion by Everton fans during their semi @-@ final against Southampton . It also hosted the London XI 's home leg against Lausanne Sports in the 1955 – 58 Inter @-@ Cities Fairs Cup semi @-@ finals ; London won 2 – 0 on the night and 3 – 2 on aggregate .
Arsenal did not always play their home matches at Highbury in the 93 years they were based there . During the Second World War the stadium was used as an ARP station and was bombed ; Arsenal played their matches at White Hart Lane , home of North London rivals Tottenham Hotspur , until Highbury re @-@ opened in 1946 . More recently , Arsenal 's home UEFA Champions League matches in the 1998 – 99 and 1999 – 00 seasons were played at Wembley Stadium , as Highbury 's already limited capacity had to be reduced to accommodate advertising hoardings . Arsenal 's record at Wembley ( P6 W2 D1 L3 ) was relatively poor , and after two seasons the club switched back to playing at Highbury , not least because since Wembley closed for rebuilding in October 2000 , it would not have been able to host their 2000 – 01 campaign .
Highbury has also hosted several cricket games and also baseball matches involving American servicemen between 1916 and 1919 . It was the venue for the 1966 World Heavyweight boxing title bout between Henry Cooper and Muhammad Ali , which Ali won . It has featured on the silver screen as well , having been the backdrop for at least two movies : The Arsenal Stadium Mystery , and Fever Pitch .
= = Record scorelines = =
Arsenal 's biggest win at Highbury came on 9 January 1932 , with an 11 – 1 victory over Darwen in the FA Cup . Their biggest defeats were 0 – 5 losses to Huddersfield Town in the First Division on 14 February 1925 and against Chelsea in the League Cup on 11 November 1998 .
= = Final record of results = =
= = = Arsenal = = =
Arsenal 's complete competitive record at Highbury is as follows :
= = = England = = =
England 's record at Highbury is as follows :
= = = FA Cup semi @-@ finals = = =
FA Cup semi @-@ finals held at Highbury are listed below . Arsenal never played a semi @-@ final at their own stadium . Teams in bold went on to win the competition that year
= = In popular culture = =
In Charlie Higson 's post @-@ apocalyptic young adult horror novel The Enemy ( 2009 ) , nine @-@ year @-@ old " Small Sam " is kidnapped by a group of grownups and taken to a spectator box in which they have set up camp , in Arsenal Stadium , after a worldwide sickness has infected adults turning them into something akin to zombies . Sam ultimately escapes , only after setting his captors afire ( which ultimately sets the structure afire ) , and dodging various groups of adults scattered throughout the stadium structure and playing field .
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= Rachel Bradley =
Rachel Louise Bradley is a fictional character portrayed by Helen Baxendale in the British comedy @-@ drama television series Cold Feet . Rachel is introduced in the pilot episode ( 1997 ) , where she begins a relationship with Adam Williams ( James Nesbitt ) . Their relationship has highs and lows throughout the series ; Rachel reveals a secret husband in the first series ( 1998 ) and has an abortion in the second ( 1999 ) , which supposedly prevents her from conceiving a child in the future . She and Adam marry in the third series ( 2000 ) and are surprised to discover that she is pregnant in the fourth ( 2001 ) . They both begin raising their child in the fifth series ( 2003 ) , but Rachel 's life is cut short when she is killed in a car crash .
The character was originally devised as " the fantasy girlfriend " , and was constructed as an amalgamation of writer Mike Bullen 's female friends . As the series was developed , input into Rachel 's storylines was provided by Cold Feet 's producers Andy Harries and Christine Langan ; Rachel and Adam attempt in vitro fertilisation in the third series , which Harries and his wife had also tried . It was originally planned for Rachel and Adam to adopt a child during the fourth series , but Helen Baxendale 's real @-@ life pregnancy meant the storyline had to be rewritten .
Both character and actress received mixed reviews from critics throughout the series ; Baxendale received the Best Actress award from the Broadcasting Press Guild for her portrayal of Rachel in the pilot and was nominated for a British Comedy Award . However , television reviewers criticised the character when the series began . Rachel 's diagnosis with Asherman 's syndrome in the fourth series drew criticism from the British Pregnancy Advisory Service , which had been consulted during the writing of the storyline . When the series ended , there was a 20 % increase in the number of people taking out life insurance policies with one provider , Tesco Personal Finance , which a spokesperson for the company attributed to Rachel 's premature death .
= = Creation and backstory = =
Rachel Bradley was devised by writer Mike Bullen as one of the two central characters in the pilot episode of Cold Feet , the other being Adam Williams . Bullen conceived her as " the fantasy girlfriend " by incorporating elements of a man 's perfect girlfriend , such as actress Cameron Diaz . He also incorporated elements of a female friend whom he had known since the age of four .
Helen Baxendale , then popularly known for her starring role as Dr Claire Maitland in the BBC medical drama Cardiac Arrest , became available halfway through the casting process of the pilot , and was invited to audition . Baxendale was initially reluctant to read for the role , as she believed that she would not be able to give a good comic performance . Executive producer Andy Harries persuaded her that she had already performed black comedy in Cardiac Arrest , and so would be well @-@ suited to the part of Rachel . Producer Christine Langan described Baxendale as " perfect for the idolized Rachel " and her reading with Nesbitt as having " unmistakable chemistry " . Hermione Norris also auditioned for the role , but Baxendale was eventually cast . By the time of the third series , Baxendale 's initial concerns had gone and she felt comfortable acting with the comic actors . Speaking retrospectively , she found Rachel difficult to play :
I was playing the nice girl . It 's really hard to play . All the other characters came from somebody and I said to Mike [ the writer ] , ' Where do I come from ? ' And he said , ' You were the fantasy girl . ' I found it hard to make anything of that . In the end I felt the only thing I could do was to make it as hyper real as I could . I 'm not a natural comedienne .
The character 's backstory is presented in Cold Feet : A Man 's / Woman 's Guide to Life , which was compiled by Jonathan Rice from Mike Bullen 's scripts . Rachel read French at the University of Manchester , then spent a season working as a chalet girl in the French Alps . There she met Karen ( Hermione Norris ) who became her best friend . When both returned to England , Karen married David Marsden ( Robert Bathurst ) and Rachel began a career in the advertising industry .
= = Character arc = =
= = = Relationship with Adam = = =
At the beginning of the pilot episode , Rachel is dumped by her boyfriend Simon Atkinson ( Stephen Mapes ) , who has recently taken a job in Hong Kong and does not want to " burden " Rachel with deciding whether to emigrate with him . Shortly afterwards , her car collides with that of Adam Williams on a supermarket car park . The two get into a row over whose fault the crash was and he smoothes things over by giving him her phone number , ostensibly in case there is a problem with the insurance . She writes her number in the muck on his rear windscreen but it later washes off in the rain . Some time later , Rachel 's friend Karen advises her to call Adam and go on a date with him . Their first date does not go well , but they see each other again . Three months later , they row , and Rachel gets back together with Simon , who has returned to Hong Kong . Adam wins her back by serenading her while wearing nothing but a rose between his buttocks .
The first series begins nine months later . Rachel and Adam move into their first house together . He is horrified to discover that she has been married for over six years . She contacts her husband Kris Bumstead ( Lennie James ) and after briefly considering going back to him and dumping Adam , she gets the divorce . After a misunderstanding with Karen , Rachel worries that Adam has stopped finding her sexually attractive , and they agree to indulge in each other 's sexual fantasies . Rachel shares her with Adam : to have sex in a shop window . Adam arranges to get the keys to a shop , and he and Rachel act out her fantasy , though are arrested when a ramraider leads the police to them .
In Series 1 , Episode 6 , Rachel reveals to Karen that she is pregnant , but is unsure whether the father is Adam or Kris , whom she had sex with while he was in Manchester . She devastates Adam by first turning down his proposal of marriage , after he believes he is the father of the child , and then by leaving Manchester on a train . Adam arrives at the station shortly before her train leaves and pledges to love the child regardless of who it 's father is . Rachel demonstrates that he does not mean it , and the train departs for London .
= = = Abortion and infertility = = =
Six months later , Rachel returns to Manchester , and moves into Karen and David 's spare room . After Pete spots her at the supermarket , Adam prepares for what he thinks will be her homecoming with his child . Instead , Rachel reveals that she had the pregnancy terminated , unable to cope with not knowing whether the father was Adam or Kris . The abortion story was devised to avoid having all three couples in the series having children . Bullen and the executive producers Andy Harries and Christine Langan all agreed that having Rachel suffer a miscarriage would be a " cop out " but they split on whether she should terminate the pregnancy ; Harries worried about the effect it would have on the character within the narrative , and what the audience would think of her , while Langan convinced him that it would be braver and more realistic for the character to go through with it .
Rachel ponders whether to get back together with Adam but is left humiliated when she arrives at his house in the middle of the night and finds him apparently in the middle of an orgy with his new girlfriend Amy ( Rosie Cavaliero ) and lodger " Rachel 2 " ( Rachel Fielding ) . She resolves to get her old job back , and starts dating a co @-@ worker , the much younger Danny Burke ( Hugh Dancy ) . After a short fling , she dumps Danny and agrees to be friends with Adam , even accompanying him to his school reunion . She then has a brief flirtation with David 's younger wayward brother Nick Marsden ( Stephen Moyer ) before getting back together with Adam after learning he has had treatment for testicular cancer . On a trip away to Lindisfarne to see in the year 2000 , Rachel feels she is ready to put their past incidents behind her .
Now in a committed relationship , Rachel and Adam begin trying for a baby . The storyline was devised because Harries wanted Cold Feet to reflect relevant issues in contemporary society ; in vitro fertilisation featured heavily in the news during 2000 , and Harries felt that incorporating it into the series would help to raise awareness of it , as well as provide fodder for the characters ' story arcs . Rachel 's intracytoplasmic sperm injection treatment incorporated aspects of the real life IVF treatment experienced by Harries and his wife Rebecca Frayn , and eminent fertility scientist Sammy Lee was consulted extensively throughout the development of the plot . After spending several thousand pounds on IVF treatment , Rachel 's doctor informs her that she is infertile due to Asherman 's syndrome , most likely caused by her abortion . Despite being unable to have children naturally , Rachel and Adam are determined to continue their relationship ; Adam proposes to her and they are married in a civil ceremony in Series 3 , Episode 8 . In the same episode , she is reunited with her estranged parents , Brian and Mary ( Paul Ridley and Sue Holderness ) . Before the episode , Rachel had not spoken to them for years ; her father because of his bigotry and abuse of her mother , and her mother for staying with him . She refuses to allow Paul to give her away , and instead asks David to , despite learning that he has been having an extra @-@ marital affair . At the reception , she inadvertently reveals to her parents that her sister , their other daughter Lucy , has come out as a lesbian .
= = = Son , death and funeral = = =
At the beginning of Series 4 , Rachel is broody and upset that she is infertile . She and Adam begin an application process for an adoption , and are soon paired up with eight @-@ year @-@ old Laura ( Katie Riddoch ) , the daughter of a drug addict . Adam and Laura bond at their first meeting at her foster home , and Adam and Rachel begin plans for her to move in with them . However , after a routine hospital appointment reveals that Rachel is four months pregnant , social worker Ruth Wylie ( Samantha Spiro ) retracts the adoption application , concerned about the effect a new baby will have on Laura if she moves in with Adam and Rachel . Adam and Rachel vow to take legal action against the adoption agency but change their minds after Laura 's foster mother Jean ( Jacqueline Pilton ) persuades them to think of the effect it will have on Laura . Reluctantly , Adam and Rachel walk away from the adoption and instead plan for their own baby . The original Series 4 story arc for Adam and Rachel was radically different , and had to be changed considerably after Helen Baxendale learned she was pregnant . Mike Bullen quipped at the time , " We 're looking at a number of ideas , including alien abduction " . Though heavily pregnant , Rachel 's doctor advises her that it is safe to fly to Australia for Pete and Jo 's ( John Thomson and Kimberley Joseph ) wedding in Series 4 , Episode 8 . On the day of the wedding ceremony , Rachel collapses outside the hotel , having gone into labour two months prematurely , and is rushed to hospital . She gives birth to a boy , whom she names Matthew Sydney Williams .
At the beginning of Series 5 , set three months after the birth , Rachel appears overprotective of Matthew ; she refuses to let Adam hold him and never lets him out of her sight . After Adam abruptly leaves Matthew 's naming ceremony , feeling unable to love his child because he is coming between him and his wife , Rachel reveals that the baby fell off the kitchen table when she left him unattended for a matter of seconds . Baxendale said of the story , " Rachel 's take on motherhood is quite real in my experience because she 's had such trouble conceiving for a start and then all the problems with the birth [ ... ] She becomes obsessed with the baby and excludes Adam from everything . They have to work hard to resolve their differences and there is a big transition . I can see why she behaves the way she does — you do become over @-@ protective with a baby . It 's amazing what your body does to you and the instincts that suddenly take over . Being a mum myself , I have got real empathy with Rachel . " However , Observer television reviewer Kathryn Flett criticised the plot as unrealistic :
As an obsessive new mother who has spent many an hour hovering over my son with a thermometer and a pre @-@ emptive bottle of Calpol , Rachel 's contention that she didn 't want to go out for dinner with Adam because she couldn 't bear to leave three @-@ month @-@ old Matthew in the care of their best friend 's children 's nanny was just one niggling implausibility too far . After three months of being on baby duty 24 hours a day , every woman I 've ever come across has , ordinary guilt aside , all but wept with joy at the prospect of a bowl of pasta and a glass of wine consumed somewhere other than Babyville . None of which would matter a jot , of course , had Cold Feet not been feted for reflecting the lives of its target audience .
After her revelation to Adam , Rachel is more willing to leave Matthew in some else 's care ; after her maternity leave ends and she returns to work , Adam looks after Matthew during his period of unemployment . When they discover their rented house is being put up for sale , Rachel and Adam find the perfect family home to buy . As Rachel drives to the auction , her car is hit by a highway maintenance truck . She is taken to hospital for emergency treatment but dies later that night . A church funeral service is held for her and her ashes are scattered in Portmeirion , the location being where Adam states Matthew was conceived . Although the character dies in the penultimate episode , Baxendale appears in the final episode as an apparition of Rachel . Baxendale believed the character was being punished by divine retribution for the " terrible sin " of terminating her pregnancy .
In 2011 , Baxendale told Digital Spy that she had been involved in discussions with Cold Feet 's creative staff about how to incorporate Rachel into a possible revival of the series .
= = Reception = =
For her performance in the pilot episode , Helen Baxendale was nominated for Top TV Comedy Actress at the British Comedy Awards 1997 . At the Broadcasting Press Guild Awards 1998 , she was presented with the Best Actress award , for her performance in Cold Feet and An Unsuitable Job for a Woman . Her portrayal received mixed reviews from television critics when the series began . In the Daily Record , Kathleen Morgan wrote that Baxendale had lost her edge since playing Dr Maitland in Cardiac Arrest ; " Instead of making a triumphant return to British television as a tough @-@ talking woman , she has been cast as another spineless character . " Sara Villiers wrote in The Scotsman , " Rachel is so unfeasibly bland and nice that she has consigned Baxendale to the title Most Irritating Woman on the Telly . "
The plot of Rachel 's infertility was analysed on an episode of BBC Radio 4 's Woman 's Hour . Ann Furedi of the British Pregnancy Advisory Service , which had supplied information to the writing team during the research stages , stated that there had not been a recorded case of Asherman 's syndrome in the United Kingdom since the second world war . Further to that , she stated that the consensus among medical groups was that there was no real direct link between abortions and infertility ; rather an untreated infection could increase the chances of fertility problems if it interfered with an abortion . Christine Geraghty , then senior lecturer in film and TV at Goldsmith 's College , countered that the factual accuracy of the storyline depended on how the producers wanted to portray the issue to viewers . Her opinion was backed up by an ITV statement , which said that " stories for Cold Feet are not just chosen in order to make people aware of the issues involved ; they 're also chosen for their dramatic potential and relevance to modern living " . Woman 's Hour presenter Jenni Murray developed the discussion in an article for The Guardian ; she mentioned that no impression was given that Rachel had suffered an incorrectly performed operation or had had to travel to eastern Europe for it , and that it was improbable that Rachel managed to conceive a child after all .
Critics were retrospective of both Rachel and of Baxendale 's performance when the series ended . In the New Statesman , Andrew Billen wrote that Rachel " was as near to a sex symbol as this comedy drama about six cold @-@ footed yuppies produced . She was also materialistic , unfaithful , self @-@ absorbed , tricky and had not the first clue about men [ ... ] Yet her death , caused by a moment of carelessness behind the wheel , was powerful and shocking , a tribute to the extent to which we have invested and believed in her . " Observer critic Kathryn Flett noted that Baxendale 's high @-@ profile role in Friends made her the " star " of Cold Feet in the first series , but both she and Rachel had been " eclipsed " by the other actors and characters by the time of the final series . Spectator critic Simon Hoggart wrote , " I wasn 't as sorry about poor old Rachel as I should have been . It was one of those deaths which makes you think , ' Oh , her poor baby boy , ' rather than ' Goodness , how we 'll miss her . ' " Hoggart attributed his ambivalence to Baxendale 's portrayal of the character as a " fraught , snippy " woman . Matt Greenhalgh , who co @-@ wrote the episode featuring Rachel 's death , called killing off the character " a privilege " .
Tesco Personal Finance recorded a 20 % increase in people taking out life insurance policies , which a spokesman attributed to the accident scenes being " portrayed in such a dramatic and realistic way " . Following the broadcast of the final episode , Portmeirion information services received 50 requests for wedding packs , at a time when three weddings a week were being held there .
The character 's death was and continues to be ranked in public polls of various opinions . It was voted Best Drama Moment on the BBC 's annual TV Moments broadcast in 2004 . The same year , a poll conducted for National Pub Week ranked the scene where a barman scoops some of Rachel 's ashes into a bucket the fifth best of various pub @-@ related television scenes . In 2008 , the death was ranked at number three in Sky One 's 50 Greatest TV Endings programme . In a 2010 public poll to promote Freeview HD , Rachel 's death was ranked as the seventh most emotional TV moment . In 2011 , Rachel 's wedding to Adam was placed at number nine in Channel 5 's Greatest TV Weddings programme . Colin McAllister opined that every woman 's heart broke when they married .
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= Action of 7 May 1794 =
The Action of 7 May 1794 was a minor naval action fought between a British ship of the line and a French frigate early in the French Revolutionary Wars . The French Navy sought to disrupt British trade by intercepting and capturing merchant ships with roving frigates , a strategy countered by protecting British convoys with heavier warships , particularly in European waters . On 5 May 1794 , the British escorts of a convoy from Cork sighted two French ships approaching and gave chase . The ships , a frigate and a corvette , outmatched by their opponents , separated and the convoy escorts did likewise , each following one of the raiders on a separate course .
By the evening one of the French ships had successfully escaped , but the other was still under pursuit , Captain Charles Linois of Atalante attempting a number of tactics to drive off his opponent but without success . Eventually , after a chase lasting nearly two days , the French ship came within range of the much larger British 74 @-@ gun third rate HMS Swiftsure and despite a brave defence was soon forced to surrender after suffering more than 40 casualties . Although he had surrendered his ship , Linois was widely praised for his actions in defending his ship against such heavy odds .
In the aftermath of the engagement , a French battle squadron that formed part of the developing Atlantic campaign of May 1794 pursued both ships for the rest of the day ; their quarry eventually escaped after dark . Atalante was later taken into the Royal Navy as HMS Espion .
= = Background = =
The outbreak of war between Britain and France in the spring of 1793 came at a time of differing fortunes for the navies of the two countries . The Royal Navy had been at a state of heightened readiness since 1792 in preparation for the conflict , while the French Navy had still not recovered from the upheavals of the French Revolution , which had resulted in the collapse of the naval hierarchy and a dearth of experienced officers and seamen . French naval strategy early in the war was to send squadrons and light vessels to operate along British trade routes , in order to disrupt British mercantile operations . This resulted in Britain forming its merchant ships into convoys for mutual protection , escorted by warships while in European waters to defend against roving attacks by French ships .
By the spring of 1794 , France was in turmoil following the failure of the harvest , which threatened the country with starvation . In order to secure food supplies , France turned to its American colonies and the United States , which assembled a large grain convoy in Hampton Roads . To ensure the security of this convoy , the French Navy dispatched most of its Atlantic Fleet to sea during May 1794 , operating in a series of large squadrons , independent cruisers and one major fleet under Villaret de Joyeuse . On 5 May , two French ships operating independently , the 36 @-@ gun frigate Atalante under Captain Charles Linois and the corvette Levrette , spied a British convoy sailing south @-@ west , three days out from Cork , and closed to investigate .
= = Pursuit = =
The convoy that Linois had sighted was under the protection of two ships of the line , the Swiftsure under Captain Charles Boyles and the 64 @-@ gun HMS St Albans under Captain James Vashon . At 17 : 45 , with the French frigates closing from the west and aware that they could not defend the whole convoy without immediate direct action , Boyles turned Swiftsure and St Albans towards the newcomers , hoisting their colours and Swiftsure firing three shots in the direction of the larger ship , Atalante . Together the British ships hugely outweighed and outmatched the French vessels , and as soon as Linois realised his mistake he gave orders for his ships to turn and make all sail to escape pursuit , raising the French tricolour and firing his stern @-@ chasers , guns fitted in the rear of the ship , at his pursuers .
The French ships immediately separated . St Albans then followed Levrette while Swiftsure concentrated on Atalante . Throughout the rest of the evening the two chases continued . Then after darkness fell Levrette was able to outrun and escape from St Albans . Swiftsure however remained in touch with Atalante so that by 04 : 00 on 6 May the French frigate was approximately 2 @.@ 5 nautical miles ( 4 @.@ 6 km ) ahead of the ship of the line to the northwest , with the wind direction to the north @-@ northeast . For the entire following day Linois could not escape Boyles ' pursuit , and at 17 : 30 Swiftsure was close enough to open fire again , using the bow @-@ chasers for an hour and a half until Atalante once more pulled out of range . During the evening the French frigate was able to keep 2 nautical miles ( 3 @.@ 7 km ) in front of Swiftsure , but at midnight Linois switched his course to the south , hoping that the darkness would cloak the manoeuvre and that Atlante would be able to escape Boyles .
At 02 : 00 it became clear that Linois 's ploy had failed and that Swiftsure was still following Atalante . More importantly , the manoeuvre had severely slowed the frigate . Although Linois hauled closer to the wind , Boyles was able to come within range at 02 : 30 , firing his starboard guns into the smaller ship . Although his crew were exhausted by the extended chase Linois returned fire , the warships exchanging shot at long @-@ range and the frigate suffering far more serious damage during the brief engagement . By 03 : 25 Linois was forced to surrender , his ship 's rigging in tatters and casualties mounting among his crew . Boyles then provided a prize crew to the frigate and took most of the surviving French crew aboard his own ship as prisoners of war . Casualties on the French ship were heavy , with ten killed and 32 wounded from the 274 men aboard , compared to a single man lost on Swiftsure , which had also suffered some damage to its rigging .
= = Aftermath = =
Boyles was not long able to enjoy his victory undisturbed : at 10 : 00 on 7 May , shortly after the removal of the French prisoners had been completed , sails were spotted on the horizon . These were rapidly identified as three French ships of the line that were making all haste to intercept and capture Swiftsure and Atalante . These ships were part of a squadron under Contre @-@ Admiral Joseph @-@ Marie Nielly that had sailed from Rochefort the day before in search of the American grain convoy shortly due in European waters . Issuing rapid orders , Boyles instructed Atalante 's prize crew to separate their ship from Swiftsure in order to force the French to split their forces ; the frigate and the ship of the line fleeing on different courses . Atalante soon outran pursuit and escaped into the Atlantic , the prize crew even managing to replace the damaged main topsail in the midst of the chase with the assistance of the French prisoners on board . Swiftsure was slower but Boyles was still able to increase the distance between his vessel and the French during the day , finally losing sight of his pursuers at 22 : 00 .
Both ships arrived safely at Cork on 17 May , Rear @-@ Admiral Robert Kingsmill informing the Admiralty of the action by letter . Atalante subsequently served the Royal Navy as a 36 @-@ gun frigate under the name HMS Espion as there was already a ship named HMS Atalanta in service . For his lengthy and brave resistance , Linois was highly praised , particularly by the historian William James , who wrote in 1827 that Linois ' " endeavours . . . were highly meritorious " and considered that in an engagement against a British frigate " the Atalante , if conquered at all , would have been dearly purchased . " Shortly after his arrival in Britain , Linois was exchanged and returned to France .
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= BBD ( song ) =
" BBD " ( Bad Bitches Doit ) is a song recorded by American rapper Azealia Banks for her debut studio album Broke with Expensive Taste ( 2014 ) . It was released as the first promotional single from the album on January 1 , 2013 . Production of the song was handled by Apple Juice Kid , with Sup Doodle providing co @-@ production for the track . Banks , Jonathan Harris and Kevin James all contributed to the song 's writing . Critical reception of the song was generally positive , with critics claiming the song to be the one of the first party anthems of the new year . Banks clarified on her Twitter account that " BBD " was not the first official single from Broke with Expensive Taste , writing " Y 'all know i love dropping songs tho ! Lol " .
= = Background = =
In 2011 , it was reported that Banks was working on her debut studio album with British producer Paul Epworth , despite not being signed to a record label at the time . In January 2012 , Banks signed a deal with Interscope and Polydor Records to work on new music , and a month later , she announced the title of the album to be Broke with Expensive Taste . Banks released " BBD " on New Year 's Day , premiering the song on her SoundCloud account , with it later being sent to radio the same month . The track was confirmed to be apart of Broke with Expensive Taste , when Banks posted the track listing of the album to her Instagram account . Approximately a year later , she handed a complete version of the album in to the labels , which included " BBD " . Banks initially thought it would receive favorable reception from the labels ; however , the representatives told Banks that she had not recorded a " hit " single for the album . Ultimately , Banks ended the record deal with Interscope and Polydor in July 2014 . She later approached Jeff Kwatinetz and signed a contract with his company , Prospect Park , which ultimately led to the long @-@ awaited release of Broke with Expensive Taste on November 7 , 2014 .
Throughout December 2014 , Banks released a series of videos in which she gave a track @-@ by @-@ track commentary for all of the songs from Broke with Expensive Taste , and revealed how each song came to be , dubbed the ' 16 Days of Azealia ' . During the commentary video for " BBD " , Banks described the song as " another one of those records " , going on to compare it to her earlier " rowdy " songs such as Fantasea 's " Fuck up the Fun " and " L8R " . She described the creation of the song as a process , summing it up in as " I was like , ok , I 'm gonna make a trap record " .
= = Composition = =
" BBD " is a hip @-@ hop song with heavy trap influences , that runs for a total duration of three minutes and eighteen seconds . Manny Faces from BirthPlace described the track as " a musically frantic , bass heavy stuttery @-@ snare Apple Juice Kid / Sup Doodle @-@ co @-@ production " , while one The Huffington Post writer described the song as " Chicago rave meets southern rap " . HipHopWired writer Kazeem Famuyide thought that the track was " EDM @-@ inspired " , which allowed Banks to " show off of her rapid @-@ fire flow " , whereas MTV writer Phillip Mlynar described the tracks instrumental as a " slinky bopping beat " . Genevieve Oliver from Pretty Much Amazing thought that the track " effortlessly amalgamates hip @-@ hop and dance trends ( a little trap @-@ y , a little rave @-@ y , Azealia said on Twitter ; not to mention the song 's title appears to reference Bell Biv Devoe ) with her own already @-@ classic rapid @-@ fire , sassy wordplay " . Maura Johnston from Pop Dust described the track as witch @-@ hop , calling the song " minimalist and dark " .
= = Critical reception = =
The song received general acclaim from critics . Manny Faces from BirthPlace cited the song as an improvement from her previous material , writing " It ’ s a little harder , a little less sloppy and a little more promising than some of her previous efforts , many of which have drowned in sonic experimentation that , in some opinions ( mine ) , haven ’ t done her any favors " . A writer for PAPER hailed the track as " [ The ] first 2013 party jam " , adding that the song " will jolt you awake this Wednesday morning more quickly than that venti coffee you 've been nursing since 9 am " . Rolling Stone writer Jody Rosen gave " BBD " three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five , describing the song as " a typically fleet , flashy collection of disses and boasts that glory in estrogen power , Sapphic delights , and the fun of cuckolding stupid dudes " . Spin writer Marc Hogan thought that the track reflected well on Banks ' sense of style , writing " With the squiggly high @-@ end and wobbly sub @-@ bass of what we ’ re really calling trap @-@ rave now , huh , plus some masterfully timed quiet @-@ loud dynamic shifts , the track displays the virtuosically foul @-@ mouthed rapper ’ s usual immaculately stylish beat selection " .
= = Live performances = =
Banks first performed " BBD " at the 2013 Glastonbury Festival , on June 29 , 2013 . She later performed the track during her set at the 2013 Reading Festival , on August 25 , 2013 . One writer for NME deemed " BBD " to be a highlight of Banks ' set , citing its " explicit , bumping rhyme " . Banks also included " BBD " on the set list to her Broke with Expensive Taste World Tour ( 2014 – 15 ) . According to Dianca Potts , during Banks ' gig at the Irving Plaza , " ' BBD ' and ' Wallace ' were similarly received , the audience 's enthusiasm building as each second passed " . The track was also well received when performed in Europe , with The Independent writer David Pollock highlighting it as one of the best received numbers of the night , along with " No Problems " and " 212 " .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from Broke with Expensive Taste liner notes .
= = = Credits = = =
" BBD " contains excerpts from " Swoop " , as originally performed by ETX ! ETC ! and Brillz .
" BBD " contains excerpts from " Trap Shit V9 " , as originally performed by UZ .
= = = Locations = = =
Recorded at Glenwood Place Studios ( Burbank , California )
Mixed at Germano Studios ( New York City , New York )
= = = Personnel = = =
Vocals – Azealia Banks
Songwriting – Azealia Banks , Jonathan Harris , Kevin James
Production – Apple Juice Kid
Co @-@ production – Sup Doodle
Engineering – Rick McRae
Recording – Rick McRae
Mixing – Rick McRae
= = Release history = =
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= The Wild and the Innocent ( Millennium ) =
" ' The Wild and the Innocent " is the tenth episode of the first season of the American crime @-@ thriller television series Millennium . It premiered on the Fox network on January 10 , 1997 . The episode was written by Jorge Zamacona , and directed by Thomas J. Wright . " The Wild and the Innocent " featured guest appearances by Heather McComb and Jeffrey Donovan .
Forensic profiler Frank Black ( Lance Henriksen ) , a member of the private investigative organisation Millennium Group , is following the trail of a murderous couple who are trying to track down a child that had been sold to another family .
" The Wild and the Innocent " makes reference to Ernest Renan , and featured several actors who would later appear in related series . The episode received mixed reviews , and has been compared to the works of Flannery O 'Connor and Cormac McCarthy .
= = Plot = =
Twenty @-@ year @-@ old Maddie Haskel ( Heather McComb ) , attends her mother 's funeral in Creve Coeur , Missouri , and returns to the family home afterwards . There , Jim Gilroy ( John Pyper @-@ Ferguson ) attempts to rape her , but he is beaten unconscious by Haskel 's boyfriend , Bobby Webber ( Jeffrey Donovan ) . Webber and Haskel drive off with Gilroy hostage in the boot of the car , but are later stopped by a state trooper . When the trooper notices noise coming from the car 's trunk , he is shot dead by Webber .
Peter Watts ( Terry O 'Quinn ) , a member of the private investigative organization the Millennium Group , informs his friend and fellow Group member Frank Black ( Lance Henriksen ) about the Missouri shooting . Records for the car show it to be registered to Gilroy , but Watts points out that Gilroy is simply an alias , and the man is actually Jake Waterson , a serial rapist who murdered three women several years earlier before disappearing . Searching Waterson 's address — Haskel 's family home — for clues , Black and Watts find the word " angel " carved into a television , but do not know what it means . Black also views footage taken by the trooper 's dashboard camera , realizing that Waterson is not the shooter , but is unable to identify Webber .
Elsewhere , Webber savagely beats Waterson , repeatedly asking him " where is he ? " . Webber and Haskel then break into a farmhouse , confronting the family with the same question . When they do not answer , Webber kills them both before realizing that Waterson had given him the address as a decoy . Webber threatens to kill Waterson unless he tells him the truth . Waterson complies , but is locked in the car 's trunk again , and the car is pushed into a lake . Webber and Haskel steal the dead couple 's car , and drive off .
Waterson 's submerged car is recovered by police before he drowns , and he is charged with the earlier rapes and murders . However , he refuses to reveal anything about the state trooper 's shooting . Black reads several letters found in Haskel 's home , written to her father but never posted , and deduces that " Angel " is Haskel 's son . Waterson 's bank account reveals a $ 7 @,@ 000 deposit shortly after Angel 's birth — Black realizes that Waterson , who is Haskel 's stepfather , sold the child for the money . Investigating the records of the lawyer who brokered the sale reveals the identity of the child 's recipients , a Mr and Mrs Travis .
Meanwhile , Webber storms into the Travis ' house , demanding the child be returned . When Haskel takes hold of her son , he begins to cry , and she realizes he is already in a good home . She hands the child back over to Mrs Travis . However , Webber protests angrily , causing Haskel to snatch his gun from him , and shoot him dead . Black later visits Haskel in jail and comforts her , telling her she did the right thing .
= = Production = =
" The Wild and the Innocent " is the second episode of the series directed by Thomas J. Wright , who had previously helmed " Dead Letters " . Wright would go on to direct twenty @-@ six episodes across all three seasons , as well as directing " Millennium " , the series ' crossover episode with its sister show The X @-@ Files . The episode also marks the second contribution to the series from writer Jorge Zamacona , who had written the earlier " Kingdom Come " ; this would be the last Millennium episode penned by Zamacona .
The episode opens with a quote from the French philosopher Ernest Renan , taken from A Skeptic 's Prayer — " O Lord , if there is a Lord , save my soul , if I have a soul " . Guest star Steve Makaj , who played one of the state troopers in the episode , would have a minor recurring role in The X @-@ Files as assassin Scott Ostelhoff . Fellow guest actor John Pyper @-@ Ferguson would reappear in Millennium 's second season , playing an unrelated character in " Anamnesis " . Pyper @-@ Ferguson also appeared in " Leviathan " , an episode of Millennium creator Chris Carter 's next series , Harsh Realm .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" The Wild and the Innocent " was first broadcast on the Fox Network on January 10 , 1997 ; and earned a Nielsen rating of 7 @.@ 1 , meaning that roughly 7 @,@ 1 percent of all television @-@ equipped households were tuned in to the episode . The episode was watched by approximately 6 @.@ 9 million households .
" The Wild and the Innocent " received mixed reviews from critics . Writing for The A.V. Club , Todd VanDerWerff rated the episode a B- , noting that he was unsure whether it was " one of the series ' very best episodes or one of its very worst " . VanDerWerff praised McComb 's performance , but felt that Donovan was " a kid playing dress @-@ up as the bad guy " ; he also noted the episode 's similarity to the works of Flannery O 'Connor , and described it as " nicely baroque , filled with lots of nice little moments and characters along the way " . Bill Gibron , writing for DVD Talk , rated the episode 1 out of 5 , describing it as " irritating , poorly cast and terribly written " . Gibron felt that the episode 's setting " reduces Millennium to a ridiculous movie of the week " , adding that the voice @-@ over narration makes it " a chore to sit through " . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode three stars out of five , describing it as " a quirky failure " . Shearman and Pearson felt that " The Wild and the Innocent " was a " curious mix of the cloyingly sentimental and the unremittingly bleak " , finding similarities to the works of Cormac McCarthy ; however , they felt that it did not work well as an episode of Millennium , finding the minimal involvement of the series ' main characters and the distinct difference in setting to detract from the episode as a whole .
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= A Lesson in Romantics =
A Lesson in Romantics is the debut studio album from American rock band Mayday Parade . The band resulted from the merger of Kid Named Chicago and Defining Moment . In June 2006 the band released an EP , Tales Told by Dead Friends , which they sold to people by following the 2006 edition of Warped Tour and offering copies ; it eventually sold 10 @,@ 000 copies . The band signed to Fearless Records in August . A Lesson in Romantics was recorded in early 2007 with producers Zack Odom and Kenneth Mount . Vocalist / guitarist Jason Lancaster left the band in March 2007 citing a lack of writing credit on the band 's releases . Prior to the release of A Lesson in Romantics , " Black Cat " , " When I Get Home , You 're So Dead " , and " Jamie All Over " were made available for streaming . After the album 's release , the band participated in the 2007 edition of Warped Tour .
A Lesson in Romantics was released through Fearless in July . A music video for " When I Get Home , You 're So Dead " was released in November , and the song was released as a single a month later . " Jamie All Over " was released as a single in May 2008 and a music video for the song was released two months later . The band then toured as part of the 2008 edition of Warped Tour . The music video for " When I Get Home , You 're So Dead " earned two MTV Video Music Awards nominations in 2008 . In January 2009 a music video was released for " Miserable at Best " . A Lesson in Romantics is the band 's most commercially successful release , selling over 200 @,@ 000 copies . It was released on vinyl in November 2011 . The album was featured on Rock Sound 's 2014 list - The 51 Most Essential Pop Punk Albums of All Time .
= = Background = =
Mayday Parade was formed in the winter of 2005 following the merger of two local Tallahassee bands , Kid Named Chicago and Defining Moment . Kid Named Chicago featured vocalist / guitarist Jason Lancaster , guitarist Alex Garcia and drummer Jake Bundrick , while Defining Moment featured vocalist Derek Sanders , guitarist Brooks Betts , and bassist Jeremy Lenzo . In June 2006 , their EP Tales Told by Dead Friends was released . The band followed the 2006 edition of Warped Tour , selling copies of the EP to people in line . By the end of summer , the group had sold 10 @,@ 000 copies of the EP . These sales caught the attention of Fearless Records , which signed Mayday Parade on August 29 . Fearless label president Bob Becker said the group : " were really believable , they were obviously good musicians , and they were really tight sounding . And we already knew they were hard @-@ working . " Between late September and early November , the band went on the Text on the Dance Floor tour with Mêlée , Wheatus , Brandtson , Lakes , and Fall of Transition . Tales Told by Dead Friends was re @-@ released through Fearless on November 7 .
= = Composition and recording = =
All of the songs on A Lesson in Romantics were written while touring after Warped Tour . The songs are about : " being in a relationship while you 're on the road , and the different hardships that come with that . " Unlike the band 's EP , the album was " more put together " and " more organized " , according to Garcia . Sanders thought it stood up " pretty well " to the EP , noting that it was " just as catchy " , but " more powerful . " " Jamie All Over " was originally recorded by Kid Named Chicago , Lancaster 's previous band . Sanders claimed the song was " kind of a tough one to choose " because the band had a lot of new material to choose from , but felt " pretty happy " with its inclusion . According to Garcia , the final track was called " You Be the Anchor That Keeps My Feet on the Ground , I 'll Be the Wings That Keep Your Heart in the Clouds " because the band was " trying to be poetic " .
Mayday Parade went into the studio in January 2007 . Recording took place at Tree Sound , located in Atlanta , Georgia . The band worked with producers Zack Odom and Kenneth Mount , who also engineered the sessions . " When I Get Home , You 're So Dead " from Tales Told by Dead Friends was re @-@ recorded because the song had previously received a big response from fans . Natalie VanLandingham provided additional vocals on " Jersey " , while Daniel Lancaster provided additional vocals on " Jamie All Over " . Mixing was done by Mark Needham , while Steve Hall mastered the album at Future Disc , located in McMinnville , Oregon .
= = Release = =
Lancaster left the band in March 2007 citing a lack of writing credit on the band 's releases . Lenzo and Bundrick filled in for Lancaster 's vocals , while Garcia and Betts performed Lancaster 's guitar parts . Garcia said this change made the guitars " sound more clear " and not " clutter [ ed ] " ; on the other hand , the group found it hard working out who should sing Lancaster 's parts . Lancaster 's departure hurt Sanders personally as " he was a good friend " . Later that month , the band supported Plain White T 's on their U.S. tour . On April 4 , " Black Cat " was made available for streaming via Hot Topic 's Myspace profile . On April 13 , the release of A Lesson in Romantics was announced . Between early May and late June , the band went on tour with support from Bedlight for Blue Eyes , Driver Side Impact , and Sick City . The track listing was revealed on May 18 . On June 6 , the band made " When I Get Home , You 're So Dead " available for streaming via their Myspace profile . " Jamie All Over " was made available for streaming on June 19 via AbsolutePunk .
Mayday Parade toured as part of the 2007 edition of Warped Tour . Following this , A Lesson in Romantics was released on July 10 through Fearless Records . In August , the band went on tour with Olympia and Sound the Alarm . The music video for " When I Get Home , You 're So Dead " , directed by Marco de la Torre , was filmed in September . In late September 2007 , the band supported Paramore in Japan and Australia . The band went on a co @-@ headlining tour with Madina Lake in October and November . The " When I Get Home , You 're So Dead " music video was released on November 14 , and the single was released on December 3 . The band went on the Manwhores and Open Sores Tour alongside All Time Low , Every Avenue , and Just Surrender in January 2008 . In April and May , the band went on the Explosions In Your Pants Tour with support from My American Heart and the Graduate . A music video was filmed for " Jamie All Over " in May , and the single was released on May 20 .
Mayday Parade went on the 2008 edition of Warped Tour , playing all summer @-@ long for the first time . Sanders explained that the group " finally felt like one of the real bands " on Warped Tour ; they " had a bus for the first time this year " . Following this , Independent Label Group , who help promote and market Fearless releases , persuaded Target Corporation to sell A Lesson in Romantics in its stores . The video for " Jamie All Over " was released through MTV on July 21 . The song was released to radio on September 2 . In October and November , the band supported All Time Low on the Compromising of Integrity , Morality , & Principles in Exchange for Money tour . A music video for " Miserable at Best " , directed by Mark Staubach , was released on January 9 , 2009 on the band 's Myspace . On November 21 , 2011 , the album was released on vinyl with a different colored cover . A white vinyl edition was released a year later , on August 28 , 2012 .
= = Reception and legacy = =
A Lesson in Romantics is considered a fan favorite . Daniel Thompson of Music Emissions wrote that : " every song is spectacular on this album and is a potential hit . " Despite its eventual success and acclaim , A Lesson In Romantics received little attention from professional music critics . Reviewers noted the improved sound from the band 's debut EP , Tales Told by Dead Friends . Joe DeAndrea from AbsolutePunk.net wrote that : " after their unimpressive release of the EP Tales Told By Dead Friends in November , the band 's back with their debut album that will surely become one of your most played of the Summer . " Sputnikmusic reviewer Adam Knott gave the album a score of 4 @.@ 5 out of 5 , calling it " a hell of a lot better " than most pop punk records .
A Lesson in Romantics debuted at number 8 on the Billboard Heatseekers Albums chart , staying on the chart for six weeks . The album finally dropped off on the chart dated March 1 , 2008 before eventually returning on the chart on July 12 . It stayed on the chart for 70 consecutive weeks . The album also charted on the Independent Albums chart , peaking at number 31 . In January 2009 , it was announced that the album had sold over 100 @,@ 000 copies . The album would later become the band 's biggest selling album , selling over 200 @,@ 000 copies . " When I Get Home , You 're So Dead " was ranked at number 194 on the New York Post 's 2007 list of best songs to download . In 2008 , the music video for " When I Get Home , You 're So Dead " was nominated at the MTV Video Music Awards for Best Rock Video and Video of the Year . The album was number 42 on Rock Sound 's The 51 Most Essential Pop Punk Albums of All Time list .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written by Mayday Parade .
" Jamie All Over " ( Kid Named Chicago cover ) – 3 : 36
" Black Cat " – 3 : 23
" When I Get Home , You 're So Dead " – 3 : 13
" Jersey " – 3 : 29
" If You Wanted a Song Written About You , All You Had to Do Was Ask " – 4 : 04
" Miserable at Best " – 5 : 20
" Walk on Water or Drown " – 3 : 29
" Ocean and Atlantic " – 3 : 30
" I 'd Hate to Be You When People Find Out What This Song Is About " – 4 : 01
" Take This to Heart " – 4 : 07
" Champagne 's for Celebrating ( I 'll Have a Martini ) " – 3 : 58
" You Be the Anchor That Keeps My Feet on the Ground , I 'll Be the Wings That Keep Your Heart in the Clouds " – 4 : 40
2008 reissue bonus tracks
= = Personnel = =
Personnel per 2008 reissue booklet .
= = Chart performance = =
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= Virginia State Route 37 =
State Route 37 ( SR 37 ) is a primary state highway in the U.S. state of Virginia . It forms a western bypass of Winchester , connecting to Interstate 81 at both ends . Although the road is a freeway , neither I @-@ 81 connection is freeway standard ; the south end ( exit 310 ) is a diamond interchange with two traffic signals , while , at the north end , drivers must use a short piece of U.S. Route 11 to connect with I @-@ 81 at exit 317 . In addition to local access , the highway connects to U.S. Route 50 and U.S. Route 522 , two major highways that lead west and northwest into West Virginia and north to Interstate 70 at Hancock , Maryland . An eastern bypass , known locally as " Route 37 East " , has been proposed in statewide and local plans to complete the loop .
= = Route description = =
Route 37 begins at an intersection with Hillandale Road ( SR 847 ) , a local frontage road along the east side of I @-@ 81 , and Tasker Road ( SR 642 ) , which leads southeast to US 522 near Armel . It immediately crosses I @-@ 81 at exit 310 , a diamond interchange with two traffic signals on SR 37 , and then becomes a freeway , soon junctioning US 11 ( Valley Pike ) with a partial cloverleaf . The next interchange is a diamond at Cedar Creek Grade ( SR 622 ) , and SR 37 reaches its approximate midpoint at US 50 ( Northwestern Pike ) , another diamond . A trumpet interchange completed in 2001 connects to the Winchester Medical Center , and the final diamond is with US 522 ( Frederick Pike ) at the northwestern corner . SR 37 ends at a partial Y interchange with US 11 ( Martinsburg Pike ) , at which SR 37 traffic can only access US 11 north and only traffic from US 11 south can access SR 37 , although a northbound exit to Cives Lane was added in about 2000 to allow SR 37 traffic to access US 11 south . About 1 / 2 mile ( 1 km ) of US 11 is a divided highway , connecting SR 37 with I @-@ 81 at exit 317 .
= = Future = =
In early Fall 2014 VDOT will start work at Route 37 's southern terminus ' exit at I @-@ 81 . They will extend Route 37 north to a new diamond interchange with Front Royal Pike ( US 522 ) . Then Route 37 will continue northward to Millwood Pike ( US 50 / US 17 ) and have another diamond interchange . The next exit will be at Senseny Road ( State Route 657 ) with another diamond interchange . The next and final exit will be a half cloverleaf interchange with VA 7 , but it is not final that it will be a half cloverleaf because of Valley Mill Road ( State Route 659 ) . The problem with this is that the intersection with Valley Mill Road is where the southbound exit for Route 37 is to come into Route 7 .
= = History = =
Route 37 was defined as the proposed Winchester By @-@ Pass by 1963 , and was included in the statewide Arterial Network when it was created in 1964 . When I @-@ 81 opened past Winchester in November 1965 , it included an interchange south of Winchester , taking traffic between I @-@ 81 and US 11 along a short connecting road . The north half of the bypass , from US 50 west of Winchester north and east to US 11 north of the city , opened in the late 1960s , and the semicircle was completed in the late 1970s , with the linking of Route 37 to the existing I @-@ 81 / US 11 connection . A new bridge carrying southbound SR 37 over I @-@ 81 was built , but otherwise the diamond interchange was not modified . The only change to the major bypass since it was constructed has been a new trumpet interchange serving the Winchester Medical Center ; construction began in September 2000 and was completed in November 2001 . A single ramp from SR 37 north to Cives Lane , allowing traffic at the north end of the bypass to access US 11 south , was built in about 2000 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Frederick County .
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= Ninja Gaiden ( NES video game ) =
Ninja Gaiden ( NINJA外伝 ) , known in Japan as Ninja Ryūkenden ( 忍者龍剣伝 , literally " Legend of the Ninja Dragon Sword " ) and as Shadow Warriors in Europe , is a side @-@ scrolling action @-@ platforming video game . It was developed and published by Tecmo for the Nintendo Entertainment System ( NES ) ; its development and release coincided with the beat ' em up arcade version of the same name . It was released in December 1988 ( 1988 @-@ 12 ) in Japan , in March 1989 in North America , and in August 1991 ( 1991 @-@ 08 ) in Europe . It has been ported to several other platforms , including the PC Engine , the Super NES , the Virtual Console , and mobile phones .
The story follows a ninja named Ryu Hayabusa as he journeys to America to avenge his murdered father . There , he learns that a person named " the Jaquio " plans to take control of the world by unleashing an ancient demon through the power contained in two statues . Featuring platforming gameplay similar to Castlevania and the NES version of Batman , players control Ryu through six " Acts " that comprise 20 levels ; they encounter enemies that must be dispatched with Ryu 's katana and other secondary weapons .
Ninja Gaiden has been renowned for its elaborate story and usage of anime @-@ like cinematic cutscenes . It received extensive coverage and won several awards from video gaming magazines , while criticism focused on its high and unforgiving difficulty , particularly in the later levels . Over fifteen years after its release , the game continued to receive acclaim from print and online publications . It was novelized as part of the Worlds of Power NES game adaptations written by Seth Godin and Peter Lerangis , and it spawned a soundtrack CD .
= = Plot = =
Ninja Gaiden features a ninja named Ryu Hayabusa who seeks revenge for the death of his father and gradually finds himself involved in a sinister plot that threatens the entire world . The story opens with Ryu 's father Ken being killed in a duel by an unknown assailant . After the duel , Ryu finds a letter written by Ken which tells Ryu to find an archeologist named Walter Smith in America . Before Ryu can find Walter , Ryu is shot and kidnapped by a mysterious young woman ; she hands him a demonic @-@ looking statue before releasing him . Ryu then finds Walter , and Walter tells him of the demon statues he and Ken had found in the Amazon ruins . Walter tells Ryu of an evil demon named Jashin , that " SHINOBI " defeated and whose power was confined into two " Light " and " Shadow " demon statues . Ryu shows Walter the " Shadow " demon statue given to him from the woman , but during their conversation , a masked figure suddenly breaks into the cabin and steals the Shadow statue . Ryu gives chase , defeats the masked figure , and retrieves the statue ; but when he returns he finds that Walter is dying and the Light statue is missing . Right after Walter dies , three armed men confront Ryu and tell him to come with them .
Ryu is taken to an interrogation room , where he meets Foster , head of the Special Auxiliary Unit of the Central Intelligence Agency . Foster tells Ryu about a more @-@ than @-@ 2000 @-@ year @-@ old temple Walter discovered in some ruins in the Amazon . He continues by saying that Walter , one day , mysteriously sealed the ruins , in which nobody has since ventured near . Foster explains to Ryu that they have been monitoring the activity of someone named Guardia de Mieux , also known as " the Jaquio " , who recently moved into the temple . Using the statues , the Jaquio plans to awaken Jashin and use it to destroy the world . Foster asks Ryu to go to the temple and eliminate him . After making it into the temple , Ryu discovers that the Jaquio is holding captive the girl who handed him the " Shadow " statue earlier . He orders Ryu to give up the demon statue after threatening the girl 's life . Ryu is then dropped from sight through a trapdoor and into a catacomb .
After fighting his way back to the top of the temple , Ryu encounters Bloody Malth , whom Ryu defeats . While dying , Malth reveals that he was the one who dueled with Ryu 's father , that his father is still alive and that Ryu will meet him as he presses onward . When he reaches the temple 's inner chambers , he discovers that his father was not killed but was instead possessed by an evil figure . He destroys the evil figure , which releases Ken from its hold . Jaquio , enraged from Ken 's release from the possession , shows himself ; he immediately tries to kill Ryu with a fiery projectile , but Ken throws himself in front of Ryu and takes the hit . Jaquio is killed during the ensuing fight by Ryu , but then a lunar eclipse occurs , causing the demon statues to transform into Jashin . After Ryu defeats the demon , Ken tells him he does not have much longer to live due to Jaquio 's attack . He tells Ryu to leave him behind in the temple while it collapses and to take the young woman with him . Afterwards , Foster , communicating via satellite , orders the girl to kill Ryu and steal the demon statues ; she chooses to be with Ryu instead of carrying out the order . The two kiss , and the girl tells Ryu her name , Irene Lew ; the two watch as the sun rises .
= = Gameplay = =
Ninja Gaiden is a side @-@ scrolling platform game in which the player takes control of the player character , Ryu Hayabusa , and guides him through six " Acts " that comprise 20 levels . Ryu 's physical strength is represented by a life meter , which decreases when he is hit by an enemy or projectile . A " life " is lost when the life meter depletes entirely , when Ryu falls off of the screen , or when the timer runs out . A game over screen appears when all lives are lost ; however , the player may restart the level on which this occurred by continuing . At the end of every act , the player fights a boss ; bosses have life meters that the player depletes with attacks . A boss is defeated when its life meter is depleted entirely . Each boss is one of the " Malice Four " – evil underlings of the Jaquio , the game 's main antagonist . The Malice Four consist of Barbarian , Bomberhead , Basaquer , and their leader Bloody Malth .
Players attack enemies by thrusting at them with Ryu 's Dragon Sword – a katana @-@ like sword passed down from the Hayabusa clan for generations . They can also use " secondary " weapons that consume Ryu 's " spiritual strength " . Secondary weapons include throwing stars , " windmill throwing stars " which cut through enemies and return like boomerangs , a series of twirling fireballs named " the art of the fire wheel " , and a mid @-@ air slashing technique called the " jump & slash " . When Ryu 's spiritual strength meter becomes too low , the player cannot use secondary weapons . Players can replenish Ryu 's spiritual strength by collecting red and blue " spiritual strength " items found in lamps and lanterns . Other items found along the way include hourglasses that freeze all enemies and projectiles for five seconds , bonus point containers , potions that restore six units of physical strength , " invincible fire wheels " that make Ryu temporarily invincible to attacks , and 1 @-@ ups .
Ryu has the ability to jump on and off ladders and walls , and by using the directional pad , he can climb up or down ladders . Ryu can spring off walls by holding the directional pad in the opposite direction he is facing and pressing the jump button . He cannot attack while on walls or ladders . Players can use this technique to get Ryu to climb up spaces between walls and columns by holding down the jump button and alternating between left and right on the directional pad . Ryu can also vertically climb a single wall by springing off it and then quickly pressing the directional pad back towards the wall .
= = Development = =
Ninja Gaiden was developed by Tecmo , who also developed the Tecmo Bowl and Rygar series . The game was released in December 1988 in Japan under the title Ninja Ryukenden , which literally translates to Legend of the Dragon Sword . It was developed and released around the same time as the beat ' em up arcade version of the same name ; neither of the two games were ports of each other but were parallel projects developed by different teams . According to developer Masato Kato ( listed as " Runmaru " in the game 's credits ) , the term " ninja " was gaining popularity in North America , prompting Tecmo to develop a ninja @-@ related game for the NES at the same time the arcade version of Ninja Gaiden was being developed . The NES version was developed and directed by Hideo Yoshizawa ( listed as " Sakurazaki " ) . Ninja Gaiden was also Masato Kato 's first full @-@ time project as a video game designer , and he contributed the game 's graphics , animations and instruction manual illustrations .
Drawing inspiration from the Mario series , Yoshizawa kept the same title but changed everything else ; it became a platformer as opposed to a beat ' em up such as Double Dragon ; the gameplay was modeled after Konami 's Castlevania , with Ryu being equipped with a katana @-@ like Dragon Sword , shurikens , and ninpo techniques such as fire wheels . In designing the protagonist Ryu Hayabusa , the development team wanted him to be unique from other ninjas . They designed him with a ninja vest in order to place emphasis on his muscles , and they furnished him with a cowl that arched outward . They originally wanted to equip Ryu with sensors and a helmet with an inside monitor to check his surroundings , but that idea was scrapped . According to Kato , they utilized specific locations and environments to justify the need for having a ninja for a main character .
Yoshizawa placed greater emphasis on story as opposed to the arcade version , and he wrote and designed the plot that included over 20 minutes of cinematic cutscenes – the first time an NES game contained such sequences . Tecmo called the cutscene system " Tecmo Theater " , in which the game reveals the storyline between Acts through the usage of animated sequences . These sequences are used at the beginning of each Act to introduce new characters such as Irene Lew , Walter Smith , and the Jaquio . This feature uses techniques such as close @-@ ups , alternate camera angles , differing background music , and sound effects . It was used to make the game more enjoyable for players . Unlike earlier titles such as Final Fantasy , the cutscenes consisted of large anime art on the top half of the screen with dialogue on the bottom half . This made the artistic style more reminiscent of other manga titles such as Lupin III and Golgo 13 . Dimitri Criona , Tecmo USA 's director of sales and marketing , said that the advantages of console games over arcade games allowed the creation of a longer game and the inclusion of cutscenes , which Tecmo trademarked as " cinema screens " ; he noted the lack of motivation to drop quarters that has allowed this on home consoles , which required a different reward structure than in arcade games . The game contains a feature that was originally a glitch but left in the final game intentionally , according to Masato Kato . When losing to any of the final three bosses in the game , the player is sent back to the beginning of the sixth act .
When the game 's text was translated from Japanese to English , the game needed to be reprogrammed in order to accomplish this ; different companies handled this process in different ways . Tecmo 's Japanese writers wrote rough translations in English , and they would then fax them to the American division . According to Criona , the American division would " edit it and put it back together , telling the story in a context that an American English speaker would understand . This would go back and forth several times . " Moreover , the game 's text was stored in picture files instead of raw computer text , and because of the NES ' hardware limitations , the English text need to be very clear and concise to fall within those limitations ; many times , different words with the same meaning but with less characters had to be used . All symbols and objects were scrutinized by Nintendo of America , who had specific rules on what could be included for North American releases ; for instance , any Satanic , Christian , or any other religious , sexual , or drug @-@ related references were not allowed .
= = = Release = = =
Since the game 's title was deemed too difficult to read for English audiences , it was renamed when it was released in Western markets . In early 1988 advertisements from Nintendo Fun Club News , Tecmo used Dragon Ninja as a tentative title for the U.S. release . They decided to use the title Ninja Gaiden when the game was released in the U.S. in March 1989 ; the title literally meant " Ninja Side @-@ Story " , but the game was not intended as a spin @-@ off of the arcade version . According to an interview with developer Masato Kato , the staff , determining how to translate " Ryukenden " into English , went with Ninja Gaiden " because it sounded cool " . In Europe , the game was scheduled to be released in September 1990 , but the release was delayed until September 1991 . It was retitled as Shadow Warriors – just as Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles was renamed Teenage Mutant Hero Turtles – as ninjas were considered a taboo subject in Europe . It was one of many ninja @-@ related video games around the time , such as The Legend of Kage , Ninja Warriors , and Shinobi .
Upon Ninja Gaiden 's North American release , Nintendo of America , whose play @-@ testers liked the game and gave it high ratings , decided to help with its marketing . It was featured prominently in Nintendo 's house organ Nintendo Power ; according to Criona , it did not take a lot of effort to market the game through the magazine , nor did Tecmo or Nintendo do much else to promote it . The game 's demand eventually exceeded its supply . While Tecmo anticipated that the game would be a hit , they did not realize at the time its impact it would have in the video game industry , according to Kohler , " with its groundbreaking use of cinematics " . Yoshizawa would go on to direct the sequel Ninja Gaiden II : The Dark Sword of Chaos ( 1990 ) and remained as an executive producer for Ninja Gaiden III : The Ancient Ship of Doom ( 1991 ) , while Masato Kato took over directing the game design .
Ninja Gaiden received preview coverage in the January – February 1989 issue of Nintendo Power in its " Pak Watch " section , where it " got the highest marks of any title we 've [ the magazine 's staff ] seen in a long time " , and that it was expected to be No. 1 on their " Player 's Poll " quickly . The preview compared Ryu 's ability to climb and spring off walls to the gameplay in Metroid . The game was unveiled at the 1989 International Winter Consumer Electronics Show in Las Vegas , and its display featured a demo of the game and a live person dressed as a ninja . Tecmo predicted that the game would be the top @-@ selling third @-@ party title for the NES .
= = Ports = =
= = = PC Engine = = =
The game was first ported to the PC Engine in 1992 and was published by Hudson Soft and released only in Japan ; it featured an alternate English and Traditional Chinese translation , more colorful and detailed graphics , and difficulty and gameplay tweaks . In order to switch among the three different languages , the player will have to pause the Select + I + II together at the title screen .
= = = SNES = = =
It appeared as a remake for the Ninja Gaiden Trilogy compilation for the Super NES in 1995 . Some reviewers appreciated the redrawn graphics and music in this version , but others found them to be an inadequate effort . Electronic Gaming Monthly reviewers compared it unfavorably to another updated NES remake , Mega Man : The Wily Wars ; they called the version " an exact port @-@ over with no noticeable enhancements in graphics , sound and play control " .
= = = Other ports and re @-@ releases = = =
The Ninja Gaiden has since been ported to other consoles . Along with the other two games in the Ninja Gaiden trilogy , the SNES version was featured as an unlockable game in the 2004 Xbox Ninja Gaiden game .
The NES version was released on Wii 's Virtual Console on April 10 , 2007 ( 2007 @-@ 04 @-@ 10 ) in Japan and on May 14 , 2007 ( 2007 @-@ 05 @-@ 14 ) in North America . Europeans , Australians , and New Zealanders have been able to purchase the game as part of " Hanabi Festival " on September 21 , 2007 ( 2007 @-@ 09 @-@ 21 ) . The PC Engine version was also released for Virtual Console in Japan on April 21 , 2009 ( 2009 @-@ 04 @-@ 21 ) . The NES version was also released for the Nintendo 3DS Virtual Console , with an original release date set for November 8 , 2012 ( 2012 @-@ 11 @-@ 08 ) . However , it was delayed until December 13 , 2012 ( 2012 @-@ 12 @-@ 13 ) .
= = Reception = =
Ninja Gaiden received strong publicity in Nintendo Power in 1989 and 1990 . It was featured on the cover of the magazine 's March – April 1989 issue and was referenced in the following issue in a Howard and Nester comic strip . It was one of the featured games in both March – April and May – June 1989 issues of the magazine ; both issues included a walkthrough up to the fifth Act , a review , and a plot overview . Underlining the game 's difficulty , it appeared in several issues in the magazine 's " Counselor 's Corner " and " Classified Information " help sections . The game debuted at No. 3 on its " Top 30 " list for July – August 1989 , behind Zelda II : The Adventure of Link and Super Mario Bros. 2 ; it stayed at No. 3 in the following September – October 1989 issue . The game was featured in the " Nintendo Power Awards ' 89 " as one of the top games that year . It was nominated for " Best Graphics and Sound " , " Best Challenge " , " Best Theme , Fun " , " Best Character " ( Ryu Hayabusa ) , " Best Ending " , and " Best Overall " ; and it won for " Best Challenge " and " Best Ending " . In its preview of Ninja Gaiden II : The Dark Sword of Chaos , the magazine said that " the colorful , detailed and dynamic cinema scenes of the original Ninja Gaiden set a standard for action game narration that has since been widely emulated . These cinema scenes made Ninja Gaiden play almost like a movie . "
The game received strong reviews and publicity from other video gaming magazines at the time . In a review from VideoGames & Computer Entertainment , the presentation and gameplay was compared to Castlevania , while the cinematic cutscenes were compared favorably to Karateka and other computer games by Cinemaware . The review praised the game 's animation in these cutscenes and noted Tecmo 's usage of close @-@ ups and body movements . The reviewer said that while the cutscenes were not fluid , they were effective and entertaining and gave important information as to what the player was supposed to do . He appreciated that the game had unlimited continues which slightly offset its difficulty , but he criticized it for having overdetailed background graphics especially in the indoor levels , saying that some bottomless pits and items in these levels become slightly camouflaged . From July to October 1989 , the game was listed at No. 1 on Electronic Gaming Monthly 's " Top Ten Video Games " list ; it fell to No. 2 on the list behind Mega Man 2 in the following November issue . In their " Best and Worst of 1989 " , it received awards for " Best Game of the Year " for the NES and " Best Ending in a Video Game " for all consoles . The staff said that Ninja Gaiden " proved to be an instant winner " with its cinematic cutscenes and unique gameplay . They added that the game 's climax was better than some movies ' climaxes at the time and that it established continuity for a sequel , which would be released the following year . Later in June 1994 , the magazine ranked it at No. 4 in a special list of " Top Ten Most Difficult Games " of all time for all consoles .
Ninja Gaiden was featured on the cover of the pilot issue of UK magazine Mean Machines in July 1990 ; the magazine was distributed as part of the July 1990 issue of Computer and Video Games . In its review , Julian Rignall compared the game to its beat ' em up arcade counterpart , which was titled Shadow Warriors . He noted that the game has great graphics that feature diverse backgrounds and character sprites ; he gave special praise to its usage of cartoon @-@ like animation sequences between Acts in which the game 's plot unfolds . He enjoyed the game 's difficulty especially with the bosses , but he noted that the game will seem tough at first until players get accustomed to the controls . He criticized the game for its sound , which he said did not fit with the graphics and was " racy " , but said that " what 's there is atmospheric and suits the action " . He highly recommended the game to fans of the beat ' em up and combat genres .
The game ( the NES version now officially titled Shadow Warriors in Europe ) was reviewed again in Mean Machines ' July 1991 issue . In the review , Matt Regan and Paul Glancey praised the game 's detailed and animated character sprites and its difficulty level . Regan was impressed with the game 's high standards of gameplay , sound , and overall depth ; he noted the game 's frustrating difficulty but pointed out that it has unlimited continues . Glancey compared the game to the 1990 NES version of Batman with the similarities of wall @-@ jumping mechanics ; he said that its graphics were not as well @-@ developed as Batman 's but were still satisfactory . He praised its detailed sprites and their animations along with the " Tecmo Theater " concept , noting that the cutscenes " help supply a lot of atmosphere " . He said that it is of the best arcade @-@ style games on the NES as well as the best ninja @-@ related game on the system .
The game received some praise and criticism in the August 1991 issue of German magazine Power Play . The review praised the game for its attention to detail and challenge and noted that players need to master certain gameplay skills to move on . Criticisms included a " lack of variety " and dullness in gameplay , in which it was compared to a " visit to the tax office " . The PC Engine version was briefly mentioned in the December 1991 issue of Electronic Gaming Monthly as part of a review of games that have been released outside the U.S. They noted the faithful translation from the NES version as well as the revamped and more detailed graphics ; they said that " PC Engine owners should not miss this one ! "
= = = Legacy = = =
In 2004 , Tecmo began releasing low @-@ priced episodic installments of Ninja Gaiden for AT & T and Verizon mobile phones on both BREW and Java platforms . The official English Tecmo Games mobile website advertised it for a future release along with a mobile version of Tecmo Bowl . They planned to release the entire game throughout 2004 in a series of four installments – similar to what Upstart Games did when they ported the NES version of Castlevania to mobile phones . The port featured the same visuals and soundtrack found on the NES version , and each installment was to consist of several levels of gameplay at a time . The first installment , titled Ninja Gaiden Episode I : Destiny , was released on July 15 , 2004 ( 2004 @-@ 07 @-@ 15 ) , and it included only the first Act from the NES version but added two new levels . The second installment was planned to be released in North America and was previewed by GameSpot in September 2004 , but it – along with the third and fourth installments – was never released .
The mobile phone port of Ninja Gaiden was met with some praise and criticism . IGN 's Levi Buchanan and GameSpot 's Damon Brown praised the port for its accurate translation from the NES to mobile phones , saying that the gameplay , graphics , and cinematic cutscenes remain true to the NES version . They praised the game 's controls , despite the game 's omission of the ability to duck so that pressing " down " on the phone 's directional pad could be used for secondary weapons ; Brown said the port had better controls than most other mobile phone games at the time . They both criticized the port for its lack of sound quality , but Buchanan said that this was not Tecmo 's fault . In a preview of the port , GameSpot 's Avery Score pointed to generally inferior American @-@ made handsets as the reason for its sound shortcomings .
Retro Gamer took a look back at Ninja Gaiden in its March 2004 issue , in the midst of the release of the 2004 Xbox remake . They said that the game broke the mold of conventional video game titles by including a plot with cinematic cutscenes added between gameplay segments . They added that the concept of adding cinematics for a game 's introduction , plot , and ending was a new concept which " naturally impressed the gaming public " . They noted the game 's high difficulty level , saying that the game " threw up an immense challenge even for the veteran gamer , and almost dared you to complete it mentally and physically intact " . Chris Kohler , in his 2004 book Power @-@ Up : How Japanese Video Games Gave the World an Extra Life , said , while it wasn 't as far @-@ reaching as Tecmo Bowl , " it ended up revolutionizing video games with its courageous , unique , and trailblazing use of cinema scenes " .
Upon its release on the Virtual Console , Ninja Gaiden was met with high praise , especially for its elaborate story , amount of narrative , and usage of anime @-@ like cinematic sequences . Some critics have bemoaned its gameplay for being too similar to Castlevania ; similarities include identical displays on the top of the screen , items contained in breakable lanterns , and a nearly identical " secondary weapons " feature . A 1UP.com review noted that the two games have different dynamics and that several actions possible in Ninja Gaiden would be impossible in Castlevania . Contemporary reviews have considered the game " groundbreaking " for its pioneering use of stylized cutscenes , high quality music , and dark atmosphere . One review said that the game makes up for its high difficulty level with good gameplay . IGN said that it is one of the best platforming video games of all time .
Reviewers have criticized the game for its high and unforgiving difficulty level especially late in the game . A review from 1UP.com referred to the latter levels as an " unfair display of intentional cheapness " . In his review of the Virtual Console version , GameSpot 's Alex Navarro said " the game will beat you to a pulp " and that it " assaults you time and time again with its punishing difficulty , insidiously placed enemies , and rage @-@ inducing boss fights " . According to his review , the game starts easy , but the difficulty starts to increase halfway through the second Act and continues through the sixth Act ; Navarro describes the sixth Act 's difficulty as being " one of the bottom levels of gaming hell " . IGN said that this game was one of the most difficult video games of all time , setting the trend for the rest of the series ; however , they pointed out that its difficulty and graphics are " defining characteristics [ that ] have carried over through the years into modern day [ Ninja ] Gaiden sequels " . ScrewAttack listed the game as the seventh hardest title in the NES library .
Over fifteen years after its creation , Ninja Gaiden has maintained its position as one of the most popular games for the NES . A 2006 Joystiq reader poll , with over 12 @,@ 000 votes , listed the game at No. 10 in a list of top NES games . Another reader poll from GameSpot listed the game at No. 10 in its top 10 NES games list . It was No. 17 on IGN 's " Top 100 NES Games " list . In August 2001 in its 100th issue , Game Informer listed the game at No. 93 in their " Top 100 Games of All Time " list . In 2006 Electronic Gaming Monthly featured a follow @-@ up to their " The 200 Greatest Videogames of Their Time " , in which readers wrote in and discussed games they felt were ignored on the list ; the game was listed at No. 16 in the top 25 games discussed . At the end of 2005 , Nintendo Power ran a serial feature titled " The Top 200 Nintendo Games Ever " . The list , which included games for all Nintendo systems , had the game at No. 89 . In August 2008 , the same magazine ranked it the tenth best NES game of all time ; they praised the gameplay and described the cinematic cutscenes as revolutionary for its time . The game 's music received honorable mention in IGN 's list of " Best 8 @-@ Bit Soundtracks " . Its introduction was featured in IGN 's " Top 100 Video Game Moments " list at # 53 ; it was also listed as the second best video game cutscene of all time in Complex magazine .
Nintendo Power honored the game in its November 2010 issue , which celebrated the 25th anniversary of the NES . The magazine listed its box art , which depicts a ninja with a burning city in the background , as one of its favorite designs in the NES library . The magazine 's Editor in Chief Chris Slate was equally impressed by the game 's box art . He also reminisced the game 's high level of difficulty with its re @-@ spawning enemies and enemy birds that knocked players into pits , saying this game " may have taught me how to curse " . He further praised gameplay features such as clinging on walls and using ninpo techniques , and he noted the game 's cinematic cutscenes , including the ominous opening sequence that featured two ninjas who launch into the air at each other and clashing their swords in the moonlight . He said that " Ninja Gaiden was about as cool as an 8 @-@ bit game could be , especially for ninja @-@ crazed kids of the ' 80s who , like me , had worn out their VHS copies of Enter the Ninja " . In a July 2011 issue , Retro Gamer listed the game 's opening as one of the most popular ones at the time . The magazine noted how its usage of cutscenes , animations , and overall presentation put the game above most other action titles at the time . While it lauded the controls and gameplay elements , as with other reviews , it criticized the difficulty , calling it " one of the most challenging games on the console " . It noted how defeated enemies re @-@ spawn in certain spots , how enemies are placed on the edges of platforms , and the structure of the final level .
= = Related media = =
In July 1990 Scholastic Corporation published a novelization of Ninja Gaiden under the Worlds of Power series of NES game adaptations , created and packaged by Seth Godin under the pseudonym " F. X. Nine " . Godin and Peter Lerangis , under the pseudonym " A. L. Singer " , wrote the novelization . As with the other Worlds of Power books , the amount of violence present in the video game was toned down in the novelization , because Godin and Scholastic were concerned that some of the material in the video game was inappropriate for a young audience . The novel did not strictly adhere to the game 's storyline ; for instance , the ending was changed so that Ryu 's father survived . Ryu 's father remained alive in the story because Godin believed that the revised ending was consistent with the Worlds of Power character and as real @-@ life fathers Godin and Lerangis felt reluctance to leave Ryu without a father . The book 's cover , otherwise a replication of the North American box art , had the kunai held in Ryu 's front hand was airbrushed out , leaving him to prod the air with an empty fist .
A soundtrack CD , Ninja Ryukenden : Tecmo GSM @-@ 1 , was released by Pony Canyon in February 1989 . The first half of the CD starts with an arranged medley of the game 's music . It then continues with enhanced versions of the game 's music which utilized stereophonic sound and additional PCM channels . The remainder of the CD features music from the arcade version .
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= Synthetic diamond =
A synthetic diamond ( also known as an artificial diamond , cultured diamond , or cultivated diamond ) is diamond produced in an artificial process , as opposed to natural diamonds , which are created by geological processes . Synthetic diamond is also widely known as HPHT diamond or CVD diamond after the two common production methods ( referring to the high @-@ pressure high @-@ temperature and chemical vapor deposition crystal formation methods , respectively ) . While the term synthetic is associated by consumers with imitation products , artificial diamonds are made of the same material ( pure carbon , crystallized in isotropic 3D form ) . In the U.S. , the Federal Trade Commission has indicated that the alternative terms laboratory @-@ grown , laboratory @-@ created , and [ manufacturer @-@ name ] -created " would more clearly communicate the nature of the stone " .
Numerous claims of diamond synthesis were documented between 1879 and 1928 ; most of those attempts were carefully analyzed but none were confirmed . In the 1940s , systematic research began in the United States , Sweden and the Soviet Union to grow diamonds using CVD and HPHT processes . The first reproducible synthesis was reported around 1953 . Those two processes still dominate the production of synthetic diamond . A third method , known as detonation synthesis , entered the diamond market in the late 1990s . In this process , nanometer @-@ sized diamond grains are created in a detonation of carbon @-@ containing explosives . A fourth method , treating graphite with high @-@ power ultrasound , has been demonstrated in the laboratory , but currently has no commercial application .
The properties of synthetic diamond depend on the details of the manufacturing processes ; however , some synthetic diamonds ( whether formed by HPHT or CVD ) have properties such as hardness , thermal conductivity and electron mobility that are superior to those of most naturally formed diamonds . Synthetic diamond is widely used in abrasives , in cutting and polishing tools and in heat sinks . Electronic applications of synthetic diamond are being developed , including high @-@ power switches at power stations , high @-@ frequency field @-@ effect transistors and light @-@ emitting diodes . Synthetic diamond detectors of ultraviolet ( UV ) light or high @-@ energy particles are used at high @-@ energy research facilities and are available commercially . Because of its unique combination of thermal and chemical stability , low thermal expansion and high optical transparency in a wide spectral range , synthetic diamond is becoming the most popular material for optical windows in high @-@ power CO2 lasers and gyrotrons . It is estimated that 98 % of industrial grade diamond demand is supplied with synthetic diamonds .
Both CVD and HPHT diamonds can be cut into gems and various colors can be produced : clear white , yellow , brown , blue , green and orange . The appearance of synthetic gems on the market created major concerns in the diamond trading business , as a result of which special spectroscopic devices and techniques have been developed to distinguish synthetic and natural diamonds .
= = History = =
After the 1797 discovery that diamond was pure carbon , many attempts were made to convert various cheap forms of carbon into diamond . The earliest successes were reported by James Ballantyne Hannay in 1879 and by Ferdinand Frédéric Henri Moissan in 1893 . Their method involved heating charcoal at up to 3500 ° C with iron inside a carbon crucible in a furnace . Whereas Hannay used a flame @-@ heated tube , Moissan applied his newly developed electric arc furnace , in which an electric arc was struck between carbon rods inside blocks of lime . The molten iron was then rapidly cooled by immersion in water . The contraction generated by the cooling supposedly produced the high pressure required to transform graphite into diamond . Moissan published his work in a series of articles in the 1890s .
Many other scientists tried to replicate his experiments . Sir William Crookes claimed success in 1909 . Otto Ruff claimed in 1917 to have produced diamonds up to 7 mm in diameter , but later retracted his statement . In 1926 , Dr. J Willard Hershey of McPherson College replicated Moissan 's and Ruff 's experiments , producing a synthetic diamond ; that specimen is on display at the McPherson Museum in Kansas . Despite the claims of Moissan , Ruff , and Hershey , other experimenters were unable to reproduce their synthesis .
The most definitive replication attempts were performed by Sir Charles Algernon Parsons . A prominent scientist and engineer known for his invention of the steam turbine , he spent about 40 years ( 1882 – 1922 ) and a considerable part of his fortune trying to reproduce the experiments of Moissan and Hannay , but also adapted processes of his own . Parsons was known for his painstakingly accurate approach and methodical record keeping ; all his resulting samples were preserved for further analysis by an independent party . He wrote a number of articles — some of the earliest on HPHT diamond — in which he claimed to have produced small diamonds . However , in 1928 , he authorized Dr. C.H. Desch to publish an article in which he stated his belief that no synthetic diamonds ( including those of Moissan and others ) had been produced up to that date . He suggested that most diamonds that had been produced up to that point were likely synthetic spinel .
= = = GE diamond project = = =
In 1941 , an agreement was made between the General Electric ( GE ) , Norton and Carborundum companies to further develop diamond synthesis . They were able to heat carbon to about 3 @,@ 000 ° C ( 5 @,@ 430 ° F ) under a pressure of 3 @.@ 5 gigapascals ( 510 @,@ 000 psi ) for a few seconds . Soon thereafter , the Second World War interrupted the project . It was resumed in 1951 at the Schenectady Laboratories of GE , and a high @-@ pressure diamond group was formed with Francis P. Bundy and H.M. Strong . Tracy Hall and others joined this project shortly thereafter .
The Schenectady group improved on the anvils designed by Percy Bridgman , who received a Nobel Prize for his work in 1946 . Bundy and Strong made the first improvements , then more were made by Hall . The GE team used tungsten carbide anvils within a hydraulic press to squeeze the carbonaceous sample held in a catlinite container , the finished grit being squeezed out of the container into a gasket . The team recorded diamond synthesis on one occasion , but the experiment could not be reproduced because of uncertain synthesis conditions , and the diamond was later shown to have been a natural diamond used as a seed .
Hall achieved the first commercially successful synthesis of diamond on December 16 , 1954 , and this was announced on February 15 , 1955 . His breakthrough was using a " belt " press , which was capable of producing pressures above 10 GPa ( 1 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 psi ) and temperatures above 2 @,@ 000 ° C ( 3 @,@ 630 ° F ) . The press used a pyrophyllite container in which graphite was dissolved within molten nickel , cobalt or iron . Those metals acted as a " solvent @-@ catalyst " , which both dissolved carbon and accelerated its conversion into diamond . The largest diamond he produced was 0 @.@ 15 mm ( 0 @.@ 0059 in ) across ; it was too small and visually imperfect for jewelry , but usable in industrial abrasives . Hall 's co @-@ workers were able to replicate his work , and the discovery was published in the major journal Nature . He was the first person to grow a synthetic diamond with a reproducible , verifiable and well @-@ documented process . He left GE in 1955 , and three years later developed a new apparatus for the synthesis of diamond — a tetrahedral press with four anvils — to avoid violating a U.S. Department of Commerce secrecy order on the GE patent applications . Hall received the American Chemical Society Award for Creative Invention for his work in diamond synthesis .
= = = Later developments = = =
An independent diamond synthesis was achieved on February 16 , 1953 in Stockholm by the ASEA ( Allmänna Svenska Elektriska Aktiebolaget ) , one of Sweden 's major electrical manufacturing companies . Starting in 1949 , ASEA employed a team of five scientists and engineers as part of a top @-@ secret diamond @-@ making project code @-@ named QUINTUS . The team used a bulky split @-@ sphere apparatus designed by Baltzar von Platen and Anders Kämpe . Pressure was maintained within the device at an estimated 8 @.@ 4 GPa for an hour . A few small diamonds were produced , but not of gem quality or size . The work was not reported until the 1980s . During the 1980s , a new competitor emerged in Korea , a company named Iljin Diamond ; it was followed by hundreds of Chinese enterprises . Iljin Diamond allegedly accomplished diamond synthesis in 1988 by misappropriating trade secrets from GE via a Korean former GE employee .
Synthetic gem @-@ quality diamond crystals were first produced in 1970 by GE , then reported in 1971 . The first successes used a pyrophyllite tube seeded at each end with thin pieces of diamond . The graphite feed material was placed in the center and the metal solvent ( nickel ) between the graphite and the seeds . The container was heated and the pressure was raised to about 5 @.@ 5 GPa . The crystals grow as they flow from the center to the ends of the tube , and extending the length of the process produces larger crystals . Initially , a week @-@ long growth process produced gem @-@ quality stones of around 5 mm ( 1 carat or 0 @.@ 2 g ) , and the process conditions had to be as stable as possible . The graphite feed was soon replaced by diamond grit because that allowed much better control of the shape of the final crystal .
The first gem @-@ quality stones were always yellow to brown in color because of contamination with nitrogen . Inclusions were common , especially " plate @-@ like " ones from the nickel . Removing all nitrogen from the process by adding aluminium or titanium produced colorless " white " stones , and removing the nitrogen and adding boron produced blue ones . Removing nitrogen also slowed the growth process and reduced the crystalline quality , so the process was normally run with nitrogen present .
Although the GE stones and natural diamonds were chemically identical , their physical properties were not the same . The colorless stones produced strong fluorescence and phosphorescence under short @-@ wavelength ultraviolet light , but were inert under long @-@ wave UV . Among natural diamonds , only the rarer blue gems exhibit these properties . Unlike natural diamonds , all the GE stones showed strong yellow fluorescence under X @-@ rays . The De Beers Diamond Research Laboratory has grown stones of up to 25 carats ( 5 @.@ 0 g ) for research purposes . Stable HPHT conditions were kept for six weeks to grow high @-@ quality diamonds of this size . For economic reasons , the growth of most synthetic diamonds is terminated when they reach a mass of 1 carat ( 200 mg ) to 1 @.@ 5 carats ( 300 mg ) .
In the 1950s , research started in the Soviet Union and the US on the growth of diamond by pyrolysis of hydrocarbon gases at the relatively low temperature of 800 ° C. This low @-@ pressure process is known as chemical vapor deposition ( CVD ) . William G. Eversole reportedly achieved vapor deposition of diamond over diamond substrate in 1953 , but it was not reported until 1962 . Diamond film deposition was independently reproduced by Angus and coworkers in 1968 and by Deryagin and Fedoseev in 1970 . Whereas Eversole and Angus used large , expensive , single @-@ crystal diamonds as substrates , Deryagin and Fedoseev succeeded in making diamond films on non @-@ diamond materials ( silicon and metals ) , which led to massive research on inexpensive diamond coatings in the 1980s .
In recent years , there has been a rise in cases of undisclosed synthetic diamond melee being found in set jewelry and within diamond parcels sold in the trade . Due to the relatively inexpensive cost of diamond melee , as well as relative lack of universal knowledge for identifying large quantities of melee efficiently , not all dealers have made an effort to test diamond melee to correctly identify whether it is of natural or man @-@ made origin . However , international laboratories are now beginning to tackle the issue head @-@ on , with significant improvements in synthetic melee identification being made .
= = Manufacturing technologies = =
There are several methods used to produce synthetic diamond . The original method uses high pressure and high temperature ( HPHT ) and is still widely used because of its relatively low cost . The process involves large presses that can weigh hundreds of tons to produce a pressure of 5 GPa at 1500 ° C. The second method , using chemical vapor deposition ( CVD ) , creates a carbon plasma over a substrate onto which the carbon atoms deposit to form diamond . Other methods include explosive formation ( forming detonation nanodiamonds ) and sonication of graphite solutions .
= = = High pressure , high temperature = = =
In the HPHT method , there are three main press designs used to supply the pressure and temperature necessary to produce synthetic diamond : the belt press , the cubic press and the split @-@ sphere ( BARS ) press . Diamond seeds are placed at the bottom of the press . The internal part of press is heated above 1400 ° C and melts the solvent metal . The molten metal dissolves the high purity carbon source , which is then transported to the small diamond seeds and precipitates , forming a large synthetic diamond .
The original GE invention by Tracy Hall uses the belt press wherein the upper and lower anvils supply the pressure load to a cylindrical inner cell . This internal pressure is confined radially by a belt of pre @-@ stressed steel bands . The anvils also serve as electrodes providing electric current to the compressed cell . A variation of the belt press uses hydraulic pressure , rather than steel belts , to confine the internal pressure . Belt presses are still used today , but they are built on a much larger scale than those of the original design .
The second type of press design is the cubic press . A cubic press has six anvils which provide pressure simultaneously onto all faces of a cube @-@ shaped volume . The first multi @-@ anvil press design was a tetrahedral press , using four anvils to converge upon a tetrahedron @-@ shaped volume . The cubic press was created shortly thereafter to increase the volume to which pressure could be applied . A cubic press is typically smaller than a belt press and can more rapidly achieve the pressure and temperature necessary to create synthetic diamond . However , cubic presses cannot be easily scaled up to larger volumes : the pressurized volume can be increased by using larger anvils , but this also increases the amount of force needed on the anvils to achieve the same pressure . An alternative is to decrease the surface area to volume ratio of the pressurized volume , by using more anvils to converge upon a higher @-@ order platonic solid , such as a dodecahedron . However , such a press would be complex and difficult to manufacture .
The BARS apparatus is the most compact , efficient , and economical of all the diamond @-@ producing presses . In the center of a BARS device , there is a ceramic cylindrical " synthesis capsule " of about 2 cm3 in size . The cell is placed into a cube of pressure @-@ transmitting material , such as pyrophyllite ceramics , which is pressed by inner anvils made from cemented carbide ( e.g. , tungsten carbide or VK10 hard alloy ) . The outer octahedral cavity is pressed by 8 steel outer anvils . After mounting , the whole assembly is locked in a disc @-@ type barrel with a diameter about 1 meter . The barrel is filled with oil , which pressurizes upon heating , and the oil pressure is transferred to the central cell . The synthesis capsule is heated up by a coaxial graphite heater and the temperature is measured with a thermocouple .
= = = Chemical vapor deposition = = =
Chemical vapor deposition is a method by which diamond can be grown from a hydrocarbon gas mixture . Since the early 1980s , this method has been the subject of intensive worldwide research . Whereas the mass @-@ production of high @-@ quality diamond crystals make the HPHT process the more suitable choice for industrial applications , the flexibility and simplicity of CVD setups explain the popularity of CVD growth in laboratory research . The advantages of CVD diamond growth include the ability to grow diamond over large areas and on various substrates , and the fine control over the chemical impurities and thus properties of the diamond produced . Unlike HPHT , CVD process does not require high pressures , as the growth typically occurs at pressures under 27 kPa .
The CVD growth involves substrate preparation , feeding varying amounts of gases into a chamber and energizing them . The substrate preparation includes choosing an appropriate material and its crystallographic orientation ; cleaning it , often with a diamond powder to abrade a non @-@ diamond substrate ; and optimizing the substrate temperature ( about 800 ° C ) during the growth through a series of test runs . The gases always include a carbon source , typically methane , and hydrogen with a typical ratio of 1 : 99 . Hydrogen is essential because it selectively etches off non @-@ diamond carbon . The gases are ionized into chemically active radicals in the growth chamber using microwave power , a hot filament , an arc discharge , a welding torch , a laser , an electron beam , or other means .
During the growth , the chamber materials are etched off by the plasma and can incorporate into the growing diamond . In particular , CVD diamond is often contaminated by silicon originating from the silica windows of the growth chamber or from the silicon substrate . Therefore , silica windows are either avoided or moved away from the substrate . Boron @-@ containing species in the chamber , even at very low trace levels , also make it unsuitable for the growth of pure diamond .
= = = Detonation of explosives = = =
Diamond nanocrystals ( 5 nm in diameter ) can be formed by detonating certain carbon @-@ containing explosives in a metal chamber . These nanocrystals are called " detonation nanodiamond " . During the explosion , the pressure and temperature in the chamber become high enough to convert the carbon of the explosives into diamond . Being immersed in water , the chamber cools rapidly after the explosion , suppressing conversion of newly produced diamond into more stable graphite . In a variation of this technique , a metal tube filled with graphite powder is placed in the detonation chamber . The explosion heats and compresses the graphite to an extent sufficient for its conversion into diamond . The product is always rich in graphite and other non @-@ diamond carbon forms and requires prolonged boiling in hot nitric acid ( about 1 day at 250 ° C ) to dissolve them . The recovered nanodiamond powder is used primarily in polishing applications . It is mainly produced in China , Russia and Belarus and started reaching the market in bulk quantities by the early 2000s .
= = = Ultrasound cavitation = = =
Micron @-@ sized diamond crystals can be synthesized from a suspension of graphite in organic liquid at atmospheric pressure and room temperature using ultrasonic cavitation . The diamond yield is about 10 % of the initial graphite weight . The estimated cost of diamond produced by this method is comparable to that of the HPHT method ; the crystalline perfection of the product is significantly worse for the ultrasonic synthesis . This technique requires relatively simple equipment and procedures , but it has only been reported by two research groups , and has no industrial use as of 2012 . Numerous process parameters , such as preparation of the initial graphite powder , the choice of ultrasonic power , synthesis time and the solvent , are not yet optimized , leaving a window for potential improvement of the efficiency and reduction of the cost of the ultrasonic synthesis .
= = Properties = =
Traditionally , the absence of crystal flaws is considered to be the most important quality of a diamond . Purity and high crystalline perfection make diamonds transparent and clear , whereas its hardness , optical dispersion ( luster ) and chemical stability ( combined with marketing ) , make it a popular gemstone . High thermal conductivity is also important for technical applications . Whereas high optical dispersion is an intrinsic property of all diamonds , their other properties vary depending on how the diamond was created .
= = = Crystallinity = = =
Diamond can be one single , continuous crystal or it can be made up of many smaller crystals ( polycrystal ) . Large , clear and transparent single @-@ crystal diamonds are typically used in gemstones . Polycrystalline diamond ( PCD ) consists of numerous small grains , which are easily seen by the naked eye through strong light absorption and scattering ; it is unsuitable for gems and is used for industrial applications such as mining and cutting tools . Polycrystalline diamond is often described by the average size ( or grain size ) of the crystals that make it up . Grain sizes range from nanometers to hundreds of micrometers , usually referred to as " nanocrystalline " and " microcrystalline " diamond , respectively .
= = = Hardness = = =
Synthetic diamond is the hardest material known , where hardness is defined as resistance to indentation . The hardness of synthetic diamond depends on its purity , crystalline perfection and orientation : hardness is higher for flawless , pure crystals oriented to the [ 111 ] direction ( along the longest diagonal of the cubic diamond lattice ) . Nanocrystalline diamond produced through CVD diamond growth can have a hardness ranging from 30 % to 75 % of that of single crystal diamond , and the hardness can be controlled for specific applications . Some synthetic single @-@ crystal diamonds and HPHT nanocrystalline diamonds ( see hyperdiamond ) are harder than any known natural diamond .
= = = Impurities and inclusions = = =
Every diamond contains atoms other than carbon in concentrations detectable by analytical techniques . Those atoms can aggregate into macroscopic phases called inclusions . Impurities are generally avoided , but can be introduced intentionally as a way to control certain properties of the diamond . Growth processes of synthetic diamond , using solvent @-@ catalysts , generally lead to formation of a number of impurity @-@ related complex centers , involving transition metal atoms ( such as nickel , cobalt or iron ) , which affect the electronic properties of the material .
For instance , pure diamond is an electrical insulator , but diamond with boron added is an electrical conductor ( and , in some cases , a superconductor ) , allowing it to be used in electronic applications . Nitrogen impurities hinder movement of lattice dislocations ( defects within the crystal structure ) and put the lattice under compressive stress , thereby increasing hardness and toughness .
= = = Thermal conductivity = = =
Unlike most electrical insulators , pure diamond is a good conductor of heat because of the strong covalent bonding within the crystal . The thermal conductivity of pure diamond is the highest of any known solid . Single crystals of synthetic diamond enriched in 12C ( 99 @.@ 9 % ) , isotopically pure diamond , have the highest thermal conductivity of any material , 30 W / cm · K at room temperature , 7 @.@ 5 times higher than copper . Natural diamond 's conductivity is reduced by 1 @.@ 1 % by the 13C naturally present , which acts as an inhomogeneity in the lattice .
Diamond 's thermal conductivity is made use of by jewelers and gemologists who may employ an electronic thermal probe to separate diamonds from their imitations . These probes consist of a pair of battery @-@ powered thermistors mounted in a fine copper tip . One thermistor functions as a heating device while the other measures the temperature of the copper tip : if the stone being tested is a diamond , it will conduct the tip 's thermal energy rapidly enough to produce a measurable temperature drop . This test takes about 2 – 3 seconds .
= = Applications = =
= = = Machining and cutting tools = = =
Most industrial applications of synthetic diamond have long been associated with their hardness ; this property makes diamond the ideal material for machine tools and cutting tools . As the hardest known naturally occurring material , diamond can be used to polish , cut , or wear away any material , including other diamonds . Common industrial applications of this ability include diamond @-@ tipped drill bits and saws , and the use of diamond powder as an abrasive . These are by far the largest industrial applications of synthetic diamond . While natural diamond is also used for these purposes , synthetic HPHT diamond is more popular , mostly because of better reproducibility of its mechanical properties . Diamond is not suitable for machining ferrous alloys at high speeds , as carbon is soluble in iron at the high temperatures created by high @-@ speed machining , leading to greatly increased wear on diamond tools compared to alternatives .
The usual form of diamond in cutting tools is micrometer @-@ sized grains dispersed in a metal matrix ( usually cobalt ) sintered onto the tool . This is typically referred to in industry as polycrystalline diamond ( PCD ) . PCD @-@ tipped tools can be found in mining and cutting applications . For the past fifteen years , work has been done to coat metallic tools with CVD diamond , and though the work still shows promise it has not significantly replaced traditional PCD tools .
= = = Thermal conductor = = =
Most materials with high thermal conductivity are also electrically conductive , such as metals . In contrast , pure synthetic diamond has high thermal conductivity , but negligible electrical conductivity . This combination is invaluable for electronics where diamond is used as a heat sink for high @-@ power laser diodes , laser arrays and high @-@ power transistors . Efficient heat dissipation prolongs the lifetime of those electronic devices , and the devices ' high replacement costs justify the use of efficient , though relatively expensive , diamond heat sinks . In semiconductor technology , synthetic diamond heat spreaders prevent silicon and other semiconducting materials from overheating .
= = = Optical material = = =
Diamond is hard , chemically inert , and has high thermal conductivity and a low coefficient of thermal expansion . These properties make diamond superior to any other existing window material used for transmitting infrared and microwave radiation . Therefore , synthetic diamond is starting to replace zinc selenide as the output window of high @-@ power CO2 lasers and gyrotrons . Those synthetic diamond windows are shaped as disks of large diameters ( about 10 cm for gyrotrons ) and small thicknesses ( to reduce absorption ) and can only be produced with the CVD technique .
Recent advances in the HPHT and CVD synthesis techniques improved the purity and crystallographic structure perfection of single @-@ crystalline diamond enough to replace silicon as a diffraction grating and window material in high @-@ power radiation sources , such as synchrotrons . Both the CVD and HPHT processes are also used to create designer optically transparent diamond anvils as a tool for measuring electric and magnetic properties of materials at ultra high pressures using a diamond anvil cell .
= = = Electronics = = =
Synthetic diamond has potential uses as a semiconductor , because it can be doped with impurities like boron and phosphorus . Since these elements contain one more or one less valence electron than carbon , they turn synthetic diamond into p @-@ type or n @-@ type semiconductor . Making a p – n junction by sequential doping of synthetic diamond with boron and phosphorus produces light @-@ emitting diodes ( LEDs ) producing UV light of 235 nm . Another useful property of synthetic diamond for electronics is high carrier mobility , which reaches 4500 cm2 / ( V · s ) for electrons in single @-@ crystal CVD diamond . High mobility is favorable for high @-@ frequency field @-@ effect transistors . The wide band gap of diamond ( 5 @.@ 5 eV ) gives it excellent dielectric properties . Combined with the high mechanical stability of diamond , those properties are being used in prototype high @-@ power switches for power stations .
Synthetic diamond transistors have been produced in the laboratory . They are functional at much higher temperatures than silicon devices , and are resistant to chemical and radiation damage . While no diamond transistors have yet been successfully integrated into commercial electronics , they are promising for use in exceptionally high @-@ power situations and hostile non @-@ oxidizing environments .
Synthetic diamond is already used as radiation detection device . It is radiation hard and has a wide bandgap of 5 @.@ 5 eV ( at room temperature ) . Diamond is also distinguished from most other semiconductors by the lack of a stable native oxide . This makes it difficult to fabricate surface MOS devices , but it does create the potential for UV radiation to gain access to the active semiconductor without absorption in a surface layer . Because of these properties , it is employed in applications such as the BaBar detector at the Stanford Linear Accelerator and BOLD ( Blind to the Optical Light Detectors for VUV solar observations ) . A diamond VUV detector recently was used in the European LYRA program .
Conductive CVD diamond is a useful electrode under many circumstances . Photochemical methods have been developed for covalently linking DNA to the surface of polycrystalline diamond films produced through CVD . Such DNA modified films can be used for detecting various biomolecules , which would interact with DNA thereby changing electrical conductivity of the diamond film . In addition , diamonds can be used to detect redox reactions that cannot ordinarily be studied and in some cases degrade redox @-@ reactive organic contaminants in water supplies . Because diamond is mechanically and chemically stable , it can be used as an electrode under conditions that would destroy traditional materials . As an electrode , synthetic diamond can be used in waste water treatment of organic effluents and the production of strong oxidants .
= = = Gemstones = = =
Synthetic diamonds for use as gemstones are grown by HPHT or CVD methods , and currently represent approximately 2 % of the gem @-@ quality diamond market . However , there are indications that the market share of synthetic jewelry @-@ quality diamonds may grow as advances in technology allows for larger higher @-@ quality synthetic production on a more economic scale . They are available in yellow and blue , and to a lesser extent colorless ( or white ) . The yellow color comes from nitrogen impurities in the manufacturing process , while the blue color comes from boron . Other colors , such as pink or green , are achievable after synthesis using irradiation . Several companies also offer memorial diamonds grown using cremated remains .
Gem @-@ quality diamonds grown in a lab can be chemically , physically and optically identical ( and sometimes superior ) to naturally occurring ones . The mined diamond industry has undertaken legal , marketing and distribution countermeasures to protect its market from the emerging presence of synthetic diamonds . Synthetic diamonds can be distinguished by spectroscopy in the infrared , ultraviolet , or X @-@ ray wavelengths . The DiamondView tester from De Beers uses UV fluorescence to detect trace impurities of nitrogen , nickel or other metals in HPHT or CVD diamonds .
At least one maker of laboratory @-@ grown diamonds has made public statements about being " committed to disclosure " of the nature of its diamonds , and laser @-@ inscribes serial numbers on all of its gemstones . The company web site shows an example of the lettering of one of its laser inscriptions , which includes both the words " Gemesis created " and the serial number prefix " LG " ( laboratory grown ) .
In May 2015 , a record was set for an HPHT colorless diamond at 10 @.@ 02 carats . The faceted jewel was cut from a 32 @.@ 2 @-@ carat stone that was grown within 300 hours .
Traditional diamond mining has led to human @-@ rights abuses in Africa and elsewhere . The 2006 Hollywood movie Blood Diamond helped to publicize the situation . Consumer demand for synthetic diamonds is increasing , albeit from a small base , as customers look for stones which are ethically sound , and are cheaper .
According to a report from the Gem & Jewellery Export Promotional Council , synthetic diamonds accounted for 0 @.@ 28 % of diamond produced for use as gem stones in 2014 . Lab diamond jewellery is sold in the United States by brands including Pure Grown Diamonds ( formerly known as Gemesis ) and Lab Diamonds Direct ; and in the UK by Nightingale online jewellers .
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= Oryzomys albiventer =
Oryzomys albiventer is a rodent in the genus Oryzomys of family Cricetidae from interior western Mexico , in the states of Jalisco , Guanajuato , and Michoacán . First described in 1901 as a separate species , it was later lumped under O. couesi and the marsh rice rat ( O. palustris ) until it was reinstated as a species in 2009 . It differs from neighboring Oryzomys populations in size and measurements and is a large , brightly colored species with a long tail and robust skull and molars . Its range has been much impacted by agricultural development , but isolated populations are thought to persist .
= = Taxonomy = =
Oryzomys albiventer was first described by C.H. Merriam in 1901 on the basis of ten specimens from Ameca , Jalisco . He named the animal albiventer after the white color of its underparts and considered it most closely related to Oryzomys aquaticus ( currently included in Oryzomys couesi ) . Two years later , D.G. Eliot described Oryzomys molestus on the basis of a single individual from Ocotlán , Jalisco ; the name molestus means " troublesome , irksome " . Eliot considered Oryzomys fulgens , another current synonym of O. couesi , as the closest relative of his new species . In his 1918 review of North American Oryzomys , E.A. Goldman assessed the holotype of O. molestus , an old male , as merely a large example of albiventer , and reduced albiventer to one of many subspecies of O. couesi . He considered it closely related to three other highland Mexican forms . In 1960 , E.R. Hall argued that O. couesi was the same species as the marsh rice rat ( O. palustris ) of the United States , and listed albiventer as a subspecies of the latter . Later , O. couesi was again accepted as separate from the marsh rice rat , but O. albiventer was still classified under O. couesi .
In a 2009 revision of the Oryzomys of western Mexico , M.D. Carleton and J. Arroyo @-@ Cabrales noted substantial differences in coloration and measurements between highland populations ( albiventer ) and lowland populations ( mexicanus ) in Jalisco . On the basis of these differences , they recognized O. albiventer as a species separate from the lowland populations , which they classified under O. couesi . They confirmed that Eliot 's molestus was based on a large example of O. abiventer , but left the status of the three forms Goldman had associated with albiventer — crinitus , aztecus , and regillus — open , noting that there was no convincing evidence that these represented the same species as O. albiventer . The identity and exact provenance of fulgens ( supposed to be from the Valley of Mexico ) , and consequently its relationship to O. albiventer , remain unknown .
O. albiventer is part of the genus Oryzomys , which currently includes about eight species distributed from the eastern United States ( O. palustris ) into northwestern South America ( O. gorgasi ) . O. albiventer is further part of the O. couesi section , which is centered on the widespread Central American O. couesi and also includes various other species with more limited and peripheral distributions . Many aspects of the systematics of the O. couesi section remain unclear and it is likely that the current classification underestimates the true diversity of the group . Oryzomys previously included many other species , which were progressively removed in various studies culminating in a contribution by Marcelo Weksler and coworkers in 2006 that removed more than forty species from the genus . All are classified in the tribe Oryzomyini ( " rice rats " ) , a diverse assemblage of American rodents of over a hundred species , and on higher taxonomic levels in the subfamily Sigmodontinae of family Cricetidae , along with hundreds of other species of mainly small rodents .
In 1904 , Eliot used the common name " white @-@ bellied rice rat " for O. albiventer and " Ocotlan rice rat " for O. molestus . In 1918 , Goldman also used " white @-@ bellied rice rat " for O. albiventer .
= = Description = =
Oryzomys albiventer is a large and long @-@ tailed Oryzomys . The upperparts are brightly ochraceous , becoming grayer toward the front . The hairs on the underparts are pale gray near the bases and white in the outer half , so that the underparts appear pale grayish according to Carleton and Arroyo @-@ Cabrales ( not white as claimed by Merriman ) . The tail is dark above and light below . The skull and molars are relatively robust . O. albiventer has broad zygomatic arches ( cheekbones ) , long incisive foramina ( perforations of the palate between the incisors and the molars ) , and long nasal bones that extend behind the premaxillary bones . Compared to its lowland relative O. couesi mexicanus , O. albiventer is larger and more brightly colored and has larger molars but narrower incisive foramina .
In twelve specimens , total length is 245 to 314 mm ( 9 @.@ 6 to 12 @.@ 4 in ) , averaging 285 @.@ 4 mm ( 11 @.@ 24 in ) ; head and body length is 116 to 142 mm ( 4 @.@ 6 to 5 @.@ 6 in ) , averaging 130 @.@ 0 mm ( 5 @.@ 12 in ) ; tail length is 129 to 173 mm ( 5 @.@ 1 to 6 @.@ 8 in ) , averaging 155 @.@ 4 mm ( 6 @.@ 12 in ) ; hindfoot length is 33 to 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 3 to 1 @.@ 6 in ) , averaging 36 @.@ 1 mm ( 1 @.@ 42 in ) ; and skull length ( occipitonasal length ) is 30 @.@ 0 to 34 @.@ 5 mm ( 1 @.@ 18 to 1 @.@ 36 in ) , averaging 32 @.@ 9 mm ( 1 @.@ 30 in ) .
= = Distribution and conservation = =
O. albiventer occurs at about 1 @,@ 200 to 1 @,@ 800 m ( 3 @,@ 900 to 5 @,@ 900 ft ) elevation in northern Michoacán , southern Guanajuato , and central and eastern Jalisco , mostly in the area around Lake Chapala . Its range has seen massive agricultural development and although populations may survive , the current distribution of the species is certainly highly fragmented . More survey work is needed to assess the distribution and status of O. albiventer .
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= Benjaminville Friends Meeting House and Burial Ground =
The Benjaminville Friends Meeting House and Burial Ground is a Friends Meeting House of the Religious Society of Friends ( Quakers ) , located north of the rural village of Holder in McLean County , Illinois . It was once the site of a now @-@ defunct village called Benjaminville , founded in 1856 after Quakers settled the area . More Quakers followed , and the burial ground , then the current meeting house in 1874 , were constructed . This site , listed on the U.S. National Register of Historic Places since 1983 , is all that remains of that village .
The burial ground preceded the meeting house , as the site was home to another meeting house that was constructed in 1859 . The Benjaminville Meeting House represents a well @-@ constructed example of Quaker meeting house architecture and contains within its design many of the major elements associated with the style . It is unique in that it allowed both male and female friends to worship together in the same room . The burial ground , however , maintains a strict separation , not by gender but by religious affiliation ; there are three sections , one for Quakers , one for non @-@ Quakers , and one for distant relatives of both .
= = Building = =
= = = Location = = =
The Benjaminville Friends Meeting House is located on a relatively elevated area of land east of Bloomington , Illinois , near the community of Holder . The land was originally flat , treeless prairie but today is designated mostly for agricultural use . The unincorporated community of Bentown is located nearby as well . To the east a large wind farm is being constructed within Arrowsmith Township . The building is the last extant structure in the now @-@ defunct village of Benjaminville , Illinois .
= = = History = = =
In 1859 , three years after the first Quaker settlers arrived in the area , a meeting house was constructed on the site of the present @-@ day Friends meeting house for US $ 1 @,@ 000 . Quakers continued to flow into the area through the 1860s and in 1874 the current Friends meeting house was constructed and it has seen little change since it was built . Some minor alterations have taken place , including the addition of a concrete porch to the entryway and a shed on the east ( rear ) facade . The shed was added around 1910 to serve as a storage space and a privy . The building became a social , political , and religious hub for the area Quakers and the site was visited by Friends from other meeting houses around the state . The building is no longer owned by a religious institution , though there are occasional services held there .
= = = Architecture = = =
The Benjaminville Friends Meeting House is located on a 2 @.@ 5 acres ( 10 @,@ 000 m2 ) site planted with grass and native deciduous trees . The location is surrounded by crops and is well isolated from other nearby structures . The rectangular , balloon framed building is situated on an east @-@ west axis , with its front facade facing west . The long side measures 42 ft ( 13 m ) and the shorter gable ends of the building measure 32 ft ( 10 m ) . The building 's entrance is found on its south elevation and consists of dual doors which bisect the walls at the jambs . The Friends meeting house in Benjaminville is a typical example of traditional Quaker meeting houses . Elements common to Quaker meeting houses east of the Allegheny Mountains and found on the Benjaminville example are : plain , undecorated interiors , lack of stained glass , rectangular shaped log or frame construction , some type of partition within the interior space , an attached burial ground , exterior simplicity , separate men 's and women 's entrances , and the entryway location along the long wall .
The interior room , like the exterior , is oriented east @-@ west . The most prominent decorative element inside is the hand graining detail on the wood surfaces . An elevated gallery lines the north wall facing the pews which are bisected by 3 ½ ft ( 1 @.@ 1 m ) tall , 5 in ( 13 cm ) wide beaded board partition . The pews , partition , door , and window trim are all hand grained . The interior walls are covered with 6 in ( 15 cm ) pine wainscotting . The original iron stoves have been replaced with oil @-@ burning stoves , set into the original flues .
The building is considered a fine example of traditional Quaker architecture because it contains all of the elements found in the typical meeting house . However , the building does have one major difference on its interior when compared with most meeting houses . Traditionally , Quaker meeting houses had two rooms , divided by a movable partition , termed " shutters , " meant to separate men from women during meetings ; these shutters are noticeably absent on the Benjaminville Meeting House . The members of the meeting at the Benjaminville Meeting House were among " pioneers " within the Society of Friends in that they were one of the first seven groups to allow men and women to meet as one group of Friends . The room inside the Benjaminville building was simply divided with a waist @-@ high partition as opposed to the movable wall .
While most Friends meeting houses were very plain in their designs and ornamentation , individual craftsmen were encouraged to be " guided by ( their ) own inner light " when working on building a meeting house . As such , the dominant decorative element on the Benjaminville building is fine hand graining on most of the interior wood surfaces . The decoration should not be seen as an affront to the traditional and typical Quaker style used in meeting houses . Instead it stands as a testament to the fact that the Society of Friends encouraged craftsmen to create as " the spirit moved them . "
= = Cemetery = =
The cemetery was established soon after the original meeting house was built in 1859 . Burial grounds were typical accompaniments to Friends meeting houses . While burial grounds were encouraged in the 1825 Quaker Rules of Discipline , the burial of non @-@ Quakers in Quaker cemeteries was not . To satisfy this rule burials at Benjaminville were separated into two separate sections to allow an area for non @-@ Quakers . A newer section contains a mix of Quaker and non @-@ Quaker descendants of those originally buried there .
Non @-@ Quaker burials were originally confined to the northern section of the cemetery , the portion directly behind the meeting house . Members of the Society of Friends were buried in the middle portion of the cemetery , today surrounded by a loop in the gravel road that traverses the site . The most recent burials are found in the southernmost section of the cemetery , furthest from the meeting house . The entire burial ground is approximately 160 by 200 ft ( 49 by 61 m ) , for a total area of 32 @,@ 000 sq ft ( 3 @,@ 000 m2 ) .
Burials are oriented east @-@ west . The burial ground covers most of the site 's land and is planted with grass and trees . The surrounding land is predominantly of agricultural use but there are some nearby residences . To the east a wind farm is under construction .
= = Significance = =
The Benjaminville Friends Meeting House is a particularly well @-@ preserved example of a Quaker meeting house . For several years after 1874 the building was the focus of settlement in Benjaminville , a town one author described as " one of the strongest settlements of Friends that is to be found anywhere in the state " in 1879 . The structure is of historical and architectural significance . As an example of the meeting house style used by the Society of Friends , the Benjaminville building is representative of an architectural type that remained virtually unchanged from the colonial American period through the 19th century . The Benjaminville Friends Meeting House and its burial ground were listed on the U.S. National Register of Historic Places on December 13 , 1983 .
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= Orme ( horse ) =
Orme ( 1889 – 17 September 1915 ) was a British Thoroughbred racehorse . He was trained at Kingsclere by John Porter for the 1st Duke of Westminster . As a two @-@ year @-@ old he won the Middle Park and Dewhurst Stakes . As a three @-@ year @-@ old he was not well enough to take part in the 2000 Guineas and Epsom Derby , but came back to win the Eclipse Stakes . Orme stayed in training as a four @-@ year @-@ old and won another Eclipse Stakes , becoming the first horse to win the race twice , a feat that has only been repeated four times since . After he had retired from racing , he became a successful sire and was Champion sire of Great Britain in 1899 . His son Flying Fox won the Triple Crown and the Eclipse Stakes . Orme also sired Epsom Derby winner Orby and 1000 Guineas winner Witch Elm . His regular jockeys were George Barrett and Morny Cannon .
= = Background = =
Orme was a bay colt born in 1889 at Eaton Stud in Cheshire . He was bred by the 1st Duke of Westminster . Orme stood 16 hands high and had a large white star , with no other white markings . His sire was the unbeaten 2000 Guineas , Epsom Derby and St. Leger winner Ormonde . Orme was one of Ormonde 's first crop of foals . By the time Orme reached a racecourse , Ormonde had been exported to Argentina . Ormonde did not become a great sire due to fertility problems , producing only a few foals most years . However , he did also sire Goldfinch , a horse that was a top class two @-@ year @-@ old and won the New Stakes . In the United States , he sired Futurity Stakes winner Ormondale . Orme was clear @-@ winded , unlike his sire , who was a roarer .
Orme 's dam Angelica was an unraced sister to the outstanding sire St. Simon . They were progeny of Galopin and St. Angela , a daughter of King Tom . The Duke of Westminster had purchased Angelica in 1886 when she was carrying a foal by Coeruleus . The foal was Blue Green , who went on to win the Queen Alexandra Stakes . Orme was Angelica 's fifth foal .
Orme showed great promise as a yearling , with trainer John Porter saying he had great expectations for him after only having him for a few months . In October 1890 Orme and Orville were described as " [ t ] he two finest yearlings in the Duke of Westminster 's stud . "
= = Racing career = =
= = = 1891 : Two @-@ year @-@ old season = = =
Prior to Orme 's first appearance on a racecourse , John Porter tested him over five furlongs against the three @-@ year @-@ old Massacre and three two @-@ year @-@ olds , including Orville . Ridden by George Barrett , Orme won the trial by half a length from Massacre .
= = = = Early career = = = =
Orme started his racing career in August 1891 at the Glorious Goodwood meeting at Goodwood Racecourse . He was ridden by George Barrett and started the 4 / 5 favourite in the Richmond Stakes . 20 / 1 outsider Ben Avon led the field of eight in the early stages of the race , with Orme in the middle of the pack . Orme took the lead with a quarter of a mile left to run , and despite showing his inexperience , he won easily by three quarters of a length from Flyaway ( who was carrying more weight than Orme ) , the two then colliding as they pulled up . At the same meeting , two days later , Orme also started in the Prince of Wales ' Stakes . He started as the 1 / 2 favourite and led the field from the start . Dunure made some progress from the back of the field into second place , but none of the runners could get to Orme , who won by one length . Dunure was second and Galeopsis was third , four lengths behind Dunure . After these two races , he was already as short as 5 / 1 for the 1892 Epsom Derby . After Goodwood the Duke of Westminster refused a big offer to purchase Orme .
Orme then took on older horses in the valuable Lancashire Plate , where he started the 7 / 4 favourite . In the last few furlongs Orme challenged the four @-@ year @-@ old Signorina for the lead , and as they approached the main stand , Martagon challenged the pair . Orme drew level with Signorina , but the filly edged away slightly again and won an exciting race by half a length from Orme , Martagon a head back in third . Orme received £ 1000 for finishing second .
= = = = October = = = =
He returned to racing against horses of his own age , starting the 8 / 15 favourite of a field of ten runners for the six @-@ furlong Middle Park Plate at Newmarket . As the field neared the finish , Orme was travelling the best , and as soon as Barrett let him go , he immediately took the lead . El Diablo tried to close , but could not get to Orme , with the latter winning easily by a couple of lengths , Gantlet being a neck back from El Diablo in third . Orme then started in the Dewhurst Plate , but his presence deterred many owners from entering and he faced only two rivals . He started as the 6 / 100 favourite , with El Diablo at 20 / 1 and Hatfield at 50 / 1 . Orme led from the start , and with two furlongs to run he began to stride away . El Diablo tried to close , but Orme won by three @-@ quarters of a length from him and was never extended . Hatfield finished well behind Orme and El Diablo in third place . Orme 's final race of the season came on 30 October in the Home @-@ bred Foal Post Stakes over five furlongs and 140 yards at Newmarket . He started as the 3 / 100 favourite and faced three rivals . Orme lead throughout the race and won easily by two lengths from Esmond , with Lucellum a further three lengths back in third place .
He finished his two @-@ year @-@ old season with a record of five wins and a second place from six starts . At the end of the season , some even believed that he was better than his sire Ormonde , the ' horse of the century ' . One writer rated him ten pounds superior to the next best two @-@ year @-@ old La Fleche , with her being one pound superior to Flyaway . Some were more cautious , however , suggesting that Orme had not beaten any top horses .
= = = 1892 : Three @-@ year @-@ old season = = =
Going into the 1892 season Orme was a strong favourite for the Epsom Derby , with odds as short as 2 / 1 in December . In March he was still favourite , but had drifted out slightly to 5 / 2 due to the support for stablemate La Fleche .
= = = = Suspected poisoning = = = =
In late April there were reports that Orme had a sore throat . This caused Orme to drift in the betting for the Derby , and La Fleche became the favourite . Orme was withdrawn from the 2000 Guineas , but returned to doing gentle exercise and it was hoped that he would still be able to make the Derby . The Duke of Westminster hinted that he had been poisoned . In early May , Orme had still not improved , and connections stated that he had been poisoned with mercury . It was suspected that the culprit may have been a well @-@ known backer of Derby rival La Fleche , with the poison being administered in a lozenge that Orme chewed , blistering his tongue . However , a dentist that removed part of a decayed tooth from Orme suggested that the illness was not due to poisoning , but to the decayed tooth .
By mid @-@ May it was clear that he would not make the Derby and he was removed from the race on the 23 May . Orme 's trainer John Porter and Williams , the veterinary surgeon , remained convinced that he had been poisoned and was not just suffering from bad teeth . A reward of £ 1 @,@ 000 was even offered for information that would lead to the conviction of the guilty party . The poisoning was investigated by George Lewis , a solicitor , who concluded that the horse had been poisoned . He stated that the horse was fine on the morning of the 21 April , but a few hours later his tongue was so inflamed he could not hold it in his mouth ; something so sudden , Lewis argued , could not have been caused by a decaying tooth . He suggested that the poison may have in fact been attempted to be administered by some ball being put down his throat , but due to the struggles of the horse , it burst in his mouth , blistering his tongue . The Derby was won by Sir Hugo , but many believed that Orme would have won easily had he made the race .
= = = = Summer return = = = =
Porter ran Orme in a trial four days before the Eclipse Stakes at Sandown Park as preparation . He raced against his five @-@ year @-@ old half @-@ brother Blue Green and the six @-@ year @-@ old Ormuz . Despite conceding weight to both of them , he won by the trial by two lengths from Ormuz . In the Eclipse he faced six rivals and started the 5 / 4 favourite , with Sussex Stakes winner Orvieto next in the betting at 11 / 4 . During the race Orme was ridden in the middle of the field . As they turned into the finishing straight , Orme and Orvieto were close behind the two leaders ; the two then took over the lead in the straight . As they neared the finish , Orvieto had a slight advantage , but as Barrett asked Orme for an effort , he responded and got in front to win by a neck from Orvieto , with St. Damien finishing only three quarters of a length behind Orvieto . The race was worth over £ 9000 . Twelve days later Orme lined up as the 1 / 5 favourite for the Sussex Stakes . In the last few furlongs he battled with Watercress , and it was not until 50 yards from the finish that he came out on top , going on to win by a head from Watercress .
= = = = St. Leger Stakes = = = =
Orme had apparently improved significantly since Goodwood , and jockey George Barrett said , " I would stake my life he can beat Watercress 100 yards . I never was on such a horse in my life . " Orme 's previous wins made him favourite for the race , starting at 10 / 11 , with 1000 Guineas and Epsom Oaks winner La Fleche second favourite at 7 / 2 . Also near the front of the betting were Derby winner Sir Hugo at 10 / 1 and May Duke at 100 / 7 .
In the race the early pace was slow , and Barrett positioned Orme near the front of the field . As they turned into the finishing straight , Orme was just leading from La Fleche , but Barrett soon picked up the whip and it was clear Orme was beaten . La Fleche went on to win easily by two lengths from Sir Hugo , with Watercress a further three lengths back in third , May Duke in fourth and Orme in fifth . The remainder of the field , led by The Lover , were at least twenty lengths behind Orme . After the race Barrett said : " I never was so disappointed in my life . He never took hold of his bit as he used to do ; run as dead as a stone , and wouldn 't make an effort . " Other jockeys in the race agreed , saying Orme was " sulking " throughout the race . After the race , some suggested that Orme simply did not stay , the St Leger distance being too far for him .
= = = = Autumn = = = =
Orme next raced in the Great Foal Stakes at Newmarket . He won easily by 1 ½ lengths from Versailles , with Dunure in third place . He then faced only one rival in the Champion Stakes , Orvieto , whom he defeated in the Eclipse . Orme started the 1 / 3 favourite and made the running , leading by a length with two furlongs to run . Barrett then asked Orme to quicken , and Orvieto could not keep up , with Orme going on to win by a couple of lengths .
Two weeks later he faced Sir Hugo , Orvieto , El Diablo and Frank Marsh in the Limekiln Stakes at the Newmarket Houghton meeting . Orme started the 4 / 5 favourite , and with two furlongs to run he strode into the lead . Without even being asked for an effort , he won easily by three lengths from El Diablo , with Sir Hugo in third . The next day he won the Subscription Stakes easily from Porridge , after leading from the start and never being caught . He raced again the next day , his third race in as many days , in a Free Handicap Sweepstakes over ten furlongs where he faced five opponents . Orme started as the 4 / 6 favourite , Bushey Park was at 5 / 1 . Next in the betting came El Diablo , The Lover and Therapia all priced at 100 / 12 . Bushey Park led in the early stages until Orme went into the lead with about two furlongs left to run . El Diablo overtook Orme in the final 100 yards and beat him by one and a half lengths . The Lover finished in third place , three quarters of a length behind Orme . Orme had to carry 16 pounds more weight than El Diablo and 22 pounds more than The Lover .
= = = 1893 : Four @-@ year @-@ old season = = =
Orme returned to the track as a four @-@ year @-@ old in the Rous Memorial Stakes at Royal Ascot . His only opposition was the four @-@ year @-@ old filly Lady Lena . Lady Lena briefly challenged Orme in the closing stages , but new jockey Morny Cannon only had to shake the reins a couple of times and Orme went away to win easily by a couple of lengths . He then went back to Sandown to attempt to win another Eclipse Stakes . He started the 2 / 1 second favourite , with the evens favourite being La Fleche who beat him in the St Leger . La Fleche was being hard ridden a long way from the finish . Soon after Orme took over the lead , but began to hang left . In the final furlong Medicis passed La Fleche and began to challenge Orme , but could not get on terms and Orme won by half a length , with La Fleche a further three lengths back in third .
Orme and La Fleche met again in the Gordon Stakes at Goodwood with two other opponents , Watercress and Royal Harry . Starting favourite , Orme had La Fleche in trouble with more than a quarter of a mile still to run . He seemed to have the race won , but then veered left forcing Morny Cannon to pull him back and allowing La Fleche to draw level . However Orme pulled away again and won by a neck , with Watercress a further six lengths back in third . Orme 's final race came in the Limekiln Stakes where he had to carry 10 stone . He finished second to Childwick , who was receiving 33 pounds . During the autumn Orme 's legs had started to give him trouble and during the Limekiln a suspensory ligament gave way . This injury brought an end to his racing career , and he was retired to stud . Throughout his racing career he won a total of £ 32 @,@ 528 in prize money .
= = Race record = =
Note : F |
= Furlongs , L =
Lengths
= = Assessment = =
At the end of 1891 he was considered by many to be the top two @-@ year @-@ old . During the 1892 season he earned £ 13 @,@ 023 , the second highest of any horse and only bettered by La Fleche . By the time he retired at the end of the 1893 season , he had earned £ 32 @,@ 528 throughout his racing career . This was the third highest of any horse in history , behind only Donovan and Ayrshire . When Orme was at his best , John Porter rated him 7 to 10 pounds inferior to Ormonde , whom Porter also trained . Porter also believed that Orme was a better racehorse at age four than he had been at two and three .
= = Stud record = =
Orme was retired to stud at the end of his four @-@ year @-@ old season , and on 26 October 1893 he left Newmarket for Eaton Stud . His first covering was St. Mary , a daughter of Hermit , which resulted in his first foal ( a chestnut colt ) being born in January 1895 . His stud fee for 1898 was 200 guineas , plus one guinea for the groom . Orme became a successful stallion and was champion sire of Great Britain and Ireland in 1899 , with more than double the winnings of any other sire that year , largely thanks to his son Flying Fox . His son Duke of Westminster was sold for £ 20 @,@ 050 as a two @-@ year @-@ old . His fee was still 200 guineas in 1902 . In total Orme sired 242 winners of races worth a total of £ 122 @,@ 568 .
= = = Notable progeny = = =
s |
= stallion , m =
mare , g = gelding
Flying Fox went on to be champion sire in France three times . His progeny included Prix du Jockey Club and Grand Prix de Paris winner Ajax , Prix de Diane winner Flying Star , Poule d 'Essai des Poulains and Prix du Cadran winner Gouvernant , Poule d 'Essai des Poulains and Prix du Jockey Club winner Dagor , Poule d 'Essai des Poulains and Eclipse Stakes winner Val d 'Or and Prix de la Forêt winner Adam .
Orby went on to sire Epsom Derby and St. James 's Palace Stakes winner Grand Parade and 1000 Guineas winner Diadem . Orme 's son Missel Thrush sired July Cup winner Thrush . Orme 's daughter Topiary was the dam of the St Leger and Eclipse winner Tracery . Orme 's daughter Optime was the dam of the American horse Sysonby , who was only defeated once in his career . Another daughter Osella was the dam of Grosser Preis von Baden winner Ossian and Preis der Diana winner Ostrea .
Orme was pensioned from stud duty in 1912 . He died at Eaton Stud on 17 September 1915 aged 26 and was buried near his grandsire Bend Or . Orme 's sire line continues today mainly through Ajax 's son Teddy .
= = Pedigree = =
Note : b . |
= Bay , br . =
Brown , ch . = Chestnut
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= Goodbye ( Grey 's Anatomy ) =
" Goodbye " is the second episode of the sixth season of the American television medical drama Grey 's Anatomy , and the show 's 104th episode overall . It was written by Krista Vernoff and directed by Bill D 'Elia . The episode was originally broadcast on the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) in the United States on September 24 , 2009 . In " Goodbye " , the staff at Seattle Grace Hospital come to terms with the death of their colleague Dr. George O 'Malley ( T.R. Knight ) . Further storylines include Dr. Richard Webber ( James Pickens , Jr . ) being engaged in a vehicular collision , Dr. Callie Torres ( Sara Ramirez ) receiving a job as an attending physician at a neighboring hospital , and Dr. Alex Karev ( Justin Chambers ) ' s marriage with Dr. Izzie Stevens ( Katherine Heigl ) taking a toll after her near @-@ death experience .
The episode was the second part of the two @-@ hour season six premiere special , the first being " Good Mourning " , and was filmed in Los Angeles , California . The special was the first premiere that Knight did not appear in , following an early release from his contract , and Jessica Capshaw ( Dr. Arizona Robbins ) ' first premiere in which she received star billing , having been upgraded from a recurring star from season five . Shannon Lucio reprised her role as a guest star , in addition to Amy Madigan , Martha Plimpton , Zack Shada , Mitch Pileggi , and Zoe Boyle . " Goodbye " opened to generally positive critical reviews , with Chyler Leigh ( Dr. Lexie Grey ) ' s and Ramirez 's performances praised in particular . Upon its initial airing , the episode was viewed by 17 @.@ 03 million Americans , and garnered a 6 @.@ 7 / 17 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic , ranking first for the night .
= = Plot = =
In the episode , Dr. Cristina Yang ( Sandra Oh ) and Dr. Owen Hunt ( Kevin McKidd ) are undergoing couples therapy with the hospital 's psychiatrist , Dr. Wyatt ( Amy Madigan ) . The two are instructed not to engage in sexual activity , until their emotional deficits are healed , which they find uneasy to accomplish . Clara Ferguson ( Zoe Boyle ) is no longer depressed , and urges Dr. Lexie Grey ( Chyler Leigh ) , who has given her attentive care , to return home .
Ferguson 's depression returns again , when Dr. Miranda Bailey ( Chandra Wilson ) informs her that she has an infection that requires surgery . She rejects the surgery , and is further disappointed when Dr. Cristina Yang ( Sandra Oh ) tells her that the worst @-@ case scenario is that she will need an ostomy pouching system . Dr. Arizona Robbins ( Jessica Capshaw ) ' s chronic pain patient , Andy Michaelson ( Zack Shada ) and his mother Pam ( Martha Plimpton ) enter the emergency room , so Robbins and resident Dr. Alex Karev ( Justin Chambers ) order a 3D MRI , which is denied by the chief of surgery Dr. Richard Webber ( James Pickens , Jr . ) .
On his way to a meeting , Webber goes through a red light , and collides with another vehicle , resulting in him becoming T @-@ boned . Webber is taken to the neighboring Mercy West Hospital , where he is treated by former colleague Dr. Callie Torres ( Sara Ramirez ) , and subsequently discharged . Ferguson finally agrees to the surgery , after constant pleads from Lexie , and makes a start to physical therapy . Lexie returns home to see her sister Dr. Meredith Grey ( Ellen Pompeo ) and her new husband Dr. Derek Shepherd ( Patrick Dempsey ) having sex in the kitchen . Dr. Izzie Stevens ( Katherine Heigl ) is at home , begging her husband Karev to spend time with her , but he dismisses her . At Dr. Mark Sloan ( Eric Dane ) ' s apartment , his girlfriend Lexie has moved in , and his bisexual ex @-@ girlfriend Torres walks in on Sloan in the shower . Lexie expresses her concern to Torres about doing this , and she apologizes . Robbins confronts Shepherd , the hospital 's chief of neurosurgery , and asks him to run an expensive test to see if Andy has Tethered spinal cord syndrome , which reveals that he has it , and it is reversed through surgery . Stevens notices the girl Dr. George O 'Malley ( T.R. Knight ) saved , Amanda ( Shannon Lucio ) , sitting outside the hospital , and tells her to go get a life , because O 'Malley did not save her so she could be miserable . At the conclusion of the episode , Stevens unites with Karev , and Webber announces that Seattle Grace will be merging with Mercy West .
= = Production = =
" Goodbye " was written by Krista Vernoff and directed by Bill D 'Elia . Joe Mitacek edited the episode and Donald Lee Harris served as production designer . Featured music includes Fanfarlo 's " Ghosts " , Katie Herzig 's " Hologram " , Lucy Schwartz 's " Gravity " , and Emilíana Torrini 's " Today Has Been OK " . " Today Has Been OK " played while Shepherd ( Dempsey ) was consoling Bailey ( Wilson ) about O 'Malley ( Knight ) ' s death , in the elevator . This song was originally played in the season two episode " Into You Like a Train " , when Bailey was consoling Shepherd . This is the only time the series has reused a song . " Goodbye " is the second hour of the season six premiere . It was the first premiere not to feature Knight 's character , O 'Malley . Knight was released from his contract at the conclusion of season five , following a disagreement with series creator Shonda Rhimes over lack of screen time for his character . When asked to make a ' flashback ' appearance in season six , Knight declined .
The scene in which Yang ( Oh ) and Hunt ( McKidd ) were partaking in couples therapy , was originally planned to be a comical moment . Vernoff commented on this : " I handed them that scene 20 MINUTES BEFORE CAMERAS ROLLED . It was actually a funny scene right up until the last minute . Sandra and Kevin had smart questions – and what became crystal clear to me instantly is that this storyline could not be resolved in a humorous way . It had earned weight . Indeed , it required weight . " In the episode , Meredith ( Pompeo ) grieves her pain through constant sex with Shepherd . Vernoff explained she loves the fact that Meredith is healthy enough to realize what she is doing . At the conclusion of " Goodbye " , Yang finally came to terms with the death of O 'Malley . Vernoff offered her insight :
" Cristina , who as a young child , held her father ’ s heart in her hands as it stopped beating , is perhaps the least " processed " of our core group , the least " healthy , " the least able to handle the impact of George ’ s sudden death . Mer is using sex , Cristina is using her frustration around her lack of sex . So when she finally gets in bed with Owen and she finally has the tension release that comes with that kind of , um … tension release … She can ’ t hold the truth off anymore . That ’ s the thing about the five stages of grief . They truly are different for everyone . Cristina clung to the Denial stage for 40 days . And then she let in the fact that George died . And as much as Mer ’ s tears got to me , that intake of breath from Cristina got to me even more . The sudden realization that George really did … die .
= = Reception = =
= = = Broadcasting = = =
" Goodbye " was originally broadcast on September 24 , 2009 , on the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) in the United States , following the first part of the season six premiere " Good Mourning " . It was viewed by a total of 17 @.@ 04 million Americans , across its two @-@ hour 9 : 00 Eastern time @-@ slot . The episode was the series ' second least @-@ viewed season premiere , up to that point , just ahead of the season one premiere — " A Hard Day 's Night " . In comparison to the previous episode , " Goodbye " made a 0 @.@ 08 % decrease in terms of viewership . However , the episode 's viewership ranked first in both its time @-@ slot and the entire night , beating out CBS 's CSI . In addition to being a success in viewership , the episode also did well in ratings . " Goodbye " ' s 6 @.@ 7 / 17 Nielsen rating ranked first in its time @-@ slot and the entire night , for both the rating and share percentages of the 18 – 49 demographic . The episode also received a rating of 10 @.@ 9 / 18 in the 18 @-@ 34 demographic , beating out CBS 's The Mentalist , and ranking first in the ratings and shares for the demographic .
= = = Critical reception = = =
The episode opened to mixed feedback , and aired back @-@ to @-@ back with " Good Mourning " , as a two @-@ hour season premiere special . Alan Sepinwall of NJ.com commented on the two episodes being conjoined into one week : " I keep going back and forth on whether it was a good idea to do that , or if we 'd have been better off spacing out the tearful speeches over two weeks . That isn 't to say that there shouldn 't have been tears , or speeches . George 's death , no matter how marginal he had become last season , is and should be a huge event in the lives of these characters . Had the show raced through Elizabeth Kubler @-@ Ross 's famous five stages of grief , it would have rang false , as if everyone making the show was in a hurry to move past the events of the wildly uneven fifth season . My problem is , when you put two episodes back @-@ to @-@ back , those rhythms - the pace at which the acts build to emotional crescendos and then briefly recede - start to become too predictable , and it sucks some of the life and emotion away . " Sepinwall also praised Wilson 's , Ramirez 's , and Chamber 's performances .
The Huffington Post 's Michael Pascua praised Dempsey 's character , in comparison to his performance in " Good Mourning " , writing : " Derek was set up as a real character in the second half , not just a one @-@ sided McDreamy . First , Arizona and Derek finally fix the problem with Andy , then the two had some genuine interaction . Derek confronted Alex about his problems with Izzie . He took a moment to talk to Mark about the hospital 's situation and ended the episode by confronting a very edgy Bailey . Miraculously , he had the time to have a lot of sex with Meredith . " Pascua also enjoyed Leigh 's performance , commenting : " Lexie continued to evolve . I loved the anxiety that Lexie had with Callie . She wasn 't really a doctor in any sense in this episode , just a friend to lean on . " Though he was impressed with the majority of the episode , Pascua had mixed feelings on the character of Stevens , attributing it to his dislike of Heigl .
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= Henry Timberlake =
Henry Timberlake ( 1730 or 1735 – September 30 , 1765 ) was a colonial Anglo @-@ American officer , journalist , and cartographer . He was born in Virginia and died in England . He is best known for his work as an emissary from the British colonies to the Overhill Cherokee during the 1761 – 1762 Timberlake Expedition .
Timberlake 's account of his journeys to the Cherokee , published as his memoirs in 1765 , became a primary source for later studies of their eighteenth @-@ century culture . His detailed descriptions of Cherokee villages , townhouses , weapons , and tools have helped historians and anthropologists identify Cherokee structures and cultural objects uncovered at modern archaeological excavation sites throughout the southern Appalachian region . During the Tellico Archaeological Project , which included a series of salvage excavations conducted in the Little Tennessee River basin in the 1970s , archaeologists used Timberlake 's Draught of the Cherokee Country to help locate important Overhill village sites .
= = Early life and career = =
Henry Timberlake was born in Hanover County , Virginia to Francis and Sarah Austin Timberlake . The Dictionary of American Biography states that Timberlake was born in 1730 , though Timberlake 's age on his marriage license implies that he was born in 1735 . Timberlake was a third @-@ generation American ; his grandfather had emigrated from England . Although he inherited a small fortune when his father died , Timberlake still had to support himself , and sought a military career . In 1756 , at the outset of the French and Indian War , he joined a Virginia militia company known as the " Patriot Blues . " It had embarked on a campaign to expel French and Native American raiders from the western part of the colony . Shortly thereafter , he applied for a commission in the Virginia regiment — then commanded by George Washington — but was denied due to a lack of vacancies .
In 1758 , Timberlake successfully applied for a commission in Colonel William Byrd 's recently formed 2nd Virginia Regiment . Commissioned as an Ensign , Timberlake accompanied the regiment on its march to Fort Duquesne , but illness kept him from proceeding . In 1759 , he took part in several minor operations in the present @-@ day Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania area , mostly overseeing the construction of defensive works .
In 1760 , British relations with the Cherokee , which had been moderately friendly for several decades , grew sour after several Cherokee chiefs were imprisoned and killed in South Carolina . In early 1760 , the Cherokee laid siege to Fort Loudoun , a remote outpost in what is now Tennessee . The garrison held out until August of that year , but was forced to surrender due to lack of provisions . A relief column under Archibald Montgomerie failed to reach the fort after burning the Cherokee Lower Towns and being stopped at the Battle of Echoee . In spite of the garrison leaving the fort under a flag of truce , the Cherokee killed 22 of its members on their march home in retaliation for the colonists ' earlier killing of 22 Cherokee held as prisoners at Fort Prince George .
In 1761 , Jeffrey Amherst , the British commander in North America , responded with a larger invasion force , sending James Grant against the Middle Towns and sending Byrd to threaten the Overhill towns .
While Byrd proceeded to destroy the Cherokee Middle towns in North Carolina , he dispatched Colonel Adam Stephen into the Holston River valley to attack the Overhill towns . Timberlake accompanied Stephen to Long Island of the Holston ( in modern @-@ day Sullivan County , Tennessee ) , where they began building a base known as " Fort Robinson " , and made preparations for a march south .
= = Journey to the Overhill country = =
On November 19 , 1761 , as Fort Robinson was nearing completion , a 400 @-@ man Cherokee force led by Chief Kanagatucko ( or " Old Hop " ) arrived at the camp and asked for peace , which was immediately granted by Col. Stephen . Kanagatucko asked for an officer to accompany him to the Overhill towns as proof that hostilities had ended . Stephen was reluctant to allow it , but granted the request when Timberlake volunteered . Timberlake was accompanied by Sergeant Thomas Sumter , an interpreter named John McCormack , and an unnamed servant . The group purchased a canoe and ten days ' worth of provisions with money Sumter had borrowed . The plan was to follow the Holston River to its confluence with the French Broad River , and then proceed to the Little Tennessee River , where the Overhill towns were situated .
Timberlake 's party left Long Island on November 28 , 1761 . The Holston River 's unusually low water levels almost immediately stalled the journey , as the party was forced to drag their canoe over exposed shoals and sandbars . The party ran out of provisions after several days , but McCormack managed to shoot a bear , supplying them with several days ' worth of meat . Around December 7 , the party explored a stalactite @-@ filled cave situated approximately 50 feet above the river . Timberlake described an incident in which Sumter swam nearly a half @-@ mile in the near @-@ freezing river waters to retrieve their canoe , which had somehow drifted away while they were exploring the cave .
On December 13 , the expedition reached a series of treacherous cascades that Timberlake called " Great Falls . " The party spent a whole day carefully maneuvering their way down the cascades only to find the Holston frozen over immediately downstream . The ice slowed the expedition 's progress , but rains on the night of December 14 thawed the ice , and the party passed through the mouth of the Holston ( in modern Knoxville ) into what is now the Tennessee River on December 15 .
= = = The Overhill country = = =
The deeper waters of the Tennessee River allowed the Timberlake expedition to proceed much more quickly . A hunting party led by the Cherokee chief Slave Catcher met the Timberlake expedition near the mouth of the Little Tennessee River , and supplied the weary expedition with provisions of " dried venison , homminy , and boiled corn . " The following day , Slave Catcher guided the expedition by canoe up the Little Tennessee , although the Timberlake party struggled to keep up . Timberlake recalled , " my hands were so galled , that the blood trickled from them , and when we set out the next morning I was scarce able to handle a pole . " The Timberlake party arrived in the Overhill town of Tomotley on December 20 , where they were greeted by the town 's head man , Chief Ostenaco .
After spending several days in Tomotley as guests of Ostenaco , Timberlake and McCormack proceeded to the Overhill mother town of Chota , where a number of chiefs had gathered in the town 's large councilhouse . Ostenaco gave a speech and ceremoniously buried a hatchet in the ground , symbolizing a state of peace between the English and the Cherokee . Afterward , Timberlake partook in a peace ceremony in which he smoked several ceremonial pipes with the gathered chiefs , a practice Timberlake personally found " very disagreeable , " but participated in without openly complaining .
Timberlake and Ostenaco continued southward to Citico , where Timberlake was greeted by a ceremonial dance involving some 400 Cherokee . Timberlake recalled that the dancers were " painted all over in a hideous manner " and that they " danced in a very uncommon figure . " The town 's chief , Cheulah , presented Timberlake with a string of beads and held another pipe @-@ smoking ceremony . The non @-@ stop pipe smoking made Timberlake so sick that he " could not stir for several hours . " The following day , Timberlake and Ostenaco traveled to Chilhowee , the second southernmost of the Overhill towns on Timberlake 's map , where the town 's chief , Yachtino , held a peace procession similar to that at Citico .
= = = Return to Virginia = = =
His assignment largely completed , Timberlake returned to Tomotley with Ostenaco on January 2 , 1762 . He spent the next few weeks studying Cherokee habits and making notes for his map of the Overhill country . At the end of January , rumors began trickling in from Cherokee scouts of renewed hostilities with rival tribes to the north . Although the rumors turned out to be based on a misunderstanding , Timberlake grew anxious and begged Ostenaco to guide him back to Virginia . Ostenaco reluctantly agreed , and the party set out on March 10 , 1762 . Just before departure , Timberlake witnessed the ceremonial return of a war party led by Chief Willinawaw . The party sang " the war @-@ song " and planted a scalp @-@ filled pole next to the councilhouse door .
The Timberlake party had decided to make the return trip overland , having purchased horses from the Cherokee . Ostenaco , accompanied by several hundred Cherokee warriors , guided the Timberlake group northward across what is now known as the Great Indian Warpath , which follows the western base of the Appalachian Mountains . On March 11 , the party arrived at the abandoned village of Elajoy along Little River in what is now Maryville , Tennessee , and crossed the French Broad River the following day . A week later , they reached Fort Robinson , which the Stephen garrison had abandoned but stashed a large supply of flour . The expedition left Long Island on March 22 , continuing northward to an army camp where Timberlake had left some belongings . He was deeply disappointed to find the trunk had been looted and most of his goods had been stolen . The party finally reached Williamsburg , Virginia in early April .
= = Visits to London = =
While in Williamsburg , Timberlake and Ostenaco attended a dinner party at William & Mary College ; that evening Ostenaco said he would like to meet the king of England . Although he feared the trip would break him financially , Timberlake agreed to arrange such a trip and meeting for him . In May 1762 , Timberlake , Sumter , and three distinguished Cherokee leaders , including Ostenaco , departed for London .
Arriving in early June , the Cherokee chiefs were an immediate attraction , drawing crowds all over the city . The poet Oliver Goldsmith waited for three hours to meet the Cherokee , and offered a gift to Ostenaco . They sat for Sir Joshua Reynolds to paint their portraits , and they met personally with King George III . The Cherokee completed their return voyage to North America with Sergeant Sumter on about August 25 , 1762 . Timberlake remained in England dealing with some financial difficulties . He was appointed by Jeffrey Amherst , promoted to Crown Governor of Virginia , as a Lieutenant in the " 42nd or Royal Highland Regiment of foot . " His increased pay from this commission enabled Timberlake to pay for his return voyage to Virginia in March 1763 .
Having reached Virginia , Timberlake set out for New York to meet with Amherst to receive his commission . Not long afterward , he received notice that he was among a number of officers to be reduced to half pay . Having learned this , he left the militia and returned home to Virginia to petition the General Assembly to compensate him for his expenses for the journey , but was denied .
In the summer of 1764 , five Cherokee visited Timberlake , seeking an audience with the governor of Virginia and requesting passage to London . The Cherokee wished to appeal to King George to enforce the Proclamation Line of 1763 , which restricted colonists to east of the Appalachians , due to continuing encroachment by white settlers on Cherokee land . The governor denied their request , but Timberlake agreed to help them . He accompanied three Cherokee to London in the fall of 1764 . Not long after their arrival , the benefactor of the trip fell ill and died . Lord Halifax refused to grant the Cherokee an audience , as the trip was unauthorized . Timberlake was accused of attempting to profit off the public attention given to the Cherokee . The government sent the Cherokee back to North America in March 1765 . Shortly after their departure , Timberlake was arrested for failing to pay the debt for the last bill for lodging of himself and the Cherokee . He likely wrote his Memoirs while incarcerated .
= = Family = =
Timberlake had one child , a son , Richard Timberlake , by one of Ostenaco 's daughters , Sakinney . In his old age , Timberlake 's friend Ostenaco lived in retirement with his grandson , Richard .
= = Legacy = =
Timberlake 's primary legacy is the journal he kept while living with the Cherokee . The volume was published in 1765 , likely following Timberlake 's death in September of that year . The journal is of importance both as an ethnological study , as it contains detailed descriptions of various facets of Cherokee society , and as a historical account , as it gives insight into Cherokee political decision @-@ making and the tribe 's early reactions to the encroaching European colonists .
Along with Cherokee methods of warfare , Timberlake described their agricultural and hunting customs , religious beliefs , birth and death rites , and marital habits . He described Cherokee government as a " mixed aristocracy and democracy , " with chiefs chosen on the basis of merit. he also described Cherokee methods for building canoes and dwellings , and the general size and form of Cherokee summer and winter houses . Timberlake 's description of the Cherokee councilhouse ( the central structure in a typical Cherokee village ) has aided archaeologists in the location of such structures at modern excavation sites .
Timberlake 's map , entitled A Draught of the Cherokee Country , accompanied the journal . On it he located all the Cherokee villages on the lower Little Tennessee River and provided important demographic information about village sizes , populations , and leaders . Modern studies have generally confirmed that Timberlake 's map was remarkably accurate . The journal , simply entitled Memoirs , and his map of the Overhill Cherokee country have been reprinted several times . Timberlake 's Memoirs remains one of the best contemporary accounts of the 18th @-@ century Cherokee .
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= 1920 – 21 Burnley F.C. season =
The 1920 – 21 season was the 33rd season of competitive football played by Burnley Football Club . Burnley began the season confidently , despite not having played a match for almost four months before their first league fixture of the season . After losing their first three games , Burnley embarked on a 30 @-@ match unbeaten league run from 4 September 1920 until 26 March 1921 , winning the Football League First Division and becoming English champions for the first time in their history . Burnley 's unbeaten run stood as a Football League record for over 80 years , until it was bettered by Arsenal in the 2003 – 04 season . Burnley ended the 1920 – 21 season on 59 points , having won 23 games , drawn 13 , and lost 6 .
The team reached the third round of the FA Cup , defeating Leicester City away and Queens Park Rangers at home , before unexpectedly losing away to Second Division side Hull City . Burnley won the East Lancashire Charity Cup , beating Blackburn Rovers 8 – 2 over two legs , but fared poorly in the Lancashire Senior Cup , losing to Manchester City . As league champions , Burnley qualified for the Charity Shield , in which they were beaten 0 – 2 by FA Cup winners Tottenham Hotspur . Burnley also played two friendly matches during the season . The first , against Blackburn Rovers , marked the opening of Accrington Stanley 's new stadium ; the other was a benefit match for Patsy Gallacher , against a representative team from the Scottish Football League .
Burnley used 23 different players during the season and had nine different goalscorers . Their top scorer was Scottish forward Joe Anderson , with 31 competitive goals , including 25 in the league . Eight new players were signed by Burnley during the course of the season , and nine were released . Match attendances were the highest they had ever been at Turf Moor , with an average gate of over 30 @,@ 000 . The highest attendance of the campaign was a crowd of 42 @,@ 653 , who saw Burnley beat Bolton Wanderers 3 – 1 on 26 February 1921 ; the lowest was 22 @,@ 000 , for the match against Sunderland on the final day of the season .
= = Background and pre @-@ season = =
The 1920 – 21 campaign was the second season of competitive football in England after the First World War . Burnley 's chairman , Harry Windle , had been elected to the position in 1909 , and manager John Haworth was marking his 11th consecutive year in charge . After finishing as runners @-@ up to West Bromwich Albion in the Football League First Division the previous season , there was a sense of eager anticipation within the club before the season began . Team captain Tommy Boyle claimed that his side was capable of building on its success of the previous season and winning the league championship , despite Burnley not having won a trophy since their FA Cup victory in 1914 .
Burnley did not play any pre @-@ season friendly games other than a practice match between the first team and the reserves , which was watched by a crowd of around 10 @,@ 000 at Turf Moor . The team 's last competitive match had ended in a 0 – 2 defeat against Manchester United in the Lancashire Senior Cup on 8 May 1920 , almost four months earlier . The strip for 1920 – 21 was very little changed from that of the previous season ; the claret jersey with light blue sleeves and a light blue stripe around the collar was kept along with the white shorts , but the claret socks were replaced by black .
= = Transfers = =
The nucleus of the Burnley team remained unchanged from the previous campaign . Eight new players signed for the club , and eleven left during the season . New signings included goalkeeper Frank Birchenough from West Ham United and defender Bob McGrory from Dumbarton . Also brought in were George Richardson from non @-@ league side Horden Athletic and Tom Brophy from St Helens Town . West Bromwich Albion 's Len Moorwood was also signed in October 1920 to provide further goalkeeping backup . Attackers Richard Cragg , Billy Clarkson and Patrick Norris were among those who left the club in pre @-@ season . Defender Tom Bamford , who had not played a match for Burnley since before the First World War thanks to the emergence of Len Smelt , also left the club and joined Rochdale in September 1920 .
Transfer activity continued after the season began . Inside forward Jack Lane was brought in from Cradley Heath in December 1920 , followed by defender John Pearson from the same club two months later . Winger George Douglas was signed from Leicester City in February 1921 . Thomas Jackson , who had made only one first @-@ team appearance for Burnley , left the club in January 1921 to sign for Scottish side Dundee . Two players who had been signed at the beginning of the season left Burnley in April 1921 ; Bob McGrory moved to Stoke City on a free transfer and Frank Birchenough was released after playing two league matches . Bert Freeman left Burnley at the end of the season after nine years service , by which time he had become the club 's all @-@ time leading goalscorer .
= = League campaign = =
Burnley 's league campaign began on 28 August 1920 with a home match against Bradford City , who had finished 15th in the league in 1919 – 20 . The season began inauspiciously for Burnley , beaten 1 – 4 , but the match did see eventual top scorer Joe Anderson score the first of his 25 league goals of the campaign . Two further away defeats followed , 0 – 1 at Huddersfield Town and 0 – 2 at Bradford City , leaving Burnley at the bottom of the league table . This run of defeats was Burnley 's worst start to a league season since 1906 – 07 , when they also lost their opening three matches . Manager Haworth subsequently made several changes to the team ; goalkeeper Jerry Dawson and defender Tommy Boyle were reinstated , while Bert Freeman and James Lindsay were dropped in favour of Billy Nesbitt and Benny Cross respectively . Burnley picked up their first win on 6 September 1920 , beating Huddersfield Town 3 – 0 at Turf Moor ; the goalscorers were Bob Kelly , Tommy Boyle , and Billy Nesbitt . They went on to defeat Middlesbrough 2 – 1 at home , and to draw with them 0 – 0 at Ayresome Park . On 25 September 1920 , four players scored in a 4 – 0 victory against a weakened Chelsea team , giving Burnley their third successive home win .
October began with a 1 – 1 draw with Chelsea at Stamford Bridge , after which the team recorded four straight wins throughout the remainder of the month . Burnley achieved home and away victories against Bradford ( Park Avenue ) , before repeating the feat in the next two matches against Tottenham Hotspur . Burnley beat Tottenham 2 – 1 on 23 October 1920 , then achieved a 2 – 0 victory the following week , the first time in the season that any team had been able to prevent Tottenham from scoring in a league match . The team 's performance at White Hart Lane was met with disapproval from the correspondent from the Daily Mail , who wrote that Burnley set out to stifle their opponents and in doing so " spoilt the match " . Burnley carried on their winning streak into November , with goals from Bob Kelly , Tommy Boyle and Benny Cross helping the side to defeat Newcastle United 3 – 1 at home and 2 – 1 away to lift them to second place in the league . The home fixture was marred by tragedy when a charabanc transporting supporters from Grassington overturned , killing five people . After the next game , a 2 – 2 draw with Oldham Athletic at Boundary Park on 20 November 1920 , Burnley moved to the top of the table on goal average , 11 weeks after having been at the bottom . In the return match at Turf Moor a week later , Oldham were comfortably beaten 7 – 1 ; Bob Kelly scored four goals , and the others were added by Tommy Boyle and Benny Cross .
A win and a draw against Liverpool , followed by a 2 – 0 victory over Preston North End , took Burnley into the Christmas period three points clear at the top of the league . The convincing 6 – 0 win over Sheffield United on Christmas Day , in which forward Joe Anderson scored four times , set a new club record unbeaten streak of 17 games , beating the record set during the 1897 – 98 campaign . Burnley continued their good form into 1921 , beating Preston North End away before achieving two victories against local rivals Blackburn Rovers . The first of these wins , a 4 – 1 success , was watched by 41 @,@ 534 spectators , the biggest home crowd of the season until then . The victory was followed by a 3 – 1 away win a week later . On 5 February 1921 , Anderson scored five goals in a " brilliant " performance against Aston Villa as Burnley recorded their second 7 – 1 win of the season . The result saw Burnley equal the Football League record of 22 matches unbeaten , held by Sheffield United and Preston North End . A new league unbeaten record was set with a 0 – 0 draw with Aston Villa four days later . Despite losing George Halley to an illness which forced him to miss the remainder of the season , Burnley secured a late home win over Derby County in the following game , sending Derby to the bottom of the league table . February ended with a 3 – 1 victory against Bolton Wanderers in front of a crowd of 42 @,@ 653 , the largest attendance ever at Turf Moor at the time . The team took four points from the next three matches . Burnley firstly drew 1 – 1 away against a Bolton Wanderers team who were unbeaten at home , before a then @-@ record crowd of 54 @,@ 609 at Burnden Park , before beating Arsenal at Turf Moor . The following week Burnley secured an away draw at Arsenal , despite their opponents attacking for much of the game .
A late Benny Cross goal gave Burnley a 1 – 0 win over Manchester United at Turf Moor , extending the team 's unbeaten record to 30 matches . In the next match , Burnley lost a league fixture for the first time since 4 September 1920 when they were beaten 0 – 3 by Manchester City at Hyde Road . City were also challenging for the league title and eventually finished as runners @-@ up . More than 37 @,@ 000 spectators attended the match and several people were injured as the stadium became overcrowded . Burnley followed up the setback with successive wins over Manchester City and Manchester United to take the total number of league wins in the season to 23 . The team suffered its fifth league defeat of the campaign on 9 April 1921 , losing 0 – 2 away at West Bromwich Albion .
Burnley played West Bromwich Albion again seven days later , drawing 1 – 1 . The team went into the match against Everton on 23 April 1921 needing a draw to clinch the league championship . Everton took the lead 15 minutes into the game , but Benny Cross scored the equalising goal three minutes later , and Burnley held on to become English champions for the first time in their history . Local newspapers were effusive in their praise of the Burnley side , calling them " the greatest team that ever was " . The draw with Everton was succeeded by another 1 – 1 stalemate against the same team at Turf Moor . In the penultimate game , Burnley were beaten 0 – 1 away at Sunderland , their sixth and final league defeat of the season . The campaign ended with a 2 – 2 draw against Sunderland on 7 May 1921 in front of a season @-@ lowest crowd of 22 @,@ 000 . The draw took Burnley to a tally of 59 points , five points clear of second @-@ placed Manchester City , and one short of West Bromwich Albion 's then @-@ record total of 60 points set in 1919 – 20 .
At half time during the final match of the season , the championship trophy was paraded around the Turf Moor pitch accompanied by a marching band . After the full @-@ time whistle was blown , supporters swarmed the pitch to celebrate the team 's success . The Football League president , John McKenna , made the official presentation of the trophy to the Burnley captain Boyle and congratulated the side on their achievement , particularly praising " their splendid training and their beautiful football " . Medals were awarded to the manager John Haworth , the club trainer Charlie Bates and the eleven players who had featured in the match against Sunderland . Three more medals were later awarded to Mosscrop , Taylor and Basnett .
= = = Match results = = =
Key
Results
= = = Final league position = = =
= = Other first team matches = =
Burnley 's first match outside the league in the 1920 – 21 season was a friendly on 22 September 1920 against a Blackburn Rovers XI to mark the opening of Accrington Stanley 's new stadium at Peel Park . Burnley won the game 10 – 1 with seven goals from Joe Anderson in addition to strikes from James Lindsay , Walter Weaver and Thomas Jackson . Burnley 's opening game in the FA Cup was an away tie at Leicester City on 8 January 1921 . Bob Kelly scored for the fourth game in succession and Joe Anderson scored four goals as Burnley won the match 7 – 3 , the first time the team had scored seven goals in a competitive match away from home . After the match , the Athletic News described Burnley as the best team in the country .
Following the win over Leicester City , Burnley were drawn against Queens Park Rangers at Turf Moor in the Second Round . Despite a good performance by their opponents , Burnley progressed to the Third Round with a 4 – 2 win , in which Bob Kelly struck twice in the first half and Joe Anderson scored either side of half time . In the Third Round , Burnley were handed an away tie at Hull City , who at the time were struggling in the Football League Second Division and had won only two matches in the previous five months . Despite being without first @-@ team regulars George Halley and Joe Anderson through injury , Burnley were expected to win comfortably , not having lost since 4 September 1920 . Hull City played above all expectations and Burnley suffered a 0 – 3 defeat after being 0 – 1 behind at half time .
In April 1921 , Burnley won the East Lancs Charity Cup for the second consecutive season , beating Blackburn Rovers 8 – 2 on aggregate over two legs . The first leg was won 6 – 2 at Turf Moor thanks to goals from Eddie Mosscrop , Joe Anderson , Benny Cross and a hat @-@ trick from Bob Kelly , before strikes from Joe Anderson and James Lindsay gave Burnley a 2 – 0 win at Ewood Park . This success was followed by a 2 – 1 friendly victory over a Scottish Football League XI in a benefit match for Celtic winger Patsy Gallacher . Burnley also participated in the Lancashire Senior Cup ; the league matches against Blackburn Rovers and Preston North End also counted as group stage matches in the competition . The team won all four of these games to qualify for the semi @-@ finals , where they were drawn against Manchester City . The game on 9 May 1921 ended in a 0 – 2 defeat for Burnley , and their opponents went on to win the trophy that year .
As champions of the Football League , Burnley qualified for the Charity Shield , then known as the Dewar Shield . Burnley 's opponents were Tottenham Hotspur , who had finished sixth in the First Division and beaten Wolverhampton Wanderers in the FA Cup final . In what was the last match of the 1920 – 21 campaign , Burnley fell to a 0 – 2 loss at White Hart Lane on 16 May 1921 . The match was not without controversy , as the Burnley players claimed that the second goal should have been disallowed despite the Tottenham goalscorer being onside , maintaining that the whistle had already been blown by the referee .
= = = Match results = = =
Key
Results
= = Player details = =
Burnley manager John Haworth used 23 different players during the 1920 – 21 season , and there were nine different goalscorers . The team played in a 2 – 3 – 5 formation throughout the campaign , with two fullbacks , three halfbacks , two outside forwards , two inside forwards and a centre forward . Billy Watson played the highest number of games , appearing in all 45 First Division and FA Cup matches . Billy Nesbitt and Joe Anderson each played 43 times . Anderson was the top goalscorer for Burnley in the campaign with 31 competitive goals , including 25 in the league , the highest total since Bert Freeman 's 36 goals in 1912 – 13 . With a tally of 23 goals , Bob Kelly was the second @-@ highest scorer , followed by Benny Cross with 15 , including the goal that won the title for Burnley . Club captain Tommy Boyle was the highest @-@ scoring defender , with seven goals in 38 league appearances . Winger Billy Nesbitt scored five times during the season .
England international goalkeeper Jerry Dawson missed three games , two because of an injury sustained in the opening match . Centre forward Bert Freeman , who had become the first ever Burnley player to score 100 league goals , and held the club record for most goals in a season , played only four matches . His final appearance for Burnley came in the FA Cup Third Round defeat to Hull City . Several players made bit @-@ part contributions to the campaign ; Tom Brophy and Bob McGrory each made just three first @-@ team appearances and Frank Birchenough , George Douglas , Jack Lane , Len Moorwood and Bill Taylor played in two matches or fewer . George Richardson and John Pearson , both new signings in the 1920 – 21 season , failed to make a first @-@ team appearance for Burnley during the campaign . Thomas Jackson was a squad member until January 1921 , but he did not play any games for Burnley in the 1920 – 21 campaign .
= = = Player statistics = = =
= = Aftermath = =
The Burnley board had planned a tour of Spain to take place during the summer of 1921 after the culmination of the league campaign . However , the trip had to be cancelled when the club received notice from the Spanish Football Federation that one of their intended opponents , Barcelona , had been suspended from all matches . Further tours of Norway and France were then arranged , but these also had to be abandoned after the Football Association refused to grant permission . At the end of the season five players were given free transfers by the club ; Len Smelt and Frank Birchenough , who had both played for Burnley during the campaign , and three reserve players . Moreover , two players – Bert Freeman and George Thompson – were placed on the transfer list by the manager .
Burnley 's 30 @-@ game unbeaten streak during the 1920 – 21 season stood as a Football League record for 83 years until it was surpassed by Arsenal , who completed the entire season without losing in the 2003 – 04 campaign . After the defeat to Bradford City on 28 August 1920 , Burnley did not lose another match at Turf Moor until 11 February 1922 , when they were beaten 1 – 2 by Blackburn Rovers . In the same match , the halfback line of Tommy Boyle , George Halley and Billy Watson — used in 25 first @-@ team games during 1920 – 21 — was seen for the final time , having played together for the first time in September 1913 . The majority of the championship @-@ winning team remained intact going into the 1921 – 22 season , although players such as David Taylor and Walter Weaver found themselves less involved in first @-@ team matches .
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= Commander Keen in Invasion of the Vorticons =
Commander Keen in Invasion of the Vorticons is a three @-@ part episodic side @-@ scrolling platform video game developed by Ideas from the Deep ( a precursor to id Software ) and published by Apogee Software in 1990 for MS @-@ DOS . It is the first set of episodes of the Commander Keen series . The game follows the titular Commander Keen , an eight @-@ year @-@ old child genius , as he retrieves the stolen parts of his spaceship from the cities of Mars , prevents an alien mothership that arrived while he was delayed from destroying landmarks on Earth , and hunts down the leader of the aliens , the Grand Intellect , on the alien home planet . The three episodes feature Keen running , jumping , and shooting through various levels while opposed by aliens , robots , and other hazards .
In September 1990 , John Carmack , while working at programming studio Softdisk , developed a way to implement side @-@ scrolling video games on a personal computers ( PCs ) , which at the time was the province of dedicated home video game consoles . After a demo of a PC version of Super Mario Bros. 3 developed by Carmack and his coworkers John Romero and Tom Hall , along with Jay Wilbur and Lane Roathe , failed to convince Nintendo to invest in a PC port of their game , they were approached by Scott Miller of Apogee Software to develop an original game to be published through the Apogee shareware model . Hall designed the three @-@ part game , Carmack and Romero programmed it , Wilbur managed the team , and artist Adrian Carmack helped later in development . The team worked continuously for almost three months on the game , working late into the night at the office at Softdisk and taking their work computers to John Carmack 's home to continue developing the game .
Released by Apogee on December 14 , 1990 , the trilogy of episodes was an immediate success ; Apogee , whose monthly sales had been around US $ 7 @,@ 000 , made US $ 30 @,@ 000 on Commander Keen alone in the first two weeks and US $ 60 @,@ 000 per month by June , while the first royalty check convinced the development team , then known as Ideas from the Deep , to quit their jobs at Softdisk . The team founded id Software shortly thereafter , and went on to produce another four episodes of the Commander Keen series over the next year . The trilogy was lauded by reviewers due to the graphical achievement and humorous style , and id Software went on to develop other successful games , including early successes Wolfenstein 3D ( 1992 ) and Doom ( 1993 ) .
= = Gameplay = =
The three episodes of Commander Keen in Invasion of the Vorticons make up one side @-@ scrolling platform video game : most of the game features the player @-@ controlled Commander Keen viewed from the side while moving on a two @-@ dimensional plane . The player can move left and right and can jump ; after finding a pogo stick in the first episode , they can also bounce continuously and jump higher than they can normally with the correct timing . The levels are composed of platforms on which Keen can stand , and some platforms allow Keen to jump up through them from below . The second episode introduces moving platforms as well as switches which extend bridges over gaps in the floor . Once entered , the only way to exit a level is to reach the end , and the player cannot save and return to the middle of a level . In between levels the player travels on a two @-@ dimensional map , viewed from above ; from the map the player can enter levels by approaching the entrance or save their progress in the game . Some levels are optional and can be bypassed , while others are secret and can only be reached by following specific procedures .
Each of the three episodes contain a different set of enemies in their levels , which the player must kill or avoid . The first episode includes alien Martians , the second largely uses robots , and the third more species of aliens . All three episodes also include Vorticons , large blue canine @-@ like aliens . Levels can also include hazards , such as electricity or spikes ; touching a hazard or most enemies causes Keen to lose a life , and the game is ended if all of Keen 's lives are lost . After finding a raygun in the first episode , Keen can shoot at enemies using ammo found throughout the game ; different enemies take differing numbers of shots to kill , or in some cases are immune . Some enemies can also be stunned if they are jumped on , such as the one @-@ eyed Yorps , which block Keen 's path but do not harm him . The player can also find food items throughout the levels which grant points , with an extra life awarded every 20 @,@ 000 points . There are also colored keycards which grant access to locked parts of levels , and in the third episode on rare occasions an ankh , which gives Keen temporary invulnerability .
= = Plot = =
The game is broken up into three episodes : " Marooned on Mars " , " The Earth Explodes " , and " Keen Must Die ! " . In the first episode , eight @-@ year @-@ old Billy Blaze , a child genius , builds a spaceship and puts on his older brother 's football helmet to become Commander Keen . One night while his parents are out of the house he flies to Mars to explore ; while away from the ship the Vorticons steal four vital components and hide them in Martian cities . Keen journeys through Martian cities and outposts to find the components , despite the efforts of Martians and robots ; the final component is guarded by a Vorticon . Keen returns to Earth — discovering a Vorticon mothership in orbit — and beats his parents home , though they discover that he now has a pet Yorp .
In the second episode , the Vorticon mothership has locked its " X @-@ 14 Tantalus Ray cannons " on eight of Earth 's landmarks , and Keen journeys to the ship to find and deactivate each of the cannons . Keen does so , fighting more varied enemies and hazards , and a Vorticon at each cannon 's control . At the end of the episode he discovers that the Vorticons are being mind @-@ controlled by the mysterious Grand Intellect , who is actually behind the attack on Earth . In the third episode , Keen journeys to the Vorticon homeworld of Vorticon VI to find the Grand Intellect . He travels through Vorticon cities and outposts to gain access to the Grand Intellect 's lair , fighting mostly against the Vorticons themselves . Upon reaching the lair he discovers that the Grand Intellect is actually his school rival Mortimer McMire , whose IQ is " a single point higher " than Keen 's . Keen defeats Mortimer and his " Mangling Machine " , and frees the Vorticons ; the Vorticon king and " the other Vorticons you haven 't slaughtered " then award him a medal for saving them .
= = Development = =
In September 1990 , John Carmack , a game programmer for the Gamer 's Edge video game subscription service at Softdisk in Shreveport , Louisiana , developed a way to create graphics which could smoothly scroll in any direction in a computer game . At the time , IBM @-@ compatible general @-@ purpose computers were not able to replicate the common feat of video game consoles such as the Nintendo Entertainment System , which were capable of redrawing the entire screen fast enough for a side @-@ scrolling video game due to their specialized hardware . Carmack , rejecting the " clever little shortcuts " that other programmers had attempted to solve the problem , created adaptive tile refresh : a way to slide the majority of the visible screen to the side both horizontally and vertically when the player moved as if it had not changed , and only redraw the newly @-@ visible portions of the screen . Other games had previously redrawn the whole screen in chunks , or like Carmack 's earlier games were limited to scrolling in one direction . He discussed the idea with coworker Tom Hall , who encouraged him to demonstrate it by recreating the first level of the recent Super Mario Bros. 3 on a computer . The pair did so in a single overnight session , with Hall recreating the graphics of the game — replacing the player character of Mario with Dangerous Dave , a character from an eponymous previous Gamer 's Edge game — while Carmack optimized the code . The next morning on September 20 , the resulting game , Dangerous Dave in Copyright Infringement , was shown to their other coworker John Romero . Romero recognized Carmack 's idea as a major accomplishment : Nintendo was one of the most successful companies in Japan , largely due to the success of their Mario franchise , and the ability to replicate the gameplay of the series on a computer could have large implications . The scrolling technique did not meet Softdisk 's coding guidelines , however , as it needed at least a 16 @-@ color EGA graphics processor , and the programmers in the office who did not work on games were not as impressed as Romero .
Romero felt that the potential of Carmack 's idea should not be " wasted " on Softdisk ; while the other members of the Gamer 's Edge team more or less agreed , he especially felt that their talents in general were wasted on the company , which needed the money their games brought in but in his opinion neither understood nor appreciated video game design as distinct from general software programming . The manager of the team and fellow programmer , Jay Wilbur , recommended that they take the demo to Nintendo itself , to position themselves as capable of building a PC version of Super Mario Bros. for the company . The group — composed of Carmack , Romero , Hall , and Wilbur , along with Lane Roathe , the editor for Gamer 's Edge , decided to build a full demo game for their idea to send to Nintendo . As they lacked the computers to build the project at home , and could not work on it at Softdisk , they " borrowed " their work computers over the weekend , taking them in their cars to a house shared by Carmack , Wilbur , and Roathe . The group then spent the next 72 hours working non @-@ stop on the demo , which copied Super Mario Bros. 3 with some shortcuts taken in the artwork , sound , and level design , and a title screen which credited the game to the programmers under the name Ideas from the Deep . The response from Nintendo a few weeks later was not as hoped for , however ; while Nintendo was impressed with their efforts , they wanted the Mario series to remain exclusive to Nintendo consoles .
Around the same time as the group was rejected by Nintendo , Romero was receiving fan mail about some of the games he had developed for Gamer 's Edge . Upon realizing that , despite the different names used , all of the letters came from the same address — that of Scott Miller of Apogee Software — he wrote back an angry reply , only to receive a phone call from Miller soon after . Miller explained that he was trying to get in contact with Romero unofficially in order to convince him to publish more levels for his previous Pyramids of Egypt — an adventure game where the player navigates mazes while avoiding Egyptian @-@ themed traps and monsters — through Apogee 's shareware model . Miller was pioneering a model of game publishing where part of a game would be released for free , with the remainder of the game available for purchase from Apogee . Romero said the he could not , as Pyramids of Egypt was owned by Softdisk , but that it did not matter as the game he was now working on was much better , and sent Miller the Mario demo . Miller was impressed , and the two agreed that Ideas from the Deep would create a new game for Apogee . Miller sent the group a US $ 2 @,@ 000 advance in return for an agreement that they would create a game before Christmas of 1990 , only a few months away . The game was planned to be split into three parts to match Apogee 's shareware model of giving away the first part for free to attract interest in the whole .
Ideas from the Deep convened to come up with the design for the game , and Hall suggested a console @-@ style platformer in the vein of Super Mario Bros. , as they had the technology made for it ; he further recommended a science fiction theme . John Carmack added the idea of a genius child protagonist saving the world , and Hall quickly created a short summary for the game : a dramatic introduction about eight @-@ year @-@ old genius Billy Blaze , defending the Earth with his spaceship . When he read out the summary in an over @-@ dramatic voice to the group , they laughed and applauded , and the group agreed to begin work on Commander Keen in the Invasion of the Vorticons .
Billy Blaze , eight year @-@ old genius , working diligently in his backyard clubhouse has created an interstellar starship from old soup cans , rubber cement and plastic tubing . While his folks are out on the town and the babysitter has fallen asleep , Billy travels into his backyard workshop , dons his brother 's football helmet , and transforms into ...
COMMANDER KEEN--defender of Earth !
In his ship , the Bean @-@ with @-@ Bacon Megarocket , Keen dispenses galactic justice with an iron hand !
The Ideas from the Deep team , who referred to themselves as the " IFD guys " , could not afford to leave their jobs to work on the game full @-@ time , so they continued to work at Softdisk , spending their time on the Gamer 's Edge games during the day and on Commander Keen at night . They also continued to take home their work computers to Carmack 's house on the weekends , putting them in their cars at night and bringing them back in the morning before anyone else arrived ; they even began to request upgrades to the computers from Softdisk , nominally for their work . The group split into different roles : Hall became the game designer and creative director , John Carmack and Romero were the programmers , and Wilbur the manager . They invited artist Adrian Carmack from Softdisk to join them late in development , while Roathe was soon kicked out of the group ; Romero , the self @-@ appointed leader of the team , liked him but felt that his work ethic did not match well with the rest of the team , and pushed for his removal . Ideas from the Deep spent nearly every waking moment when they were not working at Softdisk from October through December 1990 working on Commander Keen , with Wilbur forcing them to eat and take breaks . Several members of the team have mentioned in interviews as an example of the team 's commitment a night during development when a heavy storm flooded the path to get to the house , preventing them from working , and John Romero waded through a flooding river to make it to the house anyways .
The game 's design was largely driven by Tom Hall : Romero and especially John Carmack were focused almost exclusively on the programming ; Wilbur was not involved in the game 's design ; and Adrian Carmack joined late in development and found the project 's " cute " art style , till then mostly created by Hall , far @-@ removed from his preferred , darker , style . Consequently , he did not try to implement his own design ideas . Hall 's personal experiences and philosophies , therefore , strongly impacted the game : Keen 's red shoes and Green Bay Packers football helmet were items Hall wore as a child , dead enemies left behind corpses due to his belief that child players should be taught that death had permanent consequences , and enemies were based loosely on his reading of Sigmund Freud 's psychological theories , such as that of the id . Other influences on Hall for the game were Duck Dodgers in the 24 ½ th Century and other Chuck Jones cartoons , and " The Available Data on the Worp Reaction " , a short story about a child constructing a spaceship . Keen 's " Bean @-@ with @-@ Bacon " spaceship was taken from a George Carlin skit about using bay leaves as deodorant so as to smell like soup . Keen was intended to be a reflection of Hall as he had wanted to be as a child . The team separated the game from its Super Mario Bros. roots by adding non @-@ linear exploration and additional mechanics like the pogo stick . A suggestion from Miller that part of the popularity of Super Mario Bros was the presence of secrets and hidden areas in the game led Hall to add several secrets , such as an entire hidden level in the first episode , and a " Galactic Alphabet " in which signs in the game were written , which if deciphered by the players revealed hidden messages , jokes , and instructions .
As the game neared completion , Miller began to market the game to players . Strongly encouraged by the updates the team was sending him , he began heavily advertising the game in all of the bulletin board systems ( BBS ) and game magazines he had access to , as well as sending the team US $ 100 checks every week labelled " pizza bonus " after one of the game 's food items to keep them motivated . The game was completed in early December 1990 , and on the afternoon of December 14 Miller began uploading the completed first episode to BBSs , with the other two episodes listed as available for purchase as a mailed plastic bag with floppy disks for US $ 30 .
= = Reception = =
Commander Keen was an immediate hit for Apogee : the company 's previous sales levels had been around US $ 7 @,@ 000 per month , but by Christmas Keen already had sales of almost US $ 30 @,@ 000 . Miller described the game as " a little atom bomb " to magazine editors and BBS controllers when asked about it , and recruited his mother and hired his first employee to handle sales and phone calls from interested players . By June 1991 , the game was bringing in over US $ 60 @,@ 000 per month . Chris Parker of PC Magazine later in 1991 referred to the game 's release as a " tremendous success " .
A contemporary review by Barry Simon of PC Magazine praised the game 's graphical capabilities as having a " Nintendo feel " , though he termed the graphics as " well drawn " but " not spectacular " in terms of resolution . He noted that the game was very much an arcade game that players would not purchase for " its scintillating plot or ground @-@ breaking originality " , but said that all three episodes were very fun to play and that the scrolling graphics set it apart from similar games . A short summary of the trilogy in 1992 by PC World termed it " one of the most spectacular games available " and praised the " superb " sound and graphics , and a similar summary in CQ Amateur Radio described it as " Nintendo comes to the PC " and the " best action / adventure game " the reviewer had ever seen . In October 1992 , the Shareware Industry Awards gave the Commander Keen series the " Best Entertainment Software and Best Overall " award . A review of the entire Commander Keen series in 1993 by Sandy Petersen in the first " Eye of the Monitor " column for Dragon described the series as action games with " hilarious graphics " . Acknowledging its debt to Super Mario Bros. , he called it , including the Vorticon trilogy , " one of the best games of its type " and praised it for not being " mindlessly hard " , instead requiring some thought to play through , and especially for the humor in the graphics and gameplay .
= = Legacy = =
Ideas from the Deep 's first royalty check from Apogee in January 1991 for US $ 10 @,@ 500 convinced them that they no longer needed their day jobs at Softdisk but could devote themselves full @-@ time to their own ideas . Hall and Wilbur were concerned about the risk of being sued if they did not break the news gently to Softdisk , but Romero and John Carmack were dismissive of the possibility , especially as they felt they had no assets for which they could be sued . Shortly thereafter , John Carmack was confronted by their boss and owner of Softdisk , Al Vekovius , who had become suspicious of the group 's increasingly erratic , disinterested , and surly behavior at work , as well as their multiple requests for computer upgrades . Vekovius had been told by another employee that the group were making their own games , and felt that Carmack was generally incapable of lying ; Carmack in turn bluntly admitted that they had made Keen with Softdisk computers , that they felt no remorse for their actions , and that they were all planning on leaving . Vekovius felt that the company was reliant on the Gamer 's Edge subscriptions , and tried to convince the group to instead form a new company in partnership with Softdisk ; when Ideas from the Deep made no secret of the offer in the office , however , the other employees threatened to all quit if the team was " rewarded " for stealing from the company . After several weeks of negotiation , the Ideas team agreed to produce a series of games for Softdisk , one every two months , and on February 1 , 1991 , founded id Software .
In the summer of 1991 , id hosted a seminar for game developers with the intention of licensing the Commander Keen engine ; they did so , forming the spiritual predecessor to both QuakeCon and id 's standard of licensing their game engines . Id Software also produced several more games in the Commander Keen series ; the first of these , Commander Keen in Keen Dreams , was published in 1991 through their agreement with Softdisk . Commander Keen in Goodbye , Galaxy , composed of the episodes " Secret of the Oracle " and " The Armageddon Machine " , was published through Apogee in December 1991 , and the final id @-@ developed Keen game , Commander Keen in Aliens Ate My Babysitter , was published through FormGen around the same time . Another trilogy of episodes , titled The Universe Is Toast ! , was planned for December 1992 , but was cancelled after the success of id 's Wolfenstein 3D and development focus on Doom . A final Keen game , Commander Keen , was developed for the Game Boy Color in 2001 by David A. Palmer Productions in association with id Software , and published by Activision . The original trilogy has been released as part of several collections since its first release : the id Anthology compilation in 1996 , a compilation release by Apogee in 1998 of Invasion of the Vorticons and Goodbye , Galaxy , and the 3D Realms Anthology in 2014 . They have also been released for modern computers through a DOS emulator , and sold through Steam since 2007 as a part of the Commander Keen Complete Pack . According to Steam Spy , as of June 2016 approximately 200 @,@ 000 copies have been sold through Steam .
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= Today Is Your Day =
" Today Is Your Day " is a song performed by Canadian singer @-@ songwriter Shania Twain . It was self @-@ penned by Twain and co @-@ produced by the singer alongside David Foster and Nathan Chapman . The song was released on June 12 , 2011 by Mercury Nashville Records , as a promotional single to accompany the documentary television series Why Not ? with Shania Twain ( 2011 ) . The song marked Twain 's first song release in over six years . Twain wrote the track for self @-@ inspiration , during the development of Why Not ? with Shania Twain . To her , " Today Is Your Day " became the theme song for the series , expressing the purpose behind it via music . Despite feeling apprehensive , Twain decided to record the track , which induced her to create her forthcoming fifth studio album . The track is midtempo ballad in the country pop genre . Lyrically , " Today Is Your Day " regards personal upliftment . " Today Is Your Day " is Twain 's first piece of music to have had no involvement with now ex @-@ husband Robert John " Mutt " Lange in 18 years .
" Today Is Your Day " has received mixed reviews from music critics and mild commercial performance in Canada and the United States . On the Canadian Hot 100 , the song peaked at number 16 , while , in the US Billboard Hot 100 , it peaked at number 66 . It became Twain 's first effort to enter the main @-@ genre chart since " Party for Two " ( 2004 ) . Despite not receiving an official music video , a promotional music video was gathered from footage from Why Not ? with Shania Twain .
= = Background = =
In 1993 , prior to success , Twain released her eponymous debut studio album , which caught the attention of record producer Robert John " Mutt " Lange . The two collaborated on songwriting via phone calls for six months , and later established a romantic relationship . Soon after , they wedded in December 1993 and Twain 's second studio album The Woman in Me ( 1995 ) established Twain as a superstar , selling over 12 million copies in the United States . Twain and Lange continued to collaborate on her subsequent albums Come on Over ( 1997 ) and Up ! ( 2002 ) ; the prior went on to sell over 40 million copies worldwide and became the best @-@ selling album by a female artist . After selling a total of over 75 million records worldwide , making her the top @-@ selling female artist in country music history , Twain decided to take a musical hiatus in 2005 . In 2008 , it was announced that after 14 years of marriage , Twain and Lange were in the process of divorcing . The singer had discovered her husband was infidel with her best friend Marie Anne Thiebaud , although Lange and Thiebaud never admitted to it . The divorce was finalized on June 9 , 2010 .
According to Twain , she became depressed and lost her desire to live following the divorce . As a distraction from it , Twain commenced to write her memoir From This Moment On ( titled after the 1998 song of the same name ) . She then began to re @-@ evaluate her life and noted a pattern of attempting to withhold emotions , which affected her voice ( for both speaking and singing ) . She explained the loss of her voice was attributed to a cumulative stress that began with domestic violence in her childhood , continued with the death of her parents and the stress from her musical career , and finally exploded with the divorce . As a result , the singer developed dysphonia , an impairment in the ability to produce voice sounds using the vocal organs as a result of tightened muscles enveloping her voice box . In order to recover her voice and heal wounds caused by the divorce , Twain embarked on a documented journey with the series Why Not ? with Shania Twain . The goal was executed via Twain performing acts out her comfort zone to once again be able to perform , while inspiring viewers to be proactive about their dilemmas .
= = Writing and recording = =
After repeating to herself , ' Today is your day ! You can do it ! ' , Twain decided to compose a song for self @-@ inspiration . Twain described the decision to write the song as crucial because it was her first since her separation from Lange . She had to " find [ herself ] as a songwriter again " and become independent once again . " I was petrified of writing a new song without Mutt . A whole new world for me . It had been many , many years since I had written by myself so that was new and scary " , Twain said . For Twain , the music was simple to write , only occupying approximately two lines of sheet music . Then , the lyrics began to flow as Why Not ? with Shania Twain progressed . " Today Is Your Day " inspirited her ; consequently , she contemplated sharing it with the series. a concept that frightened her : " Sharing that song with other people , exposing , and basically allowing myself to be vulnerable the and judged , it scared the heck out of me . " She believed it ultimately became " the natural theme song of the series " . She explained the song 's relevance to the television series : " From the inception of documenting the journey , the song was also created at that moment . And it has evolved with it all along the way . "
As part of Why Not ? with Shania Twain , she then arranged an appointment with music producer David Foster , hoping to collaborate on " Today Is Your Day " . In order to prepare with her session with Foster , Twain visited vocal coach Eric Vetro to prepare , although feeling skeptical . Twain and Vetro executed several vocal exercises to loosen her up from the tension and tightness she experienced . " The goal is to free up , to let go . She has to take all of that tension and tightness that she 's been feeling for so long , and transform it to free herself from it . And to start singing from her heart again , the way she did when she was a little girl , when she started " , Vetro stated . He also expressed his belief that Twain was prepared enough to once again record and perform music . Twain felt she learned divergent techniques that were beneficial to her voice and appreciated Vetro 's understanding of her psyche as a performer .
Nevertheless , Twain was apprehensive about collaborating with Foster and frightened that he would dislike the song or her voice . To ease the process , she approached it as if she were introducing " Today Is Your Day " to the producer as a songwriter , rather than a singer . Twain and Foster recorded the demo of " Today Is Your Day " at Foster 's home studio in Los Angeles , California , creating the musical arrangement as the recording prolonged . Background vocals were provided by Twain and her sister , Carrie Ann Twain , using a handheld microphone . Foster then suggested for Twain to record lead vocals in his home 's vocal booth . After agreeing , Twain commenced it nervously , but then enjoyed it . She considered it a " landmark moment in [ her ] journey " through Why Not ? with Shania Twain and described it as second nature and very natural , as if she never put her musical career to a halt . Twain later recorded the studio version of " Today Is Your Day " and co @-@ produced it along Foster and Nathan Chapman . The song " set [ Twain ] off " , allowing her to feel comfortable anew recording music , and triggering her to create her forthcoming fifth studio album .
= = Release = =
The song premiered on OWN : Oprah Winfrey Network on June 12 , 2011 , immediately after the broadcast premiere of Why Not ? with Shania Twain 's final episode , " Endless Love " at 11 P.M. EST . Subsequently on the same night , " Today Was Your Day " was released to country radio and digital retailers in Canada and the United States , with an international release the next day . It became her first song release since " Shoes " ( 2005 ) from the Desperate Housewives soundtrack , and her first self @-@ penned song released since " Leaving Is the Only Way Out " from The Woman in Me ( 1995 ) ; the two are her only self @-@ penned tracks released . It is also Twain 's first promotional single . An official music video for " Today Is Your Day " was not filmed ; instead , the song was given a promotional music video compiled from highlights from Why Not ? with Shania Twain . It premiered on Vevo on June 23 , 2011 , and was released to the iTunes Store on June 28 , 2011 .
= = Composition = =
" Today Is Your Day " is a song with a length of three minutes and 12 seconds . The song is a slow mid @-@ tempo ballad of the country pop genre . Nonetheless , several critics , such as Nicholas Köhler and Ken MacQueen Maclean 's , have described the track to be a piece of pop music , rather than country music . It commences with a sole piano accompanying Twain 's voice , and later progresses to an assortment of banjo , string instruments , and other instrumentation . However , the production is maintained sparse , leaving Twain 's vocals at center . The lyrics are written in second person and discuss optimism and personal upliftment . In the bridge , she sings , " Brush yourself off no regrets / This is as good as it gets / Don ’ t expect more or less / Just go out and give it your best " , meaning one must be able to disregard dreaming for a better day because " today is all you ’ ve got " . Melinda Newman of HitFix presumed , considering Twain 's back story , that Twain wrote " Today Is Your Day " as message for herself .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
The song received mixed reviews from music critics . Melinda Newman of HitFix said it was " a bit snoozy " , however complementing Twain 's reasonably strong vocals . Newman added , " She ’ s not pushing or belting in any way , but she ’ s upfront and center . However , her delivery is hardly the peppy rallying call that the lyrics call for and if a song ever demanded to be uptempo , this would be it . " Sean Daly of the St. Petersburg Times called the song " a shocking stinkeroo every which way . " Daly criticized Twain 's vocal delivery , noting she sounded as though she sang through the side of her mouth much like James Cagney , and said the track reinforced the skeptics who insisted Lange was the reason for Twain 's success . He concluded , " If ' Today Is Your Day ' is a sign of things to come , you might want to hold your breath on that comeback . " Jenna Hally Rubenstein of MTV was disappointed with " Today Is Your Day " , but said she would " take it " following the singer 's long absence from music . Rubenstein commented that the song was undoubtedly saccharine , yet Twain 's lush and rich voice prevailed .
= = = Chart performance = = =
On the week ending July 2 , 2011 , " Today Is Your Day " debuted at number 14 on the Canadian Hot 100 . The following week , it descended to number 45 . Since , the song has spent six weeks on the Canadian Hot 100 . On the week ending July 2 , 2011 , " Today Is Your Day " also entered on the US Billboard Hot 100 , at number 66 with 46 @,@ 000 digital downloads ( its sole week on the chart ) . This marked Twain 's first entry on the Billboard Hot 100 chart since " Party for Two " ( 2004 ) spent its last week on the chart in February 2005 . On the same week , " Today Is Your Day " entered at number 40 on the US Hot Country Songs chart , ranking Twain 's fourth @-@ highest debut . Two weeks later , on the week ending July 16 , 2011 , the track reached its peak at number 36 , and spent a total of six weeks on the chart .
= = Track listing = =
Digital Download
" Today Is Your Day " – 3 : 14
= = Charts = =
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= Etchmiadzin Cathedral =
Etchmiadzin Cathedral ( Armenian : Էջմիածնի Մայր տաճար , Ēǰmiatsni Mayr tačar ) is the mother church of the Armenian Apostolic Church , located in the city of Vagharshapat ( Etchmiadzin ) , Armenia . According to scholars it was the first cathedral ( but not the first church ) built in ancient Armenia , and is considered the oldest cathedral in the world .
The original church was built in the early fourth century — between 301 and 303 according to tradition — by Armenia 's patron saint Gregory the Illuminator , following the adoption of Christianity as a state religion by King Tiridates III . It replaced a preexisting temple , symbolizing the conversion from paganism to Christianity . The core of the current building was built in 483 / 4 by Vahan Mamikonian after the cathedral was severely damaged in a Persian invasion . From its foundation until the second half of the fifth century , Etchmiadzin was the seat of the Catholicos , the supreme head of the Armenian Church .
Although never losing its significance , the cathedral subsequently suffered centuries of virtual neglect . In 1441 it was restored as catholicosate and remains as such to this day . Since then the Mother See of Holy Etchmiadzin has been the administrative headquarters of the Armenian Church . Etchmiadzin was plundered by Shah Abbas I of Persia in 1604 , when relics and stones were taken out of the cathedral in an effort to undermine Armenians ' attachment to their land . Since then the cathedral has undergone a number of renovations . Belfries were added in the latter half of the seventeenth century and in 1868 a sacristy was constructed at the cathedral 's east end . Today , it incorporates styles of different periods of Armenian architecture . Diminished during the early Soviet period , Etchmiadzin revived again in the second half of the twentieth century , and under independent Armenia .
As the main shrine of religious Christian Armenians worldwide , Etchmiadzin has been an important location in Armenia not only religiously , but also politically and culturally . A major pilgrimage site , it is one of the most visited places in the country . Along with several important early medieval churches located nearby , the cathedral was listed as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 2000 .
= = History = =
= = = Foundation and etymology = = =
According to tradition , the cathedral was built between 301 and 303 near the royal palace in then Armenian capital city of Vagharshapat , on the location of a pagan temple . The Kingdom of Armenia under Tiridates III became the first country in the world to adopt Christianity as a state religion in 301 . According to History of the Armenians ( c . 460 ) by Agathangelos , Armenia 's patron saint Gregory the Illuminator had a vision of Jesus Christ descending from heaven and striking the earth with a golden hammer to show where the cathedral should be built . Hence , the patriarch gave the church the name of Etchmiadzin ( էջ ēĵ " descent " + մի mi " only " + -ա- -a- ( linking element ) + ծին tsin " begotten " ) , which translates to " the Descent of the Only @-@ Begotten [ Son of God ] . " However , the name Etchmiadzin did not come into use until the 15th century , while earlier sources call it " Cathedral of Vagharshapat " ( Վաղարշապատի Կաթողիկե եկեղեցի Vağaršapati Kat 'oğike ekeghetsi ) or simply Kat 'oghike ( Կաթողիկե , literally " Cathedral " ) . The Feast of the Cathedral of Holy Etchmiadzin ( Տոն Կաթողիկե Սբ . Էջմիածնի ) is celebrated by the Armenian Church 64 days after Easter , during which " a special hymn is sung , written by the 8th century Catholicos Sahak III of Dzorapor , telling of St. Gregory 's vision and the Cathedral 's construction . "
During archaeological excavations at the cathedral in 1955 – 56 and 1959 , led by architectural historian Alexander Sahinian , remains of the original 4th @-@ century building were discovered — including two levels of pillar bases below the current ones and a narrower altar apse under the present one . Based on these findings , Sahinian asserted that the original church had been a three @-@ naved vaulted basilica , similar to the basilicas of Tekor , Ashtarak and Aparan ( Kasakh ) . However , other scholars , have rejected Sahinian 's view . Among them , Suren Yeremian and Armen Khatchatrian held that the original church had been in the form of a rectangle with a dome supported by four pillars . Stepan Mnatsakanian suggested that the original building had been a " canopy erected on a cross [ plan ] , " while architecture researcher Vahagn Grigoryan suggests an " extreme view , " according to which the cathedral has been essentially in the same form as it is today .
= = = Reconstruction and decline = = =
According to Faustus of Byzantium , the cathedral and the city of Vagharshapat were almost completely destroyed during the invasion of Persian King Shapur II in the 360s ( circa 363 ) . Due to Armenia 's bad economic conditions , the cathedral was renovated by Catholicoi Nerses the Great ( r . 353 – 373 ) and Sahak Parthev ( r . 387 – 439 ) only urgently and partially .
In 387 , Armenia was partitioned between the Roman Empire and the Sasanian Empire . The eastern part of Armenia where Etchmiadzin was located remained under the rule of Armenian vassal kings subject to Persia until 428 , when the Armenian Kingdom was dissolved . In 450 , in an attempt to impose Zoroastrianism on Armenians , Sasanian King Yazdegerd II built a fire temple inside the cathedral . The pyre of the fire temple was unearthed under the altar of the east apse during the excavations in the 1950s .
By the last quarter of the 5th century the cathedral was dilapidated . According to Ghazar Parpetsi , it was rebuilt from the foundations by marzban ( governor ) of Persian Armenia Vahan Mamikonian in 483 / 4 , when the country was relatively stable , following the struggle for religious freedom against Persia . Most researchers have concluded that , thus , the church was converted into cruciform church and mostly took its current form . The new church was very different from the original one and " consisted of quadric @-@ apsidal hall built of dull , grey stone containing four free @-@ standing cross @-@ shaped pillars disdained to support a stone cupola . " The new cathedral was " in the form of a square enclosing a Greek cross and contains two chapels , one on either side of the east apse . " According to Robert H. Hewsen , the design of the new church was a mixture of the design of a Zoroastrian fire temple and a mausoleum of classical antiquity .
Although the seat of the Catholicos was transferred to Dvin sometime in the 460s – 470s or 484 , the cathedral never lost its significance and remained " one of the greatest shrines of the Armenian Church . " The last known renovations until the 15th century were made by Catholicos Komitas in 618 ( according to Sebeos ) and Catholicos Nerses III ( r . 640 – 661 ) . In 982 the cross of the cathedral was reportedly removed by an Arab emir .
During these centuries of neglect , the cathedral 's " condition deteriorated so badly " that it prompted the prominent archbishop Stepanos Orbelian to write one of his most notable poems , " Lament on Behalf of the Cathedral " ( « Ողբ ի դիմաց Կաթողիկէին » Voğb i dimats Katoğikein ) in 1300 . In the poem , which tells about the consequences of the Mongol and Mamluk invasions of Armenia and Cilicia , Orbelian portrays Etchmiadzin Cathedral " as a woman in mourning , contemplating her former splendor and exhorting her children to return to their homeland [ ... ] and restore its glory . "
= = = From revival to plunder = = =
Following the fall of the Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia in 1375 , the See of Sis experienced decline and disarray . The Catholicosate of Aghtamar and the locally influential Syunik bishops enhanced the importance of the region around Etchmiadzin . In 1441 a general council of several hundred religious figures met in Etchmiadzin and voted to reestablish a catholicosate there . The cathedral was restored by Catholicos Kirakos ( Cyriacus ) between 1441 and 1443 . At that time Etchmiadzin was under the control of the Turkic Kara Koyunlu , but in 1502 , Safavid Iran gained control of parts of Armenia , including Etchmiadzin , and granted the Armenian Church some privileges .
During the 16th and 17th centuries , Armenia suffered from its location between Persia and Ottoman Turkey , and the conflicts between those two empires . Concurrently with the deportation of up to 350 @,@ 000 Armenians into Persia by Shah Abbas I as part of the scorched earth policy during the war with the Ottoman Empire , Etchmiadzin was plundered in 1604 . The Shah wanted to " dispel Armenian hopes of returning to their homeland " by moving the religious center of the Armenians to Iran in order to provide Persia with a strong Armenian presence . He wanted to destroy the cathedral and have its remains brought to Isfahan . In the event , only some important stones — the altar , the stone where Jesus Christ descended according to tradition , and Armenian Church 's holiest relic , the Right Arm of Gregory the Illuminator — were moved to New Julfa , Isfahan in central Iran . They were incorporated in the local Armenian St. Georg Church when it was built in 1611 . Shah Abbas even offered the cathedral to the Pope .
= = = 17th – 18th centuries = = =
Since 1627 , the cathedral underwent major renovation under Catholicos Movses ( Moses ) , when the dome , ceiling , roof , foundations and paving were repaired . At this time , cells for monks , a guesthouse and other structures were built around the cathedral . Additionally , a wall was built around the cathedral , making it a fort @-@ like complex . Eli Smith wrote in 1833 : " The whole of the premises are surrounded by a high wall flanked with circular towers , and have externally the appearance of a fortress . Within , is a city in miniature . " Douglas Freshfield wrote in 1869 that " convent and cathedral are within a large fortified enclosure " and claimed that it " has in its time resisted many attacks from the infidels . "
The renovation works were interrupted by the Ottoman @-@ Safavid War of 1635 – 36 , during which the cathedral remained intact . The renovations resumed under Catholicos Pilippos ( 1632 – 55 ) , who built new cells for monks and renovated the roof . During this century , belfries were added to many Armenian churches . In 1653 / 4 , he started the construction of the belfry in the western wing of Etchmiadzin Cathedral . It was completed in 1658 by Catholicos Hakob IV Jugayetsi . According to Hewsen the bell is of Tibetian origin with a Buddhist inscription , " probably the long @-@ forgotten gift of some Mongol or Ilkhanid khan . " Decades later , in 1682 , Catholicos Yeghiazar constructed smaller bell towers with red tufa turrets on the southern , eastern , and northern wings .
The renovations of Etchmiadzin continued during the 18th century . In 1720 , Catholicos Astvatsatur and then , in 1777 – 83 Simeon I of Yerevan took actions in preserving the cathedral . In 1770 , Simeon I established a publishing house near Etchmiadzin , the first in Armenia . During Simeon 's reign , the monastery was completely walled and separated from the city of Vagharshapat . Catholicos Ghukas ( Lukas ) continued the renovations in 1784 – 86 .
= = = Russian takeover = = =
The Russian influence gradually penetrated into the region by the early 19th century . The Erivan Khanate , in which Etchmiadzin was located , became an arena for rivalry between the Russian and Persian empires . During the Russo @-@ Persian War ( 1804 – 13 ) , Etchmiadzin was twice captured by the Russian troops led by General Pavel Tsitsianov , first in 1804 and then again in 1806 . However , Russia returned it to Persia by the 1813 Treaty of Gulistan . On 13 April 1827 , during the Russo @-@ Persian War ( 1826 – 28 ) , Etchmiadzin was captured by the Russian General Ivan Paskevich 's troops without fight and was formally annexed by Russia , with the Persian @-@ controlled parts of Armenia , roughly corresponding to the territory of the modern Republic of Armenia ( also known as Eastern Armenia ) , according to the 1828 Treaty of Turkmenchay .
The cathedral prospered under Russian rule , despite the suspicions that the Imperial Russian government had about Etchmiadzin becoming a " possible center of the Armenian nationalist sentiment . " Formally , Etchmiadzin became the religious center of the Armenians living within the Russian Empire by the 1836 statute or constitution ( polozhenie ) .
In 1868 , Catholicos Gevorg ( George ) IV made the last major alteration to the cathedral by adding a sacristy to its east end . In 1874 , he established the Gevorgian Seminary , a theological school @-@ college located on the cathedral 's premises . Catholicos Markar I undertook the restoration of the interior of the cathedral in 1888 .
= = = 20th century and on = = =
In 1903 , the Russian government issued an edict to confiscate the properties of the Armenian Church , including the treasures of Etchmiadzin . Russian policemen and soldiers entered and occupied the cathedral . Due to popular resistance and the personal defiance of Catholicos Mkrtich Khrimian , the edict was canceled in 1905 .
During the Armenian Genocide , the cathedral of Etchmiadzin and its surrounding became a major center for the Turkish Armenian refugees . At the end of 1918 , there were about 70 @,@ 000 refugees in the Etchmiadzin district . A hospital and an orphanage within the cathedral 's grounds were established and maintained by the U.S.-based Armenian Near East Relief by 1919 .
In the spring of 1918 the cathedral was in danger of an attack by the Turks . Prior to the May 1918 Battle of Sardarabad , which took place just miles away from the cathedral , the civilian and military leadership of Armenia suggested Catholicos Gevorg ( George ) V to leave for Byurakan for security purposes , but he refused . The Armenian forces eventually repelled the Turkish offensive and set the foundation of the First Republic of Armenia .
= = = = Soviet suppression = = = =
After two years of independence , Armenia was Sovietized in December 1920 . During the 1921 February Uprising Etchmiadzin was briefly ( until April ) taken over by the nationalist Armenian Revolutionary Federation , which had dominated the pre @-@ Soviet Armenian government between 1918 and 1920 .
In December 1923 , the southern apse of the cathedral collapsed . It was restored under Toros Toramanian 's supervision in what was the first case of restoration of an architectural monument in Soviet Armenia .
During the Great Purge and the radical state atheist policies in the late 1930s , the cathedral was a " besieged institution as the campaign was underway to eradicate religion . " The repressions climaxed in 1938 when Catholicos Khoren I was murdered in April by the NKVD . In August of that year , the Armenian Communist Party decided to close down the cathedral , but the central Soviet government seemingly did not approve of such a measure . Isolated from the outside world , the cathedral barely continued to function and its administrators were reduced to some twenty people . It was reportedly the only church in Soviet Armenia not to have been seized by the Communist government . The dissident anti @-@ Soviet Armenian diocese in the US wrote that " the great cathedral became a hollow monument . "
The religious importance of Etchmiadzin slowly recovered during the Second World War . The Holy See 's official magazine resumed publication in 1944 , while the seminary was reopened in September 1945 . In 1945 Catholicos Gevorg VI was elected after the seven @-@ year vacancy of the position . The number of baptisms conducted at Etchmiadzin rose greatly : from 200 in 1949 to around 1 @,@ 700 in 1951 . Nevertheless , the cathedral 's role was downplayed by the Communist official circles . " For them the ecclesiastical Echmiadzin belongs irrevocably to the past , and even if the monastery and the cathedral are occasionally the scene of impressive ceremonies including the election of a new catholicos , this has little importance from the communist point of view , " wrote Walter Kolarz in 1961 .
= = = = Revival = = = =
Etchmiadzin revived under Catholicos Vasken I since the period known as the Khrushchev Thaw in the mid @-@ 1950s , following Stalin 's death . Archaeological excavations were held in 1955 – 56 and in 1959 ; the cathedral underwent a major renovation during this period . Wealthy diaspora benefactors , such as Calouste Gulbenkian and Alex Manoogian , financially assisted the renovation of the cathedral . Gulbenkian alone provided $ 400 @,@ 000 .
In 2000 Etchmiadzin underwent a renovation prior to the celebrations of the 1700th anniversary of the Christianization of Armenia in 2001 . In 2003 the 1700th anniversary of the consecration of the cathedral was celebrated by the Armenian Church . Catholicos Karekin II issued a pontifical encyclical ( kondak ) on January 30 . On February 3 he declared 2003 the Year of Holy Etchmiadzin . In September of that year an academic conference was held at the Pontifical Residence .
The latest renovation of the cathedral began in 2012 , with a focus on strengthening and restoring the dome and the roof .
= = Architecture = =
Today , Etchmiadzin " has a cruciform plan with a central cupola , four free @-@ standing piers , and four projecting apses which are semicircular on the interior and polygonal on the exterior . The central piers , cruciform in section , divide the interior space into nine equal square compartments . "
= = = Exterior design = = =
The cathedral 's external appearance has been described as " austere " , " ascetic " , " unostentatious " , and as " a massive cube surmounted by a faceted cone on a simple cylinder . " Robert H. Hewsen writes that it is " neither the largest nor the most beautiful of Armenian churches " , nevertheless , " the overall impression presented by the ensemble is inspiring , and Armenians hold the building in great reverence . " James Bryce wrote that the cathedral is " small , that is to say , compared with its fame or importance " . Paul Bloomfield , writing for The Times , expressed a similar view : " [ the ] cathedral , though diminutive by European standards , is immensely important . " Herbert Lottman wrote in a 1976 New York Times article : " Like all ancient Armenian churches , the cathedral is characterized by a disarmingly naive , coneshaped steeple . With a minimum of ornament , the building [ ... ] is a solid stone construction , its arches sober romanesque curves . "
Alexander Sahinian declared that Etchmiadzin holds a unique position in Armenian ( and non @-@ Armenian ) architecture history because it reproduces features of different periods of Armenian architecture . Despite the fact that the cathedral was renovated many times through the centuries and some alterations were made in the 17th and 19th centuries , it retains the form of the building constructed in 483 / 4 . The 5th @-@ century building is the core of the cathedral , while the stone cupola , turrets , belfry , and rear extension are all later additions . Engraved on the exterior of the edifice are decorative geometric and floral patterns as well as blind arcades and medallions depicting saints . Portions of the northern and eastern walls of the original building have survived .
= = = = Reliefs = = = =
Greek reliefs
The northern wall of the cathedral contains two reliefs which depict Paul the Apostle and Saint Thecla and a cross with all arms of equal length with Greek inscriptions . Paul and Thecla are represented in conversation , Paul is shown seated on cross @-@ legged stool . These reliefs have been dated by various authors between the first and sixth centuries . Shahkhatunian and Ghevont Alishan suggested that these reliefs were created before the invention of the Armenian alphabet in 405 . Art historian Sirarpie Der Nersessian believed that they are from the fifth or sixth century . In his 2012 analysis , Grigoryan wrote that " we can insist that the three reliefs of the Echmiadzin Cathedral were created from the very beginning , in 302 – 325 . " According to Hasratyan they are the earliest reliefs on the cathedral 's walls and among the earliest items of Christian Armenian sculpture art .
reliefs and ornaments on the western ( main ) belfry
= = = Interior design = = =
The early frescoes inside the cathedral were restored in the 18th century . Stepanos Lehatsi ( Stephen of Poland ) illustrated the belfry in 1664 . In the 18th and 19th centuries , Armenian painters created frescoes of scenes from the old testament and Armenian saints . Naghash Hovnatan painted parts of the interior between 1712 and 1721 . His paintings on the dome and the painting of the Mother of God under the altar have survived to this day . Other members of the prominent Hovnatanian family ( Hakob , Harutyun and Hovnatan ) created paintings throughout the 18th century . Their work was continued by the succeeding generations of the same family ( Mkrtum and Hakob ) in the 19th century .
The wooden doors of the cathedral were carved in Tiflis in 1889 . The paintings were moved out of the cathedral by the order of Catholicos Mkrtich Khrimian in 1891 and are now kept in various museums in Armenia , including the National Gallery of Armenia . The frescoes inside the cathedral were restored by Lydia Durnovo in 1956 and in 1981 – 82 under the directorship of Vardges Baghdasaryan .
In the 1950s , the stone floor was replaced with one of marble .
= = = Influence = = =
= = = = On Armenian architecture = = = =
The design of Etchmiadzin Cathedral — classified as " a four @-@ apsed square with ciborium , " and called Էջմիածնատիպ Ejmiatsnatip " Etchmiadzin @-@ type " in Armenian architectural historiography — was not common in Armenia in the early Medieval period . The now @-@ destroyed St. Theodore Church of Bagaran , dating from 624 – 631 , was the only known church with a significantly similar plan and structure from that period . In the 19th century , during an architectural revival that looked back to Armenia 's past , the plan of Etchmiadzin Cathedral began to be directly copied in new Armenian churches . Some notable examples from this period include the narthex of the St. Thaddeus Monastery in northern Iran , dating from 1811 or 1819 – 30 , and the Ghazanchetsots Cathedral in Shusha , dating from 1868 .
= = = = On European architecture = = = =
Art historian Josef Strzygowski , who was the first European to thoroughly study Armenian architecture , and who placed Armenia in the center of European architecture , suggested in his 1918 two @-@ volume book titled Die Baukunst der Armenier und Europa ( The Architecture of the Armenians and of Europe ) that several churches and chapels in Western Europe have been influenced by the cathedrals of Etchmiadzin and Bagaran due to similarities found within their plans . According to Strzygowski , some examples of churches influenced by Etchmiadzin and Bagaran are the 9th @-@ century church of Germigny @-@ des @-@ Prés in France ( built by Odo of Metz , probably an Armenian ) and San Satiro of Milan , Italy . This view was later supported by Alexander Sahinian and Varazdat Harutyunyan . Sahinian suggested that the Armenian church architecture was spread in Western Europe in the 8th – 9th centuries by Paulicians , who migrated from Armenia en mase after being suppressed by the Byzantine government during the Iconoclasm period . Sahinian added many other medieval churches in Europe , such as the Palatine Chapel of Aachen in Germany , to the list of churches to have been influenced by the cathedrals of Etchmiadzin and Bagaran and by Byzantine decorative arts . According to Murad Hasratyan , Etchmiadzin 's design was spread to Europe via the Byzantine Empire and served as a model — besides Germigny @-@ des @-@ Prés and San Satiro — for the Nea Ekklesia church in Constantinople and the churches of Mount Athos in Greece .
= = Significance = =
For many centuries , Etchmiadzin was the national and political center of the stateless Armenian people . The locus of Etchmiadzin is considered " a sanctified soil " in a way similar to Temple Mount ( for Jews ) and Harmandir Sahib ( for Sikhs ) . The cathedral complex has been called " Armenian Vatican " or " Armenian Mecca " as it is a major pilgrimage site for religious Armenians worldwide . Because the cathedral has been so important to the development of Armenians ' sense of identity , a pilgrimage to Etchmiadzin is " as much as ethnic as a religious experience . " American journalist and historian Francis Whiting Halsey described the cathedral as " the most treasured possession of the Armenian nation " and " the source of that strength which has held them together through centuries of persecution , warfare and massacre . " Royal Navy Captain James Creagh highlighted its immense role for the Armenian people in his 1880 book , writing that " The monastery and cathedral of Echmiadzin may , without any exaggeration , be described as the heart of the Armenian nation . "
Before the foundation of the First Republic of Armenia and the official designation of Yerevan as its capital in 1918 , Western sources emphasized Etchmiadzin 's political significance . A 1920 book prepared by the Historical Section of the British Foreign Office acknowledged that Etchmiadzin " was regarded as the national capital of the Armenians . " " Deprived of a political head and even a political capital the [ Armenian ] people have , for at least five hundred years , looked to Etchmiadzin as the home of their people , the centre to which they looked for guidance , unfailing sympathy , and practical aid , " wrote Welsh journalist and politician W. Llewelyn Williams in his 1916 book about Armenia .
Italian historian and traveler Luigi Villari wrote about the cathedral in 1906 :
During every critical phase of their history , the Armenians have looked at Etchmiadzin for guidance , to the Church for close on sixteen hundred years has been their beacon and their hope . A visit to Etchmiadzin enables us to understand the tenacity of this people and their devotion to their faith better than a whole library of books .
Mabel Evelyn Elliott , the Medical Director of Near East Relief , wrote about the cathedral 's longevity in 1924 :
Changes in temporal affairs have beaten against the walls of Etchmiadzin for sixteen centuries like little waves against a granite cliff . Now the Tsar has fallen , the Soviets have come . The Soviets may endure for a few years or for a few centuries ; it is all one to Etchmiadzin . Some day the Soviets will go , as all temporal governments do , but Etchmiadzin will stand .
= = Notable visitors = =
Early European visitors to Etchmiadzin who gave descirptions of the cathedral included Jean @-@ Baptiste Tavernier ( before 1668 ) , Jean Chardin ( 1673 ) , Joseph Pitton de Tournefort ( c . 1700 ) , James Morier ( 1810 – 16 ) , Robert Ker Porter ( 1817 – 20 ) , Friedrich Parrot ( 1829 ) , August von Haxthausen ( 1843 ) , Moritz Wagner ( 1843 ) , James Bryce ( 1876 ) , H. F. B. Lynch ( 1893 ) .
Many prominent individuals have visited Etchmiadzin , including Russian diplomat and playwright Alexander Griboedov ( 1828 ) , Russian poet Valery Bryusov , Fridtjof Nansen ( 1925 ) , English composer Benjamin Britten , Russian singer @-@ songwriter Vladimir Vysotsky , Russian @-@ American poet and essayist Joseph Brodsky and many others visited the cathedral .
In the 21st century major religious figures like Pope John Paul II ( 2001 ) , Ignatius Zakka I Iwas ( 2002 ) , Patriarch Kirill of Moscow ( 2010 ) , Pope Francis ( 2016 ) visited Etchmiadzin . Pope Francis gave a prayer at the cathedral on June 24 . He called the cathedral " a witness to the history of your people and the centre from which its spirituality radiates . "
Presidents of several countries , such as Russia ( Vladimir Putin in 2005 ) , France ( Jacques Chirac in 2006 and Nicholas Sarkozy in 2011 ) , Georgia ( Giorgi Margvelashvili in 2014 ) , and royalty , such as Nicholas I of Russia ( 1837 ) , Prince Charles ( 2013 ) have visited the cathedral as part of their state or private visits to Armenia .
= = Heritage designation = =
In 2000 UNESCO added Etchmiadzin Cathedral , the churches of St. Hripsime , St. Gayane , Shoghakat and the ruined Zvartnots Cathedral to the list of World Heritage Sites .
In 2002 , the cathedral complex with over 50 monuments , including many khachkars ( cross @-@ stones ) and graves located around the cathedral , was listed by the Government of Armenia in the list of historical and cultural monuments of the Armavir Province .
= = Cultural depictions = =
The Etchmiadzin weekly ( « Էջմիածին » ամսագիր ) , the official periodical of the Mother See of Holy Etchmiadzin founded in 1944 , features the cathedral on its cover page as newspaper logo .
In the 1991 film Mayrig , directed by French @-@ Armenian director Henri Verneuil , actual footage of the cathedral is shown when Azad Zakarian , the main character and a son of Armenian Genocide survivors , is being questioned about his faith in a Catholic school .
The Soviet Union and Armenia issued postage stamps depicting the cathedral in 1978 and 2009 , respectively . The cathedral is depicted on the obverse side of 50 @,@ 000 @-@ dram banknote ( 2001 ) .
= = = Artistic depictions = = =
= = = Academic articles = = =
= = = Published books = = =
Specific
General
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= HNoMS Mjølner ( 1868 ) =
HNoMS Mjølner was the fourth of five ships of the John Ericsson @-@ class monitors built for the Royal Swedish Navy and the Royal Norwegian Navy in the mid @-@ 1860s . Impressed by the use of ironclads during the American Civil War , the design was based on that of the USS Monitor . They were designed under the supervision of the Swedish @-@ born inventor , John Ericsson — coincidentally , designer of the Monitor — , and built in Sweden . Mjølner was delivered in 1868 and ran aground the following year , although she was not seriously damaged . The ship was reconstructed in 1897 and given modern breech @-@ loading guns . Mjølner was sold for scrap in 1909 .
= = Design and description = =
The John Ericsson @-@ class ironclads were designed to meet the need of the Swedish and Norwegian Navies for small , shallow @-@ draft armored ships capable of defending their coastal waters . The standoff between the USS Monitor and the much larger CSS Virginia during the Battle of Hampton Roads in , early 1862 , roused much interest in Sweden in this new type of warship , as it seemed ideal for coastal defense duties . John Ericsson , designer and builder of the Monitor , born in Sweden — although becoming an American citizen in 1848 — offered to share his design with the Swedes . In response , they sent Lieutenant John Christian d 'Ailly to the United States to study monitor design and construction under Ericsson . D 'Ailly arrived in July 1862 and toured rolling mills , gun foundries , and visited several different ironclads under construction . He returned to Sweden in 1863 having completed the drawings of a Monitor @-@ type ship under Ericsson 's supervision .
The ship measured 60 @.@ 88 meters ( 199 ft 9 in ) long overall , with a beam of 13 @.@ 54 meters ( 44 ft 5 in ) . She had a draft of 3 @.@ 4 meters ( 11 ft 2 in ) and displaced 1 @,@ 522 metric tons ( 1 @,@ 498 long tons ) . Mjølner was divided into nine main compartments by eight watertight bulkheads . Over time a flying bridge and , later , a full superstructure , was added to each ship between the gun turret and the funnel . Initially her crew numbered 80 officers and men , but this increased to 104 as she was modified with additional weapons .
= = = Propulsion = = =
The John Ericsson @-@ class ships had one twin @-@ cylinder vibrating lever steam engines , designed by Ericsson himself , driving a single four @-@ bladed , 3 @.@ 74 @-@ meter ( 12 ft 3 in ) propeller . Their engines were powered by four fire @-@ tube boilers at a working pressure of 40 psi ( 276 kPa ; 3 kgf / cm2 ) . The engines produced a total of 380 indicated horsepower ( 280 kW ) which gave the monitors a maximum speed of 6 @.@ 5 knots ( 12 @.@ 0 km / h ; 7 @.@ 5 mph ) in calm waters . The ships carried 110 tonnes ( 110 long tons ) of coal , enough for six day 's steaming .
= = = Armament = = =
Mjølner was armed with a pair of Armstrong 270 @-@ millimeter ( 10 @.@ 6 in ) rifled muzzle @-@ loading guns . Each gun was constructed of steel and weighed 18 @.@ 5 long tons ( 18 @.@ 8 t ) . The ship also carried a 80 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) gun . During Mjølner 's reconstruction in 1897 her gun turret was fixed in place and modified to serve as a barbette for her two new breech @-@ loading Cockerill 120 @-@ millimeter ( 5 in ) guns . She also received two 124 @-@ millimeter ( 4 @.@ 9 in ) and 65 @-@ millimeter ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) Cockerill guns mounted in her superstructure . In addition two 37 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) Hotchkiss 5 @-@ barrel revolving guns were mounted in the superstructure . They fired a shell weighing about 1 @.@ 1 lb ( 0 @.@ 50 kg ) at a muzzle velocity of about 2 @,@ 000 ft / s ( 610 m / s ) . This gave them a range of about 3 @,@ 500 yards ( 3 @,@ 200 m ) . They had a rate of fire of about 30 rounds per minute
= = = Armor = = =
The John Ericsson @-@ class ships had a complete waterline armor belt of wrought iron that was 1 @.@ 8 meters ( 5 ft 11 in ) high and 124 millimeters ( 4 @.@ 9 in ) thick . The armor consisted of five plates backed by 91 millimeters ( 3 @.@ 6 in ) of wood . The lower edge of this belt was 74 @.@ 2 millimeters ( 2 @.@ 9 in ) thick as it was only three plates thick . The maximum thickness of the armored deck was 24 @.@ 7 millimeters ( 1 @.@ 0 in ) in two layers . The gun turret 's armor consisted of twelve layers of iron , totalling 270 millimeters ( 10 @.@ 6 in ) in thickness on the first four monitors . The inside of the turret was lined with mattresses to catch splinters . The base of the turret was protected with a 127 @-@ millimeter ( 5 @.@ 0 in ) glacis , 520 millimeters ( 20 @.@ 5 in ) high , and the turret 's roof was 127 millimeters thick . The conning tower was positioned on top of the turret and its sides were ten layers ( 250 millimeters ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) ) thick . The funnel was protected by six layers of armor with a total thickness of 120 millimeters ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) up to half its height .
= = Service = =
The Norwegians had built one monitor @-@ type ship of their own , Skorpionen , in 1865 , and laid down several others , but the Norwegian Parliament authorized construction of Mjølner in 1867 in Sweden at the cost of 1 @,@ 102 @,@ 000 Norwegian krone . She was launched in 1868 and completed on 7 September of that year . The ship ran aground at Kragerø on 21 June 1869 . Mjølner could not be pulled off the rocks until the ship 's ammunition , iron ballast and 120 long tons ( 120 t ) of coal were removed . Her repairs were completed on 7 July 1869 by the Royal Dockyard at Horten , at the cost of 5 @,@ 000 krone . The court of inquiry found the ship 's commander and the pilot liable for the repairs , but the parliament released the two from their obligation two years later . She was visited by King Charles XV of Sweden on one occasion when visiting one of Sweden 's west @-@ coast ports in the early 1870s . Mjølner was laid up after her refit in 1897 , but was mobilized during 1905 when the personal union between Sweden and Norway was dissolved . She returned to reserve afterward before being sold for scrap in 1909 .
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= Andrew Alberts =
Andrew James Alberts ( born June 30 , 1981 ) is an American professional ice hockey defenseman who is currently an Unrestricted Free Agent , having last played for the Vancouver Canucks of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . He additionally played in the NHL with the Boston Bruins , Philadelphia Flyers and Carolina Hurricanes . A stay @-@ at @-@ home defenseman , he was known for playing a physical style of game .
After a two @-@ year junior career in the United States Hockey League ( USHL ) , he was selected by the Bruins 179th overall in the 2001 NHL Entry Draft . Following the draft , he joined the college ranks with the Boston College Eagles of the Hockey East conference . In four seasons with the Eagles , Alberts was named Hockey East 's Best Defensive Defenseman and was a two @-@ time NCAA All @-@ American . Joining the Bruins in 2005 , he played three seasons with the club before being traded to the Flyers . He played with the Flyers for one year , then with the Hurricanes in 2009 . At the trade deadline the following year , he was dealt to the Canucks . Internationally , Alberts has competed for the American national team at the 2006 and 2007 World Championships .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Amateur = = =
Alberts played high school hockey for Benilde @-@ St. Margaret 's from 1997 to 1999 . In his graduating year , he earned All @-@ Conference honors while leading the Red Knights to a State Class A title . He played the next two seasons at the junior level in the United States Hockey League ( USHL ) with the Waterloo Blackhawks . Recording 4 points over 49 games in his rookie campaign , he was named the team 's Most Improved Player . In 2000 – 01 , he served as an alternate captain while raising his points total to 14 over 54 games . That summer , Alberts was drafted by the Boston Bruins in the sixth round ( 179th overall ) of the 2001 NHL Entry Draft .
Following the draft , Alberts began playing college hockey for Boston College Eagles of the Hockey East conference in 2001 . His first college goal came in the first round of the 2002 Beanpot , a short handed marker against the Boston University Terriers . He scored 12 points his freshman year before improving to 22 points in 2002 – 03 . In his third college year , he recorded 16 points was a co @-@ recipient of Hockey East 's Best Defensive Defenseman award with Prestin Ryan of the Maine Black Bears . He was also named to the Hockey East Second All @-@ Star and NCAA East First All @-@ American Teams .
Alberts did not miss a game during his college career until suffering two knee injuries during his senior year in 2004 – 05 . Limited to 30 games , he again recorded 16 points and was named to the Hockey East First All @-@ Star Team . In the playoffs , he ended what was the longest semifinal game in Hockey East history with a double @-@ overtime goal against the Maine Black Bears . Alberts earned Hockey East All @-@ Tournament honors , as the Eagles defeated the New Hampshire Wildcats 3 – 1 in the final to win the Lamoriello Trophy as conference champions . He also earned his second consecutive NCAA East All @-@ American recognition .
= = = Professional = = =
Following his senior year with the Eagles , Alberts signed an amateur tryout contract with the Boston Bruins ' American Hockey League ( AHL ) affiliate , the Providence Bruins , on April 1 , 2005 . He appeared in the final eight games of the 2004 – 05 AHL regular season before helping the club to the Conference Finals of the playoffs . He scored his first professional goal in Game 5 of the Conference Finals against goaltender Antero Niittymaki in a 6 – 4 win against the Philadelphia Phantoms .
After signing a one @-@ year NHL contract with Boston in August 2005 , he appeared in his first NHL training camp in September 2005 . Making the Bruins ' roster for the 2005 – 06 season , he made his NHL debut on October 5 , 2005 in a game versus the Montreal Canadiens . A month later , he notched his first NHL point , an assist , in a game against the Buffalo Sabres on November 19 . In December 2005 , Alberts received a brief 10 @-@ day assignment to Providence , notching an assist over 6 games during that span . Returning to the Boston lineup , he scored his first NHL goal late in the campaign during a game against the Buffalo Sabres on March 12 , 2006 . Playing in 73 games , Alberts scored a goal and six assists . During his rookie season , Bruins head coach Mike Sullivan experimented with playing Alberts at the forward position for roughly a month .
After re @-@ signing for another year in July 2006 , he recorded 10 assists over 76 games the following season . He earned his first multi @-@ year contract in the off @-@ season , re @-@ signing with the Bruins . During the 2007 – 08 season , he was limited to 35 games due to a head injury suffered on November 26 , 2007 , during a game against the Philadelphia Flyers . Going down to his knees to block a puck moving into the defensive zone , opposing forward Scott Hartnell bodychecked him , using his elbow to hit Alberts ' head against the boards . Alberts left the game injured , while Hartnell received a five @-@ minute major penalty and a game misconduct ; he was later suspended an additional two games by the league . Alberts recovered in time to make his NHL playoff debut in April 2008 , as the Bruins were eliminated in the first round by the Montreal Canadiens .
After being a healthy scratch for the Bruins ' first two games in the 2008 – 09 season , Alberts was traded to Philadelphia for Ned Lukacevic and a conditional 2009 draft pick on October 13 , 2008 . The emergence of younger defenceman Matt Hunwick was partly responsible for his expandability . Alberts became an integral part of the Flyers ' defensive corps , leading the team in hits ( 157 ) and ranking third in blocked shots ( 133 ) . His 12 assists and 13 points were career @-@ highs .
Becoming an unrestricted free agent in the off @-@ season , Alberts signed a two @-@ year deal with the Carolina Hurricanes on July 16 , 2009 . The contract paid him $ 800 @,@ 000 the first year and $ 1 @.@ 3 million the second . After appearing in 62 games for Carolina , he was dealt at the 2009 – 10 trade deadline on March 3 , 2010 , to the Vancouver Canucks in exchange for a third round pick in the 2010 draft ( Austin Levi ) . Between Carolina and Vancouver , Alberts finished the regular season with 3 goals and 12 points over 76 games . His defensive play struggled in his initial stint with Vancouver , often being made a healthy scratch . He continued to earn criticism from Vancouver fans and media in the playoffs , particularly for his lack of speed and for taking costly penalties .
Alberts came back to the Canucks with improved play during the 2010 pre @-@ season and beat out Shane O 'Brien for the team 's final spot on defense ( O 'Brien was subsequently traded prior to the start of the season ) . Nearly a month into the season , Alberts suffered a minor knee injury during a game against the Colorado Avalanche , but did not miss any games . Later in the season , he was sucker @-@ punched in the face by enforcer Jody Shelley during a game against the Flyers in December 2010 . The two were being restrained by referees during a scrum when Shelley struck him . As a result , he received a two @-@ game suspension from the league and forfeited $ 26 @,@ 829 @.@ 27 in salary . Though Alberts left the game , he was not injured on the play . The following month , Alberts suffered a right shoulder injury during a game against the Minnesota Wild on January 16 , 2011 . Shortly after recovering and returning to the lineup , he suffered another injury , breaking his wrist while blocking a shot during a game against the St. Louis Blues on February 14 , 2011 . He missed the remainder of the regular season , finishing with a goal and seven assists , while leading Canucks defencemen with 113 hits , over 42 games . Recovering in time for the playoffs , Alberts appeared in nine post @-@ season games ( he did not register any points ) during the Canucks ' run to the 2011 Stanley Cup Finals , where they were defeated in seven games by the Boston Bruins . During the off @-@ season , Alberts was re @-@ signed by the Canucks to a two @-@ year , $ 2 @.@ 45 million deal on June 29 , 2011 ( two days prior to his pending unrestricted free agency ) .
During the 2013 off @-@ season , the Canucks signed Alberts to a one @-@ year extension . Alberts suffered a concussion during a December 29 , 2013 game against the Calgary Flames due to a high hit delivered by enforcer Brian McGrattan that sidelined him for the remainder of the Canucks ' season and has placed his career in doubt .
= = International play = =
Alberts first played internationally for the American national team at the 2006 IIHF World Championship in Riga , Latvia . He scored his first international goal in the preliminary round , a 3 – 0 shutout against Denmark . Later in the tournament , the United States were shut out by Sweden in the quarterfinal and finished in seventh place . Alberts returned for the 2007 IIHF World Championship in Moscow , Russia . He notched one assist as the United States finished in fifth place . They were eliminated in the quarterfinal against Finland , a 5 – 4 shootout loss .
= = Personal life = =
Alberts was born in Minneapolis , Minnesota , to Mary and Dale Alberts . The third of four children , he has two older sisters and one younger brother . Alberts attended Eden Prairie High School for his first two years of secondary before graduating from Benilde @-@ St. Margaret 's in June 1999 . While enrolled in Boston College , Alberts earned a communications degree . Prior to his senior year , he was awarded the Morrissey Brothers Memorial Hockey Scholarship .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =
= = = International = = =
= = Awards and honors = =
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= WASP @-@ 13 =
WASP @-@ 13 is a star in the Lynx constellation . The star is similar , in terms of metallicity and mass , to the Sun , although it is hotter and most likely older . The star was first observed in 1997 , according to the SIMBAD database , and was targeted by SuperWASP after the star was observed by one of the SuperWASP telescopes beginning in 2006 . Follow @-@ up observations on the star led to the discovery of planet WASP @-@ 13b in 2008 ; the discovery paper was published in 2009 .
= = Observational history = =
According to SIMBAD , WASP @-@ 13 was first observed in 1997 , when it was catalogued by astronomers measuring the proper motion of stars in regions of the sky where galaxies are detected . Between November 27 , 2006 , and April 1 , 2007 , the SuperWASP @-@ North telescope in the Canary Islands observed WASP @-@ 13 ; analysis of the data suggested that a planet could be in the orbit of the star .
Follow @-@ up observations were conducted by a team of British , Spanish , French , Swiss and American astronomers using the photometer on the James Gregory Telescope in Scotland ; using visual comparisons to the nearby bright star HD 80408 , the star 's light curve was better defined . In combination with measurements of WASP @-@ 13 's spectrum measured using the SOPHIE échelle spectrograph at the Haute @-@ Provence Observatory in France , the star 's radial velocity was also discovered . The Fibre @-@ Fed Echelle Spectrograph on the Nordic Optical Telescope gathered additional measurements of WASP @-@ 13 's spectrum , allowing astronomers to determine WASP @-@ 13 's characteristics . Use of SOPHIE 's data led to the discovery of the planet WASP @-@ 13b in 2008 ; the planet was reported in 2009 .
Based on SIMBAD 's archive , WASP @-@ 13 was included in ten more papers between its discovery and 2010 .
= = Characteristics = =
WASP @-@ 13 is a sunlike , G @-@ type star that is situated approximately 156 parsecs ( 509 light years ) in the Lynx constellation . With an apparent magnitude of 10 @.@ 42 , the star cannot be seen with the unaided eye from the perspective of someone on Earth . The star 's effective temperature , at 5826 K , is hotter than that of the Sun . However , its metallicity is similar ; this can be seen in how the concentration of iron , or [ Fe / H ] , is approximately 0 . WASP @-@ 13 's surface gravity is measured at 4 @.@ 04 km / s2 , while the rate at which it rotates is at most 4 @.@ 9 km / s .
WASP @-@ 13 has a mass that is 1 @.@ 03 times the mass of the Sun and a radius that is 1 @.@ 34 times the Sun 's radius . Measurements of its lithium content suggest that the star has used up all of its helium and is now fusing lithium in the shell around its core . With this , its estimated age is 8 @.@ 5 billion years , over twice the age of the Sun , but this age may vary to any point between 4 @.@ 4 and 14 billion years in age because of the high uncertainty surrounding this aspect of the star 's age .
= = Planetary system = =
WASP @-@ 13b is a planet that orbits its host star at a distance of 0 @.@ 0527 AU , or approximately 5 @.@ 27 % of the mean distance between the Earth and Sun . The planet completes an orbit every 4 @.@ 35298 days , or approximately 4 days and 8 @.@ 5 hours . WASP @-@ 13b 's estimated mass is 0 @.@ 46 times the mass of Jupiter , while its radius is about 1 @.@ 21 times that of the planet .
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= Oort cloud =
The Oort cloud ( / ˈɔːrt / or / ˈʊərt / , named after the astronomer Jan Oort ) , sometimes called the Öpik – Oort cloud , is a theoretical cloud of predominantly icy planetesimals believed to surround the Sun to as far as somewhere between 50 @,@ 000 and 200 @,@ 000 AU ( 0 @.@ 8 and 3 @.@ 2 ly ) . It is divided into two regions : a disc @-@ shaped inner Oort cloud ( or Hills cloud ) and a spherical outer Oort cloud . Both regions lie beyond the heliosphere and in interstellar space . The Kuiper belt and the scattered disc , the other two reservoirs of trans @-@ Neptunian objects , are less than one thousandth as far from the Sun as the Oort cloud .
The outer limit of the Oort cloud defines the cosmographical boundary of the Solar System and the extent of the Sun 's Hill sphere . The outer Oort cloud is only loosely bound to the Solar System , and thus is easily affected by the gravitational pull both of passing stars and of the Milky Way itself . These forces occasionally dislodge comets from their orbits within the cloud and send them toward the inner Solar System . Based on their orbits , most of the short @-@ period comets may come from the scattered disc , but some may still have originated from the Oort cloud .
Astronomers conjecture that the matter composing the Oort cloud formed closer to the Sun and was scattered far into space by the gravitational effects of the giant planets early in the Solar System 's evolution . Although no confirmed direct observations of the Oort cloud have been made , it may be the source of all long @-@ period and Halley @-@ type comets entering the inner Solar System , and many of the centaurs and Jupiter @-@ family comets as well .
= = Hypothesis = =
In 1932 , the Estonian astronomer Ernst Öpik postulated that long @-@ period comets originated in an orbiting cloud at the outermost edge of the Solar System . The idea was independently revived by Dutch astronomer Jan Oort as a means to resolve a paradox . Over the course of the Solar System 's existence the orbits of comets are unstable and eventually dynamics dictate that a comet must either collide with the Sun or a planet or else be ejected from the Solar System by planetary perturbations . Moreover , their volatile composition means that as they repeatedly approach the Sun , radiation gradually boils the volatiles off until the comet splits or develops an insulating crust that prevents further outgassing . Thus , Oort reasoned , a comet could not have formed while in its current orbit and must have been held in an outer reservoir for almost all of its existence .
There are two main classes of comet , short @-@ period comets ( also called ecliptic comets ) and long @-@ period comets ( also called nearly isotropic comets ) . Ecliptic comets have relatively small orbits , below 10 AU , and follow the ecliptic plane , the same plane in which the planets lie . All long @-@ period comets have very large orbits , on the order of thousands of AU , and appear from every direction in the sky . Oort noted that there was a peak in numbers of long @-@ period comets with aphelia ( their farthest distance from the Sun ) of roughly 20 @,@ 000 AU , which suggested a reservoir at that distance with a spherical , isotropic distribution . Those relatively rare comets with orbits of about 10 @,@ 000 AU have probably gone through one or more orbits through the Solar System and have had their orbits drawn inward by the gravity of the planets .
= = Structure and composition = =
The Oort cloud is thought to occupy a vast space from somewhere between 2 @,@ 000 and 5 @,@ 000 AU ( 0 @.@ 03 and 0 @.@ 08 ly ) to as far as 50 @,@ 000 AU ( 0 @.@ 79 ly ) from the Sun . Some estimates place the outer edge at between 100 @,@ 000 and 200 @,@ 000 AU ( 1 @.@ 58 and 3 @.@ 16 ly ) . The region can be subdivided into a spherical outer Oort cloud of 20 @,@ 000 – 50 @,@ 000 AU ( 0 @.@ 32 – 0 @.@ 79 ly ) , and a torus @-@ shaped inner Oort cloud of 2 @,@ 000 – 20 @,@ 000 AU ( 0 @.@ 0 – 0 @.@ 3 ly ) . The outer cloud is only weakly bound to the Sun and supplies the long @-@ period ( and possibly Halley @-@ type ) comets to inside the orbit of Neptune . The inner Oort cloud is also known as the Hills cloud , named after Jack G. Hills , who proposed its existence in 1981 . Models predict that the inner cloud should have tens or hundreds of times as many cometary nuclei as the outer halo ; it is seen as a possible source of new comets to resupply the tenuous outer cloud as the latter 's numbers are gradually depleted . The Hills cloud explains the continued existence of the Oort cloud after billions of years .
The outer Oort cloud may have trillions of objects larger than 1 km ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) , and billions with absolute magnitudes brighter than 11 ( corresponding to approximately 20 @-@ kilometre ( 12 mi ) diameter ) , with neighboring objects tens of millions of kilometres apart . Its total mass is not known , but , assuming that Halley 's Comet is a suitable prototype for comets within the outer Oort cloud , roughly the combined mass is 3 × 1025 kilograms ( 6 @.@ 6 × 1025 lb ) , or five times that of Earth . Earlier it was thought to be more massive ( up to 380 Earth masses ) , but improved knowledge of the size distribution of long @-@ period comets led to lower estimates . The mass of the inner Oort cloud has not been characterized .
If analyses of comets are representative of the whole , the vast majority of Oort @-@ cloud objects consist of ices such as water , methane , ethane , carbon monoxide and hydrogen cyanide . However , the discovery of the object 1996 PW , an object whose appearance was consistent with a D @-@ type asteroid in an orbit typical of a long @-@ period comet , prompted theoretical research that suggests that the Oort cloud population consists of roughly one to two percent asteroids . Analysis of the carbon and nitrogen isotope ratios in both the long @-@ period and Jupiter @-@ family comets shows little difference between the two , despite their presumably vastly separate regions of origin . This suggests that both originated from the original protosolar cloud , a conclusion also supported by studies of granular size in Oort @-@ cloud comets and by the recent impact study of Jupiter @-@ family comet Tempel 1 .
= = Origin = =
The Oort cloud is thought to be a remnant of the original protoplanetary disc that formed around the Sun approximately 4 @.@ 6 billion years ago . The most widely accepted hypothesis is that the Oort cloud 's objects initially coalesced much closer to the Sun as part of the same process that formed the planets and minor planets , but that gravitational interaction with young gas giants such as Jupiter ejected the objects into extremely long elliptic or parabolic orbits . Recent research has been cited by NASA hypothesizing that a large number of Oort cloud objects are the product of an exchange of materials between the Sun and its sibling stars as they formed and drifted apart , and it is suggested that many — possibly the majority of — Oort cloud objects did not form in close proximity to the Sun . Simulations of the evolution of the Oort cloud from the beginnings of the Solar System to the present suggest that the cloud 's mass peaked around 800 million years after formation , as the pace of accretion and collision slowed and depletion began to overtake supply .
Models by Julio Ángel Fernández suggest that the scattered disc , which is the main source for periodic comets in the Solar System , might also be the primary source for Oort cloud objects . According to the models , about half of the objects scattered travel outward toward the Oort cloud , whereas a quarter are shifted inward to Jupiter 's orbit , and a quarter are ejected on hyperbolic orbits . The scattered disc might still be supplying the Oort cloud with material . A third of the scattered disc 's population is likely to end up in the Oort cloud after 2 @.@ 5 billion years .
Computer models suggest that collisions of cometary debris during the formation period play a far greater role than was previously thought . According to these models , the number of collisions early in the Solar System 's history was so great that most comets were destroyed before they reached the Oort cloud . Therefore , the current cumulative mass of the Oort cloud is far less than was once suspected . The estimated mass of the cloud is only a small part of the 50 – 100 Earth masses of ejected material .
Gravitational interaction with nearby stars and galactic tides modified cometary orbits to make them more circular . This explains the nearly spherical shape of the outer Oort cloud . On the other hand , the Hills cloud , which is bound more strongly to the Sun , has not acquired a spherical shape . Recent studies have shown that the formation of the Oort cloud is broadly compatible with the hypothesis that the Solar System formed as part of an embedded cluster of 200 – 400 stars . These early stars likely played a role in the cloud 's formation , since the number of close stellar passages within the cluster was much higher than today , leading to far more frequent perturbations .
In June 2010 Harold F. Levison and others suggested on the basis of enhanced computer simulations that the Sun " captured comets from other stars while it was in its birth cluster " . Their results imply that " a substantial fraction of the Oort cloud comets , perhaps exceeding 90 % , are from the protoplanetary discs of other stars " .
= = Comets = =
Comets are thought to have two separate points of origin in the Solar System . Short @-@ period comets ( those with orbits of up to 200 years ) are generally accepted to have emerged from either the Kuiper belt or the scattered disc , which are two linked flat discs of icy debris beyond Neptune 's orbit at 30 AU and jointly extending out beyond 100 AU from the Sun . Long @-@ period comets , such as comet Hale – Bopp , whose orbits last for thousands of years , are thought to originate in the Oort cloud . The orbits within the Kuiper belt are relatively stable , and so very few comets are thought to originate there . The scattered disc , however , is dynamically active , and is far more likely to be the place of origin for comets . Comets pass from the scattered disc into the realm of the outer planets , becoming what are known as centaurs . These centaurs are then sent farther inward to become the short @-@ period comets .
There are two main varieties of short @-@ period comet : Jupiter @-@ family comets ( those with semi @-@ major axes of less than 5 AU ) and Halley @-@ family comets . Halley @-@ family comets , named for their prototype , Halley 's Comet , are unusual in that although they are short @-@ period comets , it is hypothesized that their ultimate origin lies in the Oort cloud , not in the scattered disc . Based on their orbits , it is suggested they were long @-@ period comets that were captured by the gravity of the giant planets and sent into the inner Solar System . This process may have also created the present orbits of a significant fraction of the Jupiter @-@ family comets , although the majority of such comets are thought to have originated in the scattered disc .
Oort noted that the number of returning comets was far less than his model predicted , and this issue , known as " cometary fading " , has yet to be resolved . No known dynamical process can explain this undercount of observed comets . Hypotheses for this discrepancy include the destruction of comets due to tidal stresses , impact or heating ; the loss of all volatiles , rendering some comets invisible , or the formation of a non @-@ volatile crust on the surface . Dynamical studies of Oort cloud comets have shown that their occurrence in the outer @-@ planet region is several times higher than in the inner @-@ planet region . This discrepancy may be due to the gravitational attraction of Jupiter , which acts as a kind of barrier , trapping incoming comets and causing them to collide with it , just as it did with Comet Shoemaker – Levy 9 in 1994 .
= = Tidal effects = =
Most of the comets seen close to the Sun seem to have reached their current positions through gravitational perturbation of the Oort cloud by the tidal force exerted by the Milky Way . Just as the Moon 's tidal force deforms Earth 's oceans , causing the tides to rise and fall , the galactic tide also distorts the orbits of bodies in the outer Solar System . In the charted regions of the Solar System , these effects are negligible compared to the gravity of the Sun , but in the outer reaches of the system , the Sun 's gravity is weaker and the gradient of the Milky Way 's gravitational field has substantial effects . Galactic tidal forces stretch the cloud along an axis directed toward the galactic centre and compress it along the other two axes ; these small perturbations can shift orbits in the Oort cloud to bring objects close to the Sun . The point at which the Sun 's gravity concedes its influence to the galactic tide is called the tidal truncation radius . It lies at a radius of 100 @,@ 000 to 200 @,@ 000 AU , and marks the outer boundary of the Oort cloud .
Some scholars theorise that the galactic tide may have contributed to the formation of the Oort cloud by increasing the perihelia ( smallest distances to the Sun ) of planetesimals with large aphelia ( largest distances to the Sun ) . The effects of the galactic tide are quite complex , and depend heavily on the behaviour of individual objects within a planetary system . Cumulatively , however , the effect can be quite significant : up to 90 % of all comets originating from the Oort cloud may be the result of the galactic tide . Statistical models of the observed orbits of long @-@ period comets argue that the galactic tide is the principal means by which their orbits are perturbed toward the inner Solar System .
= = Stellar perturbations and stellar companion hypotheses = =
Besides the galactic tide , the main trigger for sending comets into the inner Solar System is thought to be interaction between the Sun 's Oort cloud and the gravitational fields of nearby stars or giant molecular clouds . The orbit of the Sun through the plane of the Milky Way sometimes brings it in relatively close proximity to other stellar systems . For example , 70 thousand years ago , Scholz 's star passed through the outer Oort cloud ( although its low mass and high relative velocity limited its effect ) . During the next 10 million years the known star with the greatest possibility of perturbing the Oort cloud is Gliese 710 . This process also scatters Oort cloud objects out of the ecliptic plane , potentially also explaining its spherical distribution .
In 1984 , Physicist Richard A. Muller postulated that the Sun has a heretofore undetected companion , either a brown dwarf or a red dwarf , in an elliptical orbit within the Oort cloud . This object , known as Nemesis , was hypothesized to pass through a portion of the Oort cloud approximately every 26 million years , bombarding the inner Solar System with comets . However , to date no evidence of Nemesis has been found , and many lines of evidence ( such as crater counts ) , have thrown its existence into doubt . Recent scientific analysis no longer supports the idea that extinctions on Earth happen at regular , repeating intervals . Thus , the Nemesis hypothesis is no longer needed .
A somewhat similar hypothesis was advanced by astronomer John J. Matese of the University of Louisiana at Lafayette in 2002 . He contends that more comets are arriving in the inner Solar System from a particular region of the Oort cloud than can be explained by the galactic tide or stellar perturbations alone , and that the most likely cause is a Jupiter @-@ mass object in a distant orbit . This hypothetical gas giant was nicknamed Tyche . The WISE mission , an all @-@ sky survey using parallax measurements in order to clarify local star distances , was capable of proving or disproving the Tyche hypothesis . In 2014 , NASA announced that the WISE survey had ruled out any object as they had defined it .
= = Modified Newtonian dynamics within the Oort cloud = =
Modified Newtonian dynamics ( MOND ) suggests that at their distances from the Sun , the objects comprising the Oort cloud should experience accelerations of the order of 10 − 10 m / s2 , and thus should be within the realms at which deviations from Newtonian predictions come into effect . According to this hypothesis , which was proposed to account for the discrepancies in the galaxy rotation curve , which are more commonly attributed to dark matter , acceleration ceases to be linearly proportional to force at very low accelerations . If correct , this would have significant implications regarding the formation and structure of the Oort cloud . However , the majority of cosmologists do not consider MOND a valid hypothesis because it is unable to explain the movement of galactic clusters or account accurately for the cosmic microwave background .
= = Future exploration = =
Space probes have yet to reach the area of the Oort cloud . Voyager 1 , the fastest and farthest of the interplanetary space probes currently leaving the Solar System , will reach the Oort cloud in about 300 years and would take about 30 @,@ 000 years to pass through it . However , around 2025 , the radioisotope thermoelectric generators on Voyager 1 will no longer supply enough power to operate any of its scientific instruments , preventing any exploration by Voyager 1 . The other four probes currently escaping the Solar System either are already or are predicted to be non @-@ functional when they reach the Oort cloud ; however , it may be possible to find an object from the cloud that has been knocked into the inner Solar System .
In the 1980s there was a concept for a probe to reach 1 @,@ 000 AU in 50 years called TAU ; among its missions would be to look for the Oort cloud .
In the 2014 Announcement of Opportunity for the Discovery program , an observatory to detect the objects in the Oort cloud ( and Kuiper belt ) called the " The Whipple Mission " was proposed . It would monitor distant stars with a photometer , looking for transits up to 10 thousand AU away . The observatory was proposed for halo orbiting around L2 with a suggested 5 @-@ year mission . It has been suggested that the Kepler observatory may also be able to detect objects in the Oort cloud .
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= Michael Lachanodrakon =
Michael Lachanodrakon ( Greek : Μιχαήλ Λαχανοδράκων ; died 20 July 792 ) was a distinguished Byzantine general and fanatical supporter of Byzantine Iconoclasm under Emperor Constantine V ( r . 741 – 775 ) . As a result of his iconoclast zeal , in 766 he rose to high office as governor of the Thracesian Theme , and instigated a series of repressive measures against iconophile practices , particularly targeting the monasteries . A talented general , he also led a series of campaigns against the Arabs of the Abbasid Caliphate before being dismissed from office in about 782 . Restored to imperial favour in 790 , he fell at the Battle of Marcellae against the Bulgars in 792 .
= = Persecution of the iconophiles = =
Nothing is known of Lachanodrakon 's origins and early life . He receives a very negative treatment in the historical sources , which were written after the final defeat of Byzantine Iconoclasm ; some refer to him solely as ho Drakon ( ὁ Δράκων , " the Dragon " , alluding to his surname and the Biblical Beast ) . Their profoundly iconophile perspective means that reports of his actions , especially those relating to the suppression of icon worship , are potentially untrustworthy .
At the Council of Hieria in 754 , Constantine V had declared the adoration of icons to be a heresy , and had thereby elevated iconoclasm to official imperial policy . No persecution of iconophiles was launched at first , but iconophile resistance grew , until from 765 on , Constantine began persecuting iconophiles , and especially monks . The discovery of a wide @-@ ranging iconophile plot against him involving some of the highest civil and military officials of the state in 766 provoked an extreme reaction . Patriarch Constantine II and other officials were deposed , jailed , publicly humiliated , and finally executed , replaced by new , uncompromisingly iconoclast officials . In addition , the veneration of sacred relics and prayers to the saints and the Virgin Mary were condemned .
By 763 or 764 , according to the iconophile Life of St Stephen the Younger hagiography , Lachanodrakon had already distinguished himself by his iconoclast fervour . On the emperor 's orders , he led a group of soldiers on an invasion of the Pelekete monastery on the Propontis , where he arrested 38 monks and subjected the remainder to various tortures and mutilations . After burning down the monastery , he took the 38 captives to Ephesus , where they were executed . In 766 / 767 , as part of the emperor 's reshuffle of the senior echelons of the Byzantine Empire , Lachanodrakon was rewarded with the important post of strategos ( military governor ) of the Thracesian Theme , and given the rank of patrikios and imperial protospatharios according to his seal . He soon began a harsh repression of the monasteries and iconophiles . According to Theophanes the Confessor , in 769 / 770 he summoned the monks and nuns of his theme to Ephesus , gathered them in the city 's tzykanisterion and forced them to marry , threatening them with blinding and exile to Cyprus if they refused . Although many resisted and " became martyrs " in Theophanes 's words , many complied . Later reports of exiled monks in Cyprus becoming Arab captives seem to partly corroborate this story . Theophanes reports further that in 771 / 772 , Lachanodrakon dissolved all monasteries in the theme , confiscated and expropriated their property , and sent the proceeds to the emperor , who replied with a letter thanking him for his zeal . Lachanodrakon allegedly had relics , holy scriptures , and monks ' beards set on fire , killed or tortured those who venerated relics , and finally prohibited the tonsure . Although highly embellished , these reports probably reflect actual events . At any rate , by 772 , according to historian Warren Treadgold , Lachanodrakon seems to have succeeded in " eradicating monasticism within his theme " .
= = Military activities = =
Lachanodrakon was also a capable general , winning fame for his campaigns against the Abbasids on the Byzantine Empire 's eastern frontier . During the reign of Constantine V 's son Leo IV ( r . 775 – 780 ) he seems to have been the most prominent military commander , repeatedly leading expeditions comprising troops from several themes against the Arabs .
The first such expedition occurred in 778 when , preempting an anticipated Arab raid , Lachanodrakon led a large army against Germanikeia . Although the city did not fall ( Theophanes claims that the Arab commander bribed Lachanodrakon ) , the Byzantine army defeated a relief force , plundered the region , and took many captives , mostly Jacobites , who were then resettled in Thrace . In 780 , Lachanodrakon ambushed and defeated an Arab invasion in the Armeniac Theme , killing the brother of the Arab commander Thumama ibn al @-@ Walid . The Arab historian al @-@ Tabari records that in 781 Lachanodrakon forced another Arab invasion , under ' Abd al @-@ Kabir , to withdraw without battle , although Theophanes ascribes the success to the sakellarios John . In 782 , however , he was defeated by the Arab general al @-@ Barmaqi during a large @-@ scale invasion led by the future caliph Harun al @-@ Rashid ( r . 786 – 809 ) , losing some 15 @,@ 000 men according to Theophanes . In the aftermath of this defeat , and likely because of his iconoclast past , he was apparently removed from his command by the iconophile empress @-@ regent Irene of Athens .
Lachanodrakon reappears in 790 , when the young emperor Constantine VI ( r . 780 – 797 ) conspired to overturn the tutelage of Irene . The general was sent by Constantine to the Armeniac Theme to secure the allegiance of its soldiers . Constantine succeeded in toppling his mother in December 790 ; it was probably then that Lachanodrakon was rewarded with the supreme non @-@ imperial title , that of magistros . According to the account of Theophanes , he participated in the imperial campaign against the Bulgars in 792 that led to the disastrous defeat at the Battle of Marcellae on 20 July , where he was killed . The history of John Skylitzes records his death in the Battle of Versinikia , again against the Bulgars , in 813 , but this is clearly an error .
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= House of Music =
House of Music is the fourth studio album by American R & B group Tony ! Toni ! Toné ! , released on November 19 , 1996 , by Mercury Records . It is the follow @-@ up to their critically and commercially successful 1993 album Sons of Soul . Recording sessions for the album took place at several recording studios in San Francisco , Los Angeles , Oakland , and Sacramento during 1995 to 1996 , with production handled primarily by the group members . The album was named after a record store in the group 's native Oakland .
Following their hiatus as a group , Tony ! Toni ! Toné ! members Raphael Saadiq , D 'wayne Wiggins , and Timothy Christian Riley worked on songs for the album independently before putting together their finished recordings . Collectively , they sought to emphasize musicianship rather than production technique during the sessions . House of Music expands on their previous work 's traditional R & B influences with live instrumentation and balladry . Music writers have noted the album for its incorporation of traditional and contemporary musical styles , themes of love and romance , and witty , sensitive lyrics .
House of Music reached number 32 on the Billboard 200 , on which it charted for 31 weeks . It was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . The record received widespread acclaim from critics , who praised its musical style , classic influences , and the group 's musicianship and songwriting . An expected international tour in support of the album did not materialize , and House of Music proved to be the group 's last album together , as they subsequently disbanded due to creative differences and pursued separate music careers .
= = Background = =
Following the commercial and critical success of their 1993 album Sons of Soul , Tony ! Toni ! Toné ! took a hiatus as a group . During their break , the group 's main members Raphael Wiggins , D 'wayne Wiggins , and Timothy Christian Riley worked on songwriting and production for other recording artists , including D 'Angelo , En Vogue , Karyn White , Tevin Campbell , and A Tribe Called Quest . Raphael Wiggins adopted the surname Saadiq for his professional name in 1994 , meaning " man of his word " in Arabic , and released his solo single " Ask of You " in 1995 . Their work outside the group led to rumors of a break @-@ up during the time between albums . House of Music was titled after the name of a record store in the group 's native Oakland , California , which had closed several years prior to the album 's release . In an interview for Billboard , D 'wayne Wiggins said of naming the album , " We title all our albums at the end of the project . We sat back and listened to everything , and it reminded us of this mom @-@ and @-@ pop store around our way in Oakland . " The album 's cover and booklet photos were taken by photographer William Claxton .
= = Recording = =
Recording sessions for the album took place during September 1995 to September 1996 at various recording studios in California , including Brillian Studios and Hyde Street Studios in San Francisco , Coda Studios and Grass Roots Studios in Oakland , Encore Studios , Image Recording , and Westlake Recording Studios in Los Angeles , and Pookie Labs and Woodshed Studios in Sacramento . The group used vintage recording equipment and , for certain tracks , a 40 @-@ piece orchestra . In contrast to their previous work , each member arranged , composed , and produced songs on their own before putting the finished recordings together . In a 1997 interview , Saadiq said of working independently of Wiggins and Riley , " What I did was write a lot of stuff and rehearse it for about a month , then recorded it live . Then they would add their parts separately . " He worked with his own recording crew , comprising guitarist Chalmers " Spanky " Alford , drummer Tommy Branford , and keyboardists Kelvin Wooten and Cedric Draper .
The album 's opening track , " Thinking of You " , is one song that the group conceived and recorded together . D 'wayne Wiggins recounted its recording in a 1996 interview for USA Today , stating " Usually the first track we start off with sets the pace . We did it at 3 in the morning in Ray 's studio in Sacramento , and we were just having fun with an Al Green vibe . " Saadiq later said of developing the song , " I was just playing around and started singing off the top of my head . I never wrote anything down , it was just what came out . " " Annie May " , one of Wiggins ' songs for House of Music , had Saadiq 's backing vocals pre @-@ recorded and subsequently overdubbed to the track 's final mix .
Wiggins found the group 's hiatus constructive to recording a follow @-@ up , so as not to produce an album derivative of Sons of Soul . He said of the music in an interview for Billboard , " It 's not just a bunch of grooves that we put together and made sure that the tempo fit . Lyrically and musically , it talks about something , and you 're able to feel the emotional buildup that we felt when we were making the songs ... It 's funny though . Even though we did the music separately , when we got together , it all had the same kind of sound . " The group intended on recording with an emphasis on musicianship rather than production . Wiggins noted a lack of synthesizers as distinctive of the music , adding that " On a lot of the songs , you can just imagine a five @-@ piece band performing . " Guest musicians for the album included rapper and producer DJ Quik , percussionist Sheila E. , and the Tower of Power horn section . House of Music was mastered by audio engineer Brian Gardner at Bernie Grundman Mastering in Hollywood , California .
One of Saadiq 's songs for the album , " Me and the Blind Man " , was excluded from the album 's final mix . Originally issued on an album sampler sent by the group 's label to music journalists , the recording is a moody , bluesy song with surreal lyrics about lust , longing , and a fictitious blind man 's secret powers . In a 1997 interview for Yahoo ! Music , Saadiq expressed that he meant to show " a darker side ... some depth " to listeners with the song and said of its significance to the album , " To me songs like ' Blind Man , ' make the whole sound , the House of Music . " He said that it was not included on the album to equally represent each group members ' songwriting , stating " They didn 't want anybody playing favorites , so one of my songs had to come off . "
= = Music and lyrics = =
House of Music expands on the group 's previous traditional R & B @-@ influenced work with live instrumentation and an emphasis on ballads . Dan Kening of the Daily Herald said it is " half a tribute to their ' 60s and ' 70s soul music roots and half a masterful blend of modern smooth balladeering and danceable funk . " Music journalist Jennie Yabroff of Salon felt the songs are mostly " ballads — long , slow , emotional numbers with muted beats " that accentuate the lyrics . Drum wrote that mid @-@ tempo songs such as " Thinking of You " and " Still a Man " " lean heavily on ' 60s soul / R & B given a contemporary face , " while up @-@ tempo songs such as " Lovin ' You " , " Don 't Fall in Love " , and " Let 's Get Down " have elements of funk .
Music critics described the lyrics on House of Music as witty and sensitive . Michaelangelo Matos of the Chicago Reader characterized Saadiq 's songwriting as playful and quirky , while comparing his tenor singing voice to that of a young Michael Jackson . On Wiggins ' songwriting style , Matos said his melodies and rhythms are more subtle than those of Saadiq and observed " burnished obbligatos , hushed burr , and starry @-@ eyed falsetto " in Wiggins ' singing . Saadiq alternated as lead vocalalist with Wiggins throughout the album . Richard Torres of Newsday attributed the group 's lyrics on the album to their " [ belief ] in the power of love and the lure of romance . "
According to Saadiq , the opening track " Thinking of You " is " a really soul , southern , funky song " inspired by Al Green . It has light guitar strokes and Southern twang by Saadiq , while " Top Notch " draws on jazz and psychedelic elements . On " Still a Man " , he sings from the perspective of a man who was left by his wife to raise their children alone . The backing vocalists sing the song 's meditative hook , " Have you ever loved somebody / Who loves you so much it hurts you to hurt them so bad ? " On the lighthearted " Holy Smokes & Gee Whiz " , Saadiq 's older brother Randall Wiggins sings lead . The song was described by one critic as an " update of the Stylistics ' ' Betcha By Golly , Wow , ' " with " a dead @-@ on impression of Russell Thompkins ' unmistakable falsetto and precise diction . " " Annie May " is a salacious , humorous song about a lapdancer , while " Let Me Know " is a love song with Wall of Sound elements . According to Nick Krewen of The Spectator , " Wild Child " is " a ballad in the grand sense of Earth , Wind and Fire 's ' Be Ever Wonderful . ' " " Party Don 't Cry " is a meditation on mortality with jazzy , philosophical tones . Rickey Wright of the Washington City Paper said the song " expresses an overt spirituality unheard in the Tonyies ' past songs . " The closing track is a gospel @-@ influenced instrumental and variation of " Lovin ' You " composed by Saadiq . Its sole lyric is a universalist platitude .
= = Reception and legacy = =
The group 's fourth album , House of Music was released on November 19 , 1996 , by Mercury Records . The label intended on a release date during the peak holiday shopping period and ran ad campaigns scheduled for network cable , syndicated television shows , and radio stations . House of Music charted at number 32 and spent 31 weeks on the Billboard 200 . In its first eight weeks , the album sold 318 @,@ 502 copies in the US . Tony ! Toni ! Toné ! inaugurated its release with a satellite press conference and in @-@ store performance at a small business retailer in the San Francisco Bay Area . They also embarked on a tour of historically black colleges and Black Independent Coalition record shops after " Let 's Get Down " had been sent to R & B and crossover radio on October 28 as the album 's lead single ; its music video was released to outlets such as BET , The Box , and MTV . Tony ! Toni ! Toné ! performed the song as a musical guest on the sketch comedy show All That , while on Soul Train , they performed " Let 's Get Down " and " Annie May " . " Thinking of You " was released as the second single on March 11 , 1997 , by which time House of Music had sold 514 @,@ 000 copies , according to Nielsen SoundScan . On August 6 , the album was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) .
Reviewing House of Music in Entertainment Weekly , Ken Tucker found Tony ! Toni ! Toné ! ' s imitations of classic sounds " intelligent , sometimes brilliant " , " witty " , and " tremendously likable " , with " a new recurring theme : what makes a man a man and a woman a woman , explored with both frankness and slyness . " Sonia Murray of The Atlanta Journal @-@ Constitution hailed it as " the most versatile and efficacious of the trio 's four albums " , while Chicago Tribune critic Greg Kot said " they find rapture that is steeped in reality rather than in the upwardly mobile fantasy concocted by many of today 's less tradition @-@ conscious R & B crooners . " " The Tonies serve as a sort of stylistic missing link " , wrote J. D. Considine of The Baltimore Sun , " suggesting what would have happened had the soul styles of the ' 70s continued to evolve , instead of being tossed aside by the synth @-@ driven sound of the ' 80s . " Michael A. Gonzales from Vibe said the album " glows a vision of blackness that is superbad , mad smooth , and crazy sexy . " He described it as " a wonderland of harmonic delights , softcore jollies , and slow @-@ jam fever floating on the tip of Cupid 's arrow " , showing the group " exploring the sensuality of black pop without sounding like boulevard bullies stalking their objects of desire . " Robert Christgau deemed " Thinking of You " a " hilariously gutsy " and spot @-@ on Al Green homage while writing of the group 's artistry in The Village Voice :
After the album 's release , the group dealt with growing tensions stemming from creative differences , business @-@ related problems , and Saadiq 's interest in a solo career . In an interview for Vibe at the time , Saadiq said of the situation within the group , " There 's a quiet stress between us that no one really talks about . And what 's sad about the whole thing is the fact that our friendship is disintegrating . Who knows , House of Music could be the last Tony Toni Toné album . " However , they remained committed to promoting House of Music through 1997 . On February 28 , the group taped a performance for VH1 's Hard Rock Live special . According to an interview with Mercury vice president Marty Maidenberg in October 1996 , an international tour for the album was expected , with concert dates in Japan and the United Kingdom , but it never materialized . In November 1997 , Saadiq told the Philadelphia Daily News " there should have been like four singles from that album . You 'll have to call Mercury on that . It went platinum with no promotional tour . We did our job and they made their money . " They subsequently disbanded and each member pursued an individual music career .
In retrospect , Christgau attributed the album 's success to Saadiq 's lead role in the group while claiming " only with House of Music did they become true sons of the soul revival , the most accomplished r & b act of the ' 90s . That 's still the album to remember them by . " AllMusic editor Leo Stanley points out Tony ! Toni ! Toné ! ' s " traditional soul and R & B values of songwriting , " writing that they " successfully accomplish their fusion of the traditional and contemporary [ ... ] within the framework of memorable , catchy songs . " Stanely noted its influence on neo soul artists such as Tony Rich and Maxwell at the time . Chicago Reader writer Michaelangelo Matos viewed that the album showcased " the contrast between Saadiq 's and Wiggins 's styles " , which " had grown so pronounced that the tension only enhanced what was already the group 's best batch of songs . " Rashod Ollison of The Virginian @-@ Pilot deemed the record " a flawless gem " where the band 's " amalgamation of traditional and contemporary styles coalesced beautifully . " In The Rolling Stone Album Guide ( 2004 ) , Fred Schruers said " House of Music consolidates the triumph of Sons of Soul for a masterpiece of 1990s R & B , an album that is as steeped in soul tradition as anything by Maxwell or D 'Angelo , but that mixes the homage with humor and deft contemporary touches , thereby creating a new space all its own " .
= = Track listing = =
= = Personnel = =
Credits are adapted from the album 's liner notes .
= = = Tony ! Toni ! Toné ! = = =
Timothy Christian Riley – acoustic piano , clarinet , drums , electric pianos , Hammond B @-@ 3 organ , percussion , producer
Raphael Saadiq – bass , guitar , keyboards , producer , vocals
D 'wayne Wiggins – guitar , producer , vocals
= = = Additional musicians = = =
= = = Production = = =
= = Charts = =
= = = Album = = =
= = = Singles = = =
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= Teardrops on My Guitar =
" Teardrops on My Guitar " is a song by American country pop singer @-@ songwriter Taylor Swift . The song was co @-@ written by Swift , alongside Liz Rose and produced by Nathan Chapman with Swift 's aid . " Teardrops on My Guitar " was released on February 19 , 2007 by Big Machine Records , as the second single from Swift 's eponymous debut studio album ( 2006 ) . The song was later included on the international release of Swift 's second studio album , Fearless ( 2008 ) , and released as the second pop single from the album in the United Kingdom . It was inspired by Swift 's experience with Drew Hardwick , a classmate of hers for whom she had feelings . He was completely unaware and continually spoke about his girlfriend to Swift , something she pretended to be endeared by . Years afterwards , Hardwick appeared at Swift 's house , but Swift rejected him . Musically , the track is soft and is primarily guided by a gentle acoustic guitar . Critics have queried the song 's classification as country music , with those in agreement ( such as Grady Smith of Rolling Stone ) citing the themes and narrative style as country @-@ influenced and those opposed ( such as Roger Holland of PopMatters ) indicating the pop music production and instrumentation lack traditional country elements .
Critics received the track generally positively , complimenting Swift 's vocal delivery and songwriting style . The song is considered to be Swift 's breakthrough single , as it spread her popularity throughout the United States . " Teardrops on My Guitar " was commercially successful , peaking at number 13 on the Billboard Hot 100 , becoming the best @-@ charting single from Taylor Swift on the chart , and being Swift 's debut entry on the Billboard Year @-@ End Hot 100 charts . The single was also certified triple platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . Its music video was directed by Trey Fanjoy and features Swift as she sees her love interest develop a relationship with another female . The video received a nomination for MTV Video Music Award for Best New Artist , but lost to Tokio Hotel 's music video for " Ready , Set , Go ! " . The song was promoted through multiple live performances , some while supporting as opening act for various country artists ' concert tours . She also performed " Teardrops on My Guitar " on her first headlining tour , the Fearless Tour ( 2009 – 10 ) .
= = Background = =
Swift was inspired to write " Teardrops on My Guitar " about her experience with a boy named Drew Hardwick , a classmate of hers whom she had feelings for . Hardwick later went on to join the Navy . During their freshman year of high school at Hendersonville High School , Swift and Hardwick sat beside each other in a class everyday . The two developed a fond friendship , although Swift secretively desired for it to become a romantic relationship . Because of Hardwick 's unawareness , he would frequently speak to Swift about a girl he had feelings for , something Swift pretended to be endeared by , commenting , " How beautiful she was , how nice and smart and perfect she was . And I sat there and listened , never meaning it any of the times I said ' Oh , I 'm so happy for you . ' " Hardwick and his love interest eventually developed a relationship which lasted for a few years . Swift never confessed her feelings to him . By the release of Taylor Swift , he remained unaware of Swift 's intentions or the song and continued his relationship with the same female . Upon " Teardrops on My Guitar " ' s release as a single , Hardwick attempted to contact Swift via phone calls , which Swift did not respond to ; he then left voicemails , but Swift felt too awkward to call back .
Two years after the album 's release , as she was leaving her house to attend a Nashville Predators hockey game with Kellie Pickler and Carrie Underwood , Hardwick appeared at her driveway . A car parked and , out of it , exited Hardwick and a friend of his . After two and a half years of not speaking , the two conversed : " He was like , ' Hey , how 's it going ? ' And I 'm like , ' Wow , you 're late . Good to see you . ' But we were civilized . " Swift conjectured multiple theories as to why Hardwick appeared at her house . One of them was that he was attempting to prove to his friend that he was indeed the subject of " Teardrops on My Guitar " . Other possibilities was that he wanted to amend their friendship or believed Swift was still pining away from him . Swift said it would have been poetic if he approached her upon the album 's release and she would have accepted , but that she had already moved on . Swift cited " Teardrops on My Guitar " as an example of how she expresses her sentiments in songs and sometimes in no other manner . She was not afraid of using Hardwick 's first name on the track and , therefore , believed it was very honest and susceptible , something she adored .
Recently in 2015 , Drew was arrested of child abuse .
= = Composition = =
" Teardrops on My Guitar " is a country pop song with a length of three minutes and 35 seconds . It is set in common time and has a moderate tempo of 104 beats per minute . It is written in the key of B ♭ major and Swift 's vocals span one octave , from F3 to B ♭ 4 . Swift sings in a breathless manner . It follows the chord progression B ♭ – Gm – E ♭ – F. The track 's instrumentation is gently guided by mandolin and acoustic guitar , with accents of brushed drums . It ultimately resulting in a simple and tender undertone .
The lyrics of " Teardrops on My Guitar " speak of heartbreak and are direct , referring to the subject by his first name , Drew . The song describes fancying someone who already interested in someone else and , therefore , maintaining the sentiments a secret . To him , Swift acted as though she was happy about his relationship , while crying and lamenting at home . Dave Heaton of PopMatters interpreted the lines " And there she goes , so perfectly / The kind of flawless I wish I could be " to address Swift 's ideal of perfection and her attempting to meet it , but not succeeding , a predominant theme on Fearless .
= = Critical reception = =
" Teardrops on My Guitar " has received generally favorable reviews from contemporary critics . Regarding the song 's musical genre , Roger Holland of PopMatters believed there was no reason for Swift to limit herself into only the country music or why she should be a country artist at all . Holland continued , " Yet this is the channel to market she has chosen , and so she has to be prepared to hear complaints about the way that trademarked Mutt Lange guitar whine has been married to her bright shiny pop songs in order to get them onto CMT , GAC , and country radio . " Bill Lamb of About.com rated " Teardrops on My Guitar " four out of five stars . Lamb complimented Swift 's vocal delivery and songwriting style , but criticized the production and arrangement , perceiving them to be dull . He added that the track 's refrains were most impacting and deemed it among the most memorable songs of 2007 . Sean Dooley , also of About.com , described Swift 's vocals as " nothing less than captivating . "
Fiona Chua of MTV Asia said " Teardrops on My Guitar " demonstrated that with Swift , " what you hear is what you get " , and selected it as one best cuts on Fearless . Deborah Evans Price of Billboard stated that " Teardrops on My Guitar " showcased the same qualities as " Tim McGraw " ( 2006 ) – solid gifts of songwriting and time @-@ halting earnest and pure voice . Price declared that the song made obvious that Swift would have much success for years to come at the time . She believed the track was ultimately relatable and Swift was capable of making the song palpable . Chuck Taylor , also of Billboard , reviewed the pop version release of " Teardrops on My Guitar " , and stated it was a " beautiful mainstream intro to an artist whose rise is ably exemplified by her last name . " An uncredited review from Rolling Stone attributed the track to be one of the reasons why Taylor Swift was so commercially successful . Jon Bream of Star Tribune believed the song was in attempt to empower high school- and college @-@ age females by confronting males .
= = Chart performance = =
On the week ending March 24 , 2007 , " Teardrops on My Guitar " debuted at number ninety @-@ three on the Billboard Hot 100 . " Teardrops on My Guitar " is also Taylor Swift 's first song to debut on the Billboard Year @-@ End Hot 100 charts . After thirty @-@ seven weeks upon the chart , on the week ending March 1 , 2008 , the song reached its peak at number thirteen , becoming the highest @-@ charting single from Taylor Swift on the chart . On the week ending May 17 , 2008 , the song spent its last week on the Billboard Hot 100 at number forty @-@ nine , after a total of forty @-@ eight weeks on the chart . The single was certified triple platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America in April 2014 . As of November 2014 , " Teardrops on My Guitar " has sold 2 @.@ 9 million copies in the United States .
On Billboard Hot Country Songs chart , " Teardrops on My Guitar " debuted at number forty @-@ six on the week @-@ ending February 24 , 2007 . The song entered the top ten at number eight on the week @-@ ending July 14 , 2007 , and on its twenty @-@ sixth week on the chart , the week @-@ ending August 18 , 2007 , it reached its peak at number two on the Billboard Hot Country Songs . The track spent a total of twenty @-@ five weeks on Hot Country Songs . " Teardrops on My Guitar " was a crossover hit as well , peaking at number seven on Billboard Pop Songs and spending twenty @-@ one weeks on the chart .
" Teardrops on My Guitar " is considered to be Swift 's breakthrough single , as it spread her popularity throughout the United States . In Canada , the song peaked at number forty @-@ five on the week ending August 18 , 2007 . The single was certified platinum by Music Canada for sales of 80 @,@ 000 digital downloads . Released as the third single from Swift 's second studio album Fearless ( 2008 ) , the track debuted at number one hundred on the week ending April 27 , 2009 and peaked at number fifty @-@ one on the week ending May 23 , 2009 in United Kingdom .
= = Music video = =
The accompanying video to " Teardrops on My Guitar " was directed by Trey Fanjoy , who directed the video for " Tim McGraw " . Swift decided to film the video with Fanjoy as a result of how positive the experience was when filming " Tim McGraw " . She appreciated all the preparation techniques that she taught her and stated , " You have to remember the people who were good to you in the beginning " . Swift said the video centered around unrequited love . Some of Swift 's associates first believed the video should have been set in a prior era . They then thought about filming the video at a large city . However , Swift wanted to go back to basics and keep the song 's integrity by filming the video in Nashville , Tennessee . American singer and actor Tyler Hilton portrayed Drew . He was cast because of prior interactions with Swift . They had a mutual fondness for each other 's music . Taking into account his acting on the television series One Tree Hill and the film Walk the Line ( 2005 ) , Swift asked him to participate in the video after he attended and performed at one of her concerts . Swift chose Hilton primarily because he accurately presented Drew Hardwick , the fun , funny , fun @-@ loving , blue @-@ eyed boy whom she was friends with and had a huge crush on during high school . The video was filmed in one day in March 2007 at Hume @-@ Fogg High School ; the drama room was transformed to simulate a bedroom for the performance scenes .
The video commences with Drew asking Swift , " Hey , are you gonna go to the game on Friday ? " Swift responds , " Well , I was thinking about it . Why ? " He then admits it was just curiosity , informs Swift about a girl he met , and walks away . The video then transcends to Swift , wearing a long aquamarine evening gown , lying beside an acoustic guitar on a mattress in a bedroom . She performs the song until the scene transitions to Swift and Drew at the library , where he parodies a novel and she chuckles . The librarian requests for the two to maintain silence , so they converse quietly . Afterwards , Swift is in a chemistry laboratory , where she is mixing substances . Distracted by Drew approaching her , she accidentally pours too much of one substance and causes it to spill . They both rapidly attempt to clean the mess generated . As the song approaches its bridge , Swift and Drew walk towards each other , both smiling , but Drew then kisses his girlfriend , as Swift watches in agony . The video again transcends to the performance scene , where it concludes . Cut @-@ scenes feature Swift lying on the mattress , crying , and standing beside a fireplace in the bedroom . The video received a nomination for " Number One Streamed Music Video " at the web @-@ hosted 2007 CMT Online Awards , but lost to Sugarland 's " Stay " ( 2007 ) . The video received a nomination for MTV Video Music Award for Best New Artist at the 2008 MTV Video Music Awards , but lost to Tokio Hotel 's video for " Ready , Set , Go ! " ( 2007 ) . To date , the video has over 92 million views on YouTube .
= = Live performances = =
She performed " Teardrops on My Guitar " as she opened for Rascal Flatts on several dates , from October 19 to November 3 , 2006 , included on the Me and My Gang Tour ( 2006 – 07 ) . Swift opened the concert with the song and dressed in a black , knee @-@ length dress and red cowboy boots with a design of a scull and cross bones across it , playing an acoustic guitar . She also performed the song when she served as opening act on twenty dates for George Strait 's 2007 United States tour , and selected dates for Brad Paisley 's Bonfires & Amplifiers Tour in 2007 . During mid @-@ 2007 , Swift engaged as the opening act on several dates for Tim McGraw 's and Faith Hill 's joint tour , Soul2Soul II Tour ( 2006 – 07 ) , where she again performed " Teardrops on My Guitar " . Swift performed the song while she was again opening for Rascal Flatts for their Still Feels Good Tour in 2008 .
When promoting the single , Swift performed it on numerous venues , including Total Request Live ( TRL ) , The Engine Room , on the Studio 330 Sessions , and a concert at the Apple Store in SoHo , New York , which was recorded and released as a live extended play ( EP ) , iTunes Live from SoHo , exclusively sold through the iTunes Store . In the United Kingdom , the song was performed at an exclusive performance , hosted by 95 @.@ 8 Capital FM and on The Paul O 'Grady Show . Since completing promotion for Taylor Swift and its corresponding singles , Swift has performed " Teardrops on My Guitar " as a duet with English rock band Def Leppard on CMT Crossroads , the episode was released as a DVD exclusively through Wal @-@ Mart stores in the United States , Clear Channel Communications 's Stripped , at the 2009 CMA Music Festival , at the 2009 V Festival , and at the Australian charity concert Sydney Sound Relief .
Swift performed the song on all venues of her first headlining concert tour , the Fearless Tour , which extended from April 2009 to June 2010 . During each performance , she donned a sparkly cocktail dress and black , leather boots . The performance initiated with Swift sitting in a desk , next to a backup dancer who portrayed Swift 's love interest , at the upper level of the stage , which a library was projected onto . The backup dancers then stood up to slow dance with a female backup dancer as Swift sang from above . Swift then appeared at the main stage to conclude the performance . Jim Abbot of The Orlando Sentinel attended the March 5 , 2010 concert at the Amway Arena in Orlando , Florida . He stated , " Taking a cue from her pal Miley Cyrus , Swift embellishes hits such as ' Teardrops On My Guitar ' and ' Love Story ' with a lot of flashy production in concert . " Brandy McDonnell of The Oklahoman , who attended the March 31 , 2010 concert at the Ford Center in Oklahoma City , believed " Teardrops on My Guitar " ' s music video heavily influenced the setting and role she enacted in the performance . Swift performed the song for the first time in three years during The Red Tour 's stop in San Antonio on May 22 , 2013 .
= = Track listings = =
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = = Charts = = =
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= St Tyfrydog 's Church , Llandyfrydog =
St Tyfrydog 's Church , Llandyfrydog is a small medieval church , in Llandyfrydog , Anglesey , north Wales . The date of establishment of a church on this site is unknown , but one 19th @-@ century Anglesey historian says that it was about 450 . The oldest parts of the present building ( such as the nave and the chancel arch ) are dated to about 1400 , with the chancel dating from the late 15th or early 16th century . It is built from rough , small , squared stones , dressed with limestone . One of the windows on the south side is raised to illuminate the pulpit , a decision that in the eyes of one 19th @-@ century commentator " disfigures the building . "
According to local tradition , a standing stone about 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) away is the petrified remains of a man who stole a bible from the church and was punished by St Tyfrydog as a result . The Welsh historian Gerald of Wales said that when the Norman lord Hugh of Montgomery was putting down the Welsh revolt led by Gruffudd ap Cynan in 1098 , he kept his dogs in the church . The dogs had gone mad by the morning , and Montgomery himself was killed within a week .
The church is still in use for worship , as part of the Church in Wales , as one of four churches in a combined parish . It is a Grade II * listed building , a national designation given to " particularly important buildings of more than special interest " , in particular because it is a " good Medieval rural church which retains much of its Medieval fabric " . The circular churchyard walls and an 18th @-@ century sundial in the churchyard have also been given listed building status .
= = History and location = =
St Tyfrydog 's Church is in a wooded circular churchyard in the middle of the hamlet of Llandyfrydog in Anglesey , north Wales . It is about 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) from the county town of Llangefni . Llandyfrydog takes its name from the church : the Welsh word llan originally meant " enclosure " and then " church " , and " -dyfrydog " is a modified form of the saint 's name .
The 19th @-@ century Anglesey historian Angharad Llwyd wrote that a church was supposed to have been first built here around 450 ; Samuel Lewis , writing in 1849 , said that the original church was established by St Tyfyrdog himself . An upright stone about 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) high , which stands in a field about 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) from the village , is known as " the thief of Dyfrydog " . It is said by local tradition to be a man turned into stone by St Tyfyrdog for stealing the church 's bible ; the lump near the top of the stone is said to be the sack on the man 's shoulder .
In his 1191 Itinerarium Cambriae ( " Journey through Wales " ) , Gerald of Wales mentioned the church , saying that when the Normans were ransacking Anglesey during a Welsh revolt led by Gruffudd ap Cynan in 1098 , Hugh of Montgomery , one of the Norman lords , had kept his dogs in Llandyfydog church . He added that the dogs had gone mad by the morning , and the earl had been killed within a week .
A church was recorded here in 1254 during the Norwich Taxation , but the oldest part of the present building is the nave dating from about 1400 . The chancel was rebuilt at the end of the 15th century or in the first part of the following century . Restoration work took place in 1823 , and then again 1862 , when the present porch ( on the west end of the south wall ) and the vestry ( to the north ) were added , along with other alterations .
The church , which is still used for services as part of the Church in Wales , is one of four in the parish of Amlwch , the others being the churches of St Eleth , Amlwch , St Eilian , Llaneilian , and St Gwenllwyfo , Llanwenllwyfo . As of 2012 , the priest in charge is H. V. Jones . The parish is in the deanery of Twrcelyn , the archdeaconry of Bangor and the Diocese of Bangor .
People associated with the church include the Welsh botanist Hugh Davies , born in 1739 when his father Lewis was the rector ; Thomas Ellis Owen , rector from 1794 , who wrote anti @-@ Methodist pamphlets ; and James Henry Cotton ( rector in 1814 ; appointed Dean of Bangor Cathedral in 1838 ) . The priest and antiquarian Nicholas Owen was born in Llandyfyrdog when his father was the rector ( from 1750 to 1785 ) . Owen petitioned , unsuccessfully , on three occasions to be given the living , and he was eventually buried here .
= = Architecture and fittings = =
St Tyfrydog 's is built from rough , small , squared stones , dressed with limestone . The nave measures about 24 feet 9 inches by 23 feet 6 inches ( about 7 @.@ 5 m by 7 @.@ 2 m ) ; the chancel is about 23 feet 3 inches by 18 feet 9 inches ( about 7 @.@ 1 m by 5 @.@ 7 m ) . The roof is made of slate , with a stone bellcote at the west end housing one bell . The roof timbers are visible from inside the church . There are buttresses at the east end of the nave and at the entrance to the porch .
The oldest window is to the east side of the porch , on the south wall , which dates from about 1400 ; it has two lights ( sections of window separated by a mullion ) topped by trefoils , set in a rectangular window frame . It is echoed by a 19th @-@ century window on the same wall , set slightly higher to illuminate the pulpit . The north wall has two rectangular windows , one with a pair of lights topped by cinquefoils , the other a single light with a trefoil at the top . One of the windows has been inserted into an opening previously used as a doorway . The east window , which has three lights , dates from the latter part of the 15th century , and is the only window to contain stained glass . Inside , the division between nave and chancel is marked with a pointed arch , dating from about 1400 . Seating is provided in the form of painted box pews , dating from the 19th century , and possibly installed at the time of the restoration work in 1823 .
A survey by the Royal Commission on Ancient and Historical Monuments in Wales and Monmouthshire in 1937 noted an 18th @-@ century communion table , an engraved Elizabethan silver cup and a silver paten dated 1721 , and a memorial inside the church dated 1791 . A 19th @-@ century writer noted a seat near the altar with " R.B. 1630 " upon it , said to mark it as belonging to the Bulkeley family ( who were prominent and influential landowners , in Anglesey and elsewhere in north Wales , from the 15th to the 19th centuries ) . The churchyard contains a number of slate tombs and a sundial made from brass , dating from the 18th century , standing in the base of a medieval stone cross .
= = Assessment = =
The church has national recognition and statutory protection from alteration as it has been designated as a Grade II * listed building – the second @-@ highest of the three grades of listing , designating " particularly important buildings of more than special interest " . It was given this status on 12 May 1970 , being regarded " as a good Medieval rural church which retains much of its Medieval fabric " . Cadw ( the Welsh Assembly Government body responsible for the built heritage of Wales and for the inclusion of Welsh buildings on the statutory lists ) also notes that the church still had " a rich vernacular character . " The churchyard 's stone wall and the sundial have both been given listed building status , at the lower level of Grade II ( for " buildings of special interest , which warrant every effort being made to preserve them " ) .
The 19th @-@ century writer Samuel Lewis said that it was " a lofty and venerable structure , in excellent repair " , and with " a remarkably large chancel . " Writing in 1859 , the priest and antiquarian Harry Longueville Jones said that the church was " one of the better sort " in Anglesey . At the time he saw the church , there was an old porch and the north door in the nave was still in use . He described the nave as " unusually high " , and said that the window positioned to light the pulpit " disfigures the building . " He also thought that the " high " chancel walls gave " great effect " to the interior . A 2009 guide to the buildings of the region described it as a " handsomely proportioned church " It particularly noted the nave , describing it as " broad , almost a square " , with the chancel arch " dying into the responds . "
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= Herbert Armitage James =
Herbert Armitage James , CH ( 3 August 1844 – 15 November 1931 ) was a Welsh cleric and headmaster of three leading public schools , who ended his " remarkable scholastic career " , as it was later described by Austen Chamberlain , by becoming President of St John 's College , Oxford . After an Oxford education and early teaching career at Marlborough College , he was headmaster of Rossall School from 1875 to 1886 . It was said that he raised the school " to a pitch of all @-@ round excellence which it had not known before " . After suffering from health problems at Rossall , he served as Dean of St Asaph from 1886 to 1889 . He returned to teaching in 1889 , becoming headmaster of Cheltenham College and remaining in this post until 1895 , despite being offered the position of headmaster of Clifton College . He then became headmaster of Rugby School and served there to great acclaim . His Rugby School nickname of " The Bodger " is still in use at the school . He left Rugby School in 1909 to become President of St John 's College , Oxford , a position he held until his death 22 years later .
He was a highly respected teacher and preacher , being described as one of the best preachers of his day . He was widely praised for his work at Rossall , Cheltenham , Rugby and St John 's . He was made a member of the Order of the Companions of Honour by King George V in 1926 . At a dinner in his honour held to mark this award , attended by over 200 friends and former students , he was described by Austen Chamberlain ( the Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs ) as " one of the greatest and most forceful characters who had ever devoted himself to education " . The Lord Chancellor , Viscount Cave , also spoke at the dinner to praise James 's directness in his opinions and decisions , his weighty judgment , his high character and his kindly nature .
= = Early life and education = =
James was born in Kirkdale , Liverpool , the son of the Rev. Dr. David James , who was rector of Panteg , Monmouthshire , from 1856 to 1871 . Herbert James was educated at King Henry VIII Grammar School , Abergavenny , and then studied at two Oxford colleges . He matriculated at Jesus College in 1863 , before winning a scholarship and moving along Turl Street to Lincoln College in 1864 , obtaining a first @-@ class degree in Literae Humaniores in 1867 . He was appointed a Fellow of St John 's College in 1869 and was President of the Oxford Union Society in 1871 ( where he nominated H. H. Asquith to the Standing Committee ) . He was then ordained , and received his Bachelor of Divinity degree in 1874 . Later , on 31 May 1895 , he was awarded the degree of Doctor of Divinity , having previously been excused by the University from satisfying the requirements normally set for the award of the degree .
= = Teaching career = =
He was Assistant Master at Marlborough College from 1872 to 1875 before being appointed Headmaster of Rossall School in 1875 . On the last day of his first year as headmaster , the whole school ( with the exception of a couple of students ) gathered outside the school to hiss and boo at James . Despite this , he held this position until 1886 and was regarded as having been " brilliantly successful , raising the school in the 11 years of his reign to a pitch of all @-@ round excellence which it had not known before " . His students at Rossall included Henry Stuart @-@ Jones , who became a distinguished classical scholar . One of Stuart @-@ Jones 's contemporaries later gave James the credit for making Stuart @-@ Jones an " accurate and industrious scholar " .
The strain of his position at Rossall School having affected his health , he was appointed Dean of St Asaph in 1886 . In 1889 , his health restored , he left St Asaph to become Principal of Cheltenham College ( 1889 – 95 ) . He was again successful in this post , and was offered the position of Headmaster of Clifton College , but was prevailed upon to stay . He made participation in games a compulsory part of the boys ' education in 1889 . He also started the building of a new chapel to mark the college 's centenary in 1891 . When Dr Percival was appointed Bishop of Hereford , James succeeded him in 1895 as Headmaster of Rugby School . He was headmaster for 14 years and was very well regarded : it was said that the school had " seldom stood higher since Arnold 's day " than under his leadership ( in reference to Thomas Arnold , who was headmaster from 1828 to 1841 ) . He was also described in his obituary in The Times as having " once more showed himself a complete master of his profession , equally effective and esteemed in the class @-@ room and the pulpit , in the School House of Dr. Arnold , and on the playing fields . " He was nicknamed " The Bodger " , and this term is still part of Rugby School slang . King Edward VII visited Rugby School towards the end of James 's time as headmaster on 3 July 1909 , the first royal visit to the School .
= = St John 's College = =
He returned to Oxford in 1909 as President of St John 's College ( having been made an honorary fellow in 1895 ) and held this position until his death in 1931 . He was regarded during this time as a leader for the causes of the church and the Conservative Party , and was described as " winning all hearts with his geniality , his good sense , and his readiness to help all with whom he was brought into contact . " In 1918 , during his time as college President , his photograph was taken for inclusion in the collection of the National Portrait Gallery .
He was made a Companion of Honour by King George V in the Birthday Honours List of 1926 . On 15 October 1926 , over two hundred friends and former students attended a dinner held in his honour at the Hotel Victoria to celebrate the award , with Viscount Cave ( who was Lord Chancellor and also Chancellor of Oxford University ) presiding . Other guests included Viscount Lee , Sir Maurice Hankey ( the Cabinet Secretary ) , the sculptor Sir George Frampton , the civil servant Ernest Gowers ( who had been educated at Rugby when James was headmaster ) and the MP Sir James Agg @-@ Gardner . Austen Chamberlain ( the Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs and a governor of Rugby School ) spoke , along with representatives of the other schools with which he had been associated . Lord Cave praised James 's directness in his opinions and decisions , his weighty judgment , his high character and his kindly nature . He said that membership of the Companionship of Honour had been given only to a few who had rendered " special social service " to the country , and he rejoiced that James had been " enrolled " in this " select band " . He added that St John 's College and Oxford University owed James a " debt of gratitude " for his " wise advice and guidance " . James , he said , " had never dealth in the fine shades , or in the analysis of tendencies , or the exploration of avenues . Whatever was right had to be done . Whatever was wrong he fought with all his might . "
Marlborough School paid tribute to James through a poem by Charles Larcom Graves . One stanza was later quoted in the obituary of James published by The Times :
Chamberlain said that James had had a " remarkable scholastic career " and had exercised a " great and powerful influence " in the schools that he had served , leaving behind " a memory dear to all who had known him " . He said that James was regarded as " one of the greatest and most forceful characters who had ever devoted himself to education . " The dinner itself was reported as a news item in The Times on the following day , with a list of the principal attendees and summaries of the main speeches , and of James 's response , in which he said that he regarded the honour he had received as one bestowed on teaching .
= = Works and interests = =
His publications included an edition with English notes of Cicero 's Pro Plancio ( 1871 ) and a collection of sermons from his time at Rossall School , published as School Ideals ( 1887 ) . He was very highly regarded as a preacher , being appointed as Select Preacher for Oxford University in 1894 , 1897 and 1900 ; he was said to be " undoubtedly one of the best preachers of his day , at school and elsewhere " . He was a keen cricketer and golfer , and had been captain of the Lincoln College XI when a student there . He was also said to have been a useful member of the St John 's College XI , both for his batting and his slow bowling . The story was told at the 1926 dinner in his honour that he had taught A G Steel how to bowl a " twister " , and that Steel had gone on to take many wickets in test matches against the Australians as a result . He was devoted to philately and had what was regarded as one of the best stamp collections in England . On his death , it was estimated as being worth between £ 5 @,@ 000 and £ 6 @,@ 000 ( approximately £ 310 @,@ 000 to £ 370 @,@ 000 as of 2016 ) , despite the fact that he had dispersed much of his collection before his death .
= = Death and memorials = =
James died at St John 's College on 15 November 1931 at the age of 87 . After a funeral service at St Giles 's Church , Oxford , he was buried in Wolvercote Cemetery . In his will , he left £ 2 @,@ 000 to the Church in Wales and £ 200 to the Rector of St Mary 's Church , Panteg , to maintain the graves of his parents and for church work in the parish . He also left money to his old school in Abergavenny , Lincoln College , St John 's College and the schools at which he had been headmaster . He also left a sum to the Royal Philatelic Society . After other various bequests , he left the residue of his estate to his brother for life – as James had never married , his brother was his next of kin . After his brother 's death , his estate was to pass to St John 's College to assist undergraduates and to support the work of the choir .
James had been presented with a gold watch and chain when leaving his position as headmaster of Rossall School in 1886 . These were sold after his death , and were donated back to Rossall School by the purchaser ( a former student of the school ) for the use of future headmasters . A memorial tablet to James was erected in 1933 in the chapel of Rossall School ; it was unveiled by Lord Derby , president of the Rossall School Corporation . A oak chancel screen was also erected as a memorial to James in St Mary 's Church , Panteg , with the unveiling in 1935 being carried out by Lord Trevethin , a friend of James since childhood . Rugby School erected the James Pavilion in his memory , which was opened in 1937 with Sir Pelham Warner , an Old Rugbeian , paying tribute to James 's love of cricket .
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= Hitoshi Sakimoto =
Hitoshi Sakimoto ( 崎元 仁 , Sakimoto Hitoshi , born February 26 , 1969 ) is a Japanese video game music composer and arranger . He is best known for scoring Final Fantasy Tactics and Final Fantasy XII , though he has composed soundtracks for over 80 other games . He began playing music and video games in elementary school , and began composing video game music for money by the time he was 16 . Sakimoto 's professional career began a few years later in 1988 when he started composing music professionally as a freelancer , as well as programming sound drivers for games . Five years and 40 games later , he achieved his first mainstream success with the score to Ogre Battle : The March of the Black Queen . In 1997 , he joined Square and composed for his first international success , the score to Final Fantasy Tactics .
In 2002 , he resigned from Square to form his own music company , Basiscape , through which he continues to compose music for games , along with some anime series . Basiscape has expanded since its founding to 10 composers , and is currently the largest independent video game music production company . In addition to video game soundtracks , over the years Sakimoto has also worked on projects such as anime series and vocal albums . His music has been played at numerous music concerts by groups such as the Eminence Symphony Orchestra , and his work on Final Fantasy XII has been arranged for the piano and published as sheet music .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
Hitoshi Sakimoto was born in Tokyo , Japan . He began developing an interest in music beginning in elementary school , when he taught himself to play the piano and electronic organ and participated in some brass and rock bands . A fan of video games , he began creating his own games in junior high school with some friends . While in his senior high school years , Sakimoto wrote for the computer magazine Oh ! FM and compiled data about pieces of music he liked , becoming a self @-@ professed " computer , games , and music geek " .
Sakimoto started composing for games when he was 16 , and was paid to both create the music and the program to play it for several games . Composing for these games was the first time he had ever composed music for any instrument . His debut as a professional gaming composer came in 1988 , when he and his friend Masaharu Iwata , whom he has worked with on numerous later titles , scored the shooter game Revolter , published by ASCGroup for the NEC PC @-@ 8801 . Sakimoto also created the synthesizer driver " Terpsichorean " to enhance the sound quality of the game 's music ; the synthesizer driver has been implemented into many games throughout the Japanese game market in the early 1990s . Despite Revolter 's success , he continued with his previous goal to become a video game programmer rather than a composer ; however , his friends and colleagues encouraged him to continue composing game music . The recognition he gained within the gaming industry jump @-@ started his career .
= = = Career = = =
After Revolter , Sakimoto 's music and synthesizer driver earned him immediate recognition in the industry , resulting in him being asked to score several PC @-@ 9801 and Mega Drive games such as Starship Rendezvous and Gauntlet IV , as well as use his driver both in the scores he wrote and in other games such as Stone of Deigan in 1989 and The Witch of Barbatus in 1990 . Between 1990 and 1992 , Sakimoto worked on over 20 different video games for several different companies such as Toshiba EMI , Artec , and Data East . It was during this time that he composed his first solo score , for 1990 's Bubble Ghost .
Sakimoto 's first encounter with mainstream success in Japan came about in 1993 when he composed Ogre Battle : March of the Black Queen . The game was directed by Yasumi Matsuno , and since the release of the title , he has chosen Sakimoto as a regular for his development team at Quest and later Square . Sakimoto also worked on 14 other titles that year , including Shin Megami Tensei and Alien vs. Predator . Over the next few years , he would go on to compose for or work on over 40 more titles such as Tactics Ogre and Dragon Quest VI . In 1997 , Sakimoto joined Square and composed the score for Final Fantasy Tactics , which made him internationally famous , and was the score he was best known for outside Japan until at least 2006 . Although he worked on a handful of titles by other companies over the next few years , his next work for Square did not come until 2000 , with the successful Vagrant Story . It was his last score as an employee of Square ; although he went on to first compose Breath of Fire V and Tactics Ogre : The Knight of Lodis for Capcom and Quest , after a couple of years of planning he resigned from Square to form his own company , Basiscape , on October 4 , 2002 .
= = = Basiscape = = =
Basiscape composes and produces music and sound effects for various types of interactive media , most notably video games . Sakimoto says that he left Square to found the company because he did not feel that he had enough " freedom " as an employee of a game company , though he notes that the cost of that freedom is the difficulty in remaining close to the development team . At its founding , it comprised only three members : Sakimoto , Iwata , and Manabu Namiki . Through Basiscape , Sakimoto continued to compose for several different companies , including Square — now Square Enix — with Final Fantasy Tactics Advance . The company expanded in 2005 with the addition of composers Mitsuhiro Kaneda and Kimihiro Abe . After the huge success of 2006 's Final Fantasy XII , which he scored , demand for Sakimoto 's compositions grew stronger with gaming companies and he decided to expand Basiscape again by hiring Noriyuki Kamikura , Yoshimi Kudo , and Azusa Chiba . It is currently the largest independent video game music production company , and continues to work on large titles such as Odin Sphere and Final Fantasy XII : Revenant Wings . The composers for the company are able to procure individual work for themselves as members of Basiscape , as well as collaborate with other staff members on projects that are hired out to Basiscape as a company rather than any one composer , which allows the composers to remain freelancers while having the steady work of a full @-@ time job . The company also handles sound effects and narration in addition to soundtracks for the projects that it works on , and at the end of 2009 expanded to start its own record label .
Sakimoto has also been involved in non @-@ gaming projects during his career . He contributed one track each to the albums Ten Plants ( 1998 ) and 2197 ( 1999 ) , which feature music from various well @-@ known artists . Sakimoto collaborated with singer Lia in 2005 to create the music for the album Colors of Life . He composed the music for two anime series ; Romeo x Juliet ( 2007 ) and The Tower of Druaga : The Aegis of Uruk ( 2008 ) ; as well as the original video animation ( OVA ) Legend of Phoenix ~ Layla Hamilton Monogatari ~ in 2005 .
= = Performances = =
Sakimoto has made numerous appearances at video game concerts that have performed his compositions . On July 12 , 2006 , he , along with Yoko Shimomura and Michael Salvatori , were special guests at a Play ! A Video Game Symphony event at the Orchestra Hall in Detroit , Michigan . He has developed a strong relationship with the Australian @-@ based Eminence Symphony Orchestra , and has attended several of their concerts . Sakimoto and Yasunori Mitsuda made a guest appearance at their Passion event in December 2006 . In April 2007 , he appeared at Eminence 's A Night in Fantasia 2007 : Symphonic Games Edition , which featured three of his compositions . Sakimoto and Mitsuda collaborated with Eminence in July the same year to create Destiny : Reunion , a concert held exclusively in Japan . Eminence released Passion ( 2006 ) and Destiny : Dreamer 's Alliance ( 2007 ) , two studio recorded albums that feature various compositions from the Passion and Destiny : Reunion concerts respectively . " Penelo 's Theme " from Final Fantasy XII and a medley of pieces from Final Fantasy Tactics A2 were played at the Fantasy Comes Alive concert in Singapore on April 30 , 2010 . Although there have been several official Final Fantasy concerts dedicated to the music of the series , none have included music by Sakimoto . A book of sheet music from the music of Final Fantasy XII rewritten by Asako Niwa as beginning to intermediate level piano solos was produced by DOREMI publishing .
= = Musical style and influences = =
Sakimoto composes his music by playing the pieces " briefly on the piano " , and then working on a computer for more detailed arrangements . The style of Sakimoto 's compositions is mostly orchestral ; he creates the orchestral sound by playing the music through a sequencer instead of using a real orchestra due to the high cost . When composing a soundtrack for a video game , Sakimoto first sits down with the director or producer of the game and works out what emotions they want the game to evoke in the player , and after making a demo for them , sets out to create music that fits that feeling . He claims that his style of composition does not change when he works on non @-@ game works such as anime series , saying that only the tone of the pieces is different . He attributes any changes in his style over the years to his desire to constantly keep growing and learning new styles and techniques , saying that if you have not moved forward in your skill and style over time , " you 've wasted your time " .
He has stated that his biggest musical influences are " old techno and progressive rock " groups such as the Japanese synthpop group Yellow Magic Orchestra . When he was starting out in the field of music , he went under the pseudonym " YmoH.S " , a reference to Yellow Magic Orchestra . He also cites the American jazz musician Chick Corea as a major influence . While creating the music for Final Fantasy XII , however , his biggest musical inspiration was former regular series composer Nobuo Uematsu . Sakimoto enjoys listening to techno and jazz fusion in his spare time . While he sometimes gets inspiration while relaxing at home , Sakimoto feels that his best ideas come to him while he is at his studio concentrating . One of his favorite soundtracks he ever composed was the one for Vagrant Story .
= = Works = =
= = = Video games = = =
Composition
Arrangement
= = = Other works = = =
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= SM U @-@ 66 =
SM U @-@ 66 was the lead ship of the Type U @-@ 66 submarines or U @-@ boats for the Imperial German Navy ( German : Kaiserliche Marine ) during World War I. The submarine had been laid down in Kiel in November 1913 as U @-@ 7 , the lead ship of the U @-@ 7 class for the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy ( German : Kaiserliche und Königliche Kriegsmarine or K.u.K. Kriegsmarine ) . They became convinced after the outbreak of war in August 1914 that none of these submarines could be delivered to the Adriatic via Gibraltar , and sold the entire class , including U @-@ 7 , to the German Imperial Navy in November 1914 .
Under German control , the class became known as the U @-@ 66 type and the boats were renumbered ; U @-@ 7 became U @-@ 66 , and all were redesigned and reconstructed to German specifications . U @-@ 66 was launched in April 1915 and commissioned in July . As completed , she displaced 791 tonnes ( 779 long tons ) when surfaced and 933 tonnes ( 918 long tons ) submerged . The boat was 69 @.@ 50 metres ( 228 ft ) long and was armed with five torpedo tubes and a deck gun .
As a part of the Baltic and 4th Flotillas , U @-@ 66 sank 24 ships with a combined gross register tonnage of 69 @,@ 967 in six war patrols . The U @-@ boat also torpedoed and damaged the British cruiser Falmouth in August 1916 . U @-@ 66 left Emden on her seventh patrol on 2 September 1917 for operations in the North Channel . The following day the U @-@ boat reported her position in the North Sea but neither she nor any of her 40 @-@ man crew were ever heard from again . A postwar German study offered no explanation for U @-@ 66 's loss , although British records suggest that she may have struck a mine in the Dogger Bank area .
= = Design and construction = =
After the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy had competitively evaluated three foreign submarine designs , it selected the Germaniawerft 506d design , also known as the Type UD , for its new U @-@ 7 class of five submarines . The Navy ordered five boats on 1 February 1913 .
The U @-@ 7 class was seen by the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy as an improved version of its U @-@ 3 class , which was also a Germaniawerft design . As designed for the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy , the boats were to displace 695 long tons ( 706 t ) on the surface and 885 long tons ( 899 t ) while submerged . The double @-@ hulled boats were to be 228 @.@ 0 feet ( 69 @.@ 50 m ) long overall with a beam of 20 feet 8 inches ( 6 @.@ 30 m ) and a draft of 12 feet 5 inches ( 3 @.@ 79 m ) . The Austrian specifications called for two shafts with twin diesel engines ( 2 @,@ 269 shp ( 1 @,@ 692 kW ) total ) for surface running at up to 17 knots ( 31 km / h ; 20 mph ) , and twin electric motors ( 1 @,@ 223 shp ( 912 kW ) total ) for a maximum of 11 knots ( 20 km / h ; 13 mph ) when submerged . The boats were designed with five 45 cm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes ; four located in the bow , one in the stern . The boats ' armament was to also include a single 66 mm / 26 ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) deck gun .
U @-@ 7 and sister boat SM U @-@ 67 were both laid down on 1 November 1913 , the first two boats of the class begun . Their construction was scheduled for completion within 29 to 33 months , but neither U @-@ 7 nor any of her sister boats were complete when World War I began in August 1914 . Because the boats were under construction at Kiel on the Baltic Sea , the Austrians became convinced that it would be impossible to take delivery : the boats would need to be transferred into the Mediterranean past Gibraltar , a British territory . As a result , U @-@ 7 and her four sisters were sold to the Imperial German Navy on 28 November 1914 .
U @-@ 7 was renumbered by the Germans as U @-@ 66 when her class was redesignated as the Type U @-@ 66 . The Imperial German Navy had the submarines redesigned and reconstructed to German standards , increasing the surface and submerged displacements by 96 and 48 tonnes ( 94 and 47 long tons ) , respectively . The torpedo load was increased by a third , from 9 to 12 , and the deck gun size was upgraded from the 6 @.@ 6 @-@ centimeter ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) size originally specified to 8 @.@ 8 centimeters ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) .
= = Early career = =
U @-@ 66 was launched on 22 April 1915 . On 23 July , SM U @-@ 66 was commissioned into the Imperial German Navy under the command of Kapitänleutnant ( Kptlt . ) Thorwald von Bothmer , a 31 @-@ year @-@ old , thirteen @-@ year veteran of the Imperial German Navy . U @-@ 66 was assigned to the Baltic Flotilla ( German : U @-@ boote der Ostseestreitkräfte V. Unterseeboots @-@ Halbflottille ) on 17 October .
In late September , the British submarine flotilla in the Baltic began a submarine offensive against German ships , intending to deny free passage of cargo , especially iron ore , from neutral Sweden to Germany . In A Naval History of World War I , author Paul G. Halpern reports on part of the German response , which was an experiment involving U @-@ 66 . The U @-@ boat was towed behind an " innocent @-@ looking vessel " and connected to the host ship by a telephone line in addition to the towline . U @-@ 66 was able to cast off at a moment 's notice to attack an enemy submarine . Halpern does not report on any encounters by U @-@ 66 , nor does he provide any insight into the overall effectiveness of the plan . U @-@ 66 was not credited with the sinking of any vessels of any kind during this time . On 15 January 1916 , she was transferred from the Baltic Flotilla into the 4th Flotilla ( German : IV . Unterseeboots @-@ Halbflottille ) , where she joined her sister boats U @-@ 67 and U @-@ 68 .
= = Second German offensive = =
Germany began its second submarine offensive against shipping the month after U @-@ 66 joined the 4th Flotilla . As in the first submarine offensive , U @-@ boats were sent independently around Scotland to patrol the Irish Sea and the western entrance to the English Channel . The first reported activity of U @-@ 66 during this campaign reveals that she sank her first ship on 5 April 1916 . On that date she was in the vicinity of Fastnet Rock and came upon the 3 @,@ 890 @-@ ton British refrigerated cargo ship Zent headed from Garston to Santa Marta in ballast . U @-@ 66 torpedoed Zent 28 nautical miles ( 52 km ; 32 mi ) from Fastnet and sank the ship with the loss of 49 crewmen ; the master and nine sailors were rescued and landed at Queenstown . Over the next two days , U @-@ 66 dispatched two French sailing vessels , the 151 @-@ ton Binicaise , and the 397 @-@ ton fishing smack Sainte Marie west of the Isles of Scilly . On 8 April , von Bothmer and U @-@ 66 sank the Spanish @-@ flagged Santanderino 18 nautical miles ( 33 km ; 21 mi ) from Ushant . Santanderino , a 3 @,@ 346 @-@ ton ship built in 1890 , was sailing from Liverpool to Havana , and U @-@ 66 gave 15 minutes ' notice for all the passengers and crew to abandon ship ; four drowned during the evacuation . Santanderino 's 36 survivors were rescued by a Danish steamer and landed at a port on the Bay of Biscay .
U @-@ 66 continued her attacks on merchant shipping on 9 April with the sinking of three ships , the British steamers Eastern City and Glenalmond and the Norwegian ship Sjolyst . The 4 @,@ 341 @-@ ton Eastern City was sailing from Saint @-@ Nazaire to Barry Roads in ballast when she was shelled by U @-@ 66 and sent to the bottom 18 nautical miles ( 33 km ; 21 mi ) from Ushant ; all of her crew survived and were landed by 11 April . U @-@ 66 's next victim was the 2 @,@ 888 @-@ ton Glenalmond sailing from Bilbao to Clyde laden with iron ore . Torpedoes from U @-@ 66 sank the ship 27 nautical miles ( 50 km ; 31 mi ) north of Ushant , but all her crew were saved . The 20 @-@ year @-@ old Norwegian steamer Sjolyst was sailing in ballast from Nantes to Manchester when U @-@ 66 sank her about two nautical miles ( four kilometers ) from where Glenalmond went down . Sjolyst 's master and entire crew were picked up by the British steamer Libra and landed at Cardiff .
U @-@ 66 finished out her busy month the next day by sinking one British and one Italian ship . U @-@ 66 sank the British steamer Margam Abbey 55 nautical miles ( 102 km ; 63 mi ) southwest of the Lizard while the ship was en route from Bordeaux to Barry Roads in ballast . Margam Abbey , at 4 @,@ 471 tons , was the largest ship sunk by U @-@ 66 to that time . The Italian freighter Unione was sailing with a load of coal from Clyde for Genoa when U @-@ 66 torpedoed her off Land 's End . The sinking of Unione , with a tonnage of 2 @,@ 367 , raised U @-@ 66 's tally for the month of April to eight ships with a combined tonnage of 22 @,@ 848 , all sunk in a six @-@ day span . Near the end of April 1916 , Admiral Reinhard Scheer , the new commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the High Seas Fleet ( under which U @-@ 66 's 4th Flotilla operated ) , called off the merchant shipping offensive and ordered all boats at sea to return , and all boats in port to remain there .
= = Grand Fleet ambushes = =
In mid @-@ May 1916 , Scheer completed plans to draw out part of the British Grand Fleet . The German High Seas Fleet would sortie for a raid on Sunderland , luring the British fleet across " ' nests ' of submarines and mine @-@ fields " . U @-@ 66 was one of nine U @-@ boats that put out to sea beginning on 17 May to scout the central North Sea for signs of the British fleet . Completing five days of scouting , U @-@ 66 , along with U @-@ 63 , U @-@ 51 , U @-@ 32 , sister boat U @-@ 70 , U @-@ 24 , and U @-@ 52 , took up position off the Firth of Forth on 23 May . The other two boats , U @-@ 43 and U @-@ 44 , were stationed off Pentland Firth , in position to attack the British fleet leaving Scapa Flow . All the boats were to remain on station until 1 June and await a coded message which would report the sailing of the British fleet . Unfortunately for the Germans , the British Admiralty had intelligence reports of the departure of the submarines which , coupled with an absence of attacks on shipping , aroused British suspicions .
A delayed departure of the German fleet for its sortie ( which had been redirected to the Skagerrak ) and the failure of five U @-@ boats , including U @-@ 66 , to receive the coded message warning of the British advance caused Scheer 's anticipated ambush to be a " complete and disappointing failure " . Although she had not received the advance warning of the coded message , U @-@ 66 was one of the two ambush U @-@ boats that actually saw parts of the British fleet . At 09 : 00 on 31 May , U @-@ 66 sent out a wireless report of eight battleships , light cruisers , and destroyers on a northerly course 60 nautical miles ( 110 km ; 69 mi ) east of Kinnaird Head . U @-@ 66 was unable to make any attacks on the ships she reported due to the presence of screening vessels . The failure of the submarine ambush to sink any British capital ships allowed the full Grand Fleet to engage the numerically inferior High Seas Fleet in the Battle of Jutland , which took place 31 May – 1 June .
The next mention of U @-@ 66 in sources is on 11 August , when she sank Inverdruie , a 613 @-@ ton three @-@ masted Norwegian bark . Inverdruie was carrying a load of pit props from Sandefjord to Hartlepool when she was sunk some 160 nautical miles ( 300 km ; 180 mi ) east of Aberdeen .
Later in August , the Germans set up another ambush for the British fleet , when they drew up plans for another High Seas Fleet raid on Sunderland ( as had been the original intention in May ) . The German fleet planned to depart late in the day on 18 August and shell military targets the next morning . U @-@ 66 was one of 24 U @-@ boats that formed five lines ( German : Standlinie ) in the expected paths of any Grand Fleet sorties . Standlinie II , consisting of U @-@ 63 , U @-@ 49 , U @-@ 45 , U @-@ 66 , and U @-@ 64 , formed a 35 @-@ nautical @-@ mile ( 65 km ; 40 mi ) front 12 nautical miles ( 22 km ; 14 mi ) off Flamborough Head . The other four Standlinie formed similar lines to the north and south ; all were to be in place by 08 : 00 on 19 August . Once again , British intelligence had given warning of the impending attack and ambush , causing the Grand Fleet to sortie at 16 : 00 on 18 August , five hours before the German fleet sailed .
At 04 : 45 on 19 August , U @-@ 66 fired a spread of two torpedoes at the British light cruiser Falmouth from a distance of 1 @,@ 000 yards ( 910 m ) . Both torpedoes scored hits on Falmouth 's starboard side , flooding the warship forward and aft . The cruiser 's mechanical spaces — located amidships — remained intact and in working order , so she was steered to the Humber with an escort of three destroyers and an armed trawler . U @-@ 66 tried repeatedly to deal the stricken cruiser a coup de grâce , but narrowly missed with torpedoes on several further attacks . U @-@ 66 broke off her pursuit after two hours , having endured multiple attacks from Falmouth 's screening destroyers . One depth charge attack blew out all the lights on U @-@ 66 and knocked clips off two hatches that caused the boat to flood with a considerable quantity of water before the leaks could be sealed . Falmouth continued under tow at 2 knots ( 3 @.@ 7 km / h ) until she crossed Standlinie II and was attacked and sunk by U @-@ 63 around noon the next day .
Records on U @-@ 66 next appear in late 1916 , when she is reported as one of the U @-@ boat escorts assisting the German merchant raider Wolf into the North Atlantic . Wolf , under the command of Karl August Nerger , began a 15 @-@ month raiding voyage on 30 November that took the ship into the Indian and Pacific Oceans before a safe return to Germany . U @-@ 66 's specific locations for this duty are not reported , but on 11 December she sank a Norwegian steamer and a Swedish sailing ship . U @-@ 66 shelled the 1 @,@ 090 @-@ ton Norwegian steamer Bjor 4 nautical miles ( 7 @.@ 4 km ; 4 @.@ 6 mi ) southwest of the Norwegian island of Ryvingen . The ship and her general cargo , headed from Göteborg to Hull , were sent to the bottom without loss of life , and her crew was safely landed by 14 December . The same day , U @-@ 66 also sank the 311 @-@ ton Swedish sailing ship Palander off the island of Oxö , near the town of Tornio on the Sweden – Finland border .
= = Unrestricted submarine warfare = =
From the early stages of the war the Royal Navy had blockaded Germany , preventing neutral shipping from reaching German ports . By the time of the so @-@ called " turnip winter " of 1916 – 17 , the blockade had severely limited imports of food and fuel into Germany . Among the results were an increase in infant mortality and as many as 700 @,@ 000 deaths attributed to starvation or hypothermia during the war . With the blockade having such dire consequences , Kaiser Wilhelm II personally approved a resumption of unrestricted submarine warfare to begin on 1 February 1917 to help force the British to make peace . The new rules of engagement specified that no ship was to be left afloat .
U @-@ 66 's first victim under the new rules was encountered on 1 March . The Norwegian steamer Gurre , reported as 1 @,@ 733 tons , was crossing the North Sea while steaming from Narvik and Fredrikshald for Hull with a cargo of iron ore . U @-@ 66 torpedoed her at position 59 ° 30 ′ N 2 ° 0 ′ E , sending the doomed Norwegian ship into the murky depths with 20 of her crew . The same day , U @-@ 66 encountered another Norwegian cargo ship , the 1 @,@ 005 @-@ ton Livingstone , headed from Skien to Charente with a cargo of ammonium nitrate . Livingstone 's cargo , used in the making of explosives and munitions , was too valuable to destroy . U @-@ 66 's captain seized the ship as a prize east of Shetland . Further details of the encounter do not appear in sources , but it is known that the 11 @-@ year @-@ old Livingstone not only survived the war , but remained in service under a variety of names until she was scrapped in 1962 .
In late March , U @-@ 66 sank another two vessels . The 3 @,@ 597 @-@ ton cargo ship Stuart Prince was headed from Manchester and Belfast to Alexandria with a general cargo when U @-@ 66 came upon her 85 nautical miles ( 157 km ; 98 mi ) off Broad Haven , County Mayo . U @-@ 66 's torpedo attack was successful , sinking the ship and killing 20 men , including the ship 's master . Five days later , U @-@ 66 encountered the five @-@ masted bark Neath 28 nautical miles ( 52 km ; 32 mi ) south by east of Fastnet Rock . Equipped with an auxiliary triple @-@ expansion steam engine , Neath was the former German bark R. C. Rickmers which had been seized by the Admiralty at Cardiff in August 1914 . After U @-@ 66 torpedoed Neath at 08 : 45 , the bark , en route from Martinique to Le Havre with a load of sugar , sank in seven minutes . The master of Neath was taken prisoner , but had been released and landed at Queenstown two days later .
During April 1917 , German U @-@ boats sank 860 @,@ 334 tons of Allied and neutral shipping , a monthly total unsurpassed in either of the two world wars . U @-@ 66 's sole contribution to this figure came when she torpedoed the tanker Powhatan 25 nautical miles ( 46 km ; 29 mi ) from North Rona in the Outer Hebrides . The 6 @,@ 117 @-@ ton ship , which was carrying fuel oil from Sabine , Texas to Kirkwall , bested Margam Abbey as U @-@ 66 's largest ship sunk when she went down with 36 of her crew . As was done with the master of Neath , Powhatan 's master was taken prisoner aboard U @-@ 66 .
Although the monthly total of tonnage sunk by all U @-@ boats had peaked in April , the losses were over 600 @,@ 000 tons in each of May and June . U @-@ 66 did not contribute to the May tally but , with her most successful month since April 1916 , added to the June figures . On 5 June , U @-@ 66 torpedoed the 3 @,@ 472 @-@ ton Italian steamer Amor which was on her way to Liverpool from Galveston ; Amor sank approximately 200 nautical miles ( 370 km ; 230 mi ) from Fastnet Rock . The same day , Manchester Miller , a 4 @,@ 234 @-@ ton steamer sailing from Philadelphia for Manchester with a load of cotton , was sunk about 10 nautical miles ( 19 km ; 12 mi ) away from Amor when she was hit by a torpedo from U @-@ 66 . Eight crewmen died in the attack ; the survivors , who included three Americans , were landed on 9 June .
Two days after the attacks on Amor and Manchester Miller , U @-@ 66 attacked two more British steamers . The 4 @,@ 329 @-@ ton Ikalis , carrying wheat from New York to Manchester , was torpedoed and sunk 170 nautical miles ( 310 km ; 200 mi ) from Fastnet Rock . The cargo ship Cranmore , of 3 @,@ 157 tons , was headed to Manchester from Baltimore with a general cargo when torpedoed some 150 nautical miles ( 280 km ; 170 mi ) northwest of Fastnet . Though the ship was damaged , Cranmore 's crew was able to beach her ; the ship was later refloated and re @-@ entered service .
U @-@ 66 sank her largest ship , the 6 @,@ 583 @-@ ton British steamer Bay State on 10 June . The Warren Line cargo steamer had departed from Boston ( the capital of Massachusetts nicknamed , coincidentally , the " Bay State " ) with a $ 2 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 war cargo destined for Liverpool . U @-@ 66 intercepted the ship 250 nautical miles ( 460 km ; 290 mi ) northwest of Fastnet and sank her , but there were no casualties among her crew of 45 . Four days later , U @-@ 66 encountered the Norwegian bark Perfect , laden with grain , headed from Bahía Blanca for Copenhagen . Perfect , which had been built in 1877 , was dispatched by U @-@ 66 's deck gun at position 60 ° 58 ′ N 2 ° 18 ′ E , east of Shetland .
On 17 June , Kptlt. von Bothmer was replaced by Kptlt . Gerhard Muhle as commander of the U @-@ boat . U @-@ 66 was the first ( and ultimately only ) U @-@ boat command for the 31 @-@ year @-@ old Muhle , who had been a classmate of von Bothmer when both had joined the Kaiserliche Marine in April 1902 . On 9 July , U @-@ 66 sank her first ship under her new commander , when she sent the Spanish steamer Iparraguirre to the bottom . The 1 @,@ 161 @-@ ton steamer was headed to Santander from Piteå and Bergen with a cargo of pitwood , when U @-@ 66 attacked her west of the Orkney Islands .
U @-@ 66 scored another success when she torpedoed and sank the outbound British steamer African Prince on 21 July 60 nautical miles ( 110 km ; 69 mi ) north @-@ northwest of Tory Island . The freighter — a Prince Line line @-@ mate of Stuart Prince , sunk by U @-@ 66 in March — was carrying china clay from Liverpool to Newport News . The same day , U @-@ 66 also sank the 1 @,@ 322 @-@ ton British sailing ship Harold about 5 nautical miles ( 9 @.@ 3 km ; 5 @.@ 8 mi ) from where African Prince went down . These two ships were the last sinkings credited to U @-@ 66 . During six successful patrols , U @-@ 66 had sunk 24 ships and seized a 25th as a prize , for a combined total tonnage of 69 @,@ 967 .
U @-@ 66 began her seventh and what was to be her final patrol on the morning of 2 September when she departed from Emden destined for operations in the North Channel . Shortly after noon on 3 September , U @-@ 66 reported a position in the North Sea that placed her beyond known British minefields , in what was her last known contact . A postwar German study offered no explanation for U @-@ 66 's loss . British records suggest that U @-@ 66 may have either struck a mine in an older minefield in the Dogger Bank area , or that a combination of destroyers , submarines , and anti @-@ submarine net tenders sank U @-@ 66 sometime between 1 and 11 October . Author Dwight Messimer discounts this latter theory as not being supported by operational details .
= = Summary of raiding history = =
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= Naturally ( Selena Gomez & the Scene song ) =
" Naturally " is a song performed by American band Selena Gomez & the Scene , taken from their debut studio album Kiss & Tell ( 2010 ) . It was released by Hollywood Records as the album 's second single in the United States and select other countries . The song was produced by Antonina Armato and Tim James who wrote the song with Devrim Karaoglu . Musically , " Naturally " is an uptempo pop song which relies on electropop and dance @-@ pop styles . The song 's lyrics speak of a relationship in which feelings are not forced and the protagonist sings of their happiness . The song officially impacted US mainstream radio on January 19 , 2010 , and was released physically in numerous European countries thereafter .
" Naturally " received generally positive reviews , with critics complementing its electro and club feel . The song reached the top ten in the United Kingdom , Slovakia , Hungary , and Ireland , and peaked in the top twenty in multiple other countries . As their first song to impact radio in the US , it reached number twenty @-@ nine on the Billboard Hot 100 , number twelve on the Pop Songs chart , and it topped the Hot Dance Club Play chart . It was later certified Platinum in the United States by the RIAA and in Canada by the CRIA . The song 's accompanying music video sees Gomez sporting several different outfits and styles before a backdrop . Gomez & the Scene performed the song numerous times including on Dick Clark 's New Year 's Rockin ' Eve with Ryan Seacrest among other televised events and live performances . The song was ranked number eighty @-@ four on About.com 's list of " Top 100 Pop Songs of 2010 " .
= = Composition and lyrics = =
" Naturally " is an electropop and dance @-@ pop song which derives from the style of Hi @-@ NRG while incorporating disco beats . Gomez described the song as " light " , " energetic " , and " poppy " . The song is set in common time , and has an electro @-@ pop tempo of 132 beats per minute . It is written in the key of B ♭ minor , and Gomez 's vocals span from the low note of F3 to high note of F5 . It follows the chord progression B ♭ m – G ♭ – A ♭ According to Chris Ryan of MTV News the song is influenced by Kylie Minogue . According to CBBC , The song is lyrically about meeting someone who is comfortable in their own skin , as the protagonist singing how happy they are to be with them . The lyrics also state that everything in the relationship comes " Naturally " . In an interview with Digital Spy , Gomez said that the song was about " two people who have a connection with each other so they don 't really have to force the feelings - they 're just there . " Overall , she said the song was a great representation of the whole album .
= = Critical reception = =
Bill Lamb of About.com ranked the song amongst the top tracks on Kiss & Tell . Mikael Wood of Billboard gave the song a positive review , stating that it " has a juicy and instantly memorable vocal hook " . In a review of the album , Robert Copsey of Digital Spy coined the song " electro @-@ thumping " , commenting that it was " as innocent as the purity ring on Gomez 's finger and showcases her polished vocals perfectly . " Copsey also stated that the impressive hooks present in the song do not appear on the album anywhere else . In a single review , Nick Levine also of Digital Spy said was the most Disney @-@ affiliated single with club appeal since Miley Cyrus ' " See You Again " . When commenting on whether Gomez would be a mainstay in music , Levine said , " It 's too soon to tell - but most Scando @-@ popettes would dye their locks brunette for this tune . " Although stating that it was very cliche , a writer for Popjustice said that the song " seems like a boundary @-@ smashing avant garde curiosity when you put it alongside most other Hollywood Records output . " Bill Lamb of About.com ranked " Naturally " at number eighty @-@ four on his list of " Top 100 Pop Songs of 2010 " .
= = Chart performance = =
After debuting its first week at sixty @-@ five on Billboard 's US Hot Digital Songs , holiday sales for the single subsequently pushed the song to jump to thirty @-@ four . These digital sales made the song the " Hot Shot Debut " on the Billboard Hot 100 at number thirty @-@ nine for the issue dated January 9 , 2010 , eventually rising to twenty @-@ nine on the Hot 100 and eighteen on the Canadian Hot 100 . On the week labeled February 13 , 2010 , due to radio impact , the song debuted at forty on the US Pop Songs chart , and was the Hot Shot Debut at thirty @-@ nine on the Hot Dance / Club Play Songs chart where it peaked at number one . The song was certified Platinum on July 15 , 2010 in the United States by the Recording Industry Association of America for reaching a million in sales , and 4 times Platinum on July 23 , 2014 for sales and streaming . As of August 2014 , the single had sold 2 @,@ 006 @,@ 000 copies . It was also certified Platinum in Canada by the Canadian Recording Industry Association for sales of 80 @,@ 000 units .
" Naturally " debuted at forty @-@ six on the Australian Singles Chart and at twenty on the New Zealand Singles Chart .
In the United Kingdom , " Naturally " entered and peaked on the UK Singles Chart at number seven , the first top ten single for a Disney Channel star since Hilary Duff with her 2005 single " Wake Up " which also charted at number seven . The song further charted in several European countries , appearing in the top ten of Ireland and Hungary , and elsewhere in charts in Austria , Germany , and Belgium , and Switzerland , among others . The chartings in European countries propelled the song to peak at nineteen on the European Hot 100 .
= = Music video = =
The song 's music video was filmed November 14 , 2009 , and premiered on Disney Channel following the December 11 , 2009 airing of Phineas and Ferb Christmas Vacation . The special effects of the video are more complex than that of the band 's first single , " Falling Down " . Lead singer Gomez said , " The video is very different from any other video that I 've done , " and added , " it has a lot more fierce clothes and a lot of fun colors . " Two alternate video versions were released for the Ralphi Rosario Remix and the Dave Audé Remix . The video features Gomez sporting different outfits and appearing on black , red , and pink backdrops with the band performing the song . The music video was directed by Chris Dooley . Chris Ryan of MTV News called Gomez a " dancing queen " and said that she " seems cool and confident throughout the video . "
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Lead vocals : Selena Gomez
Songwriters : Antonina Armato , Tim James , Devrím Karaoglu
Production : Antonina Armato , Tim James , Devrím Karaoglu ( co @-@ production )
Mixing : Tim James , Paul Palmer
Source
= = Awards and nominations = =
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = = Certifications = = =
Since May 9 , 2013 , RIAA certifications for digital singles include on @-@ demand audio and / or video song streams in addition to downloads .
= = = Year @-@ end charts = = =
= = = Chart precession and succession = = =
= = Release history = =
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= Paul G. Goebel =
Paul Gordon Goebel ( May 28 , 1901 – January 26 , 1988 ) was an American football end who played for the University of Michigan Wolverines from 1920 to 1922 . He was an All @-@ American in 1921 and was the team 's captain in 1922 . He played professional football from 1923 to 1926 with the Columbus Tigers , Chicago Bears , and New York Yankees . He was named to the NFL All @-@ Pro team in 1923 and 1924 .
After his football career ended , he operated a sporting good store in Grand Rapids . He officiated football games for the Big Ten Conference for 16 years and also served in the U.S. Navy on an aircraft carrier in World War II . He was active in Republican Party politics in Grand Rapids , Michigan , and was one of the organizers of a reform movement to oust the city 's political boss , Frank McKay . As an anti @-@ McKay reform candidate , Goebel was three times elected mayor of Grand Rapids in the 1950s . He was later elected to the University of Michigan Board of Regents , where he served from 1962 to 1970 .
Goebel also played an important role in the career of U.S. President Gerald R. Ford . Goebel was friends with Ford 's mother and stepfather and recommended Ford to head football coach Harry Kipke at the University of Michigan . When Ford returned from World War II , Goebel urged him to run for U.S. Congress and was part of the original Ford @-@ for @-@ Congress committee . Goebel was later the chairman of a committee formed in 1960 to name Ford as the Republican Party 's Vice Presidential candidate on the ticket with Richard Nixon .
= = Football player at the University of Michigan = =
Goebel enrolled at the University of Michigan in 1919 . He studied engineering and received his degree in 1923 . While at Michigan , he played football under head coach Fielding H. Yost . He played at the end where he developed a reputation as one of the country 's best forward pass receivers and as a tenacious defensive player . At 6 @-@ feet , 3 @-@ inches , Goebel was a tall player in his era . He started seven games in each of the 1920 and 1921 seasons at right end for the Wolverines , and was limited due to injury to five games in 1922 . In 1921 , he was chosen as an All @-@ American and was voted the captain of the 1922 team . Goebel also excelled as an honor student in the University 's engineering school . Goebel also earned the Big Ten Conference Medal of Honor for proficiency in academics and athletics .
= = = Goebel 's steel knee brace = = =
Prior to the 1922 season , Goebel " threw out his knee " and was fitted with a steel hinge – an early version of a knee brace . However , the steel contraption required oiling and overheated when the oil dried , thus limiting Goebel 's ability to play a complete game in 1922 . One 1922 newspaper article described Goebel 's knee brace this way : " To enable Goebel to play , the Michigan trainers devised a steel brace – a hinge . This apparatus attached above and below the knee gave Goebel fairly good leg action because of the hinge . Before each game , Goebel liberally oiled the hinge to get free action because of the hinge . " Goebel 's playing time was limited because " the constant action would dry the oil and then the steel would become so hot that Goebel could not continue playing . " During the 1922 game against Illinois , Goebel 's skin was burned by the steel .
= = = Dedication Day at Ohio Stadium = = =
Despite the limitations of the knee brace , Goebel led the Wolverines to victory in the first game played at Ohio Stadium . The official " Dedication Day " for the stadium was October 21 , 1922 , and the opponent was Michigan . Ohio State fans recalled for years afterward how Goebel and his teammate Harry Kipke managed to turn Dedication Day sour for the Buckeyes . Michigan shut out the Buckeyes , 19 @-@ 0 , with Goebel and Kipke scoring all the points . In the first period , Goebel blocked a punt and then kicked a long field goal from the 30 @-@ yard line for the game 's first points . He also penetrated into the Ohio State backfield in the second quarter to recover a fumble . As the game wore on , the Buckeyes " seemed to realize ( Goebel 's ) importance in the Michigan lineup because he was forced to take plenty of punishment . " Football writer Billy Evans described Goebel 's performance against Ohio State this way :
" No end in recent years has played a greater game ( than ) that which Goebel put up against Ohio State . For three periods Goebel was the mainspring of the Michigan eleven . He seemed to be in every play . It was always Goebel who was gumming things up for State . No man could go through an entire game at the speed with which Goebel played in the first three quarters . It was beyond the power of any human being . With a few minutes to play in the third period the big fellow practically collapsed . Even when three or four of his teammates were carrying him off the field the old spirit was still there . He tried to induce his teammates that he was able to play , and tried to break away from their grasp , but the punch was gone and he was forced to give way as the big crowd cheered him to the echo . If any one man made possible the defeat of State by Michigan , it was Captain Paul Goebel . "
The rotunda at Ohio Stadium is painted with maize flowers on a blue background due to the outcome of the 1922 dedication game against , an enduring tribute to Goebel 's performance that day . Another writer summed up Goebel 's 1922 season : " Captain Paul Goebel of Michigan has commanded no little attention this season . He is fast and furious . His particular forte lies in his ability to not only plunge in and break up the interference of the opposing team , but after so doing , nail the man with the ball and down him in his tracks . "
= = = The tradition of the # 1 jersey at Michigan = = =
Goebel was particularly adept as a pass receiver . A 1923 wire service report in the Capital Times noted that Goebel was " considered one of the best ends in the country and his work on receiving forward passes hasn 't been excelled on the gridiron . " In what would become a tradition at Michigan 60 years later , Goebel was the first All @-@ American receiver at Michigan to wear the # 1 jersey . Others to follow that tradition are Anthony Carter , Derrick Alexander , David Terrell , and Braylon Edwards .
= = = The death of Bernard Kirk = = =
Across the field from right end Goebel , Bernard Kirk played left end for the Wolverines in 1921 and 1922 . Kirk was a talented player who was set to graduate with Goebel in 1923 . However , Kirk died in an automobile accident on December 17 , 1922 . Goebel was a pall @-@ bearer along with Harry Kipke , Frank Steketee , and other Michigan football players at Kirk 's funeral in Ypsilanti , Michigan . Kirk had been a popular figure , and his funeral was covered widely in the national press , with Michigan Governor Alex Groesbeck , U @-@ M President Marion LeRoy Burton , and the coaches of the Big Ten Conference football teams all in attendance .
Goebel also served years later as a pall bearer at the funeral of his coach , Fielding H. Yost , in August 1946 .
= = Professional football = =
In February 1923 , Goebel refused an offer to become the head football coach at Wichita State University ( then known as Fairmount College ) , saying he planned to enter the engineering profession after graduation . Instead , Goebel opted to play professional football . He played professional football for the Columbus Tigers from 1923 @-@ 1925 , the Chicago Bears in 1925 , and the New York Yankees ( the football team ) in 1926 . In his first year in the NFL , Goebel played in all ten of the team 's games for the Columbus Tigers and was named to the All @-@ Pro Team . He threw one touchdown pass and caught another . He was credited with eight points scored including two extra points .
In 1924 , Goebel was again selected as an All @-@ Pro player with the Tigers , playing in ten games , making two touchdown receptions , and returning a fumble for a touchdown . In all , he was credited with three touchdowns and 18 points in 1924 . While playing end for the Columbus Tigers in 1924 , Goebel was involved in one of the oddest plays in NFL history . Goebel was the intended receiver of a forward pass , but the ball popped out of his arms and was snatched out of the air by Oscar Knop of the Chicago Bears . Knop began running for the goal line with the ball , but he was running the wrong way toward a safety . After running 30 yards , Knop was caught from behind and tackled by his teammate Ed Healey on the four @-@ yard line .
In 1926 , Goebel played for the Yankees alongside Red Grange . After the close of the 1926 football season , he went to Los Angeles where he took a minor role in Grange 's latest film . In May 1927 , Goebel announced his retirement from professional football . He said he would devote his time to the sporting goods store he operated in Grand Rapids . Goebel had been playing professional football every season since he finished at Michigan .
= = Football official and sporting good businessman = =
After retiring from professional football , Goebel worked in his sporting good business in Grand Rapids , and also worked during football season as a game official for the Big Ten Conference . For 16 years between 1935 to 1952 , he was a Big Ten football official . He also officiated in Rose Bowl , Notre Dame , and Army @-@ Navy games .
Goebel played a role in a famous Ohio State @-@ Illinois game on November 13 , 1943 . The game was Paul Brown 's last game as coach of the Buckeyes . With the score tied 26 @-@ 26 , Ohio State threw an incomplete forward pass into the end zone as the gun sounded . The game appeared to have ended in a tie , the teams left the field , and the stands emptied . However , Ohio State assistant coach Ernie Godfrey had noticed Goebel , who was the head linesman , drop a handkerchief to signal a penalty . On hearing the gun sound , Goebel had picked up the handkerchief and put it back in his back pocket . Godfrey confronted Goebel , who conceded that Illinois was offsides . Twenty minutes later , the teams came back onto the field and the Buckeyes kicked a 33 @-@ yard field goal to give Coach Brown a 29 @-@ 26 win in his final game .
During World War II , Goebel served in the U.S. Navy as Lieutenant Commander on an aircraft carrier . His final game as an official was the 1952 Rose Bowl between Illinois and Stanford , in which he was the head linesman .
Goebel was also a fisherman , winning the title of Trout King at the National Trout Festival in 1949 .
= = Relationship with Gerald R. Ford = =
Goebel was a friend of Gerald R. Ford 's mother and stepfather in Grand Rapids . Goebel played an important role in guiding Ford to the University of Michigan . When Ford graduated from Grand Rapids South High School , Goebel recognized Ford ’ s ability as a football player and recommended him to his former teammate Harry Kipke , who had taken over as Michigan ’ s head football coach . Kipke recruited Ford , who became Michigan 's Most Valuable Player in 1934 .
In 1940 , Goebel was part of a citizen 's group in Grand Rapids seeking to overthrow Grand Rapids ' political boss , Frank McKay . McKay had dismissed Ford ’ s political interest in 1940 , and this led to a long political alliance between Goebel and Ford . Ford went to work with Goebel as part of the anti @-@ McKay citizen ’ s group . Together , they organized the " Home Front , " the purpose of which was to throw out Boss McKay . Ford was elected president of the organization , his first experience in political organizing .
Ford and Goebel both served in the U.S. Navy during World War II , and after the war , Ford urged Goebel to run for Congress against the incumbent , an isolationist named Barney Jonkman . Goebel declined to run , but suggested to Ford that , " if you think he ought to be beaten , why don 't you run ? " Ford did run for Congress in 1948 , and Goebel was one of his close circle of early supporters , the original Ford @-@ for @-@ Congress group . Ford won the election and won re @-@ election for twelve more terms . In 1960 , Goebel was a leader in the movement to nominate Ford as the Vice Presidential candidate on the ticket with Richard Nixon , serving as Chairman of the " Ford for Vice President Committee " at the Republican National Convention in Chicago .
When Goebel 's son , Paul G. Goebel , Jr . , ran for Ford 's Congressional seat in 1974 , then President Ford returned to Grand Rapids to campaign for Goebel 's son . Ford delivered a speech at Calvin College in Grand Rapids the week before the election in which he said : " Paul Goebel I have known since he was just a lad . His dad knew me when I was back at South High--an inspired if not very competent football player . But I have known the Goebel family a long time , and they are strong and they are tall , and they are the kind of people who are dedicated to public service . Paul , Jr . ' s , father was ; Paul , Jr . , himself is . And I have seen nothing but the finest in that family , and young Paul , he epitomizes all the great characteristics of that family . "
= = Political career = =
= = = Mayor of Grand Rapids = = =
Goebel himself ran for office in 1950 . He ran for mayor of Grand Rapids as part of the same anti @-@ McKay reform movement that brought Gerald Ford to office . According to one newspaper account , Goebel " spearheaded a reform movement which brought him into office in 1950 , " ousting incumbent George W. Welsh , who had been elected mayor five times and also served as the state 's lieutenant governor . At the time , Goebel was the partner in a sporting goods store and was described in the press as tall and rangy , a candidate " who looks like a blond Abraham Lincoln without a beard . " Goebel was re @-@ elected in 1952 for a second two @-@ year term . In October 1953 , Goebel announced he would not run for a third term , saying he had no further political ambitions and would devote his time to his family and business . Within a short time , however , he changed his mind and ran for a third term with the support of the reformist Citizens Action Group . In February 1954 , Goebel received the most votes of any candidate in his third race for mayor ( 19 @,@ 564 for Goebel to 10 @,@ 831 for George Veldman ) , but he failed to secure a majority , and a runoff was held . Veldman defeated Goebel in the runoff by a margin of 203 votes . Goebel requested a recount , but he was unsuccessful . In 1956 , he won re @-@ election as mayor of Grand Rapids and served a final term from 1956 @-@ 1958 . In 1957 , Goebel was included in published lists of potential candidates to run as the Republican candidate for governor . In January 1958 , Goebel announced that he would not seek re @-@ election as mayor . He said he had no plans to seek another political office .
= = = University of Michigan Board of Regents = = =
In 1962 , Goebel returned to politics , winning a seat on the Board of Regents of the University of Michigan , where he served from 1962 @-@ 1970 . In 1968 , the Regents voted to eliminate curfews for all women students in residence halls and to allow each housing unit to set its own visitation hours . Goebel was the sole dissenter , saying : " If my judgment is proved wrong , no one will be happier than I. " In July 1970 , Goebel announced that he would retire from the Regents at the end of his term on December 31 , 1970 . At age 69 , he said the expected strain of another campaign influenced his decision .
= = = Other civic and political roles = = =
Through the 1950s and 1960s , Goebel also occupied himself with other civic and political projects , including serving as a member of the YMCA International World Service Committee in the 1960s , representing Governor George Romney and the State of Michigan at the 1965 Rose Bowl game , acting as chairman of the national committee of the University of Michigan in the mid @-@ 1960s to raise $ 55 million , acting as a delegate to Republican National Convention in 1956 and a delegate to Michigan state constitutional convention from 1961 @-@ 1962 , and serving as a member of Michigan Republican State Central Committee in 1969 . He was also a member of the State of Michigan Higher Education Assistance Authority , Chairman of the State of Michigan Board of Ethics , Director of the U @-@ M National Alumni Association and President of the Varsity “ M " Club . Goebel was a Congregationalist and a member of the Freemasons , the Rotary Club , and Tau Beta Pi .
= = Family = =
Goebel 's wife , Margaret Goebel , was a graduate nurse , a columnist for a Grand Rapids newspaper , and Chairman of Governor George Romney ’ s Commission on the Status of Women . She also worked with the Grand Rapids Red Cross , the Council on World Affairs , the Urban League and was appointed by President Kennedy in 1962 to the Civil Defense Advisory Council . Goebel and his wife had two children . Their son Paul G. Goebel , Jr . , was an aide to Rep. Gerald R. Ford and Vice President Richard M. Nixon . Paul Gobel , Jr . , also operated an insurance business in Grand Rapids known as the Paul Goebel group .
= = Honors and accolades = =
Goebel 's honors over the years include the following :
Selected as an All @-@ American in 1921 .
Voted captain of the 1922 Michigan Wolverines football team .
Named to the NFL " All @-@ Pro " team in 1923 and 1924 .
In 1968 , several donors made gifts to the University of Michigan College of Engineering to establish an endowed chair for the Paul G. Goebel Professor of Engineering . The gifts came from donors who sought to honor Goebel for his contributions to the University . In April 1993 , Yoram Koren was named as the Goebel Professor of Engineering .
In 1971 , Goebel was given the Distinguished Alumni Service Award . The award , which is presented annually , recognizes alumni who have distinguished themselves " by reason of services performed on behalf of the University of Michigan , or in connection with its organized alumni activities . " The Distinguished Alumni Service Award is the highest honor the Alumni Association can bestow upon an alumna / us on behalf of the University .
Inducted into Grand Rapids Sports Hall of Fame in 1971 .
In 1984 , Goebel was the fourth recipient of the Ufer Award . Since 1981 , the Ufer Award has been presented each year to a Letterwinners “ M ” Club member in recognition for his or her outstanding service to the University of Michigan Athletic Program .
Inducted into the University of Michigan Hall of Honor in 1981 . Only seven football players ( Bennie Oosterbaan , Gerald Ford , Tom Harmon , Willie Heston , Germany Schulz , Ron Kramer , and Benny Friedman ) were inducted into the Hall of Honor before Goebel .
The U @-@ M Club of Grand Rapids each year awards the Paul G. Goebel , Sr. , Distinguished Alumni in Athletic Awards . Past recipients include Julius Franks .
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= Marquette Building ( Chicago ) =
The Marquette Building , completed in 1895 , is a Chicago landmark that was built by the George A. Fuller Company and designed by architects Holabird & Roche . The building is currently owned by the John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation . It is located in the community area known as the " Loop " in Cook County , Illinois , United States .
The building was one of the early steel frame skyscrapers of its day , and is considered one of the best examples of the Chicago School of architecture . The building originally had a reddish , terra cotta exterior that is now somewhat blackened due to decades of Loop soot . It is noted both for its then cutting edge frame and its ornate interior .
Since being built , the building has received numerous awards and honors . It was designated a Chicago Landmark on June 9 , 1975 , and it is considered an architectural masterpiece . It was added to the National Register of Historic Places on August 17 , 1973 . It was a named a National Historic Landmark on January 7 , 1976 . The building 's preservation has been a major focus of the Landmarks Preservation Council of Illinois . The John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation completed an extensive four @-@ year restoration in 2006 .
= = History = =
The building was named after Father Jacques Marquette , the first European settler in Chicago , who explored the Chicago region in 1674 and wintered in the area for the 1674 @-@ 5 winter season . It was designed by William Holabird and Martin Roche , with Coydon T. Purdy , architects of the firm Holabird & Roche .
In the 1930s the building was the downtown headquarters for over 30 railroad companies . Around 1950 , the terra @-@ cotta cornice was removed from the Marquette Building when an additional story was added . The building has been in continuous use as an office building since its construction .
In 1977 , Banker 's Life and Casualty Company , owned by John D. MacArthur , acquired the Marquette Building . After his death in 1978 , the building became the headquarters for the MacArthur Foundation , which bears his name .
The lobby of the Marquette Building connects with the D.H. Burnham & Company – designed Edison Building to the west , providing a pedway from Dearborn to Clark . After the September 11 , 2001 attacks , many downtown buildings closed to the public , which eliminated warm , dry , indoor walking routes providing shortcuts through full city blocks , but the Marquette Building did not .
= = Architecture = =
The building features several distinct elements that have earned it honors as a Chicago Landmark , a National Historic Landmark , and a National Register Historic Place . It is considered an exemplary model of the Chicago School of Architecture . The architects , Holabird & Roche , used trademark long horizontal bay " Chicago windows " on the Marquette Building . These are large panes of glass flanked by narrow sash windows . The grid @-@ like window frames and spandrels are facilitated by the steel structure which enables non @-@ load @-@ bearing masonry walls . This was one of the first steel framed skyscrapers . Wave @-@ like moldings decorate the façade , which is made of horizontally banded brown terra cotta . The building is built around a central light court featuring an ornate , two @-@ story lobby .
The ensemble of mosaics , sculptures , and bronze of the Marquette Building entry and interior honors Jacques Marquette ’ s 1674 @-@ 5 expedition . Four bas relief panels over the main entrance by sculptor Hermon Atkins MacNeil show different scenes from Marquette 's trip through the Great Lakes region , ending with one depicting his burial . The revolving door panels feature carvings of panther 's heads . The hexagonal railing around the lobby atrium is decorated with a mosaic frieze by the Tiffany studio depicting events in the life of Jacques Marquette , his exploration of Illinois , and Native Americans he met . The mosaics are by Louis Comfort Tiffany and his chief designer and art director , Jacob Adolph Holzer ; they contain panels of lustered Tiffany glass , mother @-@ of @-@ pearl , and semi @-@ precious stones .
= = Restoration = =
The preservation of this building was championed by the Landmarks Preservation Council of Illinois . In 2001 , the John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation , its current owners , began a multi @-@ year renovation . The restoration to the exterior proceeded in two phases : reconstructing the cornice and replacing the 17th story windows to match the original windows ; and cleaning and restoring the masonry and restoring the remainder of the windows . Restoration architect Thomas " Gunny " Harboe directed this work .
On September 12 , 2006 , The Commission on Chicago Landmarks honored 21 landmark buildings , homeowners , and businesses with the Chicago Landmark Award for Preservation Excellence at the eighth @-@ annual Landmarks ceremony . The award recognizes work involving notable improvements to individual Chicago landmarks or to buildings within Chicago Landmark Districts .
On October 16 , 2007 , the Foundation opened a new interactive audio visual exhibit on the first floor , detailing the history of the building and its contribution to Chicago architecture . The free exhibit , which is open to the public , will run indefinitely .
= = Additional sources = =
Riedy , James L. , Chicago Sculpture , University of Illinois Press , Urbana , IL 1981
Rooney , William A. , Architectural Ornamentation in Chicago , Chicago Review Press , Chicago , 1984
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= Cotton production in Pakistan =
Cotton production is integral to the economic development of Pakistan . The nation is largely dependent on the cotton industry and its related textile sector , and the crop has been given a principal status in the country . Cotton is grown as an industrial crop in 15 % of the nation 's land during the monsoon months of May to August , known as the kharif period , and is grown at a smaller scale between February and April . Record production of cotton was reported at 15 million bales of 470 pounds ( 210 kg ) each in the form of phutti ( seed cotton ) during 2014 – 15 , which was an 11 % rise compared to the previous season ( 2013 – 14 ) . Production @-@ wise , as of 2012 – 13 , Pakistan occupied the fourth position among the cotton growers of the world , the first three being China , India and the United States , in that order . In respect of exports of raw cotton , Pakistan holds third position , and is the fourth in consumption ( about 30 and 40 per cent of its production ) . It is the largest exporter of cotton yarn .
= = History = =
The earliest known historical traces of cotton were found at Mehrgarh near the city of Quetta , making Pakistan one of the first regions of cotton cultivation . Cotton was discovered in threads on a copper bead at a burial site dated to the Neolithic period ( 6000 BC ) . The mineralised threads were subject to metallurgical analysis with a combination of a reflected @-@ light microscope and a scanning electron microscope , revealing that they were of cotton ( genus Gossypium ) . Cotton cultivation became more widespread during the Indus Valley Civilisation , which covered parts of present day eastern Pakistan and northwestern India . Archaeobotanical evidence of seeds has been traced to 5000 BC in Mehrgarh , though it is not clear if they belonged to a wild or cultivated variety . Use of cotton cloth in the Indus Valley cities of Mohenjo @-@ daro and Harappa dates to 2 @,@ 500 BC . Cotton pollen has been recorded at Balakot . At Harappa ( Mature Harappan period 2500 @-@ 2000 BC ) , evidence of cotton threads has been found tied to the handle of a mirror , an antiquity from a female burial site , and around a copper razor . There is also much other evidence of cotton in some form , such as Malavaceae ( flowering plant ) pollen type , similar to Gossypium in Balakot ( Mature Harappan period , 2500 @-@ 2000 BC ) ; as seeds at Banawali ( Mature Harappan , 2200 @-@ 1900 BC ) , Sanghol ( Late Harappan , 1900 @-@ 1400 BC ) , Kanmer , Kacchh ( Late Harappan , 2 @,@ 000 @-@ 1 @,@ 700 BC ) , Imlidhi Khurd and Gorakhpur ( 1300 @-@ 800 BC ) ; as fibres in Late Ochre @-@ Coloured Pottery at Sringaverapura ( 1200 @-@ 700 BC ) ; and in Hallur as seeds and fragments of the Early Iron Age ( 950 @-@ 900 BC ) .
= = Growing regions = =
Cotton is purely a cellulose fibre crop , one of the four major crops in the country , and is known by popular epithets as “ King cotton ” and “ white gold ” . It forms the primary input for the textile industry of Pakistan .
Cotton is integral to Pakistan 's economy . According to an analysis in the USDA Foreign Agricultural Service report of 2015 , it is grown as an industrial crop in 15 % of the nation 's land . It is grown during the monsoon months of May to August , known as the kharif period . It is also grown on a smaller scale between February and April .
Cotton is grown mostly in the two provinces of Punjab and Sindh , with the former accounting for 79 % and the latter for 20 % of the nation 's cotton growing land . It is also grown in Khyber Pakhtoon Khawah ( KPK ) and Balochistan provinces . The total land area of cotton cultivation was reported as 2 @,@ 950 @,@ 000 hectares ( 7 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 acres ) during the 2014 – 15 growing season . Generally , small farmers with land holdings less than 5 hectares ( 12 acres ) in size form the largest group of growers ; farmers holding less than 2 hectares ( 4 @.@ 9 acres ) account for 50 % of the farms . Land holdings with 25 hectares ( 62 acres ) under cotton cultivation form less than 2 % of farms . According to a 2013 estimate , there were 1 @.@ 6 million farmers ( out of a total of 5 million in all sectors ) engaged in cotton farming , growing more than 3 million hectares .
= = Varieties = =
Farmers have widely adopted Bacillus thuringiensis ( Bt ) cotton since its first trial in Sindh province in 2002 . It is now used in 95 % of the area . The Punjab Seed Council has approved the use of 18 Bt cotton and non @-@ Bt varieties for cultivation . These are : 12 BT varieties FH @-@ 114 , CIM @-@ 598 , SITARA @-@ 009 , A @-@ one , BH @-@ 167 , MIAD @-@ 852 , CIM @-@ 573 , SLH @-@ 317 , TARZAN @-@ 1 , NS @-@ 141 , IR @-@ NIBGE @-@ 3 , MNH @-@ 886 , and six non @-@ BT varieties NIBGE − 115 , FH @-@ 941 , FH @-@ 942 , IR @-@ 1524 , Ali Akbar @-@ 802 and NEELAM @-@ 121 . In Sindh province , local Sindh varieties of cotton are also grown in about 40 % of the area . They are generally planted from April to July , and harvested during August – December .
= = Production = =
Cotton serves as the base for the nation 's industrial sector . Production of cotton was reported at a record high of 15 million bales of 470 lbs each in the form of phutti ( seed cotton ) during 2014 – 15 ; this was an 11 % increase compared to the previous season ( 2013 – 14 ) . Its phenomenal growth was from 1 @.@ 38 million bales in 1961 to 11 @.@ 138 million bales in 2014 , with the estimated 2014 – 15 figures showing a further increase to 15 million bales . Between 1980 – 81 and 1990 – 91 , the growth in production was rapid , with production rising from 0 @.@ 70 million to 2 @.@ 2 million tonnes , which was called the " magic year " of Pakistan 's cotton industry . This was attributed to better pest control measures , use of improved seed types and increased use of fertilisers . The cotton and textile industries are integrated and account for 1 @,@ 000 ginneries , 425 textile mills , and 300 cottonseed crushers and oil refiners . Cotton hybrids , created by crossing the Bt gene into traditional varieties , have been developed by local firms dealing with seeds . In Sindh province cotton is grown in more than one million acres in the districts of Benazirabad , Hyderabad , Jamshoro , Mirpur Khas , Naushero Feroz , Sanghar , Badin , Sukkar , Ghotki , Tharparkar , Thatta and Umar Kot .
In terms of production , Pakistan is at the fourth position among the cotton growers of the world ; the first three are China , India and the United States , in that order Raw cotton exported from Pakistan holds third position in the world as per records of 2012 @-@ 13 . Consumption @-@ wise it holds the fourth position ( about 30 and 40 per cent of its production ) . It is the largest exporter of cotton yarn .
Cotton produced within the country is of medium staple . Hence long staple cotton is imported to produce quality fabrics for export . Medium staple cotton , also called standard medium @-@ staple cotton is American Upland type with staple length varying from about 1 @.@ 3 – 3 @.@ 3 centimetres ( 0 @.@ 51 – 1 @.@ 30 in ) . Long @-@ staple cottons have relatively longer fibre , are expensive and used mostly to make fine fabrics , yarns , and hosiery . The country 's economic development is largely dependent on the cotton industry and its related textile sector , and this has given a principal status to cotton in the country . Apart from use in textiles in the form of cotton lint , yarn , thread , cloth , and garments , its seeds are used for oil extraction .
= = Diseases = =
Viruses and pests affect yield of Bt cotton varieties . Cotton leaf curl virus , which is a plant pathogenic virus of the family Geminiviridae , stunts plant growth seriously affecting yield . Pests like White Fly , Mealy Bugs , Aphids , Pink Boll Worm infect the plants reducing yield .
= = Exports = =
474 @,@ 091 bales of 470 lbs each were exported during the 2014 – 15 season , an increase from 382 @,@ 006 bales in 2014 – 15 . The cotton and textile industries play a dominant role in exports ; cotton accounts for 55 percent of country 's export earnings , and Pakistan has a 14 % share of the world 's cloth exports . The European Union ( EU ) granted Generalized System of Preferences " Plus " status to Pakistan in 2013 , which has promoted textile exports to the EU .
= = Legal framework = =
Though a bio @-@ safety regulatory system was part of the 18th Amendment to the Constitution of Pakistan that " devolved " several functions to the provinces , the system is still unclear with regard to regulators who can oversee the approval of new seed technologies . In this context the three regulatory acts which are under approval stage are the Plant Breeders ’ Rights Act , Amendments to the 1976 Seed Act , and the Biosafety Law . According to the USDA Foreign Agricultural Service report of 2015 , passage of these laws is crucial to the introduction of new biotech events .
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= Gordon Ramsay Plane Food =
Gordon Ramsay Plane Food is a restaurant owned by chef Gordon Ramsay and located within Terminal 5 of Heathrow Airport , London . The restaurant cost £ 2 @.@ 5 million to build and due to its location within the airside area of the airport , there are restrictions on the use of gas and the types of cutlery which may be used . It opened in 2008 alongside the rest of Terminal 5 , and with several other Ramsay @-@ related openings that year . Ramsay said that he aimed to keep the menu lean without the use of heavy sauces , and menus are also offered for quick dining as well as takeaway cool boxes which contain a three course meal to be eaten on a plane .
Critics have been mostly positive , although one initial poor review by Jan Moir was picked up by the mainstream media . The concept of the cool boxes was also praised . It was Ramsay 's first airport @-@ based restaurant , and in 2013 he announced that he was planning to take the concept to a number of airports within the United States .
= = Description = =
Gordon Ramsay Plane Food is located on the sixth floor of Terminal 5 within Heathrow Airport , London , next to the Wagamama restaurant . It is airside , meaning that only passengers who are about to go on a flight can access Plane Food . The restaurant cost £ 2 @.@ 5 million to set up , and Ramsay signed an initial lease for ten years with the airport . The chef patron of the restaurant is Stuart Giles , who had previously worked at Ramsay 's Boxwood Cafe .
The interior is decorated with a marble bar , above which hangs a painting by Barnaby Gorton worth £ 90 @,@ 000 . There are large windows at one end of the restaurant , which look out onto the airport itself . The restaurant has a seating capacity for 175 diners .
As with all restaurants at Terminal 5 , Plane Food cannot use gas equipment due to safety reasons and so electric ovens and hobs are used instead as well as a single microwave . The cutlery is also a standard airport size so that the knives cannot be used as weapons . Ramsay requires that staff who working at Plane Food must gain work experience in another one of his restaurants first .
= = = Menu = = =
Pricing is similar to other restaurants owned by Ramsay , and it is intended to bring a fine dining experience out of specialist airport lounges and make it available to any traveller . Starters include a pea , leek and goat cheese tart , while mains include sea bass which is steamed and served alongside lemongrass and white asparagus . Chocolate fondue with marshmallows and waffles are among the options for dessert as well as a knickerbocker glory . Traditional fine dining dishes are also included on the menu , such as Sevruga caviar . Ramsay said in interviews around the launch of the restaurant that he aimed to keep " it all very lean , lean , lean . No heavy sauces " . He compared the menu to a cross between The Ivy , his own Boxwood Cafe and The Wolseley . A specific menu is offered for quick dining , called " Plane Fast " . This has multiple @-@ course meals which aim to be served within 25 minutes .
The restaurant also sells takeaway cool boxes designed to be taken on flights to eat instead of airline food . There are up to four choices for each of three courses . Options include a tiger prawn and watercress salad , and roast beef with truffle with a green bean salad . Desserts include a chocolate and pecan brownie with crème Chantilly .
= = History = =
Plane Food was announced in December 2007 to launch upon the opening of Heathrow Airport 's new Terminal 5 on 27 March 2008 . It was Gordon Ramsay 's ninth restaurant opening in London , and his first in an airport . It was opened around the same time as Ramsay 's first restaurant in France , Gordon Ramsay au Trianon , located within the Palace of Versailles . He also expanded his restaurant empire in other areas during 2008 , with Murano ( alongside Angela Hartnett ) , York & Albany and Maze Grill also opening . Partly due to the delays in opening the terminal , the restaurant made a loss of £ 780 @,@ 767 during the first year .
During 2009 , Ramsay had financial issues with tax payments . A liquidation petition was placed by HM Revenue and Customs against Plane Food , Maze , Restaurant Gordon Ramsay and The Narrow . He was given two weeks to pay the tax debts accumulated by Plane Food . It was announced on 10 December that he had achieved this and the restaurant remained open . His 2010 opening , Bread Street Kitchen , was based on the same concept as Plane Food , as its location within the One New Change office and retail development created a similar need to cater for quick dining and a high volume of single diners .
In 2013 , Ramsay announced that he plans to expand the Plane Food concept to several sites in the United States including Chicago O 'Hare International Airport , and airports at Los Angeles , Las Vegas and New York . A partnership was also formed during that year with No.1 Traveller to provide a lounge experience within Terminal 5 for passengers .
= = Reception = =
Food critic Jan Moir was the first to review the restaurant after opening , after some five hours on the first day . She didn 't think that the quality of the food was enough to attract first and executive class passengers . Moir was also concerned that the pricing was too expensive for those travelling in economy . She said that the required use of electric stoves instead of gas resulted in her steak resembling a " parched leather shoe rotting in the rain " . Jasper Gerard , in his review for The Daily Telegraph said that he enjoyed the caviar and the sea bass dishes , but didn 't like the vegetable accompaniments . He criticised negative reviews of the restaurant , saying " Are they comparing like with like ? Heathrow will never be Royal Hospital Ro [ ad ] , Ramsay 's Chelsea nosh house , but it 's hardly a kitchen nightmare " .
Tam Cowan also reviewed it shortly after opening for the Daily Record . He gave it a score of 20 out of 25 , finding it difficult to believe that food of such good quality was being served inside an airport . He called a macaroni gratin with mushrooms and Parmigiano @-@ Reggiano cheese " fantastic " and said that an apple crumble was " awesome " . Mark Bollard , in his review of the restaurant for the Evening Standard in 2009 , was not expecting much from the restaurant . However , he called his Caesar salad starter a " revelation " and said that the chocolate brownie was " dense , dark and rich " . Although he was disappointed with the polenta chips , he said overall that the food was " utterly sublime " and he suggested that Ramsay should expand the concept to train stations across London . In 2012 , John Walsh wrote about Jamie Oliver 's restaurant at Gatwick Airport , saying that Ramsay 's Plane Food had " pioneered the concept of non @-@ revolting airport food " .
Tim Clark , writing for the Daily Mail , praised the takeaway box concept , saying that to " tuck into a smoked salmon and cream cheese sandwich with apple and walnut salad was a delight " . However , he said that the Croque monsieur was bland and he didn 't like the lack of a drink . He thought that it was a value for money option and was the " first real stab at giving passengers a choice while they are flying . " Chris Haslam reviewed a number of in @-@ flight meal options on various airlines as well as Plane Food in an article for the Sunday Times . He gave it a score of 7 out of 10 , saying about the takeaway cool boxes that " as long as it lasts , it 's like being in business class " .
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= Stars ( M. C. Escher ) =
Stars is a wood engraving print created by the Dutch artist M. C. Escher in 1948 , depicting two chameleons in a polyhedral cage floating through space .
Although the compound of three octahedra used for the central cage in Stars had been studied before in mathematics , it was most likely invented independently for this image by Escher without reference to those studies . Escher used similar compound polyhedral forms in several other works , including Crystal ( 1947 ) , Study for Stars ( 1948 ) , Double Planetoid ( 1949 ) , and Waterfall ( 1961 ) .
The design for Stars was likely influenced by Escher 's own interest in both geometry and astronomy , by a long history of using geometric forms to model the heavens , and by a drawing style used by Leonardo da Vinci . Commentators have interpreted the cage 's compound shape as a reference to double and triple stars in astronomy , or to twinned crystals in crystallography . The image contrasts the celestial order of its polyhedral shapes with the more chaotic forms of biology .
Prints of Stars belong to the permanent collections of major museums including the Rijksmuseum , the National Gallery of Art , and the National Gallery of Canada .
= = Description = =
Stars is a wood engraving print ; that is , it was produced by carving the artwork into the end grain of a block of wood ( unlike a woodcut which uses the side grain ) , and then using this block to print the image . It was created by Escher in October 1948 . Although most published copies of Stars are monochromatic , with white artwork against a black background , the copy in the National Gallery of Canada is tinted in different shades of turquoise , yellow , green , and pale pink .
The print depicts a hollowed @-@ out compound of three octahedra , a polyhedral compound composed of three interlocking regular octahedra , floating in space . Numerous other polyhedra and polyhedral compounds float in the background ; the four largest are , on the upper left , the compound of cube and octahedron ; on the upper right , the stella octangula ; on the lower left , a compound of two cubes ; and on the lower right , a solid version of the same octahedron 3 @-@ compound . The smaller polyhedra visible within the print also include all of the five Platonic solids and the rhombic dodecahedron . In order to depict polyhedra accurately , Escher made models of them from cardboard .
Two chameleons are contained within the cage @-@ like shape of the central compound ; Escher writes that they were chosen as its inhabitants " because they are able to cling by their legs and tails to the beams of their cage as it swirls through space " . The chameleon on the left sticks out his tongue , perhaps in commentary ; H. S. M. Coxeter observes that the tongue has an unusual spiral @-@ shaped tip .
= = Influences = =
Escher 's interest in geometry is well known , but he was also an avid amateur astronomer , and in the early 1940s he became a member of the Dutch Association for Meteorology and Astronomy . He owned a 6 cm refracting telescope , and recorded several observations of binary stars .
The use of polyhedra to model heavenly bodies can be traced back to Plato , who in the Timaeus identified the regular dodecahedron with the shape of the heavens and its twelve faces with the constellations of the zodiac . Later , Johannes Kepler theorized that the distribution of distances of the planets from the sun could be explained by the shapes of the five Platonic solids , nested within each other . Escher kept a model of this system of nested polyhedra , and regularly depicted polyhedra in his artworks relating to astronomy and other worlds .
Escher learned his wood engraving technique from Samuel Jessurun de Mesquita . He illustrated the octahedral compound of Stars in the beveled wire @-@ frame style that had been used by Leonardo da Vinci in his illustrations for Luca Pacioli 's 1509 book , De divina proportione .
The stella octangula ( Latin for " eight @-@ pointed star " ) in the upper right of Stars was first described by Pacioli , and later rediscovered by Kepler , who gave it its astronomical name . H. S. M. Coxeter reports that the shape of the central chameleon cage in Stars had previously been described in 1900 by Max Brückner , whose book Vielecke und Vielflache includes a photograph of a model of the same shape . However , Escher was not aware of this reference and Coxeter writes that " It is remarkable that Escher , without any knowledge of algebra or analytic geometry , was able to rediscover this highly symmetrical figure . "
= = Analysis = =
Martin Beech interprets the many polyhedral compounds within Stars as corresponding to double stars and triple star systems in astronomy . Beech writes that , for Escher , the mathematical orderliness of polyhedra depicts the " stability and timeless quality " of the heavens , and similarly Marianne L. Teuber writes that Stars " celebrates Escher 's identification with Johannes Kepler 's neo @-@ Platonic belief in an underlying mathematical order in the universe " .
Alternatively , Howard W. Jaffe interprets the polyhedral forms in Stars crystallographically , as " brilliantly faceted jewels " floating through space , with its compound polyhedra representing crystal twinning . However , R. A. Dunlap points out the contrast between the order of the polyhedral forms and the more chaotic biological nature of the chameleons inhabiting them . In the same vein , Beech observes that the stars themselves convey tension between order and chaos : despite their symmetric shapes , the stars are scattered apparently at random , and vary haphazardly from each other . As Escher himself wrote about the central chameleon cage , " I shouldn 't be surprised if it wobbles a bit . "
= = Related works = =
A closely related woodcut , Study for Stars , completed in August 1948 , depicts wireframe versions of several of the same polyhedra and polyhedral compounds , floating in black within a square composition , but without the chameleons . The largest polyhedron shown in Study for Stars , a stellated rhombic dodecahedron , is also one of two polyhedra depicted prominently in Escher 's 1961 print Waterfall .
The stella octangula , a compound of two tetrahedra that appears in the upper right of Stars , also forms the central shape of another of Escher 's astronomical works , Double Planetoid ( 1949 ) . The compound of cube and octahedron in the upper left was used earlier by Escher , in Crystal ( 1947 ) .
Escher 's later work Four Regular Solids ( Stereometric Figure ) returned to the theme of polyhedral compounds , depicting a more explicitly Keplerian form in which the compound of the cube and octahedron is nested within the compound of the dodecahedron and icosahedron .
= = Collections and publications = =
Stars was used as cover art for the 1962 anthology Best Fantasy Stories edited by Brian Aldiss , and for a 1971 Italian edition of occult guidebook The Morning of the Magicians . It also formed the frontispiece for a 1996 textbook on crystallography .
As well as being exhibited in the Escher Museum , copies of Stars are in the permanent collections of the Rijksmuseum , National Gallery of Art , Mildred Lane Kemper Art Museum and the National Gallery of Canada .
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= Apocrypha ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" Apocrypha " is the sixteenth episode of the third season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered on the Fox network on February 16 , 1996 . It was directed by Kim Manners , and written by Frank Spotnitz and series creator Chris Carter . " Apocrypha " included appearances by John Neville , Don S. Williams and Brendan Beiser . The episode helped to explore the overarching mythology , or fictional history of The X @-@ Files . " Apocrypha " earned a Nielsen household rating of 10 @.@ 8 , being watched by 16 @.@ 71 million people in its initial broadcast .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . In this episode , Mulder returns from Hong Kong , having found rogue agent Alex Krycek ( Nicholas Lea ) while investigating a mysterious mind @-@ altering black oil . Meanwhile , Scully pursues the man who she believes killed her sister . " Apocrypha " is the second part of a two @-@ part episode , continuing the plot from the previous episode , " Piper Maru " .
" Apocrypha " was the first mythology @-@ centered episode to be directed by Manners , and made use of a mixture of physical and digital effects to create the episode 's antagonistic black oil . The episode 's sets were also augmented with digital effects , amplifying what could be constructed within the given budget .
= = Plot = =
On August 19 , 1953 , a burned crewman talks to three government agents about his experience on the submarine Zeus Faber , completing the story told in the previous episode . He explains that he and other crew members were locked in with their captain , who was infected by the black oil . After being knocked out from behind , the black oil leaves the captain 's body and exits via a grate into the sea . It is revealed that Bill Mulder and the Smoking Man are two of the agents who are interviewing the crewman .
In the present , Fox Mulder and Alex Krycek return to the United States , but are run off the road by another vehicle . The assailants attempt to apprehend Krycek , but are severely injured when he emits a flashing light . The Smoking Man sees their bodies and orders their destruction . Mulder , who was knocked unconscious in the crash , awakens in the hospital . Dana Scully tells Mulder about Walter Skinner 's condition , and says that an analysis of saliva has identified his shooter as the same person who killed her sister Melissa .
The Syndicate meets to discuss the events surrounding the Piper Maru and realize someone is leaking information . Meanwhile , Skinner tells Scully that he recognizes his shooter as the man who was with Krycek when the digital tape was stolen from him . Mulder believes that the oil found on the diving suit and Gauthier is a medium used by an alien to transfer from body to body , and that Krycek is currently occupied by it . Mulder and the Lone Gunmen use Krycek 's key to recover the tape from a locker at an ice rink , but Mulder finds the case empty . Krycek returns the tape to the Smoking Man in exchange for the location of the recovered UFO .
As Luis Cardinal is identified as Skinner 's shooter , the Syndicate admonishes the Smoking Man for moving the UFO to a new location . By rubbing a pencil over the envelope containing the tape case , Mulder finds a phone number which connects him to the Syndicate 's office . Mulder speaks to the Well @-@ Manicured Man , who agrees to meet with him . The Well @-@ Manicured Man tells Mulder that a UFO was sunk during World War II and that a cover story of a sunken atomic bomb was used to cover up its attempted recovery . He reveals that anyone can be gotten to , causing Mulder to ask Scully to check on Skinner .
Scully accompanies Skinner as he is being transported in an ambulance . When Cardinal attempts to break in , she tracks him down and arrests him . Cardinal tells her that Krycek is headed to an abandoned missile silo in Black Crow , North Dakota . There , the agents are captured by the Smoking Man 's men and are escorted away . Deep inside , Krycek sits atop the UFO and coughs out the black oil , which seeps into the ship . Skinner recovers and returns to work . Mulder sees Scully at Melissa 's grave , explaining that Cardinal was found dead in his cell . Meanwhile , Krycek is trapped within the silo , banging on the door in an attempt to be let out .
= = Production = =
Conception of the episode was based around a visual image series creator Chris Carter had wanted to include in a script " since the beginning of the show " . The image was of a black @-@ and @-@ white flashback taking place in a submarine .
The episode 's title is a reference to Biblical apocrypha , which series creator Chris Carter felt was appropriate to the episode 's thematic concerns — hidden documents and truths not brought to light . Director Kim Manners had directed a number of stand alone " monster of the week " episodes , but this was his first mythology @-@ centered episode . Manners explained that " there is some individual creative contribution from the directors " in stand @-@ alone episodes , but that with mythology episodes " what you need to as a director is to be sure that the performances are there ... and that the yarn is presented in its cleanest and most interesting fashion " .
Nicholas Lea was fitted with a mask with tubes for the scene where the alien black oil leaves his body . Lea said filming the scene was horrible , and the scene ended up having to be filmed again a few days later . The similar scene from the start of the episode with the submarine captain was accomplished with a dummy head . The depiction of the oil in this scene was originally filmed using a magnetic fluid pulled along with magnets , although the end result of this was deemed not be " menacing " enough , and looked " a little bit comic " . To fix this , the sound stage used to represent the submarine 's interior was rebuilt so it could be rocked back and forth , with the movement being used to guide the flow of a different liquid . This effect was then enhanced digitally in post @-@ production . The black oil effect over people 's eyes was accomplished by inserting the footage digitally in post production .
The missile silo used for the episode 's climactic scene was incomplete when the scene was filmed , as the crew did not have enough time or money left to complete the set . The crew built the incomplete silo on a sound stage around a completed spacecraft prop , and were able to digitally extend the set with computer generated interiors to give the impression of a much larger silo . Exterior shots of the silo building were also enhanced digitally , with various buildings and machinery created with computer generated imagery and composited into the exterior shots .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Apocrypha " premiered on the Fox network on February 16 , 1996 , and was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC Two on December 4 , 1996 . The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 10 @.@ 8 with an 18 share , meaning that roughly 10 @.@ 8 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 18 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . A total of 16 @.@ 71 million viewers watched this episode during its original airing , making it the most viewed episode of the third season .
In an overview of the third season in Entertainment Weekly , " Apocrypha " was rated an A. The review noted that the episode offered " some interesting progressions in the grand theme " of the series , although it was also " worth it just for the awesome missile site finale " alone . Writing for The A.V. Club , Zack Handlen also rated the episode an A. Handlen felt the episode was impressive in its general impression , but that the details were not necessarily important ; he also added that the cyclical nature of the plot of most mythology episodes was not something he felt negatively about , noting that although the series ' protagonists are often defeated , they " can 't be corrupted or dissuaded or undone " . Co @-@ writer Frank Spotnitz said of the episode " I actually think you didn 't learn a lot more about the conspiracy in these two episodes , but emotionally , I think they were really good episodes ... It is really easy to go through a lot of these action things with people dying and never addressing them . So I thought it was very interesting to do so " .
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= Alien Soldier =
Alien Soldier is a 1995 side @-@ scrolling run and gun video game developed by Treasure for the Mega Drive . Retail copies were released in Japan and PAL territories while in North America it was only available exclusively via the Sega Channel cable service . The story follows a powerful being named Epsilon @-@ Eagle , who after being nearly killed becomes determined to avenge his near death and save his planet . The character has a variety of weapons and moves that the player must master to complete the game . Many gameplay ideas are borrowed from Treasure 's earlier Mega Drive release , Gunstar Heroes . However , Alien Soldier puts an emphasis on challenging boss fights with short and easy levels serving as downtime in @-@ between .
Development lasted two years and was led by Hideyuki Suganami , who originally wanted to make the entire game himself but ultimately received support . He had ambitious plans for Alien Soldier but in order to meet his deadline , the game was released at roughly half @-@ completion . Alien Soldier was released towards the end of the Mega Drive 's lifecycle and was explicitly targeted for " hardcore " Mega Drive gamers . Critics have praised the game for its graphics , soundtrack , and overall intensity , recommending it for fans of Gunstar Heroes and the run and gun genre . Some negative critique was directed towards the hard difficulty , steep learning curve , and unorthodox gameplay . It was ported to the PlayStation 2 in Japan , and also re @-@ released worldwide on the Wii Virtual Console and Steam .
= = Gameplay = =
Alien Soldier is a side @-@ scrolling run and gun video game in which the player controls the main character , Epsilon @-@ Eagle , through 25 stages and 31 bosses . The gameplay has been compared heavily to Gunstar Heroes ; however , putting a much larger emphasis on boss fights , and lacking any 2 @-@ player option . The stages are notably short , populated with weak enemies to serve as downtime between the more difficult boss battles . There are two difficulties in the game , " supereasy " and " superhard " . Enemies on the hard setting are only slightly more difficult ; however , there are no passwords or unlimited continues as in the easy mode .
Epsilon @-@ Eagle can run , double jump , hover in the air , and use six different types of weapons . Only four can be equipped at any given time , but the player may choose which weapons they would like to equip before the game starts . Each gun has its own ammunition bar which can be replenished ; if it 's depleted the player will be left with a little firepower . The player can also perform a dash across the screen , which when at full health , will become a deadly move called " Phoenix Force " that will damage any enemies in its path . There is also a counter move , that if timed properly , will change enemy bullets into health . Epsilon @-@ Eagle can attack in either fixed @-@ fire or free @-@ moving styles . The first makes him immovable while firing a weapon , instead allowing for quick aiming , while the second allows walking and shooting simultaneously with the sacrifice of directional accuracy .
= = Synopsis = =
The premise of Alien Soldier is provided with a long text scroll at the start of the game . After the game has begun , it is not referred to again . In the year 2015 , the " A @-@ Humans " of " A @-@ Earth " have created genetically engineered A @-@ Humans capable of super intelligence and strength , as well as parasitic co @-@ existence with machinery and animals , particularly humans . A terrorist organization known as " Scarlet " rose up within this race and sought to dominate the rest of the A @-@ Humans and A @-@ Earth by locking the planet down and keeping anyone else out . During the height of Scarlet 's power , an assassination attempt on the group 's leader , Epsilon @-@ Eagle , was carried out by a special forces group . Scarlet fought back with their powers , and the battle somehow breached the space @-@ time continuum . Epsilon was gravely injured and cast somewhere into the continuum .
Seemingly gone forever , another Scarlet member known as Xi @-@ Tiger took control of the organization . Under his rule , Scarlet became too brutal even for themselves , and they called for Epsilon to reclaim his position . More or less isolated from the rest of the group , Xi sought to find and assassinate Epsilon himself . He planned an attack on an A @-@ Human research laboratory , where children with special abilities had been kidnapped and experimented on . Upon arriving , Xi @-@ Tiger sensed the presence of Epsilon in one of the boys . However , he was unsure because he couldn 't pinpoint the evil from Epsilon , who had entered the boy 's body and was now living as a parasite . Xi @-@ Tiger took a young girl hostage and threatened to kill her unless Epsilon revealed himself . The boy flew into a rage and morphed his body into Epsilon himself . Xi seemed to sense this strange power , and in fear , killed the girl and fled . Epsilon had completely split his dual personality apart ; with both " good " and " evil " Epsilons now chasing after Xi @-@ Tiger .
= = Development and release = =
Development of Alien Soldier lasted two years and was led by Hideyuki Suganami , who from the start wanted to make the entire game himself . Despite 32 @-@ bit fifth generation hardware already on the market , he chose to program the game for the 16 @-@ bit Mega Drive , claiming that he may have been too captivated by the idea of making an " action shooting " game . Treasure explicitly targeted the game for " hardcore " Mega Drive players and designed its difficulty and end @-@ game scoring methods with this in mind .
Suganami was deeply invested in Alien Soldier and devoted a lot of personal time to developing it . He originally had ambitious plans for a large backstory , but in order to make their deadline of January 3 , 1995 , the majority of it was cut from the game . As the deadline approached , he came to realize he would not be able to complete Alien Soldier himself , and so additional staff were added to provide him support . He worked overtime during the New Years holidays in order to complete the game . The market for the Mega Drive was quickly shrinking , and the game had to be released in a half @-@ finished state . After its release , Suganami wished he continued working on it , believing he could have improved on the story and graphics .
Alien Soldier was released in 1995 on a physical cartridge format in Australia , Europe and Japan . In North America , the game was delivered exclusively through the Sega Channel cable service . The game 's first re @-@ release was in Japan on the PlayStation 2 as part of the Sega Ages 2500 : Gunstar Heroes Treasure Box compilation . Alien Soldier was released again worldwide in fall 2007 on the Wii via the Virtual Console download service , and again for Microsoft Windows on Steam on January 6 , 2011 .
= = Reception = =
For its original Mega Drive release , Famitsu provided Alien Soldier with a score of 24 out of 40 . Frank Provo of GameSpot reviewed the Wii Virtual Console release in 2007 , citing the excellent graphics , sound , and general intensity of the game . He noted initial difficulty adjusting to the controls and game design . However , once accustomed , he said , " you start totally feeling what it must be like to be an army of one trading firepower with some of the universe 's largest , most elaborate creatures . That 's a great feeling . " Lucas M. Thomas of IGN noted the game 's many similarities to Gunstar Heroes and recommended Alien Soldier to those who enjoyed it . " Alien Soldier is a long @-@ lost piece of Treasure 's action gaming legacy , " said Thomas . " It 's got the fast @-@ firing , high @-@ energy , overly @-@ explosive intensity that fans of the company have come to expect . " Darren Calvert of Nintendo Life described the graphics and animation as some of the best on the Mega Drive . He found the game difficult , but still enjoyable for fans of the run and gun genre . Dan Whitehead of Eurogamer described the game as " manically @-@ paced " and " bizarrely creative " while also providing a disclaimer that it 's " really hectic and difficult if you 're not into this sort of thing . "
= = External Links = =
Official website ( Japanese )
Alien Soldier at MobyGames
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= Murder of Leigh Leigh =
Leigh Leigh , born Leigh Rennea Mears , was a 14 @-@ year @-@ old girl from Fern Bay , on the east coast of Australia , who was murdered on November 3 , 1989 . While attending a 16 @-@ year @-@ old boy 's birthday party at Stockton Beach , Leigh was assaulted by a group of boys after she returned distressed from a sexual encounter on the beach that a reviewing judge later called non @-@ consensual . After being kicked and spat on by the group , Leigh left the party . Her naked body was found in the sand dunes nearby the following morning , with severe genital damage and a crushed skull .
Matthew Grant Webster , an 18 @-@ year @-@ old who acted as a bouncer at the event , pleaded guilty to her murder and was sentenced to 20 years in prison with a 14 @-@ year non @-@ parole period . He was released on parole in June 2004 , after serving 14 ½ years . Guy Charles Wilson , the other bouncer and only other person aged over 18 at the party , pleaded guilty to assault ; a third male ( aged 15 ) pleaded guilty to having sex with a minor . The investigation of Leigh 's murder proved controversial , however , as several people who admitted to various crimes , including assaulting Leigh , were never charged ; nor was anyone ever charged with her sexual assault . Webster 's confession did not match the forensic evidence . The murder investigation was reviewed by the New South Wales Crime Commission in 1996 , and by the Police Integrity Commission in 1998 , with the latter recommending the dismissal of the detective in charge of the investigation .
Leigh 's murder received considerable attention in the media . Initially focusing on her sexual assault and murder , media attention later concentrated more on the lack of parental supervision and the drugs and alcohol at the party , and on Leigh 's sexuality . The media coverage of the murder has been cited as an example of blaming the victim . Leigh 's murder inspired a theatrical play entitled A Property of the Clan , which was later revised and renamed Blackrock , as well as a feature film of the same name .
= = Background = =
Leigh Leigh , born Leigh Rennea Mears on 24 July 1975 , was the daughter of Robyn Lynne Maunsell and Robert William Mears . Leigh 's grandmother said that Leigh lived with her between the ages of about four and seven , though she did not disclose reasons for this living arrangement . Leigh 's parents divorced when she was about seven years old . She moved back to live with her mother after her sister Jessie was born in 1983 ; her surname was subsequently changed to Leigh as this was the surname of her sister 's father . At the time of her death she lived with her sister , mother and stepfather Brad Shearman on Fullerton Road , Fern Bay , having moved there nine months earlier from a housing commission flat near the Stockton ferry terminal . Leigh was a Year Eight student at Newcastle High School who enjoyed school , according to her grandmother . She had attended three primary schools successively : St Patrick 's in Swansea , Hamilton North Public School , and St Peter 's in Stockton . Leigh spent most of her weekends and school holidays with her grandmother at her house in Kilaben Bay . Her cousin and best friend Tracey stated she and Leigh enjoyed going to the cinema together , as well as roller @-@ skating and " just hanging about " . According to her aunt , Leigh had wanted to be a veterinarian . Both Leigh 's mother and her grandmother described her as a " typical teenager " .
= = Night of the murder = =
Newcastle High School student Jason Robertson 's 16th birthday party was held on 3 November 1989 at the North Stockton Surf Club , a formerly abandoned building which the Stockton Lions Club had taken over four years prior , leasing it for various functions . Police estimated that about 60 people had attended the party , though figures as high as 100 were reported in the media . Most of the attendees were Year Ten students from Newcastle High School , though two 10 @-@ year @-@ olds were seen at the party at one point . Many were drinking alcohol and smoking marijuana , and some were having sex .
Fourteen @-@ year @-@ old Leigh had a written invitation to attend the party and permission from her mother to stay there until 11 pm ; Leigh 's mother had been assured that responsible adults would be present at the party . Matthew Webster and Guy Wilson , who acted as bouncers , were the only people aged over 18 at the party . Leigh was said to be very excited , as it was the first teenage party she had attended . According to police witness reports , Leigh was one of several under @-@ age girls who were invited to the party for the purpose of getting them intoxicated and having sex with them . According to a police report , Webster approached another person at the party and said , " Hey dude , we 're going to get Leigh pissed and all go through her . " Leigh was also one of several under @-@ age people for whom an adult purchased alcohol before the party ; she and her friend were given a bottle of Jim Beam whiskey , which they then mixed with Coca @-@ Cola . She was reported to have gotten heavily intoxicated very quickly . A 15 @-@ year @-@ old boy , who for legal reasons could not be named and was referred to in official documentation as ' NC1 ' , is quoted to have said , " I 'm going to go and fuck [ Leigh ] . " Shortly afterwards Leigh went to the beach with NC1 ; witnesses stated Leigh was so intoxicated that he " had to almost carry her . "
When Leigh returned from the beach , she was bleeding between her legs , distressed , crying and seeking assistance . Some people at the party reported trying to console Leigh and find out what had happened to her ; Leigh " asserted she had been raped " , replying " [ NC1 ] fucked me " and " I hate him " . After witnessing Leigh 's complaints , Webster is quoted as saying to a group of boys " she 's a bit of a slut and why don 't all of us have a go " . Nineteen @-@ year @-@ old Guy Wilson then approached Leigh , placed his arm around her and asked her for sex . Wilson pushed Leigh to the ground when she refused , and was joined by Webster and around ten other boys who surrounded Leigh . They yelled abuse , kicked her , poured beer on her and spat both beer and saliva on her . Several people witnessed the assault , yet nobody came to help her or attempted to contact the police , her parents or other adults . The assaults continued for approximately five minutes ; Leigh stood up when they stopped and staggered away before picking up an empty beer bottle and throwing it at the group of boys , missing them . Guy Wilson threw a beer bottle back at her as she left , which either hit her in the leg or missed , according to different witness accounts . The group of boys followed her inside the crowded clubhouse where she sought refuge , and similar assaults continued . Leigh was seen leaving the club and walking towards the beach at about 10 : 30 pm . Leigh 's stepfather arrived at the party to pick her up at 10 : 50 pm . He and several of the party @-@ goers searched for Leigh , but she could not be found . After repeated search attempts , Leigh 's mother and stepfather decided to wait for her to return home , assuming she had gone to a friend 's house for the night . Leigh 's stepfather recommenced the search for Leigh the following morning , aided by several youths from the party . Her body was found in the sand dunes about 90 metres ( 300 ft ) north of the surf club . Leigh 's invitation to attend the party was still in her pocket .
Leigh was found naked except for her socks and shoes , with her knickers and shorts around her right ankle . She was on her back with her legs apart . Her bra , which had its securing hook bent , was found nearby , as was her shirt and jumper , which were intertwined , inside out and stained with liquor . Saltbushes nearby had been flattened . According to the police forensics report , a blood @-@ stained rock weighing 5 @.@ 6 kg ( 12 lb ) was found next to her , and blood stains were found up to 2 @.@ 8 metres ( 9 @.@ 2 ft ) from her body .
= = = Postmortem = = =
The postmortem report stated Leigh 's cause of death to be a fractured skull and injury to the brain . Leigh had been struck with great force several times , including at least three times in the head . The postmortem also found that Leigh had asphyxial haemorrhages , and multiple injuries to the jaw , ribs , liver and right kidney . Leigh had neck fingertip pressure injuries , indicating she had been choked before she died , though this was not the cause of death . Leigh 's blood alcohol reading was 0 @.@ 128 , a level which , according to the University of Notre Dame , would have caused " significant impairment of motor coordination and loss of good judgment . " There was no doubt that Leigh was violently sexually assaulted before she was murdered . Leigh had deep bruising to the left wall of her vagina , extensive bruising to her hymen and two tears , one 20 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) long , to her vulva . An analysis of the postmortem by Johan Duflou stated that an inflexible object , possibly a beer bottle , was likely to have caused most of her genital injuries . No semen was found in her body .
= = Investigation = =
Twenty detectives , led by Detective Sergeant Lance Chaffey , were assigned to the case though the squad was reduced to fewer than ten members several weeks later . Crime reporter Mark Riley wrote that police were going through the " exhaustive process " of cross @-@ checking the stories of several dozen teenagers ; by 5 November police had interviewed around 40 teenagers , stating they expected to interview around 20 more . The three suspects who emerged early in the investigation were Matthew Webster , Guy Wilson and NC1 . In interviews on 5 November , NC1 admitted to having sex with Leigh , but said it was consensual . Wilson initially denied any wrongdoing , though in a later interview he admitted to pushing Leigh , pouring beer over her , spitting on her and throwing an empty beer bottle at her . Webster admitted to pouring beer on Leigh , but denied sexually assaulting or killing her . He originally told police he went to a pub after the party , but in an interview eight days later changed his story to state that he had gone for a walk . Webster also stated that two 14 @-@ year @-@ old girls had approached him and NC1 at the party , asking for some " hash " , and that the two of them had obtained a small bag of resin and exchanged it with the girls for $ 20 . Blood samples were taken from two suspects ; The Newcastle Herald reported this as probably the first use of DNA tests in a Hunter Valley murder investigation . Clothing samples were also taken from several suspects .
In her book Who Killed Leigh Leigh ? , Kerry Carrington , a criminologist and prominent researcher of the murder , described the investigation as being " fuelled by mutual suspicion and by rumour and counter @-@ rumour . " People who attended the party complained of living in fear of being the next rumoured killer ; Matthew Webster , Jason Robertson and two other boys appeared on the front page of The Newcastle Herald on 8 November with such complaints . For a time the most popular rumour was that Leigh had been murdered by her stepfather , and that he had been having sex with her for months . In November 1990 Detective Chaffey told journalist Mark Riley that police had heard this rumour so many times that they considered Shearman to be a suspect . Riley 's article stated that the community of Stockton harboured suspicions about Shearman right until Webster was charged with murder . On 16 November Webster pleaded guilty to assaulting Leigh and to supplying cannabis resin to a minor . He was released on bail , with his sentencing scheduled for 21 February 1990 . On 19 January Wilson pleaded guilty to assaulting Leigh ; he was released on bail pending sentencing . On 28 January , upon being taunted by four boys regarding the murder , Webster assaulted one of them . On 31 January , Brad Shearman approached Guy Wilson in public , and punched him in the head three times after Wilson allegedly told him he would get Leigh 's younger sister next . Shearman was charged and pleaded guilty to assault .
While he was still on bail on 16 February 1990 , during his third interview with police , Webster admitted to killing Leigh . In the interview transcript , Webster initially denied killing Leigh , then " without being asked a further question " he stated , " Well , I did it . But I just can 't believe ... it happened . It 's just unbelievable . " Webster went on to state that he saw Leigh while he was looking for his stash of beers . According to Webster , they walked to the saltbushes together , where he pulled off her clothes and stuck a finger in her vagina . Webster stated he lost his temper when Leigh rebuffed him , choking her for a while before killing her with a rock , specifically saying he killed Leigh because he " thought she would squeal on [ him ] for trying to rape her . " After spending the weekend in a police cell , Webster appeared in court on 19 February where he was refused bail . On 21 March , while in custody , Webster was convicted and fined $ 250 for offensive behaviour in the 28 January assault . On 17 July Shearman was given a 12 @-@ month good behaviour bond for the 31 January assault ; the judge did not record a conviction , taking into consideration that he had been provoked into attacking Wilson .
= = Convictions = =
NC1 was the first to be sentenced , on 28 February 1990 , after pleading guilty to having sex with someone under the age of consent . He was given six months ' custody in a detention centre , the maximum possible sentence for a youth charged with that offence . Kerry Carrington and Andrew Johnson , writing in The Australian Feminist Law Journal , said it was likely that prosecutors did not charge NC1 with rape , as a conviction on such a charge would have been unlikely due to a lack of evidence ; Leigh 's complaints about the incident as reported by witnesses were hearsay and therefore inadmissible in court . On 11 May the sentence was reduced on appeal to 100 hours ' community service . In reducing his sentence the judge stated the evidence obliged him to find that the sex was consensual , and that it was better for NC1 to do something positive for the community rather than possibly being led further astray in custody . A number of sources state the judge reached the conclusion that the sex had been consensual because of the inadequate way the evidence was presented to the court .
On 19 March 1990 Wilson was sentenced to six months ' imprisonment for assaulting Leigh .
Charges were initially laid against Webster for sexual assault , though by the time the case went to trial they had been dropped without public explanation . Hillary Byrne @-@ Armstrong , writing in The Australian Feminist Law Journal , stated it was likely that Webster was offered a plea bargain that would drop the lesser charges in exchange for his guilty plea for murder . Webster pleaded guilty to Leigh 's murder on 24 October 1990 . The guilty plea meant that no witnesses were called for the trial ; Detective Chaffey instead read a list of facts to the court . Justice James Roland Wood sentenced Webster to a minimum of 14 years in prison , with an additional six years during which he would be eligible for parole , saying that a life sentence was inappropriate in view of Webster 's potential to be rehabilitated . Wood found that Webster 's motivation for killing Leigh was his fear she would report his sexual assault . Five Stockton citizens volunteered to give character evidence at his trial , describing the 120 kg ( 265 lb ) teenager as a quiet " gentle giant " from a good family . Others expressed amazement at this description of Webster , who was also known as " fat Matt , the thug of Stockton " . Webster served his sentence at Parklea Correctional Centre .
While acknowledging that plea bargains such as the one Webster was probably offered are common and help avoid expensive and time @-@ consuming trials , Byrne @-@ Armstrong stated that accepting Webster 's confession helped create a legal fiction that he unquestionably acted alone in both sexually assaulting and murdering Leigh . The actual level of sexual violence that Leigh sustained was accordingly , she said , " all but erased " from the sentencing , and it appeared Justice Wood had only been given the limited information from the post @-@ mortem report that would have corroborated Webster 's confession .
Webster was the first person in New South Wales to be sentenced under the " truth in sentencing " legislation , which meant he could not be released under any circumstances before the end of his 14 @-@ year non @-@ parole period ; under the previous legislation a person of Webster 's age would probably have been released after only nine years . Webster appealed the length of his prison term to the New South Wales Court of Criminal Appeal , where Justices Gleeson , Lee and Allen dismissed his appeal in July 1992 . In their view the crime was " so gross that nothing less of a very severe sentence would accord with the general moral sense of the community . "
Webster 's first application for parole in February 2004 was denied as he had not yet undertaken work release . After completing a few months of this program , Webster was released on parole on 10 June 2004 after serving 14 ½ years . The conditions of his parole specified that he would only be allowed to visit Newcastle or Stockton with permission from his probation and parole officer . Webster 's parole was discussed in the Parliament of New South Wales , with Minister John Hatzistergos responding to queries and concluding that the option to supervise Webster 's re @-@ integration into society was better than the alternative of releasing him without supervision at the end of his sentence . Following his release , Leigh 's family stated they harboured " no ill thoughts " towards Webster and wished him well in the " re @-@ establishment of his life " . Webster 's parole was revoked in November 2004 after he was arrested for assault ; he pleaded not guilty , citing self @-@ defence . He was released from prison in May 2005 after the charges were dropped due to insufficient evidence .
= = Media coverage = =
Leigh 's death received widespread and ongoing coverage in both the Sydney and Newcastle media , possibly due to a fascination with her reduplicated name . Between 1989 and 1994 , The Newcastle Herald ran at least 39 stories on Leigh , 23 of them featured on the front page . At least ten articles on the case were published in The Sydney Morning Herald during the same period . Both the extended media coverage and the theatrical plays and film the murder inspired have led to it being termed a " celebrity crime " , and to Leigh being referred to as a " celebrity victim " . In 1996 Psychologist Roger Peters attributed the media fascination to the sense of community in Stockton , and due to the crimes being committed by people not considered to be typical criminals , stating " I think one of the main things is that people can identify with people involved . Had it of been a criminal from outside who stalked her and killed I think it would be long forgotten . "
Various sources considered the media coverage prior to Webster 's arrest to be focused on finding something to blame other than her murderer . After Webster 's arrest the media continued to search for any outside agency that might have been responsible for the event . From the beginning , media reports highlighted the lack of parental supervision at the party , and in sentencing Webster , Justice Wood made comments criticising the lack of parental supervision . Researchers Jonathan Morrow and Mehera San Roque in the Sydney Law Review wrote that Wood 's comments " might as well have been quoted from the very newspapers that were covering the crime " ; his comments , in turn , were heavily reported in the media . Webster 's sentencing also received considerable media coverage , possibly due to his youth and the length of his sentence , as well as curiosity about the newly established " truth @-@ in @-@ sentencing " principles . His appeal regarding the length of his sentence received similar coverage .
According to observations by Kerry Carrington and Andrew Johnson , media references to Leigh being sexually assaulted " almost completely disappeared " in less than a year , as did the references to her being assaulted by the group of boys . They stated that the fact that NC1 was not charged with raping Leigh had created the legal fiction that his sex with her was consensual . The " unsustainable assumption " that Leigh consented to sex was the turning point in her being blamed for her own assault and murder on the grounds that , because she was supposedly sexually promiscuous , Leigh had somehow " asked for [ the attack ] " . In addition to sexual promiscuity and the lack of parental supervision , Carrington states that media attention also shifted to the presence of drugs and alcohol at the party ; Morrow and San Roque credit media attention to these factors as taking attention away from the abuse that Leigh suffered before she died . The epithet slut in a pretrial psychological report also became a topic of focus for the media :
Webster attacked Leigh , not so much because she would not let him have sex with her but because she became the living proof that even a slut , a property of the clan , thought he was not good enough to have sex with .
Carrington accused the media of completely missing the point that the report was not stating the views of the psychiatrist , rather it was the psychiatrist 's interpretation of Webster 's feelings . She also considered Mark Riley 's extended coverage of the case , which she described at one point as " journalistic voyeurism " , to be the most profound case of shifting the blame from the assailants to Leigh herself . One of Riley 's articles in particular was considered by her to have suggested that Leigh 's discussions with her mother about sex and Leigh 's looks and physical development had contributed to her murder . Morrow and San Roque also criticised Riley 's article , stating it " disturbingly ... married parental blame with the well @-@ documented notion that the rape victim herself is presumably to blame for her attack . " Several writers , including Eva Cox and Adele Horin , rejected the concept that Leigh was in any way responsible for her sexual assault and murder . The media coverage of the murder has been considered by multiple sources to be part of a wider culture of victim blaming .
= = Criticism of police = =
Police were criticised over their handling of the investigation , including their failure to identify perpetrators in a timely manner . It took police over three months to press charges against Webster even though they had established within ten days that he had lied about his whereabouts , had publicly stated his intention to rape Leigh , and had the opportunity to commit the crime .
Criticism was also raised regarding the relatively few convictions . Despite several people 's admissions to police that they physically attacked Leigh at the party , only Wilson was charged with assault , and the adult who admitted to supplying her with alcohol prior to the party was never charged . NC1 admitted to having sex with another under @-@ age girl at the party , though he was not charged with that offence . With the exception of the charges against Webster that were dropped without explanation , nobody was ever charged with raping or sexually assaulting Leigh in spite of the presence of graphic forensic evidence of genital injuries . During a report on Radio National , Leigh 's mother said that when she asked Detective Chaffey why others were not being charged , he asked her if she knew " how much it costs to run an investigation " .
= = = Forensic testing = = =
Police took blood and clothing samples from suspects , including the shirt Wilson was wearing on the night of the murder , which he admitted had a bloodstain on it , but it is not known whether any DNA tests were carried out . Kerry Carrington speculated that the reports of evidence being sent for testing may have been a fabrication to obtain a confession . Leigh 's grandmother told Carrington that she called Scotland Yard to enquire about the results , as a detective on the case had informed Leigh 's family that this was where the suspects ' clothing had been sent . Scotland Yard informed her that they had not received anything from Australia for forensic testing in the relevant timespan .
The only record of forensic testing that has been uncovered is an acknowledgement by a forensic biologist of four items being received for testing on 6 November 1989 : three items of Leigh 's clothing , and the blood @-@ stained rock found near her body . The acknowledgement , however , indicates that other items were not sent for testing . Results from the supposed tests were never made available , nor was information on why the other items were not sent . According to Carrington , four years after the investigation a detective involved in the case told her that none of the samples taken from suspects were tested . Samples taken from Webster were not used in his prosecution . Professor Harry Boettcher , a forensic scientist , said that if police did not actually test the samples it would be " professional negligence – indefensible " . In 2009 a solicitor who acted on behalf of Leigh 's family stated that given the advances in DNA testing technology , it was time to re @-@ examine the evidence .
= = = Possibility of accomplices = = =
Several factors have led to speculation that Webster was not alone when he killed Leigh . According to the transcript of Webster 's confession , he was never asked if he acted alone . Carrington accused police of accepting Webster 's confession at face value , ignoring both forensic and witness evidence . Her investigations highlighted several discrepancies in Webster 's confession , and in the forensic evidence . For example , Webster stated in his confession that he had choked Leigh with his left hand as he knelt beside her although , according to the autopsy report , the bruises on Leigh 's neck were consistent with being choked with a right hand . Carrington also questioned Webster 's statement that he walked along lit streets to the other side of the Stockton peninsula to wash his bloodstained hands , when he could have washed his hands in total darkness at the beach less than 100 metres ( 330 ft ) away . She also queried his claim that he had blood on his hands but none on his clothes , despite Leigh having been struck so hard blood was splattered 2 @.@ 8 metres one way from her body and 1 @.@ 3 metres the other way . Webster stated that he walked to the beach with Leigh , though according to police reports four witnesses said she walked to the beach alone ; two witnesses stated they saw Webster and Wilson leave the surf club together . Neither NC1 nor Wilson had a reliable alibi for their whereabouts at the time of the murder ; Wilson told police he was alone on the beach when Leigh walked past him as she left the club , minutes before she was murdered . Webster 's statement that he only penetrated Leigh with his finger has been considered by various sources to be inconsistent with the autopsy findings of genital trauma , and the trauma is also inconsistent with NC1 's account that his sex with her was consensual . In reviewing the autopsy , Boettcher said that the numerous blows which killed Leigh came from multiple directions , and were probably inflicted with different items , indicating the possibility of more than one perpetrator .
Carrington and Johnson speculated that Leigh was assaulted by the group of boys after returning from the beach , as punishment for complaining about being raped , and was murdered by Webster and two others because they were afraid she would tell other people . They refused to specifically name the two other suspects for fear of legal repercussions , though clarified that one had sexually assaulted Leigh earlier in the night , and the other likely sexually assaulted her with a beer bottle before she died , as punishment for publicly refusing to have sex with him . Webster talked to the media about the murder for the first time in 1997 , and insisted that he acted alone in killing Leigh .
= = Aftermath = =
After being told that nobody was going to be charged with Leigh 's sexual assault , in 1990 Leigh 's mother began a campaign for the case to be officially re @-@ investigated . In August 1994 , Kerry Carrington sent a 17 @,@ 000 @-@ word document and 300 pages of evidence to the Royal Commission into the New South Wales Police Service , asking for the case to be investigated . The commission was headed by Judge James Roland Wood , though a representative for the commission stated that Wood 's involvement in Webster 's trial would not affect the outcome of any investigation . In December 1994 , a representative for the commission said that after thorough consideration , they would not be investigating the matter .
In May 1993 a victim 's compensation case had awarded Leigh 's mother and sister a combined total of $ 29 @,@ 214 . An appeal , aided by Carrington 's research , was lodged against the original victim 's compensation payout . In May 1995 , in a landmark legal decision , Judge Joseph Moore approved the appeal , awarding Leigh 's mother and sister an additional $ 134 @,@ 048 . Moore said the evidence indicated that Leigh rejected NC1 's sexual advances , and that " his intercourse with her was without her consent . " He also acknowledged that whoever sexually assaulted Leigh had never been brought to justice , and the lack of convictions for assault , specifically naming Jason Robertson and three other boys as those who assaulted her in addition to Webster and Wilson . Leigh 's mother abandoned her efforts to have the case re @-@ opened in 1997 , citing " exhaustion and survival " .
= = = NSW Crime Commission = = =
In October 1996 , Police Minister Paul Whelan made an announcement in the Parliament of New South Wales , stating that the murder would be reviewed by the New South Wales Crime Commission . Acknowledging that nobody had ever been charged with Leigh 's sexual assault , Whelan stated the upcoming review was " our one opportunity to right the terrible wrongs that occurred on the night that Leigh died . "
In March 1998 the Crime Commission released its findings , stating that the crimes that resulted in convictions occurred substantially in the way described to the courts , that no further charges would be laid as Webster had acted alone in both the murder and the assault that immediately preceded it , and that police had not acted inappropriately in their decision not to charge other persons . It did , however , criticise some police procedures and practices . The review did not comment on the discrepancies between Webster 's confession and the forensic evidence , and it did not clarify whether forensic evidence was ever sent for testing . A representative for the Commission refused to comment on whether Wilson 's blood @-@ stained shirt was ever tested . One expert opinion obtained by the Commission wrote that it was " likely [ Webster ] engaged in sexual behaviour which demeaned Leigh and to which he will never admit because he is ashamed and embarrassed " , and another said that a finger or penis was unlikely to have caused Leigh 's severe genital damage . Hillary Byrne @-@ Armstrong stated that these expert opinions , which contradict Webster 's confession , raised questions on how the Commission concluded that Leigh 's sexual assault occurred in the manner to which he had confessed , also raising doubts about several of the Commission 's other findings . The Crime Commission released one of their two reports on the matter ; their second unpublished report was handed over to the Police Integrity Commission ( PIC ) for investigation .
= = = Police Integrity Commission = = =
Twenty @-@ six people , mainly police officers , were interviewed in 1998 as part of the subsequent PIC inquiry . Several witnesses from the party , as well as Webster , Wilson and NC1 were also questioned . The inquiry heard allegations that police assaulted four people during interviews : Webster , Wilson , NC1 and another unnamed suspect referred to as NC5 , a relative of Webster who was 17 at the time of the murder . Admitting to the inquiry that he killed Leigh and insisting that he was alone in doing so , Webster stated that police repeatedly punched and kicked him when he refused to confess to her murder . According to Scott Tucker writing in The Newcastle Herald , police were also accused of threatening violence , falsifying reports and withholding evidence ; one of the officers being investigated had his police locker raided by internal affairs , who discovered several records on the murder that had previously been listed as missing . Carrington was also summoned to give evidence , though she was not informed why ; her book , Who Killed Leigh Leigh , which criticised police over their handling of the investigation , had been released earlier that year . Carrington was cross @-@ examined for three days , longer than any of the police officers who were questioned , in what was described by Hillary Byrne @-@ Armstrong as " an inquisition on just about every word she had spoken [ or ] written " in relation to Leigh 's murder . " Byrne @-@ Armstrong accused the PIC of summoning Carrington for the sole purpose of attacking her credibility on issues they had no intention of investigating , and to discredit someone who had attracted considerable media attention for criticising police .
The PIC released their review in October 2000 . The review recommended the dismissal of Detective Sergeant Chaffey for " gross dereliction " of duty , also recommending criminal charges against five other investigative officers . The review stated that Webster was falsely arrested , as police arrested him for the purpose of questioning , something for which they did not have the power , and that he was probably assaulted by police while he was in custody . Police received further criticism after it was uncovered that they had interviewed NC1 without contacting his parents , and did not question him about Leigh 's murder , only about his intercourse with her . Following the review , Chaffey retired " a little earlier than [ he ] intended " , but dismissed the review 's findings , stating he was proud of his team 's performance . In October 2001 , the Director of Public Prosecutions declined to press criminal charges against any of the officers , on the grounds they had suffered emotional hardship and their careers had already been destroyed . The case , which was described on PM as " one of the longest ever investigations into police conduct in New South Wales " , prompted changes in the New South Wales Police Force , including the reform of record @-@ keeping procedures .
= = Theatrical and film adaptations = =
Newcastle 's Freewheels Theatre commissioned Nick Enright to produce a play that explored themes around the rape and murder . Titled A Property of the Clan , it premiered at the Freewheels Theatre in Newcastle in 1992 , and was performed at the National Institute of Dramatic Art in 1993 . The title was taken from the controversial quote in the psychological report on Webster made in preparation for his trial . Enright omitted the criminal acts and the murder from the play , instead focusing on the drama , its participants and the aftermath of the murder . The play was shown at various high schools in the Newcastle area , and following its positive reception was shown at high schools nationally , winning several awards . However , Newcastle High School , where both Leigh and Webster had been students , declined to show it . The play is set in the fictional town of Blackrock , and the rape and murder victim is named Tracy . Leigh 's family requested that the name be changed , as ' Tracey ' was the name of Leigh 's cousin and best friend . The name remained , despite other revisions to the script ; the play was retitled Blackrock . It was performed by the Sydney Theatre Company in 1995 and 1996 .
Blackrock was developed into a film of the same name , which was partially filmed in Stockton and released in 1997 . The community of Stockton opposed filming in the area , stating the memories of the events were still fresh and the details of the script were " too close for comfort " . When filmmakers arrived in Stockton the local media treated them with hostility , and locations that had previously been reserved were no longer available . The situation was exacerbated by the filmmakers ' denial that the film was specifically about Leigh , despite the choice of Stockton for filming . Leigh 's family were opposed to the film , saying the filmmakers were " feasting on an unfortunate situation " and portraying Leigh negatively . Associate professor Donna Lee Brien of Central Queensland University stated that some fictional aspects in the film portrayed Leigh in a negative manner , though the book Reel Tracks by Rebecca Doyle credited the film with correcting misinformation reported in the media regarding the murder , as well as with providing a forum for reflection on the events . The film received a mixed @-@ to @-@ positive reception in Australia , but performed poorly when shown elsewhere ; Brien stated that because the film lacked the " poignant and powerful narrative support of Leigh 's tragedy " , it was deemed by critics to be " shallow and clichéd " .
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= Lockheed YF @-@ 22 =
The Lockheed / Boeing / General Dynamics YF @-@ 22 was an American single @-@ seat , twin @-@ engine fighter aircraft technology demonstrator designed for the United States Air Force ( USAF ) . The design was a finalist in the USAF 's Advanced Tactical Fighter competition , and two prototypes were built for the demonstration / validation phase of the competition . The YF @-@ 22 won the contest against the Northrop YF @-@ 23 , and entered production as the Lockheed Martin F @-@ 22 Raptor . The YF @-@ 22 has similar aerodynamic layout and configuration as the F @-@ 22 , but with differences in the position and design of the cockpit , tail fins and wings , and in internal structural layout .
In the 1980s , the USAF began looking for a replacement for its fighter aircraft , especially to counter the advanced Su @-@ 27 and MiG @-@ 29 . A number of companies , divided into two teams , submitted their proposals . Northrop and McDonnell Douglas submitted the YF @-@ 23 . Lockheed , Boeing and General Dynamics proposed and built the YF @-@ 22 , which , although marginally slower and having a larger radar cross @-@ section , was more agile than the YF @-@ 23 . Primarily for this reason , it was picked by the Air Force as the winner of the ATF in April 1991 . Following the selection , the first YF @-@ 22 was retired to a museum , while the second prototype continued flying until an accident relegated it to the role of an antenna test vehicle .
= = Design and development = =
In 1981 , the U.S. Air Force developed a requirement for an Advanced Tactical Fighter ( ATF ) as a new air superiority fighter to replace the F @-@ 15 Eagle and F @-@ 16 Fighting Falcon . This was made more crucial by the emerging worldwide threats , including development and proliferation of Soviet MiG @-@ 29 and Su @-@ 27 " Flanker " -class fighter aircraft . It would take advantage of the new technologies in fighter design on the horizon including composite materials , lightweight alloys , advanced flight @-@ control systems , more powerful propulsion systems and stealth technology . In 1985 the Air Force sent out technical requests for proposals to a number of aircraft manufacturing teams . The formal request for proposal ( RFP ) was issued in July 1986 , and two contractor teams , Lockheed , Boeing and General Dynamics , along with Northrop and McDonnell Douglas , were selected on 31 October 1986 to undertake a 50 @-@ month demonstration phase , culminating in the flight test of the two teams ' prototypes , the YF @-@ 22 and the YF @-@ 23 .
The YF @-@ 22 was designed to meet USAF requirements for survivability , supercruise , stealth , and ease of maintenance . Because Lockheed 's submission was selected as one of the winners , the company , through its Skunk Works division , assumed leadership of the program partners . It would be responsible for the forward cockpit and fuselage , as well as final assembly at Palmdale , California . Meanwhile , the wings and aft fuselage would be built by Boeing , with the center fuselage , weapons bays , tail and landing gears built by General Dynamics . Compared with its Northrop / McDonnell Douglas counterpart , the YF @-@ 22 has a more conventional design – its wings have larger control surfaces , such as full @-@ span trailing edge , and , whereas the YF @-@ 23 had two tail surfaces , the YF @-@ 22 had four , which made it more maneuverable than its counterpart . Two examples of each prototype air vehicle ( PAV ) were built for the Demonstration @-@ Validation phase : one with General Electric YF120 engines , the other with Pratt & Whitney YF119 engines .
The YF @-@ 22 was given the unofficial name " Lightning II " after Lockheed 's World War II @-@ era fighter , the P @-@ 38 Lightning , which persisted until the mid @-@ 1990s when the USAF officially named the aircraft " Raptor " . The F @-@ 35 later received the Lightning II name in 2006 .
The first YF @-@ 22 ( PAV @-@ 1 , serial number 87 @-@ 0700 , N22YF ) , with the GE YF120 , was rolled out on 29 August 1990 and first flew on 29 September 1990 , taking off from Palmdale piloted by David L. Ferguson . During the 18 @-@ minute flight , PAV @-@ 1 reached a maximum speed of 250 knots ( 460 km / h ; 290 mph ) and a height of 12 @,@ 500 feet ( 3 @,@ 800 m ) , before landing at Edwards AFB . Following the flight , Ferguson said that the remainder of the YF @-@ 22 test program would be concentrated on " ... the manoeuvrability of the aeroplane , both supersonic and subsonic " . The second YF @-@ 22 ( PAV @-@ 2 , s / n 87 @-@ 0701 , N22YX ) with the P & W YF119 made its maiden flight on 30 October at the hands of Tom Morgenfeld .
= = Operational history = =
= = = Evaluation = = =
During the flight test program , unlike the YF @-@ 23 , weapon firings and high ( 60 ° ) angle of attack ( AoA , or high @-@ Alpha ) flights were carried out on the YF @-@ 22 . Though not a requirement , the aircraft fired AIM @-@ 9 Sidewinder and AIM @-@ 120 AMRAAM missiles from internal weapon bays . Flight testing also demonstrated that the YF @-@ 22 with its thrust vectoring nozzles achieved pitch rates more than double that of the F @-@ 16 at low @-@ speed maneuvering . The first prototype , PAV @-@ 1 , achieved Mach 1 @.@ 58 in supercruise , while PAV @-@ 2 reached a maximum supercruise speed of Mach 1 @.@ 43 ; maximum speed was in excess of Mach 2 @.@ 0 . Flight testing continued until 28 December 1990 , by which time 74 flights were completed and 91 @.@ 6 airborne hours were accumulated . Following flight testing , the contractor teams submitted proposals for ATF production .
On 23 April 1991 , the YF @-@ 22 was announced by Secretary of the Air Force Donald Rice as the winner of the ATF competition . The YF @-@ 23 design was stealthier and faster , but the YF @-@ 22 was more agile . It was speculated in the aviation press that the YF @-@ 22 was also seen as more adaptable to the Navy 's Navalized Advanced Tactical Fighter ( NATF ) , but the US Navy abandoned NATF by 1992 . Instead of being retired , as with the case of PAV @-@ 1 , PAV @-@ 2 subsequently flew sorties following the competition – it amassed another 61 @.@ 6 flying hours during 39 flights . On 25 April 1992 , the aircraft sustained serious damage during a landing attempt as a result of pilot @-@ induced oscillations . It was repaired but never flew again , and instead served as a static test vehicle thereafter . In 1991 , it was anticipated that 650 production F @-@ 22s would be procured .
= = = F @-@ 22 production = = =
As the Lockheed team won the ATF competition , it was awarded the engineering , manufacturing and development ( EMD ) contract , which would ultimately allow it to proceed with production of operational aircraft . The EMD called for seven single @-@ seat F @-@ 22A and two twin @-@ seat F @-@ 22Bs . On 9 April 1997 , the first of these , Spirit of America , was rolled out . During the ceremony , the F @-@ 22 was officially named " Raptor " . Due to limited funding , the first flight , which had previously been scheduled for mid @-@ 1996 , occurred on 7 September 1997 . Flight testing for the F @-@ 22 continued until 2005 , and on 15 December 2005 the USAF announced that the Raptor had reached its initial operational capability ( IOC ) .
In many respects , the YF @-@ 22s were different from production F @-@ 22s . Contrary to the F @-@ 117 Nighthawk , which was initially difficult to control because of small vertical stabilizers , Lockheed over @-@ specified the fin area on its YF @-@ 22 . Therefore , the company reduced the size of those on F @-@ 22s by 20 – 30 percent . Lockheed recontoured the shape of the wing and stabilator trailing edges to improve aerodynamics , strength , and stealth characteristics ; the wing and stabilitor sweep was reduced by 6 ° from 48 ° . Finally , to improve pilot visibility , the canopy was moved forward 7 inches ( 178 mm ) , and the engine intakes were moved rearward 14 inches ( 356 mm ) .
= = Aircraft disposition = =
87 @-@ 0700 – Air Force Flight Test Center Museum , Edwards Air Force Base , California .
87 @-@ 0701 – used by Lockheed as static test model .
= = Specifications ( YF @-@ 22 ) = =
Note some specifications are estimated .
Data from Baker , Aronstein
General characteristics
Crew : 1 ( pilot )
Length : 64 ft 6 in ( 19 @.@ 65 m )
Wingspan : 43 ft 0 in ( 13 @.@ 1 m )
Height : 17 ft 9 in ( 5 @.@ 39 m )
Wing area : 830 sq ft ( 77 @.@ 1 m ² )
Empty weight : 33 @,@ 000 lb ( 14 @,@ 970 kg )
Loaded weight : 62 @,@ 000 lb ( 28 @,@ 120 kg )
Powerplant : 2 × Pratt & Whitney YF119 @-@ PW @-@ 100 or General Electric YF120 @-@ GE @-@ 100 afterburning turbofans
Dry thrust : YF120 : 23 @,@ 500 lbf ( 104 kN ) each
Thrust with afterburner : 30 @,@ 000 lbf / 35 @,@ 000 lbf ( 133 kN / 156 kN ) each
Performance
Maximum speed : At altitude : Mach 2 @.@ 2 ( 1 @,@ 260 knots , 1 @,@ 450 mph , 2 @,@ 335 km / h )
Supercruise : Mach 1 @.@ 58 ( 910 knots , 1 @,@ 040 mph , 1 @,@ 680 km / h ) ( military power only )
Combat radius : 696 nmi ( 800 mi , 1 @,@ 480 km )
Service ceiling : 65 @,@ 000 ft ( 19 @,@ 800 m )
Maximum g @-@ load : + 7 @.@ 9 g
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= Benin at the 2008 Summer Olympics =
Benin took part in the 2008 Summer Olympics , which were held in Beijing , China from 8 to 24 August 2008 . The country 's participation at Beijing marked its eighth consecutive appearance in the summer Olympics since its debut in 1972 , and its ninth Olympic appearance ever . The Benin delegation included five athletes in 2008 , participating in three sports : athletics , swimming and taekwondo . Fabienne Feraez , a sprinter , was selected as the flag bearer for the opening ceremony . None of the Benin athletes progressed further than the heat round .
= = Background = =
Benin participated in eight summer Olympic games between its debut in the 1972 Summer Olympics in Munich and the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing . Competing under the name Dahomey , Benin made their Olympic debut in 1972 , sending two athletes to the games . The most number of Benin athletes participating in a summer games , is 16 in the 1980 games in Moscow . Five athletes from Benin were selected to compete in the 2008 games : track and field athletes Fabienne Feraez and Mathieu Gnanligo ; swimmers Alois Dansou and Gloria Koussihouede ; and taekwondo practitioner Jean Moloise Ogoudjobi .
= = Athletics = =
= = = Men 's competition = = =
A bronze medalist at the 2007 All @-@ Africa Games , Mathieu Gnanligo , participated in the 400 meters . Gnanligo 's appearance in Beijing marked his first appearance at any Olympic games . Once at the Olympics , Gnanligo was placed in the seventh heat on 18 August . He ran a time of 47 @.@ 10 seconds and finished seventh in the heat against seven other athletes . He finished 49th out of 55 athletes , 6 @.@ 01 seconds ahead of the slowest athlete Xiaosheng Liu , and 2 @.@ 31 seconds behind the quickest athlete Chris Brown . He was 1 @.@ 14 seconds behind Andretti Bain , the slowest athlete who qualified for the semi @-@ finals , and therefore did not progress .
= = = Women 's competition = = =
Competing at her second Olympics , Fabienne Feraez was the oldest competitor for Benin , aged 32 . She competed in the 200 meters on 19 August . Feraez , who also competed in the 2004 Summer Olympics , was drawn into heat three . Feraez ran a time of 24 @.@ 07 seconds and finished last in her heat , exactly a second behind the winner , Marshevet Myers . She finished 40th out of 46 athletes overall and was 8 @.@ 09 seconds faster than the slowest athlete , Samia Yusuf Omar . Feraez was 1 @.@ 36 seconds behind the fastest athlete and 0 @.@ 48 seconds behind the slowest athlete who progressed to the semi @-@ finals , Eleni Artymata .
Key
Note – Ranks given for track events are within the athlete 's heat only
Q
= Qualified for the next round
q =
Qualified for the next round as a fastest loser or , in field events , by position without achieving the qualifying target
NR
= National record
N / A =
Round not applicable for the event
Bye = Athlete not required to compete in round
Men
Women
= = Swimming = =
= = = Men 's competition = = =
Alois Dansou competed in heat one of the 50 meters freestyle on August 14 . Dansou also competed in the 2004 Summer Olympics , where he did not progress out of the heats . In 2008 Dansou repeated the result and failed to qualify for the semi @-@ finals . He finished first in his heat in a time of 24 @.@ 54 seconds , ahead of Omar Jasim and Yasser Núñez . Overall he finished 62nd of 97 competitors and did not qualify for the semi @-@ finals .
= = = Women 's competition = = =
Benin had one woman competing in swimming at the 2008 Olympics . That athlete was Gloria Koussihouede who competed in the 50 meters freestyle . The 2008 Olympics was Koussihouedes second Olympics after competing in 2004 , and she was selected to compete in heat one . Koussihouede finished second in her heat in a time of 37 @.@ 09 seconds , behind Sameera Al @-@ Bitar and ahead of Pamela Girimbabazi Rugabira and Djene Barry . Her time placed her 87th out of 90 athletes and she did not qualify for the semi @-@ finals .
Men
Women
= = Taekwondo = =
= = = Men 's competition = = =
Benin had one taekwondo practitioner competing in the 2008 Olympics . This man was Jean Moloise Ogoudjobi , a 28 @-@ year @-@ old Beninese athlete , competing at his first Olympic Games . Moloise Ogoudjobi fought in match three against Chutchawal Khawlaor from Thailand in the first round . Moloise Ogoudjobi lost and did not progress to the quarter @-@ finals .
Men
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= Gallipoli Campaign =
The Gallipoli Campaign , also known as the Dardanelles Campaign , the Battle of Gallipoli or the Battle of Çanakkale ( Turkish : Çanakkale Savaşı ) , was a campaign of World War I that took place on the Gallipoli peninsula ( Gelibolu in modern Turkey ) in the Ottoman Empire between 25 April 1915 and 9 January 1916 . The peninsula forms the northern bank of the Dardanelles , a strait that provided a sea route to the Russian Empire , one of the Allied powers during the war . Intending to secure it , Russia 's allies Britain and France launched a naval attack followed by an amphibious landing on the peninsula , with the aim of capturing the Ottoman capital of Constantinople ( modern Istanbul ) . The naval attack was repelled and after eight months ' fighting , with many casualties on both sides , the land campaign was abandoned and the invasion force was withdrawn to Egypt .
The campaign was one of the greatest Ottoman victories during the war . In Turkey , it is regarded as a defining moment in the nation 's history : a final surge in the defence of the motherland as the Ottoman Empire crumbled . The struggle formed the basis for the Turkish War of Independence and the declaration of the Republic of Turkey eight years later under Mustafa Kemal ( Kemal Atatürk ) who first rose to prominence as a commander at Gallipoli . The campaign is often considered as marking the birth of national consciousness in Australia and New Zealand and the date of the landing , 25 April , is known as " Anzac Day " which is the most significant commemoration of military casualties and veterans in those two countries , surpassing Remembrance Day ( Armistice Day ) .
= = Background = =
= = = Ottoman entry into the war = = =
At the beginning of the 20th century , the Ottoman Empire had the reputation of being the " sick man of Europe " , weakened by political instability , military defeat and civil strife following a century of decline . In 1908 , a group of young officers , known as the Young Turks , seized power in Constantinople , while Mehmed V was later installed as a figurehead Sultan in 1909 . The new régime implemented a program of reform to modernise the outdated political and economic system and to redefine the racial make @-@ up of the empire . An enthusiastic supporter , Germany provided significant investment . German diplomats subsequently found increasing influence , despite Britain previously being the predominant power in the region , while German officers assisted in training and re @-@ equipping the army .
Despite this support , the economic resources of the Ottoman Empire were depleted by the cost of the Balkan Wars of 1912 and 1913 and the French , British and Germans had offered financial aid . A pro @-@ German faction influenced by Enver Pasha , the former Ottoman military attaché in Berlin , opposed the pro @-@ British majority in the Ottoman cabinet and tried to secure closer relations with Germany . In December 1913 , the Germans sent a military mission to Constantinople , headed by General Otto Liman von Sanders . The geographical position of the Ottoman Empire meant that Russia and her allies France and Britain had a significant interest in Turkish neutrality in the event of war in Europe .
During the Sarajevo Crisis in 1914 , German diplomats offered Turkey an anti @-@ Russian alliance and territorial gains in Caucasia , north @-@ west Iran and Trans @-@ Caspia . The pro @-@ British faction in the Cabinet was isolated due to the British ambassador taking leave until 18 August . As the crisis deepened in Europe , Ottoman policy was to obtain a guarantee of territorial integrity and potential advantages , unaware that the British might enter a European war . On 30 July 1914 , two days after the outbreak of the war in Europe , the Ottoman leaders agreed to form a secret Ottoman @-@ German Alliance against Russia , although it did not require them to undertake military action .
On 2 August , the British requisitioned two modern battleships — Sultân Osmân @-@ ı Evvel and Reşadiye which British shipyards had started building for the Ottoman Navy — for their own use , alienating pro @-@ British elements in Constantinople , despite the offer of compensation if they remained neutral . This action strained diplomatic relations between the two empires and the German government offered SMS Goeben and SMS Breslau to the Ottoman navy as replacements , in an attempt to gain influence . The Allies tried to intercept the ships , which escaped when the Ottoman government opened the Dardanelles to allow them passage to Constantinople , despite being required under international law , as a neutral party , to block military shipping . By allowing the German ships to enter the Dardanelles , the Ottomans confirmed their links to Germany .
In September , the British naval mission to the Ottomans , which had been established in 1912 under Admiral Arthur Limpus , was recalled due to increasing concern that Turkey would soon enter the war . Rear Admiral Wilhelm Souchon of the Imperial German Navy took over command of the Ottoman navy . Acting without orders from the Ottoman government , on 27 September the German commander of the Dardanelles fortifications ordered the passage closed , adding to the impression that the Ottomans were " in the German camp " . The German naval presence and the success of German armies on all fronts , gave the pro @-@ German faction in the Ottoman government enough influence to declare war on Russia .
On 27 October , Goeben and Breslau , having been renamed Yavûz Sultân Selîm and Midilli , sortied into the Black Sea , bombarded the Russian port of Odessa and sank several Russian ships . The Ottomans refused an Allied demand that they expel the German missions and on 31 October 1914 , officially entered the war on the side of the Central Powers . Russia declared war on Turkey on 2 November . The next day , the British ambassador left Constantinople and a British naval squadron off the Dardanelles bombarded the outer defensive forts at Kum Kale and Seddulbahir . A shell hit a magazine , knocked the guns off their mounts and killed 86 soldiers .
Britain and France declared war on Turkey on 5 November and the Ottomans declared a jihad ( holy war ) later that month , launching an offensive in the Caucasus against the Russians to regain former Turkish provinces there . Fighting also began in Mesopotamia , following a British landing to occupy the oil facilities in the Persian Gulf . The Ottomans prepared to attack Egypt in early 1915 , aiming to occupy the Suez Canal and cut the Mediterranean route to India and the Far East . Strachan wrote that in hindsight Ottoman belligerence was inevitable , once Goeben and Breslau were allowed into the Dardanelles and that delays after that were caused by Ottoman unreadiness for war and Bulgarian neutrality , rather than uncertainty about policy .
= = = Allied strategy and the Dardanelles = = =
The British had planned to invade amphibiously near Alexandretta before the Dardanelles operation with the idea originally presented by Boghos Nubar in 1914 . It was planned by Field Marshal Lord Horatio Kitchener to sever the capital from Syria , Palestine , and Egypt . Alexandretta was an area with a Christian population and was the strategic center of the Empire 's railway network – its capture would have cut the empire in two . Vice Admiral Sir Richard Peirse , East Indies Station , ordered Captain Frank Larkin of HMS Doris to Alexandretta on 13 December 1914 . At the same time , in the same area , the Russian cruiser Askold and the French cruiser Requin were performing similar operations . Kitchener was working on the plan as late as March 1915 . This plan was also the beginning of Britain 's successful effort to start an Arab Revolt . The Alexandretta landing was abandoned because militarily it would have required more resources than France could allocate , and politically France did not want the British operating in their sphere of influence , a position to which Britain had agreed in 1912 .
However , by late 1914 the war on the Western Front had become a stalemate ; the Franco @-@ British counter @-@ offensive of the First Battle of the Marne had ended and the British had suffered many casualties in the First Battle of Ypres in Flanders . Lines of trenches had been dug by both sides , running from the Swiss border to the English Channel as the war of manoeuvre ended and trench warfare began . The German Empire and Austria @-@ Hungary closed the overland trade routes between Britain and France in the west and Russia in the east . The White Sea in the arctic north and the Sea of Okhotsk in the Far East were icebound in winter and distant from the Eastern Front , the Baltic Sea was blockaded by the Kaiserliche Marine ( Imperial German Navy ) and the entrance to the Black Sea through the Dardanelles was controlled by the Ottoman Empire . While the empire remained neutral supplies could still be sent to Russia through the Dardanelles , but prior to the Ottoman entry into the war the straits had been closed and in November they began to mine the waterway .
French Minister of Justice Aristide Briand 's proposal in November to attack the Ottoman Empire was rejected and an attempt by the British to pay the Ottomans to join the Allied side also failed . Later that month , Winston Churchill , First Lord of the Admiralty , proposed a naval attack on the Dardanelles , based in part on erroneous reports of Ottoman troop strength . Churchill wanted to use a large number of obsolete battleships , which could not operate against the German High Seas Fleet , in a Dardanelles operation , with a small occupation force provided by the army . It was hoped that an attack on the Ottomans would also draw Bulgaria and Greece ( both formerly ruled by the Ottomans ) into the war on the Allied side . On 2 January 1915 , Grand Duke Nicholas of Russia appealed to Britain for assistance against the Ottomans , who were conducting an offensive in the Caucasus . Planning began for a naval demonstration in the Dardanelles to divert troops from the Caucasian theatre of operations .
= = Naval campaign = =
= = = Attempt to force the Straits = = =
On 17 February 1915 , a British seaplane from HMS Ark Royal flew a reconnaissance sortie over the Straits . Two days later , the first attack on the Dardanelles began when a strong Anglo @-@ French task force , including the British battleship HMS Queen Elizabeth , began a long @-@ range bombardment of Ottoman artillery along the coast . The British had intended to utilise Ark Royal 's eight aircraft to spot for the bombardment , but harsh conditions rendered all but one of these , a Short Type 136 , unserviceable . A period of bad weather slowed the initial phase but by 25 February the outer forts had been reduced and the entrance cleared of mines . After this , Royal Marines were landed to destroy guns at Kum Kale on the northern Asian coast and at Sedd el Bahr on the southern tip of the Gallipoli Peninsula , while the naval bombardment shifted to batteries between Kum Kale and Kephez .
Frustrated by the mobility of the Ottoman batteries , which evaded the Allied bombardments and threatened the minesweepers sent to clear the Straits , Churchill began pressuring the naval commander , Admiral Sackville Carden , to increase the fleet 's efforts . Carden drew up fresh plans and on 4 March sent a cable to Churchill , stating that the fleet could expect to arrive in Istanbul within 14 days . A sense of impending victory was heightened by the interception of a German wireless message that revealed the Ottoman Dardanelles forts were running out of ammunition . When the message was relayed to Carden , it was agreed a main attack would be launched on or around 17 March . It transpired that Carden , suffering from stress , was placed on the sick list by the medical officer and the fleet was placed under the command of Admiral John de Robeck .
On 18 March 1915 , the main attack was launched . The fleet , comprising 18 battleships with a supporting array of cruisers and destroyers , sought to target the narrowest point of the Dardanelles , where the straits are 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) wide . Despite some damage sustained by ships engaging the Ottoman forts , minesweepers were ordered to proceed along the straits . According to an account by the Ottoman General Staff , by 2 : 00 p.m. " all telephone wires were cut , all communications with the forts were interrupted , some of the guns had been knocked out ... in consequence the artillery fire of the defence had slackened considerably " . The French battleship Bouvet was sunk by a mine , causing it to capsize with her crew of over 600 still aboard . Minesweepers manned by civilians , under the constant fire of Ottoman shells , retreated , leaving the minefields largely intact . HMS Irresistible and HMS Inflexible were critically damaged by mines , although there was confusion during the battle about the cause of the damage — some blamed torpedoes . HMS Ocean , sent to rescue the Irresistible , was also damaged by an explosion , and both ships eventually sank . The French battleships Suffren and Gaulois were also damaged ; the ships had sailed through a new line of mines placed secretly by the Ottoman minelayer Nusret ten days before .
The losses forced de Robeck to sound the " general recall " to save what remained of his force . During the planning of the campaign , naval losses had been anticipated and so it was mainly obsolete battleships , which were unfit to face the German fleet , that had been sent . Some of the senior naval officers , such as the commander of Queen Elizabeth , Commodore Roger Keyes , felt that they had come close to victory , believing that the Ottoman guns had almost run out of ammunition , but de Robeck , Jackie Fisher and others prevailed and ended Allied attempts to force the straits by naval power , citing unacceptable losses and bad weather . The defeat of the British fleet had given the Ottomans a morale boost ; the day would later come to be celebrated in Turkey as a great victory . Planning to capture the Turkish defences by land began . Two Allied submarines tried to traverse the Dardanelles but were lost to mines and strong currents .
= = = Allied preparations for a landing = = =
After the failure of the naval attacks , ground forces were assembled , tasked with eliminating the Ottoman mobile artillery so that minesweepers could clear the way for the larger vessels . The British Secretary of State for War , Lord Kitchener , appointed General Sir Ian Hamilton to command the 78 @,@ 000 @-@ strong Mediterranean Expeditionary Force ( MEF ) that was to carry out the mission . At this time , soldiers from the Australian Imperial Force ( AIF ) and New Zealand Expeditionary Force ( NZEF ) were encamped in Egypt , undergoing training prior to being sent to France . These troops were formed into the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps ( ANZAC ) , which comprised the all @-@ volunteer Australian 1st Division and the New Zealand and Australian Division under the command of Lieutenant General William Birdwood . The ANZAC troops , along with the regular British 29th Division , the Royal Naval Division and the French Oriental Expeditionary Corps , consisting of " metropolitan " and colonial troops , were subsequently placed under Hamilton 's command . With only five divisions the operation would be complicated by the limited forces available , the rugged terrain of the peninsula and the small number of suitable landing beaches , as well as severe logistical difficulties . As the campaign progressed , the troops of the MEF would eventually be supported by about 2 @,@ 000 civilian labourers from the Egyptian and Maltese Labour Corps .
As a landing under fire had not been foreseen , the force was not prepared for such an undertaking . The British and French divisions subsequently joined the Australians in Egypt , while over the following month Hamilton prepared his plan , choosing to concentrate his force on the southern part of the Gallipoli peninsula at Cape Helles and Sedd el Bahr . The Allies initially discounted the fighting ability of the Ottoman soldiers , but came to respect them during the campaign . The early apathy was illustrated by a leaflet that was issued to the British and Australians while they were still in Egypt : " Turkish soldiers as a rule manifest their desire to surrender by holding their rifle butt upward and by waving clothes or rags of any colour . An actual white flag should be regarded with the utmost suspicion as a Turkish soldier is unlikely to possess anything of that colour . " Erickson has argued that this apathy stemmed from a " sense of superiority " amongst the Allies , which had resulted from the decline of the Ottoman Empire , and perceptions of its performance in earlier conflicts including the Balkan Wars of 1912 and 1913 . As a result , Allied intelligence failed to adequately prepare for the campaign , in some cases relying on information gained from Egyptian travel guides .
The troops earmarked for the assault were required to be loaded on the transports in the order they were to disembark and as a result the landings could not be undertaken until the end of April . Whilst the five @-@ week delay offered the Ottomans the opportunity to strengthen their position on the peninsula , unfavourable weather during March and April might have delayed the landings at any rate and would have prevented any troops ashore from being supplied and reinforced . Australian and New Zealand forces departed Egypt in early April , assembling on the island of Lemnos in Greece , where a small garrison had been established in early March . After arriving on 12 April a number of basic practice landings were undertaken . Meanwhile , on 17 April 1915 , the British submarine HMS E15 under the command of Captain T.S. Brodie had also tried to run the straits , but hit a submarine net and ran aground . The submarine was subsequently shelled by a Turkish fort , killing Brodie and six of the crew and forcing the survivors to surrender .
= = = Ottoman defensive preparations = = =
The Ottomans prepared to repel a landing on either side of the Straits , with the Ottoman Fifth Army . The force , which initially consisted of five divisions with another en route , was a conscript force , commanded by Otto Liman von Sanders , a German officer who had been head of the Military Mission sent to Turkey as advisors . Many of the senior officers in the Fifth Army were also German . Ottoman commanders and senior German officers debated the best means of defending the peninsula . All agreed that the most effective form of defence was to hold the high ground on the ridges of the peninsula . There was disagreement as to where the enemy would land and hence where to concentrate their forces . Mustafa Kemal , a 34 @-@ year @-@ old lieutenant colonel familiar with the Gallipoli peninsula , from his operations against Bulgaria in the Balkan War , believed Cape Helles ( the southern tip of the peninsula ) and Gaba Tepe would be the two most likely areas for landing . In the case of the former , Kemal believed that the British would use their navy to command the land from every side , which the tip of the peninsula would allow ; at Gaba Tepe , the short distance to the eastern coast meant forces could easily reach the Narrows .
Liman von Sanders considered Besika Bay on the Asiatic coast to be the most vulnerable to invasion , since Allied forces would benefit from more accessible terrain and could attack the most important Ottoman batteries guarding the straits . Sanders placed two divisions , one third of the Fifth Army , in this area . Two divisions were concentrated at Bulair at the north end of the Gallipoli peninsula , to protect supply and communication lines to the defences further along the peninsula .
The 19th Division , under the command of Mustafa Kemal and the 9th Division were placed along the Aegean coast and at Cape Helles on the tip of the peninsula . The bulk of the forces , under Sanders , were to be held inland , leaving a minimum of troops guarding the coast . After the 3rd Division and a cavalry brigade arrived from Constantinople in early April , the front line strength of the Ottoman forces on the Bosporus was 60 @,@ 000 – 62 @,@ 077 , which Sanders concentrated in three groups . He ordered the greatest possible effort to improve land and sea communications so that reinforcements could be moved swiftly to danger points ; troops were moved at night to avoid detection by Allied aircraft . Sanders ' strategy was opposed by Ottoman commanders , including Mustafa Kemal , who believed Ottoman forces were too widely dispersed to drive the attackers back into the sea as soon as their invasion began . Sanders was certain that a rigid system of defence would fail and that the only hope of success lay in the mobility of the three groups , particularly Kemal 's 19th Division , which was concentrated near Boghali as a general reserve , ready to move to Bulair , Gaba Tepe or the Asiatic shore .
The delay of the landings by the British allowed Sanders and other German officers such as Colonel Hans Kannengiesser , supported by III Corps commander Esat Pasha , time to prepare their defences . Sanders later noted , " the British allowed us four good weeks of respite for all this work before their great disembarkation ... This respite just sufficed for the most indispensable measures to be taken . " Roads were constructed , small boats assembled to carry troops and equipment across the narrows , beaches were wired and improvised mines were constructed from torpedo warheads . Trenches and gun emplacements were dug along the beaches , while troops went on route marches to avoid lethargy . Kemal , whose 19th Division was vital to the defensive scheme , observed the beaches and awaited signs of an invasion from his post at Boghali , near Maidos . The Ottomans created a small air force with German assistance and had four aircraft operating around Çanakkale in February , conducting reconnaissance and army co @-@ operation sorties and by early April they had established an airfield near Gallipoli .
= = Land campaign = =
= = = Landings = = =
The Allies planned to land and secure the northern shore , capturing the Ottoman forts and artillery batteries there so that a naval force could advance through the Narrows and the Sea of Marmara towards Constantinople . Scheduled for 23 April but postponed until 25 April due to bad weather , landings were to be made at six beaches on the peninsula . The 29th Division was to land at Helles on the tip of the peninsula and then advance upon the forts at Kilitbahir . The Anzacs , with the 3rd Infantry Brigade spearheading the assault , were to land north of Gaba Tepe on the Aegean coast , from where they could advance across the peninsula , cutting off the Ottoman troops in Kilitbahir . The small cove in and around which they landed became known as " Anzac Cove " . This sector of the Gallipoli Peninsula became known as " Anzac " ; the area held by the British and French became known as the " Helles sector " or simply " Helles " . The French made a diversionary landing at Kum Kale on the Asian shore , before re @-@ embarking to hold the eastern area of the Helles sector . There was a diversion by the Royal Naval Division , including a solo effort by New Zealander Bernard Freyberg at Bulair , for which he was awarded the Distinguished Service Order .
The Helles landing was made by the 29th Division , under the command of Major General Aylmer Hunter @-@ Weston . The division landed on five beaches in an arc about the tip of the peninsula , named from east to west as ' S ' , ' V ' , ' W ' , ' X ' and ' Y ' Beaches . On 1 May , the 29th Indian Brigade ( including the 1 / 6th Gurkha Rifles ) landed , took and secured Sari Bair above the landing beaches , and were later joined by two other Gurkha battalions , the 1st / 5th and the 2nd / 10th ; the Zion Mule Corps landed at Helles on 27 April . At ' Y ' Beach , during the first engagement around the village of Krithia ( First Battle of Krithia ) , the Allies were able to land unopposed and advance inland . There were only a small number of defenders in the village , but lacking orders to exploit the position , the ' Y ' Beach commander withdrew his force to the beach . It was as close as they came to capturing the village throughout the rest of the campaign as the Ottomans brought up a battalion of the 25th Regiment , checking any further movement .
The main landings were made at ' V ' Beach , beneath the old Seddülbahir fortress and at ' W ' Beach , a short distance to the west on the other side of the Helles headland . The covering force from the Royal Munster Fusiliers and Hampshires landed from a converted collier , SS River Clyde , which was run aground beneath the fortress so that the troops could disembark via ramps to the shore . The Royal Dublin Fusiliers landed at ' V ' Beach from open boats . At ' W ' Beach , the Lancashire Fusiliers also landed in open boats , on a shore overlooked by dunes and obstructed with barbed wire . On both beaches the Ottoman defenders occupied good defensive positions and inflicted many casualties on the British infantry as they landed . Troops emerging one by one from sally ports on the River Clyde were shot by machine @-@ gunners at the Seddülbahir fort . Of the first 200 soldiers to disembark , only 21 men reached the beach .
As at Anzac , the Ottoman defenders were too few to defeat the landing but inflicted many casualties and contained the attack close to the shore . By the morning of 25 April 1915 , out of ammunition and left with nothing but bayonets to meet the attackers on the slopes leading up from the beach to the heights of Chunuk Bair , the 57th Infantry Regiment received orders from Kemal , commanding the 19th Division : " I do not order you to fight , I order you to die . In the time which passes until we die , other troops and commanders can come forward and take our places " . Every man of the regiment was either killed in action or wounded . As a sign of respect , the 57th Regiment no longer exists in the Turkish Army .
At ' W ' Beach , thereafter known as Lancashire Landing , the Lancashires were able to overwhelm the defences despite the loss of 600 casualties from 1 @,@ 000 men . The battalions which landed at ' V ' Beach suffered about 70 percent casualties . Six awards of the Victoria Cross were made among the Lancashires at ' W ' Beach . A further six Victoria Crosses were awarded among the infantry and sailors at the ' V ' Beach landing and three more were awarded the following day as they fought their way off the beach . Five squads of Ottoman infantry led by Sergeant Yahya distinguished themselves by repulsing several attacks on their hilltop position , the defenders eventually disengaging under cover of darkness . After the landings , so few remained from the Dublin and Munster Fusiliers that they were amalgamated into " The Dubsters " . Only one Dubliner officer survived the landing , while of the 1 @,@ 012 Dubliners who landed , just 11 survived the Gallipoli campaign unscathed .
After the landings , little was done by the Allies to exploit the situation , and apart from a few limited advances inland by small groups of men , most troops stayed on or close to the beaches . The Allied attack lost momentum and the Ottomans had time to bring up reinforcements and rally the small number of defending troops . Lord Kitchener had ruled that air requirements must be met by the Royal Naval Air Service ( RNAS ) and the Allies employed a small force of seaplanes and other aircraft from No. 3 Squadron , RNAS which arrived at Tenedos at the end of March . Under Commander Charles Samson , the aircraft were initially unopposed by the small Ottoman air force and during the planning stages the force had been used to provide aerial reconnaissance , although this ultimately proved inadequate to meet the Allies ' intelligence needs and make up for the lack of adequate maps . Following the landings , Allied aircraft conducted photographic reconnaissance , observed naval gunfire , reported on Ottoman troop movements , and conducted a small number of offensive bombing raids .
The Australian submarine HMAS AE2 under the command of Lieutenant Commander Henry Stoker succeeded in getting through the Straits on the night of 24 / 25 April . As the army began landing soldiers at Cape Helles and Anzac Cove at dawn on the 25th , by 06 : 00 , AE2 reached Chanak and torpedoed a Turkish gunboat believed to be a Peyk @-@ i Şevket @-@ class cruiser while evading a destroyer . The submarine ran aground beneath a Turkish fort but the fort 's guns could not bear and AE2 was manoeuvred free . Shortly after refloating , the submarine 's periscope was sighted by a Turkish battleship , which was firing over the peninsula at Allied landing sites ; the ship ceased fire and withdrew . AE2 advanced toward the Sea of Marmara ; at 08 : 30 Stoker decided to rest the boat on the seabed and wait until nightfall before continuing . At around 21 : 00 , AE2 surfaced to recharge her batteries and sent a wireless report to the fleet . Although the landing at Cape Helles was going well , the landing at Anzac Cove was not as successful and the commander of the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps , Lieutenant General Sir William Birdwood contemplated the re @-@ embarkation of his troops . The news of the Australian submarine 's success was one of the factors that led to Birdwood 's reconsideration and was relayed to the soldiers ashore to improve morale . Stoker was ordered to " generally run amok " and with no enemies in sight , he sailed into the Sea of Marmara . AE2 cruised the Sea of Marmara for five days to give the impression of greater numbers and made several attacks against Turkish ships , which failed because of mechanical problems with the torpedoes .
= = = Early battles = = =
On the afternoon of 27 April 1915 , the 12 battalions of Mustafa Kemal 's 19th Division , reinforced by six battalions from the 5th Division , launched an attack to drive the six Allied brigades at Anzac back to the beach . With the support of naval gunfire , the Allies held back the Ottomans throughout the night . The following day the British , with the support of French troops , who had been transported north across the Dardanelles from Kum Kale on the Asiatic shore to the right of the line near ' S ' Beach at Morto Bay , attempted to capture Krithia , in what became known as the First Battle of Krithia . The plan for the attack which was formulated by Hunter @-@ Weston , proved overly complex and was poorly communicated to the commanders in the field . The troops of the 29th Division were still exhausted and unnerved by the battles for the beaches and for Seddülbahir village , which was captured after much fighting on 26 April . The Ottoman defenders stopped the Allied advance halfway between the Helles headland and Krithia village , at around 6 : 00 p.m. having inflicted 3 @,@ 000 casualties . As Ottoman reinforcements arrived , the possibility of a swift Allied victory on the peninsula disappeared and the fighting at Helles and Anzac , became a battle of attrition . On 30 April , the Royal Naval Division , under Major General Archibald Paris landed .
The same day , Kemal , believing that the Allies were on the verge of defeat , began moving troops forward through " Wire Gulley " , near the " 400 Plateau " and " Lone Pine " . The following afternoon , as eight battalions of reserves were dispatched from Constantinople , Ottoman troops launched strong counterattacks at Helles and Anzac . Although these briefly broke through in the French sector , the attacks were repulsed by massed Allied machine @-@ gun fire , which inflicted heavy casualties on the attackers . The following night , the ANZAC commander , Lieutenant General William Birdwood , ordered the New Zealand and Australian Division under Major General Alexander Godley , to attack from " Russell 's Top " and " Quinn 's Post " towards " Baby 700 " . Colonel John Monash 's Australian 4th Infantry Brigade , the New Zealand Infantry Brigade and marines from the Chatham Battalion took part in the attack . The troops advanced a short distance during the night , under a combined naval and artillery barrage but in the dark became separated and after coming under heavy fire from their exposed left flank , were eventually forced to withdraw , having suffered about 1 @,@ 000 casualties .
At sea , on 30 April , AE2 began to rise uncontrollably and surfaced near the Ottoman torpedo boat Sultanhisar , then dropped precipitously , below her safe diving depth , then broke the surface again at the stern . Sultanhisar immediately fired on the submarine , puncturing the pressure hull . Stoker ordered the boat 's company to abandon ship and scuttled the submarine before the crew was captured . AE2 's achievements showed that it was possible to force the Straits and soon Ottoman communications were badly disrupted by British and French submarine operations . On 27 April , HMS E14 , commanded by Lieutenant Commander Edward Boyle , entered the Sea of Marmara on a three @-@ week patrol in one of the most successful Allied naval actions of the campaign , sinking four ships including the transport Gul Djemal which was carrying 6 @,@ 000 troops and a field battery to Gallipoli . While the quantity and value of the shipping sunk was minor , the effect on Ottoman communications and morale was significant . On his return , Boyle was immediately awarded the Victoria Cross . Following the success of AE2 and E14 , the French submarine Joule attempted the passage on 1 May but struck a mine and was lost with all hands . ( Several weeks earlier another French boat , Saphir , had run aground near Nagara Point and had also been lost . )
= = = Operations : May 1915 = = =
On 5 May , the 42nd ( East Lancashire ) Division was dispatched from Egypt . Believing Anzac to be secure , Hamilton moved the Australian 2nd Infantry Brigade and the New Zealand Infantry Brigade , along with 20 Australian field artillery pieces , to the Helles front as reserves for the Second Battle of Krithia . Involving a force of 20 @,@ 000 men , it was the first general attack at Helles and was planned as a daylight attack . French troops were to capture Kereves Dere , and the British , Australians and New Zealanders were assigned Krithia and Achi Baba . After 30 minutes of artillery preparation , the assault began at mid @-@ morning on 6 May . The British and French advanced along four spurs dubbed " Gully " , " Fir Tree " , " Krithia " and " Kereves " which were separated by deep gullies and fortified by the Ottoman forces . As the attackers reached the Ottoman defences , the Allied units became separated as they attempted to outflank Ottoman strongpoints and found themselves in unfamiliar terrain . Under heavy artillery and then machine @-@ gun fire from Ottoman outposts that had remained hidden from British aerial reconnaissance , the advance stopped ; the next day , it was resumed by reinforcements .
The attack continued on 7 May , but the success of the Ottoman defences continued . Four battalions of New Zealanders attacked up Krithia Spur the following day and with the 29th Division they managed to reach a position just south of the village . Late in the afternoon , the Australian 2nd Brigade advanced quickly over open ground to the British front line . Amidst heavy small arms and shell fire , the brigade charged towards Krithia and gained 600 metres ( 660 yd ) , about 400 metres ( 440 yd ) short of the objective , with 1 @,@ 000 casualties . Near Fir Tree Spur , the New Zealanders managed to get forward and link up with the Australians , although the British were held up and the French were exhausted , despite having occupied a point overlooking their objective . The attack was suspended and the Allies dug in , having failed to take Krithia or Achi Baba .
A brief period of consolidation followed . Allied stocks of ammunition were almost expended , particularly for artillery , and both sides paused to bring in replenishments and expand their trench systems . The Ottomans relieved troops opposite the Australian line , which was reinforced by the Australian Light Horse operating as infantry . Sporadic fighting continued , with sniping , grenade attacks and raids , with opposing trenches separated in places by only a few metres . The Australians lost a number of officers to sniping , including the commander of the 1st Division , Major General William Bridges , who was wounded while inspecting the 1st Light Horse Regiment 's position near " Steele 's Post " and died of his injuries on the hospital ship HMHS Gascon on 18 May .
= = = Ottoman counter @-@ offensive : 19 May = = =
On 19 May , 42 @,@ 000 Turks launched an attack at Anzac in an effort to push 17 @,@ 000 Australians and New Zealanders " back into the sea " . Lacking sufficient artillery and ammunition , the Turks relied on surprise and weight of numbers for success but their preparations were seen on 18 May by a flight of British aircraft and the defenders forewarned . The Turks had c . 13 @,@ 000 casualties , of which 3 @,@ 000 men were killed ; Australian and New Zealand casualties were 160 killed and 468 wounded . The dead included a stretcher bearer , John Simpson Kirkpatrick , whose efforts to evacuate wounded men on a donkey while under fire , became legendary amongst the Australians at Anzac and later resulted in his story becoming part of the Australian narrative of the campaign . Ottoman losses were so severe that a truce was organised by Aubrey Herbert and others on 24 May , to bury the dead lying in no man 's land , which led to a camaraderie between the armies , much like the Christmas truce of 1914 on the Western Front . The truce was not repeated formally .
The British advantage in ship @-@ to @-@ shore bombardment had diminished by the torpedoing of the battleship HMS Goliath on 13 May by the Ottoman destroyer Muâvenet @-@ i Millîye . A German submarine , U @-@ 21 , sank HMS Triumph on 25 May and HMS Majestic on 27 May . Samson 's aircraft flew more patrols around Gallipoli and U @-@ 21 was forced to leave the area . Unaware of this , the Allies withdrew most of their warships to Imbros , where they were " protectively tethered " between brief sorties ; this greatly reduced the amount of Allied naval fire support , particularly in the Helles sector . Meanwhile , HMS E11 , commanded by Lieutenant Commander Martin Nasmith ( who was awarded a Victoria Cross ) passed through the Dardanelles on 18 May and sank or disabled 11 ships , including three on 23 May , before entering Constantinople harbour , firing on a transport alongside the arsenal , sinking a gunboat and damaging the wharf .
The Ottoman Turkish forces lacked artillery ammunition and Ottoman field batteries were only able to fire c . 18 @,@ 000 shells between early May and the first week of June . After the defeat of the counterattack at Anzac in mid @-@ May , the Ottoman forces ceased frontal assaults . Late in the month the Ottomans began tunnelling around " Quinn 's Post " in the Anzac sector and early in the morning of 29 May , despite Australian counter @-@ mining , the Ottomans detonated a mine and attacked with a battalion from the 14th Regiment . The Australian 15th Battalion was forced back but counterattacked and recaptured the ground later in the day , before being relieved by New Zealand troops . Operations at Anzac in early June returned to consolidation , minor engagements and skirmishing with grenades and sniper @-@ fire .
= = = Operations : June – July 1915 = = =
In the Helles sector , which had been extensively entrenched by both sides , the Allies attacked Krithia and Achi Baba again , in the Third Battle of Krithia on 4 June , with the 29th Division , Royal Naval Division , 42nd Division and two French divisions . After its failure , the possibility of a decisive breakthrough was gone and trench warfare resumed , with objectives being measured in hundreds of yards . Casualties were approximately 25 percent on both sides ; the British lost 4 @,@ 500 from 20 @,@ 000 men and the French 2 @,@ 000 casualties from 10 @,@ 000 troops . Ottoman losses were 9 @,@ 000 casualties according to the Turkish Official History and 10 @,@ 000 according to another account .
In June , a seaplane carrier HMS Ben @-@ my @-@ Chree arrived , and the Allied air force was expanded from one squadron to a full wing designated " No. 3 Wing RNAS " . The 52nd ( Lowland ) Division also landed at Helles in preparation for the Battle of " Gully Ravine " , which was launched on 28 June . This battle advanced the British line along the left ( Aegean ) flank of the battlefield , a limited victory for the Allies . Liman von Sanders credited the defence to two Ottoman officers , Faik Pasa and Albay Refet . On 30 June , the French commander , Henri Gouraud who had earlier replaced Albert d 'Amade , was wounded and replaced by his divisional commander , Maurice Bailloud . Between 1 and 5 July the Ottomans counterattacked the new British line several times but failed to regain the lost ground . Ottoman casualties for the period were estimated at 14 @,@ 000 men . A British action took place at Helles on 12 July , before the Allied main effort was shifted north to Anzac . Two fresh brigades from the 52nd Division attacked at the centre of the line along Achi Baba Nullah ( " Bloody Valley " ) , gained very little ground and lost 2 @,@ 500 casualties out of 7 @,@ 500 men ; the Royal Naval Division lost 600 and French losses were 800 men . Turkish losses were about 9 @,@ 000 casualties and 600 prisoners .
Meanwhile , the submarine campaign continued . Boyle and E14 made two subsequent tours of the Marmara . His third tour began on 21 July , when he passed through the straits despite the newly installed anti @-@ submarine net near the Narrows . The next attempt was made by Mariotte on 27 July . However , Mariotte failed to negotiate the net that E14 had eluded and was forced to the surface . After being shelled from the shore batteries , Mariotte was scuttled . On 8 August , during a subsequent tour of the Marmara , E11 torpedoed the Ottoman battleship Barbaros Hayreddin resulting in the loss of 253 men . During the tour E11 also sank a gunboat , seven transports and 23 sailing vessels .
= = = August offensive = = =
The failure of the Allies to capture Krithia , or make any progress on the Helles front , led Hamilton to pursue a new plan to secure the Sari Bair Range and capture high ground on Hill 971 and Chunuk Bair . Both sides had been reinforced , with Hamilton 's original five divisions increased to 15 , while the six original Ottoman divisions had grown to 16 . Commanded by Godley , the Allies planned to land two fresh infantry divisions from IX Corps , at Suvla , 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) north of Anzac , followed by an advance on Sari Bair from the northwest . At Anzac an offensive would be made against the Sari Bair range by advancing through rough and thinly defended terrain , north of the Anzac perimeter . This would be achieved by an attack on " Baby 700 " from the Nek by dismounted Australian light horsemen from the 3rd Light Horse Brigade , in concert with an attack on Chunuk Bair summit by New Zealanders from the New Zealand Infantry Brigade , who would traverse " Rhododendron Ridge " , the " Apex " and the " Farm " . Hill 971 would be attacked by a combined force drawn from the Gurkhas of the 29th Indian Brigade and the Australians of the 4th Infantry Brigade . The Allies had 40 aircraft , mainly of No. 3 Wing , RNAS at Imbros , which had replaced its original Voisin aircraft , with Farmans and Nieuport Xs . A French squadron , Escadrille MF98T , had also been established at Tenedos . Against this the Ottomans had 20 aircraft , of which eight were stationed at Çanakkale . Throughout the offensive the Allied aircraft made reconnaissance flights , spotted for naval gunfire support , and conducted low @-@ level bombing of Ottoman reserves as they were brought up to the battlefield ; they also undertook anti @-@ shipping operations in the Gulf of Saros where a seaplane from HMS Ben @-@ my @-@ Chree sank an Ottoman tug with an air @-@ launched torpedo .
The landing at Suvla Bay took place on the night of 6 August against light opposition ; but the British commander , Lieutenant General Frederick Stopford , had limited his early objectives and then failed to forcefully push his demands for an advance inland , and little more ground than the beach was seized . The Ottomans were able to occupy the Anafarta Hills , preventing the British from penetrating inland , which reduced the Suvla front to static trench warfare . The offensive was preceded on the evening of 6 August by diversions at Helles and Anzac . At Helles , the diversion at Krithia Vineyard became another costly stalemate . At Anzac an attack on the Ottoman trenches at " Lone Pine " , led by the 1st Infantry Brigade , captured the main Ottoman trench line in a diversion to draw Ottoman forces away from the main assaults at the peaks of Chunuk Bair and Hill 971 , both of which failed nonetheless .
The New Zealand Infantry Brigade came within 500 metres ( 550 yd ) of the near peak of Chunuk Bair by dawn on 7 August but was not able to seize the summit until the following morning . This delay had fatal consequences for another supporting attack on the morning of 7 August , by the Australian 3rd Light Horse Brigade at the Nek , which was to coincide with the New Zealander attack from Chunuk Bair against the rear of the Ottoman defences . The attack went ahead regardless , ending in a costly failure , after the opening artillery barrage lifted seven minutes early , leaving the assaulting troops to attack alerted Ottoman defenders on a narrow front . An attack on Hill 971 never took place after the Australian 4th Infantry Brigade and an Indian brigade lost direction during the night . Attempts to resume the attack were easily repulsed by the Ottoman defenders , at great cost to the Allies .
The New Zealanders held out on Chunuk Bair for two days before relief was provided by two New Army battalions from the Wiltshire and Loyal North Lancashire Regiments . An Ottoman counterattack on 10 August , led by Mustafa Kemal , swept these two battalions from the heights . Of 760 men in the New Zealand Wellington Battalion who reached the summit 711 became casualties . With the Turkish forces having recaptured the vital ground the Allies ' best chance of victory was lost .
The Suvla landing was reinforced by the arrival of the 10th ( Irish ) Division on 7 August , the 53rd ( Welsh ) Division , which began landing on 8 August , the 54th ( East Anglian ) Division arriving late on 10 August , and the dismounted yeomanry of the 2nd Mounted Division on 18 August . On 12 August the 54th Division attacked Kavak Tepe and Tekke Tepe , crossing the Anafarta Plain . The attack failed and Hamilton 's staff briefly considered the evacuation of Suvla and Anzac . The events of the day later gained significance due to the loss of a company of the Norfolk Regiment . Having been recruited from men who worked on King George V 's Sandringham estate they were dubbed the " Sandringham Company " . After being isolated and destroyed during the 12 August attack it was rumoured that they had advanced into a mist and " simply disappeared " . This gave rise to legends that they had been executed or that they had been taken by some supernatural force , but some members were later found to have been taken prisoner .
Elements of the newly formed Australian 2nd Division began arriving at Anzac from Egypt with the 5th Infantry Brigade landing on 19 – 20 August ; the 6th and 7th arrived in early September . The 29th Division was also shifted from Helles to Suvla . The final British attempt to resuscitate the offensive came on 21 August with attacks at Scimitar Hill and Hill 60 . Control of the hills would have united the Anzac and Suvla fronts but both attacks failed . During the fighting at Hill 60 , which ended on 29 August , Hamilton had requested another 95 @,@ 000 troops on 17 August and on 16 August the French had announced plans to Kitchener for an autumn offensive in France . A meeting of the Dardanelles Committee on 20 August determined that the French offensive would be supported with all the forces at Britain 's disposal , which left only about 25 @,@ 000 reinforcements for the Dardanelles . On 23 August , after news of the failure at Scimitar Hill , Hamilton felt compelled to assume a defensive strategy as Bulgaria 's entry into the war , which would allow the Germans to rearm the Turkish army , was imminent and left little opportunity for the resumption of offensive operations . On 20 September 1915 , the Newfoundland Regiment was deployed at Suvla Bay with the 29th Division in support of the campaign . On 25 September Kitchener demanded three divisions — two British and one French — for service in Salonika in Greece , and this marked the beginning of the end of the Allied campaign at Gallipoli .
Alan Moorehead records that during the stalemate one old Ottoman batman was regularly permitted to hang his platoon 's washing on the barbed wire without attracting fire and that there was a " constant traffic " of gifts being thrown across no @-@ man 's land : dates and sweets from the Ottoman side and cans of beef and cigarettes from the Allied side . Conditions at Gallipoli grew worse for the soldiers on both sides , and summer heat and poor sanitation resulted in an explosion in the fly population . Eating became extremely difficult as unburied corpses became bloated and putrid . The precarious Allied bases were poorly situated , which caused supply and shelter problems . A dysentery epidemic spread through the Allied trenches at Anzac and Helles , while the Ottomans also suffered heavily from disease which resulted in many deaths .
= = = Evacuation = = =
The defeat of Serbia during the autumn 1915 phase of the Serbian Campaign prompted France and Britain to transfer troops from the Gallipoli Campaign to Greek Macedonia . The Macedonian Front was thus established in an effort to support the remnants of the Serbian army to conquer Vardar Macedonia .
Following the failure of the August Offensive , the Gallipoli campaign drifted . Ottoman success began to affect public opinion in the United Kingdom , with news discrediting Hamilton 's performance being smuggled out by journalists like Keith Murdoch and Ellis Ashmead @-@ Bartlett . Disaffected senior officers such as General Stopford also contributed to the overall air of gloom . The prospect of evacuation was raised on 11 October 1915 but Hamilton resisted the suggestion , fearing the damage to British prestige . He was dismissed as commander shortly afterwards and replaced by Lieutenant General Sir Charles Monro . Autumn and winter brought relief from the heat but also led to gales , blizzards and flooding , resulting in men drowning and freezing to death , while thousands suffered frostbite .
Meanwhile , on 4 September , the same anti @-@ submarine net that caught Mariotte also trapped E7 as it attempted to commence another tour . Despite such reverses , by mid @-@ September the Allies had succeeded in sealing off the eastern entrance to the Dardanelles to German U @-@ boats using a series of nets and mines , with U @-@ 21 finding the way blocked when it attempted to traverse the strait on its way to Constantinople on 13 September . The first French submarine to enter the Sea of Marmara was Turquoise . However , it was forced to turn back and , on 30 October , when attempting to pass back through the straits , ran aground beneath a fort and was captured intact . The crew of 25 were taken prisoner and documents detailing planned Allied operations were discovered . This included a scheduled rendezvous with HMS E20 on 6 November . However , the rendezvous was kept by the German U @-@ boat U @-@ 14 instead , which torpedoed and sank E20 , killing all but nine of the crew .
The situation at Gallipoli was complicated by the entry of Bulgaria into the war on the side of the Central Powers . In early October 1915 the British and French opened a second Mediterranean front at Salonika , by moving three divisions from Gallipoli , and reducing the flow of reinforcements . A land route between Germany and the Ottoman Empire through Bulgaria was opened , enabling Germany to supply heavy artillery to devastate the Allied trench network , especially on the confined front at Anzac , as well as modern aircraft and experienced crews . In late November an Ottoman crew in a German Albatros C.I shot down a French aircraft over Gaba Tepe and two Austro @-@ Hungarian artillery units , the 36 . Haubitzbatterie and 9 . Motormörserbatterie arrived , providing a substantial reinforcement of the Ottoman artillery . Monro recommended evacuation to Kitchener who in early November visited the eastern Mediterranean . After consulting with the commanders of VIII Corps at Helles , IX Corps at Suvla , and Anzac , Kitchener agreed with Monro and passed his recommendation to the British Cabinet , who confirmed the decision to evacuate in early December .
Due to the proximity of Ottoman forces and the harsh winter weather , many casualties were anticipated during the embarkation . The untenable nature of the Allied position was made apparent when a heavy rainstorm struck on 26 November 1915 . It lasted three days and was followed by a blizzard at Suvla in early December . Rain flooded trenches , drowned soldiers and washed unburied corpses into the lines ; the following snow killed still more men from exposure .
The evacuation was the best @-@ executed segment of the entire Allied campaign . Suvla and Anzac were to be evacuated in late December , the last troops leaving before dawn on 20 December 1915 . Troop numbers had been slowly reduced since 7 December 1915 and ruses , such as William Scurry 's self @-@ firing rifle , which had been rigged to fire by water dripped into a pan attached to the trigger , were used to disguise the Allied departure . At Anzac Cove troops maintained silence for an hour or more , until curious Ottoman troops ventured to inspect the trenches , whereupon the Anzacs opened fire . A mine was detonated at the Nek which killed 70 Ottoman soldiers . The Allied force was embarked , with the Australians suffering no casualties on the final night , but large quantities of supplies and stores fell into Ottoman hands .
Helles was retained for a period but a decision to evacuate the garrison was made on 28 December . Unlike the evacuation from Anzac Cove , Ottoman forces were looking for signs of withdrawal . Having used the intervening time to bring up reinforcements and supplies , Liman von Sanders mounted an attack on the British at " Gully Spur " on 7 January 1916 with infantry and artillery ; the attack failed and heavy casualties were inflicted . Mines were laid with time fuzes and that night and on the night of 7 / 8 January , under the cover of a naval bombardment , the British troops began to fall back 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) from their lines to the beaches , where makeshift piers were used to board boats . The final British troops departed from Lancashire Landing around 04 : 00 on 8 January 1916 . The Newfoundland Regiment was chosen to be a part of the rearguard , finally withdrawing from Gallipoli on 9 January 1916 . Among the first to land , remnants of The Plymouth Battalion , Royal Marine Light Infantry were the last to leave the Peninsula . Despite predictions of up to 30 @,@ 000 casualties , 35 @,@ 268 troops , 3 @,@ 689 horses and mules , 127 guns , 328 vehicles and 1 @,@ 600 long tons ( 1 @,@ 600 t ) of equipment were removed . 508 mules which could not be embarked were killed so as not to fall into Turkish hands , and 1 @,@ 590 vehicles were left behind with destroyed wheels . As at Anzac , large amounts of supplies ( including 15 damaged British and six French artillery pieces which were destroyed ) , gun carriages and ammunition were left behind ; hundreds of horses were also slaughtered , again to prevent them from being utilised by the Ottomans . One sailor was killed by débris from a magazine that exploded prematurely , and a lighter and a picket boat were lost . Shortly after dawn , the Ottoman forces retook Helles . In the final days of the campaign , the Ottoman air defences had been increased by a German @-@ Ottoman fighter squadron which began operations over the peninsula and inflicted the first British flying losses a couple of days after the evacuation of Helles , when three Fokker Eindeckers shot down two RNAS aircraft .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Military repercussions = = =
Historians are divided about how they summarise the campaign 's result . Broadbent describes the campaign as " a close @-@ fought affair " that was a defeat for the Allies , while Carlyon views the overall result as a stalemate . Peter Hart disagrees , arguing that the Ottoman forces " held the Allies back from their real objectives with relative ease " , while Haythornthwaite calls it a " disaster for the Allies " . The campaign did cause " enormous damage to ... [ Ottoman ] national resources " , and at that stage of the war the Allies were in a better position to replace their losses than the Ottomans , but ultimately the Allied attempt at securing a passage through the Dardanelles proved unsuccessful . While it diverted Ottoman forces away from other areas of conflict in the Middle East the campaign also consumed resources the Allies could have employed on the Western Front , and also resulted in heavy losses on the Allied side .
The Allied campaign was plagued by ill @-@ defined goals , poor planning , insufficient artillery , inexperienced troops , inaccurate maps and intelligence , overconfidence , inadequate equipment and logistics , and tactical deficiencies at all levels . Geography also proved a significant factor . While the Allied forces possessed inaccurate maps and intelligence and proved unable to exploit the terrain to their advantage , the Ottoman commanders were able to utilise the high ground around the Allied landing beaches to position well @-@ sited defences that limited the Allied forces ' ability to penetrate inland , confining them to narrow beaches . The campaign 's necessity remains the subject of debate , and the recriminations that followed were significant , highlighting the schism that had developed between military strategists who felt the Allies should focus on fighting on the Western Front and those that favoured trying to end the war by attacking Germany 's " soft underbelly " , its allies in the east .
British and French submarine operations in the Sea of Marmara were the one significant area of success of the Gallipoli Campaign , forcing the Ottomans to abandon the sea as a transport route . Between April and December 1915 , a total of nine British and four French submarines had carried out 15 patrols , sinking one battleship , one destroyer , five gunboats , 11 troop transports , 44 supply ships , and 148 sailing vessels at a cost of eight Allied submarines which were sunk in the strait or in the Sea of Marmara . During the campaign there was always one British submarine in the Sea of Marmara , sometimes two ; in October 1915 , there were four Allied submarines in the region . E2 left the Sea of Marmara on 2 January 1916 , the last British submarine in the region . Meanwhile , four E @-@ class and five B @-@ class submarines remained in the Mediterranean Sea following the evacuation of Helles . By this time the Ottoman navy had been all but forced to cease operations in the area , while merchant shipping had also been significantly curtailed . The official German naval historian , Admiral Eberhard von Mantey , later concluded that had the sea lanes of communication been completely severed the Ottoman 5th Army would likely have faced catastrophe . As it was these operations were a source of significant anxiety , posing a constant threat to shipping and causing heavy losses , effectively dislocating Ottoman attempts to reinforce their forces at Gallipoli , and shelling troop concentrations and railways .
Gallipoli marked the end for Hamilton and Stopford but Hunter @-@ Weston went on to lead VIII Corps on the first day of the Battle of the Somme . The competence of Australian brigade commanders , John Monash ( 4th Infantry Brigade ) and Harry Chauvel ( 1st Light Horse Brigade , New Zealand and Australian Division ) , was recognised by promotion to divisional and corps command . The influence of Kitchener waned after the coalition government was formed in May 1915 , partly because of the growing sense of failure in the Dardanelles and culminated in Kitchener being overruled on support for the French at Salonika in early December 1915 , when his influence on the Cabinet was at its lowest . The campaign gave confidence to the Ottomans in their ability to defeat the Allies . In Mesopotamia , the Turks surrounded a British expedition at Kut Al Amara , forcing their surrender in April 1916 . Ottoman forces in southern Palestine were poised to launch an attack against the Suez Canal and Egypt . Defeat at the Battle of Romani and lack of materials to complete the military railway , necessary for such an operation , marked the end of that ambition . The optimism which came from the victory at Gallipoli was replaced by a gathering sense of despair and the British remained on the offensive in the Middle East for the rest of the war .
The lessons of the campaign had a significant impact upon the development of amphibious operational planning , and have since been studied by military planners prior to operations such as the Normandy Landings in 1944 and during the Falklands War in 1982 . The campaign also influenced US Marine Corps amphibious operations during the Pacific War , and continues to influence US amphibious doctrine .
According to authors such as Theodore Gatchel , during the interwar period the campaign " became a focal point for the study of amphibious warfare " in the United Kingdom and United States , because , as Glenn Wahlert points out , it involved " all four types of amphibious operations : the raid , demonstration , assault and withdrawal " . Russell Weigley has written that analysis of the campaign before World War II led to " a belief among most of the armed forces of the world " that amphibious assaults could not succeed against modern defences and that arguably this perception continued until the Normandy Landings in June 1944 despite some successful examples of amphibious operations earlier in the war , such as those in Italy , and at Tarawa and in the Gilbert Islands in the Pacific . Hart supports Weighley 's supposition , writing that although this negative perception prevailed amongst Allied planners in the interwar years , the war situation after 1940 meant that such operations had to be considered . He also argues that despite early successes in North Africa and Italy , it was not until Normandy that the belief that opposed landings could not succeed was completely excised .
The memory of Gallipoli also weighed heavily upon the Australians during the planning stages of the Huon Peninsula campaign in late 1943 . In September 1943 , Australian forces carried out their first opposed amphibious landing since Gallipoli , when they landed at Finschhafen in New Guinea . The landing was hampered by navigational errors and troops came ashore on the wrong beaches but they had been trained with the lessons of Gallipoli in mind , specifically the need to maintain momentum , and they quickly reorganised and pushed inland .
= = = Political effects = = =
The failure of the landings had significant political repercussions in Britain , which began during the battle . Fisher resigned in May after bitter conflict with Churchill over the campaign . The crisis that followed after the Conservatives learned that Churchill would be staying , forced the Prime Minister H. H. Asquith , to end his Liberal Government and form a Coalition Government with the Conservative Party . The Asquith government responded to the disappointment and outrage over Gallipoli and Kut by establishing commissions of inquiry into both episodes which had done much to " destroy its faltering reputation for competence " . The Dardanelles Commission was set up to investigate the failure of the expedition , the first report being issued in 1917 , with the final report published in 1919 . Following the failure of the Dardanelles expedition , Sir Ian Hamilton , commander of the MEF , was recalled to London in October 1915 , ending his military career . Churchill was demoted from First Lord of the Admiralty as a prerequisite for Conservative entry to the coalition but remained in the Cabinet in the sinecure of Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster , before resigning in November 1915 and departing for the Western Front , where he commanded an infantry battalion of the Royal Scots Fusiliers early in 1916 .
Asquith was partly blamed for Gallipoli and other disasters and was overthrown in December 1916 when David Lloyd George proposed a war council under his authority , which led the Conservatives in the coalition to threaten to resign . Lloyd George and then Asquith resigned followed by Lloyd George becoming Prime Minister . Lloyd George formed a new government , in which Churchill , active again in the House of Commons from June 1916 , was given the non @-@ cabinet post of Minister of Munitions despite Conservative opposition . In this role he was later responsible for implementing a number of innovations , including the development of the tank . The Commission 's final report was issued in 1919 , concluding that with the forces available , success was dependent on the government giving priority to the expedition and leaving the British Expeditionary Force in France to make do . The Commissioners found that Hamilton had been over @-@ optimistic from the beginning and had added to Stopford 's difficulties on 8 August 1915 ; but he emerged from the investigation more favourably than perhaps was justified , partly because he made devious attempts to gain collusion from witnesses and obtain leaks from the Commission 's deliberations ; Hamilton was never given another army appointment .
The enormous Gallipoli casualties among Irish soldiers who had volunteered to fight in the British Army was a causal factor in the Irish War of Independence ; as balladeers sang , " Twas better to die ' neath an Irish sky than in Suvla or Sedd el Bahr " .
= = = Casualties = = =
Casualty figures for the campaign vary between sources , but it is believed that by the time the Gallipoli Campaign ended over 100 @,@ 000 men were dead , including 56 @,@ 000 – 68 @,@ 000 Turkish and around 53 @,@ 000 British and French soldiers . Carlyon gives 43 @,@ 000 British killed or missing , including 8 @,@ 709 Australians . Among the dead were 2 @,@ 721 New Zealanders , about a quarter of those who had initially landed on the peninsula . In total there were nearly half a million casualties during the campaign , with the British Official History listing total losses , including sick , as 205 @,@ 000 British , 47 @,@ 000 French and 251 @,@ 000 Turkish . Yet Turkish casualties have been disputed and were likely higher , with another source listing 2 @,@ 160 officers and 287 @,@ 000 other ranks . Included among this may be as many as 87 @,@ 000 killed . Many soldiers became sick due to the unsanitary conditions , especially from typhoid , dysentery and diarrhoea . It is estimated that at least 145 @,@ 000 British soldiers became ill during the campaign . Turkish sick are given as 64 @,@ 000 .
In November 1918 , the Canterbury Mounted Rifles and the 7th Light Horse Regiments , from the Anzac Mounted Division , were sent from Rafa to Gallipoli to " monitor Turkish compliance with the terms of the Armistice " . The 900 troopers , sailed from Kantara in the transport ship Huntscastle to Chanak , camping at Camburnu near Kilid Bahr during three winter months when they reconnoitred the Peninsula , identifying graves and inspecting the Ottoman positions . The troopers returned to Egypt on 19 January 1919 less 11 who had died and 110 who were sick in hospital . Author Lindsay Baly later wrote that it was " a sad mistake to take worn @-@ out men there in such a season " .
There were allegations that Allied forces had attacked or bombarded Ottoman hospitals and hospital ships on several occasions between the start of the campaign and September 1915 . By July 1915 , there were 25 Ottoman hospitals with a total of 10 @,@ 700 beds and three hospital ships in the area . The French Government disputed these complaints through the Red Cross and the British response was that if it happened then it was accidental . Russia in turn claimed that the Ottomans had attacked two of their hospital ships , the Portugal and the Vperiod , but the Ottoman Government responded that the vessels had been the victims of mines . No chemical weapons were used at Gallipoli , although the Allies debated their use throughout the campaign and transported quantities of gas to the theatre , which were used against Ottoman troops in the Middle Eastern theatre two years later , during the second and third battles of Gaza in 1917 .
The Commonwealth War Graves Commission ( CWGC ) is responsible for developing and maintaining permanent cemeteries for all Commonwealth forces — United Kingdom , Australia , New Zealand , India , Newfoundland and others . There are 31 CWGC cemeteries on the Gallipoli peninsula : six at Helles ( plus the only solitary grave , that of Lieutenant Colonel Charles Doughty @-@ Wylie VC , Royal Welch Fusiliers ) , four at Suvla and 21 at Anzac . For many of those killed , and those who died on hospital ships and were buried at sea , there is no known grave . These men 's names are recorded on one of five " memorials to the missing " ; the Lone Pine Memorial commemorates Australians killed in the Anzac sector , as well as New Zealanders with no known grave or who were buried at sea , while the Lone Pine , Hill 60 , and Chunuk Bair Memorials commemorate New Zealanders killed at Anzac . The Twelve Tree Copse Memorial commemorates the New Zealanders killed in the Helles sector , while British , Indian and Australian troops who died there are commemorated on the Helles Memorial at Cape Helles . British naval casualties who were lost or buried at sea are not recorded on these memorials but are listed on memorials in the United Kingdom . There are two more CWGC cemeteries on the Greek island of Limnos , the first in the town of Moudros and the second in the village of Portianou . Limnos was the hospital base for the Allied forces and most of the buried were among the men who died of their wounds . There is only one French cemetery on the Gallipoli Peninsula , located at Seddulbahir .
There are no large Turkish military cemeteries on the peninsula but there are numerous memorials , the main ones being the Çanakkale Martyrs ' Memorial at Morto Bay , Cape Helles ( near ' S ' Beach ) , the Turkish Soldier 's Memorial on Chunuk Bair and the memorial and open @-@ air mosque for the 57th Regiment near Quinn 's Post ( Bomba Sirt ) . There are a number of Turkish memorials and cemeteries on the Asian shore of the Dardanelles , demonstrating the greater emphasis that Turkish historians place on the victory of 18 March over the subsequent fighting on the peninsula .
= = = Subsequent operations = = =
Allied troops were withdrawn to Lemnos and then to Egypt . French forces ( renamed the " Corps Expeditionnaire des Dardanelles " in late October ) were subsumed into the Army of the Orient and later employed at Salonika . In Egypt , the British Imperial and Dominion troops from the Dardanelles along with fresh divisions from the United Kingdom and those at Salonika , became the Mediterranean Expeditionary Force ( MEF ) , commanded by Lieutenant General Sir Archibald Murray . They joined the Force in Egypt to become the strategic reserve for the British Empire , consisting of 13 infantry and mounted divisions with 400 @,@ 000 men . In March 1916 , Murray took command of both these forces , forming them into the new Egyptian Expeditionary Force ( EEF ) , and reorganising the units for service in Europe , Egypt and elsewhere in the Middle East . While the ANZAC was disbanded , the AIF was expanded with three new Australian divisions being raised , and a New Zealand Division was also formed . These units moved to the Western Front in mid @-@ 1916 .
The British yeomanry units that had fought dismounted at Gallipoli were reinforced and reorganised , forming the 74th ( Yeomanry ) Division and a portion of the 75th Division . Along with the Australian Light Horsemen and New Zealand Mounted Rifles remounted and reorganised into the Anzac Mounted Division , infantry from the 52nd ( Lowland ) Division , 42nd ( East Lancashire ) Division , 53rd ( Welsh ) Division and 54th ( East Anglian ) Division , later joined by additional remounted Australian Light Horsemen and British yeomanry from the Australian Mounted Division , participated in the Sinai and Palestine Campaign . The Egyptian Sinai was reoccupied in 1916 , while Palestine and the northern Levant were captured from the Ottoman Empire during 1917 and 1918 , before the Armistice of Mudros ended hostilities in the Middle Eastern theatre on 31 October . The Allies subsequently occupied Gallipoli and Constantinople and partitioned the Ottoman Empire . The occupation ended in 1923 .
= = Legacy = =
The significance of the Gallipoli Campaign is felt strongly in both New Zealand and Australia , despite their being a small minority of the Allied forces ; the campaign is regarded in both nations as a " baptism of fire " and had been linked to their emergence as independent states . Approximately 50 @,@ 000 Australians served at Gallipoli and from 14 @,@ 000 to 17 @,@ 000 New Zealanders . It has been argued that the campaign proved significant in the emergence of a unique Australian identity following the war , which has been closely linked to popular conceptualisations of the qualities of the soldiers that fought during the campaign , which became embodied in the notion of an " Anzac spirit " .
The landing on 25 April is commemorated every year in both countries as " Anzac Day " . The first iteration was celebrated unofficially in 1916 , at churches in Melbourne , Brisbane and London , before being officially recognised as a public holiday in all Australian states in 1923 . The day also became a national holiday in New Zealand in the 1920s . Organised marches by veterans began in 1925 , in the same year a service was held on the beach at Gallipoli ; two years later the first official dawn service took place at the Sydney Cenotaph . During the 1980s it became popular for Australian and New Zealand tourists to visit Gallipoli to attend the dawn service there and since then thousands have attended . Over 10 @,@ 000 people attended the 75th anniversary along with political leaders from Turkey , New Zealand , Britain and Australia . Dawn services are also held in Australia ; in New Zealand , dawn services are the most popular form of observance of this day . Anzac Day remains the most significant commemoration of military casualties and veterans in Australia and New Zealand , surpassing Remembrance Day ( Armistice Day ) .
In Turkey the battle is thought of as a significant event in the state 's emergence , although it is primarily remembered for the fighting that took place around the port of Çanakkale , where the Royal Navy was repulsed in March 1915 . For the Turks , 18 March has a similar significance as 25 April to Australians and New Zealanders , it is not a public holiday but is commemorated with special ceremonies . The campaign 's main significance to the Turkish people lies in the role it played in the emergence of Mustafa Kemal , who became the first president of the Republic of Turkey after the war . " Çanakkale geçilmez " ( Çanakkale is impassable ) became a common phrase to express the state 's pride at repulsing the attack and the song " Çanakkale içinde " ( A Ballad for Chanakkale ) commemorates the Turkish youth who fell during the battle .
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= Doug Ring =
Douglas Thomas Ring ( 14 October 1918 – 23 June 2003 ) was an Australian cricketer who played for Victoria and Australia in 13 Tests from 1948 to 1953 . In 129 first @-@ class cricket matches , he took 426 wickets bowling leg spin , and he had a top score of 145 runs , which was the only century of his career .
Ring made his Test debut against India in the 1947 – 48 season and was picked for Australia 's tour of England in 1948 , the so @-@ called " Invincibles " side , but played in only one Test match on the tour . He had greater success against West Indies in 1951 – 52 , and South Africa the following season and made a second less successful tour of England in 1953 . Following cricket , Ring held positions in industry administration in Victoria , and became a cricket radio commentator and later host of Australia 's World of Sport .
= = Early years and cricket career = =
Born in Hobart , Ring moved to Victoria as a child , and attended Melbourne High School . After playing schoolboy cricket , he played the final matches of the 1935 – 36 season with the first grade side at Prahran . He batted right @-@ handed and bowled right @-@ arm leg breaks . He topped the Victorian Cricket Association 's second @-@ grade bowling averages and joined the Richmond first grade team .
= = = First @-@ class cricket = = =
In 1938 , after five matches with Richmond , he was selected for Victoria . In his first match , in December 1938 , he took four New South Wales wickets , including Sid Barnes , bowling alongside Chuck Fleetwood @-@ Smith . In the following game , batting at No 9 , he put on 112 for the eighth wicket with Lindsay Hassett , making 51 runs himself . He did not appear in Victoria 's other Sheffield Shield matches that 1938 – 39 season , but later , playing against Western Australia in Perth in a first @-@ class non @-@ Shield match – Western Australia did not join the Sheffield Shield until after the Second World War – he took six wickets for 97 runs in Western Australia 's first innings .
In the 1939 – 40 season , Ring played in all of Victoria 's Sheffield Shield matches , and though he did not improve on either his best bowling or best batting figures , he took over as the side 's principal spin bowler from Fleetwood @-@ Smith , with 28 wickets in the six matches against the senior player 's 17 . At the end of the season , he was picked for " The Rest " team , composed of the best players from the other states , for the match against the Shield winners , New South Wales , though he was upstaged by the 48 @-@ year @-@ old Clarrie Grimmett , who took 10 wickets to Ring 's one in the match . Wisden noted in a brief report on the 1939 – 40 Sheffield Shield in its 1940 edition that Bill O 'Reilly , Grimmett and Ring " carried off chief bowling honours in the competition " . Prior to the Second World War , the Australian captain Don Bradman said of Ring : " If I were picking an Australian XI to go to England now , one of the first men on my list would be Doug Ring " .
In the first @-@ class season of 1940 – 41 , with the proposed England tour and the Sheffield Shield competition both cancelled because of the war , Ring played half a dozen first @-@ class matches for Victoria , achieving little with his bowling , but making 72 when promoted to No 3 batsman as a nightwatchman against South Australia at Adelaide and following that up with 60 against Queensland at Brisbane .
The war then interrupted Ring 's first @-@ class career . Ring joined the Australian Army and served with an anti @-@ aircraft regiment in New Guinea . During his military service he injured his back , displacing a disc . The injury flared up from time to time , especially in cold weather , and this affected his ability to bowl to a consistent length .
= = Post @-@ war career = =
Ring 's war service in the Far East meant that he did not appear in the Australian Services XI that made such an impact in England . He resumed his state cricket career in 1946 – 47 , and made the only century of his career , 145 , against Queensland at Melbourne , sharing a sixth wicket partnership of 288 runs with Sam Loxton , who made 232 . The batting success was offset by less effective bowling : he took just 18 Sheffield Shield wickets , barely half the number ( 33 ) achieved by Victoria 's left @-@ arm spinner George Tribe , who was picked for three Tests against England that season , but then turned his back on Australian cricket and moved to England .
Victoria in the 1947 – 48 season was a weak team and finished bottom of the Sheffield Shield table . Ring took 23 wickets , the highest of any Victoria bowler , in Shield matches but at the high average of 33 runs apiece . His best bowling of the season came in a match against Tasmania where he improved his career @-@ best bowling figures by taking six for 84 in the first innings and followed that with five for 59 in the second innings for his first 10 @-@ wicket match haul ( 11 @-@ 143 ) .
= = = Test debut = = =
It was a good time to make an eye @-@ catching performance : the next match at the MCG was the fifth and final Test against India and Ring was selected , replacing Colin McCool , who had taken only four wickets in three matches of the five @-@ Test series , and making his Test debut . After Australia made 575 for eight declared , with Ring making 11 when batting at No 10 , Ring bowled 36 eight @-@ ball overs , taking three for 103 as India reached 331 , and then took three further wickets for just 17 in a second @-@ innings capitulation for just 67 . With match figures of six for 120 in his first game , Ring was picked for the 1948 tour of England , the tour led by Donald Bradman that became known , through its unbeaten record , as " The Invincibles " .
Though the 1948 tour of England was a triumph for the Australians , Ring was not prominent in the success . The faster bowlers , headed by Ray Lindwall and Keith Miller , dominated the bowling attack , and with a new ball allowed after just 55 overs of play , spin bowlers made little impact in the big matches . Ring , said Wisden in its summary of the tour , " was never a trump card in the pack " . Such was the strength of the Australian bowling that Ring 's 60 first @-@ class wickets at an average of 21 @.@ 81 on the tour was the highest bowling average of the regular bowlers . The strength of the batting side also meant that he batted only 14 times in his 19 first @-@ class matches on the tour , and he passed 50 only once . He played in one Test match — the last of the five @-@ match series , at The Oval . He did not bowl in the first innings as England were dismissed for just 52 , and took one wicket — that of Allan Watkins — in 28 economical overs in the second innings as Bradman 's final Test ended in an innings victory .
Ring and fellow fringe members of the squad , Ron Hamence and Colin McCool , would refer themselves as the " ground @-@ staff " as it was unlikely that the tour selectors would include them in the Test team on the 1948 tour .
Over the next three Australian seasons , Ring played regularly for Victoria and appeared also in some lesser representative matches . He figured in both the Donald Bradman Testimonial Match and the Alan Kippax @-@ Bert Oldfield Testimonial , which were the big set @-@ piece matches of the 1948 – 49 season , the latter being used as a " Test trial " for the 1949 – 50 tour of South Africa , for which Ring was not picked . Instead , in early 1950 he went on a non @-@ Test playing tour of New Zealand where , in the three @-@ day match between New Zealand and the touring side , he took seven for 88 in the home side 's first innings , which remained the best figures of his first @-@ class career . By the 1950 – 51 season , when Ring had one of his worst batting but better bowling seasons for Victoria , he had been overtaken in the Test match pecking order by his Victoria team @-@ mate , Jack Iverson , whose quirky all @-@ sorts of spin bowling was used in all five Tests .
= = = Test regular = = =
Iverson 's career turned out to be meteoric on the downward trajectory as well as the upward , and when the West Indies arrived for their 1951 – 52 tour in November 1951 in what was billed as a " cricket championship of the world " , the Australian Test selectors turned to Ring for the spin option to the pace of Lindwall , Miller and Bill Johnston for the first match at Brisbane . With the famous spin twins of Sonny Ramadhin and Alf Valentine in the opposition , Ring was the least experienced main line bowler at this level on either side – but he proved to be the matchwinner . Having taken two wickets in West Indies ' first innings , he took six for 80 runs in the second , and his dismissal of Frank Worrell and captain John Goddard with the last two balls of the second day swung the advantage towards Australia . In the second innings , Wisden reported , West Indies ' batsmen were " guilty of rash strokes against the high @-@ flighted leg @-@ breaks of Ring , whose bowling contained abundant guile " . Ring was also at the wicket when the match was won , by three wickets , though his own contribution was just six runs .
Ring 's main contribution to the second Test , at Sydney , which Australia won by seven wickets , came with bat rather than ball . He took only one wicket in a match made controversial by liberal use of the bumper by the faster Australian bowlers . But batting at No 9 and joining Lindwall at 372 for seven , just 10 ahead of the West Indies ' first innings total , his 65 in 102 minutes helped add 113 before he was ninth out .
In the third Test , too , Ring 's batting made more impact than his bowling . A wet pitch led to 22 wickets falling on the first day , and temporary Australian captain Arthur Morris rejigged his batting order at the end of the day , opening the second innings with Ian Johnson and Gil Langley , sending Geff Noblet in when Johnson was out and then Ring as a second nightwatchman when Noblet was out . Ring lasted into the second day when conditions were easier , and top @-@ scored for the Australian team with 67 , which remained his best score in Tests . He took three of the four wickets that fell as West Indies successfully chased a target of 233 on Christmas Day .
It was the fourth Test at Melbourne that cemented Ring 's place as part of Australian cricket folklore . Again , his bowling was little used , and he failed to take a wicket . But his batting this time proved decisive . Chasing 260 to win , Australia had reached 218 for seven when Ring came in at No 9 . Century @-@ maker Lindsay Hassett departed with no further runs added , and Langley was out at 222 , so when last batsman Bill Johnston joined Ring , 38 were still needed to win . In Wisden 's words , " no one regards Johnston as other than a ' rabbit ' with the bat " . But the West Indies pushed the fielders in nearer the bat , allowing Ring to reach the boundary by clearing the fielders . Wisden reported : " Johnston played a comparatively passive role while Ring hit vigorously , gaining a series of boundaries by lofty drives which may have resulted in catches had the field been set deep enough for this known hitter . " Ring made an unbeaten 32 , and " earned most of the credit " , Wisden said , though Johnston hit the winning run , which also won the series for Australia .
The fifth Test , which saw the debut of Richie Benaud alongside Ring , was an anticlimax , and Ring contributed little with either bat or ball to a large Australian victory . In the series as a whole , among the regular players , Ring finished behind only Hassett and Miller as a batsman , with 197 runs at an average of 28 @.@ 14 , and he took 13 wickets for exactly 30 apiece .
In 1952 – 53 , the South Africans were the visitors to Australia , and Ring got an early sight of the team by captaining Victoria against them , top @-@ scoring in the state 's first innings with 56 . In the first Test at Brisbane , he repeated his performance of a year earlier by taking six wickets , this time for 72 runs , his best Test bowling performance , in South Africa 's first innings . The South Africans " survived Australia 's pace bowling well enough , but few met the leg @-@ breaks of Ring with assurance , " Wisden reported . " His varied flight and pace worried batsmen attempting too often to play him from the crease . " He was unsuccessful in South Africa 's second innings .
Across the rest of the five @-@ match Test series against South Africa , Ring took only seven more wickets , and he tended to be expensive in terms of the number of runs conceded from his bowling . In the second match , which the South Africans won , he took three wickets for 187 , and , batting at No 10 , contributed a quick @-@ fire 53 out of the last 74 runs when the match had already effectively been lost . Two weeks later , in the third match , he took just one wicket in a crushing Australian victory , but contributed 58 out of 75 in just 68 minutes from the unusually lofty batting position of No 8 . The fourth and fifth Tests brought him few runs or wickets . In the series as a whole , Ring scored 184 runs at an average of 23 runs per innings and took 13 wickets at the high average of 48 .
As a proven Test player and the senior spin bowler , Ring was chosen for his second tour of England in 1953 , this time under the captaincy of Hassett . It proved not much happier than his 1948 experience , though in a less strong side his eventual wicket tally , 68 first @-@ class wickets at an average of 19 @.@ 89 , placed him third among the regular bowlers .
Ring was , though , just one of three leg @-@ spin bowlers , alongside Benaud and Ring 's Victoria colleague Jack Hill , and , said Wisden , " none of the three ... was seen to advantage in the Tests " . Indeed , Wisden added , " there was an appreciable weakness due to the absence of top @-@ class spin to support the thrust of Lindwall , Miller and Johnston " .
In the event , Ring played in only one Test , the second of the five @-@ match series , played at Lord 's . He took two wickets , the same number as Benaud , on a pitch allegedly susceptible to spin and scored 18 and 7 as the match ended in a tight draw .
Outside the Tests in England , Ring took five wickets in an innings five times and , though mostly fairly ineffective with the bat , hit 88 against Lancashire , his second highest first @-@ class score . At the end of the England tour , he retired from both first @-@ class and Test cricket .
= = = Later career = = =
Outside cricket , Ring was employed by the Victorian Department of Primary Industries from 1946 to 1982 where his supervisor was Les Menzies , brother of Australian Prime Minister Robert Menzies . In 1958 , he entered the media as a cricket commentator on Melbourne radio station 3DB . In 1961 , he moved to television where he was a popular presenter of the HSV @-@ 7 program World of Sport . Ring had three children with his wife Lesley . He died in Melbourne on 23 June 2003 .
= = Style = =
Ring was a large man , 6 feet ( 183 cm ) tall , and with his large hands he was able to impart plenty of spin on the ball , although he was not eager to flight the ball especially in English conditions . As a batsman , he was good enough to be considered a genuine all @-@ rounder however his habit playing the ball in the air prevented him from scoring more runs . Ring never brought himself a bat , choosing to rely on a bat he borrowed from the Victorian Cricket Association practice kit .
= = Test match performance = =
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= Mario Vargas Llosa =
Jorge Mario Pedro Vargas Llosa , 1st Marquis of Vargas Llosa ( / ˈvɑːrɡəs ˈjoʊsə / ; born March 28 , 1936 ) , more commonly known as Mario Vargas Llosa ( Spanish : [ ˈmaɾjo ˈβaɾgas ˈʎosa ] ) , is a Peruvian writer , politician , journalist , essayist , college professor , and recipient of the 2010 Nobel Prize in Literature . Vargas Llosa is one of Latin America 's most significant novelists and essayists , and one of the leading writers of his generation . Some critics consider him to have had a larger international impact and worldwide audience than any other writer of the Latin American Boom . Upon announcing the 2010 Nobel Prize in Literature , the Swedish Academy said it had been given to Vargas Llosa " for his cartography of structures of power and his trenchant images of the individual 's resistance , revolt , and defeat " .
Vargas Llosa rose to fame in the 1960s with novels such as The Time of the Hero ( La ciudad y los perros , literally The City and the Dogs , 1963 / 1966 ) , The Green House ( La casa verde , 1965 / 1968 ) , and the monumental Conversation in the Cathedral ( Conversación en la catedral , 1969 / 1975 ) . He writes prolifically across an array of literary genres , including literary criticism and journalism . His novels include comedies , murder mysteries , historical novels , and political thrillers . Several , such as Captain Pantoja and the Special Service ( 1973 / 1978 ) and Aunt Julia and the Scriptwriter ( 1977 / 1982 ) , have been adapted as feature films .
Many of Vargas Llosa 's works are influenced by the writer 's perception of Peruvian society and his own experiences as a native Peruvian . Increasingly- however- he has expanded his range , and tackled themes that arise from other parts of the world . In his essays , Vargas Llosa has made many criticisms of nationalism in different parts of the world . Another change over the course of his career has been a shift from a style and approach associated with literary modernism , to a sometimes playful postmodernism .
Like many Latin American writers , Vargas Llosa has been politically active throughout his career ; over the course of his life , he has gradually moved from the political left towards liberalism . While he initially supported the Cuban revolutionary government of Fidel Castro , Vargas Llosa later became disenchanted with his policies . He ran for the Peruvian presidency in 1990 with the center @-@ right Frente Democrático coalition , advocating classical liberal reforms , but lost the election to Alberto Fujimori . He is the person who , in 1990 , " coined the phrase that circled the globe " , declaring on Mexican television , " Mexico is the perfect dictatorship " , a statement which became an adage during the following decade .
= = Early life and family = =
Mario Vargas Llosa was born to a middle @-@ class family on March 28 , 1936 , in the Peruvian provincial city of Arequipa . He was the only child of Ernesto Vargas Maldonado and Dora Llosa Ureta ( the former a radio operator in an aviation company , the latter the daughter of an old criollo family ) , who separated a few months before his birth . Shortly after Mario 's birth , his father revealed that he was having an affair with a German woman ; consequently , Mario has two younger half @-@ brothers : Enrique and Ernesto Vargas .
Vargas Llosa lived with his maternal family in Arequipa until a year after his parents ' divorce , when his maternal grandfather was named honorary consul for Peru in Bolivia . With his mother and her family , Vargas Llosa then moved to Cochabamba , Bolivia , where he spent the early years of his childhood . His maternal family , the Llosas , were sustained by his grandfather , who managed a cotton farm . As a child , Vargas Llosa was led to believe that his father had died — his mother and her family did not want to explain that his parents had separated . During the government of Peruvian President José Bustamante y Rivero , Vargas Llosa 's maternal grandfather obtained a diplomatic post in the Peruvian coastal city of Piura and the entire family returned to Peru . While in Piura , Vargas Llosa attended elementary school at the religious academy Colegio Salesiano . In 1946 , at the age of ten , he moved to Lima and met his father for the first time . His parents re @-@ established their relationship and lived in Magdalena del Mar , a middle @-@ class Lima suburb , during his teenage years . While in Lima , he studied at the Colegio La Salle , a Christian middle school , from 1947 to 1949 .
When Vargas Llosa was fourteen , his father sent him to the Leoncio Prado Military Academy in Lima . At the age of 16 , before his graduation , Vargas Llosa began working as an amateur journalist for local newspapers . He withdrew from the military academy and finished his studies in Piura , where he worked for the local newspaper , La Industria , and witnessed the theatrical performance of his first dramatic work , La huida del Inca .
In 1953 , during the government of Manuel A. Odría , Vargas Llosa enrolled in Lima 's National University of San Marcos , to study law and literature . He married Julia Urquidi , his maternal uncle 's sister @-@ in @-@ law , in 1955 at the age of 19 ; she was 10 years older . Vargas Llosa began his literary career in earnest in 1957 with the publication of his first short stories , " The Leaders " ( " Los jefes " ) and " The Grandfather " ( " El abuelo " ) , while working for two Peruvian newspapers . Upon his graduation from the National University of San Marcos in 1958 , he received a scholarship to study at the Complutense University of Madrid in Spain . In 1960 , after his scholarship in Madrid had expired , Vargas Llosa moved to France under the impression that he would receive a scholarship to study there ; however , upon arriving in Paris , he learned that his scholarship request was denied . Despite Mario and Julia 's unexpected financial status , the couple decided to remain in Paris where he began to write prolifically . Their marriage lasted only a few more years , ending in divorce in 1964 . A year later , Vargas Llosa married his first cousin , Patricia Llosa , with whom he had three children : Álvaro Vargas Llosa ( born 1966 ) , a writer and editor ; Gonzalo ( born 1967 ) , a businessman ; and Morgana ( born 1974 ) , a photographer . As of 2015 , he is in a relationship with Filipina Spanish socialite and TV personality Isabel Preysler and seeking a divorce from Patricia Llosa .
= = Writing career = =
= = = Beginning and first major works = = =
Vargas Llosa 's first novel , The Time of the Hero ( La ciudad y los perros ) , was published in 1963 . The book is set among a community of cadets in a Lima military school , and the plot is based on the author 's own experiences at Lima 's Leoncio Prado Military Academy . This early piece gained wide public attention and immediate success . Its vitality and adept use of sophisticated literary techniques immediately impressed critics , and it won the Premio de la Crítica Española award . Nevertheless , its sharp criticism of the Peruvian military establishment led to controversy in Peru . Several Peruvian generals attacked the novel , claiming that it was the work of a " degenerate mind " and stating that Vargas Llosa was " paid by Ecuador " to undermine the prestige of the Peruvian Army .
In 1965 , Vargas Llosa published his second novel , The Green House ( La casa verde ) , about a brothel called " The Green House " and how its quasi @-@ mythical presence affects the lives of the characters . The main plot follows Bonifacia , a girl who is about to receive the vows of the church , and her transformation into la Selvatica , the best @-@ known prostitute of " The Green House " . The novel was immediately acclaimed , confirming Vargas Llosa as an important voice of Latin American narrative . The Green House won the first edition of the Rómulo Gallegos International Novel Prize in 1967 , contending with works by veteran Uruguayan writer Juan Carlos Onetti and by Gabriel García Márquez . This novel alone accumulated enough awards to place the author among the leading figures of the Latin American Boom . Some critics still consider The Green House to be Vargas Llosa 's finest and most important achievement . Indeed , Latin American literary critic Gerald Martin suggests that The Green House is " one of the greatest novels to have emerged from Latin America " .
Vargas Llosa 's third novel , Conversation in the Cathedral ( Conversación en la catedral ) , was published in 1969 , when he was 33 . This ambitious narrative is the story of Santiago Zavala , the son of a government minister , and Ambrosio , his chauffeur . A random meeting at a dog pound leads the pair to a riveting conversation at a nearby bar known as " The Cathedral " . During the encounter , Zavala searches for the truth about his father 's role in the murder of a notorious Peruvian underworld figure , shedding light on the workings of a dictatorship along the way . Unfortunately for Zavala , his quest results in a dead end with no answers and no sign of a better future . The novel attacks the dictatorial government of Odría by showing how a dictatorship controls and destroys lives . The persistent theme of hopelessness makes Conversation in the Cathedral Vargas Llosa 's most bitter novel .
He lectured Spanish American Literature at King 's College London from 1969 to 1970 .
= = = 1970s and the " discovery of humor " = = =
In 1971 , Vargas Llosa published García Márquez : Story of a Deicide ( García Márquez : historia de un deicidio ) , which was his doctoral thesis for the Complutense University of Madrid . Although Vargas Llosa wrote this book @-@ length study about his then friend , the Colombian Nobel laureate writer Gabriel García Márquez , they did not speak to each other again . In 1976 , Vargas Llosa punched García Márquez in the face in Mexico City at the Palacio de Bellas Artes , ending the friendship . Neither writer had publicly stated the underlying reasons for the quarrel . A photograph of García Márquez sporting a black eye was published in 2007 , reigniting public interest in the feud . Despite the decades of silence , in 2007 , Vargas Llosa agreed to allow part of his book to be used as the introduction to a 40th @-@ anniversary edition of García Márquez 's One Hundred Years of Solitude , which was re @-@ released in Spain and throughout Latin America that year . Historia de un Deicidio was also reissued in that year , as part of Vargas Llosa 's complete works .
Following the monumental work Conversation in the Cathedral , Vargas Llosa 's output shifted away from more serious themes such as politics and problems with society . Latin American literary scholar Raymond L. Williams describes this phase in his writing career as " the discovery of humor " . His first attempt at a satirical novel was Captain Pantoja and the Special Service ( Pantaleón y las visitadoras ) , published in 1973 . This short , comic novel offers vignettes of dialogues and documents about the Peruvian armed forces and a corps of prostitutes assigned to visit military outposts in remote jungle areas . These plot elements are similar to Vargas Llosa 's earlier novel The Green House , but in a different form . As such , Captain Pantoja and the Special Service is essentially a parody of both The Green House and the literary approach that novel represents . Vargas Llosa 's motivation to write the novel came from actually witnessing prostitutes being hired by the Peruvian Army and brought to serve soldiers in the jungle .
From 1974 to 1987 , Vargas Llosa focused on his writing , but also took the time to pursue other endeavors . In 1975 , he co @-@ directed an unsuccessful motion @-@ picture adaptation of his novel , Captain Pantoja and the Secret Service . In 1976 he was elected President of PEN International , the worldwide association of writers and oldest human rights organisation , a position he held until 1979 . During this time , Vargas Llosa constantly traveled to speak at conferences organized by internationally renowned institutions , such as the Hebrew University of Jerusalem and the University of Cambridge , where he was Simón Bolívar Professor and an Overseas Fellow of Churchill College in 1977 – 78 .
In 1977 , Vargas Llosa was elected as a member of the Peruvian Academy of Language , a membership he still holds today . That year , he also published Aunt Julia and the Scriptwriter ( La tía Julia y el escribidor ) , based in part on his marriage to his first wife , Julia Urquidi , to whom he dedicated the novel . She later wrote a memoir , Lo que Varguitas no dijo ( What Little Vargas Didn 't Say ) , in which she gives her personal account of their relationship . She states that Vargas Llosa 's account exaggerates many negative points in their courtship and marriage while minimizing her role of assisting his literary career . Aunt Julia and the Scriptwriter is considered one of the most striking examples of how the language and imagery of popular culture can be used in literature . The novel was adapted in 1990 into a Hollywood feature film , Tune in Tomorrow .
= = = Later novels = = =
Vargas Llosa 's fourth major novel , The War of the End of the World ( La guerra del fin del mundo ) , was published in 1981 and was his first attempt at a historical novel . This work initiated a radical change in Vargas Llosa 's style towards themes such as messianism and irrational human behaviour . It recreates the War of Canudos , an incident in 19th @-@ century Brazil in which an armed millenarian cult held off a siege by the national army for months . As in Vargas Llosa 's earliest work , this novel carries a sober and serious theme , and its tone is dark . Vargas Llosa 's bold exploration of humanity 's propensity to idealize violence , and his account of a man @-@ made catastrophe brought on by fanaticism on all sides , earned the novel substantial recognition . Because of the book 's ambition and execution , critics have argued that this is one of Vargas Llosa 's greatest literary pieces . Even though the novel has been acclaimed in Brazil , it was initially poorly received because a foreigner was writing about a Brazilian theme . The book was also criticized as revolutionary and anti @-@ socialist . Vargas Llosa says that this book is his favorite and was his most difficult accomplishment .
After completing The War of the End of the World , Vargas Llosa began to write novels that were significantly shorter than many of his earlier books . In 1983 , he finished The Real Life of Alejandro Mayta ( Historia de Mayta , 1984 ) . The novel focuses on a leftist insurrection that took place on May 29 , 1962 in the Andean city of Jauja . Later the same year , during the Sendero Luminoso uprising , Vargas Llosa was asked by the Peruvian President Fernando Belaúnde Terry to join the Investigatory Commission , a task force to inquire into the massacre of eight journalists at the hands of the villagers of Uchuraccay . The Commission 's main purpose was to investigate the murders in order to provide information regarding the incident to the public . Following his involvement with the Investigatory Commission , Vargas Llosa published a series of articles to defend his position in the affair . In 1986 , he completed his next novel , Who Killed Palomino Molero ( ¿ Quién mató a Palomino Molero ? ) , which he began writing shortly after the end of the Uchuraccay investigation . Though the plot of this mystery novel is similar to the tragic events at Uchuraccay , literary critic Roy Boland points out that it was not an attempt to reconstruct the murders , but rather a " literary exorcism " of Vargas Llosa 's own experiences during the commission . The experience also inspired one of Vargas Llosa 's later novels , Death in the Andes ( Lituma en los Andes ) , originally published in 1993 in Barcelona .
It would be almost 20 years before Vargas Llosa wrote another major work : The Feast of the Goat ( La fiesta del chivo ) , a political thriller , was published in 2000 ( and in English in 2001 ) . According to Williams , it is Vargas Llosa 's most complete and most ambitious novel since The War of the End of the World . Critic Sabine Koellmann sees it in the line of his earlier novels such as " Conversación en la catedral " depicting the effects of authoritarianism , violence and the abuse of power on the individual . Based on the dictatorship of Rafael Trujillo , who governed the Dominican Republic from 1930 until his assassination in 1961 , the novel has three main strands : one concerns Urania Cabral , the daughter of a former politician and Trujillo loyalist , who returns for the first time since leaving the Dominican Republic after Trujillo 's assassination 30 years earlier ; the second concentrates on the assassination itself , the conspirators who carry it out , and its consequences ; and the third and final strand deals with Trujillo himself in scenes from the end of his regime . The book quickly received positive reviews in Spain and Latin America , and has had a significant impact in Latin America , being regarded as one of Vargas Llosa 's best works .
In 2003 he wrote The Way to Paradise where he studies Flora Tristan and Paul Gauguin .
In 2006 , Vargas Llosa wrote The Bad Girl ( Travesuras de la niña mala ) , which journalist Kathryn Harrison argues is a rewrite ( rather than simply a recycling ) of Gustave Flaubert 's Madame Bovary ( 1856 ) . In Vargas Llosa 's version , the plot relates the decades @-@ long obsession of its narrator , a Peruvian expatriate in Paris , with a woman with whom he first fell in love when both were teenagers .
= = Later life and political involvement = =
Like many other Latin American intellectuals , Vargas Llosa was initially a supporter of the Cuban revolutionary government of Fidel Castro . He studied Marxism in depth as a university student and was later persuaded by communist ideals after the success of the Cuban Revolution . Gradually , Vargas Llosa came to believe that Cuban socialism was incompatible with what he considered to be general liberties and freedoms . The official rupture between the writer and the policies of the Cuban government occurred with the so @-@ called ' Padilla Affair ' , when the Castro regime imprisoned the poet Heberto Padilla for a month in 1971 . Vargas Llosa , along with other intellectuals of the time , wrote to Castro protesting the Cuban political system and its imprisonment of the artist . Vargas Llosa has identified himself with liberalism rather than extreme left @-@ wing political ideologies ever since . Since he relinquished his earlier leftism , he has opposed both left- and right @-@ wing authoritarian regimes .
With his appointment to the Investigatory Commission on the Uchuraccay massacre in 1983 , he experienced what literary critic Jean Franco calls " the most uncomfortable event in [ his ] political career " . Unfortunately for Vargas Llosa , his involvement with the Investigatory Commission led to immediate negative reactions and defamation from the Peruvian press ; many suggested that the massacre was a conspiracy to keep the journalists from reporting the presence of government paramilitary forces in Uchuraccay . The commission concluded that it was the indigenous villagers who had been responsible for the killings ; for Vargas Llosa the incident showed " how vulnerable democracy is in Latin America and how easily it dies under dictatorships of the right and left " . These conclusions , and Vargas Llosa personally , came under intense criticism : anthropologist Enrique Mayer , for instance , accused him of " paternalism " , while fellow anthropologist Carlos Iván Degregori criticized him for his ignorance of the Andean world . Vargas Llosa was accused of actively colluding in a government cover @-@ up of army involvement in the massacre . US Latin American literature scholar Misha Kokotovic summarizes that the novelist was charged with seeing " indigenous cultures as a ' primitive ' obstacle to the full realization of his Western model of modernity " . Shocked both by the atrocity itself and then by the reaction his report had provoked , Vargas Llosa responded that his critics were apparently more concerned with his report than with the hundreds of peasants who would later die at the hands of the Sendero Luminoso guerrilla organization .
Over the course of the decade , Vargas Llosa became known as a " neoliberal " , although he personally dislikes the term and considers it " pure nonsense " and only used for derision . In 1987 , he helped form and soon became a leader of the Movimiento Libertad . The following year his party entered a coalition with the parties of Peru 's two principal conservative politicians at the time , ex @-@ president Fernando Belaúnde Terry ( of the Popular Action party ) and Luis Bedoya Reyes ( of the Partido Popular Cristiano ) , to form the tripartite center @-@ right coalition known as Frente Democrático ( FREDEMO ) . He ran for the presidency of Peru in 1990 as the candidate of the FREDEMO coalition . He proposed a drastic economic austerity program that frightened most of the country 's poor ; this program emphasized the need for privatization , a market economy , free trade , and most importantly , the dissemination of private property . Although he won the first round with 34 % of the vote , Vargas Llosa was defeated by a then @-@ unknown agricultural engineer , Alberto Fujimori , in the subsequent run @-@ off . Vargas Llosa included an account of his run for the presidency in the memoir A Fish in the Water ( El pez en el agua , 1993 ) . Since his political defeat , he has focused mainly on his writing , with only occasional political involvement .
A month after losing the election , at the invitation of Octavio Paz , Vargas Llosa attended a conference in Mexico entitled , " The 20th Century : The Experience of Freedom " . Focused on the collapse of communist rule in central and eastern Europe , it was broadcast on Mexican television from 27 August to 2 September . Addressing the conference on 30 August 1990 , Vargas Llosa embarrassed his hosts by condemning the Mexican system of power based on the rule of the Institutional Revolutionary Party ( PRI ) , which had been in power for 61 years . Criticizing the PRI by name , he commented , " I don 't believe that there has been in Latin America any case of a system of dictatorship which has so efficiently recruited the intellectual milieu , bribing it with great subtlety . " He declared , " Mexico is the perfect dictatorship . The perfect dictatorship is not communism , not the USSR , not Fidel Castro ; the perfect dictatorship is Mexico . Because it is a camouflaged dictatorship . " The statement , " Mexico is the perfect dictatorship " became a cliché in Mexico and internationally , until the PRI fell from power in 2000 .
Vargas Llosa has mainly lived in Madrid since the 1990s , but spends roughly three months of the year in Peru with his extended family . He also frequently visits London where he occasionally spends long periods . Vargas Llosa acquired Spanish citizenship in 1993 , though he still holds Peruvian nationality . The writer often reiterates his love for both countries . In his Nobel speech he observed : " I carry Peru deep inside me because that is where I was born , grew up , was formed , and lived those experiences of childhood and youth that shaped my personality and forged my calling " . He then added : " I love Spain as much as Peru , and my debt to her is as great as my gratitude . If not for Spain , I never would have reached this podium or become a known writer " .
In 1994 he was elected a member of the Real Academia Española ( Royal Spanish Academy ) , he took up seat L on 15 January 1996 . He has been involved in the country 's political arena . In February 2008 he stopped supporting the People 's Party in favor of the recently created Union , Progress and Democracy , claiming that certain conservative views held by the former party are at odds with his classical liberal beliefs . His political ideologies appear in the book Política razonable , written with Fernando Savater , Rosa Díez , Álvaro Pombo , Albert Boadella and Carlos Martínez Gorriarán . He continues to write , both journalism and fiction , and to travel extensively . He has also taught as a visiting professor at a number of prominent universities .
On November 18 , 2010 , Vargas Llosa received the honorary degree Degree of Letters from the City College of New York of the City University of New York , where he also delivered the President 's Lecture .
On 4 February 2011 , Vargas Llosa was raised into the Spanish nobility by King Juan Carlos I with the hereditary title of Marqués de Vargas Llosa ( English : Marquis of Vargas Llosa ) .
In April 2011 , the writer took part in the Peruvian general election , 2011 by saying he was going to vote for Alejandro Toledo ( Peruvian former president 2001 – 2006 ) . After casting his vote , he said his country should stay in the path of legality and freedom .
As for hobbies , Vargas Llosa is very fond of association football , and is a renowned supporter of Universitario de Deportes . The writer himself has confessed in his book A Fish in the Water since childhood he has been a fan of the ' cream colored ' team from Peru , which was first seen in the field one day in 1946 when he was only 10 years old . In February 2011 , Vargas Llosa was awarded with an honorary life membership of this football club , in a ceremony which took place in the Monumental Stadium of Lima .
He was named in the Panama Papers released by the International Consortium of Investigative Journalists on 10 May 2016 .
= = Style of writing = =
= = = Plot , setting , and major themes = = =
Vargas Llosa 's style encompasses historical material as well as his own personal experiences . For example , in his first novel , The Time of the Hero , his own experiences at the Leoncio Prado military school informed his depiction of the corrupt social institution which mocked the moral standards it was supposed to uphold . Furthermore , the corruption of the book 's school is a reflection of the corruption of Peruvian society at the time the novel was written . Vargas Llosa frequently uses his writing to challenge the inadequacies of society , such as demoralization and oppression by those in political power towards those who challenge this power . One of the main themes he has explored in his writing is the individual 's struggle for freedom within an oppressive reality . For example , his two @-@ volume novel Conversation in the Cathedral is based on the tyrannical dictatorship of Peruvian President Manuel A. Odría . The protagonist , Santiago , rebels against the suffocating dictatorship by participating in the subversive activities of leftist political groups . In addition to themes such as corruption and oppression , Vargas Llosa 's second novel , The Green House , explores " a denunciation of Peru 's basic institutions " , dealing with issues of abuse and exploitation of the workers in the brothel by corrupt military officers .
Many of Vargas Llosa 's earlier novels were set in Peru , while in more recent work he has expanded to other regions of Latin America , such as Brazil and the Dominican Republic . His responsibilities as a writer and lecturer have allowed him to travel frequently and led to settings for his novels in regions outside of Peru . The War of the End of the World was his first major work set outside Peru . Though the plot deals with historical events of the Canudos revolt against the Brazilian government , the novel is not based directly on historical fact ; rather , its main inspiration is the non @-@ fiction account of those events published by Brazilian writer Euclides da Cunha in 1902 . The Feast of the Goat , based on the dictatorship of Rafael Trujillo , takes place in the Dominican Republic ; in preparation for this novel , Vargas Llosa undertook a comprehensive study of Dominican history . The novel was characteristically realist , and Vargas Llosa underscores that he " respected the basic facts , ... I have not exaggerated " , but at the same time he points out " It 's a novel , not a history book , so I took many , many liberties . "
One of Vargas Llosa 's more recent novels , The Way to Paradise ( El paraíso en la otra esquina ) , is set largely in France and Tahiti . Based on the biography of former social reformer Flora Tristan , it demonstrates how Flora and Paul Gauguin were unable to find paradise , but were still able to inspire followers to keep working towards a socialist utopia . Unfortunately , Vargas Llosa was not as successful in transforming these historical figures into fiction . Some critics , such as Barbara Mujica , argue that The Way to Paradise lacks the " audacity , energy , political vision , and narrative genius " that was present in his previous works .
= = = Modernism and postmodernism = = =
The works of Mario Vargas Llosa are viewed as both modernist and postmodernist novels . Though there is still much debate over the differences between modernist and postmodernist literature , literary scholar M. Keith Booker claims that the difficulty and technical complexity of Vargas Llosa 's early works , such as The Green House and Conversation in the Cathedral , are clearly elements of the modern novel . Furthermore , these earlier novels all carry a certain seriousness of attitude — another important defining aspect of modernist art . By contrast , his later novels such as Captain Pantoja and the Special Service , Aunt Julia and the Scriptwriter , The Real Life of Alejandro Mayta , and The Storyteller ( El hablador ) appear to follow a postmodernist mode of writing . These novels have a much lighter , farcical , and comic tone , characteristics of postmodernism . Comparing two of Vargas Llosa 's novels , The Green House and Captain Pantoja and the Special Service , Booker discusses the contrast between modernism and postmodernism found in the writer 's works : while both novels explore the theme of prostitution as well as the workings of the Peruvian military , Booker points out that the former is gravely serious whereas the latter is ridiculously comic .
= = = Interlacing dialogues = = =
Literary scholar M. Keith Booker argues that Vargas Llosa perfects the technique of interlacing dialogues in his novel The Green House . By combining two conversations that occur at different times , he creates the illusion of a flashback . Vargas Llosa also sometimes uses this technique as a means of shifting location by weaving together two concurrent conversations happening in different places . This technique is a staple of his repertoire , which he began using near the end of his first novel , The Time of the Hero . However , he does not use interlacing dialogues in the same way in all of his novels . For example , in The Green House the technique is used in a serious fashion to achieve a sober tone and to focus on the interrelatedness of important events separated in time or space . In contrast , Captain Pantoja and the Special Service employs this strategy for comic effects and uses simpler spatial shifts . This device is similar to both Virginia Woolf 's mixing of different characters ' soliloquies and Gustave Flaubert 's counterpoint technique in which he blends together conversation with other events , such as speeches .
= = = Literary influences = = =
Vargas Llosa 's first literary influences were relatively obscure Peruvian writers such as Martín Adán , Carlos Oquendo de Amat , and César Moro . As a young writer , he looked to these revolutionary novelists in search of new narrative structures and techniques in order to delineate a more contemporary , multifaceted experience of urban Peru . He was looking for a style different from the traditional descriptions of land and rural life made famous by Peru 's foremost novelist at the time , José María Arguedas . Vargas Llosa wrote of Arguedas 's work that it was " an example of old @-@ fashioned regionalism that had already exhausted its imaginary possibilities " . Although he did not share Arguedas 's passion for indigenous reality , Vargas Llosa admired and respected the novelist for his contributions to Peruvian literature . Indeed , he has published a book @-@ length study on his work , La utopía arcaica ( 1996 ) .
Rather than restrict himself to Peruvian literature , Vargas Llosa also looked abroad for literary inspiration . Two French figures , existentialist Jean @-@ Paul Sartre and novelist Gustave Flaubert , influenced both his technique and style . Sartre 's influence is most prevalent in Vargas Llosa 's extensive use of conversation . The epigraph of The Time of the Hero , his first novel , is also taken directly from Sartre 's work . Flaubert 's artistic independence — his novels ' disregard of reality and morals — has always been admired by Vargas Llosa , who wrote a book @-@ length study of Flaubert 's aesthetics , The Perpetual Orgy . In his analysis of Flaubert , Vargas Llosa questions the revolutionary power of literature in a political setting ; this is in contrast to his earlier view that " literature is an act of rebellion " , thus marking a transition in Vargas Llosa 's aesthetic beliefs . Other critics such as Sabine Köllmann argue that his belief in the transforming power of literature is one of the great continuities that characterize his fictional and non @-@ fictional work , and link his early statement that ' Literature is Fire ' with his Nobel Prize Speech ' In Praise of Reading and Writing ' .
One of Vargas Llosa 's favourite novelists , and arguably the most influential on his writing career , is the American William Faulkner . Vargas Llosa considers Faulkner " the writer who perfected the methods of the modern novel " . Both writers ' styles include intricate changes in time and narration . In The Time of the Hero , for example , aspects of Vargas Llosa 's plot , his main character 's development and his use of narrative time are influenced by his favourite Faulkner novel , Light in August .
In addition to the studies of Arguedas and Flaubert , Vargas Llosa has written literary criticisms of other authors that he has admired , such as Gabriel García Márquez , Albert Camus , Ernest Hemingway , and Jean @-@ Paul Sartre . The main goals of his non @-@ fiction works are to acknowledge the influence of these authors on his writing , and to recognize a connection between himself and the other writers ; critic Sara Castro @-@ Klarén argues that he offers little systematic analysis of these authors ' literary techniques . In The Perpetual Orgy , for example , he discusses the relationship between his own aesthetics and Flaubert 's , rather than focusing on Flaubert 's alone .
= = Impact = =
Mario Vargas Llosa is considered a major Latin American writer , alongside other authors such as Octavio Paz , Julio Cortázar , Jorge Luis Borges , Gabriel García Márquez and Carlos Fuentes . In his book The New Novel in Latin America ( La Nueva Novela ) , Fuentes offers an in @-@ depth literary criticism of the positive influence Vargas Llosa 's work has had on Latin American literature . Indeed , for the literary critic Gerald Martin , writing in 1987 , Vargas Llosa was " perhaps the most successful ... certainly the most controversial Latin American novelist of the past twenty @-@ five years " .
Most of Vargas Llosa 's narratives have been translated into multiple languages , marking his international critical success . Vargas Llosa is also noted for his substantial contribution to journalism , an accomplishment characteristic of few other Latin American writers . He is recognized among those who have most consciously promoted literature in general , and more specifically the novel itself , as avenues for meaningful commentary about life . During his career , he has written more than a dozen novels and many other books and stories , and , for decades , he has been a voice for Latin American literature . He has won numerous awards for his writing , from the 1959 Premio Leopoldo Alas and the 1962 Premio Biblioteca Breve to the 1993 Premio Planeta ( for Death in the Andes ) and the Jerusalem Prize in 1995 . The literary critic Harold Bloom has included his novel The War of the End of the World in his list of essential literary works in the Western Canon . An important distinction he has received is the 1994 Miguel de Cervantes Prize , considered the most important accolade in Spanish @-@ language literature and awarded to authors whose " work has contributed to enrich , in a notable way , the literary patrimony of the Spanish language " . In 2002 , Vargas was the recipient of the PEN / Nabokov Award . Vargas Llosa also received the 2005 Irving Kristol Award from the American Enterprise Institute and was the 2008 recipient of the Harold and Ethel L. Stellfox Visiting Scholar and Writers Award at Dickinson College .
A number of Vargas Llosa 's works have been adapted for the screen , including The Time of the Hero and Captain Pantoja and the Special Service ( both by the Peruvian director Francisco Lombardi ) and The Feast of the Goat ( by Vargas Llosa 's cousin , Luis Llosa ) . Aunt Julia and the Scriptwriter was turned into the English @-@ language film , Tune in Tomorrow . The Feast of the Goat has also been adapted as a theatrical play by Jorge Alí Triana , a Colombian playwright and director .
= = Awards and honors = =
1967 – Rómulo Gallegos Prize
1986 – Grinzane Cavour Prize for Fiction foreign
1986 – Prince of Asturias Award for Literature
1993 – Planeta Prize for Death in the Andes , a thriller starring one of the characters in Who Killed Palomino Molero ?
1994 – Miguel de Cervantes Prize , after taking Spanish citizenship
1996 – Peace Prize of the German Book Trade
1999 – Menéndez Pelayo International Prize
2004 – Independent Foreign Fiction Prize
2004 – Grinzane Cavour Prize
2006 – Maria Moors Cabot prize
2010 – Nobel Prize for Literature
2010 – International Award Viareggio @-@ Versilia
2011 - St. Louis Literary Award from the Saint Louis University Library Associates
2012 – " 10 Most Influential Ibero American Intellectuals " of the year – Foreign Policy magazine [ 1 ]
2012 Carlos Fuentes International Prize for Literary Creation in the Spanish Language
2016 Pedro Henríquez Ureña International Prize
Grand Cross with Diamonds of the Order of the Sun ( Peru )
Austrian Cross of Honour for Science and Art , 1st class
Chevalier of the Legion of Honour ( France )
Officer of the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres ( France )
Commander of the Ordre des Arts et des Lettres ( France )
Commander of the Order of the Aztec Eagle ( Mexico )
Grand Cross with Silver Star of the Order of Ruben Dario ( Nicaragua )
Grand Cross with Silver Star of the Order of Christopher Columbus ( Dominican Republic )
= = Selected works = =
Vargas Llosa 's essays and journalism have been collected as Contra viento y marea , issued in three volumes ( 1983 , 1986 , and 1990 ) . A selection has been edited by John King and translated and published as Making Waves . 2003 – " The Language of Passion "
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= Len Ford =
Leonard Guy Ford , Jr . ( February 18 , 1926 – March 14 , 1972 ) was an American football player from 1944 to 1958 . He played college football for the University of Michigan and professional football for the Los Angeles Dons , Cleveland Browns and Green Bay Packers . He was inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 1976 and the University of Michigan Athletic Hall of Honor in 1996 .
Ford was an all @-@ city athlete at his high school in Washington , D.C. , and attended Morgan State University after graduating in 1944 . After a brief stint in the U.S. Navy the following year , he transferred to Michigan , where he played on the Michigan Wolverines football team as an offensive and defensive end . He played for Michigan from 1945 to 1947 and was a member of the undefeated 1947 team that has been selected as the best team in the history of Michigan football .
Ford was passed over in all 32 rounds of the 1948 NFL Draft , but was selected by the Los Angeles Dons of the rival All @-@ America Football Conference ( AAFC ) , where he played for two seasons as an offensive and defensive end . After the AAFC dissolved in 1949 , Ford played eight seasons as a defensive end for the Cleveland Browns . During those eight seasons , the Browns advanced to the NFL championship game seven times , won three championships , and allowed the fewest points in the NFL six times . Ford was one of the dominant defensive players of his era , having a rare combination of size and speed that helped him disrupt opposing offenses and force fumbles . He was selected as a first @-@ team All @-@ NFL player five times and played in four Pro Bowls .
Ford was traded to the Packers in 1958 , but played there just one season before retiring . He worked for the Detroit recreation department from 1963 to 1972 . He suffered a heart attack and died in 1972 at age 46 .
= = Early years = =
Ford was born in Washington , D.C. , in 1926 . His father , Leonard G. Ford , Sr. , was a Virginia native who was employed as a " skilled laborer " by the federal government in 1920 and as a printing operator at the Government Printing Office in 1940 . His mother , Jeraldine , was also a Virginia native who worked as a social worker in a settlement house in 1940 . Ford had an older sister , Anita , and a younger brother , Claude .
As a teenager , Ford attended Armstrong Technical High School , where he played football , basketball and baseball . As a high school athlete , he aspired to play fullback in football , but he later recalled , " I started to grow , and I grew right out of the backfield . " He was chosen by local sportswriters as an all @-@ city athlete in all three sports in his senior year , and he served as captain of all three teams for one season each .
After he graduated in 1944 , Theodore McIntyre , Ford 's high school football coach , suggested he attend Morgan State University , a historically black college in Baltimore , Maryland . Ford played for the Morgan State Bears football team for one year under head coach Edward P. Hurt , while also starring as the center on the school 's basketball team . The basketball team won its league 's championship in 1944 . Ford left Morgan State and joined the U.S. Navy in 1945 , but stayed in the service only briefly as World War II came to an end .
= = University of Michigan = =
After the war , Ford transferred to the University of Michigan to play football in a bigger program than Morgan State 's . He wanted to " get a shot at playing in the Rose Bowl one day " , he later said . While attending Michigan , he was a member of Omega Psi Phi , an all @-@ black fraternity whose membership also included Bob Mann , another Michigan end who went on to play in the NFL .
= = = 1945 and 1946 seasons = = =
In 1945 , Ford was Michigan 's tallest player at 6 feet 5 inches ( 196 cm ) and 190 pounds . Ford played as a backup at the left end for the 1945 Michigan football team that compiled a 7 – 3 win – loss record under head coach Fritz Crisler . When Ford caught a pass from Wally Teninga in Michigan 's 26 @-@ 0 victory over Minnesota in early November 1945 , The New York Times took note and referred to Ford as " a six @-@ foot , five @-@ inch giant . "
As a junior in 1946 , Ford had gained 16 pounds and weighed 206 pounds . That year , he shared the left end position with his fraternity brother Bob Mann , with Ford starting four games and Mann two . With Ford and Mann at the end position , the 1946 Michigan team finished with a 6 – 2 – 1 record . During the 1946 season , Ford established himself as a tenacious tackler on defense and was also a receiving threat as an end on offense . In the first game of the 1946 season , a 21 @-@ 0 victory over Indiana , Ford recovered an Indiana fumble and then scored the game 's second touchdown on a 17 @-@ yard pass from Pete Elliott . Later in the season , he scored a touchdown against Wisconsin on an end @-@ around , a play Michigan employed frequently with Ford .
= = = 1947 season = = =
By 1947 , Ford had grown to 215 pounds , 25 pounds heavier than he had weighed in 1945 . Led by All @-@ American halfbacks Bob Chappuis and Bump Elliott , the undefeated 1947 Michigan team has been selected as the best team in the history of Michigan football . Nicknamed the " Mad Magicians " , the Michigan squad finished with a 10 – 0 record , capped by a 49 – 0 victory in the Rose Bowl over USC on New Year 's Day . Ford started only one game in 1947 , as Bob Mann was the starting left end in eight of Michigan 's 10 games . Even with reduced playing time , Ford caught a 35 @-@ yard touchdown pass in the first game of the season and had two receptions for 82 yards in the 55 – 0 win over Michigan State . He scored again in a game against Pitt . Ford 's defensive performance was credited with shutting down Ohio State in the final game of the 1947 season . After the Wolverines ' 21 @-@ 0 victory over the Buckeyes , The Michigan Daily wrote :
" For the defense it was big Len Ford , who sparked a forward wall that never let the Bucks threaten . His end was practically impregnable . He smashed Ohio interference time and again , he continually harassed Dick Slager and Pandel Savic , the Ohio passers , and he made life miserable for Pete Perini , blocking one punt and rushing the Buckeye punter on nearly all of his kicks . "
Michigan finished first in the AP Poll and won the 1947 college football national championship , sharing the honor with Notre Dame , which had been first in the polls before the Rose Bowl . After the 1947 season , the Associated Press ( AP ) selected Ford as a third @-@ team All @-@ American end and named teammate Bob Mann as a second @-@ team All @-@ American end . The AP also named Ford a second @-@ team all @-@ Big Nine Conference end . In the summer of 1948 , he accepted an invitation to play for the college team in the College All @-@ Star Game , a now @-@ defunct annual matchup between the champion of the professional National Football League ( NFL ) and a selection of the country 's best college players .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Los Angeles Dons ( AAFC ) = = =
Despite his accomplishments in college , Ford was passed over in all 32 rounds of the 1948 NFL Draft during a time when most professional teams did not employ African @-@ Americans . ( The following year , George Taliaferro became the first African @-@ American to be selected in an NFL draft . ) He was selected , however , by the Los Angeles Dons of the rival All @-@ America Football Conference ( AAFC ) in the third round of its 1948 draft . He signed with the Dons in April 1948 .
Playing as a right end opposite Joe Aguirre , Ford had 31 catches for 598 yards and seven touchdowns in 1948 . As was the case at Michigan , Ford also worked on defense and was one of the AAFC 's most successful pass @-@ rushers . The Dons , meanwhile , finished the regular season with a 7 – 7 record , good for third place in the AAFC West . Ford played basketball in the off @-@ season for the New York Renaissance , an all @-@ black professional team in the National Basketball League . He did not play basketball at Michigan , the Big Ten Conference having maintained racial segregation of basketball until 1950 .
Ford had 36 catches for 577 yards and one touchdown in 1949 , while the Dons fell to 4 – 8 . The AAFC struggled financially during Ford 's time with the Dons . Its teams competed with NFL franchises for fans ' attention and player talent – the Dons shared a city with the NFL 's Los Angeles Rams . By late 1949 , team owners came to an agreement under which the Cleveland Browns , San Francisco 49ers and Baltimore Colts joined the NFL and the rest of the league 's teams , including the Dons , folded .
= = = Cleveland Browns = = =
= = = = 1950 season = = = =
After the AAFC disbanded , the Browns selected Ford in the second round of the 1950 AAFC dispersal draft , created to reallocate former Dons , Buffalo Bills and Chicago Hornets players . Ford signed with the Browns in July 1950 .
Cleveland head coach Paul Brown converted Ford into solely a defensive end as two @-@ platoon systems gained popularity after 1950 . Ford bulked up to 260 pounds and quickly became a fixture of Cleveland 's defense alongside linebacker Bill Willis and defensive back Warren Lahr . He was one of five black players for Cleveland – the others were Willis , punter Horace Gillom and fullbacks Emerson Cole and Marion Motley – at a time when many other teams had never signed a black player . The Browns , in fact , had roughly a third of the black players in the NFL on their roster . Cleveland sports writer Chuck Heaton later recalled that Ford was " a leader , particularly with the black players on the squad . "
Led by an offense that featured Motley , quarterback Otto Graham and ends Mac Speedie and Dante Lavelli , the 1950 Browns finished the regular season with a 10 – 2 record and won the 1950 NFL Championship Game over the Los Angeles Rams .
In a mid @-@ October game against the Chicago Cardinals , an elbow by Pat Harder broke Ford 's nose , cheekbone , and maxilla ( upper jaw ) , knocked out two teeth , loosened several teeth and chipped another . Ford , who had been fighting with Harder throughout the game , punched him following the play , resulting in a penalty , his ejection from the game and a $ 50 ( $ 492 in 2016 dollars ) fine . NFL commissioner Bert Bell withdrew the fine when the damage to Ford 's face was revealed . Ford 's facial injuries were so severe that a plastic surgery was required , " virtually rebuilding the big end 's face . " The Browns ' long @-@ time team doctor , Vic Ippolito , described Ford 's injuries as " a sickening sight . "
Because of the injury , Ford started only four regular season games in 1950 . However , he asked to be reinstated for the 1950 NFL Championship Game . Head coach Paul Brown agreed to allow Ford to suit up after receiving approval from the team doctor and arranging for a special mask to be built to protect Ford from further injury . Ford had been on a liquid diet until late November and dropped from 240 to 215 pound , though he was back up to 223 pounds shortly before the championship game . As the championship game got underway , Ford sat on the bench as the Rams moved the ball 82 yards down the field for a touchdown . Browns head coach Paul Brown knew the defense had to tighten , and he called on Ford to enter the game . The Cleveland Plain Dealer later called this " one of Len Ford 's great moments . " Paul Brown stated that Ford " showed me that day he really was a man . " Brown later recalled that Ford was the team 's " only real hope of plugging a hole " and recalled one sequence as a defining moment in the game :
I 'll always remember one three @-@ play sequence where he threw Vitamin Smith for a 14 @-@ yard loss on a reverse , sacked [ Bob ] Waterfield for another big loss and finally smothered Glenn Davis on an end run . That turned the game around for us .
The Browns ' defense held the Rams scoreless in the fourth quarter , and the Browns won the championship game by a 30 @-@ 28 score in their first season in the league .
= = = = 1951 season = = = =
Ford continued to excel as a pass @-@ rusher in 1951 , when the Browns again advanced to the NFL Championship Game but lost to the Rams . He recovered four fumbles during the season and was named a first @-@ team All @-@ Pro by both the Associated Press ( AP ) and the United Press International ( UPI ) . He was also named to the Pro Bowl , the NFL 's all @-@ star game . Ford 's dominating play allowed Brown to assign him to two offensive linemen , giving Cleveland the latitude to put four men on the line and use three linebackers in what is now known as the 4 – 3 defense . Cleveland 's defensive coach Blanton Collier later recalled the thinking behind moving Ford : " We knew we had to get him in closer where his talents as a pass rusher could best be utilized . So we moved both tackles in and dropped the linebackers off the outside . It may have been the beginning of today 's 4 – 3 defense . " Collier also noted that " Len was very aggressive and had that touch of meanness in him that you find in most defensive players . "
= = = = 1952 season = = = =
The 1952 Browns had eight regular @-@ season wins and won the NFL 's East Division , but lost to the Detroit Lions in the 1952 NFL Championship Game . Ford , meanwhile , extended his run of dominance against opposing offenses in an era before the quarterback sack was a recorded statistic . For the second consecutive year , he was named a first @-@ team All @-@ Pro by both the AP and UPI and was selected for the Pro Bowl .
= = = = 1953 season = = = =
The 1953 Browns compiled an 11 @-@ 1 record and again advanced to the NFL Championship Game , losing to the Detroit Lions . For the third consecutive year , Ford was named a first @-@ team All @-@ Pro by both the AP and UPI and was selected for the Pro Bowl .
= = = = 1954 season = = = =
Willis and Motley retired after the 1953 season , but Ford and Don Colo continued to anchor the defense alongside Lahr in the secondary . The 1954 Browns lost two of their first three games , but finished the season with a 9 – 3 record and returned to win the 1954 NFL Championship Game over the Lions . Ford had two interceptions in the Browns ' 56 – 10 win over the Lions , including one which he returned 45 yards to set a new NFL playoff record . Ford recovered a career @-@ high five fumbles in 1954 , and he was selected as a first @-@ team All @-@ Pro by the AP and UPI for the fourth year in a row . He was also selected to play in his fourth consecutive Pro Bowl .
= = = = 1955 season = = = =
The 1955 Browns compiled a 9 – 2 – 1 record in 1955 and won the 1955 NFL Championship Game against the Los Angeles Rams , helped by a strong defensive effort and six interceptions of quarterback Norm Van Brocklin . Ford was selected as a first @-@ team All @-@ Pro by the UPI , The Newspaper Enterprise Association ( NEA ) and the New York Daily News . He was named a second @-@ team All @-@ Pro by the AP .
= = = = 1956 and 1957 seasons = = = =
Graham and many of the players that had helped propel the Browns to a series of championship game appearances retired before the 1956 season . The 1956 team finished 5 – 7 that year , its first @-@ ever losing record .
By 1957 , there was speculation that Ford , then age 31 , might not make the Browns ' roster . Ford arrived at training camp well above his playing weight , and rookie Bob Mischak was given Ford 's spot in August . When Mischak withdrew from the team , the spot was awarded to another rookie , Paul Wiggin . Ford worked to shed pounds during training camp and worked to train the young defensive players , including Wiggin and Bill Quinlan . Rookie running back Jim Brown recalled that Ford pulled him aside during the 1957 training camp and gave him advice on dealing with the Browns ' head coach Paul Brown . Ford advised the rookie to keep his mouth shut and do as the coach set during practice and waiting until game day : " Run it your way in the game and hope it works , and if it does , don 't say anything . Just make your yardage and act like it was a mistake . "
Brown was slowed for several weeks during the 1957 season by a severely bruised shoulder , but the Browns , led by Jim Brown , reached the 1957 NFL Championship Game , losing to the Lions . Cleveland 's defense allowed the fewest points in the NFL in six of Ford 's eight seasons with the team .
= = = Green Bay Packers = = =
In May 1958 , the Browns traded Ford to the Green Bay Packers in exchange for a draft choice . Green Bay coach Ray McLean said at the time that he acquired Ford for his talent at putting pressure on the quarterback and noted that " he 's one of the toughest guys in the league to block because of his speed , size and agility . " The 1958 Green Bay team won just one game in Ford 's lone season there . Ford suffered multiple broken fingers before the last game of the 1958 season , and , because he was unable to play , the Packers refused to pay Ford the final $ 916 @.@ 66 due on his contract . In 1961 , Ford sued the Packers in Wayne County Circuit Court in Detroit to collect the $ 916 @.@ 66 plus $ 10 @,@ 000 for alleged damage to his reputation caused by the Packers ' releasing him .
= = = Career statistics and legacy = = =
Ford had 20 career fumble recoveries at the time of his retirement . Ford was successful in part because of his combination of quickness and size . Few players of his era who were as tall and big as he was could move as fast ; only Larry Brink of the Rams was close to him in proportions .
= = Family and later years = =
In 1951 , Ford married Geraldine Bledsoe Ford ( 1926 – 2003 ) , who was a lawyer in the 1950s , and in the mid @-@ 1960s became the first African @-@ American woman to serve as a judge in Michigan . They had two daughters , Anita and Deborah , and divorced in 1959 .
While playing in the NFL , Ford worked during the off @-@ season in a Detroit real estate office . He developed a reputation for being " cagey with the dollar " and told Jet magazine in 1955 : " In what other sport can a boy just graduated from college make $ 5 @,@ 000 in his first six months , then have a half @-@ year left to make more money ? " After retiring from football , Ford attended the Detroit College of Law for a year @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half , but never received a law degree . From 1963 until at least December 1970 , Ford worked as the assistant director at Considine Recreation Center , the largest recreation center in Detroit . At the time of his death 16 months later , he was described in obituaries as the assistant recreation director for the City of Detroit .
Sports writer Chuck Heaton wrote that Ford 's life was " pretty much down hill " after he retired from professional football . Heaton recalled that , in his later years , Ford seemed in poor physical condition , " only a shadow of the mighty end he once was . " Ford still aspired to obtain his law license , but , according to Heaton , " appeared to have lost the drive which made him such a great football player . " Don Newcombe , who became good friends with Ford , was more blunt . Interviewed in 1980 , Newcombe said that Ford 's life was " decimated " because of alcohol . Newcombe added : " He became a wino , stumbling around in alleys . He gave up his life for alcohol . "
Ford suffered a heart attack in early March 1972 and died the following week in a Detroit hospital . He was age 46 at the time of his death . He was posthumously inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame in 1976 and into the University of Michigan Athletic Hall of Honor in 1996 .
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= Rembrandt =
Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn ( / ˈrɛmbrænt , -brɑːnt / ; Dutch : [ ˈrɛmbrɑnt ˈɦɑrmə ( n ) soːn vɑn ˈrɛin ] ; 15 July 1606 – 4 October 1669 ) was a Dutch painter and etcher . He is generally considered one of the greatest painters and printmakers in European art and the most important in Dutch history . His contributions to art came in a period of great wealth and cultural achievement that historians call the Dutch Golden Age when Dutch Golden Age painting , although in many ways antithetical to the Baroque style that dominated Europe , was extremely prolific and innovative , and gave rise to important new genres in painting .
Having achieved youthful success as a portrait painter , Rembrandt 's later years were marked by personal tragedy and financial hardships . Yet his etchings and paintings were popular throughout his lifetime , his reputation as an artist remained high , and for twenty years he taught many important Dutch painters . Rembrandt 's greatest creative triumphs are exemplified most notably in his portraits of his contemporaries , self @-@ portraits and illustrations of scenes from the Bible . His self @-@ portraits form a unique and intimate biography , in which the artist surveyed himself without vanity and with the utmost sincerity .
In his paintings and prints he exhibited knowledge of classical iconography , which he molded to fit the requirements of his own experience ; thus , the depiction of a biblical scene was informed by Rembrandt 's knowledge of the specific text , his assimilation of classical composition , and his observations of Amsterdam 's Jewish population . Because of his empathy for the human condition , he has been called " one of the great prophets of civilization . "
= = Life = =
Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn was born on 15 July 1606 in Leiden , in the Dutch Republic , now the Netherlands . He was the ninth child born to Harmen Gerritszoon van Rijn and Neeltgen Willemsdochter van Zuijtbrouck . His family was quite well @-@ to @-@ do ; his father was a miller and his mother was a baker 's daughter . Religion is a central theme in Rembrandt 's paintings and the religiously fraught period in which he lived makes his faith a matter of interest . His mother was Roman Catholic , and his father belonged to the Dutch Reformed Church . While his work reveals deep Christian faith , there is no evidence that Rembrandt formally belonged to any church , although he had five of his children christened in Dutch Reformed churches in Amsterdam : four in the Oude Kerk ( Old Church ) and one , Titus , in the Zuiderkerk ( Southern Church ) .
As a boy he attended Latin school and was enrolled at the University of Leiden , although according to a contemporary he had a greater inclination towards painting ; he was soon apprenticed to a Leiden history painter , Jacob van Swanenburgh , with whom he spent three years . After a brief but important apprenticeship of six months with the painter Pieter Lastman in Amsterdam , Rembrandt stayed a few months with Jacob Pynas and then started his own workshop , though Simon van Leeuwen claimed that Joris van Schooten taught Rembrandt in Leiden . Rembrandt opened a studio in Leiden in 1624 or 1625 , which he shared with friend and colleague Jan Lievens . In 1627 , Rembrandt began to accept students , among them Gerrit Dou .
In 1629 Rembrandt was discovered by the statesman Constantijn Huygens ( father of the Dutch mathematician and physicist Christiaan Huygens ) , who procured for Rembrandt important commissions from the court of The Hague . As a result of this connection , Prince Frederik Hendrik continued to purchase paintings from Rembrandt until 1646 .
At the end of 1631 Rembrandt moved to Amsterdam , then rapidly expanding as the new business capital of the Netherlands , and began to practice as a professional portraitist for the first time , with great success . He initially stayed with an art dealer , Hendrick van Uylenburgh , and in 1634 , married Hendrick 's cousin , Saskia van Uylenburgh . Saskia came from a good family : her father had been a lawyer and the burgemeester ( mayor ) of Leeuwarden . When Saskia , as the youngest daughter , became an orphan , she lived with an older sister in Het Bildt . Rembrandt and Saskia were married in the local church of St. Annaparochie without the presence of Rembrandt 's relatives . In the same year , Rembrandt became a burgess of Amsterdam and a member of the local guild of painters . He also acquired a number of students , among them Ferdinand Bol and Govert Flinck .
In 1635 Rembrandt and Saskia moved into their own house , renting in fashionable Nieuwe Doelenstraat . In 1639 they moved to a prominent newly built house ( now the Rembrandt House Museum ) in the upscale ' Breestraat ' ( eng . : ' Broadway ' ) , today known as Jodenbreestraat ( Jodenbreestraat 4 @,@ 1011 NK Amsterdam @-@ now ) in what was becoming the Jewish quarter ; then a young upcoming neighborhood . The mortgage to finance the 13 @,@ 000 guilder purchase would be a primary cause for later financial difficulties . Rembrandt should easily have been able to pay the house off with his large income , but it appears his spending always kept pace with his income , and he may have made some unsuccessful investments . It was there that Rembrandt frequently sought his Jewish neighbors to model for his Old Testament scenes . Although they were by now affluent , the couple suffered several personal setbacks ; their son Rumbartus died two months after his birth in 1635 and their daughter Cornelia died at just three weeks of age in 1638 . In 1640 , they had a second daughter , also named Cornelia , who died after living barely over a month . Only their fourth child , Titus , who was born in 1641 , survived into adulthood . Saskia died in 1642 soon after Titus 's birth , probably from tuberculosis . Rembrandt 's drawings of her on her sick and death bed are among his most moving works .
During Saskia 's illness , Geertje Dircx was hired as Titus ' caretaker and nurse and also became Rembrandt 's lover . She would later charge Rembrandt with breach of promise ( a euphemism for seduction under [ breached ] promise to marry ) and was awarded alimony of 200 guilders a year . Rembrandt worked to have her committed for twelve years to an asylum or poorhouse ( called a " bridewell " ) at Gouda , after learning she had pawned jewelry that had once belonged to Saskia and that he had given to her .
In the late 1640s Rembrandt began a relationship with the much younger Hendrickje Stoffels , who had initially been his maid . In 1654 they had a daughter , Cornelia , bringing Hendrickje a summons from the Reformed Church to answer the charge " that she had committed the acts of a whore with Rembrandt the painter " . She admitted this and was banned from receiving communion . Rembrandt was not summoned to appear for the Church council because he was not a member of the Reformed Church . The two were considered legally wed under common law , but Rembrandt had not married Hendrickje . Had he remarried he would have lost access to a trust set up for Titus in Saskia 's will .
Rembrandt lived beyond his means , buying art ( including bidding up his own work ) , prints ( often used in his paintings ) and rarities , which probably caused a court arrangement to avoid his bankruptcy in 1656 , by selling most of his paintings and large collection of antiquities . The sale list survives and gives us a good insight into Rembrandt 's collections , which , apart from Old Master paintings and drawings , included busts of the Roman Emperors , suits of Japanese armor among many objects from Asia , and collections of natural history and minerals . But the prices realized in the sales in 1657 and 1658 were disappointing . Rembrandt was forced to sell his house and his printing @-@ press and move to more modest accommodation on the Rozengracht in 1660 . The authorities and his creditors were generally accommodating to him , except for the Amsterdam painters ' guild , which introduced a new rule that no one in Rembrandt 's circumstances could trade as a painter . To get around this , Hendrickje and Titus set up a business as art dealers in 1660 , with Rembrandt as an employee .
In 1661 Rembrandt ( or rather the new business ) was contracted to complete work for the newly built city hall , but only after Govert Flinck , the artist previously commissioned , died without beginning to paint . The resulting work , The Conspiracy of Claudius Civilis , was rejected and returned to the painter ; the surviving fragment is only a fraction of the whole work . It was around this time that Rembrandt took on his last apprentice , Aert de Gelder . In 1662 he was still fulfilling major commissions for portraits and other works . When Cosimo III de ' Medici , Grand Duke of Tuscany came to Amsterdam in 1667 , he visited Rembrandt at his house .
Rembrandt outlived both Hendrickje , who died in 1663 , and Titus , who died in 1668 , leaving a baby daughter . He died within a year of his son , on 4 October 1669 in Amsterdam , and was buried as a poor man. in an unknown grave in the Westerkerk . It was in a numbered ' kerkgraf ' ( grave owned by the church ) somewhere under a tombstone in the church . After twenty years , his remains were taken away and destroyed , as was customary with the remains of poor people at that time .
= = Works = =
In a letter to Huygens , Rembrandt offered the only surviving explanation of what he sought to achieve through his art : the greatest and most natural movement , translated from de meeste en de natuurlijkste beweegelijkheid . The word " beweegelijkheid " is also argued to mean " emotion " or " motive . " Whether this refers to objectives , material or otherwise , is open to interpretation ; either way , critics have drawn particular attention to the way Rembrandt seamlessly melded the earthly and spiritual .
Earlier 20th century connoisseurs claimed Rembrandt had produced over 600 paintings , nearly 400 etchings and 2 @,@ 000 drawings . More recent scholarship , from the 1960s to the present day ( led by the Rembrandt Research Project ) , often controversially , has winnowed his oeuvre to nearer 300 paintings . His prints , traditionally all called etchings , although many are produced in whole or part by engraving and sometimes drypoint , have a much more stable total of slightly under 300 . It is likely Rembrandt made many more drawings in his lifetime than 2 @,@ 000 , but those extant are more rare than presumed . Two experts claim that the number of drawings whose autograph status can be regarded as effectively " certain " is no higher than about 75 , although this is disputed . The list was to be unveiled at a scholarly meeting in February 2010 .
At one time about ninety paintings were counted as Rembrandt self @-@ portraits , but it is now known that he had his students copy his own self @-@ portraits as part of their training . Modern scholarship has reduced the autograph count to over forty paintings , as well as a few drawings and thirty @-@ one etchings , which include many of the most remarkable images of the group . Some show him posing in quasi @-@ historical fancy dress , or pulling faces at himself . His oil paintings trace the progress from an uncertain young man , through the dapper and very successful portrait @-@ painter of the 1630s , to the troubled but massively powerful portraits of his old age . Together they give a remarkably clear picture of the man , his appearance and his psychological make @-@ up , as revealed by his richly weathered face .
In his portraits and self @-@ portraits , he angles the sitter 's face in such a way that the ridge of the nose nearly always forms the line of demarcation between brightly illuminated and shadowy areas . A Rembrandt face is a face partially eclipsed ; and the nose , bright and obvious , thrusting into the riddle of halftones , serves to focus the viewer 's attention upon , and to dramatize , the division between a flood of light — an overwhelming clarity — and a brooding duskiness .
In a number of biblical works , including The Raising of the Cross , Joseph Telling His Dreams and The Stoning of Saint Stephen , Rembrandt painted himself as a character in the crowd . Durham suggests that this was because the Bible was for Rembrandt " a kind of diary , an account of moments in his own life . "
Among the more prominent characteristics of Rembrandt 's work are his use of chiaroscuro , the theatrical employment of light and shadow derived from Caravaggio , or , more likely , from the Dutch Caravaggisti , but adapted for very personal means . Also notable are his dramatic and lively presentation of subjects , devoid of the rigid formality that his contemporaries often displayed , and a deeply felt compassion for mankind , irrespective of wealth and age . His immediate family — his wife Saskia , his son Titus and his common @-@ law wife Hendrickje — often figured prominently in his paintings , many of which had mythical , biblical or historical themes .
= = = Periods , themes and styles = = =
Throughout his career Rembrandt took as his primary subjects the themes of portraiture , landscape and narrative painting . For the last , he was especially praised by his contemporaries , who extolled him as a masterly interpreter of biblical stories for his skill in representing emotions and attention to detail . Stylistically , his paintings progressed from the early " smooth " manner , characterized by fine technique in the portrayal of illusionistic form , to the late " rough " treatment of richly variegated paint surfaces , which allowed for an illusionism of form suggested by the tactile quality of the paint itself .
A parallel development may be seen in Rembrandt 's skill as a printmaker . In the etchings of his maturity , particularly from the late 1640s onward , the freedom and breadth of his drawings and paintings found expression in the print medium as well . The works encompass a wide range of subject matter and technique , sometimes leaving large areas of white paper to suggest space , at other times employing complex webs of line to produce rich dark tones .
It was during Rembrandt 's Leiden period ( 1625 – 1631 ) that Lastman 's influence was most prominent . It is also likely that at this time Lievens had a strong impact on his work as well . Paintings were rather small , but rich in details ( for example , in costumes and jewelry ) . Religious and allegorical themes were favored , as were tronies . In 1626 Rembrandt produced his first etchings , the wide dissemination of which would largely account for his international fame . In 1629 he completed Judas Repentant , Returning the Pieces of Silver and The Artist in His Studio , works that evidence his interest in the handling of light and variety of paint application , and constitute the first major progress in his development as a painter .
During his early years in Amsterdam ( 1632 – 1636 ) , Rembrandt began to paint dramatic biblical and mythological scenes in high contrast and of large format ( The Blinding of Samson , 1636 , Belshazzar 's Feast , c . 1635 Danaë , 1636 ) , seeking to emulate the baroque style of Rubens . With the occasional help of assistants in Uylenburgh 's workshop , he painted numerous portrait commissions both small ( Jacob de Gheyn III ) and large ( Portrait of the Shipbuilder Jan Rijcksen and his Wife , 1633 , Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp , 1632 ) .
By the late 1630s Rembrandt had produced a few paintings and many etchings of landscapes . Often these landscapes highlighted natural drama , featuring uprooted trees and ominous skies ( Cottages before a Stormy Sky , c . 1641 ; The Three Trees , 1643 ) . From 1640 his work became less exuberant and more sober in tone , possibly reflecting personal tragedy . Biblical scenes were now derived more often from the New Testament than the Old Testament , as had been the case before . In 1642 he painted The Night Watch , the most substantial of the important group portrait commissions which he received in this period , and through which he sought to find solutions to compositional and narrative problems that had been attempted in previous works .
In the decade following the Night Watch , Rembrandt 's paintings varied greatly in size , subject , and style . The previous tendency to create dramatic effects primarily by strong contrasts of light and shadow gave way to the use of frontal lighting and larger and more saturated areas of color . Simultaneously , figures came to be placed parallel to the picture plane . These changes can be seen as a move toward a classical mode of composition and , considering the more expressive use of brushwork as well , may indicate a familiarity with Venetian art ( Susanna and the Elders , 1637 – 47 ) . At the same time , there was a marked decrease in painted works in favor of etchings and drawings of landscapes . In these graphic works natural drama eventually made way for quiet Dutch rural scenes .
In the 1650s , Rembrandt 's style changed again . Colors became richer and brush strokes more pronounced . With these changes , Rembrandt distanced himself from earlier work and current fashion , which increasingly inclined toward fine , detailed works . His use of light becomes more jagged and harsh , and shine becomes almost nonexistent . His singular approach to paint application may have been suggested in part by familiarity with the work of Titian , and could be seen in the context of the then current discussion of ' finish ' and surface quality of paintings . Contemporary accounts sometimes remark disapprovingly of the coarseness of Rembrandt 's brushwork , and the artist himself was said to have dissuaded visitors from looking too closely at his paintings . The tactile manipulation of paint may hearken to medieval procedures , when mimetic effects of rendering informed a painting 's surface . The end result is a richly varied handling of paint , deeply layered and often apparently haphazard , which suggests form and space in both an illusory and highly individual manner .
In later years biblical themes were still depicted often , but emphasis shifted from dramatic group scenes to intimate portrait @-@ like figures ( James the Apostle , 1661 ) . In his last years , Rembrandt painted his most deeply reflective self @-@ portraits ( from 1652 to 1669 he painted fifteen ) , and several moving images of both men and women ( The Jewish Bride , c . 1666 ) — in love , in life , and before God .
= = = Etchings = = =
Rembrandt produced etchings for most of his career , from 1626 to 1660 , when he was forced to sell his printing @-@ press and practically abandoned etching . Only the troubled year of 1649 produced no dated work . He took easily to etching and , though he also learned to use a burin and partly engraved many plates , the freedom of etching technique was fundamental to his work . He was very closely involved in the whole process of printmaking , and must have printed at least early examples of his etchings himself . At first he used a style based on drawing , but soon moved to one based on painting , using a mass of lines and numerous bitings with the acid to achieve different strengths of line . Towards the end of the 1630s , he reacted against this manner and moved to a simpler style , with fewer bitings . He worked on the so @-@ called Hundred Guilder Print in stages throughout the 1640s , and it was the " critical work in the middle of his career " , from which his final etching style began to emerge . Although the print only survives in two states , the first very rare , evidence of much reworking can be seen underneath the final print and many drawings survive for elements of it .
In the mature works of the 1650s , Rembrandt was more ready to improvise on the plate and large prints typically survive in several states , up to eleven , often radically changed . He now uses hatching to create his dark areas , which often take up much of the plate . He also experimented with the effects of printing on different kinds of paper , including Japanese paper , which he used frequently , and on vellum . He began to use " surface tone , " leaving a thin film of ink on parts of the plate instead of wiping it completely clean to print each impression . He made more use of drypoint , exploiting , especially in landscapes , the rich fuzzy burr that this technique gives to the first few impressions .
His prints have similar subjects to his paintings , although the twenty @-@ seven self @-@ portraits are relatively more common , and portraits of other people less so . There are forty @-@ six landscapes , mostly small , which largely set the course for the graphic treatment of landscape until the end of the 19th century . One third of his etchings are of religious subjects , many treated with a homely simplicity , whilst others are his most monumental prints . A few erotic , or just obscene , compositions have no equivalent in his paintings . He owned , until forced to sell it , a magnificent collection of prints by other artists , and many borrowings and influences in his work can be traced to artists as diverse as Mantegna , Raphael , Hercules Seghers , and Giovanni Benedetto Castiglione .
= = = The Night Watch = = =
Rembrandt painted the large painting The Militia Company of Captain Frans Banning Cocq between 1640 and 1642 . This picture was called De Nachtwacht by the Dutch and The Night Watch by Sir Joshua Reynolds because by the 18th century the picture was so dimmed and defaced that it was almost indistinguishable , and it looked quite like a night scene . After it was cleaned , it was discovered to represent broad day — a party of musketeers stepping from a gloomy courtyard into the blinding sunlight .
The piece was commissioned for the new hall of the Kloveniersdoelen , the musketeer branch of the civic militia . Rembrandt departed from convention , which ordered that such genre pieces should be stately and formal , rather a line @-@ up than an action scene . Instead he showed the militia readying themselves to embark on a mission ( what kind of mission , an ordinary patrol or some special event , is a matter of debate ) .
Contrary to what is often said , the work was hailed as a success from the beginning . Parts of the canvas were cut off ( approximately 20 % from the left hand side was removed ) to make the painting fit its new position when it was moved to Amsterdam town hall in 1715 ; the Rijksmuseum has a smaller copy of what is thought to be the full original composition ; the four figures in the front are at the centre of the canvas . The painting is now in the Rijksmuseum , Amsterdam .
= = Expert assessments = =
In 1968 the Rembrandt Research Project began under the sponsorship of the Netherlands Organization for the Advancement of Scientific Research ; it was initially expected to last a highly optimistic ten years . Art historians teamed up with experts from other fields to reassess the authenticity of works attributed to Rembrandt , using all methods available , including state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art technical diagnostics , and to compile a complete new catalogue raisonné of his paintings . As a result of their findings , many paintings that were previously attributed to Rembrandt have been removed from their list , although others have been added back . Many of those removed are now thought to be the work of his students .
One example of activity is The Polish Rider , in New York 's Frick Collection . Rembrandt 's authorship had been questioned by at least one scholar , Alfred von Wurzbach , at the beginning of the twentieth century , but for many decades later most scholars , including the foremost authority writing in English , Julius S. Held , agreed that it was indeed by the master . In the 1980s , however , Dr. Josua Bruyn of the Foundation Rembrandt Research Project cautiously and tentatively attributed the painting to one of Rembrandt 's closest and most talented pupils , Willem Drost , about whom little is known . But Bruyn 's remained a minority opinion , the suggestion of Drost 's authorship is now generally rejected , and the Frick itself never changed its own attribution , the label still reading " Rembrandt " and not " attributed to " or " school of " . More recent opinion has shifted even more decisively in favor of the Frick , with Simon Schama ( in his 1999 book Rembrandt 's Eyes ) and the Rembrandt Project scholar Ernst van de Wetering ( Melbourne Symposium , 1997 ) both arguing for attribution to the master . Those few scholars who still question Rembrandt 's authorship feel that the execution is uneven , and favour different attributions for different parts of the work .
A similar issue was raised by Simon Schama in his book Rembrandt 's Eyes concerning the verification of titles associated with the subject matter depicted in Rembrandt 's works . For example , the exact subject being portrayed in Aristotle with a Bust of Homer ( recently retitled by curators at the Metropolitan Museum ) has been directly challenged by Schama applying the scholarship of Paul Crenshaw . Schama presents a substantial argument that it was the famous ancient Greek painter Apelles who is depicted in contemplation by Rembrandt and not Aristotle .
Another painting , Pilate Washing His Hands , is also of questionable attribution . Critical opinion of this picture has varied since 1905 , when Wilhelm von Bode described it as " a somewhat abnormal work " by Rembrandt . Scholars have since dated the painting to the 1660s and assigned it to an anonymous pupil , possibly Aert de Gelder . The composition bears superficial resemblance to mature works by Rembrandt but lacks the master 's command of illumination and modeling .
The attribution and re @-@ attribution work is ongoing . In 2005 four oil paintings previously attributed to Rembrandt 's students were reclassified as the work of Rembrandt himself : Study of an Old Man in Profile and Study of an Old Man with a Beard from a US private collection , Study of a Weeping Woman , owned by the Detroit Institute of Arts , and Portrait of an Elderly Woman in a White Bonnet , painted in 1640.The Old Man Sitting in a Chair is a further example : in 2014 , Professor Ernst van de Wetering offered his view to The Guardian that the demotion of the 1652 painting Old Man Sitting in a Chair " was a vast mistake ... it is a most important painting . The painting needs to be seen in terms of Rembrandt ’ s experimentation ” . This was highlighted much earlier by Nigel Konstam who has studied Rembrandt throughout his career .
Rembrandt 's own studio practice is a major factor in the difficulty of attribution , since , like many masters before him , he encouraged his students to copy his paintings , sometimes finishing or retouching them to be sold as originals , and sometimes selling them as authorized copies . Additionally , his style proved easy enough for his most talented students to emulate . Further complicating matters is the uneven quality of some of Rembrandt 's own work , and his frequent stylistic evolutions and experiments . As well , there were later imitations of his work , and restorations which so seriously damaged the original works that they are no longer recognizable . It is highly likely that there will never be universal agreement as to what does and what does not constitute a genuine Rembrandt .
= = Painting materials = =
Technical investigation of Rembrandt 's paintings in the possession of the Gemäldegalerie Alte Meister and in the Gemäldegalerie Alte Meister ( Kassel ) has been conducted by Hermann Kühn in 1977 . The pigment analyses of some thirty paintings have shown that Rembrandt 's palette consisted of the following pigments : lead white , various ochres , Vandyke brown , bone black , charcoal black , lamp black , vermilion , madder lake , azurite , ultramarine , yellow lake and lead @-@ tin @-@ yellow . One painting ( Saskia van Uylenburgh as Flora ) reportedly contains gamboge . Rembrandt very rarely used pure blue or green colors , the most pronounced exception being Belshazzar 's Feast in the National Gallery in London . The book by Bomford ( above reference ) describes more recent technical investigations and pigment analyses of Rembrandt 's paintings predominantly in the National Gallery in London . The best source for technical information on Rembrandt 's paintings on the web is the Rembrandt Database containing all works of Rembrandt with detailed investigative reports , infrared and radiography images and other scientific details .
= = Name and signature = =
" Rembrandt " is a modification of the spelling of the artist 's first name that he introduced in 1633 . Roughly speaking , his earliest signatures ( ca . 1625 ) consisted of an initial " R " , or the monogram " RH " ( for Rembrant Harmenszoon ; i.e. " Rembrant , the son of Harmen " ) , and starting in 1629 , " RHL " ( the " L " stood , presumably , for Leiden ) . In 1632 , he used this monogram early in the year , then added his family name to it , " RHL @-@ van Rijn " , but replaced this form in that same year and began using his first name alone with its original spelling , " Rembrant " . In 1633 he added a " d " , and maintained this form consistently from then on , proving that this minor change had a meaning for him ( whatever it might have been ) . This change is purely visual ; it does not change the way his name is pronounced . Curiously enough , despite the large number of paintings and etchings signed with this modified first name , most of their documents that mentioned him during his lifetime retained the original " Rembrant " spelling . ( Note : the rough chronology of signature forms above applies to the paintings , and to a lesser degree to the etchings ; from 1632 , presumably , there is only one etching signed " RHL @-@ v. Rijn , " the large @-@ format " Raising of Lazarus , " B 73 ) . His practice of signing his work with his first name , later followed by Vincent van Gogh , was probably inspired by Raphael , Leonardo da Vinci and Michelangelo who , then as now , were referred to by their first names alone .
= = Workshop = =
Rembrandt ran a large workshop and had many pupils . The list of Rembrandt pupils from his period in Leiden as well as his time in Amsterdam is quite long , mostly because his influence on painters around him was so great that it is difficult to tell whether someone worked for him in his studio or just copied his style for patrons eager to acquire a Rembrandt . A partial list should include Ferdinand Bol , Adriaen Brouwer , Gerrit Dou , Willem Drost , Heiman Dullaart , Gerbrand van den Eeckhout , Carel Fabritius , Govert Flinck , Hendrick Fromantiou , Aert de Gelder , Samuel Dirksz van Hoogstraten , Abraham Janssens , Godfrey Kneller , Philip de Koninck , Jacob Levecq , Nicolaes Maes , Jürgen Ovens , Christopher Paudiß , Willem de Poorter , Jan Victors , and Willem van der Vliet .
= = Museum collections = =
The most notable collections of Rembrandt 's work are at Amsterdam 's Rijksmuseum , including The Night Watch and The Jewish Bride , the Mauritshuis in The Hague , the Hermitage Museum in St. Petersburg , the National Gallery in London , Gemäldegalerie in Berlin , Gemäldegalerie Alte Meister in Dresden , The Louvre , Nationalmuseum , Stockholm , and Schloss Wilhelmshöhe in Kassel . The Royal Castle in Warsaw displays two paintings by Rembrandt from Lanckoroński collection in a separate , dedicated room of Renaissance Courtier Lodgings .
Notable collections of Rembrandt 's paintings in the USA are in the Metropolitan Museum of Art and Frick Collection in New York City , and the National Gallery of Art in Washington , D.C.
The Rembrandt House Museum in central Amsterdam in the house he bought at the height of his success has furnishings that are mostly not original , but period pieces comparable to those Rembrandt might have had , and paintings reflecting Rembrandt 's use of the house for art dealing . His printmaking studio has been set up with a printing press , where replica prints are printed . The museum has a few Rembrandt paintings , many loaned , but an important collection of his prints , a good selection of which are on rotating display . All major print rooms have large collections of Rembrandt prints , although as some exist in only a single impression , no collection is complete . The degree to which these collections are displayed to the public , or can easily be viewed by them in the print room , varies greatly .
= = Selected works = =
The Stoning of Saint Stephen ( 1625 ) – Musée des Beaux @-@ Arts , Lyon
Andromeda Chained to the Rocks ( 1630 ) – Mauritshuis , The Hague
Jacob de Gheyn III ( 1632 ) – Dulwich Picture Gallery , London
Philosopher in Meditation ( 1632 ) – The Louvre , Paris
The Anatomy Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp ( 1632 ) – Mauritshuis , The Hague
Artemisia ( 1634 ) – Oil on canvas , 142 × 152 cm , Museo del Prado , Madrid
Descent from the Cross ( 1634 ) – Oil on canvas , 158 × 117 cm , looted from the Landgrave of Hesse @-@ Kassel ( or Hesse @-@ Cassel ) , Germany in 1806 , currently Hermitage Museum , St. Petersburg
Belshazzar 's Feast ( 1635 ) – National Gallery , London
The Prodigal Son in the Tavern ( c . 1635 ) – Oil on canvas , 161 × 131 cm Gemäldegalerie Alte Meister , Dresden
Danaë ( 1636 – 1643 ) – Hermitage Museum , St. Petersburg
The Night Watch , formally The Militia Company of Captain Frans Banning Cocq ( 1642 ) – Rijksmuseum , Amsterdam
Christ Healing the Sick ( etching c . 1643 , also known as the Hundred Guilder Print ) , nicknamed for the huge sum paid for it
Boaz and Ruth ( 1643 ) aka The Old Rabbi Old Man – Woburn Abbey / Gemaldegalerie , Berlin
The Mill ( 1645 / 48 ) – National Gallery of Art , Washington , D.C.
Old Man with a Gold Chain ( " Old Man with a Black Hat and Gorget " ) ( c . 1631 ) Art Institute of Chicago
Susanna and the Elders ( 1647 ) – Oil on panel , 76 × 91 cm , Gemäldegalerie , Berlin
Aristotle Contemplating a Bust of Homer ( 1653 ) – Metropolitan Museum of Art , New York
Bathsheba at Her Bath ( 1654 ) – The Louvre , Paris
Christ Presented to the People ( Ecce Homo ) ( 1655 ) – Drypoint , Birmingham Museum of Art
Selfportrait ( 1658 ) – Frick Collection , New York
The Three Crosses ( 1660 ) Etching , fourth state
Ahasuerus and Haman at the Feast of Esther ( 1660 ) – Pushkin Museum , Moscow
The Conspiracy of Claudius Civilis ( 1661 ) – Nationalmuseum , Stockholm ( Claudius Civilis led a Dutch revolt against the Romans ) ( most of the cut up painting is lost , only the central part still exists )
Portrait of Dirck van Os ( 1662 ) - Joslyn Art Museum , Omaha , Nebraska
Syndics of the Drapers ' Guild ( Dutch De Staalmeesters , 1662 ) – Rijksmuseum , Amsterdam
The Jewish Bride ( 1665 ) – Rijksmuseum , Amsterdam
" The Entombment Sketch " ( c . 1639 and reworked c . 1654 ) oil on oak panel Hunterian Museum and Art Gallery , Glasgow
Saul and David ( ca . 1660 @-@ 1665 ) – Mauritshuis , The Hague
= = Exhibitions = =
Feb 12 , 2015 - May 17 , 2015 : Late Rembrandt , The Rijksmuseum , Amsterdam .
Oct 15 , 2014 - Jan 18 , 2015 : Rembrandt : The Late Works , The National Gallery , London .
Oct 19 , 2014 - Jan 4 , 2015 : Rembrandt , Rubens , Gainsborough and the Golden Age of Painting in Europe , Jule Collins Smith Museum of Art .
May 19 , 2014 - Jun 27 , 2014 : From Rembrandt to Rosenquist : Works on Paper from the NAC 's Permanent Collection , National Arts Club .
Sep 16 , 2013 - Nov 14 , 2013 : Rembrandt : The Consummate Etcher , Syracuse University Art Galleries .
Apr 21 , 2011 - Jul 18 , 2011 : Rembrandt and the Face of Jesus , Musée du Louvre .
= = Gallery = =
= = = Self @-@ portraits = = =
= = = Other works = = =
= = = = Drawings and etchings = = = =
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= Champion of the Raj =
Champion of the Raj is a turn @-@ based strategy video game developed by Level 9 Computing and published by Personal Software Services . It was released exclusively in the United Kingdom for the Amiga , Atari ST and systems running DOS in 1991 . It is the thirteenth and final instalment to the Strategic Wargmes series . The game revolves around European imperialism and colonialism of India , in which six factions : British , French , Mogul , Sikhs , Gurkhas and Marathas fight to gain overall control of India .
The game contains elements of combat and arcade sequences , including traditional elephant racing and big @-@ game hunting . The core of the gameplay is focused on strategy , in which the player must conquer all territories of India through diplomatic or offensive means . Champion of the Raj received mixed reviews upon release . Critics praised its colourful graphics and storyline ; however strong criticism was directed at the game 's constant use of disk swapping and long loading times .
= = Gameplay = =
The game is a turn @-@ based strategy and revolves around colonialism of India . Before starting the game , the player must pick a player @-@ character and the respective faction they wish to side with . The choices include a viceroy of the British East India Company , a consul of the French East India Company , a Mogul emperor , a Maharajah of the Maruthras , chief of the Gurkhas or a Maharajah of the Sikhs . At the beginning of the game , the player @-@ character is kidnapped by an assassin and is imprisoned inside a prison cell . A woman soon frees the player @-@ character , and informs them of their task to either conquer India or persuade rival political factions to unite through diplomacy . The game begins in 1800 , when the Mogul empire lost control of India . The majority of the game is presented through an in @-@ game headquarters screen which displays a map of India , a book detailing information of individual Indian states , and a group of icons which allows the player to issue commands .
If the player wishes to take over a territory through diplomatic means , they must initiate dialogue with the local leader . If the player has a high enough popularity , the local leader may invite them to a sporting event , such as elephant race or a game hunting session , which will give the player an opportunity to unite that territory under their faction . If the player 's popularity is not high enough , they may hold a Durbar festival in an attempt to impress the local leaders . If diplomacy fails , the player has the option to invade any territory by force . Soldiers can be hired through payments of gold ; however , if the player does not have a sufficient amount of gold at the end of the turn , a rebellion may start . Rebellions will sometimes initiate lethal encounters with assassins , in which the player @-@ character must defend themselves through sword combat . Additionally , the player can bring assassins to their side by successfully launching an attack on their temple . The game will end once either all of the territories are united , or if the player @-@ character is assassinated .
= = Background = =
Personal Software Services was founded in Coventry , England , by Gary Mays and Richard Cockayne in November 1981 . The company was known for creating games that revolved around historic war battles and conflicts , such as Theatre Europe , Bismarck and Falklands ' 82 . The company had a partnership with French video game developer ERE Informatique and published localised versions of their products to the United Kingdom . The Strategic Wargames series was conceptualised by software designer Alan Steel in 1984 . During development of these titles , Steel would often research the topic of the upcoming game and pass on the findings to other associates in Coventry and London . In 1983 , the company received recognition for being " one of the top software houses " in the United Kingdom , and was a finalist for BBC Radio 4 's New Business Enterprise Award for that year .
In 1986 , Cockayne took a decision to alter their products for release on 16 @-@ bit consoles , as he found that smaller 8 @-@ bit consoles , such as the ZX Spectrum , lacked the processing power for larger strategy games . The decision was falsely interpreted as " pulling out " from the Spectrum market by video game journalist Phillipa Irving . Following years of successful sales throughout the mid 1980s , Personal Software Services experienced financial difficulties , in what Cockayne admitted in a retrospective interview that " he took his eye off the ball " . The company was acquired by Mirrorsoft in February 1987 , and was later dispossessed by the company due to strains of debt .
= = Reception = =
The game received mixed reviews upon release . Gordon Houghton of The One for ST Games disliked the arcade sequences in the game , stating that they are " a waste of disk loading time " , despite acknowledging its way of giving the strategy genre a wider appeal . Ed Ricketts of ST Format stated that despite its simplicity , the game was " enjoyable " to play . Fiona Keating of CU Amiga praised the game 's entertaining storyline and colourful graphics , however she criticised its " shortcoming " sound . Jonathan Davies of Amiga Power criticised the simplicity of the gameplay , stating that despite the " impressive " graphics , the game " was not meant for a few minutes of playtime " . Gary White of Advanced Computer Entertainment heavily criticised the visuals , stating that it had an " appalling " presentation and poor sound quality .
The disk loading time was the most criticised aspect from reviewers . Houghton found the loading times " hefty " and recommended that the player use two disk drives instead of one , as constant disk swapping was required in the game . Ricketts similarly found the swapping of " half a dozen " floppy disks a " nightmare " on the Atari ST . Keating found the " huge " amount of disk swapping to be the game 's largest drawback , as well as the long loading times that accompanied it . Davies stated that scrolling times were " painfully slow " due to the excessive disk accessing . White stated that the game had a disk access routine " so bad " that it was almost impossible to access icons during gameplay , as the cursor movement was always a second behind actual mouse movements .
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= Fleiss ' kappa =
Fleiss ' kappa ( named after Joseph L. Fleiss ) is a statistical measure for assessing the reliability of agreement between a fixed number of raters when assigning categorical ratings to a number of items or classifying items . This contrasts with other kappas such as Cohen 's kappa , which only work when assessing the agreement between two raters . The measure calculates the degree of agreement in classification over that which would be expected by chance . There is no generally agreed @-@ upon measure of significance , although guidelines have been given .
Fleiss ' kappa can be used only with binary or nominal @-@ scale ratings . No version is available for ordered @-@ categorical ratings .
= = Introduction = =
Fleiss ' kappa is a generalisation of Scott 's pi statistic , [ 1 ] a statistical measure of inter @-@ rater reliability . [ 2 ] It is also related to Cohen 's kappa statistic and Youden 's J statistic which may be more appropriate in certain instances [ 3 ] [ 4 ] . Whereas Scott 's pi and Cohen 's kappa work for only two raters , Fleiss ' kappa works for any number of raters giving categorical ratings , to a fixed number of items . It can be interpreted as expressing the extent to which the observed amount of agreement among raters exceeds what would be expected if all raters made their ratings completely randomly . It is important to note that whereas Cohen 's kappa assumes the same two raters have rated a set of items , Fleiss ' kappa specifically allows that although there are a fixed number of raters ( e.g. , three ) , different items may be rated by different individuals ( Fleiss , 1971 , p.378 ) . That is , Item 1 is rated by Raters A , B , and C ; but Item 2 could be rated by Raters D , E , and F.
Agreement can be thought of as follows , if a fixed number of people assign numerical ratings to a number of items then the kappa will give a measure for how consistent the ratings are . The kappa , <formula> , can be defined as ,
( 1 )
<formula>
The factor <formula> gives the degree of agreement that is attainable above chance , and , <formula> gives the degree of agreement actually achieved above chance . If the raters are in complete agreement then <formula> . If there is no agreement among the raters ( other than what would be expected by chance ) then <formula> .
An example of the use of Fleiss ' kappa may be the following : Consider fourteen psychiatrists are asked to look at ten patients . Each psychiatrist gives one of possibly five diagnoses to each patient . These are compiled into a matrix , and Fleiss ' kappa can be computed from this matrix ( see example below ) to show the degree of agreement between the psychiatrists above the level of agreement expected by chance .
= = Equations = =
Let N be the total number of subjects , let n be the number of ratings per subject , and let k be the number of categories into which assignments are made . The subjects are indexed by i |
= 1 , ... N and the categories are indexed by j =
1 , ... k . Let nij represent the number of raters who assigned the i @-@ th subject to the j @-@ th category .
First calculate pj , the proportion of all assignments which were to the j @-@ th category :
( 2 )
<formula>
Now calculate <formula> , the extent to which raters agree for the i @-@ th subject ( i.e. , compute how many rater--rater pairs are in agreement , relative to the number of all possible rater--rater pairs ) :
( 3 )
<formula>
<formula>
<formula>
Now compute <formula> , the mean of the <formula> ' s , and <formula> which go into the formula for <formula> :
( 4 )
<formula>
<formula>
( 5 )
<formula>
= = Worked example = =
In the following example , fourteen raters ( <formula> ) assign ten " subjects " ( <formula> ) to a total of five categories ( <formula> ) . The categories are presented in the columns , while the subjects are presented in the rows . Each cell lists the number of raters who assigned the indicated ( row ) subject to the indicated ( column ) category .
= = = Data = = =
See table to the right .
<formula> |
= 10 , <formula> =
14 , <formula>
= 5
Sum of all cells =
140
Sum of <formula> = 3 @.@ 780
= = = Calculations = = =
The value <formula> is the proportion of all assignments ( <formula> , here <formula> ) that were made to the <formula> th category . For example , taking the first column ,
<formula>
And taking the second row ,
<formula>
In order to calculate <formula> , we need to know the sum of <formula> ,
<formula>
Over the whole sheet ,
<formula>
<formula>
<formula>
= = Interpretation = =
Landis and Koch ( 1977 ) gave the following table for interpreting <formula> values . [ 5 ] This table is however by no means universally accepted . They supplied no evidence to support it , basing it instead on personal opinion . It has been noted that these guidelines may be more harmful than helpful , [ 6 ] as the number of categories and subjects will affect the magnitude of the value . The kappa will be higher when there are fewer categories . [ 7 ]
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= Oslac of York =
Oslac ( fl . 966 – 975 ) is regarded as the first ealdorman ( or earl ) of York and its dependent territories . These included but may not have been limited to the southern half of Northumbria . His background is obscure because of poor source documentation . The latter has facilitated disagreement amongst historians regarding his family and ethnicity .
It is believed that he took over the position of ealdorman of York in 966 , holding the position until his downfall in 975 . He may have been the first ealdorman of southern — as opposed to a united — Northumbria , though an alternative tradition puts the division of Northumbria into two ealdormanries after his death . Little is known of his career as ealdorman , except for a legend that he escorted the Scottish king Kenneth II to the English royal court , and that he was expelled from England in 975 . His life is unattested after this . He had one known son , but it is not clear if that son ever succeeded him .
= = Origins = =
Oslac 's origins are unclear and no specific relationship with any previous known figure can be established from available sources . Oslac 's name suggests to some historians that he was a Norseman . Susan Whitelock points out that the name Oslac is often an anglicisation of the Old Scandinavian name Áslákr , while the writers of the Biographical Dictionary of Dark Age Britain entry on Oslac comment that the name suggests an origin in the Danelaw , a suggestion supported by the fact that Thored , Oslac 's son , held lands in Cambridgeshire .
On the other hand Oslac is also a genuine English name , and the common Os element Oslac 's name shared with the name of Osulf of Bamburgh , previous ealdorman of York , points to a connection with the Bamburgh family of the English far north .
= = Accession = =
The Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle recorded for the year 966 that Thored , son of Gunnar , raided Westmorland and that Oslac " took the ealdormanship " . Some historians take this to mean that Oslac became the " senior ealdorman of all Northumbria , including the territory of the high @-@ reeves of Bamburgh . "
Records exist of Oslac witnessing charters as early as 963 ; this may mean he was ealdorman by 963 , and would imply the death or deposition of his predecessor Osulf . Some of these charters are problematic as source documents , having been recorded only in later cartularlies ; there is thus a possibility of interference in their transmission . Moreover , a charter dated 966 of a grant by dux Thored is witnessed by Oslac minister ( i.e. " thegn " ) , suggesting that Oslac had not acceded to the ealdormanship of York before 966 .
= = Division of Northumbria = =
De primo Saxonum adventu , an 11th- or 12th @-@ century compilation from earlier sources , claims that after the death of Osulf Northumbria was divided into two parts : Eadulf Evil @-@ child receiving the lands between the Firth of Forth and the River Tees and Oslac receiving the lands between the Humber Estuary and the Tees .
According to John of Wallingford , King Edgar made this division during a council at York , in order to prevent the whole area becoming the inheritance of one man . The Historia Regum claims that such a division took place not in Oslac 's time but Osulf 's , and that the division line was the River Tyne rather than Tees ; historian Dorothy Whitelock considered this to be apocryphal .
= = Career = =
Oslac frequently attested charters of King Edgar the Peaceable , indicating that Oslac enjoyed some position of trust at court .
De primo Saxonum adventu claims that Oslac , along with Eadulf of Bamburgh and Ælfsige Bishop of Chester @-@ le @-@ Street , escorted the Scottish king Kenneth II to the Wessex @-@ based Edgar :
The two earls [ Oslac and Eadwulf ] along with Ælfsige , who was bishop of St Cuthbert [ 968 — 90 ] , conducted Cinaed to king Edgar . And when he had done homage to him , king Edgar gave him Lothian ; and with great honour sent him back to his own .
This must have occurred — if it happened at all — between 968 and 975 , i.e. between Ælfsige becoming bishop and Edgar dying . Richard Fletcher dated it to 973 .
The historian Geoffrey Barrow believed this to mark the beginning of Scottish control over all the lands between the River Tweed and Firth of Forth ( defining " Lothian " in this manner ) , though another historian , Alex Woolf , has suggested that the part about Lothian may have been fabricated later to give credence to the claim that the Scottish kings owed homage for lands in Lothian .
= = Downfall and legacy = =
In 975 , not long after the death of King Edgar , Oslac was banished from England . No reason is given by the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle 's report of his expulsion . Version C of the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle describes the events thus :
The valiant Oslac was driven from the country , over the tossing waves , the gannet 's bath , the tumult of the waters , the homeland of the whale ; a grey @-@ haired man , wise and skilled in speech , he was bereft of his lands
The historian Richard Fletcher guesses that Oslac 's downfall may have been the result of opposing the succession of Edward the Martyr .
Oslac is said by the Historia Eliensis to have had a son named Thorth , that is , Thored . His successor was indeed a man named Thored , but it is not clear whether this was Thored Oslac 's son or Thored son of Gunner ; historians tend to favour the idea that Thored the successor was son of Gunner .
The Gesta Herwardi tells us that his great @-@ great granddaughter , Aedeva ( Edith ) , was Hereward 's mother .
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= Chibi @-@ Robo ! =
Chibi @-@ Robo ! ( ちびロボ ！ , lit . " Mini @-@ Robo ! " ) , fully titled Chibi @-@ Robo ! Plug Into Adventure ! , is a platform @-@ adventure video game for the Nintendo GameCube developed by Skip Ltd. and published by Nintendo . The game was first released in Japan in 2005 , and then released in North America and Europe the following year . Originally conceived as a point @-@ and @-@ click adventure game , it was put on developmental hold until Nintendo producer Shigeru Miyamoto gained interest in the title and overhauled its production .
The player takes on the role of the eponymous character , Chibi @-@ Robo , a 10 @-@ centimeter @-@ tall robot owned by the Sanderson family . Gameplay revolves around navigating a household and collecting " Happy Points " . These points are accumulated by completing various tasks from housework to helping solve the dilemmas of the Sanderson family and the numerous living toys that inhabit their household . Every action by the game 's battery @-@ powered protagonist consumes energy , requiring the player to recharge using the home 's electrical outlets .
Chibi @-@ Robo ! was generally well received by critics , with praise directed towards the premise , charming storyline , and sound design . However , some gameplay mechanics and the quality of the graphics drew some criticism . Sales of Chibi @-@ Robo ! were modest , but it did spawn several sequels . For the Nintendo DS , Chibi @-@ Robo ! : Park Patrol was released in 2007 and Okaeri ! Chibi @-@ Robo ! Happy Richie Ōsōji ! was released in 2009 , the latter being a Japan @-@ exclusive . For the Nintendo 3DS , Chibi @-@ Robo ! Photo Finder was released in Japan in 2013 and in North America in 2014 , and Chibi @-@ Robo ! Zip Lash was released in 2015 . The original Chibi @-@ Robo ! also saw a Japanese re @-@ release in 2009 for the Wii as part of the New Play Control ! series .
= = Plot = =
The plot of Chibi @-@ Robo ! takes place in a 1960s @-@ style American home and revolves around a tiny , highly advanced robot of the same name . He is given as a birthday gift to a socially withdrawn eight @-@ year @-@ old named Jenny Sanderson by her father . This is much to the dismay of Jenny 's mother , a homemaker who is constantly stressed over how much money her husband spends on toys despite his unemployment . Chibi @-@ Robo is packaged with a small " Chibi @-@ House " and an assistant named Telly Vision , who speaks on Chibi @-@ Robo 's behalf . Each of the one million Chibi @-@ Robos in the world is supposed to collect " Happy Points " by doing good deeds for their owners , and must occasionally charge their batteries at electrical outlets . During the night or when humans are not around in the Sandersons ' house , several toys come to life . This cast includes the superhero action figure Drake Redcrest , a group of egg @-@ shaped army men called the Free Rangers , a wooden pirate named Plankbeard , and others . Chibi @-@ Robo eventually finds a large robot in the basement called Giga @-@ Robo , who was once a companion of the Sandersons ' , but had to be deactivated due to its high electricity consumption . Chibi @-@ Robo attempts to bring Giga @-@ Robo back to life by fully charging its massive battery and makes it a goal to find Giga @-@ Robo 's missing leg . At this time , Chibi @-@ Robo is attacked by spider @-@ like robots called Spydorz .
When Mr. Sanderson purchases yet another toy , his wife locks herself in her room and tells him that she wants a divorce , prompting the rest of the family to do the housework . Meanwhile , Chibi @-@ Robo finds a strange pattern in the backyard and uses his radar to contact an alien species . Once the aliens land and greet him , Chibi @-@ Robo uses a time machine made by the visitors to go into the past to find a code to a safe in the master bedroom containing Giga Robo 's leg . He returns to the present to open the safe , but several larger Spydorz are also released from it and capture the Sandersons . It is revealed that Mr. Sanderson originally created the Spydorz to be friends with the Chibi @-@ Robos , but his toy company reprogrammed them to be hostile , causing Mr. Sanderson to quit his job . Mr. Sanderson upgrades Chibi @-@ Robo 's blaster weapon , allowing the small robot to defeat the Queen Spydor , recover Giga @-@ Robo 's missing leg , and rescue the Sandersons . Chibi @-@ Robo reactivates Giga @-@ Robo , and the aliens meet them in the backyard . The aliens explain that the toys are able to walk and talk due to a request from Giga @-@ Robo to the aliens to give them life , and to give all Giga @-@ Robos infinite battery power to prevent their energy consumption . The aliens could not do the latter at the time , and returned to their own planet to obtain the item necessary to grant Giga @-@ Robo 's wish . They then give Giga @-@ Robo this ability , who shares it with Chibi @-@ Robo and the rest of the robots in the world as well , eliminating the energy problem .
= = Gameplay = =
Chibi @-@ Robo ! is a platform @-@ adventure game that puts the player in direct control of a tiny , battery @-@ powered robot that does housework for humans . The objective of the game is to become the top @-@ ranked " Super Chibi @-@ Robo " in the world by accumulating Happy Points , a collectible that is gained by doing good deeds for the family and for various toys within the Sandersons ' home . In order to do this , the player must control the 10 centimeter @-@ tall protagonist and explore the Sandersons ' humble , human @-@ scaled home . During exploration , Chibi @-@ Robo can find a wide variety of things to collect , including " Moolah " , the currency of Chibi @-@ Robo ! . An important task of Chibi @-@ Robo 's in gaining Happy Points is to clean up messes around the house , such as disposing of trash or scrubbing dirty footprints . The player can also interact with and help with the personal problems of the Sandersons and the toys . This ranges from solving a plot @-@ driving crisis or completing a subquest of simply locating a lost object as a favor . With Chibi @-@ Robo 's assistant Telly Vision as his speaker , the player is often prompted to give either a positive or negative response to each question or request . The player loses battery power with every step and action . If his battery is not charged before it empties , Chibi @-@ Robo will collapse and re @-@ emerge in the Chibi @-@ House , having lost half of his Moolah . Throughout the house are electrical outlets , which the player can plug into to recharge his battery or save his progress . The player 's exploration is limited by a timer representing a full day or full night . Once the timer expires , Chibi @-@ Robo automatically returns to the Chibi @-@ House .
At the start of both day and night , the player always begins in the Chibi @-@ House . Within it , the player can charge Chibi @-@ Robo 's battery and save at the electrical outlet . The player can also connect to the Citrusoft " Chibi @-@ PC " to purchase a variety of items and power @-@ ups with Moolah , as well as use scrap metal to build " Utilibots " , robotic helpers that ease the navigation of the Sandersons ' home . The gear available from Citrusoft includes the " Chibi @-@ Copter " , used to reach far @-@ off points or to fly down from a high place safely ; the " Chibi @-@ Blaster " , used to eliminate obstacles and fend off the hostile Spydorz ; and the " Chibi @-@ Radar " , used to detect hidden objects . There are several other items of the Sandersons ' that Chibi @-@ Robo can find and use . These include the toothbrush , used to clean up stains ; the coffee mug , used for protection ; the spoon , used to dig holes ; and the squirter , used to hold fluids and squirt them . Chibi @-@ Robo can also gain special costumes throughout the game , each of which has its own unique function . For instance , if the player poses for Mr. Sanderson while wearing The Drake Redcrest costume , he will give Chibi @-@ Robo Happy Points . As more Happy Points are acquired , the player 's rank increases among all the Chibi @-@ Robos in the world . At certain ranks , Citrusoft will send the player bonus batteries , allowing Chibi @-@ Robo to roam longer without having to recharge .
= = Development = =
Chibi @-@ Robo ! was developed by skip Ltd . , the creators of the Japan @-@ exclusive Giftpia for the Nintendo GameCube . Chibi @-@ Robo ! was first announced in early 2003 with publishing rights held by Bandai . Its original projected release date was June 2003 in Japan and spring 2004 in North America . Unlike the released version of Chibi @-@ Robo ! , the beta version entailed the player training Chibi @-@ Robo to defend the home of his inventor from a pair of burglars . The gameplay was different as well ; instead of a platform @-@ adventure game , it played like a point @-@ and @-@ click adventure title , where the player was not in direct control of Chibi @-@ Robo , but was rather conveying commands to him clicking a cursor around the area . The protagonist was also to learn and develop depending on the choices the player made for him . However , this incarnation of Chibi @-@ Robo ! was ultimately put on " indefinite hold " and disappeared from the media . Shigeru Miyamoto was eventually introduced to the game by fellow Nintendo producer Kensuke Tanabe . Miyamoto took a personal interest in the character of Chibi @-@ Robo and signed on as the game 's senior producer . The development of Chibi @-@ Robo ! was revamped with Nintendo acting as its new publisher . Chibi @-@ Robo ! was in development for four years from start to finish .
Director Kenichi Nishi has previous development credits such as Chrono Trigger , Moon : Remix RPG Adventure and Incredible Crisis . Nishi 's approach to game design , even with Chibi @-@ Robo ! , was to always take a standard , orthodox method and " crash it , twist it , or create a totally different direction " . The reason Nishi chose to make the majority of the cast toys is because humans are " too big to interact with [ Chibi @-@ Robo ] and create all the drama " and that it added a sense of fantasy to the experience . The family dog Tao had appeared in Nishi 's previous games : Moon : Remix RPG Adventure and L.O.L. : Lack of Love . The director based the dog on his own pet because he felt that the " black @-@ and @-@ white color is very simple and universal " . Despite the game 's overall happy attitude , the game designers put some emphasis on serious topics such as divorce , loneliness , pollution , and loss . " If we only concentrate on cheerful fun , we 'll lose depth , " Nishi explained . " There 's nothing surprising for people if the game looks cheerful and the experience is cheerful . There are no surprises or unexpected things . " Still , rather than use these topics as major themes for the player , Nishi felt it would be more effective to bring them in as " ordinary things to enhance the adventure of daily life " .
All the music and sound in Chibi @-@ Robo ! was composed by Hirofumi Taniguchi . He wanted to make unique sound patterns and motifs for each character , and even used human voices to create the system sounds , such as on the menu selections . All of the noises made by Chibi @-@ Robo 's actions were phrased . Taniguchi used both woodwind and electronic instruments for the character 's actions , the former because " Chibi 's actions are not ordinary robotlike actions " and the latter because he did not want to totally eliminate his mechanical characteristics . Different background music is played for the day and night cycles , but they lack melody because Chibi @-@ Robo 's footsteps create a melody at random . The tempo of his footsteps was designed to match the background music ; if he picks up his plug to walk faster , the music speeds up . All of the game 's music was compiled on the Chibi @-@ Robo ! Limited Soundtrack , a CD released alongside an official 142 @-@ page guidebook and published by Shogakukan in Japan in August 2005 .
= = Reception = =
Chibi @-@ Robo ! has enjoyed a mostly favorable critical reception . The GameCube version currently holds an aggregate score of 79 @.@ 33 % based on 43 reviews on GameRankings . Official Nintendo Magazine ranked it the 88th best game available on Nintendo platforms . The staff felt that it was the GameCube 's " last classic . " Critics Greg Mueller of GameSpot , Mathew Kumar of Eurogamer , Bryn Williams of GameSpy , Shane Satterfield of G4 , and Matt Casamassina of IGN all applauded the game 's charming setting , compelling storyline , and complex characters . Casamassina found that the fashion in which the main plot and objectives are sewn together is part of the reason the game is enjoyable . Mueller , Kumar , and Satterfield noted endearing , charismatic qualities among the various toy characters . Kumar heeded Chibi @-@ Robo ! as " honestly one of the most touching games I 've played in ages " in which the player often becomes engrossed in " events that pan out like miniature plays , with love triangles ( nay , love dodecahedrons ) between toys , and some scenes with a real pathos behind them " . Considering the joyous atmosphere of Chibi @-@ Robo ! , Satterfield was pleasantly surprised at its inclusion of controversial topics like divorce and its possible distortion of a target audience . This attribute was criticized by Jinny Gudmundsen , a columnist for USA Today , who thought that the interpersonal issues negate the game 's overall charm and render it inappropriate for younger children . Writers for Computer Games Magazine praised Chibi @-@ Robo by interpreting deep , symbolic meaning in its more subtle aspects . The publication found the game to use " overarching narrative arcs " and " stock melodramatic devices " among the Sandersons ' dysfunctional interactions , " emotional crisis points , downtime , and rhythms and cycles of action " between its day and night events , and " evocative music " as a way for characters to communicate their feelings .
Opinions on the gameplay of Chibi @-@ Robo ! have been mixed . Among the more positive reactions , Casamassina assessed the cleaning mechanics as " very fun and very rewarding " , while Kumar compared the game to the Story of Seasons series due to both entities convert seemingly boring tasks into something fun . James Mielke of 1UP.com similarly enjoyed the " near @-@ constant sense of discovery " and the tiny details included by Skip with earning Happy Points and Moolah . Casamassina , Mielke , and Williamson were satisfied that they had to frequently recharge Chibi @-@ Robo , but Mueller was dismayed to have to stop one 's current task in order to find an outlet . The GameSpot contributor was also aggravated with the mere five @-@ minute intervals for the day and night cycles , which he considered a major interruption of the game 's pacing . Contrarily , Kumar felt the pacing was appropriate and Williamson viewed the feature as a " flexible difficulty level setting " . Satterfield proclaimed that although the gameplay is somewhat varied , most of it is constituted by the tedious location and collection of objects for the non @-@ player characters . Jeremy Zoss of Game Informer was displeased with the game as whole and wrote that it was " not a platformer , but more of a 3D adventure game composed entirely of fetch @-@ quests and repetitive menial labor " .
The audio design of Chibi @-@ Robo ! , particularly its integration of different instrumental tones for the hero 's various actions , was lauded by the press . Kumar felt that its utilization of sound could be " the seed of a new way of using music in games " . Casamassina commented , " Few developers would be brave enough to create a title whose main character generates varying musical notes whenever he takes a step , but this is exactly what Chibi does - and it 's actually very whimsical and cute . " Although many critics appreciated the bright and colorful features of the accompanying aesthetics , they also judged the graphical presentation as dated . Casamassina encountered low @-@ polygon 3D models and a below @-@ average frame rate ; Satterfield stated the game operated at " Dreamcast level " . Other portions of Chibi @-@ Robo ! were assessed as unpolished as well . Several sources noted the game 's default camera system to be unwieldy , combersome , or frustrating at times . However , Mueller noted that switching to the top @-@ down or first @-@ person viewpoints and the ability to center the camera behind Chibi @-@ Robo alleviates most of its problems . Satterfield and Casamassina regarded the cutscenes as awkward and repetitive ; the former of the two claimed that they " amount to ugly characters recycling the same animation routine over and over while gibberish comes from their gaping maws " . Kumar perceived the game 's combat to be " messy " , " uninteresting " , and " entirely unnecessary " .
Chibi @-@ Robo ! was not a significant commercial success . According to Media Create , the GameCube version was the fourth best @-@ selling game in Japan for its week ending June 26 , 2005 with nearly 29 @,@ 000 copies sold . The game managed to sell 97 @,@ 879 units in Japan alone by the end of 2005 . The Wii port of the game did not fare as well ; it only sold 11 @,@ 000 copies in Japan for the week ending June 14 , 2009 and a total of 38 @,@ 573 copies throughout the remainder of that year .
= = Legacy = =
Chibi @-@ Robo ! received a sequel in 2007 for the Nintendo DS called Chibi @-@ Robo ! : Park Patrol , which follows a different Chibi @-@ Robo as it attempts to revitalize a park . Nintendo established a deal with Wal @-@ Mart for the exclusive rights to sell it in the United States . A second sequel for the DS , titled Okaeri ! Chibi @-@ Robo ! Happy Richie Ōsōji ! , saw a Japanese release in 2009 . It involves yet another Chibi @-@ Robo vacuuming dirt for money within the home of an adult Jenny . The original Chibi @-@ Robo ! was re @-@ released as part of New Play Control ! , a selection of Wii remakes of GameCube games . The remake features special Wii Remote controls for the game 's tools . Aiming the remote allows the player to change perspective , while pointing it at interactive objects with will be identified with a sound . The remake was released in Japan on June 11 , 2009 , but Nintendo of America did not permit an English release . A fourth game in the series , Chibi @-@ Robo ! Photo Finder , was released in 2013 for the Nintendo 3DS . The fifth game in the series , titled Chibi @-@ Robo ! Zip Lash was announced on May 31 , 2015 and released in October 2015 for the Nintendo 3DS .
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= Igman Olympic Jumps =
Igman Olympic Jumps , also known as Malo Polje , is a ski jumping hill on the mountain of Igman in Ilidža , Sarajevo , Bosnia and Herzegovina . It consists of a large hill with a construction point ( K @-@ point ) of 112 meters ( 367 ft ) and a normal hill with a K @-@ point of 90 meters ( 295 ft ) . Construction started in 1980 and the venue opened in 1982 to host ski jumping and Nordic combined at the 1984 Winter Olympics . The large hill event saw Finland 's Matti Nykänen set the hill record of 116 @.@ 0 meters ( 381 ft ) in front of 90 @,@ 000 spectators . No other International Ski Federation ( FIS ) sanctioned competitions have taken place at the hills . During the Siege of Sarajevo , the hills became a battleground and have since not been used . However , there are plans to rebuild the in @-@ run , expand the large hill and build new spectator stands and visitor facilities .
= = History = =
The Malo Polje area of Igman has traditionally been used for recreational cross @-@ country skiing . During Sarajevo 's Olympic bid , the two ski jumps were proposed as separate venues . However , after the games were awarded , the plans changed in favor of a single venue , which would allow better post @-@ Olympic use . The area plan for the jumps were presented by the Organizing Committee 's executive board on 30 April 1979 and was passed by Sarajevo City Council in September 1979 . The design of the ski jump was approved by FIS on 18 October 1979 . Work on auxiliary infrastructure started in mid @-@ 1979 , including a new road from the city to Igman .
Construction of the hill and judge 's tower started on 1 July 1980 and was completed on 1 December 1982 . Construction of the ski lift started on 1 October 1982 and was completed on 30 October 1983 . The jumps were inaugurated in 1983 . After the Olympics , Sarajevo experienced a boom in recreational skiing among locals , including ski jumping .
During the Siege of Sarajevo , Igman became part of the buffer zone between the belligerents of the Bosnian government and the Army of Republika Srpska . The area around the ski jumping hill saw heavy fighting during the civil war and was also used for executions by the Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina ( ARBiH ) . Since , the structures have been littered with bullet holes . With the war , the hills were no longer able to be used .
In 2010 , the Olympic legacy company ZOI ' 84 , which owns the hills , launched plans to renovate the venue . Estimated to cost between € 7 million and € 10 million , the in @-@ runs would have been completely rebuilt , as they are in too poor condition to be renovated . The large hill would be expanded to give a K @-@ point of 120 meters ( 390 ft ) . Designs have been made by Austrian architect firm Hofrichter @-@ Ritter and financing is planned through European Union or Austrian grants . The project includes natural stands on the sides of the landing slope and a combination of permanent and temporary stands around the out @-@ run . At a later date , part of stands could be covered with a roof . A panorama restaurant has been proposed for the top of the in @-@ runs . The new venue was scheduled to open in 2013 ; however , no work was done and the site is mostly derelict .
= = Facilities = =
The large hill has a construction point ( K @-@ point ) of 112 meters ( 367 ft ) and the normal hill of 90 meters ( 295 ft ) . During the Olympics , 45 @,@ 000 people attended the normal hill event while 90 @,@ 000 spectated the large hill event . The large hill record jump of 116 @.@ 0 meters ( 381 ft ) was set by Matti Nykänen during the Olympics . The normal hill record of 95 @.@ 0 meters ( 312 ft ) was set by Yugoslavia 's Primož Ulaga in 1983 .
= = Events = =
= = = Men = = =
The only FIS @-@ sanctioned event to take place at Igman was ski jumping and Nordic combined at the 1984 Winter Olympics . The ski jumping competitions doubled as a part of the FIS Ski Jumping World Cup . The normal hill event was won by East Germany 's Jens Weißflog ahead of Nykänen . The two reversed top places in the large hill event . The Nordic combined event was won by Norway 's Tom Sandberg ahead of Finland 's Jouko Karjalainen and Jukka Ylipulli .
Igman was included in the Sarajevo bid for the 2010 Winter Olympics . Despite Sarajevo being the only previous host city to bid , it was largely regarded as the weakest bid , primarily due to its lack of infrastructure after the war .
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= Washington Park ( Chicago park ) =
Washington Park ( formerly Western Division of South Park , also Park No. 21 ) is a 372 @-@ acre ( 1 @.@ 5 km2 ) park between Cottage Grove Avenue and Martin Luther King Drive , ( originally known as " Grand Boulevard " ) located at 5531 S. Martin Luther King Dr. in the Washington Park community area on the South Side of Chicago in Cook County , Illinois . It was named for President George Washington in 1880 . Washington Park is the largest of four Chicago Park District parks named after persons surnamed Washington ( the others are Dinah Washington Park , Harold Washington Park and Washington Square Park , Chicago ) . This park was the proposed site of the Olympic Stadium and the Olympic swimming venue for Chicago 's bid to host the 2016 Summer Olympics . Washington Park was added to the National Register of Historic Places on August 20 , 2004 .
= = Formation = =
Washington Park was conceived by Paul Cornell , a Chicago real estate magnate who had founded the adjoining town of Hyde Park . Cornell had lobbied the Illinois General Assembly to establish the South Park Commission . After his efforts succeeded in 1869 , the South Park Board of Commissioners identified more than 1 @,@ 000 acres ( 4 @.@ 0 km2 ) south of Chicago for a large park and boulevards that would connect it with downtown and the extant West Park System . Originally called South Park , the property was composed of eastern and western divisions , now bearing the names Jackson and Washington Parks and the Midway Plaisance . Cornell hired Frederick Law Olmsted and his partner , Calvert Vaux , to lay out the park in the 1870s . Their blueprints were destroyed in the Great Chicago Fire of 1871 .
When Olmsted first examined the property , he saw a field filled with bare trees and decided to maintain its character by creating a meadow surrounded by trees . His plan for the park called for sheep to graze as a means of keeping the grass short . Cornell convinced Olmsted to include sporting areas , although Olmsted wanted a more natural feel to the park , which included a 13 @-@ acre ( 53 @,@ 000 m2 ) lake . The Western division was renamed Washington Park in 1881 .
Olmsted designed the park to have two broad boulevards cutting through it , making it part of Chicago 's boulevard system . From Washington Park , one can take the Midway east to Jackson Park , Garfield Boulevard west to Chicago Midway International Airport , or Drexel Boulevard north to the central city .
Horace William Shaler Cleveland executed the plans within the limitations of the financial setbacks from the fire ( including the loss of tax rolls ) and the 1873 depression . Olmsted 's vision for Washington Park was generally realized . However , since spending for the park was diverted after the Great Chicago Fire in 1871 . The loss of financial backing and difficulty in levying taxes after the fire meant that a water park could not be built on the property . From 1897 until the 1930s the park housed an impressive conservatory and ornate sunken garden designed by D. H. Burnham & Co. at 56th Street and Cottage Grove . The Washington Park Conservatory , like those of other city parks such as Humboldt and Douglas Parks , was torn down in the 1930s due to limited resources as a result of the Great Depression . This left Lincoln Park and Garfield Park as Chicago 's main Conservatories . One of the earliest improvements was the " South Open Green , " a pastoral meadow with grazing sheep , also used as a ball field . Architect Daniel H. Burnham 's firm designed the 1880 limestone round stables , the 1881 refectory , and the 1910 administrative headquarters for the South Park Commission . Other early attractions to the park included riding stables , cricket grounds , baseball fields , a toboggan slide , archery ranges , a golf course , bicycle paths , row boats , horseshoe pits , greenhouses , a rose garden , a bandstand , a small zoo featuring six alligators , and a lily pond . The lily pond ( pictured left ) was a particularly enticing attraction because few had seen such a site . Today , the administrative building houses DuSable Museum of African American History . The park has retained its environmental appeal with continuing visionary support of the Burnham Plan which supported the maintenance of a park system .
= = History = =
On December 6 , 1879 , former U.S. President Ulysses Grant took part in a tree planting ceremony in the park . A memorial boulder with a plaque ( both of which have been removed from the park , along with the tree ) commemorated the event . In the 1920s black semiprofessional baseball teams played at Washington Park . George Lott began playing tennis at the park .
Washington Park was a site of tension and conflict arising from the demographic changes resulting from the African American expansion into the neighborhood in the period following the First World War . The park has since 1961 hosted the DuSable Museum of African American History , a leader in the promotion of the history , art and culture of African American heritage .
= = Today = =
Washington Park is listed on the National Register of Historic Places as a United States Registered Historic District . Its National Register of Historic Places Multiple Property Submission consisted of 3 @,@ 670 acres ( 14 @.@ 9 km2 ) containing 15 contributing buildings , 28 contributing structures , and 8 contributing objects . Interesting sights in the Park include the DuSable Museum of African American History and its sculpture garden , the Lorado Taft sculpture Fountain of Time , and an architecturally distinctive National Guard armory . Washington Park is a social center of the South Side and hosts many festivals in the summer , including Chicago 's best organized cricket league and the terminus of the Bud Billiken Parade and Picnic . The largest 16 " softball league in Chicago is played there on Sundays ( called " Sunday 's Best Softball League " ) . There are 34 teams who play on 13 diamonds . There is also a weekday evening league .
= = 2016 Olympic bid = =
On September 21 , 2006 , Mayor Richard M. Daley announced that an Olympic Stadium was being proposed for Washington Park as part of Chicago 's bid for the 2016 Summer Olympics ( The International Olympic Committee requires cities have a dome with a seating capacity of at least 80 @,@ 000 in order to be considered as summer Olympics hosts ) . The stadium would have seated 95 @,@ 000 initially for the games , and would have been converted to a 10 @,@ 000 @-@ seat below @-@ ground arena for track @-@ and @-@ field and cultural events after the Olympics . The cost was estimated to be at least $ 300 – 400 million ( USD ) . The plan replaced the initial dual stadium opening ceremony facility .
Additional details about the plan included new permanent hockey fields , use of Jones Armory , and new pedestrian juncture between the two halves of the park by tunneling part of Morgan Drive ( 55th ) . A later December 2008 plan added the olympic swimming venue to the park . The plan faced opposition from those holding the view that Washington Park 's listing on the National Register of Historic Places could not have survived the execution of this Olympic plan . In addition to the opposition , the plan faced constraints because of the park 's landmark status , which precluded federal money from being used to build a temporary stadium in the park . The decision , in October 2009 , to award the 2016 Summer Games to Rio de Janeiro halted these plans .
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= Tenjho Tenge =
Tenjho Tenge ( Japanese : 天上天下 , Hepburn : Tenjō Tenge , lit . " Heaven and Earth " ) , also written as Tenjo Tenge , is a Japanese manga series written and illustrated by Oh ! great . The story primarily focuses on the members of the Juken Club and their opposition , the Executive Council , which is the ruling student body of a high school that educates its students in the art of combat . As the story unfolds , both groups become increasingly involved with an ongoing battle that has been left unresolved for four hundred years .
Tenjho Tenge was serialized in the magazine Ultra Jump from 1998 to 2010 , and collected into 22 volumes by Shūeisha . It was adapted into a twenty @-@ four episode anime series and aired on TV Asahi between April 1 , 2004 to September 16 , 2004 . A two @-@ episode original video animation was also made and aired on March 16 , 2005 . Both versions of the series have been licensed for release in the English language by two different companies . The manga was licensed and released by CMX beginning in 2005 , which came under criticism by fans for editing its sexual content . When CMX closed down in 2010 , after releasing 18 volumes , Viz Media picked up the rights and completed their own uncut release of the series in 2013 . The anime was licensed and released by Geneon Entertainment , also beginning in 2005 , however , it is now licensed by Discotek Media .
= = Etymology = =
The Japanese phrase Tenjho Tenge ( Japanese : 天上天下 , Hepburn : Tenjō Tenge , lit . " Heaven and Earth " ) also is part of the full phrase Tenjō Tenge Yui Ga Doku Son ( Japanese : 天上天下唯我独尊 ) which can be translated literally as " There is no equal to me in this entire world ( i.e. below the heaven and on this earth ) " , and in daily parlance now , the shortened form ( yui ga dokuson ) coming to mean a heavy @-@ handed egotism . Traditionally the phrase is attributed to the Buddha Sakyamuni , purported to have said this whilst taking seven steps immediately after being born , supposed to assert his unparalleled status .
= = Plot = =
The plot begins with Souichiro Nagi and his friend Bob Makihara going to their first day of high school at Toudou Academy . They had intended to rule the school by beating up anybody that got in their way , as they had done at their previous schools . They soon learn that Toudou is no ordinary high school , but rather a school that was founded to teach and integrate different fighting styles . Its students are skilled in the various arts of combat with some students possessing supernatural abilities , such as pyrokinesis , precognition , and superhuman strength based on the abilities to use their " spirit " or " ki " in Japanese . After an altercation with the Executive Council , Souichiro and Bob join the only surviving club that opposes them , the Juken club . As the storyline develops , both groups find they are becoming increasingly involved in a long enduring conflict that was left unresolved from the Japanese Feudal era by some of the characters ' ancestors .
= = Characters = =
Maya Natsume ( 棗 真夜 , Natsume Maya )
A third year student and the current leader of the Juken Club . She is very skilled in various martial arts , but does not possess the Dragon 's Eye like her siblings . For this reason her father entrusted her with the cursed sword Reiki . Early in the series , she would use a body manipulation technique to revert herself into her childhood form to conserve her ki . She also has an argument to settle with Mitsuomi Takayanagi .
Masataka Takayanagi ( 高柳 雅孝 , Takayanagi Masataka )
A second year student and Mitsuomi 's younger brother . Most of the time he has an easy going personality and is somewhat shy , but his demeanor changes when he becomes angered or serious . When this happens , he becomes a very formidable combatant .
Aya Natsume ( 棗 亜夜 , Natsume Aya )
A first year student and the youngest of the Natsume family . In the manga she has brown ankle @-@ length hair , although her hair is ginger for the anime . Like her brother Shin , she has the power of the Dragon 's Eye . Although she has problems consciously activating it , she seems to have better control of the power than her brother . She also is in love with Souichiro , she constantly tries to win his heart . She is mostly seen fighting with swords whenever possible .
Souichiro Nagi ( 凪 宗一郎 , Nagi Sōichiro )
A first year student and self proclaimed hoodlum . He always wear a black long coat . He is very resilient and manages to surprise watchers by battling against the odds . He is the heir of the Demon Exorcist family . His family 's supernatural power is called the Dragon 's Fist , which gives them the ability to take supernatural powers from others and use it as their own . This power is often feared and misunderstood by others which caused Souichiro to be socially rejected . He is actually stronger than Bob .
Bob Makihara ( ボブ 牧原 , Bobu Makihara )
A first year student of African descent . He has been friends with Souichiro since elementary school . He is athletic and practices the Afro @-@ Brazilian martial art of Capoeira . He often has a cool head and always looks after his girlfriend Chiaki . Chiaki is the most important person for him .
Mitsuomi Takayanagi ( 高柳 光臣 , Takayanagi Mitsuomi )
The current president of the Executive Council and of the head of the Takayanagi family . He is a third year student and the top ranked fighter of the whole school . He is a highly skilled and dedicated martial artist . Because of an incident with Shin and the Dragon 's Eye , he is only able to use his formidable abilities for about three minutes at a time .
= = Media = =
= = = Manga = = =
Tenjho Tenge was serialized in the Japanese monthly manga magazine Ultra Jump from 1997 to 2010 . It was author and illustrator Oh ! great 's first crossover mainstream manga from writing and illustrating pornographic series . About twice a year , its publisher Shueisha compiled five of the chapters into tankōbon volumes , with the first released on May 19 , 1998 and the twenty @-@ second and final volume on November 19 , 2010 .
Tenjho Tenge was licensed for an English language publication by CMX , an imprint of DC Comics , as one of their launch titles in 2004 . Their version of the manga is heavily edited / censored in order for them to give it a Teen " rating " " ... to give it the widest possible distribution in the United States " . According to CMX , these changes were made in conjunction with Shueisha and Tenjho Tenge creator Oh ! great , who examines each of their changes . This censorship however garnered quite a bit of controversy , see Controversy section for more info . CMX released eighteen volumes in North America before the company was shut down in July 2010 .
In November 2010 , Viz Media acquired the rights to the Tenjho Tenge manga , stating that their version would be 100 % uncut and faithful to the original Japanese . From June 21 , 2011 to February 5 , 2013 , they released the series bi @-@ monthly in eleven 2 @-@ in @-@ 1 volumes , which collects two individual volumes into a single large one . Viz 's releases also includes omake , color pages from the series ' original run in Ultra Jump , and since each release will cover two volumes , the second cover will be printed in as a color page . The manga is also published in many other countries , such as in Taiwan by Sharp Point Press , in France and Germany by Panini Comics , in Mexico by Grupo Editorial Vid , in Brazil by Editora JBC , and in Spain by Norma Editorial .
= = = Anime = = =
The Tenjho Tenge anime was directed by Toshifumi Kawase , animated by Madhouse , and produced by TV Asahi and Avex Mode , the animation division of the Avex group of companies . The twenty @-@ four episodes were originally aired weekly on TV Asahi in Japan on Thursdays from April 1 , 2004 to September 16 , 2004 . These episodes were made into eight @-@ volume DVD box sets . Two additional episodes were broadcast by TV Asahi in Japan on March 16 , 2005 and released in the form of an original video animation named Tenjho Tenge : Ultimate Fight . The anime follows closely to its source material up to the manga 's eighth volume with the exception of the sexual content which was toned down . The anime has been dubbed into English , French , German and the Tagalog language . The anime series has been licensed for the English language by Geneon Entertainment , and has released all episodes except the DVD special named Tenjho Tenge : The Past Chapter , which is the back @-@ story told through flashbacks in the second half of the anime TV series condensed into the size of four episodes . The series was broadcast in North America by the cable channel Fuse TV .
Although not mentioned on the Geneon Entertainment 's website , or the Tenjho Tenge mini @-@ site , the OVA is available on the last volume , sometimes listed as Episodes 25 and 26 . In Australia and the UK , the series was released over seven volumes , and include the OVA on the seventh disc . Almost 5 years after the closure of Geneon USA , Discotek Media re @-@ licensed the series for a DVD release in 2013 .
= = = Music = = =
The anime 's music , including the background music and theme songs , were composed and performed by various artists , such as m.c.A.T and Aiko Kayo who provided the opening and closing themes songs of the anime . In 2004 , Avex record label released the Tenjho Tenge soundtrack and a single . In 2005 , Avex released two character collection albums .
= = Reception = =
= = = Manga = = =
The Tenjho Tenge manga is described by Chris Beveridge of AnimeOnDVD as an " ... engaging mix of action and comedy together while wrapping it all up in a large plot that 's fairly dark and really violent at times " . Its creator , Oh ! great , is known to flavor his works with wanton sex and violence . Oh ! great uses sex as an important aspect of the storyline by using it as a powerful motivator both negatively and positively . He often has his characters contemplate the significance and importance of fighting as well as the meaning of strength . This conscious deliberation of subjective reasoning and objective truth between characters is the most imperative aspect of story and is considered to be rare in manga . Dani Moure of AnimeOnDVD said readers may find that Oh ! great 's narrative is occasionally hard to follow and at times the plot moves slowly . Oh ! great is known for his characters to have unrealistic body proportions , and Tenjho Tenge is no different . The majority of the female characters have " ... ultra large breasts ... " and the males characters are extraordinarily muscular , but this facilitates the characters personalities to come through in their distinctive features . Overall , the Tenjho Tenge manga is well received having sold over 10 @.@ 7 million copies , and its volumes regularly being in the top twenty best @-@ selling manga for Japanese Tohan charts and North American Diamond Comic Distributors charts .
= = = Anime = = =
The Tenjho Tenge anime is described as a significantly toned down version of the Japanese manga , but still retains most of the spirit of its predecessor . Much of the nudity was removed by the animators , but was made up in the way of sexual innuendos , gratuitous cleavage , and panty shots . Since the anime is a close adaptation to the manga , critique of the plot is comparable to the manga 's . Some reviewers felt that the anime was handled in a frantic and ill planned manner that made the conclusion not satisfactory even with the original video animation . The animation done by Madhouse is considered to be well done . They used bright vibrant colors , solid backgrounds and plenty of visible detail with very little pixelation or jagged movement , but at times used repeated character shots and animations . The animation done during the fight scenes is done in real time and is done as close to reality as possible while still bending , and often violating , the laws of physics . The early fight scenes are thought to be the " ... most intense seen in recent anime " by Kevin Gilvear of DVD Times . Carlo Santos of Anime News Network affirmed the quality of animation in these scenes does drop somewhat over time , but the action still looks better than the average fighting anime . Both the Japanese and English voice acting are considered to be good , but the English dub at times can be a little uneven . The English dub on occasion has poor dialogue , according to Anime News Network 's Patrick King , which causes it to lose much of the anime 's sincerity . Overall , the anime is considered to be above average , but suffers from a lack of a good ending , mainly because the anime only covered the first arc of the story .
The series ' original soundtrack is considered to be average . Most of the music does well with setting the tone within the anime , although some reviewers found it to be somewhat repetitive . Some found the drama tracks to be unsatisfactory , even though they were " well executed " . For many , the highlight of the soundtrack is m.c.A.T 's " Bomb A Head ! " , which was used as the anime 's opening song .
= = Controversy = =
CMX came under a great deal of criticism for its edits from readers . These edits included the length and breadth of the book , censoring out anything they felt was questionable for a teen audience such as covering up or removing nudity , fanservice , and sexual innuendo as well as a removal of an omake chapter . This was done by a brand whose promotional material asserts that it offers " pure manga — 100 % the way the original Japanese creators want you to see it . " One of grievances made against CMX is that the edits are not only severe , but very noticeable . One review states it is " possibly the most heavily censored title in the history of the North American manga industry . "
In response , protesters boycott the edited version and even started up their own website . Immediately following the controversy , Jake Tarbox , group editor of CMX , resigned from the company . " Tarbox was widely blamed by the fan community for the censoring of Tenjho Tenge , although inside sources suggest that Tarbox was not responsible for the decision to censor the manga . " In the face of complaints , CMX had internal discussions about the possibility of publishing an unedited version of Tenjho Tenge , but decided to complete the current version . At the 2007 Anime Expo , CMX announced that they planned to change Tenjho Tenge 's rating to Mature beginning with volume fifteen , but warned that it still would be edited , but more lightly . Jason Thompson declared CMX 's censorship of the series one of " The Greatest Censorship Fails " in manga .
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= Game 39 =
" Game 39 " or the international round was a proposed extra round of matches in the Premier League to be played at neutral venues outside England . The top football league in England , the Premier League is currently played on a double round robin basis , with each team playing the other 19 home and away , giving a total of 38 games . The international round was proposed at a meeting of the 20 Premier League clubs on 7 February 2008 , with a view to being introduced for the 2010 – 11 season , when a new television broadcasting rights contract would be in place . The proposed start date was later put back to 2013 – 14 . The proposal was reportedly endorsed by the chairmen of a number of Premier League clubs .
Game 39 resulted in opposition from several club managers . The proposal also met with strong condemnation from supporters ' organisations , who saw it as solely motivated by money to the detriment of fans . Sepp Blatter , president of the sport 's global governing body at that time , expressed a negative opinion of the proposal and stated that it could affect England 's bid to host the 2018 World Cup , and the football authorities in a number of the areas suggested as possible venues for the matches were also opposed . In May 2010 , the Premier League said that it was no longer actively considering game 39 , but in October 2014 it was said to be re @-@ considering the idea .
= = Proposal = =
The Premier League , the top @-@ level football league in England , contains 20 member clubs , with each playing the others once at home and once away for a total of 38 games per season . The proposal envisaged each team playing one further match , a total of ten extra matches , over one weekend in January . Two matches would be played in each of five cities , one each on Saturday and Sunday . Cities would bid for the right to stage matches , but would not be able to specify which teams would be involved . The matches would be held at staggered start times , with venues in different timezones , making it possible in theory to watch live television coverage of all ten . There are conflicting reports about whether the draw for the extra fixtures would be seeded or not .
The week prior to the international round would be free of matches , to allow for travel and acclimatisation . The week after the international round would see each team face one of the teams which had played at the same foreign venue , to avoid any disadvantage for teams with a longer round @-@ trip . Possible venues suggested for international @-@ round matches were Australia , East Asia , Southeast Asia , the Gulf States , and North America . All are wealthy regions where interest in English football is strong relative to the level of the domestic game . Venues would have warm , predictable weather , unlike England in January .
Premier League chief executive Richard Scudamore initially said there would not be more than one international round per season , stating " I stress that on my watch , there will be no 40th game . The value [ of a 39th game ] is in its uniqueness , in that festival weekend , so there 's no point in diluting it " . Subsequently he suggested the initial plan would last six to ten years and might be altered .
= = Development = =
Foreshadowing the plan were the Premier League Asia Trophy , started in 2003 , and the NFL International Series American football game played at Wembley Stadium in London in 2007 . Rod Eddington pitched the idea of an international round to the Premier League in autumn 2007 . Eddington was chairman of Victorian Major Events Company and a friend of Rupert Murdoch , owner of Sky Sports and other networks with broadcasting rights to the Premier League . He suggested his home city of Melbourne as an inaugural host city . A presentation to the Premier League 's audit @-@ and @-@ remuneration committee was made two weeks before the public announcement . An initial business plan predicted extra earnings from the international round of between £ 40 million and £ 80 million per year .
The Premier League put in place a working party to negotiate with the various concerned parties . It initially stated that , to proceed with the plan , it needed the support only of the Football Association ( FA ) and the football governing bodies of the countries of the host cities . It attempted to secure the support of the FA for the proposal by promising to rearrange club fixtures for better convenience to players called up to the England team . Scudamore planned to meet officials from the sport 's global governing body , the International Federation of Association Football ( FIFA ) , before its executive committee meeting in Zurich on 14 March 2008 . On 27 February , after several weeks of mostly negative reaction , Scudamore agreed with Jérôme Valcke , general secretary of FIFA , that the meeting would be postponed indefinitely . The Premier League presented this as an opportunity to rethink its proposals , and said that it would not proceed without FIFA approval .
In May 2008 , Scudamore told BBC Radio 5 Live that the proposal was " not over " , but that the League would " come up with something that ticks more boxes " by January 2009 . In August 2008 , Scudamore said that the League had " a whole host of ideas , some more radical than others , but none quite as radical as the original concept " . In October 2008 , he said Game 39 was still a possibility , although the timing of TV contracts meant it would be in the 2013 – 14 season at the earliest . An agreement in December 2008 between the Premier League and the Asian Football Confederation ( AFC ) was linked to Game 39 by the media .
= = Reactions = =
= = = In England = = =
Richard Scudamore defended the plan as consolidating the Premier League 's global reputation , saying " if we didn 't do it , another sport will come and do it to us " . Scudamore said that the chairmen of all 20 Premier League clubs supported the proposal , and disputed claims by the Daily Mail that Randy Lerner of Aston Villa and Dave Whelan of Wigan Athletic were opposed . David Gold , chairman of Birmingham City , endorsed the plan in part because the larger clubs have in any case already been exploiting foreign markets , with pre @-@ season and even mid @-@ season tours ; Game 39 would distribute its revenue among all the clubs . On 15 February , Liverpool F.C. chief executive Rick Parry stated that the proposal had " never been on Liverpool 's club agenda " and acknowledged the concern of the club 's fans and manager . Paul Hayward , writing in The Guardian , said that the proposal would destroy the balance of the home @-@ and @-@ away round @-@ robin league . The Football Supporters ' Federation ( FSF ) condemned the proposal as being motivated by money , and dubbed it Gam £ 39 . It launched a petition , with the support of the Daily Mail , to oppose the " outrageous desecration of the national game " . In March 2008 , the campaign was ended as the FSF declared the proposal " effectively dead " . Many die @-@ hard fans who pride themselves on travelling to all their teams ' away matches would have been unable to travel abroad for " Game 39 " . On the other hand , exotic foreign venues would potentially be more appealing destinations for fans than a mundane English city . Managers of Premier League clubs reported to be opposed to or sceptical of the plans included Steve Bruce , Roy Hodgson , Gareth Southgate , and Rafael Benítez . Alex Ferguson criticised the club owners for lack of consultation with managers . Arsène Wenger , Roy Keane , Kevin Keegan , and Avram Grant supported the proposal . ' Game 39 ' was also defended as a move to head off plans for a World League involving only elite clubs such as those formerly in the G @-@ 14 group .
Andy Burnham , the Secretary of State for Culture , Media and Sport , cautioned that football should " not forget its roots " . Gordon Taylor of the Professional Footballers ' Association expressed concern about increased pressure on players . The FA on 15 February expressed " serious reservations " that the proposal might damage England 's bid to host the 2018 World Cup . An FA board meeting on 21 February concluded that the plan was " unsustainable in its current format " .
= = = Elsewhere = = =
The proposal was condemned by Sepp Blatter , president of FIFA , who said it brought the game into disrepute and would adversely affect England 's bid for the 2018 World Cup . He also said " Football cannot be like the Harlem Globetrotters or a circus " . Michel Platini of the sport 's European governing body , UEFA , called it a " nonsense idea " . Strong reservations were expressed by the Korean FA , and the Japanese FA opposed the plan . Middle @-@ eastern FAs were reportedly more positive . In February 2008 AFC president Mohammed Bin Hammam said he would " vote strongly against " the proposal ; in June he was prepared to reconsider if the plan had FA support ; in October he said he would welcome it if the League shared revenue with the AFC . The Hong Kong FA said it was " very interested " in hosting games . Football Federation Australia said it would oppose it if it impacted its own A @-@ League . Ivan Gazidis , deputy commissioner of Major League Soccer ( MLS ) in the United States , said that MLS would welcome the plan if it had FIFA approval . Sunil Gulati , the president of the US Soccer Federation , said the USSF would be guided by FIFA about approving any matches .
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= HMS Engadine ( 1911 ) =
HMS Engadine was a seaplane tender which served in the Royal Navy ( RN ) during World War I. Converted from the cross @-@ Channel packet ship SS Engadine , she was initially fitted with temporary hangars for three seaplanes for aerial reconnaissance and bombing missions in the North Sea . She participated in the unsuccessful Cuxhaven Raid in late 1914 before she began a more thorough conversion in 1915 that increased her capacity to four aircraft . Engadine was transferred to the Battlecruiser Fleet in late 1915 and participated in the Battle of Jutland in 1916 when one of her aircraft flew the first heavier @-@ than @-@ air reconnaissance mission during a naval battle . She was transferred to the Mediterranean in 1918 .
She was sold back to her original owners in 1919 and resumed her prewar role . Engadine was sold in 1933 to a Philippine company and renamed SS Corregidor . She was sunk with heavy loss of life by a mine in December 1941 during the invasion of the Philippines at the beginning of the Pacific War .
= = Description = =
Engadine had an overall length of 323 feet ( 98 @.@ 5 m ) , a beam of 41 feet ( 12 @.@ 5 m ) , and a mean draught of 13 feet 8 inches ( 4 @.@ 2 m ) . She displaced 2 @,@ 550 long tons ( 2 @,@ 590 t ) at deep load and was rated at 1 @,@ 676 gross register tons ( GRT ) . Each of the ship 's three sets of direct @-@ drive steam turbines drove one propeller shaft . The ship 's six boilers generated enough steam to produce 13 @,@ 800 shaft horsepower ( 10 @,@ 300 kW ) from the turbines , enough for a designed speed of 21 @.@ 5 knots ( 39 @.@ 8 km / h ; 24 @.@ 7 mph ) . Engadine carried 400 tonnes ( 390 long tons ) of coal , enough to give her a range of 1 @,@ 250 nautical miles ( 2 @,@ 320 km ; 1 @,@ 440 mi ) at 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) .
= = Construction and service = =
SS Engadine was laid down by William Denny and Brothers at their Dumbarton , Scotland shipyard as a fast packet for the South East and Chatham Railway 's Folkestone @-@ Boulogne run . The ship was launched on 23 September 1911 and completed later that year . She was requisitioned for service by the Admiralty on 11 August 1914 , and was commissioned on 1 September after she was modified to handle seaplanes by Chatham Dockyard . Three canvas hangars were installed , one forward and two aft , and there was no flight deck , the aircraft being lowered onto the sea for takeoff and recovered again from the sea after landing by newly installed derricks . In 1918 her crew numbered 197 officers and enlisted men , including 53 aviation personnel .
Upon completion of the modifications on 1 September , Engadine was assigned to the Harwich Force along with the seaplane tenders Empress and Riviera . On Christmas Day 1914 , nine aircraft from all three ships took part in the Cuxhaven Raid on hangars housing Zeppelin airships . Seven of the nine seaplanes successfully took off for the attack , but they inflicted little damage . Only three of the aircraft returned to be recovered , but the crews of the other three ditched safely and were recovered by a British submarine and the Dutch trawler Marta van Hattem . A notable member of her crew was Robert Erskine Childers who served an instructor in coastal navigation to newly trained pilots . He managed to extend his duties to include flying as a navigator and observer and participated in the raid , for which he was mentioned in despatches .
Engadine was purchased in February 1915 by the Admiralty and she was modified by Cunard at Liverpool from 10 February to 23 March 1915 with a permanent , four @-@ aircraft , hangar in the rear superstructure and a pair of cranes were mounted at the rear of the hangar to hoist the seaplanes in and out of the water . Four quick @-@ firing ( QF ) 12 @-@ pounder 12 cwt guns , each with 130 rounds , and two Vickers QF 3 @-@ pounder anti @-@ aircraft guns , each with 65 rounds , were fitted for self @-@ defence . She also carried a pigeon loft that housed carrier pigeons to be used by her aircraft if their wireless was broken .
Upon completion of the conversion , she rejoined the Harwich Force ; on 3 July , Engadine and Riviera attempted to launch aircraft to reconnoitre the River Ems and lure out a Zeppelin so that it could be attacked . Of Engadine 's three Sopwith Schneider floatplanes that she attempted to launch , two wrecked on take off and the third was badly damaged . She was transferred to Vice Admiral David Beatty 's Battlecruiser Fleet ( BCF ) , based at Rosyth in October . Later that month Engadine carried out trials on high @-@ speed towing of kite balloons for gunnery observations , although she generally served as a base ship for the fleet 's seaplanes .
= = = Battle of Jutland = = =
On 30 May 1916 , Engadine was attached to the 3rd Light Cruiser Squadron , commanded by Rear Admiral Trevylyan Napier , and carried two Short Type 184 and two Sopwith Baby floatplanes aboard . The two @-@ seat Type 184s were intended for observation and were fitted with a low @-@ power wireless while the Babys were intended to shoot down Zeppelins . Engadine accompanied the cruisers when the Battlecruiser Fleet sortied from Rosyth that evening to intercept the German High Seas Fleet . For a time on 31 May she was actually leading the BCF and may have been one of the first ships to spot the oncoming Germans . Her position in the vanguard was dictated by the requirement for smooth water to successfully launch her aircraft ; turbulent water from ships ' wakes was enough to ruin a take off attempt . She would also have to come to a complete stop to hoist her aircraft over the side and prepare it for launch , a process that took at least 20 minutes at anchor . Thus she could launch her floatplane in unruffled water and then fall back among the main body of the fleet .
Beatty ordered Engadine to make a search to the north @-@ northeast at 14 : 40 and she sailed through the BCF before turning north @-@ east to find calmer water . At 15 : 07 Lieutenant Frederick Rutland took off in his Type 184 and his observer signalled Engadine that they had spotted three German cruisers and five destroyers at 15 : 30 . These were ships from the II Scouting Group , leading the battlecruisers of Vice Admiral Franz von Hipper . This was the first time that a heavier @-@ than @-@ air aircraft had carried out a reconnaissance of an enemy fleet in action . After a few other spot reports were transmitted , the aircraft 's fuel line ruptured around 15 : 36 and Rutland was forced to put his aircraft down . He was able to repair it and signalled that he was ready to take off again , but he was ordered to taxi to the carrier on the surface . The aircraft reached the ship at 15 : 47 and it was hoisted aboard by 16 : 04 . By this time , a pair of destroyers , Moresby and Onslow , that had been ordered to protect Engadine while she was stationary had reached her . Engadine attempted to relay the spot reports to Beatty 's flagship and the flagship of the 5th Battle Squadron , but was unsuccessful . She trailed Beatty 's force during the " Run to the South " , during which time her two escorts were detached and again when they reversed course during the " Run to the North " .
The 14 @,@ 000 @-@ long @-@ ton ( 14 @,@ 000 t ) armoured cruiser Warrior had been crippled by numerous hits by German battleships around 18 : 30 and fell in with Engadine 10 minutes later . The former 's rudder had been jammed full over and she continued to turn in tight circles until her steam was exhausted . At 19 : 45 Engadine attempted to take her in tow , but the jammed rudder prevented that until it was trained amidships . By 21 : 30 she was making 8 knots ( 15 km / h ; 9 @.@ 2 mph ) while her turbines were making revolutions for 19 knots ( 35 km / h ; 22 mph ) . Early the following morning Warrior 's progressive flooding had worsened and she was sinking . Captain Vincent Molteno ordered his ship abandoned after Engadine came alongside to take them off at 08 : 00 . One of Warrior 's guns punctured Engadine 's hull below the waterline as the former ship rolled in the moderate seas , but this was quickly patched . About 675 officers and enlisted men successfully made it to the much smaller Engadine which had to quickly distribute them to prevent her from capsizing . Among these were about 30 seriously wounded men who were transferred across in their stretchers ; one man fell off his stretcher between the ships , but was rescued by Rutland against orders . For his bravery he was awarded the First Class Albert Medal for Lifesaving in gold and briefly became the only living recipient . The transfer was completed before 09 : 00 and Warrior sank shortly afterwards . Engadine remained with the BCF until early 1918 when she was transferred to the Mediterranean Fleet . She was based out of Malta , conducting anti @-@ submarine patrols , for the remainder of the war .
= = = Postwar career = = =
She was sold back to her original owners , the South Eastern and Chatham Railway , in December 1919 and resumed her former role as a cross @-@ Channel ferry . Engadine was transferred to the Southern Railway in 1923 when the British railroads were consolidated . Passing through the hands of a ship broker , she was sold to Fernandez Hermanos , Inc. in the Philippines in 1933 and renamed SS Corregidor .
= = = = Sinking = = = =
At 22 : 00 on 16 December 1941 , Corregidor left its dock in Manila in total darkness , loaded to overcapacity with Filipino civilians seeking to escape to the southern Philippines after the war had started . It has been estimated that between 1 @,@ 200 and 1 @,@ 500 people were on board , including approximately 150 Philippine soldiers , 7 Americans , 5 Philippine legislators , and hundreds of college students who were traveling home after their schools had closed . Also aboard were military supplies as well the entire artillery complement of the Visayan @-@ Mindanao Force of the Philippine Army . The owners of the ship failed to inform the Navy 's Inshore Patrol of the ship 's plan to leave Manila Bay .
Although Captain Apolinar Calvo of the Corregidor had prior experience navigating the mined entrance to Manila Bay ( the mines had been in place since July ) , the Navy had changed its procedures on that day . Rather than post a gunboat near the safe channel as they had in days previous , lighted buoys were used to guide boats through . As the Corregidor sailed close to the island of Corregidor to pass through the channel at around 01 : 00 , the ship was observed turning toward the electrically @-@ controlled minefield . Some officers posted at the Army 's Seaward Defense Command headquarters on the island recommended that the mines be temporarily disarmed so that the ship could pass through the minefield . A number of accounts state that Seaward Defense Commander Colonel Paul Bunker ordered that the mines be kept active .
When the Corregidor entered the minefield , there was a large explosion on the starboard side of the vessel . The overcrowded ship quickly began to sink , with many people trapped below @-@ deck . Survivors stated that the ship sank so quickly that there was no time for large @-@ scale panic to set in . Searchlights from Corregidor Island illuminated the scene which aided the rescue effort . Sailors of MTB Squadron 3 posted at Sisiman Cove heard the explosion and left on three PT boats ( PT @-@ 32 , PT @-@ 34 and PT @-@ 35 ) to investigate . When the boats arrived they found survivors in the water and were able to retrieve 282 survivors . Seven of the rescued passengers later died from their injuries .
The incident was never investigated due to the Japanese invasion . Later , some Army officers reported that the remote @-@ controllable mines were set to the safety position immediately after the explosion occurred . The total number of victims is unknown . It has been estimated that 900 – 1 @,@ 200 lost their lives . Among the dead were the captain and most of the crew , two of the legislators , and one of the American passengers . At the time , the sinking of the Corregidor was the most significant maritime disaster in Philippine history , and one of the greatest maritime disasters in the world that did not occur as a result of military or naval action .
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= Basin , Montana =
Basin is a census @-@ designated place ( CDP ) in Jefferson County , Montana , United States . It lies about 10 miles ( 16 km ) southeast of the Continental Divide in a high narrow canyon along Interstate 15 about halfway between Butte and Helena . Basin Creek flows roughly north to south through Basin and enters the Boulder River on the settlement 's south side . The population was 255 at the 2000 census .
Archaeologists have discovered evidence of human habitation from 10 @,@ 000 years ago at a site near Clancy , 20 miles ( 32 km ) from Basin . From about 2000 BCE through the mid @-@ 19th century , nomadic tribes hunted bison in the grassy valleys that trend east , away from the Rocky Mountains and into the plains . By the time miners found gold in the streams in and near Basin , most of these tribes of Indians had been forced onto reservations by the U.S. government .
Basin rests above the Boulder Batholith , the host rock for many valuable mineral ores found in this part of Montana . After the town became a hub of gold and silver mining , Basin 's population peaked at about 1 @,@ 500 in first decade of the 20th century but gradually declined as the mines were depleted . Abandoned mining equipment , closed or barricaded mine portals , and the ruins of a smelter and ore concentrator remain in Basin in the 21st century .
Historic buildings from Basin 's heyday form much of the core of the CDP 's small business district , which includes a fire station , a post office , two restaurants , a bar , a commercial gallery , small specialty shops . Basin has a small elementary school , its own water system , and a low @-@ power radio station . Local volunteers and elected trustees provide limited services to the settlement , but it relies on the government of Jefferson County , Montana , for law enforcement and other services . From 1993 through 2011 Basin was home to the Montana Artists Refuge .
= = Geography and geology = =
Basin , in Jefferson County , is part of the Helena Micropolitan Statistical Area . It lies at an elevation of 5 @,@ 364 feet ( 1 @,@ 635 m ) above sea level along Interstate 15 about 27 miles ( 43 km ) north of Butte and 35 miles ( 56 km ) south of Helena in the narrow canyon of a small river . The community is largely surrounded by the Beaverhead @-@ Deerlodge National Forest . Basin Creek flows south through the center of Basin to its confluence with a larger stream , the Boulder River , which flows east along the south side of Basin . No paved roads except the interstate highway , which runs along the river canyon , connect Basin to other towns . About 10 miles ( 16 km ) upstream on Basin Creek lies the Continental Divide . According to the United States Census Bureau , the CDP has a total area of 12 @.@ 8 square miles ( 33 km2 ) , all land .
In the late Cretaceous ( roughly 81 to 74 million years ago ) , molten rock ( magma ) rose to the Earth 's surface in and near what later became Jefferson County and eventually formed an intrusive body of granitic rock up to 10 miles ( 16 km ) thick and 100 miles ( 161 km ) in diameter . This body , known as the Boulder Batholith , extends from Helena to Butte , and is the host rock for the many valuable ores mined in the region . As the granite cooled , it cracked , and hot solutions infiltrated the cracks to form mineral veins bearing gold and other metals . Millions of years later , weathering allowed gold in the veins to wash down to the gravels in Basin Creek , Cataract Creek , and the other creeks near Basin , as well as the Boulder River .
The Basin area is underlain by the quartz monzonite of the Boulder Batholith . The batholith is overlain by dacite from the Paleogene and Neogene periods ( roughly 66 million to 1 @.@ 8 million years ago ) and andesite from the late Cretaceous . The andesite and monzonite are cut by dikes of dacite and rhyolite .
= = History = =
= = = First peoples = = =
Archeologists think it likely that the first people to live in Montana crossed from Asia to North America over the Bering Land Bridge that existed during the last major Ice Age about 12 @,@ 000 years ago . Because the middle of the continent was covered with sheets of ice , people who migrated south did so on trails along the edges of glaciers melted by seasonal warming . One such trail , called the Great North Trail , is thought to have followed the Rocky Mountain Front into Montana , passing close to Helena , 24 miles ( 39 km ) north of Basin , and continuing into the east @-@ central part of the state . Evidence of these early Paleo @-@ Indians or Clovis people has been found at three sites , one of them the McHaffie site near Clancy about 20 miles ( 32 km ) north of Basin . The age of the Clancy artifacts is estimated to be 10 @,@ 000 years . The Clovis people are thought to have disappeared in about 4 @,@ 000 to 5 @,@ 000 BCE when the Montana climate became more dry and would not support the animal populations the Clovis needed to survive .
About 2 @,@ 000 years ago , a new prehistoric people known as the Late Hunters appeared in Montana , thriving on a bison ( buffalo ) population living in open grassy areas on the plains and in river valleys . The earliest tribes are thought to have been the Kootenai , who stayed west of the Continental Divide , and the Flathead ( Salish ) , and Pend d 'Oreilles , who ventured east of the mountains into and east of the Three Forks country , 46 miles ( 74 km ) southeast of Basin . In the 17th century , the Crow entered Montana from the east and the Shoshone from the south . Pressed by other tribes retreating west from white European settlers , the Blackfeet moved into Montana around 1730 . Acquiring horses and firearms , and numbering about 15 @,@ 000 , they formed alliances with other incoming tribes , the Assiniboine and the Gros Ventres , and by the mid @-@ 18th century dominated the state . When the white explorers Lewis and Clark traveled up the Missouri River to Three Forks , they found only Blackfeet and Blackfeet allies . Heavily dependent on bison , the nomadic life of the Blackfeet " came to an abrupt end in the early 1880s when the buffalo became almost extinct . "
During the 1870s , a few years after the first white miners began looking for gold near Basin , the last large @-@ scale battles between the U.S. government and the Indians took place in Montana . The Marias Massacre ( also known as the Baker Massacre ) , occurred in 1870 about 150 miles ( 241 km ) northeast of Basin . Others , the Battle of the Little Bighorn and the Battle of the Rosebud , were fought in 1876 about 250 miles ( 402 km ) from Basin in the southeastern part of the state . By then , most first peoples had been moved to reservations , which were far from Basin .
= = = Camp = = =
The town of Basin began as a 19th century mining camp near the confluence of Basin Creek with the Boulder River . Gold deposits at the mouth of Cataract Creek , about 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) downstream of Basin were reported as early as 1862 . Prospectors staked claims and built cabins , and within a few years placer mining extended the full lengths of Cataract and Basin Creeks . When a settlement was established in Basin , the buildings at the mouth of Cataract Creek were gradually moved to Basin , and the Cataract camp was abandoned .
Searches for the lode veins on both creeks succeeded by the 1870s and eventually led to significant lode mining at the Eva May , Uncle Sam , Grey Eagle , Hattie Ferguson , and Comet mines in the Cataract Creek district and the Bullion , Hope , and Katy mines in the Basin Creek district . By 1880 , the settlement at Basin became the local source of supplies for mines and miners .
= = = Boom and bust = = =
Two mines , the Katy and the Hope , owned serially by several different companies between the mid @-@ 1890s and the mid @-@ 1920s , contributed to Basin 's prosperity . In 1894 , the Basin and Bay State Mining Company , organized by two brothers named Glass , began expanded operations at these mines . However , flooding and fires caused both mines to close by 1896 ; the Glass brothers lost control of the property , and the mines went idle . Despite the ups and downs of the local mines and despite several disastrous fires in town , Basin prospered . In 1905 , the Basin Reduction Company led by F. Augustus Heinze , who owned mines in Butte , took over the properties left by the Glass brothers and improved them . By then , Basin had a population of 1 @,@ 500 , four rooming houses , a drug store , three hotels , a bath house , three grocery stores , a bank , a newspaper , and 12 saloons .
An unpublished manuscript on file with the Montana State Historical Society describes life in Basin between 1906 and 1910 in great detail . Two railroads , the Northern Pacific on the north side of the Boulder River , and the Great Northern on the south side , served the city ; both had depots and warehouses in Basin and carried passengers as well as freight . The Glass brothers ' smelter had been set up on the north side to process concentrated ore delivered by rail from out of town or from the mills on the south side . Infrastructure included a weight scale for ore cars and an overhead tram to carry ore across the river from the reduction mill to the smelter . Although the smelter was a " massive unit " equipped with furnaces , conveyors , and machinery ready for operation , it " never turned a wheel " .
While the smelter sat idle , mining activity continued on the south side of the river in the Hope @-@ Katy mine complex , at the Hope Mill , which crushed and separated ore , and at the Basin Reduction Works . Flumes carried water from upstream on Cataract Creek and Basin Creek to a storage reservoir in town and supplied water to the mills as well as the town 's fire hydrants . A separate flume carried water to the mills from upstream on the Boulder River . At the Basin Reduction Works , Corliss steam engines , driven by the coal @-@ fired boilers , provided power to run the mine hoists and the mill machinery , and an electric generator powered by a water wheel made electricity for factory lights and the arc lights at Basin 's street intersections . Surplus tailings were discharged into the river and into a dam built for the purpose downstream of Basin .
In addition to homes , Basin structures between 1906 and 1910 included a dance pavilion , a grandstand , a baseball diamond , and a playground near the confluence of Basin Creek with the river . A footbridge connected the playground with a picnic area on the south side of the river . Meeting places included churches , a union hall , and a two @-@ story building shared by the Fraternal Order of Eagles , the Independent Order of Odd Fellows , the Masons , and Eastern Star . Among the town 's businesses were a hardware store , a bakery , livery stables , several " units of harlotry " , a blacksmith shop , a brewery specializing in Basin Beer , a sawmill , and a dairy barn from which " milk was delivered in five @-@ pound buckets " , sometimes with covers .
In 1909 , after Heinze abandoned his properties in Basin , the Butte and Superior Mining Company used buildings and machinery at the site of the Basin Reduction Works to treat zinc ore by a new process called froth flotation . Sued for patent infringement , the company shut down its Basin plant in 1912 . Max Atwater , a mining engineer who had worked for Butte and Superior , obtained a license for the process and ran a smaller zinc @-@ extraction plant in Basin from 1914 through 1918 . His wife , Mary Meigs Atwater , described Basin as " a mining camp , subject to recurring periods of boom and bust ... A tiny telephone office and a drugstore died with the end of our era of boom ... Just above the town were the headframe of our mine , and the old mill , and the never @-@ quite @-@ finished skeleton of a projected smelter . "
The most extensive and successful mining of the Hope @-@ Katy vein began in 1919 , when the Jib Consolidated Mining Company began work on the property . When this company acquired the mines , they comprised 3 @,@ 500 feet ( 1 @,@ 067 m ) of workings . Over the next five years , Jib expanded these to more than 15 @,@ 000 feet ( 4 @,@ 572 m ) , and in 1924 the company became the largest gold producer in Montana . In that year , the combined Jib mines produced about 33 @,@ 000 ounces ( 940 @,@ 000 g ) of gold , 182 @,@ 000 ounces ( 5 @,@ 200 @,@ 000 g ) of silver , 282 @,@ 000 pounds ( 128 @,@ 000 kg ) of copper , and 199 @,@ 000 pounds ( 90 @,@ 000 kg ) of lead . In 1925 , however , the Jib properties passed from the mining company to trustees for creditors , and production declined . This was the last of Basin 's mining booms . Since then , small @-@ scale mining , reworking of old mine dumps , and placer mining has continued in the region .
= = = Since 1960 = = =
For about 50 years , the Merry Widow Health Mine in Basin and similar mines nearby have attracted people seeking relief from health problems such as arthritis through limited exposure to radioactive mine water and radon . The practice is controversial because of the " well @-@ documented ill effects of high @-@ dose radiation on the body . "
In 1975 , the Basin community formed water and sewer districts and , using federal grants to cover about 60 percent of the costs , built a water delivery , sewage , and waste @-@ handling system . By 1990 , Interstate 15 had replaced the entire length of U.S. Route 91 in the state . The centerline of the Interstate followed the track of the former Great Northern Railway through town .
In 1999 , the Environmental Protection Agency added the Basin mining area to the Superfund National Priorities List because of mining @-@ waste problems in and near town . The mining area comprised the watersheds of Basin and Cataract Creek and part of the Boulder River . Contaminants included arsenic , copper , cadmium , lead and other metals . Cleanup of the mining wastes at the Buckeye @-@ Enterprise , Crystal and Bullion mines in the Basin Creek and Cataract watersheds was completed in 2002 , and the removal of mine waste from Basin was completed in 2004 .
= = = Individual mines = = =
Almost opposite the Hope @-@ Katy complex on the south side of the Boulder River in Basin was the Katy Extension Mine on the north side . It produced ore from part of the Hope @-@ Katy lode that had been displaced about 800 feet ( 240 m ) to the north by faulting . Other mines within 2 miles ( 3 km ) of Basin included the Lotta , 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) west of town along the route of Interstate 15 ; the Basin Bell ( Latsch ) , about 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) north of town along Basin Creek ; the Boulder , 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) northeast of Basin on the south slope of Pole Mountain ; the Mantle and South Mantle , about 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) north of town along Cataract Creek ; and the Obelisk , 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) east of town near the road that later became Interstate 15 .
= = Climate = =
July and August are typically the warmest months in Boulder about 9 miles ( 14 km ) east of Basin , while December and January are the coldest . May and June are the wettest months , when a total of about 4 inches ( 100 mm ) of precipitation falls . Weather observations were recorded in Basin from June 1949 to November 1970 , but only contained precipitation and snowfall data .
= = Demographics = =
As of the census of 2000 , there were 255 people , 113 households , and 69 families residing in the CDP . The population density was 19 @.@ 9 people per square mile ( 7 @.@ 7 / km ² ) . There were 146 housing units at an average density of 11 @.@ 4 per square mile ( 4 @.@ 4 / km ² ) . The racial makeup of the CDP was 95 % White , 2 % Native American , < 1 % Asian , and 3 % from two or more races . Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2 % of the population .
There were 113 households out of which 29 % had children under the age of 18 living with them , 51 % were married couples living together , 5 % had a female householder with no husband present , and 39 % were non @-@ families . 33 % of all households were made up of individuals and 6 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older . The average household size was 2 @.@ 26 and the average family size was 2 @.@ 93 .
In the CDP the population was spread out with 27 % under the age of 18 , 5 % from 18 to 24 , 29 % from 25 to 44 , 31 % from 45 to 64 , and 8 % who were 65 years of age or older . The median age was 38 years . For every 100 females there were 94 @.@ 7 males . For every 100 females age 18 and over , there were 92 @.@ 8 males .
The median income for a household in the CDP was $ 22 @,@ 500 , and the median income for a family was $ 30 @,@ 000 . Males had a median income of $ 26 @,@ 250 versus $ 15 @,@ 714 for females . The per capita income for the CDP was $ 11 @,@ 878 . About 23 % of families and 33 % of the population were below the poverty line , including 56 % of those under the age of 18 and 17 % of those 65 or over .
= = Arts and culture = =
In 1993 , a group of professional artists established the Montana Artists Refuge in Basin . The nonprofit organization offered artist residencies in two historic buildings , a former bank and meeting hall and a former dry goods store converted to apartment and studio space . The organization sponsored annual art events including the American Indian Artists Symposium and the Basin City Jazz Art Experience , held in the Basin Community Hall . All types of artists , including potters , painters , musicians , dancers , singers , weavers , and writers , had residencies in Basin . The refuge closed in October 2011 .
= = Education , business , and government = =
A public elementary school , Basin Grade School , serves 15 to 20 students , pre @-@ kindergarten through sixth grade . Older students attend school in Boulder .
The town 's small business district includes a bar , two restaurants , a traveler 's inn , a wellness center , small specialty shops , and a pottery gallery . A low @-@ power radio station , KBAS @-@ LP , 98 @.@ 3 FM , owned by Jefferson County Disaster and Emergency Services , broadcasts from Basin .
County , state , and federal agencies provide most of the government services available in Basin . Local residents serve as elected trustees of the Basin Fire District and its volunteer fire department . Elected trustees also oversee the Basin Water and Sewer District . The Jefferson County sheriff 's department provides law enforcement , and other county departments offer trash removal and recycling , emergency management services , and road maintenance . The county health department has a clinic in Boulder , 9 miles ( 14 km ) east of Basin , and the county courthouse , district court , and the nearest branch of the county library are also in Boulder . The United States Postal Service has a post office in Basin .
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= St. Elmo ( 1910 Thanhouser film ) =
St. Elmo is a 1910 American silent short drama produced by the Thanhouser Company . The scenario was adapted by Lloyd Lonergan from Augusta Jane Evans 's 1866 novel of the same name . Frank H. Crane and Anna Rosemond play the leading roles in the simplified plot that was reliant on inter @-@ titles to tell the story . The film follows St. Elmo who is engaged to his cousin Agnes , being betrayed by his friend Dick Hammond who has an affair with Agnes . St. Elmo challenges and kills Hammond in a duel . A young girl , Edna witnesses the duel and leads Agnes and the sheriff off the trail . St. Elmo disappears and returns five years later to woo Edna . She rejects then accepts his affections only to stop him from committing suicide . The production was met with mixed reviews by critics , but was successful . The film is presumed lost .
= = Plot = =
The plot was adapted from Augusta Jane Evans 's 1867 novel St. Elmo . The actual production was greatly shortened for the purposes of conveying the plot of the film . The synopsis in The Moving Picture World states : " St. Elmo , a wealthy young man , is betrothed to his cousin Agnes . Dick Hammond , St. Elmo 's chum , is studying for the ministry . As soon as he is ordained he is to take charge of a church built for him by St. Elmo . Hammond , however , takes St. Elmo 's friendship lightly and makes love to Agnes in secret . The affair is discovered by St. Elmo , who , in a rage at Hammond 's perfidy , challenges him to a duel . The false friend loses his life in the ensuing combat . Edna , the granddaughter of the village blacksmith , strays upon the scene of the duel , an uninvited witness . St. Elmo is forced to flee the country . He is pursued by Agnes and the sheriff . Edna tells her first lie when she deceives St. Elmo 's pursuers as to his direction and leads them completely off the trail . St. Elmo makes good his escape . On the day that Edna witnesses the duel her grandfather dies , leaving her alone in the world . She is adopted by St. Elmo 's mother . Five years later the fugitive returns . Edna recognizes him as the victor of the dual but he does not remember having met her . He discovers that he loves the girl . Edna rejects his suit , declaring that she never would marry a man who had taken a human life . In desperation , St. Elmo attempts suicide , choosing as a spot the grave of Dick Hammond , but is swerved from his purpose by Edna , who relents and promises him her love and sympathy . St. Elmo decides that life is worth living if but for her sake . "
= = Cast = =
Frank H. Crane as St. Elmo
Anna Rosemond as Agnes
Gertrude Thanhouser
Carey L. Hastings
= = Production = =
Written in 1866 , Augusta Jane Evans domestic novel St. Elmo became one of the best @-@ selling novels of the 19th century . Its popularity would spur the creation of popular consumer products , parodies and even the names of several towns . Evans was concerned about how the novel 's themes would be portrayed on the stage and did not approve the first script for a St. Elmo play until 1909 . It is also unknown if Evans was aware of any intention to adapt the novel for the screen . Lloyd Lonergan adapted the play for the Thanhouser Company . The Book News Monthly said that Lonergan received a share of interest in the company for his good work in producing the scenario . Lonergan already had a single share of 100 total shares of the company from the initial $ 10 @,@ 000 in capital in 1909 .
The director of has both been credited to Barry O 'Neil and / or Lloyd B. Carleton by film historian Q. David Bowers . It is not known for certain who directed or if both them played a directorial a role in the production . Barry O 'Neil was the stage name of Thomas J. McCarthy , who would direct many important Thanhouser pictures , including its first two @-@ reeler , Romeo and Juliet . Lloyd B. Carleton was the stage name of Carleton B. Little , a director who would stay with the Thanhouser Company for a short time , moving to Biograph Company by the summer of 1910 . The confusion between the directing credits stems from the industry practice of not crediting the film directors , even in studio news releases . There is also dispute over the cameraman credit for the film . Bower credits Blair Smith as the cameraman , but the American Film Institute adds that Carl Louis Gregory also could have been the cameraman . Smith was the first cameraman of the Thanhouser company , but he was soon joined by Gregory who had years of experience as a still and motion picture photographer . Bowers believes that numerous releases were produced with Gregory operating the camera , but the role was uncredited in the 1910 era . Anna Rosemond was one of two leading ladies for the first year of the company . Rosemond joined in the autumn of 1909 and in their first year of productions . Frank H. Crane was involved in the very beginnings of the Thanhouser Company from 1909 . Crane 's was the first leading man of the company and acted in numerous productions before becoming a director at Thanhouser .
Bowers notes that St. Elmo was filmed in a mansion built in 1759 , but the name and location of the structure is unknown . The actual date of the filming is unknown . During the weeks leading up to the release , a spy for Thomas Edison 's production company recorded details surrounding Thanhouser 's production , including the filming of Thanhouser 's first release , The Actor 's Children . The spy , W. E. Lowenkamp , had a New York State Detective license . Lowenkamp 's reports suggest the possibility of filming in a house on March 10 , 1910 and the intention to film the following morning , but it is unknown if this was related to St. Elmo 's filming . Lowenkamp would speak to Edwin Thanhouser 's sister in law , Carey L. Hastings , who took him as a real estate salesman was in film . Bower 's reprints the report , " The sister @-@ in @-@ law said the house they were using to take pictures would just suit Mr. Thanhouser , so I called a real estate office and gave them the tip so they will try and sell the house to Mr. Thanhouser and cover me . " The film also included Gertrude Thanhouser , the wife of Edwin Thanhouser . According to family tradition , she only appeared in this one film .
= = Release and reception = =
The single reel drama , approximately 860 ft , was released on March 22 , 1910 by the Thanhouser Company . The film was shown in Tennessee , Ohio , Washington , and Pennsylvania . An advertisement in Indiana lists " St. Elmo " in apparent reference to a " great Thanhouser film " . Edwin Thanhouser later stated that there were ten copies of the film at first and the films were primarily distributed to the exchanges that had purchased the first work , The Actor 's Children . The desire for St. Elmo resulted in the production of fifteen more copies to meet the demand .
Reviews for the film were mixed . The New York Dramatic Mirror provided a positive review which praised the ability of the writer to adapt the work to film , but this was diminished slightly because of the films dependence on title @-@ cards . The review also stated that the acting was excellent , but not expressive enough and concluded that the film was " a notable one among the Independent releases " . The Moving Picture World provided another positive review , praising the adaptation that simplified the plot and found no fault with the production . The Morning Telegraph found no fault with the story , but found fault with the excessive use of inter @-@ titles . The reviewer also noted that the only strong scene in the film is the duel scene , but Edna 's wanderings made her appear to be insane . The edition of April 16 , 1910 of The Moving Picture World provided three testimonials that the film was of excellent quality and one attributed a doubling of patrons because of the film . The film is presumed lost .
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= WASP @-@ 43 =
WASP @-@ 43 is a K @-@ type star in the Sextans constellation . It is about half the size of the Sun , and has approximately half the mass . WASP @-@ 43 has one known planet in orbit , a Hot Jupiter called WASP @-@ 43b . At the time of publishing of WASP @-@ 43b 's discovery on April 15 , 2011 , the planet was the most closely orbiting Hot Jupiter discovered . The small orbit of WASP @-@ 43b is thought to be caused by WASP @-@ 43 's unusually low mass . WASP @-@ 43 was first observed between January and May 2009 by the SuperWASP project , and was found to be cooler and slightly richer in metals than the Sun . WASP @-@ 43 has also been found to be an active star that rotates at a high velocity .
= = Observational history = =
WASP @-@ 43 was first observed by the WASP @-@ South part of the planet @-@ searching SuperWASP project between January and May 2009 . It was determined from the collected data that WASP @-@ 43 could potentially host a planet that transited , or crossed in front of , its host star as seen from Earth . Later observations by both the WASP @-@ South and SuperWASP @-@ North sections of SuperWASP between January and May 2010 yielded a total of 13 @,@ 768 data points .
Scientists interpreted that a 0 @.@ 81 @-@ day orbit of a possible planet from the data , and followed up with observations using the CORALIE spectrograph on the Leonhard Euler Telescope at Chile 's La Silla Observatory . CORALIE provided radial velocity measurements that indicated that WASP @-@ 43 was being transited by a planet that was 1 @.@ 8 times Jupiter 's mass , now dubbed WASP @-@ 43b . Another follow @-@ up using the TRAPPIST telescope further defined the light curve of the body transiting WASP @-@ 43 .
WASP @-@ 43b 's discovery was reported on April 15 , 2011 in the journal Astronomy and Astrophysics .
= = Characteristics = =
WASP @-@ 43 is a K @-@ type star with a mass that is 0 @.@ 58 times that of the Sun , and a radius that is 0 @.@ 93 times that of the Sun . In other words , WASP @-@ 43 is far less massive than the Sun , but is approximately the same size . With an effective temperature of 4400 K , WASP @-@ 43 is cooler than the Sun . It also has slightly lower quantities of iron than the Sun , with a measured metallicity of [ Fe / H ] = -0.05 ( 89 % of that measured in the Sun ) . However , in general , the star has a slightly larger quantity of metals than the Sun . A notable exception is lithium , which is not present in WASP @-@ 43 's spectrum . However , the star 's spectrum also indicates that WASP @-@ 43 is an active star . WASP @-@ 43 has been found to rotate quickly , although the exact mechanism that causes such speed in this rotation is uncertain , it may be possible that this is caused by tidal interactions between WASP @-@ 43 and its planet .
With an apparent magnitude of 12 @.@ 4 , WASP @-@ 43 cannot be seen with the unaided eye . The star is located approximately 80 parsecs ( 260 light years ) away from Earth .
= = Planetary system = =
WASP @-@ 43b is a Hot Jupiter with a mass that is 1 @.@ 78 times the mass of Jupiter and a radius that is 0 @.@ 93 times Jupiter 's radius . WASP @-@ 43b orbits its host star every 0 @.@ 813475 days ( 19 @.@ 5234 hours ) at a distance of 0 @.@ 0142 AU , the closest orbit yet found at the time of WASP @-@ 43b 's discovery . WASP @-@ 43 's unusually low mass accounts for WASP @-@ 43b 's small orbit . Because planets with orbits around stars like WASP @-@ 43 are not usually observed , models either suggest that planets like WASP @-@ 43b are either uncommon or have short lifetimes caused by a decay in their orbits . WASP @-@ 43b has a density of 2 @.@ 20 g / cm3
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= Washington Irving =
Washington Irving ( April 3 , 1783 – November 28 , 1859 ) was an American short story writer , essayist , biographer , historian , and diplomat of the early 19th century . He is best known for his short stories " Rip Van Winkle " ( 1819 ) and " The Legend of Sleepy Hollow " ( 1820 ) , both of which appear in his book The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon , Gent . His historical works include biographies of George Washington , Oliver Goldsmith and Muhammad , and several histories of 15th @-@ century Spain dealing with subjects such as Christopher Columbus , the Moors and the Alhambra . Irving served as the U.S. ambassador to Spain from 1842 to 1846 .
He made his literary debut in 1802 with a series of observational letters to the Morning Chronicle , written under the pseudonym Jonathan Oldstyle . After moving to England for the family business in 1815 , he achieved international fame with the publication of The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon , Gent. in 1819 – 20 . He continued to publish regularly — and almost always successfully — throughout his life , and just eight months before his death ( at age 76 , in Tarrytown , New York ) , completed a five @-@ volume biography of George Washington .
Irving , along with James Fenimore Cooper , was among the first American writers to earn acclaim in Europe , and Irving encouraged American authors such as Nathaniel Hawthorne , Herman Melville , Henry Wadsworth Longfellow , and Edgar Allan Poe . Irving was also admired by some European writers , including Walter Scott , Lord Byron , Thomas Campbell , Francis Jeffrey , and Charles Dickens . As America 's first genuine internationally best @-@ selling author , Irving advocated for writing as a legitimate profession , and argued for stronger laws to protect American writers from copyright infringement .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early years = = =
Washington Irving 's parents were William Irving , Sr. , originally of Quholm , Shapinsay , Orkney , and Sarah ( née Sanders ) , Scottish @-@ English immigrants . They married in 1761 while William was serving as a petty officer in the British Navy . They had eleven children , eight of whom survived to adulthood . Their first two sons , each named William , died in infancy , as did their fourth child , John . Their surviving children were : William , Jr . ( 1766 ) , Ann ( 1770 ) , Peter ( 1772 ) , Catherine ( 1774 ) , Ebenezer ( 1776 ) , John Treat ( 1778 ) , Sarah ( 1780 ) and Washington .
The Irving family settled in Manhattan , New York City , and was part of the city 's small , vibrant merchant class when Washington Irving was born on April 3 , 1783 , the same week city residents learned of the British ceasefire that ended the American Revolution ; Irving 's mother named him after the hero of the revolution , George Washington . At age six , with the help of a nanny , Irving met his namesake , who was then living in New York after his inauguration as president in 1789 . The president blessed young Irving , an encounter Irving later commemorated in a small watercolor painting , which still hangs in his home today . The Irvings lived at 131 William Street at the time of Washington Irving 's birth . The family later moved across the street to 128 William St. Several of Washington Irving 's older brothers became active New York merchants , and they encouraged their younger brother 's literary aspirations , often supporting him financially as he pursued his writing career .
An uninterested student , Irving preferred adventure stories and drama and , by age fourteen , was regularly sneaking out of class in the evenings to attend the theater . The 1798 outbreak of yellow fever in Manhattan prompted his family to send him to healthier climes upriver , and Irving was dispatched to stay with his friend James Kirke Paulding in Tarrytown , New York . It was in Tarrytown that Irving became familiar with the nearby town of Sleepy Hollow , with its quaint Dutch customs and local ghost stories . Irving made several other trips up the Hudson as a teenager , including an extended visit to Johnstown , New York , where he passed through the Catskill mountain region , the setting for " Rip Van Winkle " . " [ O ] f all the scenery of the Hudson " , Irving wrote later , " the Kaatskill Mountains had the most witching effect on my boyish imagination " .
The 19 @-@ year @-@ old Irving began writing letters to the New York Morning Chronicle in 1802 , submitting commentaries on the city 's social and theater scene under the name of Jonathan Oldstyle . The name , which purposely evoked the writer 's Federalist leanings , was the first of many pseudonyms Irving would employ throughout his career . The letters brought Irving some early fame and moderate notoriety . Aaron Burr , a co @-@ publisher of the Chronicle , was impressed enough to send clippings of the Oldstyle pieces to his daughter , Theodosia , while writer Charles Brockden Brown made a trip to New York to recruit Oldstyle for a literary magazine he was editing in Philadelphia .
Concerned for his health , Irving 's brothers financed an extended tour of Europe from 1804 to 1806 . Irving bypassed most of the sites and locations considered essential for the development of an upwardly mobile young man , to the dismay of his brother William . William wrote that , though he was pleased his brother 's health was improving , he did not like the choice to " gallop through Italy ... leaving Florence on your left and Venice on your right " . Instead , Irving honed the social and conversational skills that would later make him one of the world 's most in @-@ demand guests . " I endeavor to take things as they come with cheerfulness " , Irving wrote , " and when I cannot get a dinner to suit my taste , I endeavor to get a taste to suit my dinner " . While visiting Rome in 1805 , Irving struck up a friendship with the American painter Washington Allston , and nearly allowed himself to be persuaded into following Allston into a career as a painter . " My lot in life , however " , Irving said later , " was differently cast " .
= = = First major writings = = =
Irving returned from Europe to study law with his legal mentor , Judge Josiah Ogden Hoffman , in New York City . By his own admission , he was not a good student , and barely passed the bar in 1806 . Irving began actively socializing with a group of literate young men he dubbed " The Lads of Kilkenny " . Collaborating with his brother William and fellow Lad James Kirke Paulding , Irving created the literary magazine Salmagundi in January 1807 . Writing under various pseudonyms , such as William Wizard and Launcelot Langstaff , Irving lampooned New York culture and politics in a manner similar to today 's Mad magazine . Salmagundi was a moderate success , spreading Irving 's name and reputation beyond New York . In its seventeenth issue , dated November 11 , 1807 , Irving affixed the nickname " Gotham " — an Anglo @-@ Saxon word meaning " Goat 's Town " — to New York City .
In late 1809 , while mourning the death of his seventeen @-@ year @-@ old fiancée Matilda Hoffman , Irving completed work on his first major book , A History of New @-@ York from the Beginning of the World to the End of the Dutch Dynasty , by Diedrich Knickerbocker ( 1809 ) , a satire on self @-@ important local history and contemporary politics . Prior to its publication , Irving started a hoax akin to today 's viral marketing campaigns ; he placed a series of missing person adverts in New York newspapers seeking information on Diedrich Knickerbocker , a crusty Dutch historian who had allegedly gone missing from his hotel in New York City . As part of the ruse , Irving placed a notice — allegedly from the hotel 's proprietor — informing readers that if Mr. Knickerbocker failed to return to the hotel to pay his bill , he would publish a manuscript Knickerbocker had left behind .
Unsuspecting readers followed the story of Knickerbocker and his manuscript with interest , and some New York city officials were concerned enough about the missing historian that they considered offering a reward for his safe return . Riding the wave of public interest he had created with his hoax , Irving — adopting the pseudonym of his Dutch historian — published A History of New York on December 6 , 1809 , to immediate critical and popular success . " It took with the public " , Irving remarked , " and gave me celebrity , as an original work was something remarkable and uncommon in America " . Today , the surname of Diedrich Knickerbocker , the fictional narrator of this and other Irving works , has become a nickname for Manhattan residents in general .
After the success of A History of New York , Irving searched for a job and eventually became an editor of Analectic Magazine , where he wrote biographies of naval heroes like James Lawrence and Oliver Perry . He was also among the first magazine editors to reprint Francis Scott Key 's poem " Defense of Fort McHenry " , which would later be immortalized as " The Star @-@ Spangled Banner " , the national anthem of the United States .
Like many merchants and New Yorkers , Irving originally opposed the War of 1812 , but the British attack on Washington , D.C. in 1814 convinced him to enlist . He served on the staff of Daniel Tompkins , governor of New York and commander of the New York State Militia . Apart from a reconnaissance mission in the Great Lakes region , he saw no real action . The war was disastrous for many American merchants , including Irving 's family , and in mid @-@ 1815 he left for England to attempt to salvage the family trading company . He remained in Europe for the next seventeen years . Irving was elected a member of the American Antiquarian Society in 1815 .
= = = Life in Europe = = =
= = = = The Sketch Book = = = =
Irving spent the next two years trying to bail out the family firm financially but eventually had to declare bankruptcy . With no job prospects , Irving continued writing throughout 1817 and 1818 . In the summer of 1817 , he visited Walter Scott , beginning a lifelong personal and professional friendship . Irving continued writing : he composed the short story " Rip Van Winkle " overnight while staying with his sister Sarah and her husband , Henry van Wart in Birmingham , England , a place that also inspired other works . In October 1818 , Irving 's brother William secured for Irving a post as chief clerk to the United States Navy , and urged him to return home . Irving turned the offer down , opting to stay in England to pursue a writing career .
In the spring of 1819 , Irving sent to his brother Ebenezer in New York a set of short prose pieces that he asked be published as The Sketch Book of Geoffrey Crayon , Gent . The first installment , containing " Rip Van Winkle " , was an enormous success , and the rest of the work would be equally successful ; it was issued in 1819 – 1820 in seven installments in New York , and in two volumes in London ( " The Legend of Sleepy Hollow " would appear in the sixth issue of the New York edition , and the second volume of the London edition ) .
Like many successful authors of this era , Irving struggled against literary bootleggers . In England , some of his sketches were reprinted in periodicals without his permission , a legal practice as there was no international copyright law at the time . To prevent further piracy in Britain , Irving paid to have the first four American installments published as a single volume by John Miller in London . Irving appealed to Walter Scott for help procuring a more reputable publisher for the remainder of the book . Scott referred Irving to his own publisher , London powerhouse John Murray , who agreed to take on The Sketch Book . From then on , Irving would publish concurrently in the United States and Britain to protect his copyright , with Murray being his English publisher of choice .
Irving 's reputation soared , and for the next two years , he led an active social life in Paris and Britain , where he was often feted as an anomaly of literature : an upstart American who dared to write English well .
= = = = Bracebridge Hall and Tales of a Traveller = = = =
With both Irving and publisher John Murray eager to follow up on the success of The Sketch Book , Irving spent much of 1821 travelling in Europe in search of new material , reading widely in Dutch and German folk tales . Hampered by writer 's block — and depressed by the death of his brother William — Irving worked slowly , finally delivering a completed manuscript to Murray in March 1822 . The book , Bracebridge Hall , or The Humorists , A Medley ( the location was based loosely on Aston Hall , occupied by members of the Bracebridge family , near his sister 's home in Birmingham ) was published in June 1822 .
The format of Bracebridge was similar to that of The Sketch Book , with Irving , as Crayon , narrating a series of more than fifty loosely connected short stories and essays . While some reviewers thought Bracebridge to be a lesser imitation of The Sketch Book , the book was well received by readers and critics . " We have received so much pleasure from this book " , wrote critic Francis Jeffrey in the Edinburgh Review , " that we think ourselves bound in gratitude ... to make a public acknowledgement of it . " Irving was relieved at its reception , which did much to cement his reputation with European readers .
Still struggling with writer 's block , Irving traveled to Germany , settling in Dresden in the winter of 1822 . Here he dazzled the royal family and attached himself to Mrs. Amelia Foster , an American living in Dresden with her five children . Irving was particularly attracted to Mrs. Foster 's 18 @-@ year @-@ old daughter Emily , and vied in frustration for her hand . Emily finally refused his offer of marriage in the spring of 1823 .
He returned to Paris and began collaborating with playwright John Howard Payne on translations of French plays for the English stage , with little success . He also learned through Payne that the novelist Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley was romantically interested in him , though Irving never pursued the relationship .
In August 1824 , Irving published the collection of essays Tales of a Traveller — including the short story " The Devil and Tom Walker " — under his Geoffrey Crayon persona . " I think there are in it some of the best things I have ever written " , Irving told his sister . But while the book sold respectably , Traveller was dismissed by critics , who panned both Traveller and its author . " The public have been led to expect better things " , wrote the United States Literary Gazette , while the New @-@ York Mirror pronounced Irving " overrated " . Hurt and depressed by the book 's reception , Irving retreated to Paris where he spent the next year worrying about finances and scribbling down ideas for projects that never materialized .
= = = = Spanish books = = = =
While in Paris , Irving received a letter from Alexander Hill Everett on January 30 , 1826 . Everett , recently the American Minister to Spain , urged Irving to join him in Madrid , noting that a number of manuscripts dealing with the Spanish conquest of the Americas had recently been made public . Irving left for Madrid and enthusiastically began scouring the Spanish archives for colorful material .
With full access to the American consul 's massive library of Spanish history , Irving began working on several books at once . The first offspring of this hard work , A History of the Life and Voyages of Christopher Columbus , was published in January 1828 . The book was popular in the United States and in Europe and would have 175 editions published before the end of the century . It was also the first project of Irving 's to be published with his own name , instead of a pseudonym , on the title page . Irving was invited to stay at the palace of the Duke of Gor , who gave him unfettered access to his library containing many medieval manuscripts . Chronicle of the Conquest of Granada was published a year later , followed by Voyages and Discoveries of the Companions of Columbus in 1831 .
Irving 's writings on Columbus are a mixture of history and fiction , a genre now called romantic history . Irving based them on extensive research in the Spanish archives , but also added imaginative elements aimed at sharpening the story . The first of these works is the source of the durable myth that medieval Europeans believed the Earth was flat . ( See Myth of the flat earth . ) According to the popular book , Columbus proved the Earth was round .
In 1829 , Irving moved into Granada 's ancient palace Alhambra , " determined to linger here " , he said , " until I get some writings under way connected with the place " . Before he could get any significant writing underway , however , he was notified of his appointment as Secretary to the American Legation in London . Worried he would disappoint friends and family if he refused the position , Irving left Spain for England in July 1829 .
= = = = Secretary to the American legation in London = = = =
Arriving in London , Irving joined the staff of American Minister Louis McLane . McLane immediately assigned the daily secretary work to another man and tapped Irving to fill the role of aide @-@ de @-@ camp . The two worked over the next year to negotiate a trade agreement between the United States and the British West Indies , finally reaching a deal in August 1830 . That same year , Irving was awarded a medal by the Royal Society of Literature , followed by an honorary doctorate of civil law from Oxford in 1831 .
Following McLane 's recall to the United States in 1831 to serve as Secretary of Treasury , Irving stayed on as the legation 's chargé d 'affaires until the arrival of Martin Van Buren , President Andrew Jackson 's nominee for British Minister . With Van Buren in place , Irving resigned his post to concentrate on writing , eventually completing Tales of the Alhambra , which would be published concurrently in the United States and England in 1832 .
Irving was still in London when Van Buren received word that the United States Senate had refused to confirm him as the new Minister . Consoling Van Buren , Irving predicted that the Senate 's partisan move would backfire . " I should not be surprised " , Irving said , " if this vote of the Senate goes far toward elevating him to the presidential chair " .
= = = Return to America = = =
Washington Irving arrived in New York , after seventeen years abroad , on May 21 , 1832 . That September , he accompanied the U.S. Commissioner on Indian Affairs , Henry Leavitt Ellsworth , along with companions Charles La Trobe and Count Albert @-@ Alexandre de Pourtales , on a surveying mission deep in Indian Territory , now known as Oklahoma . At the completion of his western tour , Irving traveled through Washington , D.C. and Baltimore , where he became acquainted with the politician and novelist John Pendleton Kennedy .
Frustrated by bad investments , Irving turned to writing to generate additional income , beginning with A Tour on the Prairies , a work which related his recent travels on the frontier . The book was another popular success and also the first book written and published by Irving in the United States since A History of New York in 1809 . In 1834 , he was approached by fur magnate John Jacob Astor , who convinced Irving to write a history of his fur trading colony in the American Northwest , now known as Astoria , Oregon . Irving made quick work of Astor 's project , shipping the fawning biographical account titled Astoria in February 1836 . In 1835 Irving , Astor and a few others founded the Saint Nicholas Society in the City of New York .
During an extended stay at Astor 's , Irving met the explorer Benjamin Bonneville , who intrigued Irving with his maps and stories of the territories beyond the Rocky Mountains . When the two met in Washington , D.C. several months later , Bonneville opted to sell his maps and rough notes to Irving for $ 1 @,@ 000 . Irving used these materials as the basis for his 1837 book The Adventures of Captain Bonneville .
These three works made up Irving 's " western " series of books and were written partly as a response to criticism that his time in England and Spain had made him more European than American . In the minds of some critics , especially James Fenimore Cooper and Philip Freneau , Irving had turned his back on his American heritage in favor of English aristocracy . Irving 's western books , particularly A Tour on the Prairies , were well received in the United States , though British critics accused Irving of " book @-@ making " .
In 1835 , Irving purchased a " neglected cottage " and its surrounding riverfront property in Tarrytown , New York . The house , which he named Sunnyside in 1841 , required constant repair and renovation over the next twenty years . With costs of Sunnyside escalating , Irving reluctantly agreed in 1839 to become a regular contributor to The Knickerbocker magazine , writing new essays and short stories under the Knickerbocker and Crayon pseudonyms .
He was regularly approached by aspiring young authors for advice or endorsement , including Edgar Allan Poe , who sought Irving 's comments on " William Wilson " and " The Fall of the House of Usher " . Irving also championed America 's maturing literature , advocating stronger copyright laws to protect writers from the kind of piracy that had initially plagued The Sketch Book . Writing in the January 1840 issue of Knickerbocker , he openly endorsed copyright legislation pending in the U.S. Congress . " We have a young literature " , he wrote , " springing up and daily unfolding itself with wonderful energy and luxuriance , which ... deserves all its fostering care " . The legislation did not pass . In 1841 , he was elected in the National Academy of Design as an Honorary Academician .
Irving at this time also began a friendly correspondence with the English writer Charles Dickens and hosted the author and his wife at Sunnyside during Dickens 's American tour in 1842 .
= = = Minister to Spain = = =
In 1842 , after an endorsement from Secretary of State Daniel Webster , President John Tyler appointed Irving as Minister to Spain . Irving was surprised and honored , writing , " It will be a severe trial to absent myself for a time from my dear little Sunnyside , but I shall return to it better enabled to carry it on comfortably " .
While Irving hoped his position as Minister would allow him plenty of time to write , Spain was in a state of perpetual political upheaval during most of his tenure , with a number of warring factions vying for control of the twelve @-@ year @-@ old Queen Isabella II . Irving maintained good relations with the various generals and politicians , as control of Spain rotated through Espartero , Bravo , then Narvaez . However , the politics and warfare were exhausting , and Irving — homesick and suffering from a crippling skin condition — grew quickly disheartened :
I am wearied and at times heartsick of the wretched politics of this country . . . . The last ten or twelve years of my life , passed among sordid speculators in the United States , and political adventurers in Spain , has shewn me so much of the dark side of human nature , that I begin to have painful doubts of my fellow man ; and look back with regret to the confiding period of my literary career , when , poor as a rat , but rich in dreams , I beheld the world through the medium of my imagination and was apt to believe men as good as I wished them to be .
With the political situation in Spain relatively settled , Irving continued to closely monitor the development of the new government and the fate of Isabella . His official duties as Spanish Minister also involved negotiating American trade interests with Cuba and following the Spanish parliament 's debates over slave trade . He was also pressed into service by the American Minister to the Court of St. James 's in London , Louis McLane , to assist in negotiating the Anglo @-@ American disagreement over the Oregon border that newly elected president James K. Polk had vowed to resolve .
= = = Final years and death = = =
Returning from Spain in 1846 , Irving took up permanent residence at Sunnyside and began work on an " Author 's Revised Edition " of his works for publisher George Palmer Putnam . For its publication , Irving had made a deal that guaranteed him 12 percent of the retail price of all copies sold . Such an agreement was unprecedented at that time . On the death of John Jacob Astor in 1848 , Irving was hired as an executor of Astor 's estate and appointed , by Astor 's will , as first chairman of the Astor library , a forerunner to the New York Public Library .
As he revised his older works for Putnam , Irving continued to write regularly , publishing biographies of the writer and poet Oliver Goldsmith in 1849 and the 1850 work about the Islamic prophet Muhammad . In 1855 , he produced Wolfert 's Roost , a collection of stories and essays he had originally written for The Knickerbocker and other publications , and began publishing at intervals a biography of his namesake , George Washington , a work which he expected to be his masterpiece . Five volumes of the biography were published between 1855 and 1859 . Irving traveled regularly to Mount Vernon and Washington , D.C. for his research , and struck up friendships with Presidents Millard Fillmore and Franklin Pierce .
He continued to socialize and keep up with his correspondence well into his seventies , and his fame and popularity continued to soar . " I don 't believe that any man , in any country , has ever had a more affectionate admiration for him than that given to you in America " , wrote Senator William C. Preston in a letter to Irving . " I believe that we have had but one man who is so much in the popular heart " . By 1859 , author Oliver Wendell Holmes Sr. noted that Sunnyside had become " next to Mount Vernon , the best known and most cherished of all the dwellings in our land " .
On the night of November 28 , 1859 , at 9 : 00 pm , only eight months after completing the final volume of his Washington biography , Washington Irving died of a heart attack in his bedroom at Sunnyside at the age of 76 . Legend has it that his last words were : " Well , I must arrange my pillows for another night . When will this end ? " He was buried under a simple headstone at Sleepy Hollow cemetery on December 1 , 1859 .
Irving and his grave were commemorated by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow in his 1876 poem , " In The Churchyard at Tarrytown " , which concludes with :
= = Legacy = =
= = = Literary reputation = = =
Irving is largely credited as the first American Man of Letters , and the first to earn his living solely by his pen . Eulogizing Irving before the Massachusetts Historical Society in December 1859 , his friend , the poet Henry Wadsworth Longfellow , acknowledged Irving 's role in promoting American literature : " We feel a just pride in his renown as an author , not forgetting that , to his other claims upon our gratitude , he adds also that of having been the first to win for our country an honourable name and position in the History of Letters " .
Irving perfected the American short story , and was the first American writer to place his stories firmly in the United States , even as he poached from German or Dutch folklore . He is also generally credited as one of the first to write both in the vernacular , and without an obligation to the moral or didactic in his short stories , writing stories simply to entertain rather than to enlighten . Irving also encouraged would @-@ be writers . As George William Curtis noted , there " is not a young literary aspirant in the country , who , if he ever personally met Irving , did not hear from him the kindest words of sympathy , regard , and encouragement " .
Some critics , however — including Edgar Allan Poe — felt that while Irving should be given credit for being an innovator , the writing itself was often unsophisticated . " Irving is much over @-@ rated " , Poe wrote in 1838 , " and a nice distinction might be drawn between his just and his surreptitious and adventitious reputation — between what is due to the pioneer solely , and what to the writer " . A critic for the New @-@ York Mirror wrote : " No man in the Republic of Letters has been more overrated than Mr. Washington Irving " . Some critics noted especially that Irving , despite being an American , catered to British sensibilities and , as one critic noted , wrote " of and for England , rather than his own country " .
Other critics were inclined to be more forgiving of Irving 's style . William Makepeace Thackeray was the first to refer to Irving as the " ambassador whom the New World of Letters sent to the Old " , a banner picked up by writers and critics throughout the 19th and 20th centuries . " He is the first of the American humorists , as he is almost the first of the American writers " , wrote critic H.R. Hawless in 1881 , " yet belonging to the New World , there is a quaint Old World flavor about him " .
Early critics often had difficulty separating Irving the man from Irving the writer — " The life of Washington Irving was one of the brightest ever led by an author " , wrote Richard Henry Stoddard , an early Irving biographer — but as years passed and Irving 's celebrity personality faded into the background , critics often began to review his writings as all style , no substance . " The man had no message " , said critic Barrett Wendell . Yet , critics conceded that despite Irving 's lack of sophisticated themes — Irving biographer Stanley T. Williams could be scathing in his assessment of Irving 's work — most agreed he wrote elegantly .
= = = Impact on American culture = = =
Irving popularized the nickname " Gotham " for New York City , later used in Batman comics and movies as the name of Gotham City , and is credited with inventing the expression " the almighty dollar " .
The surname of his Dutch historian , Diedrich Knickerbocker , is generally associated with New York and New Yorkers , and can still be seen across the jerseys of New York 's professional basketball team , albeit in its more familiar , abbreviated form , reading simply Knicks . In Bushwick , Brooklyn , a neighborhood of New York City , there are two parallel streets named Irving Avenue and Knickerbocker Avenue ; the latter forms the core of the neighborhood 's shopping district .
One of Irving 's most lasting contributions to American culture is in the way Americans perceive and celebrate Christmas . In his 1812 revisions to A History of New York , Irving inserted a dream sequence featuring St. Nicholas soaring over treetops in a flying wagon — a creation others would later dress up as Santa Claus . In his five Christmas stories in The Sketch Book , Irving portrayed an idealized celebration of old @-@ fashioned Christmas customs at a quaint English manor , that depicted harmonious warm @-@ hearted English Christmas festivities he experienced while staying in Aston Hall , Birmingham , England , that had largely been abandoned . He used text from The Vindication of Christmas ( London 1652 ) of old English Christmas traditions , he had transcribed into his journal as a format for his stories . The book contributed to the revival and reinterpretation of the Christmas holiday in the United States .
In his biography of Christopher Columbus , Irving introduced the erroneous idea that Europeans believed the world to be flat prior to the discovery of the New World . Borrowed from Irving , the flat @-@ Earth myth has been taught in schools as fact to many generations of Americans .
The American painter John Quidor based many of his paintings on scenes from the works of Irving about Dutch New York , including such paintings as Ichabod Crane Flying from the Headless Horseman ( 1828 ) , The Return of Rip Van Winkle ( 1849 ) , and The Headless Horseman Pursuing Ichabod Crane ( 1858 ) .
= = = Memorials = = =
= = = = Artwork = = = =
As noted below , his portrait appeared on the bank notes of Irving Trust and contributed to their wide appeal .
As pictured above , a 1940 USPS stamp is dedicated to Washington Irving .
The Washington Irving Memorial by Daniel Chester French stands near the entrance to Sunnyside in the next village over , Irvington , which renamed itself from Dearman in his memory .
= = = = Literature = = = =
His name is frequently mentioned in Joseph Heller 's novel Catch @-@ 22 ( 1961 ) , in a recurring theme wherein his name is signed by other people to documents , which triggers several military investigations as to who Washington Irving is .
= = = = Municipalities = = = =
( Ordered alphabetically , by state )
The Chicago , Illinois neighborhood of Irving Park is also named after him .
The Indianapolis , Indiana neighborhood of Irvington is named after Washington Irving .
In 1854 , the village of Dearman , New York changed its name , by popular vote , to " Irvington " , to honor Washington Irving , who was still alive at that time and living in nearby " Sunnyside " – which is today preserved as a museum . Influential residents of the village prevailed upon the Hudson River Railroad , which had reached the village by 1849 , to change the name of the train station to " Irvington " , and also convinced the Postmaster to change the name of the local post office as well . It was thus under the name of " Irvington " that the village incorporated on April 16 , 1872 .
The city of Irving , Texas , states that it is named for Washington Irving . Local historians believe that Irving co @-@ founders Otis Brown and J. O. Schulze decided in 1902 to name the city after the favorite author of Otis Brown 's wife , Netta Barcus Brown . Schulze , a graduate engineer from the University of Iowa and member of the Washington Irving Literary Society , also was partial to the name Irving . The Irving City Council officially adopted author Washington Irving as the city 's namesake in 1998 .
The town of Knickerbocker , Texas , was founded by two of Irving 's nephews who named the town in honor of their uncle 's literary pseudonym .
= = = = Organizations and enterprises = = = =
West of Irvington and Tarrytown , New York , over the Catskills and in the Finger Lakes , Cornell University 's oldest continuous student @-@ run organization , The Irving Literary Society , is named for Washington Irving .
The Irving Trust Corporation ( now the Bank of New York Mellon Corporation ) was named after him . Since there was not yet a federal currency in 1851 , each bank issued its own paper and those institutions with the most appealing names found their certificates more widely accepted . His portrait appeared on the bank 's notes and contributed to their wide appeal .
= = = = Outdoor areas and structures = = = =
Visitors to Christ Episcopal Church in Tarrytown , where Irving served as a vestryman in the last years of his life , can see his pew .
Washington Irving 's home , Sunnyside , is still standing , just south of the Tappan Zee Bridge in Tarrytown , New York . The original house and the surrounding property were once owned by 18th @-@ century colonialist Wolfert Acker , about whom Irving wrote his sketch Wolfert 's Roost ( the name of the house ) . The house is now owned and operated as a historic site by Historic Hudson Valley and is open to the public for tours .
Throughout the United States , there are many schools named after Irving or after places in his fictional works .
The Community Area of Irving Park in Chicago was named in Irving 's honor .
A Washington Irving Memorial Park and Arboretum is located in Bixby , Oklahoma .
Washington Street and Irving Street in Birmingham , England .
= = Works = =
= = Coordinates = =
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= Chamba , Himachal Pradesh =
Chamba ( Hindi : चम ् बा ) is an ancient town in the Chamba district in the state of Himachal Pradesh , in northern India . According to the 2001 Indian census , Chamba has a population of 20 @,@ 312 people . Located at an altitude of 996 metres ( 3 @,@ 268 ft ) above mean sea level , the town is situated on the banks of the Ravi River ( a major tributary of the Trans @-@ Himalayan Indus River ) , at its confluence with the Sal River . Chambial were the Rulers of Chamba dynasty Chambials use suffix Varmans .
Though historical records date the history of the Chamba region to the Kolian tribes in the 2nd century BC , the area was formally ruled by the Maru dynasty , starting with the Raju Maru from around 500 AD , ruling from the ancient capital of Bharmour , which is located 75 kilometres ( 47 mi ) from the town of Chamba . In 920 , Raja Sahil Varman ( or Raja Sahil Verma ) shifted the capital of the kingdom to Chamba , following the specific request of his daughter Champavati ( Chamba was named after her ) . From the time of Raju Maru , 67 Rajas of this dynasty have ruled over Chamba until it finally merged with the Indian Union in April 1948 , although Chamba was under British suzerainty from 1846 to this time .
The town has numerous temples and palaces , and hosts two popular jatras ( fairs ) , the " Suhi Mata Mela " and the " Minjar Mela " , which last for several days of music and dancing . Chamba is also well noted for its arts and crafts , particularly its Pahari paintings , which originated in the Hill Kingdoms of North India between the 17th and 19th century , and its handicrafts and textiles .
= = History = =
= = = Early history = = =
Chamba has an ancient history , which is inseparable from that of the surrounding district of Chamba . The earliest rulers were Kolian tribes . In the 2nd century BC the Khasas and Audumbaras were in power in the region . In the 4th century AD during the Gupta period , the Thakurs and Ranas ruled . From the 7th century , the Gurjara Pratiharas or the Rajput dynasty came into power .
The recorded history of the Rajput rulers is traced to an eminent individual named Maru who is said to have moved to northwest India from Kalpagrama , around 500 AD . He founded his capital in the Budhal river valley at a place called Brahmaputra , which later became known as Bharmour or Bhramaur , which is situated 75 kilometres ( 47 mi ) to the east of the present day Chamba town . For three hundred years , kings of Rajput Dynasty ruled from their capital in Bharmour .
However , in 920 , Raja Sahil Varman ( or Raja Sahila Verma ) , King of Bharmour , shifted his capital from Bharmour to a more centrally located plateau in the lower Ravi valley , and named the city Champavati , after his daughter . There is some variation in the story to how exactly this transition came about in the historical records of Chamba . One version tells how Varman , who , after being childless for a significant period , was blessed with ten sons and a daughter , named " Champavati " . It was Champavati who urged her father to build a new capital town in the valley . However , obstacles stood in the way to relocating his capital , given that the king had previously granted the land in the modern Chamba vicinity to the Kanwan Brahmins . A solution was found in the form of offering a gift of eight copper coins called chaklis on the occasion of every marriage that took place in the Brahmin family , if they would agree to surrender their land to pave the way for the new capital . With the land thus obtained , the new capital was built and named as Champa after Chamapavati , the King ’ s daughter , which , over the years , was simply shortened to " Chamba ' .
A variation of this origin of Chamba is that it originated as a hermitage which Champavati , a devout Hindu , used to frequent . The king , being suspicious of his daughter 's fidelity , one day investigated and followed her to the hermitage , but surprisingly he found neither his daughter nor the hermit there . Suddenly he was said to have heard a voice which informed him that his suspicions were ill founded , admonishing him and informing him that his daughter had been taken away from him permanently as a punishment of his lack of trust in her morals . The King , fully chastened , sought redemption for his sin by expanding the hermitage into a temple , named in his daughter ’ s honour and built a city around the temple . Today this temple , called the Champavati Temple , belongs to the Royal family and the King ’ s daughter is venerated as a goddess . Every year , since 935 , the Minjar festival or fair has been held . It lasts for 21 days , coinciding with the first day of Baisakhi .
Since Raja Sahil Varman , the dynasty ruled without successful invasion for around a millennium , until the British gained power . The isolation of the town and its rugged hilly terrain is believed to have been a contributing factor to this unusual state of security . Later , Mughal emperors Akbar and Aurangzeb did attempt to annex Chamba but were unsuccessful in subjugating this territory into their kingdoms . Raja Prithvi Singh ( 1641 @-@ 1664 AD ) , who was on amiable terms with Emperor Shahjahan was instrumental in introducing the court life styles of the Mughals .
= = = Modern history = = =
In 1806 A.D. , the combined forces of Gurkhas and local hills chiefs attacked the forces of Raja Sansar Chand in the battle and forced a crushing defeat on him along with family took shelter in the Kangra fort . The Gurkhas sieged the Kangra fort and ruthlessly looted the area between the fort of Kangra and Mahal Mohrian and virtually destroyed the villages . The siege of the fort continued for three years . In 1809 A.D. , Raja Ranjit Singh , the Sikh ruler of Lahore , on the request of Sansar Chand , waged war against the Gurkhas and defeated them in But Sansar Chand had to pay a heavy price whereby he had to lose Kangra fort and 66 villages to the Sikhs . Ranjit Singh controlled the region and had even placed a garrison at Chamba , forced the hill states to pay tribute to them . Ranjit Singh deposed the hill princes , including the more powerful Kangra ruler , Sansar Chand Katoch , but spared Chamba , given that the Wazir Nathu of Chamba had been important as an ambassador in negotiations with Katoch in 1809 and had saved his life in 1817 by succumbing his horse to King Singh to escape during a winter campaign in Kashmir .
In 1845 , the Sikh army invaded the British territory . The result was disastrous , with the British defeating the army , leaving Chamba in a poor position . Wazir Bagha of Chamba was important in negotiations in its aftermath , and the Rajas of Chamba , on the advice of Bagha , agreed to the British suzerainty as part of Jammu and Kashmir in favour of an annuity of Rs 12 @,@ 000 . The Treaty of Lahore was signed in 1846 , in which the Rajas agreed to ceding the territory of Chamba district . From then on , relations with the British were cordial , and all of the Rajas of Chamba under the British rule , Sri Singh , Gopal Singh , Sham Singh , Bhuri Singh , Ram Singh , and Laxman Singh , were on good terms with the British army officers .
Many progressive reforms and developments were made in Chamba under the British . In 1863 , the first Post office was established in Chamba and a daily mail service and a primary school . In December , 1866 , a hospital was opened by Doctor Elmslie of the Kashmir Medical Mission . In the late 1860s two new roads to Dalhousie via Kolri and Khajiar were built . Gopal Singh , who ruled from 1870 to 1873 , after abdicating , was responsible for building the grand Jandarighat Palace as his summer residence .
After India becoming an independent nation in August 1947 , the princely state of Chamba finally merged with India on April 15 , 1948 along with the other princedoms of Mandi @-@ Suket State , Sirmour State and all of those in the Shimla hills .
= = Geography and climate = =
Chamba is the headquarters of the Chamba district , bordered by Jammu and Kashmir to the north @-@ west and west , the Ladakh area of Jammu and Kashmir and Lahaul and Bara Banghal to the north @-@ east and east , Kangra to the south @-@ east and Pathankot district of Punjab to the south . It has an average elevation of 1 @,@ 006 metres ( 3 @,@ 301 ft ) .
The town , the district and the valley where the town is located , share the name of Chamba . The town of Chamba is located at the junction of Ravi River and its tributary , the Sal River , with the Shah Madar hill forming the backdrop on its eastern side . The Ravi flows in east @-@ west direction forming deep canyons . During the spring and summer months , the levels of the river rise significantly from snow melt and pose a flooding risk . Record levels were experienced in early July 2005 , when the National Hydroelectric Power Corporation was forced to shut down the power generation on its 300 @-@ MW Chamera Power Station .
Located on the right bank of the Ravi river valley , built on successive flat terraces , the town is bounded topographically by the Dhauladhar and Zanskar ranges , south of the inner Himalayas . Chamba , despite its hill location , is well connected by road to the rest of the state and country , including Shimla , Delhi and Chandigarh along several routes . The nearest broad gauge railway stations are at Chakki Bank and Pathankot , the latter of which is 120 kilometres ( 75 mi ) away by road .
The temperatures in summer vary between 38 ° C ( 100 ° F ) and 15 ° C ( 59 ° F ) and in winter : 15 ° C ( 59 ° F ) and 0 ° C ( 32 ° F ) . The maximum temperature recorded in summer is 39 ° C ( 102 ° F ) and the minimum temperature in winter is − 1 ° C ( 30 ° F ) . Climatically March to June is said to be the best period to visit Chamba , which is a well known hill station . The average annual rainfall in the town is 785 @.@ 84 millimetres ( 30 @.@ 939 in ) .
= = Demographics = =
As of 2001 India census , Chamba had a population of 20 @,@ 312 . Males constituted 52 % of the population and females 48 % . Chamba has an average literacy rate of 81 % , higher than the national average of 59 @.@ 5 % ; with a male literacy of 85 % and female literacy of 77 % . The administrative language is Hindi , the local language of Pahari , and Himachali is common language spoken by inhabitants . There are some speakers of Punjabi , mostly of Sikh and Hindu descent .
Away from the urban centre , the tribal people of Chamba are divided into two major groups ; the Gujjars and the Gaddis . The Gujjars , mainly nomads , came to Chamba across the state border from Kashmir along the trade routes . They belong to nomadic herdsmen of the Islamic community , and travel to lowland Punjab in the autumn with their livestock to avoid the harsh winter of the Chamba hills . Their features are Turkic and have a distinct language and culture aloof from the main town .
The Gaddis comprise several ethnic groups ; namely the Brahmans , Rajputs , Thakkurs , Rathis and the Khatris , who form the majority . They are agricultural peoples , and the name " Gaddi " means " shepherd " . They mainly inhabit an area of the Chamba district in the Dhaula Dhar mountains , known as Brahmaur Wazarat or " Gadaran " , located between Chamba and Kangra . " Gadar " means sheep , so their land is informally referred to as " Gadaran " , literally meaning " sheep country " . They are believed to have come to Chamba in the 10th century , although an influx of Gaddi people migrated to Chamba from Lahore in the 18th century , during the Mughal Empire . They are said to practice animism combined with the worship of Lord Shiva .
= = Administration = =
There have been a total of 67 rajas who have ruled Chamba district since the Principality of Bharmour was established in the 6th century , beginning with Raja Maru . Indeed , it is believed to have been an isolated case in the history of India that the Chamba kingdom remained independent without interference for over 1000 years . Before Raja Sahila Varman , however , the territorial extent of the state of Chamba was ill @-@ defined and was more a loosely based territory , marked by disunity . Chamba state was run by Ranas , petty rulers who were allocated locally governed areas known as " fiefdoms " and treated them as their own virtually independent kingdoms . It wasn 't until the reign of Sahila Varman that these Raja lords were subjugated and the district of Chamba was consolidated formally as a unified entity . The rajas of the Chamba Kingdom , ruling from the capital in Chamba divided the kingdom into 5 mandalas , later termed wazarats . These sub @-@ territories consisted of Chamba , Bharmour , Bhatti , Churah and Pangi .
= = Landmarks and cityscape = =
The city layout can be distinctly demarcated into two zones ; namely the ' Old Town ' before the British introduced their urban architectural styles and the British period of contemporary monuments , bridges and buildings . In a study of the architecture of Chamba , instituted by the Indian National Trust for Art and Cultural Heritage ( INTACH ) , with the objective of conserving and restoring individual heritage buildings , it has been observed that the urban architecture of Chamba evolved under three distinct phases . The first phase from 930 , dating from the Rajput dynasty establishing the capital at Chamba until 1846 , the second phase during the British period ; and the third phase constituting the post independent period after its merger with the Indian Union in April 1948 .
= = = Monuments built prior to 1846 = = =
Buildings in Chamba were traditionally constructed using local materials . Buildings were made out of dry stone masonry , with the walls and floors of the older houses plastered with a concoction of clay and cow @-@ dung . Thick wooden beams were used to support the walls , paying attention to durability and to withstand earthquakes , and wooden cantilever construction was often used to support the verandas . The staircases and doors were made from wood , with the doors often decorated in religious reliefs and flanked by two lamps to light it at night . Before the arrival of the British , who introduced slate roofs to Chamba , roofs were covered with planks , coated in clay . Few of these houses remiain today , although a number still have wood @-@ clay roofs in villages in the suburbs .
The old heritage monuments , which are palaces and temples are located in the old town ( east of the Chaugans ) , on the lower slopes of Shah Madar hill . They were built in the lower valley where the two rivers and steep thickly forested hillsides provided a strong defense . Located here is the 10th century Champavati Temple , said to have marked the birth of the town , the Lakshmi Narayan group of temples ( built from 10th @-@ 19th century ) , the 10th century Sita Ram Temple , Bansi Gopal temple , Kharura Mohalla and Hari Rai temple , the 11th century Sui Mata Temple and Chamunda Devi Temple , and the Akhand Chandi palace , overlooking the Chaugan , which has since been converted into a college . Additions were made to the palace in the form of the Zenana Mahal and the Rang Mahal in the 18th century . The temples built in Chamba demonstrate a strong Kashmiri influence with their stone temple architecture and temple iconography . Given their age however , only their unicellular layout with fluted pillars has been retained .
= = = = Champavati Temple = = = =
This temple was built by Raja Sahil Varman in memory of his daughter Champavati . The temple , located near the Police Post and the Treasury building , is built in the Shikhara style , with intricate stone carvings . It has a wheel roof and is large as the Laxmi Narayan Temple . An idol of the goddess Mahishasuramardini ( Durga ) is worshipped in the temple . The walls of the temple are full of exquisite stone sculptures . On account of its historical and archaeological importance , the temple is maintained by the Archaeological Survey of India . Champavati Temple , located in the heart of the city of Chamba , is a pilgrim destination for many Hindus . It is named after Champavati , the daughter of King Sahil Varman , the founder of the temple . The temple holds great historical and religious relevance for many Hindus . Champavati Temple enshrines an idol of Goddess Mahisasuramardini , the avatar of Goddess Durga . According to the legend , the daughter of King Sahil Varman Champavati was a religious person and used to visit temples and sadhu ’ s ashrams regularly .
The king , after getting suspicious of her actions , once followed her to a sadhu ’ s place , with a dagger in his cloak . Once he reached the ashram , he found that there was no one inside . To his surprise , both the sadhu and his daughter Champavati had vanished . When he was about to return , he heard a voice saying that his daughter had been taken away as a punishment of his suspicion . The voice also asked him to build a temple , on the name of his daughter Champavati , if he wanted to avoid further familial calamities .
The king ordered the construction of the Champavati Temple . Now , the temple is under the Archaeological Survey of India , for its historical and archaeological importance . The major attraction of the temple is its Shikhara style architecture . Stone carved walls , full with sculptures , make the temple an attractive tourist spot . The temple has a large wheel on the rooftop , which adores it and makes it a distinguished temple in North India . The Champavati Temple is often compared with Laxmi Narayan Temple , in its grandeur .
= = = = = Banni Mata Temple = = = = =
See Banni Mata Temple
= = = = Lakshmi Narayan temples = = = =
The Lakshmi Narayan temples complex , devoted to the Vaishnavite sect , includes the main Lakshmi Narayan temple , built in the 10th century by Raja Sahil Verman . It has been built to suit the local climatic conditions with wooden chatries and has a shikara , and a sanctum sanctorum ( Garbhagriha ) , with an antarala and a mantapa . A metallic image of Garuda , the vahana ( mount ) of Vishnu is installed on the dwajastamba pillar at the main gate of the temple . In 1678 , Raja Chhatra Singh adorned the temple roof with gold plated pinnacles , as a riposte to Auranagzeb , who had ordered demolition of this temple .
= = = = Chamunda Devi Temple = = = =
Chamunda Devi Temple is located in a prominent position on the spur of Shah Madar range of hills , opposite to the Chamba town . It was built by Raja Umed Singh , and was completed in 1762 . It is the only wooden temple with gabled roof ( single storied ) in Chamba , while all others in the town are built from stone in the north Indian Nagara architectural style .
In the past , the temple was accessed through a stone paved steep path laid with 378 steps , but it is now approached by a 3 kilometres ( 9 @,@ 800 ft ) motorable road . The temple , a trabeated structure , is built on a high raised plinth , buttressed on all four sides , and has a rectangular layout on the outside . It exterior measures 9 @.@ 22 metres ( 30 @.@ 2 ft ) x 6 metres ( 20 ft ) , the inner square sanctum measures 3 @.@ 55 metres ( 11 @.@ 6 ft ) x 3 @.@ 55 metres ( 11 @.@ 6 ft ) and has a parikrama path ( circumambulatory path ) of 1 @.@ 67 metres ( 5 @.@ 5 ft ) around the perimeter .
There is a mandap in the foreground of the temple of 5 @.@ 1 metres ( 17 ft ) x 6 metres ( 20 ft ) size with an agni @-@ kund or fire pit in the centre and a gable roof covered with slates . The mandapa has carvings in wood in its multi paneled ceiling with reliefs of human figures on the pillars and brackets . Votive bells are provided in the mandap entrance and it has a Nagari inscription , which records it as the offering from Pandit Vidhadhara to the goddess Chamunda deified in the temple on April 2 , 1762 , the date when the temple was consecrated .
= = = = Akhand Chandi Palace = = = =
The Akhand Chandi Palace , noted for its distinct green roof , was built by Raja Umed Singh between 1747 and 1765 and used as his residence . Later , Raja Sham Singh refurbished it with the assistance of British engineers . In 1879 , the Darbar Hall ( also named ' Marshal Hall ' after the builder ) was built . Raja Bhuri Singh added the Zenana Mahal ( residence of Royal ladies ) . The building was exemplary of the fusion of Mughal and British architectural influences . In 1973 , the Royal family of Chamba sold the palace to the Government of Himachal Pradesh , who in turn converted it into a Government College and District Library . Maintenance of the attractive palace , however , which has painted walls and glass work and intricate woodwork , has not been satisfactory , due to the lack of funds allocated to refurbish it . The palace provides scenic views of the Chaugan , Laxmi Narayana Temple , Sui Mata , Chamunda Devi Temple , Rang Mehal , Hari Rai Temple and Bansi Gopal Temple .
= = = Monuments built after 1846 = = =
In the second half of the nineteenth century , the British administration drew up an urban plan for the development of Chamba . They laid emphasis on the building of civic buildings around the Chaugan to conceal the unorthodox structural layout of the residential complexes . The western oriented development programme grew particularly active after the arrival of Major Blair Reid in January 1863 , during the reign of Raja Shri Singh . The next fourteen years in particular , until his retirement in March 1877 , were characterised by large scale building projects in Chamba , with Reid fully revising the administrative and revenue departments of Chamba and reorganizing the state machinery to make development more efficient .
Orderly new building complexes with " simple visual discipline with white plastered walls , lancer arch windows , cornices , sloping sheet roofs , wooden eaves and deep verandahs were planned and built " . Road communications were dramatically improved , with the approach road to the town being diverted , to provide a way for vehicular traffic to enter from the western end of the chaugan . A cabled suspension bridge was built across the Ravi River in the lower outskirts of the town , and many important public welfare projects were started , and well as many temples , gates , gardens and churches between 1863 and 1910 . Notable works built during the colonial period include the temples in the Jansali Bazar , Gandhi Gate ( Curzon Gate ) , Shiva Temple , the Chaugans , the Police Lines , the Church of Scotland , the Shyam Singh Hospital ( built in 1891 ) , Chamba Library , the Post Office building , Bhuri Singh Museum , the State Forces barracks , and the administrative buildings of the British period . Today , architectural materials have evolved considerably since ancient times and reinforced concrete structures are rapidly changing the skyline of the town .
= = = = Chaugan = = = =
The Chaugan ( a Sanskrit word meaning : “ four sided ” ) is the nucleus of all activity in Chamba , surrounded by impressive administrative buildings and a shopping arcade built during the British period , with the old Akhand Chandi palace standing nearby . It has a terraced grass green , and is exceptionally large for a hill station , measuring 800 metres ( 2 @,@ 600 ft ) length and 80 metres ( 260 ft ) width . In 1890 , the British converted five small chaugans into a single chaugan for use as an esplanade and sports complex , and today it is commonly used for cricket matches , picnics and promenades during the mid summer months . During the annual ‘ Minjar Mela ’ fair , the entire ground becomes a flea market . After the Dussera festival , the grounds are closed to the public until April , for maintenance purposes .
= = = = Church of Scotland = = = =
The Church of Scotland , a Presbyterian Church , known as ' St. Andrew ’ s Church ' , was established by the first missionary in Chamba , the Reverend William Ferguson , who served there between 1863 and 1873 . The foundation stone for building the new church was laid by the Raja of Chamba on 17 February 1899 , in the presence of the Scottish reverend Dr. M ’ Clymont who had come from Scotland . The Raja had contributed a generous grant to build the church and ensured that it was exquisitely built in fine stone masonry . The walls are supported by buttresses , and lancer arch windows provide the light and ventilation . Several schools are run by the Mission located within the church precincts .
= = = = Bhuri Singh Museum = = = =
The Bhuri Singh Museum at Chamba was established on September 14 , 1908 in honour of the raja at the time , Raja Bhuri Singh , who ruled Chamba from 1904 to 1919 . J. Ph. Vogel , an eminent indologist , and expert on the history of Chamba state , proposed the museum to preserve a number of valuable inscriptions , mostly in Sarda script , which contained some rare information about the medieval history of Chamba ; the Prashastis ( Inscriptions ) of Sarahan , Devi @-@ ri @-@ kothi and mul Kihar ( fountain inscription ) are still preserved in the museum . Bhuri Singh donated his family collection of paintings to the museum , including royal portraits which ranged from Basohli to Guler @-@ Kangra in style , and embroidered Pahari miniatures . Numerous artifacts , important to the heritage of Chamba were added , including coins , hill jewelry and royal and tradiitional costumes , arms and armour , musical instruments and other items . The current museum was built in 1975 in concrete .
= = Culture = =
= = = Arts = = =
= = = = Chamba miniature paintings = = = =
Chamba is noted for its miniature Pahari paintings , where Basohli style of Pahari paintings took roots with Nikku , the artist of Basohli migrating from Guler to Chamba in the eighteenth century . Raja Udai Singh and Raja Jai Singh patronized this school of painting . During the reign of Raja Charhat Singh , folk art developed and had a lasting influence on local artists . The paintings of Chamba encompass both miniatures and murals and the Mughal influence is clearly discerned in these paintings . Distinguished artists of Chamba who have painted in this art form include Lehru , Durga and Miyan Jara Singh . The paintings were generally painted with Hindu religious themes , particularly the legends of Hindu mythology such as Radha Krishna , Shiva @-@ Parvati , Rama Darbar , Yashoda and Krishna , Gopis , love scenes , deer , birds and women , Daya Saptashati and Krishna - Sudama . Romantic ambiance of the monsoon season in Chamba has also been painted by the artists of Pahari miniature art , in various moods and styles in Basholi colours . They are displayed in the museums at Chamba and also at Shimla and Dharamsala .
= = = = Handicrafts and musical instruments = = = =
Chamba is an important centre for the making of traditional handicrafts , and the town has numerous small workshops maintained by the artisans . Many of the items produced are exquisite and lavish , testament to the towns ' aristocratic heritage .
Casting metalware in Chamba is an ancient tradition , dating back to the Bronze Age period , with items typically made out of copper or brass , and also iron , especially in the traditional making of implements and weapons by blacksmiths . Of particular note in this trade are the large plaques with reliefs , commonly used for wall decoration . The temple cupolas in Chamba district are often furnished with copper and brass items made in Chamba and often the golden kalasha or vessel crowning them is produced here .
Chamba has its own unique traditional system of men ’ s and women ’ s foot wares . The foot wares were originally made from locally produced leather but is today transported to Chamba from the south of India . Women 's foot wares are embroidered as are the " vegetarian " foot wares which are purposefully made without leather for use in places where leather is prohibited for religious reasons . Handkerchiefs and shawls are also made in abundance in Chamba . Traditionally handspun , they are designed in such a way as to make both sides of the cloth look identical , and are beautifully embroidered . Chamba shawls are woven on hand looms in wool and typically have a bright border in a traditional design . A similar woven design is used for making caps .
Traditional jewellery is made in gold and silver in Chamba as its pottery , typically kitchenware , utensils and earthen pots . Given Chamba 's history of new immigration from other parts of the country and Tibet , a variety of influences can be seen in the pieces of jewellery that are produced in Chamba . Chamba is also noted for its wood carvings , which , like the metalware is often used for iconography in temples , such as Chamunda Devi . A “ Nagara ” , a form of kettle drum is produced in Chamba as are cymbals , bells and " Singa ” or " Ransinga " ( horns ) produced in both straight and curved styles . Other instruments include Shankh , Nad , Beiunsuli , Saihna , Nag Pheni , Thali Ghada , Bhana , Karnal , Pohol , Dhons , Kahal , Kansi , Hasat Ghanta and Drugg .
= = = Festivals , fairs and dances = = =
Chamba is one of those places where Basohli effect actually reached . Two melas or fairs , also known as Jatras , are of particular note in Chamba ; " Suhi Mata Mela " and " Minjar Mela " . A notable event of such fairs is when the ‘ chela ’ . a subordinate of the deity who is being worshipped goes into a trance and answers the queries and prayers of the devotees .
An important festival held in Chamba is known as the " Suhi Mata Mela " . It is held annually in March – April for four days to commemorate the sacrifice made by the queen of Chamba with her life , to bring water to the town . The legend associated with this festival and the Sui Mata temple , built in memory of the queen ( wife of Raja Sahil Varman ) , relates to the sacrifice she made to fulfill a prophecy in a dream , which said that water from the Sarota stream could only be accessed through an aqueduct if the queen or her son was sacrificed . Rather than kill her own son she sacrificed her own life for the town . To commemorate this event , women and children take a lead role in the festival . An image of Champavati , with banners of the Rajput solar emblem , are taken by them in a procession , dancing and singing , through the Chaugan to the Suhi Mata temple .
Another popular festival held in Chamba is the " Minjar Mela " , held on the second Sunday of the Shravana month , corresponding to the month of August in the Gregorian calendar . It marks the triumph of the Raja of Chamba over the ruler of Trigarta ( now called as Kangra ) , in 935 AD and also celebrates the paddy and maize crops grown at this time of the year . The festival commences with offerings of ' minjar ' , consisting of a bunch of paddy plant and golden silk wrapped in red fabric . The offerings also include a rupee , a seasonal fruit , and a coconut . This occasion is also celebrated with a flag hoisting ceremony at the Chaugan that initiates a week of cultural and social programmes . The image of the deity , Lord Raghuvira , and more than 200 other deities , are taken in a procession , in a chariot pulled by ropes . Folk dances and music performances known as ' Kunjari Malhar ' are part of the festivities . On the last day of the festival , a parade is held from the Akhand Chandi Palace to Ravi River , where offerings are made to the river . This commemorates an event in which Raja Sahil Verman changed the course of the river , to make the Hari Rai temple accessible to all devotees .
Chamba and the surrounding district have many local customs in dancing , illustrating the differences in geographical , anthropological and social cultures and religious beliefs in the area . A solo dance or a dance of two people such as the Pharati or Khad @-@ dumbi is commonly performed during the Nuwala ceremony and other important occasions , such as marriages etc. and the Dangri and Sikri are said to be of note . Notable male dances include the Gaddi and Gujjar dances , Dandaras , Nat , Ghorda , Nachan , Dharumsde , the Khad @-@ dumbi and the Chhinjhati . Notable female dances include the Ghurei , Dangi and Kikli , whilst dances such as the Shain , Dhamal , Sohal , Sal Kukdi Nachan , Ratege and Til @-@ Chauti are performed by both sexes . Several forms of masked dance are also performed in Chamba , such as the Chhatradhi Jatar .
= = = Costumes = = =
Ancient people of Chamba were known to have worn a fine woolen blanket or chadar around the waist , to keep warm in the cold climate . It was often tied or girdled with a band or patka , as evidenced by some archaeological discoveries in the area depicting this fashion . The Gaddi people have traditionally worn white embroidered caps and loose @-@ fitting white woolen garments known as a chola , tied around the waist with a black wool rope . A local custom in Chamba was to give the Jogi of the Natha sect a cotton maikhal sheet to wear over the head during the Nuwala ceremony to honour Lord Siva . Chamba and the surrounding district have been well documented as being a producer of fine cloth and embroidered dresses for centuries .
" The Jakatas , the Milinda Panha and the Vinaya of the Mulasarvastivadins mention the beautifully embroidered Kotumbara clothes of the Audumbara country ( Pathankot and Chamba ) and the fine textiles captured in the lot of Kangra Fort in 1009 around the astonishment of the soldiers of Mahmud of Ghazni . A heavier , though not less luxurious type of embriodered dresses can be traced on the fountain stones , which had been erected by the local aristocracy of Churah , in western Chamba in the 11th to 12th centuries . " - Hermann Goetz
Given the history of migrants arriving in Chamba from across Kashmir and Tibet over the centuries , today Chamba has a variety of traditional dresses , defined by the region to which they belong . The most traditional dress worn by Hindu women , on special occasions , is the pashwaj . Pashwaj is a gown with a short bodice ( blouse ) covering up to the waist . A shirt is worn , below which the dress falls in many folds , nearly touching the ground . The typical casual dress though , however , is a pairahan , with a chadar or dupatta ( stoll ) worn over the head . The lower half of the body is covered by a pyjama , known as a suthan .
Muslim women also generally wear similar dresses as the Hindu women . However , the one difference is that the tunic they wear is considerably shorter , just touching the knee . They don a small vest called a angi , worn beneath the bodice . A small shirt or kurta is also common . Hindu men wear an angrakha , long tunic that touches the knees . A cloth waist @-@ band and tight fitting pajama and a small pagri ( top hat ) worn on top of the head completes their ensemble .
= = Music of Chamba = =
Devotional songs known as ' Ainchali ' are sung throughout the night . The ' Chella ' is summoned who goes into a Tranceas soon as the sacrifices are referred to Lord Shiva . He is said to be possessed of the Lord himself . He answers the questions put to him by members of the family and their friends .
Chambyal ( people of Chamba ) enjoy traditional folk music of their area . This consists of folk songs , dances and folk lores and these are accompanied by various musical instruments . Their love for folk music is evident from their keen interest in folk music which is different from that of other regions . Folk songs of Gaddis can be categorized as marriage songs , festivity songs , love songs .
Marriage Songs The theme of the marriage songs is mostly related to the selection of groom and the girl 's wishes regarding it . The songs which are sung at the time of wedding ceremony are known as ' Charlai ' and these songs depict that the relatives of the bride and groom seek the blessings from the God .
Festivity Songs Chambyals celebrate many fairs and festivals with great pump and show . They sing many songs which are usually accompanied by folk dances . Major folk songs are - ' Sukart and Ghanihar ' , ' Kunjadi Malhar ' during Minjar Mela , ' Ainchali ' on Nuala , songs related to Baisakhi at the time of ' Basoa ' and ' Kunjadi ' songs of the rainy season are sung during Patroru festival .
Love Songs These songs are of Shrinagar rasa . Mostly the feelings of separation , hard life of Gaddis , their social bindings and the tales of sacrifice , unsuccessful love etc. are depicted through these songs . Famous Love songs are , ' Kunju and Chanchlo ' , ' Phulmu and Ranjhu ' , ' Raja Gaddan ' and ' Bhunku Gaddi ' that are very popular among the city and the state .
Major notable music artists and producers at Chamba are Late Sh . Sher Singh , Karnail Rana , Prakash Bhardwaj , Kakku Ram etc .
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= Shrek =
Shrek is a 2001 American computer @-@ animated fantasy @-@ comedy film directed by Andrew Adamson and Vicky Jenson at their directorial debut . It features the voices of Mike Myers , Eddie Murphy , Cameron Diaz , and John Lithgow . It is loosely based on William Steig 's 1990 fairy tale picture book Shrek ! , and somewhat serves as a parody film , targeting other films adapted from numerous children 's fantasies ( mainly animated Disney films ) . The film 's soundtrack includes music by Smash Mouth , Eels , Joan Jett , The Proclaimers , Jason Wade , Baha Men , and John Cale ( covering Leonard Cohen ) .
The rights to the books were originally bought by Steven Spielberg in 1991 , before the founding of DreamWorks , when he thought about making a traditionally animated film based on the book . However , John H. Williams convinced him to bring the film to DreamWorks in 1994 , the time the studio was founded , and the film was put quickly into active development by Jeffrey Katzenberg after the rights were bought by the studio in 1995 . Shrek originally cast Chris Farley to do the voice for the title character , recording about 80 % – 90 % of his dialogue . After Farley died in 1997 before he could finish , Mike Myers was brought in to work for the character , who after his first recording decided to record his voice in a Scottish accent . The film was also originally planned to be motion @-@ captured , but after poor results , the studio decided to get PDI to help Shrek get its final computer @-@ animated look .
The film grossed $ 484 @.@ 4 million at the worldwide box office , and an estimated 47 million tickets were sold in the US . Shrek also received promotion from food chains such as Baskin @-@ Robbins ( promoting the film 's DVD release ) and Burger King . It was acclaimed as an animated film worthy of adult interest , with many adult @-@ oriented jokes and themes but a simple enough plot and humour to appeal to children . Shrek won the first ever Academy Award for Best Animated Feature and was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Adapted Screenplay . The film was also nominated for six British Academy of Film and Television Arts awards , including the BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role for Eddie Murphy for his voice @-@ over performance as Donkey , and won the BAFTA Award for Best Adapted Screenplay . The film 's main ( and title ) character was awarded his own star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame in May 2010 .
Shrek established DreamWorks Animation as a prime competitor to Pixar in feature film animation , particularly in computer animation . The film 's success prompted DreamWorks to create three sequels — Shrek 2 ( 2004 ) , Shrek the Third ( 2007 ) , and Shrek Forever After ( 2010 ) , two holiday specials — Shrek the Halls ( 2007 ) and Scared Shrekless ( 2010 ) , and a spin @-@ off film — Puss in Boots ( 2011 ) . A fifth film , planned as the last of the series , was cancelled in 2009 with the announcement that the fourth film would conclude the series . The film 's success also inspired other merchandise , such as video games , a stage musical , and even a comic book by Dark Horse Comics .
= = Plot = =
Shrek , a green ogre who loves the solitude in his swamp , finds his life interrupted when many fairytale characters are exiled there by order of the fairytale @-@ hating Lord Farquaad . Shrek tells them that he will go ask Farquaad to send them back . He brings along a talking Donkey who is the only fairytale creature who knows the way to Duloc .
Meanwhile , Farquaad tortures the Gingerbread Man into giving the location of the remaining fairytale creatures until his guards rush in with something he has been searching for : the Magic Mirror . He asks The Mirror if his kingdom is the fairest of them all but is told that he is not even a king . To be a king he must marry a princess and is given three options , from which he chooses Princess Fiona , who is locked in a castle tower guarded by lava and a dragon . The Mirror tries to mention " the little thing that happens at night " but is unsuccessful .
Shrek and Donkey arrive at Farquaad 's palace in Duloc , where they end up in a tournament . The winner gets the " privilege " of rescuing Fiona so that Farquaad may marry her . Shrek and Donkey easily defeat the other knights in wrestling @-@ match fashion , and Farquaad accepts his offer to move the fairytale creatures from his swamp if Shrek rescues Fiona .
Shrek and Donkey travel to the castle and split up to find Fiona . Donkey encounters the dragon and sweet @-@ talks the beast before learning that it is female . Dragon takes a liking to him and carries him to her chambers . Shrek finds Fiona , who is appalled at his lack of romanticism . As they leave , Shrek saves Donkey , caught in Dragon 's tender clutches , and forces her to chase them out of the castle . At first , Fiona is thrilled to be rescued but is quickly disappointed when Shrek reveals he is an ogre .
As the three journey to Duloc , Fiona urges the two to camp out for the night while she sleeps in a cave . Shrek and Donkey stargaze while Shrek tells stories about great ogres and says that he will build a wall around his swamp when he returns . When Donkey persistently asks why , he says that everyone judges him before knowing him ; therefore , he feels he is better off alone , despite Donkey 's admission that he did not immediately judge him when they met .
Along the way , Shrek and Fiona find they have more in common and fall in love . The trio is almost at Duloc , and that night Fiona shelters in a windmill . When Donkey hears strange noises coming from it , he finds Fiona turned into an ogre . She explains her childhood curse and transforms each night , which is why she was locked away , and that only her true love 's kiss will return her to her " love 's true form " . Shrek , about to confess his feelings for Fiona with a sunflower , partly overhears them , and is heartbroken as he mistakes her disgust with her transformation to an " ugly beast " as disgust with him . Fiona makes Donkey promise not to tell Shrek , vowing to do it herself . The next morning , Shrek has brought Lord Farquaad to Fiona . The couple return to Duloc , while a hurt Shrek angrily leaves his friendship with Donkey and returns to his now @-@ vacated swamp , remembering what Fiona " said " about him .
Despite his privacy , Shrek is devastated and misses Fiona . Furious at Shrek , Donkey comes to the swamp where Shrek says he overheard Donkey and Fiona 's conversation . Donkey keeps his promise to Fiona and tells Shrek that she was talking about someone else . He accepts Shrek 's apology and tells him that Fiona will be getting married soon , urging Shrek into action to gain Fiona 's love . They travel to Duloc quickly , thanks to Dragon , who had escaped her confines and followed Donkey .
Shrek interrupts the wedding before Farquaad can kiss Fiona . He tells her that Farquaad is not her true love and only marrying her to become king . The sun sets , which turns Fiona into an ogre in front of everyone in the church , causing a surprised Shrek to fully understand what he overheard . Outraged by Fiona , Farquaad orders Shrek killed and Fiona detained . Shrek whistles for Dragon who bursts in along with Donkey and devours Farquaad . Shrek and Fiona profess their love and share a kiss ; Fiona is bathed in light as her curse is broken but is surprised that she is still an ogre , as she thought she would become beautiful , to which Shrek replies that she is beautiful . They marry in the swamp and leave on their honeymoon while the rest celebrate by singing " I 'm a Believer " .
= = Cast = =
Mike Myers as Shrek
Eddie Murphy as Donkey
Cameron Diaz as Princess Fiona
John Lithgow as Lord Farquaad
Vincent Cassel as " Monsieur " Robin Hood
Conrad Vernon as Gingerbread Man
Chris Miller as Geppetto / Magic Mirror
Cody Cameron as Pinocchio / The Three Little Pigs
Simon J. Smith as Three Blind Mice
Christopher Knights as Three Blind Mice and Thelonius
Aron Warner as Big Bad Wolf
Jim Cummings as Captain of the Guards
Kathleen Freeman as Old Woman ( Donkey 's ex @-@ owner )
Andrew Adamson as Duloc Mascot ( a man dressed in a suit that looks like Lord Farquaad )
Bobby Block as Baby Bear from the Three Bears
Michael Galasso as Peter Pan
Elisa Gabrielli as additional voices
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
At the time DreamWorks was founded , producer John H. Williams got hold of the book from his children and when he brought it to DreamWorks , it caught Jeffrey Katzenberg 's attention and the studio decided to make it into a film . Recounting the inspiration of making the film , Williams said :
" Every development deal starts with a pitch and my pitch came from my then kindergartner , in collaboration with his pre @-@ school brother . Upon our second reading of Shrek , the kindergartner started quoting large segments of the book pretending he could read them . Even as an adult , I thought Shrek was outrageous , irreverent , iconoclastic , gross , and just a lot of fun . He was a great movie character in search of a movie . "
After buying the rights to the film , Katzenberg quickly put it in active development in November 1995 . Steven Spielberg had thought about making a traditionally animated film adaption of the book before , when he bought the rights to the book in 1991 before the founding of DreamWorks , where Bill Murray would play Shrek and Steve Martin would play Donkey . In the beginning of production , co @-@ director Andrew Adamson refused to be intimidated by Katzenberg and had an argument with him how much should the film appeal to adults . Katzenberg wanted both audiences , but he found some of Adamson 's ideas about adding sexual jokes and Guns N ' Roses music to the soundtrack a bit too outrageous . Adamson and Kelly Asbury joined in 1997 to co @-@ direct the film . However , Asbury left a year later for work on the 2002 film Spirit : Stallion of the Cimarron , and was replaced with story artist Vicky Jenson . Both Adamson and Jenson decided to work on the film in half , so the crew could at least know who to go to with specific detail questions about the film 's sequences ; " We both ended up doing a lot of everything , " Adamson said . " We 're both kinda control freaks , and we both wanted to do everything . "
Some early sketches of Shrek 's house were done between 1996 and 1997 using Photoshop , with the sketches showing Shrek first living in a garbage dump near a human village called Wart Creek . It was also thought one time that he lived with his parents and kept rotting fish in his bedroom . Donkey was modeled after Pericles ( born 1994 ; also known as Perry ) , a real miniature donkey from Barron Park in Palo Alto , California . Raman Hui , supervising animator of Shrek , stated that Fiona " wasn 't based on any real person . " and he did many different sketches for her . He had done over 100 sculptures of Fiona before the directors chose the final design . In early development , the art directors visited Hearst Castle , Stratford upon Avon , and Dordogne for inspiration . Art Director Douglas Rogers visited a magnolia plantation in Charleston , South Carolina for inspiration of Shrek 's swamp . Planned characters not used in the film include Goldilocks and Sleeping Beauty .
= = = Casting = = =
Nicolas Cage was initially offered the role of Shrek but he turned it down because he did not want to look like an ogre . In 2013 , Cage explained furthermore : " When you 're drawn , in a way it says more about how children are going to see you than anything else , and I so care about that . "
Chris Farley was planned to do the voice for Shrek which he recorded 80 to 90 % ( or 95 % according to Farley 's brother Tom ) of the dialogue for the character , but died before completing the project . A story reel featuring a sample of Farley 's recorded dialogue was leaked to the public in August 2015 . DreamWorks then re @-@ cast the voice role to Mike Myers , who insisted on a complete script rewrite , to leave no traces of Farley 's version of Shrek . According to Myers , he wanted to voice the character " for two reasons : I wanted the opportunity to work with Jeffrey Katzenberg ; and [ the book is ] a great story about accepting yourself for who you are . "
After Myers had completed providing the voice for the character , when the film was well into production , he asked to re @-@ record all of his lines with a Scottish accent , similar to that his mother used when she told him bedtime stories and also used for his roles in other films , such as So I Married an Axe Murderer and Austin Powers : The Spy Who Shagged Me . According to the DVD commentary , he had also tried using country and Canadian accents . After hearing the alternative , Katzenberg agreed to redo scenes in the film , saying , " It was so good we took $ 4m worth of animation out and did it again . " A point Myers disputes , saying " it didn ’ t cost the studio “ millions of dollars , ” as rumored . “ What it meant is instead of me going in for ten sessions , I went in for twenty sessions . I got paid the same . " . Because of Myers voicing the character , more ideas began to come . There were clearer story points , fresher gags and comedy bits . " I got a letter from Spielberg thanking me so much for caring about the character " Myers said . " and he said the Scottish accent had improved the movie . "
Another person planned to voice a character in the film was Janeane Garofalo , who was set to star alongside Farley as Princess Fiona . However , she was fired from the project with little explanation . Years later , Garofalo stated " I was never told why [ I was fired ] . I assume because I sound like a man sometimes ? I don 't know why . Nobody told me ... But , you know , the movie didn 't do anything , so who cares ? "
= = = Animation = = =
Shrek was originally set up to be a live @-@ action / CG animation hybrid with background plate miniature sets and the main characters composited into the scene as motion @-@ captured computer graphics , using an ExpertVision Hires Falcon 10 camera system to capture and apply realistic human movement to the characters . A sizable crew was hired to run a test , and after a year and a half of R & D , the test was finally screened in May 1997 . The results were not satisfactory , with Katzenberg stating " It looked terrible , it didn 't work , it wasn 't funny , and we didn 't like it . " The studio then turned to its production partners at PDI , who began production with the studio in 1998 and helped Shrek get to its final , computer @-@ animated look . At this time , Antz was still in production by the studio and Effects Supervisor Ken Bielenberg was asked by Aron Warner " to start development for Shrek . " Similar to previous PDI films , PDI used its own proprietary software ( like its own Fluid Animation System ) for its animated movies . For some elements , however , it also took advantage of some of the powerhouse animation software in the market . This is particularly true with Maya , which PDI used for most of its dynamic cloth animation and for the hair of Fiona and Farquaad .
" We did a lot of work on character and set @-@ up , and then kept changing the set up while we were doing the animation , " Hui noted . " In Antz , we had a facial system that gave us all the facial muscles under the skin . In Shrek , we applied that to whole body . So , if you pay attention to Shrek when he talks , you see that when he opens his jaw , he forms a double chin , because we have the fat and the muscles underneath . That kind of detail took us a long time to get right . " One of the most difficult parts of creating the film was making Donkey 's fur flow smoothly so that it didn 't look like that of a Chia Pet . This fell into the hands of the surfacing animators who used flow controls within a complex shader to provide the fur with many attributes ( ability to change directions , lie flat , swirl , etc . ) . It was then the job of the visual effects group , led by Ken Bielenberg , to make the fur react to environment conditions . Once the technology was mastered , it was able to be applied to many aspects of the Shrek movie including grass , moss , beards , eyebrows , and even threads on Shrek 's tunic . Making human hair realistic was different from Donkey 's fur , requiring a separate rendering system and a lot of attention from the lighting and visual effects teams .
Shrek has 31 sequences , with 1 @,@ 288 shots in every sequence total . Aron Warner said that the creators " envisioned a magical environment that you could immerse yourself into . " Shrek includes 36 separate in @-@ film locations to make the world of the film , which DreamWorks claimed was more than any previous computer @-@ animated feature before . In @-@ film locations were finalized and as demonstrated by past DreamWorks animated movies , color and mood was of the utmost importance .
= = = Music = = =
Shrek is the third DreamWorks animated film ( and the only film in the Shrek series ) to have Harry Gregson @-@ Williams team up with John Powell to compose the score ( after Antz ( 1998 ) and Chicken Run ( 2000 ) ) . John Powell was left out to compose scores for later Shrek films with Williams due to a conflict . The score was recorded at Abbey Road Studios by Nick Wollage and Slamm Andrews , with the latter mixing it at Media Ventures and Patricia Sullivan @-@ Fourstar handling mastering .
Shrek introduced a new element to give the film a unique feel . The film used pop music and other Oldies to make the story more forward . Covers of songs like " On the Road Again " and " Try a Little Tenderness " were integrated in the film 's score . As the film was about to be completed , Katzenberg suggested to the filmmakers to redo the film 's ending to " go out with a big laugh " ; Instead of ending film with just a storybook closing over Shrek and Fiona as they ride off into the sunset , they decided to add a song " I 'm a Believer " covered by Smash Mouth and show all the fairytale creatures in the film .
Although Rufus Wainwright 's version of the song " Hallelujah " appeared in the soundtrack album , it was John Cale 's version that appeared in the film ; in a radio interview , Rufus Wainwright suggested that his version of " Hallelujah " did not appear in the film due to the " glass ceiling " he was hitting because of his sexuality . An alternate explanation posits that because Wainwright was an artist for DreamWorks and John Cale was not , thus licensing issues prohibited Cale 's version from appearing in the soundtrack album , despite having the filmmakers wanting to have Cale 's version appear in the film .
= = Cultural references = =
In many places the film references classic movies , predominantly those by Disney . When Tinker Bell falls on Donkey and he says " I can fly " and people around including the Three Little Pigs say " He can fly , he can fly " ; this is a reference to Disney 's Peter Pan . This scene is also a reference to the Disney film Dumbo , where Donkey says , while flying , " You might have seen a house fly , maybe even a super fly , but I bet you ain 't never seen a Donkey fly " The scene where Fiona is singing to the blue bird is a reference to Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs . The transformation scene at the end of the film strongly references to Disney 's Beauty and the Beast .
When Shrek crosses the bridge to the Castle and says , " That 'll do , Donkey , that 'll do , " this is a reference to the movie Babe . The scene where Princess Fiona is fighting the Merry Men is a lengthy reference to the film The Matrix . At the end of the film , the Gingerbread Man at the end with a crutch ( and one leg ) says " God bless us , everyone " which is a reference to Tiny Tim in A Christmas Carol .
In the scene where the Magic Mirror gives Lord Farquaad the option to marry three princesses , it parodies popular American television show The Dating Game featuring : Cinderella and Snow White . In addition , Lord Farquaad 's theme park style kingdom Duloc heavily mimics Disneyland , even in so far as parodying the famous ' It 's A Small World Afterall ' musical ride in the scene with the singing puppets .
= = Release = =
= = = Marketing = = =
In 2000 , IMAX released CyberWorld onto its branded large @-@ screen theaters . It was a compilation film that featured stereoscopic conversions of various animated shorts and sequences , including the bar sequence in Antz . DreamWorks was so impressed by the technology used for the sequence 's " stereoscopic translation " , that the studio and IMAX decided to plan a big @-@ screen 3D version of Shrek . The film would have been re @-@ released during the Christmas season of 2001 , or the following summer , after its conventional 2D release . The re @-@ release would have also included new sequences and an alternate ending . Plans for this was dropped due to " creative changes " instituted by DreamWorks and resulted in a loss of $ 1 @.@ 18 million , down from IMAX 's profit of $ 3 @.@ 24 million .
Radio Disney was told not to allow any ads for the film to air on the station , stating , " Due to recent initiatives with The Walt Disney Company , we are being asked not to align ourselves promotionally with this new release Shrek . Stations may accept spot dollars only in individual markets . " The restriction was later relaxed to allow ads for the film 's soundtrack album onto the network .
On May 7 , 2001 , Burger King began promotions for the film , giving out a selection of nine exclusive Candy Caddies based on the Shrek characters , in Big Kids Meal and Kids Meal orders . Ice cream chain Baskin @-@ Robbins also ran an 8 @-@ week promotion of the film , selling products such as Shrek 's Hot Sludge Sundae , a combination of Oreo Cookies ' n Cream ice cream , hot fudge , crushed chocolate cookies , whipped cream and squiggly gummy worms , and Shrek Freeze Frame Cake , featuring an image of Shrek and Donkey framed by sunflowers . This was to support the film 's DVD / VHS release .
= = = Home media = = =
The film was released on VHS and DVD on November 2 , 2001 . Both releases included Shrek in the Swamp Karaoke Dance Party , a 3 @-@ minute musical short film , that takes up right after Shrek 's ending , with film 's characters performing a medley of modern pop songs .
Shrek was released to video the same day that Pixar 's Monsters , Inc. hit theaters . Since videos were traditionally released on Tuesdays , Disney 's executives did not receive this well , saying that the move " seemed like an underhanded attempt to siphon off some of their film 's steam " . DreamWorks responded that it " simply shifted the release to a Friday to make it more of an event and predicted that it and other studios would do so more frequently with important films . " Monsters , Inc. earned that weekend more than $ 62 million , breaking the record for an animated film , while Shrek 's video release made more than $ 100 million , and eventually became the biggest selling DVD of all time with over 5 @.@ 5 million sales .
A 3D version of the film was released on Blu @-@ ray 3D on December 1 , 2010 , along with its sequels . The films were sold separately in 2012 .
In July 2014 , the film 's distribution rights were purchased by DreamWorks Animation and transferred to 20th Century Fox .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports that 88 % of critics have given the film a positive review based on 201 reviews ; the weighted average score is 7 @.@ 8 / 10 . The critical consensus is " While simultaneously embracing and subverting fairy tales , the irreverent Shrek also manages to tweak Disney 's nose , provide a moral message to children , and offer viewers a funny , fast @-@ paced ride . " On Metacritic the film has a rating of 84 % based on 34 reviews , indicating " universal acclaim " .
Roger Ebert praised the film , giving it four stars out of a possible four and describing it as " jolly and wicked , filled with sly in @-@ jokes and yet somehow possessing a heart . " USA Today 's Susan Wloszczyna praised Eddie Murphy 's performance , stating it " gives the comic performance of his career , aided by sensational digital artistry , as he brays for the slightly neurotic motormouth . " Richard Schickel of Time also enjoyed Murphy 's role , stating " No one has ever made a funnier jackass of himself than Murphy . " Peter Rainer of New York magazine liked the script , also stating " The animation , directed by Andrew Adamson and Vicky Jenson , is often on the same wriggly , giggly level as the script , although the more " human " characters , such as Princess Fiona and Lord Farquaad , are less interesting than the animals and creatures -- a common pitfall in animated films of all types . " Peter Travers of Rolling Stone wrote " Shrek is a world @-@ class charmer that could even seduce the Academy when it hands out the first official animation Oscar next year . " James Berardinelli of ReelViews gave the film three and a half stars out of four , saying " Shrek is not a guilty pleasure for sophisticated movie @-@ goers ; it is , purely and simply , a pleasure . " Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times wrote " The witty , fractured fairy tale Shrek has a solid base of clever writing . " Lisa Schwarzbaum of Entertainment Weekly gave the film an A- , saying " A kind of palace coup , a shout of defiance , and a coming of age for DreamWorks . " Jay Boyar of the Orlando Sentinel wrote " It 's a pleasure to be able to report that the movie both captures and expands upon the book 's playful spirit of deconstruction . "
Steven Rosen of The Denver Post wrote " DreamWorks Pictures again proves a name to trust for imaginative , funny animated movies that delight kids and adults equally . " Susan Stark of The Detroit News gave the film four out of four stars , saying " Swift , sweet , irreverent , rangy and as spirited in the writing and voice work as it is splendid in design . " Lou Lumenick of the New York Post gave the film four out of four stars , saying " A fat green ogre with a grouchy disposition and worse manners , Shrek is the sort of unlikely hero that nobody could love -- except just about everyone who sees this hip and hilarious animated delight . " Jami Bernard of the New York Daily News gave the film four out of four stars , saying " The brilliance of the voice work , script , direction and animation all serve to make Shrek an adorable , infectious work of true sophistication . " Rene Rodriguez gave the film three out of four stars , calling it " a gleefully fractured fairy tale that never becomes cynical or crass " . Elvis Mitchell of The New York Times gave the film four out of five stars , saying " Beating up on the irritatingly dainty Disney trademarks is nothing new ; it 's just that it has rarely been done with the demolition @-@ derby zest of Shrek . " William Steig , the author of the original book , and his wife Jeanne Steig also enjoyed the film , stating " We all went sort of expecting to hate it , thinking , ' What has Hollywood done to it ? ' But we loved it . We were afraid it would be too sickeningly cute and , instead , Bill just thought they did a wonderful , witty job of it . "
John Anderson of Newsday wrote " The kind of movie that will entertain everyone of every age and probably for ages to come . " John Zebrowski of The Seattle Times gave the film three out of four stars , saying " The movie is helped immensely by its cast , who carry it through some of the early , sluggish scenes . But this is Murphy 's movie . Donkey gets most of the good lines , and Murphy hits every one . " Jay Carr of The Boston Globe wrote " In an era when much on film seems old , Shrek seems new and fresh and clever . " Stephen Hunter of The Washington Post gave the film five out of five stars , saying " Despite all its high @-@ tech weirdness , it is really that most perdurable of human constructions , a tale told well and true . " Joe Baltake of The Sacramento Bee wrote that it " isn 't so much a fractured spoof of everything Disney , but actually a Monty Python flick for kids – kids of all ages " . Andrew Sarris of The New York Observer wrote " What gives Shrek its special artistic distinction is its witty and knowingly sassy dialogue , delivered by vocally charismatic performers whose voices remind us of their stellar screen personae in live @-@ action movies . " Lisa Alspector of the Chicago Reader wrote " This romantic fantasy complicates the roles of beauty and beast , making it hard to guess what form a sensitive resolution will take . " Joe Morgenstern of The Wall Street Journal wrote " The charms of Shrek , which is based on the children 's book by William Steig , go far beyond in @-@ jokes for adults . "
A mixed review came from Mark Caro of the Chicago Tribune , who gave the film two and a half stars out of four and compared the film to Toy Story 2 , saying it " had a higher in @-@ jokes / laughs ratio without straining to demonstrate its hipness or to evoke heartfelt emotions . " On the more negative side , Michael Atkinson of The Village Voice said he was " desperately avoiding the risk of even a half @-@ second of boredom " , and said " the movie is wall @-@ to @-@ window @-@ to @-@ door noise , babbling , and jokes ( the first minute sees the first fart gag ) , and demographically it 's a hard @-@ sell shotgun spray . " Christy Lemire of the Associated Press described Shrek as a " 90 @-@ minute onslaught of in @-@ jokes " , and said while it " strives to have a heart " with " a message about beauty coming from within " , " somehow [ the message ] rings hollow . " Anthony Lane of The New Yorker said , despite the film " cunning the rendering of surfaces , there 's still something flat and charmless in the digital look , and most of the pleasure rises not from the main romance but from the quick , incidental gags . "
= = = Box office = = =
Shrek opened on around 6 @,@ 000 screens across 3 @,@ 587 theaters ; eleven of them showed the film digitally , made possible by the THX Division of Lucasfilm . This was the first time that DreamWorks had shown one of its films digitally . The film earned $ 11 @,@ 573 @,@ 015 on its first day and $ 42 @,@ 347 @,@ 760 on its opening weekend , topping the box office for the weekend and averaging $ 11 @,@ 805 from 3 @,@ 587 theaters . In its second weekend , due to the Memorial Day Weekend holiday , the film gained 0 @.@ 3 percent to $ 42 @,@ 481 @,@ 425 and $ 55 @,@ 215 @,@ 620 over the four @-@ day weekend , resulting in an overall 30 percent gain . Despite this , the film finished in second place behind Pearl Harbor and had an average of $ 15 @,@ 240 from expanding to 3 @,@ 623 sites . In its third weekend , the film retreated 34 percent to $ 28 @,@ 172 @,@ 869 for a $ 7 @,@ 695 average from expanding to 3 @,@ 661 theaters . The film closed on December 6 , 2001 , after grossing $ 267 @,@ 665 @,@ 011 domestically , along with $ 216 @,@ 744 @,@ 207 overseas , for a worldwide total of $ 484 @,@ 409 @,@ 218 . Produced on a $ 60 million budget , the film was a huge box office smash and is the fourth highest @-@ grossing film of 2001 behind Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone , The Lord of the Rings : The Fellowship of the Ring , and Monsters , Inc .. The film sold an estimated 47 @,@ 290 @,@ 600 tickets in North America .
Shrek became the highest @-@ grossing animated film ever to be released in Australia , passing the mark set by The Lion King in 1994 . In the United Kingdom , Shrek regained the top spot at the British box office after being beaten out the previous week by Lara Croft : Tomb Raider , earning a $ 20 @.@ 3 million since its opening in the UK .
= = = Accolades = = =
At the 74th Academy Awards , Shrek won the first ever Academy Award for Best Animated Feature , beating Monsters , Inc. and Jimmy Neutron : Boy Genius . Entertainment Weekly put it on its end @-@ of @-@ the @-@ decade , " best @-@ of " list , saying , " Prince Charming ? So last millennium . This decade , fairy @-@ tale fans — and Princess Fiona — fell for a fat and flatulent Ogre . Now , that 's progress . " It was nominated for The Golden Globe Award for Best Motion Picture – Musical or Comedy .
Shrek was also nominated for 6 BAFTA Awards , including the BAFTA Award for Best Film . Eddie Murphy became the first actor to ever receive a BAFTA nomination for a voice @-@ over performance . The film was also nominated for Best Visual Effects , Best Sound , Best Film Music , and won the BAFTA Award for Best Adapted Screenplay . Shrek was nominated for a dozen Annie Awards from ASIFA @-@ Hollywood , and won eight Annies including Best Animated Feature and Outstanding Individual Achievement for Directing in an Animated Feature Production .
In June 2008 , the American Film Institute revealed its " Ten top Ten " ; the best ten films in ten " classic " American film genres — after polling over 1 @,@ 500 people from the creative community Shrek was acknowledged as the eighth best film in the animated genre , and the only non @-@ Disney · Pixar film in the Top 10 . Shrek was also ranked second in a Channel 4 poll of the " 100 Greatest Family Films " , losing out on the top spot to E.T. the Extra @-@ Terrestrial . In 2005 , Shrek came sixth in Channel 4 's 100 Greatest Cartoons poll behind The Simpsons , Tom and Jerry , South Park , Toy Story and Family Guy . In November 2009 , the character , Lord Farquaad , was listed # 14 in IGN UK 's " Top 15 Fantasy Villains " . In 2006 , it was ranked third on Bravo 's 100 funniest films list .
American Film Institute recognition :
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Heroes & Villains :
Shrek - Nominated Hero
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Songs :
I 'm a Believer - Nominated
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Movies ( 10th Anniversary Edition ) - Nominated
AFI 's 10 Top 10 - # 8 Animated film
= = = Festivals = = =
The film was entered into the 2001 Cannes Film Festival , and was the first animated film since Disney 's Peter Pan ( 1953 ) to receive that honour .
= = = Influence = = =
Previous films and TV shows , such as Fractured Fairy Tales and The Princess Bride , have parodied the traditional fairy tale . However , Shrek itself has noticeably influenced the current generation of mainstream animated films . Particularly after Shrek 2 , animated films began to incorporate more pop culture references and end @-@ film musical numbers . Such elements can be seen in films like Robots and Chicken Little . It also inspired a number of computer animated films which also spoofed fairy tales , or other related story genres , often including adult @-@ oriented humor , most of which were not nearly as successful as Shrek , such as Happily N 'Ever After , Igor , and Hoodwinked ! .
= = Other media = =
Several video game adaptations of the film have been published on various game console platforms , including Shrek ( 2001 ) , Shrek : Hassle at the Castle ( 2002 ) , Shrek : Extra Large ( 2002 ) , Shrek : Super Party ( 2002 ) and Shrek SuperSlam ( 2005 ) . Shrek was also included as a bonus unlockable character in the video game Tony Hawk 's Underground 2 ( 2004 ) .
In 2003 , Dark Horse Comics released a Shrek three @-@ issue mini @-@ series comic book adaptation , written by Mark Evanier , which were collected into a trade paperback .
A musical version , based on the film , with music by Jeanine Tesori and a book and lyrics by David Lindsay @-@ Abaire , opened on Broadway on December 14 , 2008 , and closed January 3 , 2010 , running for a total of 441 performances . It starred Brian d 'Arcy James in the title role , Sutton Foster as Princess Fiona , Christopher Sieber as Lord Farquaad , Daniel Breaker as Donkey , and John Tartaglia as Pinocchio . The Broadway production was recorded and released on DVD , Blu @-@ ray and digital media . A North American Tour opened July 25 , 2010 , in Chicago . A London production opened in the West End on June 7 , 2011 . The musical received many Tony Award nominations and won the 2009 Tony Award for Best Costume Design . It received five Laurence Olivier Award nominations including Best New Musical .
= = Sequels and spin @-@ offs = =
Shrek has three sequels : Shrek 2 ( 2004 ) Shrek the Third ( 2007 ) , and Shrek Forever After ( 2010 ) . Although Shrek 2 received similar acclaim from critics , and the last two movies did not receive as much critical acclaim . They were , however , still box office hits . There were also two holiday specials entitled Shrek the Halls and Scared Shrekless , a spin @-@ off Puss in Boots ( a prequel to the Shrek series , exploring Puss 's origin story and his life before meeting Shrek and Donkey ) , and several shorts . A fifth feature film was also planned for release , but was later cancelled in 2009 , after it was decided that Shrek Forever After ( originally titled Shrek Goes Fourth ) was to be the last film in the series .
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= Mattias Öhlund =
Kenneth Mattias Öhlund ( born September 9 , 1976 ) is a Swedish former professional ice hockey defenceman who last played for the Tampa Bay Lightning of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . Prior to joining the Lightning , he played eleven seasons with the Vancouver Canucks . Öhlund played two seasons in the Swedish Allsvenskan , the second highest tier of hockey in Sweden , with Piteå HC before being selected by the Canucks thirteenth overall in the 1994 NHL Entry Draft ; he then joined Luleå HF of the Elitserien , the highest league in Sweden , winning the Le Mat Trophy as league champions in 1996 . He began his NHL career with Vancouver in 1997 – 98 , the start of an eleven @-@ year tenure with the club . A serious eye injury before his third NHL season was the first of many injuries Öhlund has sustained over his career , and he has only played a full season twice in eleven years . A four @-@ time winner of the Babe Pratt Trophy as the team 's best defenceman , Öhlund is the Canucks ' all @-@ time leading goal and point @-@ scorer among defencemen .
Internationally , Öhlund has represented Sweden in numerous tournaments , beginning with three World Junior Championships that included Best Defenceman honours as part of a silver medal effort in 1996 . He has since competed in three World Championships , earning gold in 1998 , and three Winter Olympics , earning gold in 2006 .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Sweden = = =
Öhlund began his playing career with Piteå HC in his hometown , playing two seasons with the team . As a large , mobile defenceman , he was heavily scouted by scouts from several NHL teams during his final season with Piteå . He was the Vancouver Canucks ' first pick , thirteenth overall , in the 1994 NHL Entry Draft . Rather than join the Canucks , Öhlund stayed in Sweden as a result of a dispute over his contract with the team . He joined a new team , Luleå HF of the top Swedish league , the Elitserien . In his first season in the premier league in Sweden , Öhlund scored 16 points in 34 games . The following season Öhlund had 14 points in 38 games as Luleå won the Le Mat Trophy as champions of the Elitserien , their first league championship . Appearing in 47 games with Luleå during the 1996 – 97 season , Öhlund scored seven goals and had an additional nine assists .
= = = Vancouver Canucks = = =
Four years after being drafted by the Canucks , Öhlund was set to be eligible to re @-@ enter the NHL Entry Draft when he signed a contract with the Toronto Maple Leafs on August 1 , 1997 . Worth US $ 10 million over five years , including a signing bonus of $ 7 @.@ 5 million , it was considerably more than the maximum rookie contract of $ 850 @,@ 000 per year the Canucks , as the team that drafted Öhlund , were allowed to offer . Under league rules , the Canucks were given one week to either match the contract or trade Öhlund 's NHL rights to the Maple Leafs . Rather than lose him , the Canucks agreed to the contract on August 7 .
As part of a promotion for the 1998 Winter Olympics , the first to allow NHL participation in the ice hockey tournament , the Canucks opened the 1997 – 98 NHL season with a pair of games against the Mighty Ducks of Anaheim in Tokyo . Öhlund thus played his first NHL game in Japan on October 3 , 1997 . He scored his first goal against Felix Potvin of the Toronto Maple Leafs on October 9 , as well as earning his first assist in that game . Playing 77 games as a rookie , he tied Jyrki Lumme for the team lead in scoring among defencemen with seven goals and 30 points . In recognition of his play during the season , he was awarded the Babe Pratt Trophy , given to the Canucks ' best defenceman . In addition , Öhlund was nominated for the Calder Memorial Trophy as the best rookie in the league , finishing second in voting to Sergei Samsonov of the Boston Bruins with 11 first @-@ place ballots to Samsonov 's 43 . His 30 points , the fifth best total among first year players and highest by a rookie defenceman , helped him earn a position on the NHL All @-@ Rookie Team .
In his second season in the NHL , Öhlund was selected to the annual NHL All @-@ Star Game as a replacement for an injured player . Playing for the World team , composed of NHLers from outside North America , Öhlund scored one goal and had an assist as the North American team won , 8 – 6 . With nine goals and 35 points in 74 games , Öhlund led the Canucks ' defencemen in scoring and placed fifth overall on the team .
Prior to the start of the 1999 – 2000 NHL season , in a pre @-@ season game against the Ottawa Senators on September 21 , 1999 , a puck deflected off Öhlund 's stick and struck him in the right eye . The injury forced Öhlund to miss the first 38 games of the season . He underwent surgery to correct his vision and returned to the Canucks the same season and scored 20 points in 42 games , again winning the Babe Pratt Trophy as the Canucks ' best defenceman . The following year , he missed an additional 17 games after undergoing surgery once more to relieve building internal pressure on his eye . Playing in his first game back in the lineup on November 28 , 2000 , Öhlund scored the game @-@ winning goal for the Canucks in a 4 – 1 win over the Mighty Ducks of Anaheim . Öhlund played the final 65 games of the season , scoring eight goals and 28 points . He also made his NHL playoff debut , recording four points in four games .
The 2001 – 02 season saw Öhlund play 81 games and record a career @-@ high 36 points , with an additional two points in six playoff games . A knee injury during the 2002 – 03 season led Öhlund to miss several games ; while he only scored 2 goals in the 59 games he played in , Öhlund set a career @-@ high in assists with 27 . That was followed by appearing in a career @-@ high 13 playoff games , where he had three goals and four assists for seven points . In 2003 – 04 , Öhlund tallied a career @-@ high 14 goals and played in all 82 games with Vancouver for the first time in his career . For his efforts , Öhlund was named the winner of the Babe Pratt Trophy ..
The 2004 – 05 season was cancelled due to the 2004 – 05 NHL lockout . Like many other NHL players , Öhlund played in Europe , joining his former team , Luleå HF , on December 21 . However eight days later , after playing two games with the team and scoring one goal , Öhlund left the team . As well as briefly playing in Sweden , Öhlund took part in a charity hockey match set up by Canucks teammate Brad May and held in Vancouver on December 12 , 2004 . Including several NHL players , the game raised nearly $ 1 million for charity . The NHL resumed play for the 2005 – 06 season ; Öhlund recorded 33 points in 78 games , including leading Canucks defencemen with 13 goals , winning the Babe Pratt Trophy for the fourth time in his career .
Early in the 2007 – 08 season , Öhlund received a four @-@ game suspension , the first of his career , for an incident near the end of a November 16 , 2007 , game against the Minnesota Wild . In the third period , Wild forward Mikko Koivu hit Öhlund in the head with his elbow , and Öhlund retaliated by slashing Koivu in the leg with his stick , breaking Koivu 's fibula . After returning from the suspension , Öhlund became the Canucks ' all @-@ time leader in goals among defencemen , scoring the game @-@ tying goal against the Edmonton Oilers on December 15 , 2007 , to pass former teammate Jyrki Lumme with 84 goals . After bone chips were detected in his knee in early March 2008 , Öhlund underwent knee surgery on March 13 and missed the remainder of the season . The leading scorer amongst Canuck defenceman at the time of the surgery , Öhlund finished second amongst defenceman with 24 points in 53 games .
With the departure of Markus Näslund in the 2008 off @-@ season , Öhlund became the longest serving player on the Canucks ' roster . Before the beginning of the 2008 – 09 season , Öhlund was named , along with Ryan Kesler and Willie Mitchell as alternate captains to goaltender Roberto Luongo , who replaced Näslund as captain . Due to the limitations of having a goalie as captain , Öhlund was designated the captain 's traditional duty of taking ceremonial faceoffs . Beginning the season 22 points behind Jyrki Lumme and Dennis Kearns for the franchise 's all @-@ time point @-@ scoring record for a defenceman , Öhlund surpassed the mark on March 15 , 2009 , with an assist in a 4 – 2 win against the Colorado Avalanche for his 322nd point as a Canuck . He played all 82 games for the second time in his career , and finished tied for third on the team for points by a defenceman with 25 .
Over 11 seasons with the Canucks , Ohlund registered team records of 93 goals and 325 points as a defenceman . His 232 assists ranked fourth among all @-@ time Canucks defencemen , while his 770 games played was second among defencemen and fifth overall . In his latter years with the Canucks , Ohlund served as a mentor while being paired with fellow defenceman and Swedish native Alexander Edler , who was beginning his NHL career .
= = = Tampa Bay Lightning = = =
Becoming an unrestricted free agent in the off @-@ season , Öhlund signed a seven @-@ year , $ 26 @.@ 25 @-@ million contract with the Tampa Bay Lightning on July 1 , 2009 . Brought in as a mentor to fellow Swedish defenceman Victor Hedman , whom the Lightning drafted second overall in the 2009 NHL Entry Draft , Öhlund was named an alternate captain of the Lightning . His first game with the Lightning was on October 3 , 2009 , against the Atlanta Thrashers ; Öhlund had one assist in the game . The following month , he suffered an ankle injury after catching his skate into ice during a game against the Los Angeles Kings on November 14 , 2009 . He returned after missing 7 games . He re @-@ injured the ankle in March 2011 after colliding with Christian Hanson during a game against the Toronto Maple Leafs , causing him to miss an additional 8 games . Öhlund finished his first season with the Lightning with no goals and 13 assists in 67 games . Offensively , it marked the lowest point total of his career and the first time he did not score a goal during the regular season during his NHL career up to that point . Despite his reduced offensive statistics , he remained a key defenceman on the Lightning roster , leading the team with 22 minutes and 47 seconds of average ice time per game and 116 blocked shots .
In the off @-@ season , Öhlund underwent arthroscopic surgery on his right knee . Though he aggravated the knee at the beginning of the Lightning 's training camp in September 2010 , he continued to play in pre @-@ season games . Due to inflammation and fluid build @-@ up in the knee , however , he was sidelined for the first 8 games of the 2010 – 11 season . Later in the season , he began suffering from a deep bone bruise on his left knee that he continued to play in spite of . In late @-@ February and early @-@ March 2011 , he was subsequently sidelined two games with a lower @-@ body injury . Öhlund failed to score a goal for the second consecutive regular season in 2010 – 11 , recording 5 assists in 72 games , a career @-@ low . His ice time reduced significantly as he ranked sixth among team defencemen with an average of 18 minutes and 43 seconds per game . After finishing 12th overall in the Eastern Conference the previous season , the Lightning qualified for the 2011 playoffs as the fifth seed . In Game 2 of the opening round against the Pittsburgh Penguins , Öhlund registered his first goal as a Lightning , scoring into an empty net in a 5 – 1 win . He added two assists over the course of a career @-@ high 18 post @-@ season games as Tampa Bay was eliminated by the eventual Stanley Cup champion Boston Bruins in Game 7 of the Eastern Conference Finals . In an interview the following year , Ohlund recalled the 2010 – 11 season as " the most fun [ he ] had playing hockey , ever . "
Prior to the start of the 2011 – 12 season , Ohlund began experiencing inflammation in his right knee . The Lightning placed Ohlund on injured reserve on October 4 , 2011 ; a week later , he underwent arthroscopic surgery on both knees . After there was optimism he was close to returning to the lineup in December , he suffered a setback with his left knee and underwent further surgery in February 2012 . During his recovery , he told reporters with Swedish newspaper Expressen that he was unsure he could continue playing .
His contract with the Lightning expired July 1 , 2016 . He was until that date listed on the team roster but was on injured reserve since 2011 , with hockey experts citing him alongside Chris Pronger and Marc Savard as players who have not officially retired while letting their contracts continue , but who will not play in the NHL again .
" For a long period of time I 've been trying to get better and better , but clearly the longer you don 't play , the likelihood of playing again gets smaller and smaller each day , especially at my age , " Ohlund told the Tampa Tribune in April 2013 . " I don 't know long term what my situation will be , but I 'm sure it will be figured out shortly . "
Ohlund is set to be a part of the Canucks ' Ring of Honour on 16 December , 2016 .
= = International play = =
Early in his career , Öhlund was selected to play in three World Junior Championships for Sweden . Beginning in 1994 , he contributed two assists in seven games as part of a silver medal effort . As the medals were determined by a round @-@ robin format , Sweden fell one point short of Canada , losing 6 – 4 to them in their final and deciding game . After a bronze medal in 1995 , Öhlund returned for a third straight World Junior tournament in 1996 to record five assists and was named the tournament 's Best Defenceman . He was additionally named to the Tournament All @-@ Star Team as he captured his second World Junior silver medal .
He made his debut for the Swedish senior national team in 1997 at the World Championships , his first of three appearances in the tournament . Öhlund scored two goals and added an assist in 11 games as Sweden captured a silver medal . He returned the following year in 1998 to match his previous statistical output while earning his first gold medal with Sweden . In his third World Championship appearance , the 2001 World Championships , Öhlund tallied five points to help Sweden to a bronze medal .
The 1998 Winter Olympics was the first of three consecutive Olympic games Öhlund appeared in . He played in all four games for Sweden and registered one assist as Sweden finished in a tie for fifth place , out of medal contention . Four years later , Öhlund was selected for the 2002 Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City . However , in pre @-@ Olympic drug testing by the International Olympic Committee ( IOC ) , Öhlund tested positive for the banned substance acetazolamide . The substance was inadvertently ingested after Öhlund took Diamox , a drug he had used previously while undergoing eye surgery . As the ingestion was unintentional , he was cleared to play . After a dominant round @-@ robin , Sweden was eliminated by Belarus in the quarter @-@ final game — considered one of the biggest upsets in international hockey history and the darkest moment in Swedish hockey history . Öhlund finished the tournament with two points in four games .
In the following Olympics , Öhlund helped Sweden to the 2006 gold medal in Turin . After earning two assists in six games , Öhlund was forced out of the tournament after getting hit into the boards and fracturing his ribs during a game against Switzerland . Unable to play in the final against Finland , he nevertheless received a gold medal from the IOC . Canucks teammates , Daniel and Henrik Sedin , who also played on the championship team , offered to give Öhlund one of their gold medals if the IOC would not give him one , while his replacement on the team , Niklas Kronwall , made the same offer .
Additionally , Öhlund competed in the 2004 World Cup of Hockey , which preceded the 2004 – 05 NHL lockout . In four games , he recorded one goal and one assist .
= = Personal life = =
Growing up in Piteå , Öhlund idolized fellow Swedish defenceman Börje Salming , who played 17 seasons in the NHL . He is married to wife Linda and has a daughter , Hannah , and a son , Viktor . They reside in Tampa during the hockey season , and return to Öhlund 's hometown of Piteå , Sweden , in the summer .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =
= = = International = = =
= = = All @-@ Star Games = = =
All stats taken from NHL.com
= = Awards = =
= = = NHL = = =
= = = International = = =
= = = Vancouver Canucks team awards = = =
= = Records = =
Vancouver Canucks ' franchise goals leader among defencemen - 93
Vancouver Canucks ' franchise points leader among defencemen - 325
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= Mamadou N 'Diaye ( basketball , born 1993 ) =
Mamadou N 'Diaye ( born September 14 , 1993 ) is a Senegalese basketball player who played for the UC Irvine Anteaters men 's basketball team and remained in the NBA draft following his junior season , ending his college eligibility . He was one of the tallest basketball players in the NCAA Division I level , standing 7 ft 6 in ( 2 @.@ 29 m ) . N 'Diaye attended Brethren Christian Junior / Senior High School in Huntington Beach , California , where he was labeled one of the tallest high school players in the United States .
N 'Diaye , a center , was named Big West Conference Defensive Player of the Year after the 2013 – 14 NCAA Division I men 's basketball season and earned all @-@ conference honorable mention accolades as well . He most recently completed his sophomore year at University of California , Irvine and his second season with the Anteaters in 2014 – 15 . He is considered a talented shot @-@ blocker , having accumulated 131 blocks in his first 49 collegiate games .
He now plays for the Golden State Warriors Development League Team .
= = Early life = =
N 'Diaye was born in Dakar , Senegal to Seynabou and Mbad N 'Diaye . He has an older brother , named Adam . He grew up playing soccer and did not seriously begin playing basketball at a young age . In 2010 , Amadou Koundoul , who was the assistant coach for the UC Irvine Anteaters men 's basketball team at the time , saw N 'Diaye participate in a pick @-@ up game in a gymnasium at Dakar . He asked him to travel to the United States , and N 'Diaye accepted the offer . He arrived in the US without knowing how to speak English . In the new country , he initially had trouble with speaking English and often needed things to be translated to French .
After experiencing headaches upon his arrival to America , N 'Diaye saw a doctor and it was discovered that he was suffering from a golf ball @-@ sized tumor in his pituitary gland , which had caused his excessive growth and was threatening his vision . Afterwards , he recalled the moment , " For me , it wasn ’ t a big deal because I didn ’ t know what a tumor was . Once I found out , it was tough to hear I had one . " The condition was treated in the Hoag Memorial Hospital following several charitable donations from around the area . A married couple who lived in Huntington Beach , California , a city close to N 'Diaye 's future school , offered to become his guardians to ease his commute for medical treatment .
= = High school career = =
Prior to participating in sports , N 'Diaye attended Stoneridge Prep in Simi Valley , California , who steered him through his early years in the United States . The school had a history of producing high @-@ caliber international basketball players , including Enes Kanter and Nikola Vučević . However , N 'Diaye was not allowed to play the sport during his first year in the high school because of California Interscholastic Federation rules . As a sophomore , he was officially granted the permission to transfer to another high school .
N 'Diaye attended Brethren Christian School in Huntington Beach , California . He played under head coach Jon Bahnsen . According to Bahnsen upon arriving at the school , N 'Diaye " could barely get up and down the court more than a few times " due to his poor fitness after rehabilitation . In his high school years , N 'Diaye , who stood 7 ft 5 in ( 2 @.@ 26 m ) at the time , was considered one of the tallest to play at that level . He was also approached by the Guinness World Records to determine the authenticity of the claims . Bahnsen said , " Our school wouldn 't cooperate with them , but Guinness probably wanted to see if he was the world 's tallest high school basketball player . "
As a junior at Brethren Christian , N 'Diaye finished the season averaging 24 points and 14 rebounds . CBS News wrote that he was " impossible to defend " because of his height . At the conclusion of his final , senior season with Brethren Christian , N 'Diaye averaged about 27 points , 14 rebounds , and 4 @.@ 5 blocks . He partook his highest scoring game in January 2013 against Oxford Academy , with 45 points and 15 rebounds coming off an illness that kept him out of the initial games . After the year , N 'Diaye earned All @-@ State honors and was named CIF @-@ 5AA Player of the Year . He also earned the 2013 John R. Wooden High School Player of the Year award for CIF Division V. In the same season , N 'Diaye garnered National Christian Schools Athletic Association Player of the Year and Far West Super @-@ Region team accolades . Also , he was named Academy League Most Valuable Player .
According to the ESPN Recruiting Nation , N 'Diaye was the 6th most promising high school player in his state . ESPN analysts commented on N 'Diaye 's basketball talent by saying , " Ndiaye is a legit 7 @-@ foot @-@ 5 prospect with extraordinary length and huge hands . " He officially committed to play with the UC Irvine Anteaters men 's basketball team , following matriculation at the University of California , Irvine , on November 14 , 2012 . He also considered Oregon , Georgetown , and Pepperdine . N 'Diaye said that he selected UC Irvine because he " felt very comfortable at the university and with the coaching staff . "
= = Collegiate career = =
= = = Freshman = = =
Upon joining the UC Irvine basketball program , N 'Diaye was instantly recognized as the tallest player in the NCAA Division I. Russell Turner , the head basketball coach , said , " I 'm excited to add a player of Mamadou 's quality and character to our program . "
On November 2 , 2013 , N 'Diaye represented UC Irvine for the first time in an exhibition game vs. Chapman . He finished with 9 points , a team @-@ high 7 rebounds and 5 blocks.Turner said after the game , " I was pleased with Mamadou 's play . He is a dominating factor at times and he will be a factor that other teams will have to deal with . " N 'Diaye made his collegiate debut on November 8 , 2013 against Fresno State with 5 points , 4 rebounds , and 1 block as the starting center . He also shot 1 @-@ of @-@ 1 from the field and 3 @-@ of @-@ 10 from the free throw line . However , the team lost the game because of a buzzer beater from the opposing side .
When the Anteaters defeated the Washington Huskies men 's basketball team on November 14 , 2013 , N 'Diaye recorded a season @-@ high 18 points . He also added 8 rebounds and 9 blocks . The game was also his first experience in the 2K Sports Classic . His blocked shots total broke the school 's single @-@ game record under the category . He recorded his first career double @-@ double with Irvine on December 28 , 2013 against Arizona State , with 12 points , 4 blocks , and a career @-@ high 12 rebounds . In January at rival Long Beach State , N 'Diaye 's size was said to be so intimidating , coach Dan Monson of the 49ners told reporters that his presence was felt in a way where even when he was sitting on the bench , his players were still afraid to attack the paint . In early February , N 'Diaye broke the school 's single @-@ game block record for the second time in the season , totaling with 11 blocked shots and 10 rebounds against Long Beach State . N 'Diaye also broke the conference 's all @-@ time record . It would be his first career game in which he recorded a double @-@ double without scoring over ten points .
N 'Diaye finished the 2013 – 14 season with averages of 7 @.@ 8 points , 6 @.@ 2 rebounds , 0 @.@ 2 assists , 3 @.@ 1 blocks , and 1 @.@ 7 turnovers per game . Following the year , he was labeled a future top prospect by Kevin Pelton of ESPN.com , strongly due to his performance against Washington , in which he broke the school record for blocks for a single game . UC Irvine lost 58 @-@ 64 in the first round of the 2014 National Invitation Tournament against SMU . They fell to Cal Poly in the 2014 Big West Conference Men 's Basketball Tournament shortly before .
= = = Sophomore and junior = = =
N 'Diaye debuted as a sophomore on November 14 , 2014 , recording 9 points , 2 rebounds , and 1 block against Chapman University . He scored a career @-@ high 21 points on November 29 , vs Loyola Marymount . This was the first time he notched over 20 points in his college career as well . This would be his season @-@ high scoring total . N 'Diaye was sidelined for two months in his second year due to a foot injury . After his team qualified for the 2015 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament , he drew attention on Twitter . Louisville Cardinals men 's basketball head coach Rick Pitino , who coached against UC Irvine 's Russell Turner in the first round , said , " I thought he was eight feet tall . " The Anteaters ' season ended when they lost 55 @-@ 57 to Louisville , in spite of the 12 points , 5 rebounds , and 1 block N 'Diaye recorded . He finished the season averaging 10 @.@ 5 points , 5 @.@ 1 rebounds , and 1 @.@ 7 blocks .
In mid @-@ April 2015 , N 'Diaye made it official that he would forgo the 2015 NBA draft and return to UC Irvine for his junior year . The school later released a statement , in which his coach said , " This is great news for Mamadou and for our program . He is staying here because he is happy , he 's committed to his education and he is thriving . I feel really good about those things . " Following his second season with the Anteaters , websites such as CBSSports.com considered him a player that would need to play in the NBA Development League before joining a National Basketball Association roster .
During his junior season , N 'Diaye led the Anteaters to a program best 28 wins falling in the CIT Championship to Colombia . He played in 37 of 38 games on the season starting 36 averaging 12 @.@ 1 ppg , 7 @.@ 2 rpg , 2 @.@ 4 bpg and shooting 63 @.@ 1 % FG and 67 @.@ 3 % FT and 23 @.@ 2 mpg . He also broke the UCI school record for blocks with 218 which was previously broken by former teammate Will Davis II the previous season with 208 .
By his junior year , N 'Diaye was no longer the tallest NCAA player . He faced fellow Sengalese 7 ft 6 in ( 2 @.@ 29 m ) player Tacko Fall in the tallest tip @-@ off and match @-@ up in US college basketball history in a game against the UCF Knights . At the end of his junior season , N 'Diaye managed to improve a good portion of his statistics from his first two years beforehand .
On April 7 , 2016 , N 'Diaye declared for the 2016 NBA draft but did not rule out returning to UC Irvine . Per new NCAA rules , players can declare for the draft and attend pre @-@ draft workouts and opt out of the draft by May 25 as long as they do not hire an agent . On May 23 , two days before the deadline , it was announced that N 'Diaye would officially stick his name into the draft after all . During the school 's official interview regarding his departure , N 'Diaye indicated that we would continue his 2nd dream to pursue the completion of his degree at UC Irvine even as he moves on for his 1st dream to play professionally .
On May 2 , 2016 , N 'Diaye was named to the Senegal national basketball team preliminary squad for Basketball at the 2016 Summer Olympics – Men 's qualification .
= = = College statistics = = =
Source :
= = Professional career = =
N 'Diaye went undrafted in 2016 NBA Draft . Several days after the draft day , N 'Diaye was listed in Golden State Warriors ' roster for 2016 NBA Summer League .
= = Player profile = =
Standing seven feet , six inches tall and weighing 300 pounds , N 'Diaye 's wingspan ( fingertip @-@ to @-@ fingertip reach ) was measured as 8 ft 1 in ( 2 @.@ 46 m ) at the 2012 edition of the Amar 'e Stoudemire Skills Academy . When he entered college , his wingspan had increased to over 8 ft 3 in ( 2 @.@ 51 m ) . He is solely used as a center due to his height , length , and size . N 'Diaye 's skill set was often considered " raw " in high school , and received comments from Brethren Christian head coach , Jon Bahnsen , who said , " Right now his game is basically catch , turn , drop @-@ step , dunk . " He is also capable of touching the standard basketball rim without jumping .
During the 2016 tournament season , a writer for SB Nation wrote that " When Columbia guards find themselves one @-@ on @-@ one with just his frame between them and the rim , they reverse direction and scurry away , like terrified Tokyoites who just heard Godzilla stomping around . One fan screams ' You 're not that tall ! ' at him , which is a lie . Another yells ' You 're only the 36th tallest in the world ! , ' which upon further research , turns out to be true . "
In the past , N 'Diaye has been compared with players such as Yao Ming and Rudy Gobert , who respectively stand 7 ' 6 " and 7 ' 1 " ( 2 @.@ 29 m and 2 @.@ 16 m ) and feature a similar wingspan .
He now plays for the Golden State Warriors Development League Team as 3rd string center .
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= Fire ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" Fire " is the twelfth episode of the first season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered on the Fox network on December 17 , 1993 . It was written by series creator Chris Carter , directed by Larry Shaw and featured guest appearances by Mark Sheppard and Amanda Pays . The episode is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story , unconnected to the series ' wider mythology . " Fire " earned a Nielsen household rating of 6 @.@ 8 , being watched by 6 @.@ 4 million households in its initial broadcast ; and received mostly positive reviews from critics .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . In this episode , Mulder and Scully are visited by a Metropolitan Police detective who studied at Oxford University with Mulder ; and who enlists their aid with a case involving a serial killer capable of pyrokinesis .
Due to its nature , the episode featured many dangerous stunts utilizing fire . In the scene where Mulder and L 'Ively confront each other at either end of a corridor in the Marsden family home , and L 'Ively sets fire to the entire hallway , Mark Sheppard , who played L 'Ively , ducked out of the shot in order to protect himself from the intense heat . The only injury involved in the production was when David Duchovny burned his hand , leaving a small permanent scar . The character of Phoebe Green was considered as a recurring role , but this episode ended up being her only appearance .
= = Plot = =
In Bosham , England , a wealthy elderly man says goodbye to his wife before leaving for work , but suddenly catches fire in an apparent case of spontaneous human combustion . His family and house staff - including his Irish gardener , Cecil L 'Ively , watch as he burns to death on his front lawn .
Later , in Washington , Fox Mulder and Dana Scully are met by Phoebe Green , an investigator from London 's Metropolitan Police and Mulder 's former lover from Oxford University . Green explains that a serial arsonist is targeting the British aristocracy , burning his victims alive while leaving no trace of evidence . The only links between the crimes are the suspect 's love letters to the victims ' wives . His latest target is Sir Malcolm Marsden , who is visiting Cape Cod for protection after escaping an attack by the killer . Mulder and Scully visit a pyrotechnics expert who says that only rocket fuel can burn hot enough to destroy evidence of its origins .
Mulder tells Scully that Green is using the case to play a mind game , exploiting his debilitating fear of fire . Meanwhile , L 'Ively — having killed a caretaker and assumed his identity — greets the Marsden family as they arrive at their Cape Cod vacation home , faking an American accent . Unbeknownst to the Marsdens , " Bob the Caretaker " is painting a layer of rocket fuel onto the exterior of the house . L 'Ively befriends the Marsdens ' sick family driver , offering to go into town to get him some cough syrup . While there , he uses his pyrokinetic abilities to burn down a local bar without any apparent motive .
At the hospital , Mulder and Green interview a witness to the bar fire , who tells them of the assailant 's apparent ability to will fire into existence . The Marsdens ' driver becomes even sicker due to the poisoned cough syrup provided by L 'Ively . Because of his illness , L 'Ively is recruited to drive the family into Boston that night to attend a party at a luxury hotel . Mulder flies up to Boston to watch over the party with Green , hoping to set a trap for the suspect ; Scully continues working on compiling a criminal profile of the killer .
Mulder and Green dance during the party and afterwards kiss ; Scully arrives at the hotel and sees them . She also spots L 'Ively in the lobby , watching her . A fire alarm goes off after a blaze starts in the Marsdens ' room , where the children are located . Mulder attempts to rescue them , but is overcome both by his phobia and the intense smoke ; they are instead saved by L 'Ively . When Mulder awakens , Scully questions " Bob " , but is told by Green that he is a long @-@ time employee whose background checks out . Green tells Mulder that she will be accompanying the Marsdens when they return to England the next day .
Scully discusses her research with Mulder , suspecting that L 'Ively is the arsonist ; this is confirmed by a police sketch taken from the witness ' description . Upon reaching the Marsdens ' house , Mulder and Scully find the driver 's charred body in the bathroom before the second floor bursts into flames . Mulder faces his phobia and is able to save the Marsden children . Scully holds L 'Ively at gunpoint , but is forced to hold her fire when L 'Ively informs her of the rocket fuel he has painted on the house . However , Green throws a can of rocket fuel in his face , causing him to lose control and set himself alight outside .
With the case solved , Green returns to England with the Marsden family . L 'Ively is held in a medical facility as he awaits trial , healing at an alarming rate . The episode 's final scene shows him asking a nurse for a cigarette .
= = Production = =
The show 's hairstylist in the first season was Malcolm Marsden , whose name is given to the threatened lord in this episode . In the scene where Mulder and L 'ively confront each other at either end of a corridor in the Marsden family home , and L 'ively sets fire to the entire hallway , Mark Sheppard , who played L 'ively , ducked out of the shot in order to protect himself from the intense heat . The only injury involved in the production was when David Duchovny burned his hand , leaving a small permanent scar . The exterior shots of the hotel were filmed on location at the Venable Plaza Hotel in Vancouver which had , coincidentally , been rebuilt after burning to the ground . The interior shots used for the fire @-@ based stunts were shot on a sound stage built to resemble the hotel 's interior , while some stock footage was used for establishing shots . The exterior shots of the mansion at the beginning of the episode were filmed at a Vancouver mansion that had previously been used in the episode " The Jersey Devil " .
The character of Phoebe Green was considered as a recurring role , but this episode ended up being her only appearance . Chris Carter explained the character 's origins , saying " I thought it was interesting to show a little bit of Mulder 's history by bringing an old girlfriend back . I 've always wanted to do a Scotland Yard detective who was a woman . I also thought it was an interesting chance to use Amanda Pays and make a villainess of her " . Executive producer Robert Goodwin felt that the episode " was a hard one . Any kind of a fire stunt is a major undertaking , because it involves so many overlapping things . It was a major feat , a real logical and creative feat , because you wanted it to look good " .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Fire " premiered on the Fox network on December 17 , 1993 , and was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC Two on December 8 , 1994 . The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 6 @.@ 8 , with a 12 share — meaning that roughly 6 @.@ 8 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 12 percent of households watching TV , were tuned in to the episode . " Fire " was viewed by 6 @.@ 4 million households .
Series creator Chris Carter called " Fire " a " very popular episode , and I 'm just somewhat happy with the way it turned out . Having written it and imagined it in certain ways , I think it could have been a lot better . Although I thought it was generally well directed , the show felt very ' wide ' to me — very loose and lacking some things . A retrospective of the first season in Entertainment Weekly rated the episode a B , praising Mark Sheppard 's " sizzling performance " , though finding that the " annoying " character of Phoebe Green was a detriment to the episode , who kept " any real sparks from flying " . Keith Phipps , writing for The A.V. Club , rated the episode a C , finding it " contrived and unnecessary " , and feeling that the relationship between Mulder and Phoebe Green was not believable . Matt Haigh , writing for Den of Geek , felt that " Fire " was " a great episode " , believing that it worked well for " highlighting the sexual tension between our two leads " .
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= Kiss Kiss , Bang Bang ( Torchwood ) =
" Kiss Kiss , Bang Bang " is the first episode of the second series of British science fiction television series Torchwood , which was broadcast by BBC Two on 16 January 2008 .
The episode features a guest appearance from James Marsters as Captain John Hart , Captain Jack 's former colleague and lover , who comes to the Torchwood team as part of a plan to steal a diamond from a woman who was murdered .
Chris Chibnall wrote the episode with the knowledge that Marsters wished to appear in the series , and has written the part of John Hart " absolutely " for him . The episode was filmed in Cardiff in July 2007 . " Kiss Kiss , Bang Bang " was seen by four million viewers upon its original broadcast , with an Appreciation Index of 84 , and was met with generally positive reviews in both the United Kingdom and United States .
= = Synopsis = =
Captain Jack Harkness ( John Barrowman ) returns to his team in spectacular fashion , walking into the middle of a hostage situation involving his team and an alien Blowfish , shooting the intoxicated Blowfish in the head . At the Hub , his team question why he left them , and he simply responds that he had found his Doctor and that he belongs at Torchwood . The team is then alerted to a death near a multi @-@ storey car park , where the team detect energy from the Rift on the corpse . Jack , to even his surprise , gets a hologram message on his vortex manipulator from a person he recognises , and leaves the team to talk to him .
The person is Captain John Hart ( James Marsters ) , a fellow Time Agent and former lover of Jack . He is responsible for the death , and a public disturbance at a nightclub . After a passionate kiss and brief fight at the nightclub , John tells Jack that the Time Agency was disbanded and he has since undergone several rehabilitation programmes , before the team catch up with Jack and are introduced to John . John accompanies the team back to the Hub , where he tells the team of three cylindrical devices scattered throughout Cardiff , which he explains are radioactive cluster bombs , and he requires help to defuse them . Thus , they split into three pairs : Jack and administrator Ianto Jones ( Gareth David @-@ Lloyd ) search an office block ( during which Jack successfully asks Ianto out on a date ) , doctor Owen Harper ( Burn Gorman ) and technical expert Toshiko Sato ( Naoko Mori ) search a warehouse , and police liaison Gwen Cooper ( Eve Myles ) and John search the nearby docks .
It is clear that John has an ulterior motive ; first , he paralyses Gwen and locks her in a crate telling her that if she is not found in two hours , her main organs will stop working and she would die . He then finds Owen and Tosh , shooting the former in the hip . After letting Ianto go , he finally confronts Jack , who realises that the bombs are an elementary 51st century confidence trick . Jack throws the device over the building , and John pushes him off the roof in retaliation .
John returns to Torchwood , where he takes a pyramid @-@ shaped object from the Blowfish in the morgue . Gwen ( who was saved by the rest of the team ) and the others arrive , including Jack , who survived due to his immortality . They hold John at gunpoint , where he admits that the " bombs " will simply triangulate the location of a diamond he stole off a former lover . However , by using the devices and the pyramid , he discovers there is no diamond ; John 's former lover anticipated dying , and thus set a trap to kill her murderer . The device turns out to be a bomb which attaches itself to John and begins a ten @-@ minute countdown .
Unwilling to be murdered , John handcuffs himself to Gwen and swallows the key . Gwen formulates a plan to use the Rift at the car park to contain the explosion , but at the penalty of her own life . Jack and Owen catch John and the rest of the team at the car park where John arrived and inject him with the team 's DNA , thus confusing the device into detaching from John . Jack throws the bomb into the rift where it detonates . John then agrees to free Gwen and leave , but before leaving , tells Jack that he " found Gray " , visibly disturbing Jack , who just asks his team to get back to work .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing and filming = = =
The development of the episode commenced when executive producer Russell T Davies received an email from his agent , telling him James Marsters was interested in appearing on the series . Chris Chibnall wrote the episode " absolutely " for Marsters , and wanted Hart to become a conflict for Jack Harkness . Marsters believed that Hart was somewhat of a doppelganger to Harkness . After scripting was complete , Marsters did not need to discuss with the directors because he felt the script was self @-@ explanatory .
Originally , Captain John was going to come through the Rift on a " pandimensional surfboard " similar to the one found in the Doctor Who episode " Boom Town " , Chibnall changed it because the production team decided that " it would look cooler if John just calmly walked out of the Rift , as if it was the sort of thing he might do every day " .
The episode was filmed in Cardiff in July 2007 . The first meeting between Jack and John at the nightclub was written to be akin to a Spaghetti Western . Instead of fighting , it was decided that they would kiss first , so that the audience " don 't see it coming " . The following fight scene was intended to be " sexy , rather than brutal " , similar to the naked wrestling scene in the film Women in Love . While the scene only lasted one minute on screen , much more was filmed , so much that it took a whole day to shoot . 80 % of the acting in the scene was done by Marsters and Barrowman themselves , instead of stuntmen . The style of fighting was similar to what Marsters was used to , and was , according to stunt co @-@ ordinator Tom Lucy , a cross between Western , martial arts , and Bourne .
The building used to film searching for one of the canisters was a British Gas building in Cardiff . The scene with Jack falling off the building was performed by Curtis Rivers , John Barrowman 's stunt double . Though Rivers made the stunt to make Jack " look good " , Barrowman had to lie on a box over green screen . Marsters and Barrowman were used for filming close to the roof 's edge .
= = = Visual effects and animatronics = = =
While the most noticeable visual effect was John 's entrance through the Rift , The Mill also made inconspicuous visual effects , such as extending the number of crates at the docks . The visual effect used for the Rift was redesigned for the second series , due to a decision among the visual effects team at The Mill that separate manifestations of the Rift appear different — in this case , orange and gold was used to make the Rift appear " warmer and more magical " . The Mill also made three different types of holograms . The projection from Jack 's wriststrap device was coloured blue to match earlier appearances , John 's wriststrap projected a flashier , full colour image due to specifications in the script , and the golden hue in the projection of John 's ex @-@ lover was based on the prop .
The blowfish in the opening scene was intended by executive producer Russell T Davies to be " like Finding Nemo , but evil " and the producer of the episode , Richard Stokes , wanted the designs to be as flamboyant as " the lionfish in The Spy Who Loved Me " . The first designs of the costume were visibly different from the final design ; the first designs were more fish @-@ like than humanoid . After a humanoid design was approved by the production team , Millennium FX , who previously created the prosthetics for Doctor Who and the first series of Torchwood , immediately sculpted the costume to Paul Kasey 's dimensions . Two versions of the mask were created ; one was animatronic , which included mechanical fins , and one was used for the stunt where the blowfish was shot in the head .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
= = = Ratings and later broadcast = = =
The episode was watched by 4 @.@ 22 million viewers and its Appreciation Index figure was 84 . After its original broadcast , an edited version was shown the following week on BBC Two . The episode was also aired ten days later on BBC America .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Metro picked " Kiss Kiss , Bang Bang " as their pick of the day on 16 January 2008 , complimenting the " fast @-@ paced plot " in contrast to the " puerile humour " and " [ meandering ] between soft porn and Scooby @-@ Doo " of the first series . In the same newspaper , on the following day , Keith Watson commented that the episode " was like watching Carry On Up the Asteroids " , but nevertheless stated that " as dramatic cocktails go , [ its mix of gadgets , sci @-@ fi gobbledegook and louche libidos ] was out of this world " , and gave the episode four stars out of five . The Times commented that the episode was " good , salacious , knockabout fun " , the best thing about Torchwood that " everyday Cardiff hums alongside psychotic blowfish and time loops " , and asked " when extraterrestrial push comes to intergalactic shove , how could anyone object to a series that begins with a blowfish driving a sports car ? " . The Guardian stated that parts were " very , very , funny " and the episode was largely " a hoot " . However , The Daily Telegraph felt that the series fared better on BBC Three , but on BBC Two it was " both far too pleased with itself and surprisingly amateurish " .
The episode also received positive reviews in the United States . The Chicago Sun @-@ Times summarised it as " gay and playful sci @-@ fi fun " and compared it with Buffy the Vampire Slayer 's " good and efficient wit " , and theorised that its rising quality made it " not hard to imagine it could be must @-@ watch TV by season four " , the Orlando Sentinel stated it was " a bracing mix of campy comedy , chilling twists and sexual surprises " and commented that it " enlivens Saturdays " , and the Sci Fi Channel , who syndicate Doctor Who , called the script " excellent " , commented that " Marsters and Barrowman 's chemistry is just terrific " , and lamented that the show only airs thirteen episodes per series , as opposed to the American standard of 24 .
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= Robert Winchelsey =
Robert Winchelsey ( or Winchelsea ; c . 1245 – 1313 ) was an English Christian theologian and Archbishop of Canterbury . He studied at the universities of Paris and Oxford , and later taught at both . Influenced by Thomas Aquinas , he was a scholastic theologian . Winchelsey held various benefices in England , and was the Chancellor of Oxford University before being elected to Canterbury in early 1293 . Although he initially had the support of Edward I , Winchelsey later became a forceful opponent of the king . The archbishop was encouraged by the papacy to resist Edward 's attempts to tax the clergy . Winchelsey was also an opponent of the king 's treasurer Walter Langton as well as other clergy . On one occasion he rebuked an abbot so sternly that the abbot suffered a fatal heart attack .
Following the election of a former royal clerk as Pope Clement V in 1305 , the king was able to secure the archbishop 's exile that same year . Upon the succession of Edward 's son , Edward II , Winchelsey was allowed to return to England after the new king petitioned the pope to allow his return . Winchelsey soon joined the king 's enemies , however , and was the only bishop to object to the return of the king 's favourite , Piers Gaveston . Winchelsey died in 1313 . Although miracles were alleged to have happened at his tomb , an attempt to have him declared a saint was unsuccessful .
= = Early life = =
Winchelsey studied and taught at the universities of Paris and Oxford , and became the Rector of Paris , and Chancellor of Oxford . While in Paris , he read , and possibly met , Thomas Aquinas , and his own theology was thereafter purely scholastic . In 1283 , he was appointed canon of St. Paul 's in London , but it is unclear exactly when he returned to England . He held the prebend of Oxgate in the diocese of London , and was made Archdeacon of Essex , also in the London diocese , in about 1288 .
= = Archbishop = =
= = = Election = = =
John Peckham , Archbishop of Canterbury , died in December 1292 , and on 13 February 1293 Winchelsey was elected as his successor . Unusually , neither the pope nor the king had a hand in his election . On 1 April Winchelsey left England for Rome to get papal confirmation . He was not consecrated immediately because of a papal vacancy ; Celestine V eventually performed the ceremony at Aquila on 12 September 1294 .
= = = Disputes with Edward I = = =
Winchelsey was a fearless opponent of Edward I. When he swore his oath of fealty to Edward , he offended the king by adding a declaration that he was only swearing fealty for the temporalities , not the spiritualities . All through his term as archbishop he refused to allow Edward to tax the clergy beyond certain levels , and withstood severe pressure to change his mind . In August 1295 , he offered the king a tenth of all ecclesiastical revenues , less than Edward had hoped to collect from the clergy . Winchelsey did concede though that if the war with France , which was what the money was requested to fund , continued into the following year , then the clergy would be amenable to making further contributions .
Following the issue of the papal bull Clericis laicos in 1296 , forbidding the payment of taxes to a secular power , Winchelsey urged his clergy in 1297 to refuse payments to Edward . However , the clergy of the province of York paid a tax of a fifth of their revenues . Edward then declared clerics who refused to pay outlaws , and ordered their property to be seized . He conceded that the clergy could return to his protection if they paid a fine of a fifth of their revenues , exactly what the northern clergy had offered in the way of taxation . The royal clerks and many other clergy paid the fines , and in March , the southern clergy met again , and after a long debate , Winchelsey instructed each clerk to decide for himself whether or not to pay the fine . It appears that most chose to pay , but the archbishop still refused to make any contribution , and so Edward seized his lands . They were returned to him in July 1297 , when the king and prelate were reconciled at Westminster . Winchelsey then tried to mediate between Edward and the earls , who also objected to Edward 's tax demands .
Winchelsey further irritated Edward with his opposition to the Bishop of Lichfield , Walter Langton , who was the king 's treasurer . The king was not the only one to be upset by the archbishop ; the abbot of Oseney , in 1297 , was so affected by a rebuke from him that he suffered a fatal heart attack . In 1299 , Winchelsey and the king briefly reconciled , and the archbishop presided at the king 's second marriage , to Margaret of France , at Canterbury . Winchelsey vigorously asserted his authority over his suffragan , or subordinant bishops , quarrelled with Pope Boniface VIII over a Sussex living , and was excommunicated by one of the pope 's clerks in 1301 . He was absolved in 1302 .
= = = Exile and return = = =
Winchelsey and the barons joined in demanding reforms from the king at the parliament of Lincoln in 1301 , but Winchelsey 's support of Boniface VIII 's claim to be the protector of Scotland , broke the alliance . One of the reasons which led the archbishop to ally with the barons was his hostility to Edward 's adviser , Walter Langton , Bishop of Lichfield . The king took no action against Winchelsey until the Gascon and former royal clerk Bertrand de Got was named Pope Clement V in 1305 . Edward then sent two envoys – Langton and Henry Lacy – to the pope , to press his claim that Winchelsey was plotting against him . Clement suspended the archbishop on 12 February 1306 . Winchelsey left England and went to the papal court at Bordeaux , where he stayed until Edward 's death in July 1307 . Only Antony Bek , Bishop of Durham supported the archbishop .
After the death of Edward I , the new king , Edward II , asked that Winchelsey be restored , which the pope agreed to on 22 January 1308 . Soon after his return to England in early 1308 the archbishop joined the king 's enemies . The archbishop , along with the Earl of Warwick , were the only people to object to the return of the new king 's favourite Piers Gaveston to England in 1309 . Winchelsey aided the barons in their prosecution of Edward II by sentencing their enemies to excommunication . He was appointed an Ordainer in 1310 , and died at Otford on 11 May 1313 .
= = Legacy = =
Winchelsey was a preacher of some note , and when preaching at St. Paul 's he attracted large crowds to his sermons and lectures . Winchelsey 's theological writings date primarily from his time at St. Paul 's , where he delivered a number of quodibeta . The quaestiones disputatae from those sessions survive , and illustrate his highly orthodox trinitarian views and his scholastic method . Miracles were said to have been worked at his tomb in Canterbury cathedral , but efforts to have him declared a saint were unsuccessful .
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= Sideling Hill Tunnel =
Sideling Hill Tunnel is one of three original Pennsylvania Turnpike tunnels abandoned ( this one in 1968 ) after two massive realignment projects . The others are nearby Rays Hill Tunnel , and farther west , the Laurel Hill Tunnel . It was less expensive to realign the Turnpike than to bore a second tube for four lane traffic . Sideling Hill Tunnel is 6 @,@ 782 feet ( 2 @,@ 067 m ) long . It was the longest of the original tunnels on the Pennsylvania Turnpike . The Ray 's Hill Tunnel and Sideling Hill Tunnel are now part of the Pike2Bike Trail . Together , the two tunnels as well as the roadway are commonly known as the Abandoned Pennsylvania Turnpike .
From the Turnpike 's opening in 1940 until the realignment projects , the tunnels were bottlenecks ; opposing traffic in the same tubes reduced speeds . Four other tunnels on the Turnpike – Allegheny Mountain , Tuscarora Mountain , Kittatinny Mountain , and Blue Mountain – each had a second tube bored , the least expensive option . All of the original tunnels except for the Allegheny Mountain Tunnel were part of " Vanderbilt 's Folly " , the never @-@ completed South Pennsylvania Railroad .
= = History = =
= = = Construction = = =
The Sideling Hill Tunnel 's original plans date back to the year 1881 , when surveying for the South Pennsylvania Railroad began . Construction began that year , with the plans for nine brand @-@ new tunnels , most of which were drilled by 1885 . The Sideling Hill Tunnel was built before December 1884 by John O 'Brien , an engineer from Rhinebeck , New York . On July 6 , 1885 , a blast occurred at the end of the Sideling Hill Tunnel . The blast , which was caused by dynamite , claimed the lives of three people , including O 'Brien . Several other people were injured in the blast . Just sixteen days later , another blast occurred in the tunnel , taking the lives of a Hungarian worker , along with two African @-@ Americans , two Italians , and one Irishman . The bodies were so cut by the rocks during the blast , that the people were almost unidentifiable . Unfortunately William H. Vanderbilt , who had started the plans for the railroad , noticed that expenses began to inflate , and he began to look for a second way to work things out . The construction was abandoned and never finished . In 1938 , the Pennsylvania Turnpike Commission took over the entire grade of the abandoned railway .
The Pennsylvania Turnpike Commission started construction on a new toll highway from Carlisle , Pennsylvania to Irwin , Pennsylvania in 1938 . When the Pennsylvania Turnpike opened on October 25 , 1940 , the Sideling Hill Tunnel was one of the seven original tunnels along the highway , six of which were built from the old railroad tunnels from the 1880s . The Allegheny Mountain Tunnel was constructed from scratch rather than from the tunnels because of structural concerns .
Beginning in 1951 , the eastbound traffic at the Laurel Hill Tunnel would back up during the summer weekends . By 1958 , the Laurel Hill experienced congestion anytime from June to November . Because of the long bottlenecks , the Commission started looking into ways to remove the congestion . There were studies that began in the mid @-@ 1950s to decide on what to do with the tunnels . The studies looked into the major tunnels , the Laurel Hill and Allegheny Mountain , and the possibility of adding a second tube , or " twinning " , to them .
= = = Tunnel bypass actions = = =
Studies were completed for the remaining five mainline tunnels to determine the cost benefit of twinning of the tunnels , or complete bypass . After the studies completed , the decision was made to go ahead with a US $ 100 million construction project to work with the tunnels . Construction began on September 6 , 1962 , with the first subproject being a bypass of the Laurel Hill Tunnel . On October 30 , 1964 , just two years after construction began , the Laurel Hill Bypass was completed and opened . The Laurel Hill Tunnel was permanently closed on that day . However , this was not the last bypass to occur for tunnels along the turnpike . Two years after the closing of the Laurel Hill , the Allegheny Mountain became the first tunnel to be twinned , and opened on August 25 , 1966 . With the twinning of the Blue Mountain , Kittatinny Mountain and Tuscarora Mountain tunnels under construction , the Commission turned its focus to the remaining two mainline tunnels , the Rays Hill Tunnel ( the shortest tunnel ) and the Sideling Hill Tunnel ( the longest tunnel ) .
An engineering report dating back to 1961 suggested that building a bypass around the last two mainline tunnels was the best way to solve the congestion . The Commission awarded three contracts to construct the bypass from July 1966 to March 1967 . The contracts cost $ 17 @.@ 2 million for roadway and another $ 2 @.@ 5 million for construction of a new Sideling Hill Service Plaza , to replace the Cove Valley Service Plaza , which was along the to @-@ be @-@ bypassed alignment . The $ 2 @.@ 5 million project was to include ramps from both directions to the service plaza , so it could serve both directions . The style of the tunnel bypass was to follow the same style as the Laurel Hill bypass . On November 26 , 1968 , the three twinned tunnels opened , and the bypass of the Rays Hill and Sideling Hill Tunnels opened . The new bypass also opened the Breezewood Interchange and the number of lanes along the turnpike expanded to four ( two in each direction ) or five ( two in each direction , plus a climbing lane going uphill ) .
In 2001 , the Turnpike Commission gave control of the 13 @.@ 5 miles ( 21 @.@ 7 km ) length of the Rays Hill and Sideling Hill Tunnels and other roadways to the Southern Alleghenies Conservancy , who began work to convert the stretch into a bicycle trail . The trail is used by hundreds of bicycle riders , and studies occurred in 2004 and 2005 to figure how to best safely construct the trail . Because there is a lack of good lighting in the tunnels the conservancy wants to look into how to solve it . The system is called the Pike2Bike Trail and is planned to be an 18 miles ( 29 km ) mountain bicycle loop that serves access to the Pennsylvania Department of Transportation 's BicyclePA Route S.
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= Ben Nevis =
Ben Nevis ( Scottish Gaelic : Beinn Nibheis , pronounced [ peˈɲivəʃ ] ) is the highest mountain in the British Isles , located in Scotland . Standing at 1 @,@ 346 metres ( 4 @,@ 414 ft ) above sea level , it is located at the western end of the Grampian Mountains in the Lochaber area of the Scottish Highlands , close to the town of Fort William .
The mountain is a popular destination , attracting an estimated 100 @,@ 000 ascents a year , around three @-@ quarters of which use the Pony Track from Glen Nevis . The 700 @-@ metre ( 2 @,@ 300 ft ) cliffs of the north face are among the highest in Scotland , providing classic scrambles and rock climbs of all difficulties for climbers and mountaineers . They are also the principal locations in Scotland for ice climbing .
The summit , which is the collapsed dome of an ancient volcano , features the ruins of an observatory which was continuously staffed between 1883 and 1904 . The meteorological data collected during this period are still important for understanding Scottish mountain weather . C. T. R. Wilson was inspired to invent the cloud chamber after a period spent working at the observatory .
= = Etymology = =
" Ben Nevis " is an Anglicisation of the Scottish Gaelic name " Beinn Nibheis " . " Beinn " is the most common Gaelic word for " mountain " , " Nibheis " is variously understood , though the word is commonly translated as " malicious " or " venomous " . An alternative interpretation is that " Beinn Nibheis " derives from " beinn nèamh @-@ bhathais " , from " nèamh " " heavens , clouds " and " bathais " " top of a man 's head " . One translation would therefore be " the mountain with its head in the clouds " , though " mountain of Heaven " is also frequently given .
As is common for many Scottish mountains , it is known both to locals and visitors as simply " the Ben " .
= = Geography = =
Ben Nevis forms a massif with its neighbour to the northeast , Càrn Mòr Dearg , to which it is linked by the Càrn Mòr Dearg Arête . Both mountains are among the nine in Scotland over 4 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 200 m ) ; Aonach Beag and Aonach Mòr are also on the Nevis massif .
The western and southern flanks of Ben Nevis rise 1 @,@ 200 metres ( 3 @,@ 900 ft ) in about 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) from the floor of Glen Nevis – the longest and steepest hill slope in Britain – with the result that the mountain presents an aspect of massive bulk on this side . To the north , by contrast , cliffs drop some 600 metres ( 2 @,@ 000 ft ) to Coire Leis . This corrie contains the Charles Inglis Clark Memorial Hut ( known as the CIC Hut ) , a private mountain hut located at 680 metres ( 2 @,@ 230 ft ) above sea level , owned by the Scottish Mountaineering Club and used as a base for the many climbing routes on the mountain 's north face .
In addition to the main 1 @,@ 345 metres ( 4 @,@ 411 ft ) summit , Ben Nevis has two subsidiary " tops " listed in Munro 's Tables , both of which are called Càrn Dearg ( " red hill " ) . The higher of these , at 1 @,@ 221 metres ( 4 @,@ 006 ft ) , is situated to the northwest , and is often mistaken for Ben Nevis itself in views from the Fort William area . The other Càrn Dearg ( 1 @,@ 020 m ) juts out into Glen Nevis on the mountain 's southwestern side . A lower hill , Meall an t @-@ Suidhe ( 711 metres ( 2 @,@ 333 ft ) ) , is located further west , forming a saddle with Ben Nevis which contains a small loch , Lochan Meall an t @-@ Suidhe . The popular tourist path from Glen Nevis skirts the side of this hill before ascending Ben Nevis ' broad western flank .
= = = Geology = = =
Ben Nevis is all that remains of a Devonian volcano that met a cataclysmic end in the Carboniferous period around 350 million years ago . Evidence near the summit shows light coloured granite ( which had cooled in subterranean chambers several kilometres beneath the surface ) lies among dark basaltic lavas ( that only form on the surface ) . The two lying side @-@ by @-@ side is evidence the huge volcano collapsed in on itself creating an explosion comparable to Thera ( 2nd millennium BC ) or Krakatoa ( 1883 ) . The mountain is now all that remains of the imploded inner dome of the volcano . Its form has been extensively shaped by glaciation .
Research has shown igneous rock from the Devonian period ( around 400 million years ago ) intrudes into the surrounding metamorphic schists ; the intrusions take the form of a series of concentric ring dikes . The innermost of these , known as the Inner Granite , constitutes the southern bulk of the mountain above Lochan Meall an t @-@ Suidhe , and also the neighbouring ridge of Càrn Mòr Dearg ; Meall an t @-@ Suidhe forms part of the Outer Granite , which is redder in colour . The summit dome itself , together with the steep northern cliffs , are composed of andesite and basaltic lavas .
= = = Climate = = =
Ben Nevis has a highland ( alpine ) maritime ( oceanic ) Polar climate ( ET climate in Köppen 's classification ) . Ben Nevis ' altitude , maritime location and topography frequently lead to cool and cloudy weather conditions , which can pose a danger to ill @-@ equipped walkers . According to the observations carried out at the summit observatory from 1883 – 1904 , fog was present on the summit for almost 80 % of the time between November and January , and 55 % of the time in May and June . The average winter temperature was around − 5 ° C ( 23 ° F ) , and the mean monthly temperature for the year was − 0 @.@ 5 ° C ( 31 @.@ 1 ° F ) . In an average year the summit sees 261 gales , and receives 4 @,@ 350 millimetres ( 171 in ) of rainfall , compared to only 2 @,@ 050 millimetres ( 81 in ) in nearby Fort William , 840 millimetres ( 33 in ) in Inverness and 580 millimetres ( 23 in ) in London . Rainfall on Ben Nevis is about twice as high in the winter as it is in the spring and summer . Snow can be found on the mountain almost all year round , particularly in the gullies of the north face – with the higher reaches of Observatory Gully holding snow until September most years and sometimes until the new snows of the following season .
= = History = =
The first recorded ascent of Ben Nevis was made on the 17 August 1771 by James Robertson , an Edinburgh botanist , who was in the region to collect botanical specimens . Another early ascent was in 1774 by John Williams , who provided the first account of the mountain 's geological structure . John Keats climbed the mountain in 1818 , comparing the ascent to " mounting ten St. Pauls without the convenience of a staircase " . The following year William MacGillivray , who was later to become a distinguished naturalist , reached the summit only to find " fragments of earthen and glass ware , chicken bones , corks , and bits of paper " . It was not until 1847 that Ben Nevis was confirmed by the Ordnance Survey as the highest mountain in Britain and Ireland , ahead of its rival Ben Macdhui .
The summit observatory was built in the summer of 1883 , and would remain in operation for 21 years . The first path to the summit was built at the same time as the observatory and was designed to allow ponies to carry up supplies , with a maximum gradient of one in five . The opening of the path and the observatory made the ascent of the Ben increasingly popular , all the more so after the arrival of the West Highland Railway in Fort William in 1894 . Around this time the first of several proposals was made for a rack railway to the summit , none of which came to fruition .
In 2000 , the Ben Nevis Estate , comprising all of the south side of the mountain including the summit , was bought by the Scottish conservation charity the John Muir Trust .
= = Ascent routes = =
The 1883 Pony Track to the summit ( also known as the Ben Path , the Mountain Path or the Tourist Route ) remains the simplest and most popular route of ascent . It begins at Achintee on the east side of Glen Nevis about 2 km ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) from Fort William town centre , at around 20 metres above sea level . Bridges from the Visitor Centre and the youth hostel now allow access from the west side of Glen Nevis . The path climbs steeply to the saddle by Lochan Meall an t @-@ Suidhe ( also known as the ' Halfway Lochan ' ) at 570 m , then ascends the remaining 700 metres up the stony west flank of Ben Nevis in a series of zig @-@ zags . The path is regularly maintained but running water , uneven rocks and loose scree make it hazardous and slippery in places . Thanks to the zig @-@ zags , the path is not unusually steep apart from in the initial stages , but inexperienced walkers should be aware that the descent is relatively arduous and wearing on the knees .
A route popular with experienced hillwalkers starts at Torlundy , a few miles north @-@ east of Fort William on the A82 road , and follows the path alongside the Allt a ' Mhuilinn . It can also be reached from Glen Nevis by following the Pony Track as far as Lochan Meall an t @-@ Suidhe , then descending slightly to the CIC Hut . The route then ascends Càrn Mòr Dearg and continues along the Càrn Mòr Dearg Arête ( " CMD Arête " ) before climbing steeply to the summit of Ben Nevis . This route involves a total of 1 @,@ 500 metres of ascent and requires modest scrambling ability and a head for heights . In common with other approaches on this side of the mountain , it has the advantage of giving an extensive view of the cliffs of the north face , which are hidden from the Pony Track .
It is also possible to climb Ben Nevis from the Nevis Gorge car park at Steal at the head of the road up Glen Nevis , either by the south @-@ east ridge or via the summit of Càrn Dearg ( south @-@ west ) . These routes require mild scrambling , are shorter and steeper than the Pony Track , and tend only to be used by experienced hill walkers .
= = Summit = =
The summit of Ben Nevis comprises a large stony plateau of about 40 hectares ( 100 acres ) . The highest point is marked with a large , solidly built cairn atop which sits an Ordnance Survey trig point . The summit is the highest ground for over 400 miles ( 644 kilometres ) , before the Scandinavian Mountains in western Norway are reached , which contain many peaks higher than Ben Nevis . The summit is much higher than the Faroe Islands and well as the rest of the British Isles .
The ruined walls of the observatory are a prominent feature on the summit . An emergency shelter has been built on top of the observatory tower for the benefit of those caught out by bad weather , and , although the base of the tower is slightly lower than the true summit of the mountain , the roof of the shelter overtops the trig point by several feet , making it the highest man @-@ made structure in the UK . A war memorial to the dead of World War II is located next to the observatory .
On 17 May 2006 , a piano that had been buried under one of the cairns on the peak was uncovered by the John Muir Trust , which owns much of the mountain . The piano is believed to have been carried up for charity by removal men from Dundee over 20 years earlier .
The view from the UK 's highest point is extensive . Under ideal conditions , it can extend to over 190 kilometres ( 120 mi ) , including such mountains as the Torridon Hills , Morven in Caithness , Lochnagar , Ben Lomond , Barra Head and to Knocklayd in County Antrim , Northern Ireland .
= = = Observatory = = =
A meteorological observatory on the summit was first proposed by the Scottish Meteorological Society ( SMS ) in the late 1870s , at a time when similar observatories were being built around the world to study the weather at high altitude . In the summer of 1881 , Clement Lindley Wragge climbed the mountain daily to make observations ( earning him the nickname " Inclement Rag " ) , leading to the opening on 17 October 1883 of a permanent observatory run by the SMS . The building was manned full @-@ time until 1904 , when it was closed due to inadequate Government funding . The twenty years ' worth of readings still provide the most comprehensive set of data on mountain weather in Great Britain .
In September 1894 , C. T. R. Wilson was employed at the observatory for a couple of weeks , as temporary relief for one of the permanent staff . During this period , he witnessed a Brocken spectre and glory , caused by the sun casting a shadow on a cloud below the observer . He subsequently tried to reproduce these phenomena in the laboratory , resulting in his invention of the cloud chamber , used to detect ionising radiation .
Marjory Roy , a member of the Scottish Meteorological Society is the author of the book The Ben Nevis Weathermen which is in print and available from SMC or from the West Highland Museum in Fort William . This tells the story of the funding , building and operating of the Ben Nevis Observatory in Fort William , Scotland
= = Navigation and safety = =
Ben Nevis ' popularity , climate and complex topography contribute to a high number of mountain rescue incidents . In 1999 , for example , there were 41 rescues and four fatalities on the mountain . Some accidents arise over difficulties in navigating to or from the summit , especially in poor visibility . The problem stems from the fact that the summit plateau is roughly kidney @-@ shaped , and surrounded by cliffs on three sides ; the danger is particularly accentuated when the main path is obscured by snow . Two precise compass bearings taken in succession are necessary to navigate from the summit cairn to the west flank , from where a descent can be made on the Pony Track in relative safety .
In the late 1990s , Lochaber Mountain Rescue Team erected two posts on the summit plateau , to assist walkers attempting the descent in foggy conditions . These posts were subsequently cut down by climbers , sparking controversy in mountaineering circles on the ethics of such additions . Critics argued that cairns and posts are an unnecessary man @-@ made intrusion into the natural landscape , which create a false sense of security and could lessen mountaineers ' sense of responsibility for their own safety . Supporters of navigational aids pointed to the high number of accidents that occurred on the mountain ( between 1990 and 1995 alone there were 13 fatalities , although eight of these were due to falls while rock climbing rather than navigational error ) , the long tradition of placing such aids on the summit , and the potentially life @-@ saving role they could play . A series of solidly @-@ constructed cairns currently ( September 2009 ) marks the upper reaches of the Pony Track .
= = Climbing on Ben Nevis = =
The north face of Ben Nevis is riven with buttresses , ridges , towers and pinnacles , and contains many classic scrambles and rock climbs . It is of major importance for British winter climbing , with many of its routes holding snow often until late April . It was one of the first places in Scotland to receive the attention of serious mountaineers , with a descent of Tower Ridge in 1892 the earliest documented climbing expedition on the Ben . ( It was not climbed from bottom to top for another two years ) . The Scottish Mountaineering Club 's Charles Inglis Clark hut was built below the north face in Coire Leis in 1929 . Because of its remote location , it is said to be the only genuine alpine hut in Britain . It remains popular with climbers , especially in winter .
Tower Ridge is the longest of the north face 's four main ridges , with around 600 metres of ascent . It is not technically demanding ( its grade is Difficult ) , and most pitches can be tackled unroped by competent climbers , but it is committing and very exposed . Castle Ridge ( Moderate ) , the northernmost of the main ridges , is an easier scramble , while Observatory Ridge ( Very Difficult ) , the closest ridge to the summit , is " technically the hardest of the Nevis ridges in summer and winter " . Between the Tower and Observatory Ridges are the Tower and Gardyloo Gullies ; the latter takes its name from the cry of " garde à l 'eau " ( French for " watch out for the water " ) formerly used in Scottish cities as a warning when householders threw their slops ( and worse ) out of a tenement window into the street . The gully 's top wall was the refuse pit for the now @-@ disused summit observatory . The North @-@ east Buttress ( Very Difficult ) is the southernmost and bulkiest of the four ridges ; it is as serious as Observatory Ridge but not as technically demanding , mainly because an " infamous " rock problem , the ' Man @-@ trap ' , can be avoided on either side .
The north face contains dozens of graded rock climbs along its entire length , with particular concentrations on the Càrn Dearg Buttress ( below the Munro top of Càrn Dearg NW ) and around the North @-@ east Buttress and Observatory Ridge . Classic rock routes include Rubicon Wall on Observatory Buttress ( Severe ) – whose second ascent in 1937 , when it was considered the hardest route on the mountain , is described by W. H. Murray in Mountaineering in Scotland – and , on Càrn Dearg , Centurion and The Bullroar ( both HVS ) , Torro ( E2 ) , and Titan 's Wall ( E3 ) , these four described in the SMC 's guide as among " the best climbs of their class in Scotland " .
Many seminal lines were recorded before the First World War by pioneering Scottish climbers like J N Collie , Willie Naismith , Harold Raeburn , and William and Jane Inglis Clark . Other classic routes were put up by G. Graham Macphee , Dr James H. B. Bell and others between the Wars ; these include Bell 's ' Long Climb ' , at 1 @,@ 400 ft ( 430 m ) reputedly the longest sustained climb on the British mainland . In summer 1943 conscientious objector Brian Kellett made a phenomenal seventy @-@ four repeat climbs and seventeen first ascents including fourteen solos , returning in 1944 to add fifteen more new lines , eleven solo , including his eponymous HVS on Gardyloo buttress . Much more recently , an extreme and as @-@ yet ungraded climb on Echo Wall was completed by Dave MacLeod in 2008 after two years of preparation .
The north face is also one of Scotland 's foremost venues for winter mountaineering and ice climbing , and holds snow until quite late in the year ; in a good year , routes may remain in winter condition until mid @-@ spring . Most of the possible rock routes are also suitable as winter climbs , including the four main ridges ; Tower Ridge , for example , is grade IV on the Scottish winter grading system , having been upgraded in 2009 by the Scottish Mountaineering Club after requests by the local Mountain Rescue Team , there being numerous benightments and incidents every winter season . Probably the most popular ice climb on Ben Nevis is The Curtain ( IV , 5 ) on the left side of the Càrn Dearg Buttress . At the top end of the scale , Centurion in winter is a grade VIII , 8 face climb .
In February 1960 James R. Marshall and Robin Clark Smith recorded six major new ice routes in only eight days including Orion Direct ( V , 5 400m ) ; this winter version of Bell 's Long Climb was " the climax of a magnificent week 's climbing by Smith and Marshall , and the highpoint of the step @-@ cutting era . "
= = Ben Nevis Race = =
The history of hill running on Ben Nevis dates back to 1895 . William Swan , a barber from Fort William , made the first recorded timed ascent up the mountain on or around 27 September of that year , when he ran from the old post office in Fort William to the summit and back in 2 hours 41 minutes . The following years saw several improvements on Swan 's record , but the first competitive race was held on 3 June 1898 under Scottish Amateur Athletic Association rules . Ten competitors ran the course , which started at the Lochiel Arms Hotel in Banavie and was thus longer than the route from Fort William ; the winner was 21 @-@ year @-@ old Hugh Kennedy , a gamekeeper at Tor Castle , who finished ( coincidentally with Swan 's original run ) in 2 hours 41 minutes .
Regular races were organised until 1903 , when two events were held ; these were the last for 24 years , perhaps due to the closure of the summit observatory the following year . The first was from Achintee , at the foot of the Pony Track , and finished at the summit ; It was won in just over an hour by Ewen MacKenzie , the observatory roadman . The second race ran from new Fort William post office , and MacKenzie lowered the record to 2 hours 10 minutes , a record he held for 34 years .
The Ben Nevis Race has been run in its current form since 1937 . It now takes place on the first Saturday in September every year , with a maximum of 500 competitors taking part . It starts and finishes at the Claggan Park football ground on the outskirts of Fort William , and is 14 kilometres ( 8 @.@ 7 mi ) long with 1 @,@ 340 metres ( 4 @,@ 400 ft ) of ascent . Due to the seriousness of the mountain environment , entry is restricted to those who have completed three hill races , and runners must carry waterproofs , a hat , gloves and a whistle ; anyone who has not reached the summit after two hours is turned back . As of 2010 the records have stood unbroken since 1984 , when Kenny Stuart and Pauline Haworth of Keswick Athletic Club won the men 's and the women 's races with times of 1 : 25 : 34 and 1 : 43 : 25 respectively .
= = Environmental Issues & Nevis Landscape Partnership = =
Ben Nevis ' popularity and high profile have led to concerns in recent decades over the impact of humans on the fragile mountain environment . These concerns contributed to the creation of The Nevis Landscape Partnership , a five @-@ year programme which aims to protect , enhance and future @-@ proof Ben Nevis by delivering nineteen ambitious environmental projects between 2014 and 2019 . The Nevis Landscape Partnership is supported by five partner organisations ( John Muir Trust , Forestry Commission Scotland , The Highland Council , Scottish Natural Heritage & The Nevis Partnership ) and has been made possible by Heritage Lottery Funding .
Now in project year three ( March 2016 – March 2017 ) , there have been significant positive changes implemented by Nevis Landscape Partnership and their projects , most significantly the upgrades to the Ben Nevis Mountain Track . Work to upgrade the mountain track started in November 2015 after two contracts were awarded to McGowan Ltd . & Cairngorm Wilderness Contracts . Both contractors immediately started bagging stone from high up Ben Nevis to be brought down to by helicopter to replace crumbling steps and stabilise eroding parts of the path . The project will eventually upgrade 3 @.@ 5 km of the mountain track from the starting point at Achintee all the way up to John 's Wall ; this year the maintenance was focused on a difficult middle section which was most in need of attention . After six months of hard work and battling with the weather , the contractors have now upgraded 1 km of the mountain track which is roughly 30 % of the overall maintenance this project will carry out . The next contracted works will resume towards the end of September , after the Ben Nevis Race , for stage two of the project .
Volunteer effort has already been a huge help and will continue to be a large contributing factor to the overall upgrade of the mountain track . Nevis Landscape Partnership are working closely with National Trust for Scotland to run Thistle Camp Working Holidays which will focus on much @-@ needed maintenance on the first section of the Ben Nevis footpath and allow outdoor enthusiasts to actively be a part of maintaining and protecting the United Kingdom 's highest mountain for this generation and many more to come .
= = Ben Nevis Distillery = =
The Ben Nevis Distillery is a single malt whisky distillery at the foot of the mountain , located by Victoria Bridge to the north of Fort William . Founded in 1825 by John McDonald ( known as " Long John " ) , it is one of the oldest licensed distilleries in Scotland , and is a popular visitor attraction in Fort William . The water used to make the whisky comes from the Allt a ' Mhuilinn , the stream that flows from Ben Nevis ' northern corrie . " Ben Nevis " 80 / - organic ale is , by contrast , brewed in Bridge of Allan near Stirling .
= = Other uses = =
Ben Nevis was the name of a White Star Line packet ship which in 1854 carried the group of immigrants who were to become the Wends of Texas . At least another eight vessels have carried the name since then .
A mountain in Svalbard is also named Ben Nevis , after the Scottish peak . It is 922 meters high , and located south of the head of Raudfjorden , Albert I Land , in the northwestern part of the island of Spitsbergen .
A comic strip character , Wee Ben Nevis , about a Scottish Highlands boarding school student with superhuman strength and his antics were featured in the British comic The Beano from 1974 to 1977 , was named after the mountain .
Hung Fa Chai , a 489 @-@ metre hill in Northeast New Territories of Hong Kong was marked as Ben Nevis on historical colonial maps .
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= Hurricane Gladys ( 1975 ) =
Hurricane Gladys was the farthest tropical cyclone from the United States to be observed by radar in the Atlantic basin since Hurricane Carla in 1961 . The seventh named storm and fifth hurricane of the 1975 Atlantic hurricane season , Gladys developed from a tropical wave while several hundred miles southwest of Cape Verde on September 22 . Initially , the tropical depression failed to strengthened significantly , but due to warm sea surface temperatures and low wind shear , it became Tropical Storm Gladys by September 24 . Despite entering a more unfavorable environment several hundred miles east of the northern Leeward Islands , Gladys became a Category 1 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scaleon September 28 . Shortly thereafter , the storm reentered an area favorable for strengthening . Eventually , a well @-@ defined eye became visible on satellite imagery .
As the storm tracked to the east of the Bahamas , a curve to the north began , at which time an anticyclone developed atop the cyclone . This subsequently allowed Gladys to rapidly intensify into a Category 4 hurricane , reaching maximum sustained winds of 140 mph ( 230 km / h ) on October 2 . Thereafter , Gladys began to weaken and passed very close to Cape Race , Newfoundland before merging with a large extratropical cyclone the next day . Effects from the system along the East Coast of the United States were minimal , although heavy rainfall and rough seas were reported . In Newfoundland , strong winds and light precipitation were observed .
= = Meteorological history = =
On September 17 , a tropical wave emerged into the Atlantic Ocean off the western coast of Africa . The disturbance followed another tropical wave which became Hurricane Faye several days later , before turning west near the 11th parallel . Based on estimates from the Dvorak Technique , the wave was designated a tropical depression at 18 : 00 UTC on September 22 . Due to favorable conditions such as low wind shear and warm sea surface temperatures , the depression strengthened into a tropical storm and was named Gladys by the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) on September 24 . After becoming a tropical storm , Gladys slowly intensified as winds increased to 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) . The storm then moved west @-@ northwest , and on September 25 , Gladys strengthened into a Category 1 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale ( SSHWS ) . Despite strong wind shear , the storm maintained minimal hurricane status . However , early on September 28 , the barometric pressure increased to 1 @,@ 000 mb ( 30 inHg ) ; the NHC notes that Gladys may have briefly weakened into a tropical storm at this time .
After passing through the trough that generated the wind shear , the storm began to strengthen again . While moving about 350 miles ( 560 km ) north of Puerto Rico on September 30 , the winds of the storm increased to 90 mph ( 145 km / h ) . By this time , an eye was clearly visible on satellite imagery . After holding steady for 36 hours , the storm recurved around a ridge on October 1 . Gladys then began to undergo rapid deepening , becoming a Category 2 hurricane at 18 : 00 UTC and Category 3 hurricane the following day . Early on October 2 , the storm strengthened into a Category 4 hurricane . At 08 : 46 UTC on October 2 , Hurricane Hunters measured maximum sustained winds of 140 mph ( 225 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 939 mbar ( 27 @.@ 7 inHg ) . Moving northeast , the hurricane hunters soon observed a pressure of 940 mbar ( 28 inHg ) , making it the one of the most intense high @-@ latitude storms ever observed . Despite its distance from Cape Hatteras , the system was briefly observed on radar . It became one of few hurricanes at the time to be seen on radar over 150 mi ( 240 km ) from the continental United States . Thereafter , the storm weakened slightly , and was downgraded to a Category 3 hurricane early on October 3 . Accelerating at unusually high speeds , Gladys passed 70 miles ( 115 km ) southeast of Cape Race , Newfoundland on October 3 . The storm finally merged with a large extratropical cyclone on October 4 .
= = Observation , preparations and impact = =
While over the Atlantic Ocean , a National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) C @-@ 130 hurricane hunter aircraft flew into Gladys on October 1 on a research mission . The mission was to study the storm and use the information to improve seeding operations for the now @-@ defunct Project Stormfury .
Gladys was the strongest storm to threaten the East Coast of the United States since Hurricane Hazel in 1954 . Although initially not expected to threaten , meteorologists at the NHC forecast the storm to make landfall along the East Coast of the United States within three days . A hurricane watch was issued for North Carolina 's Outer Banks on October 1 , extending from Cape Lookout to Kitty Hawk . However , the watch discontinued as Gladys pulled away , though the storm was still considered a threat to the nation . In Manteo , residents began laying sandbags and filling their cars up with fuel in anticipation for possible evacuation , and the United States Coast Guard sent a plane equipped with a loudspeaker to warn fishermen of the hurricane . However , despite warnings , about 40 fishermen went to Cape Point near Cape Hatteras due to the " increased feeding activities " of fish during rough seas . All small crafts were advised to stay out of the water . Elsewhere in the Outer Banks , residents evacuated to hotels in Elizabeth City and four United States Coast Guard servicemen stationed at a lighthouse in Cape Hatteras were evacuated .
While passing the Outer Banks , a campground and road was closed due to 8 ft ( 2 m ) waves . As the cyclone moved northward . In all , the effects of the storm on North Carolina were minimal . While tracking rapidly to the southeast of Newfoundland , light rainfall was observed , including 1 @.@ 46 in ( 37 mm ) of precipitation in St. John 's . Strong winds were also reported on the island .
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= No. 1 Initial Flying Training School RAAF =
No. 1 Initial Flying Training School ( No. 1 IFTS ) was a flying training school of the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) . It was formed in 1951 as No. 1 Initial Training School , in response to increased demand for aircrew during the Korean War and Malayan Emergency . Headquartered at RAAF Station Archerfield , Queensland , and operating de Havilland Tiger Moths , the unit was renamed No. 1 Initial Flying Training School in 1952 . Ground staff from the school won the Hewitt Trophy for small arms proficiency in 1953 . Aircrew training requirements eased following the end of the Korean War , and No . IFTS merged with No. 1 Basic Flying Training School at RAAF Base Uranquinty , New South Wales , in 1955 .
= = History = =
Prior to World War II , all aircrew training in the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) was conducted under the auspices of one unit , No. 1 Flying Training School ( No. 1 FTS ) , at RAAF Point Cook , Victoria . With the dramatic expansion of pilot training under the wartime Empire Air Training Scheme , No. 1 FTS was supplanted in 1940 – 41 by twelve elementary flying training schools ( EFTS ) and eight service flying training schools ( SFTS ) . Rationalisation as the war progressed and came to an end saw all the EFTSs and SFTSs disbanded . No. 1 FTS , re @-@ formed using the personnel and equipment of No. 5 Service Flying Training School in Uranquinty , New South Wales , returned to Point Cook and again became the RAAF 's sole facility for training new pilots .
In response to demands for more aircrew to fulfil Australia 's commitments to the Korean War and Malayan Emergency , flying training in the RAAF was again expanded in 1951 – 52 , with the functions of No. 1 FTS being split among three separately located units . On 28 November 1951 , No. 1 Initial Training School ( No. 1 ITS ) was raised at RAAF Station Archerfield , Queensland , to impart students with general aeronautical and military knowledge , after which they received their flight grading during twelve hours on de Havilland Tiger Moths . Graduate pilots of No. 1 ITS went on to another new unit , No. 1 Basic Flying Training School ( No. 1 BFTS ) at RAAF Base Uranquinty , New South Wales , where they underwent further aerial instruction that included instrument , formation and night flying on Tiger Moths and CAC Wirraways . Successful students finally transferred to No. 1 FTS , which was renamed No. 1 Applied Flying Training School in March 1952 , for advanced weapons and combat training on Wirraways , before graduating as sergeant pilots .
No. 1 ITS 's inaugrual commanding officer was Wing Commander Wilfred Lampe . Tiger Moths began arriving at Archerfield on 4 January 1952 , and the first course commenced two days later . It graduated on 27 March , having flown a total of some 1 @,@ 000 hours . The unit was renamed No. 1 Initial Flying Training School on 28 May . As well as RAAF pilots , the school trained students from the Royal Australian Navy 's Fleet Air Arm , and gave Air Training Corps cadets flying experience . Six of its Tiger Moths went on a recruiting drive around Kingaroy and Bundaberg in August 1952 , the same month that its first graduates commenced the next phase of their training at No. 1 BFTS . Those students selected to be navigators rather than pilots went on to the School of Air Navigation at RAAF Base East Sale , Victoria . No. 1 IFTS was responsible for staging aerial pageants as part of Air Force Week in September 1952 , and again in September 1953 . Ground staff from the school won the Hewitt Trophy for small arms proficiency held at Liverpool , New South Wales , in December 1953 . In April 1954 , the Tiger Moths practised bombing and strafing troops in an exercise with the Australian Army 's 9th Battalion .
By November 1954 , following the end of the Korean War , the RAAF 's need for further aircrew to help meet the Australian military 's international obligations had eased and the decision was made to combine the syllabus of No. 1 IFTS with No. 1 BFTS starting in the new year . No. 1 IFTS was disbanded on 24 January 1955 , and its base facilities handed over to No. 23 Squadron .
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= Lionel Luthor =
Lionel Luthor is a fictional character portrayed by John Glover in the television series Smallville . The character was initially a recurring guest in season one , and became a series regular in season two and continued until being written out of the show in season seven . The character returned to the show in season ten again as a recurring guest role as the Earth @-@ 2 version of the character . In Smallville , Lionel Luthor is the father of Lex Luthor ( Michael Rosenbaum ) , and founder and CEO of LuthorCorp . Lex Luthor 's father was first introduced in Superman comics by Jerry Siegel in 1961 and has since appeared in other Superman @-@ related media under different names . Smallville is the first appearance in which the character has been an intricate part of a Superman adaptation . Series developers Alfred Gough and Miles Millar created Lionel Luthor for Smallville to provide an antithesis to the parenting style of Jonathan Kent ( John Schneider ) and Martha Kent ( Annette O 'Toole ) .
During the story of Smallville , Lionel evolves from being a nemesis of Clark Kent ( Tom Welling ) who develops multiple schemes to uncover Clark 's secrets , to becoming an ally who eventually dies to protect Clark 's secret from his own son . Lionel has a strained relationship with Lex and regularly tries to test him . He attempts to develop a romantic relationship with Martha Kent following the death of Jonathan Kent , helping her advance toward the United States Senate .
Lionel 's development from a main antagonist to an ally was difficult for the writers , who felt the character 's arc failed to achieve the status they wanted . Although they continued with the story arc , Lionel returned to using deception to protect Clark rather than exploit him . He is characterized as a sinister character who tried hard to further his own ambitions . Lionel 's relationship with his son has been likened to that of Harry Osborn and Norman Osborn from Spider @-@ Man comics .
= = Role in Smallville = =
In 1989 , Lionel visits Smallville to buy the Ross Creamed Corn company immediately before a meteor shower occurs . Twelve years later during season one , Lionel exiles his son Lex Luthor ( Michael Rosenbaum ) to Smallville to run LuthorCorp 's local fertilizer plant as a test . When Lex makes a profit for the first time in years , Lionel closes the plant and blames Lex 's poor managerial skills . Lionel later confronts his son at the Luthor mansion when Lex tries to orchestrate an employee buyout to save the fertilizer plant . When strong winds force debris to smash through the mansion , Lionel is pinned under a fallen support beam and Lex hesitates to save his father . In Season two , Lex saves Lionel but loses his sight because of Lex 's judgment to rush into surgery . Season two 's first half shows Lionel as blind . Lex and Lucas Luthor ( Paul Wasilewski ) — Lionel 's illegitimate son — devise a plan to uncover Lionel 's deception ; it is revealed that Lionel was blind but that his eyes healed and he intentionally neglected to tell anyyone so he could watch how they acted around him . Season two 's second half shows Lionel is aware of the Kawatche caves and tries to unlock the mysterious symbols there , to the dismay of Clark Kent ( Tom Welling ) .
Season three revealed that Lionel conspired with Morgan Edge ( Rutger Hauer ) to murder Lionel 's parents and use the insurance money to fund the start of LuthorCorp . Lionel has Lex committed to a mental institution , when his son discovers what Lionel did . When Chloe Sullivan ( Allison Mack ) discovers the truth , that evidence is used to assist Lex have Lionel arrested for his parents ' murder . Season three also revealed why Lionel is angry with Lex ; he blames his son for the death of his youngest son Julian Luthor , although Lex took the blame to protect the true killer , the mentally unwell Lillian Luthor ( Alisen Down ) , Lionel 's wife and Lex 's mother . Lionel also learns that he has a terminal liver disease , which he divulges to Lex while awaiting arraignment .
Lionel is sentenced to prison for his parents ' murder in season four . Lionel attempts to switch bodies with Lex using a stone from Clark 's homeworld of Krypton but Clark intervenes and Lionel switches bodies with Clark instead . When he and Clark switch back , Lionel discovers his terminal liver disease is healed . Lionel is released from prison by Genevieve Teague ( Jane Seymour ) , and begins searching for three stones of knowledge . During this quest , Lionel falls into a catatonic state after being uploaded with Kryptonian knowledge . Lionel recovers from his catatonic state in season five when the Kryptonian artificial intelligence Jor @-@ El takes over his body to speak with Clark . With Jor @-@ El guiding him , Lionel begins helping Clark by making excuses for Clark 's behavior and unexplained disappearances throughout seasons five and six . Season seven revealed that Lionel and three other wealthy families formed the secret society called Veritas to protect an alien visitor known as the Traveler ( Clark ) . When the secret is uncovered , Lex murders his father , realizing he has been covering up the Traveler 's existence .
Season ten reveals that Tess Mercer ( Cassidy Freeman ) is Lionel 's illegitimate daughter . The same season also features a parallel universe where a version of the character found and adopted Clark 's counterpart as his adopted son raised to be a killer , favoring Clark 's counterpart over his own son in his reality . Clark visits this world and unintentionally allows for the alternate doppelganger to follow . Posing as his own doppelganger , Lionel tries to make amends when he attempts twice to bring " Alexander Luthor " / Conner Kent ( Lucas Grabeel ) , a hybrid clone of Clark and Lex that develops Clark 's powers , to his side but fails . Lionel also assumes control of LuthorCorp from Tess but loses the company when his daughter proves he is an imposter . At his nadir , Lionel is approached by the evil alien entity Darkseid . In the series finale , Lionel discovers Lex 's defective clones were grafted to create a perfect composite clone , but a compatible heart could not be found among the clones . Lionel tries to give Tess 's heart to Lex , but when Tess shoots Lionel and escapes . Lionel surrenders his soul to Darkseid , giving Lionel 's heart to restore Lex . Afterward , Darkseid possesses Lionel 's corpse to attack Clark , however , Clark destroy Lionel 's body , dispelling the threat posed by Darkseid .
= = Portrayal = =
Lionel Luthor was created by Alfred Gough and Miles Millar specifically for " Smallville " to provide a parallel to the Kents as an " experiment in extreme parenting " . The character Chloe Sullivan ( Allison Mack ) was also created for the show . Lex 's father has previously been depicted in other media .
Lionel Luthor is portrayed in the program by John Glover ; Glover said he appreciates the " clear canvas " he had to work with when developing his portrayal of Lionel . In season one , Glover traveled from New York to Vancouver every week while filming his scenes because he was already committed to stage appearances in New York at the time . When portraying the character 's struggle with terminal liver disease , Glover was inspired by a friend 's battle with cancer ; he said his friend was a " cheerleader to people " , who supported and boosted others when they were feeling bad . When Glover 's friend learned he had cancer he fought hard to get over it , but when he learned that it was terminal he went to bed and stopped eating until he died about ten days later . This helped Glover understand how someone powerful and full of life could commit suicide — which Lionel prepares to do when he learns his illness is terminal .
= = Character development = =
= = = Storyline progression = = =
In season two , Lionel moves from being recurring figure to a regular character . This season features the gradual unveiling of Lionel 's increasing involvement with the characters of the show . It begins with more direct involvement when Luthor hires Martha Kent as his assistant , and then indirectly when he becomes the conservator of the Kawatche caves and tries to unlock the mystery of the symbols on the cave walls . During season three , Lionel becomes the villain of the show when he tries to discover Clark 's secret and drives Lex into a psychotic breakdown . This allows Lionel to use electroshock therapy on Lex to erase his knowledge of Lionel 's co @-@ opting of Morgan Edge to kill Lionel 's parents for their life insurance . The creative team experimented with Lionel 's character in season four , creating a storyline in which Lionel is reformed . Executive producer Greg Beeman said the character development failed , and as a result Lionel returned to his normal self . John Glover found playing Lionel as a straight arrow was " boring " .
Season five explores the relationship between Martha and Lionel . Both Annette O 'Toole and Al Gough said Lionel was slightly attracted to Martha , but that she would never act on that feeling . The producers had no intentions to create a romantic relationship between the two characters . Most of Lionel 's motivations in season five are shrouded in mystery . Glover said he could not determine whether his character is good or bad , so when he is portraying him in season five he tried to present everything as if it was " good " . Glover said he believes Lincoln Cole 's ( Ian Tracey ) actions in " Mercy " made Lionel rethink everything his past behavior and his own character . By the end of the fifth season , Lionel has learned that people have a responsibility to each other .
Smallville 's writer and executive producer Brian Peterson said the creative team wanted to remind the audience that Lionel was still the same Lionel Luthor they had come know , so they delayed revealing Lionel 's usual antics until season six 's " Promise " in which he blackmails Lana into marrying Lex . Peterson wanted to " slap [ the audience ] in the face " with a reminder of Lionel 's former character . Although Lionel blackmails Lana into marrying Lex , John Glover said Lionel was trying to protect Clark , for which he needed Lana 's help . By the time season six began airing , John Glover realized Lex was starting to become more villainous and that his time on the show would be limited . Glover hoped Lionel would still be able to influence his son as the show progressed ; he believed his character would be useless on the show without such influencing abilities . Glover said the conflict between Lex and his father is very positive for the show because Lionel 's attempt to bond with Lex and the distrust between them " makes drama " .
= = = Characterization = = =
John Glover characterizes Lionel as a businessman who is disappointed with his son . To Glover , Lionel is this " rich and powerful businessman " who sees his son as a " wuss " and " fraidy @-@ cat " . It was important to Glover that Lionel appear as human as possible ; Glover said he does not want to simply " twirl [ his ] mustache " . Glover described Lionel as a man who will do whatever he needs to do to get what he wants . He characterizes Lionel as an intelligent man who can read people easily . Lionel uses that ability to further his goals . The character can also get past people 's defenses and manipulate them . Glover thinks that type of power would be great if it could be used to help someone other than Lionel . Lionel 's character is also connoted by the color scheme that surrounds him ; the use of cold blue tones helps to evoke the " sinister " nature of the character . Lionel is also often portrayed in front of a white or " clinical blue " background . Lionel 's signature mane of hair is used to symbolize his power — by growing it out and refusing to style it , Lionel attempts to show he is so powerful that he can do whatever he wants without any backlash .
= = = Relationships = = =
The relationship between Lionel and his son Lex is strained ; it has been likened to the relationship between Norman and Harry Osborn in the Spider @-@ Man movie . Glover tried to make Lionel appear as though he is trying to " toughen [ Lex ] up " . The character is made to " go out of his way , to give [ Lex ] tests , so [ Lex ] can prove himself " . Glover sees the character as a rich and powerful businessman who is disappointed in his son . Glover 's goal for season one was to show Lionel 's attempts to make Lex tougher ; he interprets the character 's motto in his raising of Lex as " no risk , no rewards " .
Glover believes Lionel has two competing agendas with Lex — for Lex to become his own man and for Lex to follow in his father 's steps . This becomes frustrating for Lex because Lionel wants his son to be both " loyal follower " and the " best person he can be " . This all plays into Lionel 's " pretty huge ego " . John Glover believes if Lionel and Lex were not related Lionel would have " destroyed " Lex early on because he views his son as " weak " . Lionel is also bound by the fact that Lex is his heir , although he does not trust Lex . Lionel 's distrust of Lex partially arises because he believes Lex is a coward . John Glover said , " It 's not that [ Lionel is ] meant to be a foe ; it 's just that the poor boy 's weak , so [ Lionel must ] mold him . Lionel is continually trying to strengthen his son , to teach him . [ Lex is ] just a hard student . "
Lionel also has a key relationship with Martha Kent , Clark Kent 's adoptive mother . This relationship first develops in season two when Lionel hires Martha to be his assistant ; it is further developed in season five . Glover felt Lionel 's attraction to Martha grows in season five when Jonathan Kent dies because he now sees Martha as a single woman and is now more attainable ; Glover believes Lionel was seeking to attain Martha 's " goodness " and the attraction is not based on lust . When Lionel is in Martha 's company he tries to present himself as a man she could be with ; he consciously attempts to change years of selfish behavior . Writer Holly Harold said his relationship with Martha parallels Lex 's relationship with Lana ; both men believe these two women will be their saving grace and pull them back from the dark side . Annette O 'Toole said Martha 's interest in Lionel is like watching a dangerous animal ; " It 's that attraction you have for a very beautiful , dangerous animal . You know you can 't stop watching it , but at the same time you feel , ' Oh my God , he 's going to kill me . ' " O 'Toole also said she believes Martha 's motivation is to get close enough to Lionel to know what he is planning to do to Clark . When Martha left the show , writer Todd Slavkin said they wanted to give the character " more of a send @-@ off " than they achieved on screen . Slavkin said they could do nothing equivalent to what they gave John Schneider because there were so many storylines by the season six finale they could fit nothing else in . The writers realized they could not kill off the character so they sent her to the U.S. Senate , creating a parallel to Clark where Martha fights injustice on the political stage . O 'Toole and Al Gough said Martha has a small attraction to Lionel and that nothing serious would come from it .
Glover believes Martha influenced Lionel to start believing that sacrifice is necessary to make the world a better place . When she leaves at the end of season six , Lionel no longer has that influence . He is constantly battling the dark and light sides of his personality . According to series writer Caroline Dries , the audience never really know his motivations because of this balancing act . Dries said this is embodied when he threatens Lana into marrying Lex , later revealing it was to protect Clark . Glover describes his off @-@ screen relationship with Annette O 'Toole the reason Martha and Lionel have such good chemistry . Glover said that when Martha and Lionel are talking to each other it feels as though he and O 'Toole are sharing a conversation , and that trust is visualized on the camera .
= = Reception = =
For his portrayal of Lionel Luthor on Smallville , John Glover has been nominated for two Saturn Awards in the category of Best Supporting Actor in a Television Series . The first came in 2003 , following his upgrade to series regular status , and the second in 2004 . By season four , one reviewer said Lionel should have left the show after succumbing to his terminal liver disease in season three . Maurice Cobbs of DVD Verdict said Lionel was taking away from the primary characters ' screen time in season four , and the producers should have killed him at the end of season three .
= = Smallville tie @-@ ins = =
= = = Novels = = =
Lionel makes his first appearance outside the television series in the Aspect book Smallville : Strange Visitors . In this title , Lionel is concerned that confidence trickster Donald Jacobi will draw too much attention to the meteor rocks in Smallville and ruin his plans to use the rocks for experiments . Lionel has the life of Jacobi 's partner put in jeopardy when he threatens to alert some mobsters who are looking for Lionel . He makes a brief appearance in Smallville : Dragon , in which he tells Lex he used Lex 's ex @-@ girlfriend Renata to get close to Lex to test him for unknown reasons . The Smallville version of Lionel makes a brief appearance in the second volume of the internet series Smallville : Chloe Chronicles ; he threatens Chloe after she discovers he is involved with the deaths of several people .
= = = Comics = = =
In the television series ' comic book continuation written by the show 's writer Bryan Q. Miller , it is revealed that Lionel had tried to recruit Bruce Wayne 's father Thomas Wayne into the secret society Veritas with Virgil Swann , months prior to Wayne and his wife 's mugging and murder by Joe Chill .
= = Other versions = =
= = = Comics = = =
Before Smallville , Lex 's father either made brief appearances in the Superman comics or was mentioned . Lex 's father first appears in Superman 's Girl Friend , Lois Lane # 23 ( 1961 ) , in the story " The Curse of Lena Thorul ! " , written by Superman co @-@ creator Jerry Siegel . In this story he is named Jules and has disowned his criminal son Lex and changed the family name to " Thorul " . Jules Thorul and his wife Arlene are later killed in a car accident . In the 2004 miniseries Superman : Birthright , Lex 's father is not a billionaire but immediately puts Lex to work making millions for him after he discovers his son 's astronomical IQ . Lex 's father dies in a fire caused accidentally by Lex in an experiment that causes Lex 's permanent hair loss .
A different version of Lex Luthor 's history is presented in Adventure Comics # 6 ( March 2010 ) , in which Lionel is an abusive alcoholic single parent who terrorizes Lex and his sister Lena . He dies of a heart @-@ attack , leaving Lena in the care of an aunt and causes Lex to leave Smallville . It is later revealed that Lex had caused his father 's heart attack to cash in a sizable life insurance policy , which he would use as the basis for his fortune . In Blackest Night # 6 , Lionel Luthor is revived as a member of the Black Lantern Corps . Lionel Luthor appears with Lex Luthor in the Flashpoint reality where they tour General Sam Lane 's facility of aliens .
= = = Film , television and web = = =
In the 1988 – 1992 television series Superboy , Lex 's father appears in season four 's " Know Thine Enemy " ( Part 1 ) , in which Superboy becomes Lex Luthor in a virtual reality and watches Lex grow up with an abusive father ; Lex 's father is unnamed . In Richard Donner 's Superman : The Movie and Bryan Singer 's Superman Returns , Lex briefly mentions his father — but not his father 's name — as the inspiration of Lex 's real estate schemes . Lex also says his father was a harsh man who ejected him from the family home .
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= Sa 'd al @-@ Dawla =
Sa 'd al @-@ Dawla Abu ' l @-@ Ma 'ali Sharif , more commonly known by his laqab ( honorific epithet ) , Sa 'd al @-@ Dawla ( Arabic : سعد الدولة ) , was the second ruler of the Hamdanid Emirate of Aleppo , encompassing most of northern Syria . The son of the emirate 's founder , Sayf al @-@ Dawla , he inherited the throne at a young age and in the midst of a major Byzantine offensive that within two years conquered the western portions of his realm and turned Aleppo into a tributary state . Facing a multitude of rebellions and desertions until 977 , Sa 'd was unable even to enter his own capital , which was in the hands of his father 's chief minister , Qarquya . By maintaining close relations with the Buyids , he managed to re @-@ establish his authority in parts of the Jazira , but his rule was soon challenged by the rebellion of his governor Bakjur , who was supported by the Fatimids of Egypt . In turn , Sa 'd came to rely increasingly on Byzantine assistance , although he continued to fluctuate in his allegiance between Byzantium , the Buyids , and the Fatimids .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early years = = =
Sa 'd al @-@ Dawla was the son of Sayf al @-@ Dawla , the first Emir of Aleppo , and Sakhinah , the sister of Sayf al @-@ Dawla 's cousin and court poet , Abu Firas . At the time of his father 's death , in February 967 , he was only fifteen , and resided at the emirate 's Jaziran capital , Mayyafariqin . His succession to the emirate was unopposed , but the state his father had left him was crumbling : the Byzantine emperor Nikephoros II had just conquered Cilicia and was raiding its northern and western provinces , while rebellions of his closest lieutenants had plagued Sayf al @-@ Dawla 's last years .
Sa 'd al @-@ Dawla reached Aleppo , which for years had been governed by Sayf al @-@ Dawla 's chief minister and chamberlain ( hajib ) , Qarquya , in June / July 967 . Almost immediately he was confronted by a rebellion of his uncle , Abu Firas , at the time governor of Homs , which lasted until the latter 's death in battle in April 968 . At the same time , Aleppo itself was threatened by the Byzantines , and Sa 'd al @-@ Dawla , on the advice of Qarquya , left the city . The Byzantines did not attack the city , but Qarquya and his fellow ghilman ( military slaves ) seized the moment to claim the city for themselves . Accompanied by 300 faithful followers , Sa 'd al @-@ Dawla was thus reduced to wandering from city to city across the lands that were nominally his , hoping to gain entry : Saruj , Manbij and Harran refused to support him , while at Mayyafariqin his own mother refused to let him in . Finally , he found refuge at Homs . In the meantime , many of his father 's old supporters left to join his cousin Abu Taghlib , Emir of Mosul , who used the opportunity to expand his own territory . Immediately after Sayf al @-@ Dawla 's death , he captured al @-@ Raqqah , and by 971 extended his control over the provinces of Diyar Bakr and Diyar Mudar . Sa 'd al @-@ Dawla , unable to offer any resistance , tacitly accepted these losses as well as his cousin 's suzerainty .
The year 969 was a crucial one in Syrian history , as it marked the climax of the Byzantine advance . In October , the generals Michael Bourtzes and Peter captured Antioch , securing their control over the north Syrian littoral . Soon after , the Byzantines marched against Aleppo itself and forced Qarquya to sign a treaty ( December 969 or January 970 ) making Aleppo a tributary Byzantine protectorate with Qarquya as emir and his deputy , Bakjur , as his designated successor . At the same time , in Egypt , the Fatimids defeated the Ikhshidids and gained control of the country , from where they advanced into southern Syria . The competition between these two powers , Byzantium and the Fatimids , would shape the history of Syria and of Aleppo for the next fifty years .
= = = Recovery of Aleppo , conflicts with Bakjur , the Fatimids and Byzantium = = =
It was not until 977 that Sa 'd al @-@ Dawla managed to regain his capital , which by now was under the control of Bakjur , who in 975 had deposed and imprisoned Qarquya . Aided by some of his father 's ghilman , and , crucially , the powerful Banu Kilab tribe living around Aleppo , Sa 'd al @-@ Dawla besieged Aleppo and captured it . Qarquya was set free and again entrusted with the affairs of state until his death a few years later , while Bakjur was given the governorship of Homs . Soon after , in 979 , he was able to capitalize upon Abu Taghlib 's conflict with the Buyids of Iraq to recover some of his father 's domains in the Jazira : after acknowledging Buyid suzerainty , he received governorship of the Diyar Mudar , except for al @-@ Raqqah and Rahba . At the same time , he also received from the Abbasid Caliph — who was a puppet of the Buyids — the honorific laqab by which he is known .
Bakjur , in the meantime , had used his new post at Homs to open contacts with the Fatimids , who intended to use him as a pawn to subdue Aleppo and complete their conquest of the entirety of Syria . Sa 'd al @-@ Dawla himself oscillated between the Fatimids and Byzantium : on the one hand he resented Byzantine overlordship and was willing to acknowledge the Fatimid Caliph , but on the other hand was did not want to see his domain become merely another Fatimid province like southern Syria . His first attempt to shake free of the Byzantine protectorate , in 981 , thus ended in failure due to lack of outside support , when a Byzantine army appeared before Aleppo 's walls to enforce compliance . The Fatimids now induced Bakjur to act , and in September 983 , the latter launched an attack on Aleppo with the support of Fatimid troops . Sa 'd al @-@ Dawla was forced to appeal to the Byzantine emperor Basil II for help , and the siege was raised by a Byzantine army under Bardas Phokas the Younger . The Byzantines then proceeded to sack Homs in October . The city was returned to Hamdanid control , while Bakjur fled to Fatimid territory , where he assumed the governorship of Damascus . It is an indication of the strained relations between Sa 'd al @-@ Dawla and his " saviours " that after Bakjur 's flight , there were clashes between Byzantine and Hamdanid troops , which were settled only when the Hamdanid emir agreed to pay twice the usual yearly amount of tribute of 20 @,@ 000 gold dinars .
Hamdanid relations with Byzantium collapsed completely in 985 – 986 , after the Fatimids took the Byzantine fortress of Balanyas . Sa 'd al @-@ Dawla refused to continue paying tribute . As a result , the Byzantines under Bardas Phokas invaded his territory and sacked Killis before retracing their steps and marching south to an unsuccessful siege of Apamea . In retaliation , Sa 'd al @-@ Dawla sent his troops to raze the famous monastery of Qal 'at Sim 'an . However , soon after that , in May 986 , the prospect of an imminent conclusion of a peace between Byzantium and Egypt forced Sa 'd al @-@ Dawla to return to his earlier allegiance , and he re @-@ affirmed his tributary status on the same terms as before . This did not prevent Sa 'd al @-@ Dawla from supporting the Byzantine general Bardas Skleros in his second rebellion against Basil II , once he was released from Buyid captivity in December 896 , nor of recognizing Fatimid suzerainty in the same month , especially as Byzantium now descended into a civil war that lasted until 989 .
Warfare with the Fatimids once again threatened in 991 , again because of Bakjur . He had governed Damascus until 988 , when he was deposed , and then fled to Raqqah . From there , though with little support from the Fatimids , he tried to attack Aleppo . Sa 'd al @-@ Dawla , with Byzantine assistance in the form of troops under the doux of Antioch , Michael Bourtzes , was able to defeat and capture Bakjur at Na 'ura east of Aleppo in April 991 , and later had him executed . Nevertheless , relations with the Fatimids soured over Sa 'd al @-@ Dawla 's arrest of Bakjur 's children , and it was only his death of hemiplegia in December 991 that stopped him from attacking Fatimid possessions .
Sa 'd al @-@ Dawla was succeeded by his son , Sa 'id Abu ' l @-@ Fada 'il Sa 'id al @-@ Dawla , but real power rested in the hands of Sa 'd al @-@ Dawla 's former chamberlain , Lu 'lu ' . Several of the Hamdanid ghilman , resenting the influence of Lu 'lu ' , went over to the Fatimids , who now launched a sustained offensive against Aleppo under the Turkish general Manjutakin . Only the personal intervention of Basil II in 995 and again in 999 would save the emirate from Fatimid conquest . Warfare lasted until 1000 , when a peace treaty was concluded guaranteeing Aleppo 's continued existence as a buffer state between the two powers . Finally , in 1002 , Lu 'lu ' assassinated Sa 'id al @-@ Dawla and assumed control of Aleppo in his own name .
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= Black Holes and Revelations =
Black Holes and Revelations is the fourth studio album by English alternative rock band Muse , released on 3 July 2006 in the United Kingdom . It gets its title from a line in the song " Starlight " , which is the second track on the album . Recording was split between New York and France , and it was the first time Muse had taken a more active role in the album 's production . The album was a change in style from Muse 's previous albums , and the band cited influences that included Depeche Mode , Millionaire , Lightning Bolt , Sly and the Family Stone , and music from southern Italy .
Black Holes and Revelations was placed at number 34 in a public vote conducted by Q Magazine for " The Best British Albums of all time " in February 2008 .
Like their two previous albums , Black Holes and Revelations has political and science @-@ fiction undertones , with the lyrics covering topics as varied as political corruption , alien invasion , revolution and New World Order conspiracies as well as more conventional love songs .
= = Background and recording = =
Muse 's previous album , Absolution , was released in 2003 to critical acclaim . Absolution had brought the band mainstream exposure in the United States for the first time .
The band retired to an old château in France to write for a new album . Lead singer Matthew Bellamy said that this was because the band wanted to be free from distractions so that they could " concentrate , spend time and be surrounded by different musical influences " . The album was partially recorded in the same studio in France as Pink Floyd 's album The Wall , of which fact bassist Chris Wolstenholme said it was a " great feeling to know that something big had been done [ there ] " . However , the band found recording there very slow and had difficulties deciding which songs to include on the album . They travelled to New York to finish the recording .
Wolstenholme considered writing and recording for Black Holes and Revelations more relaxed than it had been for previous albums , as the band did not have a deadline to work to . It was the first time they had learned about the technology in the studio , having previously left the use of it to the sound engineers . Bellamy said that this was the first time Muse made an album without being concerned about how they would play it live .
" Soldier 's Poem " , stood out as being " quite unlike anything [ they 'd ] ever done before " . Drummer Dominic Howard said they were originally going to record it with a " massive , epic " approach , but then decided to strip it down and record it in a small studio with vintage equipment and a few microphones . Muse were pleased with the result and Howard described it as a " real highlight " , describing the vocals as " some of the most amazing vocals I 've ever heard Matt do " .
= = Lyrical content = =
Black Holes and Revelations was said by some reviewers to carry a political message . The album begins with the track " Take a Bow " , which is an " attack on an all but unnamed political leader " , incorporating lyrics such as " Corrupt , you corrupt and bring corruption to all that you touch " . These themes are carried through the album in the tracks " Exo @-@ Politics " and " Assassin " . The album often touches on controversial subject matters , such as " The New World Order conspiracy , unjustifiable war , abusive power , conspiratorial manipulation and populist revolt , " and is influenced by the conspiracy theories that the band are interested in . Matt Bellamy stated that he finds " the unknown in general a stimulating area for the imagination " , and this interest is reflected throughout the album , which features alien invasion ( in " Exo @-@ Politics " ) and rebellious paranoia ( particularly during " Assassin " ) . The album also includes more emotional themes , including regret , ambition , and love .
The title , taken from lyrics in " Starlight " , is explained by Bellamy in his September 2006 interview for Q magazine : " Black holes and revelations – they 're the two areas of songwriting for me that make up the majority of this album . A revelation about yourself , something personal , something genuine of an everyday nature that maybe people can relate to . Then the black holes are these songs that are from the more ... unknown regions of the imagination . "
= = Artwork = =
The sleeve 's designer Storm Thorgerson said : " This design was executed on location in Bardenas … The central motif came from ' galloping ' horses ( ' Knights of Cydonia ' , ' Invincible ' ) and from the biblical allusion to horsemen , namely the Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse , now represented in contemporary mode . "
= = Release = =
The album was released on 3 July 2006 in the UK , followed by releases in the US , Australia , Taiwan and Japan . The album was also available as a limited edition CD / DVD combination , that featured videos and live renditions of the band playing " Supermassive Black Hole " , " Knights of Cydonia " and " Starlight " . In addition , the album was re @-@ released in the USA on vinyl LP on 18 August 2009 . The album received double platinum certification in the UK on 22 December 2006 and triple platinum on 6 December 2010 . Singles were released in both the UK and the US , though they were released in different orders in each country . All singles excepting " Map of the Problematique " were available on vinyl LP , CD , DVD ( containing the music video for the single ) and as a digital download .
In the UK , the first single from the album was " Supermassive Black Hole " and it was released prior to the album , on 19 June 2006 . The single reached number four in the UK Singles Chart , making it the highest charting single in the UK for the band to date . The single was followed by " Starlight " , " Knights of Cydonia " , " Invincible " and " Map of the Problematique " , the only one of which to reach the top 10 was " Knights of Cydonia " at number ten . The album itself charted at number one for two straight weeks in the UK album chart , with the band 's largest sales up to that point .
The first single released in the U.S. was " Knights of Cydonia " , on 13 June 2006 , which peaked at number 10 on the Billboard Modern Rock Tracks chart . It was followed by " Starlight " and " Supermassive Black Hole " . " Starlight " was their most popular single in the U.S. at that point , reaching number two on the Modern Rock Tracks . The album became Muse 's first top ten entry in the U.S. , debuting at number nine .
= = Critical reception = =
Black Holes and Revelations was met with positive reviews from critics . Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating based on a range of reviews from mainstream critics , aggregated the album 's average review score to 75 out of 100 , based on 32 reviews . The album received top ratings from Observer Music Monthly , Q , E ! Online , and Alternative Press . Planet Sound named Black Holes and Revelations their Album of the Year for 2006 and the album was placed third in the NME Albums of the Year list for 2006 , as well as being named Q 's second @-@ best album of the year . The album also received a Mercury Prize nomination . It was featured in the updated 2007 version of the music reference book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die , edited by Robert Dimery . The album was named as one of Classic Rock ‘ s 10 essential progressive rock albums of the decade .
In contrast , several critics called the album " overblown " , including RTÉ 's Bill Lehane , NME 's Anthony Thornton , and Rolling Stone 's Christian Hoard . Hoard went on to describe " Knights of Cydonia " and " City of Delusion " " ridiculous " , but concluded that it was " surprising " , that the album worked . The A.V. Club 's Noel Murray , on the other hand , gave the band credit for reworking themselves , but called the album a " nightmare " and gave it a D + . The album also garnered some crossover appeal , with Oakland hip hop group Zion I releasing a notable remix of " Knights of Cydonia " in 2008 .
= = Commercial reception = =
The album sold 115 @,@ 144 copies in its first week in the UK , which was more than the first week sales of Muse 's previous album , Absolution . The album is also a BPI triple platinum album , and was nominated for a Mercury Prize . It has sold 1 @,@ 060 @,@ 765 copies in the UK as of June 2015 .
Five singles were released in the UK , of which three were released in the US . A world tour followed the release of the album that included dates in the UK , the US , Canada , Australia and most of Europe and Asia .
= = Tour = =
In July 2006 the band announced that they would be going on their " biggest ever tour " in support of the album . The first shows included the Leeds and Reading Carling Weekend festivals , followed by a tour that visited most of the world 's major continents . The tour saw them travelling over most of the world , including countries such as the UK , most of Europe , the USA , Canada , Australia , Japan , China and Korea . Some dates that were booked to play in support of My Chemical Romance in the USA were cancelled after members of both bands were affected by food poisoning . The USA stretch of the tour included dates at Madison Square Garden and a headlining slot at Lollapalooza .
The biggest concert of the tour was the two nights that they played in the new Wembley Stadium on 16 and 17 June 2007 . They were the first band to sell @-@ out the newly built stadium and play there . The show incorporated extensive special effects that included huge satellite dishes , " futuristic " antennas , giant white balls and thousands of lights . The encore featured two acrobats that floated high above the crowd suspended on floating white balloons . Footage of the latter concert was released on DVD whilst a live CD album contained a selection of recorded tracks from the two nights . Both discs were released as a joint package under the title HAARP .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Matt Bellamy .
= = = Tracks featured on limited edition DVDs = = =
" Supermassive Black Hole " ( video )
" Starlight " ( video )
" Knights of Cydonia " ( video )
" Supermassive Black Hole " ( Live from Paris )
" Starlight " ( Live from Copenhagen at the MTV Awards )
" Knights of Cydonia " ( Live from London )
A longer and heavier version of " Assassin " , dubbed the " Grand Omega Bosses Version " was also recorded and is available on the vinyl issue of " Knights of Cydonia " single .
= = = In the media = = =
" Take a Bow " was featured on an episode of Top Gear , when Richard Hammond tested the Noble M15 . The song also featured prominently in the second released trailer for Watchmen and a John Debney 's orchestrated remix of the song was used in the second trailer for the 2016 Universal / Columbia / Legendary Pictures / MGM co @-@ production film The Jungle Book while the original version will be used for the film 's TV spots and featurette . " Knights of Cydonia " was featured as a playable track in Guitar Hero III : Legends of Rock and Rocksmith 2014 and " Assassin " was featured as a playable track in Guitar Hero World Tour . " Knights of Cydonia " was also featured in a trailer for Series 5 of the TV show Merlin , as well featured in the launch trailer for the videogame Halo 5 : Guardians . " Assassin " was also featured in the Torchwood episode entitled " Combat " . " Supermassive Black Hole " was featured at the start of the Series 6 Doctor Who episode , " The Rebel Flesh " , in the baseball scene of the film Twilight , and in the season 2 episode of Supernatural , " Hunted " . " Map of the Problematique " was featured in trailer for The Tourist .
= = Personnel = =
Muse
Matthew Bellamy – lead vocals , lead and rhythm guitars , piano , synthesizers , production
Christopher Wolstenholme – bass , backing vocals , double bass on " Soldier 's Poem " , some synthesizers on " Map of the Problematique " and " Hoodoo " , production
Dominic Howard – drums , percussion , brief vocals and electronic drums on " Supermassive Black Hole " , Buchla 200e on " Take a Bow " , production
Additional personnel
Edoardo de Angelis – first violin on " Take a Bow " , " City of Delusion " , " Hoodoo " and " Knights of Cydonia "
Around Art – strings on " Take a Bow " , " City of Delusion " , " Hoodoo " and " Knights of Cydonia "
Marco Brioschi – trumpet on " City of Delusion " and " Knights of Cydonia "
Tommaso Colliva – engineer
Myriam Correge – assistant engineer
Rich Costey – production
Max Dingle – mixing assistant
Tom Kirk – antique items crushed on " Exo @-@ Politics "
Roger Lian – mastering assistant
Vlado Meller – mastering
Mauro Pagani – string arrangements , string conductor
Ross Peterson – assistant engineer
Audrey Riley – string arrangements , string conductor
Mark Rinaldi – mixing assistant
Ryan Simms – assistant engineer
Derrick Santini – photography
Storm Thorgerson – cover photo
Rupert Truman – cover photo
Howie Weinberg – mastering
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Single releases = =
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= Brawl in the Family ( The Simpsons ) =
" Brawl in the Family " is the seventh episode of The Simpsons ' thirteenth season . It first aired on the Fox network in the United States on January 6 , 2002 . In the episode , the Simpsons family get arrested for domestic violence , prompting social worker Gabriel to move in and make the family functional . After the family is declared acceptable , Amber and Ginger , the cocktail waitresses Homer and his neighbor Ned Flanders married in Las Vegas , show up at their doorsteps .
" Brawl in the Family " was directed by Matthew Nastuk and was the first full episode Joel H. Cohen received a writing credit for . It was the first episode on which Al Jean served as sole showrunner . The idea for the episode was pitched by Jean , who wanted to produce a sequel to the season 10 episode " Viva Ned Flanders " , which he thought had a " loose end " . The episode features Jane Kaczmarek as Judge Constance Harm , and Delroy Lindo as Gabriel .
In its original broadcast , the episode was seen by approximately 12 @.@ 8 million viewers , making it the 28th most watched program the week it aired . Later that year , the episode was nominated for an Environmental Media Awards in the category " Television Episodic - Comedy " , which it ultimately lost to the Dharma & Greg episode " Protecting the Ego @-@ System " . Following its home video release , " Brawl in the Family " received negative reviews from critics .
= = Plot = =
The Simpsons end up staying inside during an acid rainstorm caused by The Republican Party 's latest decision to make caring for the environment a felony offense to play a game of Monopoly . When it is revealed that Bart has been cheating by using Lego bricks as hotel pieces , Bart threatens Lisa and Homer assaults him . Marge and Lisa try to pry them apart , but this escalates to Lisa fighting with Marge . Despite her inability to talk , Maggie calls the police on her family . With help from an edible taffy @-@ like substance , the entire Simpson family is arrested for causing a domestic disturbance .
After a short time in jail , they are released by a man named Gabriel , whom Homer mistakes for an angel sent from Heaven , moves in with the family to help them be functional again . After observing the family 's quirks , Gabriel takes the family to a forest and diagnoses the family 's problems accordingly : Marge tries to prove her self @-@ worth to the family by medicating them with food , Bart is addicted to doing crazy stunts for attention , and Homer is simply a drunken buffoon . Gabriel then sets up a challenge to teach the Simpsons the importance of teamwork by setting up a picnic basket in a tree . The object is for the family to work together as a team to get it down . After a harrowing rescue involving Bart driving the family car and Homer nearly becoming prey for wild predators , the Simpsons succeed and Gabriel congratulates them on working together as a family and becoming functional during their drive home .
Before the family can call it a day , they arrive home and find Amber and Ginger waiting in their driveway . Amber shows Marge and the kids video footage of a drunk Homer marrying Amber in Vegas , while Ginger is next door with the widowed Ned Flanders . Homer tries to get his marriage to Amber annulled by the court , but Judge Constance Harm refuses , stating that Homer married Amber in Nevada and the marriage still stands , since Homer never officially divorced Amber . Marge is so angry that she banishes Homer , who takes up residence in Bart 's treehouse with Amber . Homer still loves Marge and refuses to sleep with Amber , so he tries to sleep in Santa 's Little Helper 's kennel , but ends up getting its doorway stuck to his head and spends the rest of the night trying to get it off . The next day , Marge finds Homer asleep amid the broken remains of the doghouse , and she tells Homer that she is still angry at Homer over what he did , but she has a plan to get Amber out of their house .
While Amber is lounging in a kiddie pool , she overhears Homer and Marge arguing , with Homer ultimately announcing that he is leaving Marge and the kids . Homer then invites Amber to Moe 's for a night of drinking . The next day , a hungover Amber discovers that she is now married to Grampa Simpson , with the Simpsons have video evidence of the event about her vowing to forsake all other husbands when married to Grampa . Amber and Ginger , who escapes because she is fed up with Ned Flanders , drive away and vow never to return .
= = Production = =
" Brawl in the Family " was directed by Matthew Nastuk and was the first episode Joel H. Cohen received a sole writing credit for . Cohen had previously received a credit for " Hex and the City " , the first segment of " Treehouse of Horror XII " which aired the previous year . " Brawl in the Family " originally aired on January 6 , 2002 on the Fox network . It was the first episode for which current showrunner Al Jean served as sole showrunner . It was the second of his episodes to air however , since the Christmas @-@ themed " She of Little Faith " , the second episode he produced , was chosen to air first as it would coincide with the holiday . The idea for the episode was pitched by Jean , who wanted to make a follow @-@ up to the season 10 episode " Viva Ned Flanders " . In it , Homer takes Ned to Las Vegas to teach him how to have fun . While there , the two get intoxicated and wake up the next morning to find that they have gotten married to two cocktail waitresses , Amber and Ginger . The episode ends with Homer and Ned walking home from Vegas . Jean felt that the ending to " Viva Ned Flanders " was " a bit loose " because " ... if you leave a wife in Vegas , they track you down . " He pitched " Brawl in the Family " in order to " resolve it [ the ending to ' Viva Ned Flanders ' ] . " Amber and Ginger were portrayed by Pamela Hayden and Tress MacNeille respectively .
" Brawl in the Family " features British actor and theater director Delroy Lindo as Gabriel , the social worker . According to Jean , Lindo was chosen to guest star because of his " great voice . " Gabriel was then designed to match Lindo 's voice . In the DVD commentary for the episode , Lindo expressed dissatisfaction with the character 's design . He said " Were I an audience member , looking at this [ the episode ] I 'd think , ' That guy doesn 't sound like he looks . ' " However , he added that his appearance in the episode earned him " much cred " among his nieces and nephews . In an interview with The A.V. Club , he said " After I did that voiceover , I was very aware of the power of The Simpsons , because in certain quarters , I got instant credibility . " The episode also features Jane Kaczmarek as Judge Constance Harm .
= = Release = =
On its original American broadcast on January 6 , 2002 , " Brawl in the Family " was watched by approximately 12 @.@ 8 million viewers , according to Nielsen Media Research . It became the 28th most watched program of the week it aired , beating such shows as ABC 's 8 Simple Rules and NBC 's Crossing Jordan and Mister Sterling . Later that year , the episode was nominated for an Environmental Media Award in the category " Television Episodic - Comedy " , which it ultimately lost to the Dharma & Greg episode " Protecting the Ego @-@ System " . Its nomination was based solely on a scene in which " a bigger fish eats a smaller three @-@ eyed fish " , according to Jean , and because the award show was short on nominees . On August 24 , 2010 , " Brawl in the Family " was released as part of The Simpsons : The Complete Thirteenth Season DVD and Blu @-@ ray set . Al Jean , Joel H. Cohen , Max Pross , Delroy Lindo , Matt Warburton and David Silverman participated in the audio commentary of the episode .
Following its home video release , " Brawl in the Family " received negative reviews from critics . Aaron Peck of High @-@ Def Digest criticized the episode for being unoriginal , writing " Homer is always doing something that jeopardizes his marriage to Marge . When Homer 's ' Vegas Wife ' shows up unexpectedly [ ... ] the same thing happens . This is a storyline that has worn out its welcome , but it still continues . " 411Mania 's Ron Martin described the episode as having a " ridiculous set up " . Andre Dellamorte of Collider thought negatively of the episode as well , calling it " Mannered to the point of ridiculousness . " While he didn 't consider it the worst episode he 's ever seen , he criticized the episode 's pacing and lack of satire , writing " it ’ s just that the plates spin so fast and so pointlessly that it becomes just about the gags . [ ... ] the satire is gone ; it ’ s just incident after incident to set up gags ( some of which are funny ) and get the show to an end time . "
Writing for DVD Movie Guide , Colin Jacobson wrote that the episode " seems like two story fragments combined into one ; it ’ s like the writers couldn ’ t flesh out either tale for an entire 22 minutes so they just stuck two half @-@ programs together . " He added that it still " manages some laughs " , and also argued that the episode was very similar to the season 1 episode " There 's No Disgrace Like Home " , which was also noted by Ryan Keefer of DVD Talk . Despite receiving negative reviews , " Brawl in the Family " is often considered a fan favourite , and R. L. Shaffer of IGN called it one of the season 's " gems " .
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= Helmuth Raithel =
Helmuth Raithel ( 9 April 1907 – 12 September 1990 ) was a German officer who held the rank of SS @-@ Standartenführer ( colonel ) in the Waffen @-@ SS during World War II . While still at school , Raithel was swept up in the excitement of the Munich Beer Hall Putsch of 9 November 1923 led by Adolf Hitler , and was subsequently awarded the coveted Blood Order , even though he was not a member of the Nazi Party . He joined the Reichswehr ( interwar German Army ) in 1926 . After World War II broke out he fought in the invasion of Greece in summer 1941 , then against the Soviet Red Army in northern Finland before transferring to the Waffen @-@ SS in 1943 .
Raithel subsequently commanded a regiment of the newly formed 13th Waffen Mountain Division of the SS Handschar ( 1st Croatian ) and led it during fighting against the Yugoslav Partisans in the Independent State of Croatia . Raithel was seriously wounded in mid @-@ 1944 and was replaced . When a new Waffen @-@ SS division was to be raised in June 1944 , the cadre was provided by the 13th SS Division and Raithel was appointed as the divisional commander . The 23rd Waffen Mountain Division of the SS Kama ( 2nd Croatian ) never reached full divisional strength and did not see action as a formation , but elements of the division fought briefly in southern Hungary in early October 1944 . Raithel quickly suppressed a mutiny by the Bosnian Muslim soldiers of the division in mid @-@ October 1944 , but it was disbanded and its reliable troops were absorbed by the 13th SS Division and the 31st SS Volunteer Grenadier Division . Raithel was then appointed to command a regiment of 6th SS Mountain Division Nord in Alsace , where his regiment fought the United States Army . He received a serious head wound during fighting northeast of Frankfurt in early April 1945 and was captured by the Americans .
Raithel recovered from his wounds and had a career in agriculture after the war , working in South Africa for many years . He returned to Bavaria when he retired and earned a doctorate of history from the University of Munich . His interest in mountaineering continued and he regularly climbed in the Alps into his seventies . He maintained contact with his former comrades from the 6th SS Division , attending many reunions . On 12 September 1990 at the age of 82 , he was returning home from the Semmering Pass in eastern Austria when he was killed in a traffic accident .
= = Early life = =
Born Helmuth Hans Walter Paul Raithel in Ingolstadt , Kingdom of Bavaria , a federated state of the German Empire , on 9 April 1907 , he was the second son of a Bavarian Army officer . Raithel attended primary school then the Wittelsbacher @-@ Gymnasium München ( secondary school ) until 1926 . On 9 November 1923 at the age of 16 , Raithel was walking his bicycle in Munich when he stumbled across the Beer Hall Putsch being led by Adolf Hitler . Swept up in the excitement , he fell in with a group led by Freikorps veteran Gerhard Roßbach . After shots were fired , he took cover with some of the group in an alley , one of whom wrote down Raithel 's name as one of the " party faithful " present that day . He was subsequently awarded the highly prized Nazi Party Blood Order , although he apparently did not have any political beliefs and was not a member of the Party at the time .
After he successfully completed secondary school in early 1926 , he joined the Reichswehr as a offizieranwärter ( officer cadet ) on 1 April 1926 . He was posted to the 19th Infantry Regiment during which he spent four years commanding a Gebirgsjäger ( mountain infantry ) platoon . While he was with the regiment , the Reichswehr was absorbed by the Wehrmacht . Now part of the Gebirgs Brigade , Raithel gained experience as a signals officer and company commander , and was promoted to Hauptmann ( captain ) . With the creation of the 1st Gebirgs Division in April 1938 he was appointed as the adjutant of the 99th Gebirgsjäger Regiment . At the outbreak of war in September 1939 he was an instructor at the mountain infantry school at Fulpmes in the Stubai Alps . He was married and he and his wife had two daughters .
= = World War II = =
= = = Greece and Finland = = =
In August 1940 , Raithel was transferred from instructional duties to command a battalion of the newly formed 6th Gebirgs Division , which had been deployed to France on occupation duty in anticipation of involvement in the planned invasion of the United Kingdom , Operation Sealion . When Sealion was abandoned , the division was sent first to Poland then in spring 1941 took part in the invasion of Greece . During the Battle of Metaxas Line in early April 1941 , the division , led by Generalmajor ( Brigadier ) Ferdinand Schörner , breached the formidable Greek defences by crossing a 2 @,@ 100 @-@ metre ( 6 @,@ 900 ft ) snow @-@ covered mountain pass considered inaccessible by the Greeks . This enabled the division to cut the rail line to Thessaloniki .
Raithel was awarded the Iron Cross 1st Class in late April 1941 . Following the defeat of Greece and its allies , the division was deployed to Lapland in northern Finland in September 1941 . Raithel remained as a battalion commander with the 143rd Gebirgsjäger Regiment of the division in Finland and was promoted to Major on 1 November 1941 . Schörner became Raithel 's mentor during their service with the 6th Gebirgs Division . In January 1942 he was awarded the German Cross in Gold . In August 1942 he was transferred to the Oberkommando des Heeres ( Army Headquarters ) reserve pool for an extended period , during which he returned to the mountain infantry school then served briefly with the 133rd Fortress Division on Crete . He was promoted to Oberstleutnant ( lieutenant colonel ) on 1 October 1943 .
= = = Yugoslavia = = =
In 1943 , his mentor Schörner , now a General der Gebirgstruppe ( lieutenant general ) , advised him to transfer to the quickly expanding Waffen @-@ SS where regimental command would be easier to come by , particularly as his Blood Order was especially prized in the Waffen @-@ SS . Raithel subsequently transferred to the Waffen @-@ SS ( and Allgemeine SS ) on 30 November 1943 , but still did not join the Nazi Party . He was immediately appointed to command a regiment of the newly formed 13th Waffen Mountain Division of the SS Handschar ( 1st Croatian ) , the rank @-@ and @-@ file of which were mostly Bosnian Muslims . Initially appointed as an SS @-@ Obersturmbannführer ( lieutenant colonel ) commanding the 28th Waffen Gebirgsjäger Regiment , he oversaw the completion of his regiment 's training at the Neuhammer training grounds in the Silesian region of Germany ( present @-@ day Poland ) then led his regiment to fight the Yugoslav Partisans in the Independent State of Croatia ( NDH ) in February 1944 . The division was given the primary role of securing around 6 @,@ 000 square kilometres ( 2 @,@ 300 sq mi ) of territory ( the designated security zone ) in north @-@ eastern Bosnia within the NDH . The security zone encompassed the Posavina , Semberija and Majevica regions between the Sava , Bosna , Drina and Spreča rivers . Reichsführer @-@ SS Heinrich Himmler saw this task as critical to the safeguarding of important agricultural areas and Volksdeutsche ( ethnic German ) settlements in the Syrmia region to the north .
Between March and June 1944 Raithel commanded his regiment during several major operations , including what may have been the largest anti @-@ Partisan sweep of the war , Operation Maibaum ( Maypole ) . He was promoted to SS @-@ Standartenführer ( colonel ) on 1 April 1944 . Raithel led his regiment well , resulting in a serious wound in June 1944 . On 11 June 1944 , he was recommended for an award of the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross citing his leadership and courage while commanding the regiment , but it was not approved . While it achieved successes and proved itself competent in counter @-@ insurgency operations against the Partisans in eastern Bosnia between March and August 1944 , the 13th SS Division earned a reputation for brutality and savagery , not only during combat operations , but also through atrocities committed against Serb civilians in the security zone .
When a second Bosnian Muslim Waffen @-@ SS division was to be raised in June 1944 , the cadre was provided by the 13th SS Division and Raithel was appointed as the divisional commander . The 23rd Waffen Mountain Division of the SS Kama ( 2nd Croatian ) never reached full divisional strength and did not see action as a formation , but elements of the division fought briefly in southern Hungary in early October 1944 . The Bosnian Muslim members of the division mutinied on 17 October 1944 , but Raithel quickly gained control over the situation . Following the mutiny , the division was formally disbanded on 31 October and reliable elements were absorbed by the 13th SS Division and the 31st SS Volunteer Grenadier Division .
= = = Germany = = =
After a short time convalescing as part of the SS Führungshauptamt ( SS headquarters ) reserve pool , Raithel was appointed to command the 11th Gebirgsjäger Regiment of the 6th SS Mountain Division Nord in December 1944 . In early January 1945 , the division was located around Pirmasens near the French @-@ Reich border , reeling from their losses in what was the last major German offensive of World War II on the Western Front , Operation Nordwind . Committed to a series of desperate counterattacks against the United States Army XV Corps , on one occasion Raithel 's regiment infiltrated the American positions , surrounding five US infantry companies and taking 450 prisoners of war . The fighting depleted the already understrength regiment , with one company numbering only eight men by 20 January . The commander of one of the US battalions they fought in January 1945 ruefully described Raithel 's regiment as , " the best men we ever ran into , extremely aggressive , and impossible to capture . There was no driving them out , for they fought until they were killed " .
After a quiet period in February 1945 absorbing replacements , the division was withdrawn from the defensive line and ordered to recapture Trier from the US Army . This attack started on 7 March in freezing conditions but after limited success a fresh US offensive struck the division and forced them back north of Mainz . By 19 March , Raithel 's regiment had been converted into a kampfgruppe ( battlegroup ) consisting of two gebirgsjäger battalions , a mountain artillery battalion , a pioneer company and eight anti @-@ tank guns . Two weeks later they were fighting their way out of encirclement near Limburg . On 1 April 1945 , " Kampfgruppe Raithel " and the rest of what remained of the division drove east . Shortly afterwards , Raithel received a serious head wound and was captured . The remnants of the division disintegrated over the next few days and weeks and were captured by the Americans .
= = Personal life = =
Raithel recovered from his wounds and had a career in agriculture after the war , working in South Africa for many years . He returned to Bavaria when he retired and earned a doctorate of history from the University of Munich . He continued with mountaineering and regularly climbed in the Alps into his seventies . He maintained contact with his former comrades from the 6th SS Division Nord and attended many reunions . On 12 September 1990 at the age of 82 , he was returning home from the Semmering Pass in eastern Austria when he was killed in a traffic accident .
= = Career = =
Raithel received the following promotions during his career , after joining the Reichswehr as an officer cadet on 1 April 1926 :
= = = Reichswehr = = =
Leutnant - 1 June 1930
Oberleutnant - 1 July 1932
= = = Wehrmacht = = =
Hauptmann - 1 April 1937
Major - 1 November 1941
Oberstleutnant - 1 October 1943
= = = Waffen @-@ SS = = =
SS @-@ Obersturmbannführer - 1 December 1943
SS @-@ Standartenführer - 2 April 1944
= = Awards = =
Raithel received the following awards during his service :
German Cross in Gold
Iron Cross First Class
Infantry Assault Badge
Eastern Front Medal
Order of Bravery ( Fourth Grade , First Class ) ( Kingdom of Bulgaria )
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= Lives of the Most Eminent Literary and Scientific Men =
The Lives of the Most Eminent Literary and Scientific Men comprised ten volumes of Dionysius Lardner 's 133 @-@ volume Cabinet Cyclopaedia ( 1829 – 46 ) . Aimed at the self @-@ educating middle class , this encyclopedia was written during the 19th @-@ century literary revolution in Britain that encouraged more people to read .
The Lives formed part of the Cabinet of Biography in the Cabinet Cyclopaedia . Within the set of ten , the three @-@ volume Lives of the Most Eminent Literary and Scientific Men of Italy , Spain and Portugal ( 1835 – 37 ) and the two @-@ volume Lives of the Most Eminent Literary and Scientific Men of France ( 1838 – 39 ) consist of biographies of important writers and thinkers of the 14th to 18th centuries . Most of them were written by the Romantic writer Mary Shelley . Shelley 's biographies reveal her as a professional woman of letters , contracted to produce several volumes of works and paid well to do so . Her extensive knowledge of history and languages , her ability to tell a gripping biographical narrative , and her interest in the burgeoning field of feminist historiography are reflected in these works .
At times Shelley had trouble finding sufficient research materials and had to make do with fewer resources than she would have liked , particularly for the Spanish and Portuguese Lives . She wrote in a style that combined secondary sources , memoir , anecdote , and her own opinions . Her political views are most obvious in the Italian Lives , where she supports the Italian independence movement and promotes republicanism ; in the French Lives she portrays women sympathetically , explaining their political and social restrictions and arguing that women can be productive members of society if given the proper educational and social opportunities .
The Lives did not attract enough critical attention to become a bestseller . A fair number were printed and sold , however , and far more copies of the Lives circulated than of Shelley 's novels . Some of the volumes were illegally copied in the United States , where they were praised by the poet and critic Edgar Allan Poe . Not reprinted until 2002 , Mary Shelley 's biographies have until recently received little academic appreciation .
= = Lardner 's Cabinet Cyclopaedia = =
During the first quarter of the 19th century , self @-@ improvement literature became an important portion of the book market : " it was the age of the ' Family Library ' edition " . In his article on the Cabinet Cyclopaedia , Morse Peckham writes that this " revolution in literacy , [ was ] partly the result of the spread of liberal ideas by the French Revolution , [ and ] partly of the desire to combat those ideas by teaching the poor to read the Bible and religious tracts [ ... It ] was to have an effect on modern society almost as profound as the industrial and agricultural revolutions " . Dionysius Lardner 's Cabinet Cyclopaedia , published between 1829 and 1846 , was one of the most successful of these enterprises , which also included John Murray 's Family Library and the publications of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge . Although intended for the " general reader " , the series was aimed specifically at the middle class rather than the masses : each volume cost six shillings , prohibiting purchase by the poor . The advertisements for the Cyclopaedia describe the expected audience as " merchants , captains , families , [ and ] new @-@ married couples " . The prospectus assured its readers that " nothing will be admitted into the pages of the ' CABINET CYCLOPAEDIA ' which can have the most remote tendency to offend public or private morals . To enforce the cultivation of religion and the practice of virtue should be a principal object with all who undertake to inform the public mind . "
The series was divided into five " Cabinets " : Arts and Manufactures , Biography , History , Natural History , and Natural Philosophy . The advertisement claimed these covered " all the usual divisions of knowledge that are not of a technical and professional kind " . Unlike other encyclopedias of the time , Lardner 's Cabinet Cyclopaedia arranged its articles topically rather than alphabetically . The series eventually contained 61 titles in 133 volumes and customers could purchase a single volume , a single cabinet , or the entire set . The first volume was published in December 1829 by Longman , Reese , Orme , Browne , Greene , and John Taylor . Thirty @-@ eight identified authors contributed ( others are unidentified ) ; Mary Shelley was the only female contributor and the eighth most productive .
Reverend Dr. Dionysius Lardner , a science lecturer at University College London , started the Cabinet Cyclopaedia in 1827 or 1828 . The authors who contributed to the volumes spanned the political spectrum and included many luminaries of the day . James Mackintosh , Walter Scott , Thomas Moore , and Connop Thirlwall wrote histories ; Robert Southey wrote naval biographies ; Henry Roscoe wrote legal biographies ; John Herschel wrote on astronomy and the philosophy of science ; August de Morgan wrote on mathematics ; David Brewster wrote on optics ; and Lardner himself wrote on mathematics and physics . Authors were usually paid about £ 200 for each volume , though some contracts were much higher or lower . For example , Irish poet Thomas Moore was contracted to write a two @-@ volume History of Ireland for £ 1 @,@ 500 . One of the reasons the overall project ran into difficulty may have been that it overpaid well @-@ known writers . Peckham speculates that the reason many of the famous writers listed on the prospectus never participated was because of the project 's financial problems . The 19 substitute contributors were , he writes , " at the time and subsequently a far less distinguished group than Lardner had originally announced " .
The books were relatively expensive to print , because of the Corbould and Finden illustrations , the images for the scientific volumes , and the use of Spottiswoode 's printing house . In order to cut costs , the publishers decided to use small print and narrow margins . An estimated 4 @,@ 000 copies of the first edition of the early volumes were printed , but the print run would probably have fallen to 2 @,@ 500 since the sales did not pick up after 1835 . As it became clear that the series was not going to take off , fewer review copies were sent out and advertisements became smaller . Lardner 's interest in the project may also have waned , as he paid less attention to its business dealings . However , some volumes of the Cabinet Cyclopaedia remained in print until 1890 .
Because of the popularity of encyclopedias at the beginning of the 19th century , the Cabinet Cyclopaedia did not receive enough critical notice to make it a bestseller . Often the reviews were " perfunctory " . However , some individual writers received attention . Moore , for example , was given a front @-@ page spread in the Literary Gazette for his history of Ireland . Shelley 's volumes received 12 reviews in total — a good number — but " her name was never fully exploited " in the project ; whether by her choice or Lardner 's , it is unclear . Nevertheless , Peckham writes that " the Cyclopaedia on the whole was a distinguished and valuable work " , and some of the individual volumes became famous .
= = Mary Shelley 's contributions = =
Written during the last productive decade of Mary Shelley 's career , her contributions fill about three @-@ quarters of these five volumes and reveal her to be a professional woman of letters . They demonstrate her knowledge of several languages and historical research covering several centuries , her ability to tell a gripping biographical narrative , and her interest in the burgeoning field of feminist historiography . She " wrote with many books to hand – reading ( or rereading ) some , consulting others , cross @-@ referring , interweaving abridged and paraphrased source material with her own comment " . Shelley combined secondary sources with memoir and anecdote and included her own judgments , a biographical style made popular by the 18th @-@ century critic Samuel Johnson in his Lives of the Poets ( 1779 – 81 ) . She describes this technique in her " Life of Metastasio " :
It is from passages such as these , interspersed in his letters , that we can collect the peculiar character of the man – his difference from others – and the mechanism of being that rendered him the individual that he was . Such , dr Johnson [ sic ] remarks , is the true end of biography , and he recommends the bringing forward of minute , yet characteristic details , as essential to this style of history ; to follow which precept has been the aim and desire of the writer of these pages .
William Godwin 's theories of biographical writing significantly influenced Shelley 's style . Her father believed that biography could tell the history of a culture as well as serve a pedagogical function . Shelley felt that her nonfiction works were better than her fiction , writing in 1843 to publisher Edward Moxon : " I should prefer quieter work , to be gathered from other works — such as my lives for the Cyclopedia — & which I think I do much better than romancing . "
The 18th century had seen a new kind of history emerge , with works such as David Hume 's History of England ( 1754 – 63 ) . Frustrated with traditional histories that highlighted only military and monarchical history , Hume and others emphasised commerce , the arts , and society . Combined with the rise of sensibility at the end of the 18th century , this " produced an unprecedented historical interest in the social , the inward , and particularly the realm of affect " . These topics and this style explicitly invited women into the discussion of history as both readers and writers . However , since this new history often subordinated the private sphere to the public , women writers took it upon themselves to bring " sentimental and private elements " to the centre of historical study . In this way , they argued for the political relevance of women , claiming , for example , that women 's sympathy for those who suffered enabled them to speak for marginalised groups , such as slaves or the poor .
Shelley practised this early form of feminist historiography . Biographical writing was , in her words , supposed to " form as it were a school in which to study the philosophy of history " and to teach " lessons " . These " lessons " consisted , most frequently and importantly , of criticisms of male @-@ dominated institutions , such as primogeniture . She also praises societies that are progressive with regard to gender relations — she wrote , for example , " No slur was cast by the [ Renaissance era ] Italians on feminine accomplishments ... Where abstruse learning was a fashion among men , they were glad to find in their friends of the other sex , minds educated to share their pursuits " .
Shelley was particularly interested in tying private , domestic history to public , political history . She emphasises romance , the family , sympathy , and compassion in the lives of the people she writes about . This is particularly true in her essays on Petrarch and Vincenzo Monti . Her belief that these domestic influences would improve society , and that women could be at the forefront of them , ties her approach to that of other early feminist historians such as Mary Hays and Anna Jameson . Shelley argues that women possess a " distinctive virtue " in their ability to sympathise with others and should use this ability to improve society . She castigates Jean @-@ Jacques Rousseau , for example , for abandoning his children at a foundling hospital , decrying the " masculine egotism " associated with his philosophy — a criticism similar to the one she makes of Victor Frankenstein in Frankenstein ( 1818 ) .
Unlike most of her novels , which had a print run of only several hundred copies , the Lives 's print run of about 4 @,@ 000 for each volume became , in the words of one scholar , " one of her most influential political interventions " . However , Shelley 's biographies have not been fully appreciated until recently . The Lives were not reprinted until 2002 , and little study has been made of them because of a critical tradition that " dismiss [ es ] the Lives as hack work churned out rapidly in order to pay off debts " .
= = Lives of the Most Eminent Literary and Scientific Men of Italy , Spain and Portugal = =
The three @-@ volume Lives of the Most Eminent Literary and Scientific Men of Italy , Spain and Portugal contains numerous biographies of writers and thinkers of the 14th to 18th centuries . The first volume was published on 1 February 1835 , the second on 1 October 1835 , and the third on 1 November 1837 . An unlicensed edition of the first two volumes was published in the United States by Lea and Blanchard in 1841 .
= = = Italian Lives = = =
The Italian Lives constitute the first two volumes of Lives of the Most Eminent Literary and Scientific Men of Italy , Spain and Portugal . The poet , journalist , and literary historian James Montgomery contributed the biographies of Dante , Ariosto , and Tasso . Historian of science Sir David Brewster contributed that of Galileo . Mary Shelley contributed the rest : Petrarch , Boccaccio , Lorenzo de 'Medici , Marsiglio Ficino , Giovanni Pico della Mirandola , Angelo Poliziano , Bernardo Pulci , Luca Pulci , Luigi Pulci , Cieco Da Ferrara , Burchiello , Bojardo , Berni , Machiavelli , Guicciardini , Vittoria Colonna , Guarini , Chiabrera , Tassoni , Marini , Filicaja , Metastasio , Goldoni , Alfieri , Monti , and Ugo Foscolo . Although there has been some confusion regarding the attribution of these biographies , the Lives 's recent editor , Tilar Mazzeo , notes that Shelley claimed authorship of all of these and granted Montgomery and Brewster 's authorship of the others in her letters .
Shelley began the Italian Lives on 23 November 1833 and by December was working methodically : she wrote the Lives in the morning and read novels and memoirs in the evening . She added the revision of her novel Lodore ( 1835 ) and the checking of its proofs to this already busy schedule . She worked on the Italian Lives for two years and was probably paid £ 140 for each volume . By the time she began working on the Lives , Shelley had spent 20 years studying Italian authors and had lived in Italy for five years . Her major sources for the biographies were first @-@ person memoirs and literature by the authors , aided by scholarly works . Shelley had gained much of her knowledge of these authors in Italy when she was researching her historical novel Valperga ( 1823 ) ; the rest she obtained from her own books or those of her father , the philosopher William Godwin . She had limited access to books at this time and was thus restricted to those she owned or could borrow from friends . Shelley copied sections from some of these works in a manner that would today be termed plagiarism , but , as Mazzeo explains , because the standards of intellectual property and copyright were so different in the early 19th century , Shelley 's practice was common and not considered unethical . She writes , " Mary Shelley 's objectives in the Italian Lives were to gather what had been said by these authors and about them and to infuse the work with her own judgements on their interest and credibility . "
To supplement her printed sources , Shelley interviewed Gabriele Rossetti and other Italian expatriates in London for the modern biographies . Mazzeo writes that " her lives of the contemporary Italian poets – Alfieri , Monti and Foscolo – are unquestionably the most personal and most inspired of the two volumes " . Of all of the volumes Shelley contributed to the Cabinet Cyclopaedia , Italian Lives is , according to editor Nora Crook , the " most overtly political " . Shelley was a friend to the Italian exiles and a proponent of the Risorgimento ; she reveals her republicanism by depicting Machiavelli as a patriot . She continually praises writers who resist tyranny by " cultivat [ ing ] private virtue and inner peace " . In the first volume of the Italian Lives her primary goal was to introduce lesser @-@ known Italian writers to English readers and build up the reputation of those who were already known , reflecting the view she expressed in her travel narrative Rambles in Germany and Italy ( 1844 ) : " Italian literature claims , at present , a very high rank in Europe . If the writers are less numerous , yet in genius they equal , and in moral taste they surpass France and England " .
Shelley specifically addressed gender politics in her biography of the 16th @-@ century poet Vittoria Colonna , highlighting her literary achievements , her " virtues , talents , and beauty " , and her interest in politics . However , Shelley was careful to describe feminine virtues in their historical context throughout the Italian Lives . For example , her analysis of the cavalier servente system in Italy , which allowed married women to take lovers , was rooted in an understanding that many marriages at the time were made not for love , but for profit . She refused to indict any particular woman for what she saw as the faults of a larger system .
Little has been written on the contributions by Montgomery or Brewster . According to Mazzeo , Montgomery 's biographies , which draw a picture of the subject 's character and incorporate autobiographical material , are written in a " digressive though not unengaging manner " . He is less concerned with factual accuracy , although he identifies his sources , and more interested in developing " extended parallels between Italian and English literature " . Brewster includes descriptions of 16th @-@ century scientific experiments in his formally written biography of Galileo , as well as information on other Renaissance natural philosophers . According to Mazzeo , " Brewster 's pious religiosity infuses the work and his opinions " .
Ninety @-@ eight review copies of the first two volumes were distributed , eliciting five reviews . Some of these were simply short advertisements for the Cabinet Cyclopaedia . Mazzeo writes that the " commentary on both volumes was mixed and often contradictory , but on balance positive ; prose style , organisation and use of source materials were the three most often identified points of discussion " . The first volume was declared to be unorganised , the second volume less so . Reviewers did not agree on the value of frequently using primary sources , nor on the elegance of the writing style . The Monthly Review dedicated the most substantial review and extracts to the volumes , writing that " we by no means think highly of the volume as a whole " , complaining that it presented facts and dates without context . However , the reviewer praised two of Mary Shelley 's biographies : Petrarch and Machiavelli . According to Mazzeo , the reviewer " notes , in particular , her efforts to question conventional assumptions about Machiavelli by returning to autobiographical materials and credits her with originality on this point " . Graham 's Magazine , in a piece probably by its co @-@ editor , Edgar Allan Poe , positively reviewed the unauthorized American edition .
= = = Spanish and Portuguese Lives = = =
The Spanish and Portuguese Lives constitute the third volume of the Lives of the Most Eminent Literary and Scientific Men of Italy , Spain and Portugal . Except for the biography of Ercilla , whose author is unknown , Mary Shelley wrote all of the entries in this volume : Boscán , Garcilaso de la Vega , Diego Hurtado de Mendoza , Luis de León , Herrera , Sá de Miranda , Jorge de Montemayor , Castillejo , Cervantes , Lope de Vega , Vicente Espinel , Esteban de Villegas , Góngora , Quevedo , Calderón , Ribeiro , Gil Vicente , Ferreira , and Camoens .
During the two or three years that Mary Shelley spent writing the Spanish and Portuguese Lives from 1834 or 1835 to 1837 , she also wrote a novel , Falkner ( 1837 ) , experienced the death of her father , William Godwin , started a biography of him , and moved to London after her son , Percy Florence Shelley , entered Trinity College , Cambridge . She had more difficulty with these Lives than with the other volumes ' biographies , writing to her friend Maria Gisborne : " I am now about to write a Volume of Spanish & Portugeeze [ sic ] Lives – This is an arduous task , from my own ignorance , & the difficulty of getting books & information " . According to Lisa Vargo , a recent editor of the Spanish and Portuguese Lives , Spanish books were hard to come by in England and not much was known regarding Shelley 's subjects . However , Shelly ended one plaintive letter to another friend : " The best is that the very thing which occasions the difficulty makes it interesting – namely – the treading in unknown paths & dragging out unknown things – I wish I could go to Spain . " While living in Harrow , she refused to go to the British Library in London , writing : " I would not if I could – I do not like finding myself a stray bird among strange men in a character assimililating [ sic ] to their own " . At this time , the British Library had special tables for women in the reading room . While some scholars see her refusal to work there as a mark of " feminist protest " others see it as " matter of comfort and practicality " , since the reading rooms were " noisy , badly lit , and poorly ventilated " . Shelley 's continual problems with finding sources mean that her biographies are based on relatively few works . However , Vargo writes that " there is always a sense of an engaged and intelligent mind at work weighing what should be included , what seems accurate " . Shelley tended to focus on obtaining accounts written by people who knew the authors , and when translations of the authors ' works were unavailable or poor , she provided her own .
Shelley 's biographies begin by describing the author , offering examples of their writings in the original language and in translation , and end by summarising their " beauties and defects " . She also discusses the problems of writing biography itself , engaging in a written dialogue with the theories of her now @-@ dead father . In " Of History and Romance " Godwin had written that for the genius , " I am not contented to observe such a man upon the public stage , I would follow him into his closet . I would see the friend and the father of a family , as well as the patriot " . Shelley and Godwin had seen the negative effects of this approach when Godwin published Memoirs of the Author of A Vindication of the Rights of Woman ( 1798 ) , his biography of Shelley 's mother , Mary Wollstonecraft . Its frank description of Wollstonecraft 's affairs and suicide attempts shocked the public and sullied her reputation . Shelley criticises this technique in her biographies , concerned that such works perpetuate " follies " . She is even more concerned that often an absence of information regarding a particular writer is interpreted as evidence that the writer was insignificant .
Overall , the Spanish Lives , according to Vargo , " tells a story of the survival of genius and moral independence in spite of oppression by public institutions , both individually and nationally " . Shelley argues that Spain 's literature is directly related to its politics and seeks to inspire her readers by outlining a national literature stretching back to Lucan which represents the best characteristics of Spanish identity : " originality " , " independence " , " enthusiasm " , and " earnestness " .
= = Lives of the Most Eminent Literary and Scientific Men of France = =
The two @-@ volume Lives of the Most Eminent Literary and Scientific Men of France includes the following works by Mary Shelley : Montaigne , Corneille , Rochefoucauld , Molière , Pascal , Madame de Sévigné , Boileau , Racine , Fénelon , Voltaire , Rousseau , Condorcet , Mirabeau , Madame Roland , and Madame de Staël . Rabelais and La Fontaine are by an as yet unidentified author . Shelley was the only contributor to Lardner 's Cabinet Cyclopaedia to give such pride of place to female biographical subjects . In these volumes , " she stretched the definition of ' Eminent Literary Men ' not just by including two more women but by her choice of a quartet of French revolutionary personalities who were political actors more than , or as much as writers : Condorcet and Mirabeau , Mme Roland and Mme de Staël " . As Clarissa Campbell Orr , a recent editor of the French Lives , explains , this choice " represents a concerted attempt to disassociate the early ideals of the French Revolution from its subsequent extremism and state @-@ authored bloodshed " .
Mary Shelley worked on the French Lives from the end of 1837 until the middle of 1839 and she was paid £ 200 upon their completion . No other substantial projects occupied her during this time and research materials were easily accessible ; she even subscribed to a specialist circulating library to acquire books . She wrote to her friend Leigh Hunt of the project , " I am now writing French Lives . The Spanish ones interested me — these do not so much – yet , it is pleasant writing enough – sparing one imagination yet occupying one & supplying in some small degree the needful which is so very needful . "
Mary Shelley spoke French fluently and was knowledgeable about 17th- and 18th @-@ century French literature . Although she was distilling other works , the biographies are still deeply personal works and have autobiographical elements . Orr writes that they " are the culmination of her work for Lardner , and represent the final stage of a sustained overview of four literatures . Few British women of letters in the 1830s could command this extensive range and write so confidently about four national cultures . " Orr compares Shelley to the 19th @-@ century historical writers Lady Morgan , Frances Trollope , Anna Jameson , and Agnes and Eliza Strickland . Shelley 's assessment of French literature was not as generous as her evaluation of Italian literature . She criticized its artificiality , for example . However , the biographies are " written with a sprightly narrative thrust and an agreeable tone " . She also often provided her own translations and focused on themes that resonated with her own life .
The French Lives provided Shelley with a way to celebrate literary women , particularly salonniéres . In her life of Madame de Sévigné , Shelley celebrates " her chaste widowhood ; her loyalty as a friend ; [ and ] her maternal devotion " . However , Orr writes that it is difficult to see a pattern in the way Shelley addresses gender issues in these volumes . She argues that " the most consistent ' feminism ' displayed throughout [ the second volume of French Lives ] lies in her examination of French attitudes toward love , marriage , and sexuality " . Shelley sympathetically portrays customs such as taking lovers , explaining the custom in the context of France 's arranged marriages . Overall , Orr explains , Shelley 's " historical sympathy for the varied circumstances of women 's relationships mirrors her personal practice of understanding and assisting those of her women friends who transgressed moral norms " . The biographies of Roland and Staël focus on their abilities and the social forces that both helped and hindered them from succeeding . Shelley argues that women are as intellectually capable as men , but lack a sufficient education and are trapped by social systems such as marriage that restrict their rights . The emphasis that Shelley places on education and reading reflect the influence of her mother 's A Vindication of the Rights of Woman ( 1792 ) . In these two biographies , Shelley reinforces contemporary gender roles while at the same time celebrating the achievements of these women . She describes Roland through traditionally feminine roles :
She was her husband 's friend , companion , amanuensis ; fearful of the temptations of the world , she gave herself up to labour ; she soon became absolutely necessary to him at every moment , and in all the incidents of his life ; her servitude was thus sealed ; now and then it caused a sigh ; but the holy sense of duty reconciled her to every inconvenience .
Shelley also defends Roland 's " unwomanly " actions , however , by arguing that they were " beneficial " to French society . Shelley 's most overt feminist statement in the French Lives comes when she criticises Jean @-@ Jacques Rousseau 's novel Julie , or the New Heloise ( 1761 ) , writing " his ideas ... of a perfect life are singularly faulty . It includes no instruction , no endeavours to acquire knowledge and refine the soul by study ; but is contracted to mere domestic avocations " .
Sixty review copies of each volume were sent out , but only one short notice of the first volume of French Lives has been located , in the Sunday Times . The volumes were bootlegged in the United States by Lea and Blanchard of Philadelphia and reviewed by Edgar Allan Poe in Graham 's Lady 's and Gentleman ’ s Magazine in 1841 . He wrote , " a more valuable work , when considered solely as an introduction to French literature , has not , for some time , been issued from the American press " .
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= Agent Carter ( season 1 ) =
The first season of the American television series Agent Carter , which is inspired by the film Captain America : The First Avenger and the Marvel One @-@ Shot short film of the same name , features the Marvel Comics character Peggy Carter as she must balance doing administrative work and going on secret missions for Howard Stark while trying to navigate life as a single woman in 1940s America . It is set in the Marvel Cinematic Universe ( MCU ) , sharing continuity with the films of the franchise . The season , which aired on ABC from January 6 to February 24 , 2015 , over 8 episodes , was produced by ABC Studios , Marvel Television , and F & B Fazekas & Butters , with Tara Butters , Michele Fazekas , and Chris Dingess serving as showrunners .
Hayley Atwell reprises her role from the film series and One @-@ Shot as Carter , with James D 'Arcy , Chad Michael Murray , Enver Gjokaj , and Shea Whigham also starring . In May 2014 , ABC bypassed a pilot , ordering a show based on the One @-@ Shot straight to series for an eight episode season . Filming took place in Los Angeles from September 2014 to January 2015 , and Industrial Light & Magic provided visual effects . The season introduces the origins of several characters and storylines from MCU films , while other characters from the films and Marvel One @-@ Shots also appear .
The season aired during the season two mid @-@ season break of Marvel 's Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. Despite steadily dropping viewership , critical response to Agent Carter was positive , with much praise going to Atwell 's performance , the series ' tone and setting , and its relative separation from the rest of the MCU . The series was renewed for a second season on May 7 , 2015 .
= = Episodes = =
= = Cast and characters = =
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
By September 2013 , Marvel Television was developing a series inspired by the Agent Carter One @-@ Shot short film , featuring the Marvel Comics character Peggy Carter . On May 8 , 2014 , ABC officially ordered the series , bypassing a pilot order , and later confirmed that Agent Carter would air between the 2014 finale and 2015 premiere of the second season of Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. , beginning January 6 , 2015 . Later in May , star Hayley Atwell stated that the season would consist of eight episodes . Executive producers for the season include Tara Butters , Michelle Fazekas , Christopher Markus , Stephen McFeely , Chris Dingess , Kevin Feige , Louis D 'Esposito , Alan Fine , Joe Quesada , Stan Lee , and Jeph Loeb . Butters , Fazekas , and Dingess serve as showrunners on the season .
= = = Writing = = =
Markus & McFeely , writers on the Captain America films , had written a script for the first episode by January 2014 . They stated in March that the series would be set in 1946 , occurring in the middle of the timeline established in the One @-@ Shot . In July , Butters and Fazekas revealed that writing for the rest of the season would begin in August 2014 .
In July 2014 , Fazekas stated that it was " fabulous from a writing perspective " to have an eight episode order , as " it 's a really nice number where you can plan it and know where you 're heading ... They 're all their own stories and they all have their own drive , but it 's sort of building toward a big thing at the end of the eight episodes . " Elaborating on this , Atwell said , " it 's incredibly tight , the script , which is great . It 's fast moving and fast paced but luckily because it 's not stretched out of 22 episodes , nothing is diluted . Every line is vital to not only moving the story and the action [ along ] but also developing the characters . So you get to know these characters incredibly quickly . You get to know who you should be trusting , who you shouldn 't be , and then it takes you on this adventure with a lot of surprises and twists and turns which are a surprise to Peggy and they 'll also be a surprise to the audience . " Also in July , it was revealed that Carter 's husband would be explored in the series . However , it was not explored much in the first season , with McFeely saying , " This was the season where she says goodbye to Steve [ Rogers ] ... But we knew by the end [ of season one ] that she should say goodbye to him . In a second season , she could be freer to have those conversations about a life after him . "
Speaking about the season 's use of 1940s terminology , Fazekas stated that terms like " broad " and " dame " were preferably avoided , while research was done to ensure terms that were used in the series were actually in use during that time , with Fazekas giving the example , " you know what didn 't exist in 1946 ? Smart ass . I looked up the etymology on that , didn 't exist in 1946 . Turns out it was a term that came around in the 60s . But for instance , I wrote a line that said , " Oh I think someone 's yanking your chain . " And I had to look it up , did that exist in 1946 ? And actually it did ; it 's a mining term that exists from a long time ago . That 's our research that we do . " Research was also done on radio shows of the time to ensure realism when creating the fictional Captain America Adventure Program , with details discovered and replicated on the series including the use of lobsters and ham to create sound effects for the radio show . The Griffith Hotel , the all @-@ women boarding house where Carter lives , is based on the real @-@ life Barbizon Hotel for Women . Butters felt that while working in the time period , it became an issue to not sound " too period " . Additionally , it was difficult to write British people from the time in order to avoid stereotypes such as the " typical British butler " . However , D 'Arcy , who is British , felt the writing staff wrote the British characters better than anyone else he had worked with , despite there not being any British writers on the staff .
= = = Casting = = =
The main cast for the season includes Hayley Atwell as Peggy Carter , reprising her role from the film series , James D 'Arcy as Edwin Jarvis , Chad Michael Murray as Jack Thompson , Enver Gjokaj as Daniel Sousa , and Shea Whigham as Roger Dooley .
In March 2014 , Markus and McFeely stated that Howard Stark would be a recurring character , contingent on Dominic Cooper 's involvement . In June 2014 , Atwell confirmed that Cooper would be involved with the series . Kyle Bornheimer , Ralph Brown , Meagen Fay , Lyndsy Fonseca , and Bridget Regan also recur as Ray Krzeminski , Johann Fennhoff , Miriam Fry , Angie Martinelli , and Dottie Underwood , respectively , throughout the series .
In November 2014 , it was announced that Costa Ronin would portray a younger version of Anton Vanko , who was portrayed in Iron Man 2 by Yevgeni Lazarev . Chris Evans appears as Steve Rogers / Captain America via archive footage from The First Avenger . Neal McDonough and Toby Jones also reprise their roles of Timothy " Dum Dum " Dugan and Arnim Zola from previous MCU films , One @-@ Shots , and / or television series during the season .
= = = Filming = = =
Filming began in Los Angeles around late September / early October 2014 and was completed on January 20 , 2015 . Cinematographer Gabriel Beristain , returning from the One @-@ Shot , used a combination of modern digital technology and traditional analog techniques to replicate the feel of classic films that are set in the 1940s , but to also have the convenience and consistency of modern technology . Beristain uses the Arri Alexa digital camera , along with Leica Lenses and silk @-@ stocking diffusion nets , the latter on which he recalled " I had last used in the 1980s in England on videos and commercials . I remembered that they were fantastic . In combination with the Leica lenses , the look is very classic , very much like a 1940s film . When I saw it , I said , ' This is absolutely Marvel , ' and [ D 'Esposito ] agreed . " For the series ' lighting , Beristain again mixed modern and traditional , using LED fixtures to recreate classic Hollywood lighting . He called his lighting of Atwell " an homage to the great cinematographers who lit Lauren Bacall and Grace Kelly . "
= = = Visual effects = = =
Sheena Duggal , who served as visual effects supervisor on the Agent Carter One @-@ Shot , returned to the position for the series , while the companies Industrial Light & Magic ( ILM ) and Base FX created the visual effects . Work by ILM includes the creation of backdrops for the series , including matte paintings , depicting 1940s New York . DNeg TV also created visual effects , with ILM coordinating with them and Base to maintain a " seamless workflow " . The season had 1038 visual effects shots , with multiple episodes being worked on in post @-@ production simultaneously to complete the work . In addition to all the set extensions required to depict the period ( the series filmed at " every back lot in LA , including Universal , Paramount and Warner Bros. , relying on a tremendous amount of green screen and matte paintings to create the show 's authentic @-@ looking locations " ) , Duggal also noted difficulty in simulating the imploding bombs and creating a fully CG truck that drives off a cliff .
= = = Music = = =
In September 2014 , Christopher Lennertz officially signed on to compose for the series , having previously composed the Agent Carter One @-@ Shot . Lennertz combined all the different style elements of the show in the music , such as mixing jazz and period elements , with orchestra and electronic elements . In his research of the music of the time period , Lennertz learned that jazz was shifting from big band to smaller ensembles , and bebop was being introduced . This allowed him to incorporate trumpets in his scores , to harken to the time period and because they are " also very sneaky , and it lends itself to espionage " . Lennertz used the alto flute to capture " Carter 's aura " , saying , " It feels like a strong woman 's voice , especially as she 's sneaking around .... it also has that spy quality . " Additionally , Lennertz was able to reorchestrate " Star @-@ Spangled Man " for the season , which is originally by Alan Menken for Captain America : The First Avenger , and introduced a folk choral piece performed by a Russian men 's choir during " The Iron Ceiling " . A soundtrack album for the season was released on iTunes on December 11 , 2015 .
All music composed by Christopher Lennertz .
= = = Marvel Cinematic Universe tie @-@ ins = = =
Markus , talking about the series place in the greater architecture of the MCU in January 2015 said " you really only need to drop the tiniest bit of hint and its connected . You don 't have to go , " Howard Stark 's wearing the same pants that Tony wears ! " ... Everything is enhanced just by the knowledge that its all connected . " The season introduces the Red Room and the origins of the Black Widow program , which will eventually produce Natasha Romanoff , who appears in multiple MCU films portrayed by Scarlett Johansson . Although the origins of the program are explored , the term " Black Widow " is never used in the series . Agent Carter also explores the origins of the Hydra @-@ led Winter Soldier program , as seen by the end tag in " Valediction " when Zola approaches Faustus about mind control .
= = Release = =
= = = Broadcast = = =
Agent Carter debuted in the United States and Canada as a two @-@ hour series premiere on January 6 , 2015 , on ABC and CTV , respectively . It began airing in New Zealand on TV2 on February 11 , 2015 . In October 2014 , Channel 4 , the channel that airs Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. in the United Kingdom , stated that they did not " have any current plans [ to air ] Agent Carter " . In June 2015 , FOX UK purchased the broadcast rights for the United Kingdom , with the series premiering on July 12 , 2015 .
= = = Marketing = = =
In the lead up to the airing of the series , Atwell made several appearances as Carter in Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. ' s second season . Footage from the first episode was shown at New York Comic Con on October 10 , 2014 , and again in ABC 's one @-@ hour television special , Marvel 75 Years : From Pulp to Pop ! , which aired in November 2014 . The first teaser for the series debuted during Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. on October 28 , 2014 , with the tagline " Sometimes the best man for the job ... is a woman . " Though the trailer itself was received positively , the tagline was criticized as " awful " and " ridiculous " , and Alan Sepinwall of HitFix said " I get that one of the themes of the show will be Peggy dealing with the sexism of the time , but these ads exist in 2014 , not 1945 . Please find a new tagline . "
= = = Home media = = =
The season was released on Blu @-@ ray and DVD on September 18 , 2015 , as an Amazon.com exclusive .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
= = = Critical response = = =
The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 95 % approval rating with an average rating of 7 @.@ 9 / 10 based on 42 reviews . The website 's consensus reads , " Focusing on Peggy Carter as a person first and an action hero second makes Marvel 's Agent Carter a winning , stylish drama with bursts of excitement and an undercurrent of cheeky fun " . Metacritic , which uses a weighted average , assigned a score of 73 out of 100 based on 27 reviews , indicating " generally favorable reviews . "
Brian Lowry , reviewing the two @-@ part premiere for Variety , felt that giving Atwell her own television series was " a pretty smart bet " by Marvel , and he called the episodes " considerable fun " . He noted the period setting as contributing to this , and positively mentioned the score by composer Christopher Lennertz . Darren Franich of Entertainment Weekly felt that " the show isn 't as retro @-@ stylish as it thinks it is ... the first hour of Agent Carter feels like an above @-@ average episode of Young Indiana Jones Chronicles " , noting that it tonally aims for His Girl Friday , Dick Tracy , and Alias ( " A tough tonal mixture on a weekly broadcast budget , but also an ambition worth pursuing " ) , but praised Atwell 's performance , calling her " a delight " and " firing on all cylinders " . Franich was negative about what he saw to be common MCU tropes , notably " Somebody named Stark invented something dangerous ; everyone wants an All @-@ Important Glowing Thing ; there 's an implicit promise that nothing will be solved for weeks / years to come . " Though he was wary about the series being forced to contribute to the rest of the MCU , he did note that " Agent Carter feels pleasantly segmented off from the greater Marvel Machinery " .
Eric Goldman of IGN gave the first season an 8 @.@ 8 out of 10 , saying , " Agent Carter didn 't need to succeed by setting up something to pay off in Guardians of the Galaxy 2 – it just needed to be an entertaining , involving show . And boy , was it . " He also praised the Peggy / Jarvis dynamic , the MCU tie @-@ ins and connections the series included , such as the Black Widow program , and the strong portrayals of the season 's supporting characters . Amy Ratcliffe at Nerdist called the season " a memorable splash " a noted that the lack of filler in the short season lead to " action @-@ packed but not overstuffed " episodes . She praised the " period aspect that 's defined so well by music , sets , and costumes " as placing the series " head and shoulders above others " , and called the cast " eminently talented " . On the other hand , Lowry ultimately found the series " just didn 't have legs " , saying that after the premiere it " meandered through several episodes that merely seemed to inch the story along , rallying only slightly in the not wholly satisfying conclusion . " He felt that outside of Atwell 's Carter and D 'Arcy 's Jarvis that characters were not developed enough , and said that the MCU tie @-@ in with Toby Jones ' Arnim Zola made the series seem like " a footnote " .
= = = Accolades = = =
Maureen Ryan of Variety named the show one of the Top 20 Best New Shows of 2015 , while Digital Spy ranked it 10th on their Best TV Shows of 2015 list . The A.V. Club named Atwell 's performance as one of the " Best Individual Performances " of 2015 .
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= Banksia aquilonia =
Banksia aquilonia , commonly known as the northern banksia , is a tree in the family Proteaceae native to north Queensland on Australia 's northeastern coastline . With an average height of 8 m ( 26 ft ) , it has narrow glossy green leaves up to 20 cm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) long and 6 to 10 cm ( 2 @.@ 4 to 3 @.@ 9 in ) high pale yellow flower spikes , known as inflorescences , appearing in autumn . As the spikes age , their flowers fall off and they develop up to 50 follicles , each of which contains two seeds .
Alex George described the plant in his 1981 monograph of the genus Banksia as a variety of Banksia integrifolia , but later reclassified it as a separate species . Genetic studies show it to be related to Banksia plagiocarpa , Banksia oblongifolia and Banksia robur . The species is found in wet sclerophyll forest and rainforest margins on sandy soils . Banksia aquilonia regenerates after bushfire by regrowing from epicormic buds under its bark . It is rarely cultivated .
= = Description = =
Banksia aquilonia grows as a tall shrub or small tree up to 8 m ( 26 ft ) high , though plants up to 15 m ( 49 ft ) have been recorded . It has hard , fissured , grey bark , and narrow elliptic or lanceolate leaves measuring 5 – 20 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 – 7 @.@ 9 in ) long by 0 @.@ 6 – 1 @.@ 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 2 – 0 @.@ 5 in ) wide with entire ( straight ) margins and acute tips . They are a smooth shiny green above and white below with a prominent midrib covered in red @-@ brown hair . The brownish new growth appears in summer . The plant is in bloom from March to June . Flowers occur in Banksia 's characteristic vertical flower spike , an inflorescence made up of hundreds of pairs of flowers densely packed in a spiral around a woody axis . B. aquilonia 's flower spike is a pale yellow colour , roughly cylindrical , 6 – 10 cm ( 2 @.@ 4 – 3 @.@ 9 in ) high , and up to 6 cm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) in diameter . The tubular perianths of the individual flowers are 2 @.@ 5 – 2 @.@ 9 cm ( 0 @.@ 98 – 1 @.@ 14 in ) long . These open at maturity ( anthesis ) to release the styles . All old flower parts fall away as up to 50 oval follicles develop on the bare woody spike . The follicles measure 0 @.@ 8 – 1 @.@ 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 3 – 0 @.@ 5 in ) long , 0 @.@ 5 – 0 @.@ 9 cm ( 0 @.@ 20 – 0 @.@ 35 in ) high , and 0 @.@ 4 – 0 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 16 – 0 @.@ 20 in ) wide . Furry at first , they become smooth with age and open when ripe , and their two half @-@ oval valves split to release the one or two seeds they contain . The obovate dark grey @-@ brown to black seeds sandwich a woody separator . Measuring 1 @.@ 4 – 1 @.@ 6 cm ( 0 @.@ 6 – 0 @.@ 6 in ) long , they are made up of a wedge @-@ shaped seed body , 0 @.@ 8 – 1 cm ( 0 @.@ 3 – 0 @.@ 4 in ) long by 0 @.@ 2 – 0 @.@ 3 cm ( 0 @.@ 08 – 0 @.@ 1 in ) wide . The woody separator is the same shape as the seed , with an impression where the seed body lies next to it . Seedlings have bright obovate green cotyledons around 1 cm ( 0 @.@ 39 in ) long . Juvenile leaves are narrower , measuring 7 – 24 cm ( 2 @.@ 8 – 9 @.@ 4 in ) long and 0 @.@ 6 – 2 @.@ 1 cm ( 0 @.@ 2 – 0 @.@ 8 in ) wide , and often have serrate ( toothed ) margins .
Although the inflorescences of Banksia aquilonia are similar to B. integrifolia , the leaves are marked in their differences — the midrib on the leaves ' undersides is distinctively covered in short reddish @-@ brown hairs and the leaves are spirally arranged on the branches rather than in whorls as in all B. integrifolia subspecies . It was these differences that George felt were distinctive enough for it to be separate it as a full species from B. integrifolia . The overall habit of a Banksia aquilonia tree resembles that of B. integrifolia , though is generally smaller . The southernmost populations of B. aquilonia are separated from the northernmost B. integrifolia occurrence by 200 km ( 120 mi ) , hence location is helpful in identification .
= = = Variants = = =
Field volunteers for The Banksia Atlas recorded plants with large adult and juvenile leaves up to 38 cm ( 15 in ) long along the Tully to Mission Beach Road , and a population of smaller shrub @-@ sized plants to 3 m ( 10 ft ) high with small narrow leaves 13 cm ( 5 @.@ 1 in ) long and 0 @.@ 4 cm ( 0 @.@ 2 in ) wide at Coronation Lookout in Wooroonooran National Park , plants with normal morphology occurring further down the mountain .
= = Taxonomy = =
Banksia aquilonia was first described by Alex George in 1981 as a variety of Banksia integrifolia ( coast banksia ) , from a specimen collected at Witts Lookout in Crystal Creek National Park south of Ingham on 12 April 1975 . The species name is the Latin adjective aquilonius , meaning " northern " , as it was the most northerly form of B. integrifolia . In 1996 Kevin Thiele and Pauline Ladiges published a cladistic analysis of Banksia based on morphology , in which this taxon stood out as the only member of B. integrifolia to be both morphologically and geographically distinct from other infraspecific taxa . They also noted that there were no intermediate plants between what was then known as B. integrifolia var. aquilonia and other populations of B. integrifolia . On this basis they would have liked to promote it to species rank , but did not because their inferred phylogeny suggested that this taxon arose from within B. integrifolia . They were unwilling to render B. integrifolia paraphyletic by elevating this taxon to species rank , and they were equally unwilling to elevate all four varieties to species rank , since the others all had significant overlaps in distribution and morphology . Therefore , they simply promoted all four to subspecies rank . This example has since been held up as an interesting case study on how the concept of species should be defined , as it presents the problem of " a monophyletic group comprising a paraphyletic basal group of incompletely differentiated geographic forms within which is nested at least one divergent , autapomorphic taxon that invites treatment as a species . "
George promoted it to species rank on the basis of its distinctive leaf arrangement and midrib in 1996 . Thus its full name with author citation is " Banksia aquilonia ( A.S.George ) A.S.George " . It is placed in subgenus Banksia , section Banksia and series Salicinae . Its placement within Banksia may be summarised as follows :
Genus Banksia
Subgenus Banksia
Section Banksia
Series Salicinae
Banksia dentata - Banksia aquilonia - Banksia integrifolia - Banksia plagiocarpa - Banksia oblongifolia - Banksia robur - Banksia conferta - Banksia paludosa - Banksia marginata - Banksia canei - Banksia saxicola
Series Grandes
Series Banksia
Series Crocinae
Series Prostratae
Series Cyrtostylis
Series Tetragonae
Series Bauerinae
Series Quercinae
Section Coccinea
Section Oncostylis
Subgenus Isostylis
Despite initially assigning Banksia aquilonia to be variety of B. integrifolia , George noted that it had affinities with the then newly described species Banksia plagiocarpa , with which it co @-@ occurs on and near Hinchinbrook Island in north Queensland .
Since 1998 , American botanist Austin Mast and co @-@ authors have been publishing results of ongoing cladistic analyses of DNA sequence data for Banksia and Dryandra . Their analyses suggest a phylogeny that differs greatly from George 's taxonomic arrangement . Banksia aquilonia formed a clade with B. plagiocarpa , B. oblongifolia and B. robur , rather than B. integrifolia . Early in 2007 , Mast and Thiele rearranged the genus Banksia by merging Dryandra into it , and published B. subg . Spathulatae for the taxa having spoon @-@ shaped cotyledons ; thus B. subg . Banksia was redefined as encompassing taxa lacking spoon @-@ shaped cotyledons . They foreshadowed publishing a full arrangement once DNA sampling of Dryandra was complete ; in the meantime , if Mast and Thiele 's nomenclatural changes are taken as an interim arrangement , then B. aquilonia is placed in B. subg . Spathulatae .
Common names include northern banksia , white banksia , honeysuckle or white bottlebrush . A local aboriginal name is jingana , in the Jirrbal and Girramay languages .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Banksia aquilonia occurs in coastal areas of northern Queensland from the Cedar Bay National Park to Paluma Range National Park , in areas with an annual rainfall of 1 @,@ 000 to 4 @,@ 000 mm ( 39 to 157 in ) . It occurs from near sea level to an altitude of 1 @,@ 000 m ( 3 @,@ 300 ft ) , in a variety of habitats and aspects . It grows in wet sclerophyll forest or rainforest margins , on plateaus , ridges , slopes and low @-@ lying swampy areas on sandy or rocky soils , generally of granitic origin , or sometimes clay . It commonly grows with tree species such as the pink bloodwood ( Corymbia intermedia ) , forest red gum ( Eucalyptus tereticornis ) , swamp turpentine ( Lophostemon suaveolens ) , forest oak ( Allocasuarina torulosa ) , and black sheoak ( A. littoralis ) , and understorey species such as coin spot wattle ( Acacia cincinnata ) and yellow wattle ( A. flavescens ) . Much of its lowland habitat in the Wet Tropics has been degraded or fragmented . Although the range overlaps with B. dentata , the two species are not known to occur together .
= = Ecology = =
Banksia aquilonia regenerates after bushfire by regrowing from epicormic buds under its bark . Regeneration from root suckers has also been recorded . Unlike many banksia species which release their seed after bushfires , Banksia aquilonia sets seed when the follicles mature .
Banksia inflorescences are energy @-@ rich sources of food , and B. aquilonia nectar is a likely food item of the endangered mahogany glider ( Petaurus gracilis ) , as well as many other mammals and birds . Avian species observed visiting the flower spikes include the bridled honeyeater , white @-@ cheeked honeyeater , eastern spinebill and rainbow lorikeet .
= = Cultivation = =
Banksia aquilonia adapts readily to cultivation in humid or temperate climates , but is rarely cultivated . A fast @-@ growing plant , it can grow in acidic soils from pH 3 @.@ 5 to 6 @.@ 5 . Propagation is generally by seed , and plants flower at four to six years of age . Vegetative propagation is possible from semi @-@ hardened cuttings of pencil thickness . The flower spikes attract birds to the garden . It can also be grown in a pot , with its branches heavily pruned to keep foliage dense .
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= A Hero Sits Next Door =
" A Hero Sits Next Door " is the fifth episode of season one of Family Guy , originally aired on Fox on May 2 , 1999 . The episode features the introduction of Joe Swanson , who would become a main character in the series . Peter Griffin must find a replacement player for an upcoming softball game . Peter eventually convinces Joe to play for the team after learning that he played baseball in college . When Joe shows up the following morning , Peter realizes that Joe is in a wheelchair . Joe turns out to be a great player , and the team wins the game . Peter becomes jealous of Joe and tries to become a hero . In a subplot , Meg Griffin tries to get Joe 's son Kevin to notice her .
" A Hero Sits Next Door " was directed by Monte Young and written by the writing team of Mike Barker and Matt Weitzman . It featured guest performances from actress Suzie Plakson , figure skater Michelle Kwan , as well as actors Wally Wingert and Carlos Alazraqui . Much of the episode features a cutaway style of humor that is typically used in Family Guy , many of which feature cultural references and include Super Friends , Pez , Teletubbies , and the assassinations of John F. Kennedy and Robert F. Kennedy .
The episode received positive praise from television critics , who considered it to be a memorable introduction for the character of Joe Swanson ; certain critics praised the fight sequence between Joe and The Grinch , while others criticized the episode 's cutaway gags as well as its plot twists , which they regarded as " odd " and " counter @-@ intuitive " .
= = Plot summary = =
At the Happy @-@ Go @-@ Lucky Toy Factory , safety inspector Peter Griffin is working when his boss Mr. Weed introduces Guillermo , a ringer who will attempt to assist the company in winning the annual softball game . At home , Peter 's wife Lois informs him of their new neighbors , the Swanson family , and wishes for him to make friends with them ; however , Peter is not interested and leaves with Brian for softball practice . The regular pitcher is absent , so Peter fills in . He injures Guillermo with a wild pitch during practice and must find a new player to replace him or be fired .
Meanwhile , Lois goes with her son Stewie to meet the new neighbors . She is greeted by Bonnie Swanson and soon after meets her husband Joe , while Meg falls in love with Joe and Bonnie 's son , Kevin . When Peter comes home he is rude to the Swansons . Later that night , Peter thinks about who can replace Guillermo , and Lois mentions that Joe played baseball in college . Peter sees Joe in his truck and sitting down on a chair later that day , which prevents him from seeing he is in a wheelchair , and invites him to join the team . The next morning Peter and Mr. Weed are at the field . Joe shows up for the game and Peter and Mr. Weed are horrified to see that he is in a wheelchair . However , Joe turns out to be a fantastic player and leads the team to victory . That night Joe has a celebratory party in his house , where he reveals that he is a police officer who was crippled after fighting The Grinch on the roof of an orphanage ( this was later revealed to be a cover up , in the 2012 episode Joe 's Revenge ) and soon becomes very popular with the neighbors , including Peter 's family .
Joe 's popularity makes Peter jealous , so Peter wants to be a hero too . He attempts to stop a bank robbery to compete with Joe 's heroism . Peter and Brian are taken hostage in the process , but Joe convinces the robbers to surrender . An applauding crowd hoists Joe away in praise , leaving his wheel chair empty . Stewie tries to unlock the " power of the wheelchair " , but Lois manages to remove him and puts a pacifier in his mouth , so he quickly falls asleep . After the hostage situation , Peter is disappointed , but his family consoles him by telling him that he is their hero .
= = Production = =
" A Hero Sits Next Door " was written by Mike Barker and Matt Weitzman , the first time writing for the series for both , and directed by Monte Young , also his first Family Guy episode . During the production of the episode , the writers shared one office lent to them by the King of the Hill production crew . MacFarlane compared the production of the first season to a college project ; the only difference was that he was being funded this time . The guest cast for the episode featured actress Suzie Plakson , figure skater Michelle Kwan , as well as actors Wally Wingert and Carlos Alazraqui . Recurring guest voice actors included writer and animator Butch Hartman . " A Hero Sits Next Door " serves as the introduction of police lieutenant and neighbor of the Griffin family Joe Swanson ( voiced by Patrick Warburton ) , as well as his family consisting of his wife Bonnie ( Jennifer Tilly ) and their son Kevin ( Jon Cryer ) .
During the production of the episode they developed a way to hide the fact that Joe used a wheelchair . This was done by showing the character Joe from the waist up during part of the episode . " A Hero Sits Next Door " is notable as it is the first episode of Family Guy not to feature words in its title pertaining to " Death " or " Murder " . This convention was originally started due to creator Seth MacFarlane being a fan of 1930s and 1940s radio programs , particularly the radio thriller anthology Suspense ; however , this convention was dropped after individual episodes became hard to identify and the novelty wore off .
I 'm a huge fan of old radio dramas and I came up with this idea , when the show was still trying to find itself at the beginning , that the title of each episode would be a very ominous title borrowed from an old 40 's suspense drama . And thus we had titles like " Death Has a Shadow " and " Mind Over Murder " that had nothing to do with the show . We realized that that kind of stopped being funny after four episodes . It 's two in the morning and we 're trying to come up with these things . So we kind of grew out of that and moved on to more traditional titles .
The story of how Joe was crippled has recently been retconned in a recent episode ( Joe 's Revenge ) . In the episode , Joe reveals that he was actually paralyzed by a drug dealer , whom he was investigating , after accidentally giving himself away .
= = Cultural references = =
The Super Friends make an appearance in the episode when Peter references a time when he played strip poker in the Hall of Justice . After Wonder Woman loses and takes off her clothes , Robin simply stares at Peter instead of a naked Wonder Woman .
The episode also makes a historical reference when a boy is showing his friend a Pez dispenser that looks like John F. Kennedy 's head . The dispenser is then destroyed by a policeman 's bullet . The boy says , " Oh well , at least I still have my Bobby Kennedy Pez dispenser " . This is a reference to the assassinations of both John and Robert Kennedy .
= = Reception = =
" A Hero Sits Next Door " received favorable reviews from television critics . In a 2008 review , Ahsan Haque of IGN praised the episode , rating it a 7 @.@ 9 / 10 and calling it " a great introduction for Joe " . He noted that the fight sequence between Joe and the Grinch " paved the road for many action sequences to come " . He also praised the strong emphasis on storyline . He deemed some of the gags " classic " including the gag featuring the Super Friends . Robin Pierson of The TV Critic wrote a more mixed review , rating the episode a 55 out of 100 ; Pierson found the plot odd , stating that its twists were counter intuitive , causing them to be less funny and not stand out . He also felt the cutaway jokes were short and average . He commented positively on some of the jokes , and the inclusion of Peter 's new neighbors saying they provided a new dynamic to the series .
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= Congregation Beth Israel ( Scottsdale , Arizona ) =
Congregation Beth Israel ( Hebrew : בית ישראל ) is a Jewish congregation located at 10460 North 56th Street in Scottsdale , Arizona . Formally incorporated in 1920 , it affiliated with the Reform Judaism in 1935 .
Abraham Lincoln Krohn was rabbi of Beth Israel from 1938 to 1953 , and during his tenure the congregation grew from under 100 to almost 600 member families . He was succeeded by Albert Plotkin , who served for almost 40 years .
Beth Israel 's original building in Downtown Phoenix , constructed in 1921 – 1922 , is listed on both the city ’ s historic property register and the National Register of Historic Places . After being sold in 1949 , it housed churches until 2002 , when the Jewish community repurchased it . In 2007 the Arizona Jewish Historical Society started a $ 4 million campaign to restore it and convert it into a museum .
As of 2014 , Beth Israel was the oldest synagogue in the Phoenix metropolitan area . The senior rabbi was Stephen Kahn , the associate rabbi was Rony Keller , and the cantor was Jaime Shpall .
= = Early years , first building = =
Jewish settlers in Phoenix began gathering for High Holiday services as early as 1906 . A formal congregation was established by Barnett E. Marks , a lawyer from Chicago , who held services in a room over Melczer 's saloon , and also organized a Sunday School to provide a Jewish education for his two sons . By 1918 the congregation was calling itself " Emanuel " , and holding services in English and Hebrew on the Jewish Festivals . In 1920 , the congregation incorporated as " Congregation Beth Israel " . Its first rabbi was David L. Liknaitz , and its first president was Charles Steinberg . Liknaitz would serve until 1924 .
Services were held in a number of temporary locations . In 1915 and 1917 respectively the local chapters of the B 'nai B 'rith and the National Council of Jewish Women were formed . Together they purchased a church in 1921 , and converted it for use as a Phoenix 's first synagogue by the Phoenix Hebrew Center Association . The Association soon became defunct , and the building was taken over by the Congregation Beth Israel .
That year the congregation raised $ 14 @,@ 000 ( today $ 186 @,@ 000 ) and hired the architectural firm Lescher , Kibbey and Mahoney to design and construct a synagogue building near Central Avenue and Culver Street , in Downtown Phoenix . The building , a simple , stuccoed , gable @-@ end @-@ to @-@ the @-@ street Mission Revival Style structure , was constructed in 1921 – 1922 , and an annex added in 1930 .
At the time the building was constructed , the Phoenix area had only 120 Jewish residents . The synagogue served as a cultural center for the Jewish community , including hosting communal Passover Seders , at a time when Jews faced discrimination at hotels and other places of public gathering .
During the 1920s the synagogue had difficulty keeping rabbis . Most would only stay for a few years , and one in particular was suspected of being a charlatan ; " [ t ] he rabbi college where he claimed he attended had no record of him . " A.I. Goldberg served from 1924 to 1925 , Adolph Rosenberg from 1926 to 1929 .
In 1930 , the congregation became divided over the need for the Jewish community to hire a shochet to ritually slaughter animals for kosher meat , and over whether the synagogue should hire a Reform or Conservative rabbi . More traditional members broke away to form the Beth El Congregation , affiliated with Conservative Judaism .
That year Samuel Dodkin Hurwitz was hired as Beth Israel 's rabbi . Born in Krychaw , Belarus in 1901 , his family emigrated to the United States in 1903 . He graduated from the University of Cincinnati in 1926 , and was ordained at Hebrew Union College in 1929 . His first pulpit , from 1929 to 1930 , was Temple Emanuel in Davenport , Iowa . In 1934 he was appointed to the board of the Phoenix Public Library . In 1935 he left Beth Israel to become rabbi at Temple Beth El in Benton Harbor , Michigan .
Philip W. Jaffa , ordained at Hebrew Union College in 1928 , joined as rabbi in 1935 . He adopted the Reform Judaism 's Union Prayer Book and its religious school curriculum , and added choir music to the services . That year much of the synagogue building was destroyed by a fire , and Jaffa 's whole library was lost . The congregation re @-@ built the structure , extensively remodeling the sanctuary , and added a religious school building / classroom annex . Jaffa would serve until 1938 .
= = Krohn era = =
Abraham Lincoln Krohn became Beth Israel 's rabbi in 1938 , replacing Jaffa , who was not well . At the time , the congregation had 100 or fewer member families , and 64 children in the religious school . Born in 1893 and named after Abraham Lincoln , Krohn was one of eight children of Russian Jews who had immigrated to the United States . His first career was as a social worker , but during a chance meeting , Stephen Samuel Wise was " so impressed with Krohn 's compassion , intellect and eloquence [ that ] he strongly urged him to consider a career in the rabbinate . " Krohn entered Wise 's Jewish Institute of Religion in 1926 , and graduated as a rabbi in 1930 . He then served as assistant rabbi of Temple Sholom in Plainfield , New Jersey for a year , then as senior rabbi at Temple Albert in Albuquerque , New Mexico for almost seven years , before joining Beth Israel .
Krohn was heavily involved in the community . According to Ira Morton of the Arizona Jewish Historical Society :
The organizations he served in the capacity of president or board member include B 'nai Brith , the Urban League , the Maricopa Mental Health Association and Child Guidance Clinic , Phoenix Public Library , Phoenix Elementary School District , the American Red Cross , the Roosevelt Council of Boy Scouts , the United Fund ( later changed to United Way ) and the Jewish Family Service ( now Jewish Family & Children 's Service ) , which Krohn founded . Krohn also served as president of the Valley of the Sun Symphony Orchestra , which later became the Phoenix Symphony , moderator of a Phoenix town hall lecture series , lecturer in biblical literature at Arizona State University and as a civilian chaplain for neighboring military bases and hospitals during World War II .
During Krohn 's tenure the congregation began calling itself " Temple Beth Israel " , and under his leadership the synagogue flourished .
During World War II , Beth Israel provided religious services for servicemen stationed at Luke Air Force Base , and hosted dances for the military personnel there . In 1942 , the congregation started its Judaica library , which initially consisted of 60 works on one shelf .
By the late 1940s , the congregation had increased in size to approximately 300 families , and had outgrown its original facilities . The congregation moved to a more suburban location at Eleventh and Flower in 1949 , and formalized its relationship with the Reform movement by joining the Union of American Hebrew Congregations ( now the Union for Reform Judaism ) . The Central Avenue and Culver Street building was sold to the Southern Baptist Convention , and housed the First Chinese Baptist Church until 1981 , and then the Iglesia Bautista Central . By 2001 it was on the market again , and the Jewish community raised $ 540 @,@ 000 ( today $ 710 @,@ 000 ) to purchase it in 2002 . The building is listed on both the city ’ s historic property register and the National Register of Historic Places .
When Krohn stepped down as rabbi in 1953 due to poor health , the congregation had grown to 538 families . Krohn had also been active in interfaith work , and in June , 1958 was named Man of the Year by the National Conference of Christians and Jews at its annual dinner . He was , however , too ill to attend , and died five months later .
= = Plotkin and Segel eras = =
By 1955 , Phoenix 's Jewish population had grown to over 3 @,@ 000 families , and the city still had two Jewish congregations , Beth Israel and Beth El . That year , with the support of Krohn , Albert Plotkin joined Beth Israel as rabbi . Born in 1920 and raised in South Bend , Indiana , his parents were immigrants from Russia . After getting an undergraduate degree from the University of Notre Dame , he entered Hebrew Union College in 1943 – on academic probation , because he had taken no Hebrew at Notre Dame . He was ordained by Hebrew Union College in 1948 , graduating with a Master of Hebrew Letters . Plotkin had started his rabbinic career as assistant rabbi of Temple De Hirsch in Seattle , his first pulpit after ordination . There he met his future wife Sylvia Pincus , whose family were long @-@ time members of Temple De Hirsch . They married a year later , and shortly after moved to Spokane , Washington , where Plotkin became senior rabbi at Temple Emanuel .
During his tenure at Beth Israel , Plotkin was heavily involved in Phoenix 's Jewish and non @-@ Jewish communities . He was a strong Zionist at Hebrew Union College , at a time when the movement was unpopular there , and was later a staunch supporter of Israel . He was an advocate for civil rights , and a supporter of the arts . He founded the Jewish Studies program at Arizona State University and taught there , and volunteered for 25 years as a chaplain at Phoenix Veterans Hospital . In 1972 , the National Conference of Christians and Jews awarded him the National Award for Brotherhood .
Beth Israel added a " cultural and educational wing " to its Flower Street building in 1967 , and in it Sylvia Plotkin founded a Jewish museum . The museum had three galleries : one " house [ d ] artifacts from a Tunisian synagogue , a second [ held ] a Judaica collection that chronicle [ d ] the history of Arizona Jewry and a third [ was ] used for exhibitions . " Sylvia Plotkin would direct the museum until her death in 1996 , acquiring and mounting many exhibitions there . Renamed the " Sylvia Plotkin Judaica Museum " the day before her death , it was " one of the largest and most respected synagogue museums in the United States . " After Plotkin 's death , Pamela Levin became the museum 's director ; she had begun working with Plotkin as a volunteer in 1985 , and eventually earned a degree in museum studies .
Albert Plotkin would himself go on to serve as the congregation 's rabbi for almost 40 years , retiring in 1992 , and becoming rabbi emeritus . He loved opera music , and two years after retiring , he sang professionally with the Arizona Opera . The Plotkins ' daughter Debra would become the founding artistic director of the Toronto Jewish Film Festival , and their daughter Janis was , for 21 years , one of the main forces behind the San Francisco Jewish Film Festival , and its executive director from 1994 to 2002 .
Plotkin was succeeded by Kenneth Segel in 1992 , and the following year Howard Tabaknek joined as cantor . In 1997 , the congregation moved to its current location at 10460 North 56th Street and Shea Boulevard . The 45 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 4 @,@ 200 m2 ) building had a main sanctuary that seated 500 , and a chapel that seated 300 . The Torah ark was decorated with " fused glass surrounded by colored glass " .
Tabaknek left to join Temple Shalom in Succasunna , New Jersey in 2000 , and was replaced by Andrew Meyer as cantor and Michael Sokol as " cantorial soloist " . Meyer had previously served for five years as spiritual leader of Temple Beth Emeth in Scottsdale , Arizona . Sokol , who grew up in Phoenix and had his Bar Mitzvah at Beth Israel , was a professor of voice and opera at University of California , Santa Barbara , and sang with New York 's Metropolitan Opera for three years .
Segel would serve as rabbi for until 2002 , moving to Temple Beth Or in Montgomery , Alabama .
= = Recent events = =
Stephen Kahn became Beth Israel 's rabbi in July 2003 . By then , membership was approximately 1 @,@ 000 families , the largest Jewish congregation in Arizona . The congregational library , which was open to the public , had grown to over 20 @,@ 000 volumes , making it one of the largest Judaica libraries in the Southwestern United States .
For financial reasons , Levin 's job as museum director was reduced from 25 to 12 hours per week in 2004 , and the position made volunteer in 2005 . By then , the museum had 8 @,@ 000 visitors a year , regular traveling exhibits , and the number of artifacts in it had grown to over 1 @,@ 000 .
In 2005 , the congregation purchased a 1 @.@ 25 @-@ acre ( 0 @.@ 51 ha ) lot across the street from its building , and the house on it , to accommodate future growth . At that time the synagogue had over 900 member families .
That year the congregation also reverted to its original name of " Congregation Beth Israel " . In Kahn 's view , " To me , a ' congregation ' represents people and community while the word " temple " represents a place or building . I would like us to be about the people . "
The Arizona Jewish Historical Society undertook a $ 4 million campaign in 2007 to raise the funds needed to restore the original synagogue building and other related structures to create the Cutler @-@ Plotkin Jewish Heritage Center . The plan was for the Center to include a museum and other public spaces that would be used to show the connection between the history of the Jewish community as part of Arizona 's history . A $ 150 @,@ 000 grant had been received in May of that year from the Arizona State Heritage Fund . By August 2008 much of the work of the first phase – the restoration of the sanctuary and annex – had been completed , and $ 2 @.@ 1 million of the $ 2 @.@ 6 million required for the work had been raised .
In 2007 , Beth Israel opened the Phoenix metropolitan area 's first mikvah ( ritual bath ) . It was , according to local Modern Orthodox rabbi Darren Kleinberg , " the first time in Jewish history that a mikvah has been built and approved under the auspices of Reform , Conservative and Orthodox rabbis . "
The congregation also hired Jaime Shpall as cantor that year , replacing Bruce Benson , who left in 2006 . Shpall , who graduated as a cantor from the Hebrew Union College in 1997 , had previously served as cantor of Congregation Beth Israel in Austin , Texas . Plotkin died in February 2010 .
As of 2014 , Beth Israel was the oldest congregation in the Phoenix metropolitan area . The senior rabbi was Stephen Kahn , the associate rabbi was Rony Keller , and the cantor was Jaime Shpall . The congregation also owned and operated Camp Daisy and Harry Stein , a Jewish overnight camp in Prescott National Forest near Prescott , Arizona , the only Jewish camp in the area .
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= Hurricane Igor =
Hurricane Igor was the most destructive tropical cyclone to strike the Canadian island of Newfoundland on record . Igor originated from a broad area of low pressure that moved off the west coast of Africa on September 6 , 2010 . Tracking slowly westward , it developed into a tropical depression on September 8 and strengthened into tropical storm shortly thereafter . Higher wind shear temporarily halted intensification over the following days . On September 12 , explosive intensification took place , and Igor reached Category 4 status on the Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale . By this time , Igor had already begun a prolonged turn around the western periphery of the subtropical ridge . Peaking with winds of 155 mph ( 250 km / h ) , the cyclone began to enter an area unfavorable for continued strengthening , and Igor gradually weakened before brushing Bermuda as a minimal hurricane on September 20 . After turning northeastward , the system began an extratropical transition , which it completed shortly after striking southern Newfoundland . The remnants of Igor were later absorbed by another extratropical cyclone over the Labrador Sea on September 23 .
While over the open ocean , large swells produced by the hurricane caused the deaths of three people — two in the Caribbean and one in the United States . Passing west of Bermuda as a minimal hurricane , damage was limited primarily to trees and power lines , with roughly 27 @,@ 500 residences having lost electricity . Total losses in the territory were less than $ 500 @,@ 000 ( 2010 USD ) . In Newfoundland , damage wrought by Igor was extreme , claimed to be the worst ever seen in some areas . Large stretches of roadways were completely washed out by severe flooding , including a portion of the Trans @-@ Canada Highway , isolating approximately 150 communities . Throughout the region , one person was killed and damage costs amounted to a record $ 200 million ( 2010 CAD ) . In the storm 's wake , military personnel were deployed to assist in recovery efforts and aid distribution .
= = Meteorological history = =
Hurricane Igor was first identified as a broad area of low pressure accompanying a tropical wave over western Africa in early September 2010 . Tracking nearly due west , the system emerged into the eastern Atlantic Ocean on September 6 . Gradual development took place as convection – thunderstorm activity – consolidated around its center . At 0600 UTC on September 8 , the low was deemed sufficiently organized to be classified as a tropical depression while situated roughly 90 mi ( 140 km ) southeast of the Cape Verde Islands . Attaining gale @-@ force winds six hours later , the depression intensified into a tropical storm and was subsequently named Igor by the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) .
Development of Igor quickly ceased once it was named as a nearby disturbance produced moderate wind shear over the storm , displacing convection from its center . Embedded within a monsoon trough over the eastern Atlantic , the system maintained a slow westward track as it weakened to a tropical depression on September 9 . Intensification resumed the following day once shear lessened and the dominant steering factor shifted to a mid @-@ tropospheric ridge north of Igor ; it would remain so throughout the remainder of the cyclone 's existence . Contrary to its earlier movement , the storm 's forward motion markedly increased . Following the development of an intermittent eye feature and steady convection around its center , Igor strengthened into a hurricane around 0000 UTC on September 12 .
Once classified a hurricane , Igor underwent explosive intensification over the following 24 hours . During this time , satellite observations indicated that the storm 's winds increased from 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) to 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) and its barometric pressure decreased by 52 mbar ( hPa ; 1 @.@ 53 inHg ) . Near the end of this phase , forecasters at the NHC predicted that Igor would attain Category 5 status , the highest classification on the Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale . With a symmetrical 17 mi ( 27 km ) wide eye , deep convection and spiral banding , Igor maintained Category 4 intensity for nearly five days . Minor fluctuations took place during this period as multiple eyewall replacement cycles occurred . After the first of these cycles , the hurricane is estimated to have reached its peak strength around 0000 UTC on September 15 with winds of 155 mph ( 250 km / h ) and an estimated pressure of 924 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 29 inHg ) . By this time , Igor began a northwestward track as it executed a prolonged " C @-@ shaped " curve over the Atlantic Ocean .
Passing roughly 345 mi ( 555 km ) northeast of the Leeward Islands on September 17 , Igor gradually weakened as it experienced increased wind shear and dry air intrusion . Over the following several days , the storm became exceedingly large , with tropical storm @-@ force winds covering an area about 920 mi ( 1 @,@ 480 km ) wide . Due to an overestimated bias in Igor 's intensity , forecasts from the NHC showed that the storm would strike Bermuda as a major hurricane . However , weakening was more marked than anticipated and by the time its center neared the territory on September 20 , winds decreased to 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) . Igor made its closest approach to Bermuda around 0230 UTC , passing roughly 40 mi ( 65 km ) to the west @-@ northwest .
Once north of Bermuda , Igor began to undergo an extratropical transition as it turned northeastward . Though deep convection was no longer consistently over its center , data from Hurricane Hunters continued to support hurricane intensity . Accelerating along the leading edge of a trough over the Canadian Maritimes , the storm intensified within a baroclinic zone as it neared Newfoundland . The interaction between these two systems allowed the hurricane to strengthen despite moving over decreasing sea surface temperatures . Around 1500 UTC on September 21 , Igor made landfall near Cape Race , with winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) , slightly higher than several hours earlier . Shortly thereafter , the storm completed its transition into an extratropical cyclone as it became fully embedded within the baroclinic zone . After turning northwestward between Labrador and Greenland , the remnants of Igor were absorbed by another extratropical cyclone on September 23 .
= = Preparations and impact = =
= = = Cape Verde and Leeward Islands = = =
Forming near the Cape Verde Islands , Igor prompted the issuance of tropical storm watches for the southern islands on September 8 . Though the storm passed relatively close to the region , only minimal effects were recorded . Once the cyclone tracked away from Cape Verde , the watches were discontinued on September 9 .
Although several hundred miles from the Leeward Islands , Igor produced large swells averaging 9 to 13 ft ( 2 @.@ 7 to 4 @.@ 0 m ) in height , between September 16 and 21 . There were also large breaking waves of 15 to 20 ft ( 4 @.@ 6 to 6 @.@ 1 m ) or higher . The prolonged period of this event resulted in minor coastal flooding in St. Croix . One person drowned near Carambola Beach Resort after being overcome by large swells . Similar conditions affected Puerto Rico where another person drowned . On several occasions , Luquillo was flooded by the surf , though no damage took place . In nearby Haiti , still reeling from a devastating earthquake in January , officials warned residents of possible relocation from " tent cities " to safer areas . An orange alert was declared across the country , indicating that heavy rains could result in flooding . Portions of the Greater Antilles were affected by large swells and rip currents for several days as Igor approached Bermuda .
= = = United States = = =
Though Igor 's closest approach to the United States only brought it within 600 mi ( 970 km ) of land , its large circulation produced significant swells along the entire East Coast . High surf advisories were issued in Long Island , New York as waves of 6 to 10 ft ( 1 @.@ 8 to 3 @.@ 0 m ) affected the area . Rip currents in Florida pulled two people out to sea who were later rescued . One person drowned in Surf City , North Carolina after being overwhelmed by rough surf . Along the New Jersey coastline , waves averaging between 6 and 9 ft ( 1 @.@ 8 and 2 @.@ 7 m ) and dangerous rip currents were reported .
= = = Bermuda = = =
Long seen to be within Igor 's track , Bermuda was finally placed under a hurricane watch on September 17 as the threat became imminent . Later that day , the watch was upgraded to a warning as hurricane @-@ force winds were anticipated to impact the islands within the following 24 hours . This remained in place for nearly three days while Igor battered Bermuda . Following the passage of hurricane winds , the advisory was changed to a tropical storm warning early on September 20 before being discontinued later that day .
The Bermudian government closed its schools and the Bermuda International Airport on September 20 and 21 in anticipation of Igor . No evacuation plans were put in place , although a local high school was converted into a shelter for residents who felt unsafe in their homes . Residents boarded up structures with plywood in order to protect windows . Tourists on the island wanting to escape the storm left more than a week before Igor 's arrival . Additionally , a British Royal Navy vessel and helicopter were stationed offshore to assist with recovery efforts once the storm passed . Prior to Igor 's arrival , there were fears that the enormous hurricane would be worse than Hurricane Fabian in 2003 and could " flatten " the territory . These fears resulted from forecasts from the National Hurricane Center which indicated the storm would strike Bermuda as a Category 3 hurricane . However , following post @-@ storm analysis , it was found that the forecast model consensus overestimated the storm 's future intensity .
Although effects from Igor were observed in Bermuda for several days , relatively little rain fell , with the highest amount being 3 @.@ 19 in ( 81 mm ) . Winds proved to be the most significant factor ; sustained winds reached 91 mph ( 146 km / h ) and gusts peaked at 117 mph ( 188 km / h ) at an unofficial AWOS station on St. David 's Lighthouse . Additionally , a storm surge of 1 @.@ 75 ft ( 0 @.@ 53 m ) took place in St. George 's , this combined with tides to produce a storm tide of over 4 ft ( 1 @.@ 22 m ) . As the storm arrived , the island 's airport was shut down earlier than originally planned due to the threat of tornadoes . Against initial fears , Igor left relatively little damage across Bermuda . The most significant impact was from downed trees and powerlines which cut power to 27 @,@ 500 residents . A few emergency rescues had to be made during the storm but no injuries took place . The causeway @-@ bridge connecting St. George ’ s Islands to the main island of Bermuda sustained minor damage , leaving one lane closed for several days . Waves over 15 ft ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) battered the coast , breaking several ships from their moorings and tossing them into rocks . Officials in Bermuda stated that the biggest loss from Igor would be lessened tourism revenue following a mass exodus prior to the hurricane 's arrival . Throughout the islands , damage from the storm was less than $ 500 @,@ 000 .
= = = Canada = = =
On September 20 , roughly one day prior to Igor 's arrival in Atlantic Canada , the Canadian Hurricane Center ( CHC ) issued tropical storm watches and warnings for southern Newfoundland and the French territory of Saint Pierre and Miquelon . The following day the CHC issued a hurricane watch for the eastern and northern coasts . Although sustained hurricane @-@ force winds were recorded across parts of the island , warnings were not issued due to stronger @-@ than @-@ expected re @-@ intensification of the storm as it transitioned into an extratropical cyclone . Early on September 22 , all advisories were discontinued as Igor moved away from the region . In response to the storm 's arrival , schools were closed and several flights were delayed or canceled at St. John 's International Airport . Offshore , an oil rig with 110 personnel was mostly evacuated near the coast of Newfoundland on September 19 . In comparison to Hurricane Earl two weeks earlier , there was substantially less media attention given to Igor , attributed to the possibility of it going out to sea .
The combination of a stationary front and significant moisture from Hurricane Igor resulted in unprecedented rainfall across parts of eastern Newfoundland , leading to widespread flooding . In Bonavista , more than 10 in ( 250 mm ) was estimated to have fallen between September 20 and 21 . In St. Lawrence , a confirmed 9 @.@ 37 in ( 238 mm ) of rain fell , ranking Igor as the third @-@ wettest tropical cyclone in Canadian history . The widespread nature of heavy rains ranked the storm as a 1 @-@ in @-@ 100 year event . Similar to the rainfall , winds across eastern Newfoundland were exacerbated by the interaction of the front and Igor . In Cape Pine , near where the center of Igor tracked , sustained winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) and gusts to 107 mph ( 172 km / h ) battered the area . No records for sustained winds or gusts were broken ; however , it was noted as a 1 @-@ in @-@ 50 year event even with powerful winter storms taken into account . Along the coast , Igor produced a storm tide of 3 @.@ 5 ft ( 1 @.@ 1 m ) . Additionally , offshore waves reached immense heights , measured up to 83 @.@ 6 ft ( 25 @.@ 5 m ) ; one buoy reported a wave of 92 ft ( 28 m ) but data is subject to further analysis to verify it .
The most significant impacts from Igor were attributed to torrential rains , which led to excessive runoff and flash flooding . Several rivers rose to record levels across the Bonavista and Burin Peninsulas where many roads were washed out . Entire bridges , homes and portions of roads were destroyed . In some instances , flood waters were higher than entire homes . In response to the widespread floods , Newfoundland Power Inc. warned residents who still had power by the afternoon of September 21 to turn off their main electrical panel if water enters their basement . Much of St. Bernard 's – Jacques Fontaine had to be evacuated by boat during the storm as rising water obstructed all roads in and out of the small town . Portions of Clarenville had to be evacuated under similar circumstances after a state of emergency was declared for the town . Water and sewage lines in Sunnyside broke due to flooding . In Glovertown , downed power lines sparked two fires during the storm , both of which were put out by firefighters without injuries .
Roughly 150 communities were temporarily isolated as all roads leading to them were severely damaged or washed out . Overall damage to roadways was regarded as " colossal " by Tom Hedderson , the minister for emergency preparedness . A 100 ft ( 30 m ) section of the Trans @-@ Canada Highway in Terra Nova National Park was severely eroded , leaving a large ravine behind and disconnecting the main population of Newfoundland from the rest of the island , while a bridge washout on the Burin Peninsula left 20 @,@ 000 people cut off from the rest of the island . Public infrastructure losses were estimated in excess of $ 100 million , mainly attributed to roadways . On Random Island , a man was killed when his driveway collapsed from flooding and he was swept out to sea .
In addition to flood damage , hurricane @-@ force winds downed trees and power lines over large areas and many homes were damaged to varying degrees . An estimated 50 @,@ 000 residences were left without electricity in the region . The small coastal community of South East Bight sustained some of the most significant wind damage where entire fishing sheds were hurled into the air . Along the East Coast hiking trail , an estimated 5 @,@ 000 trees were downed . In all , losses from the hurricane were placed at $ 200 million , ranking it as the costliest cyclone in Newfoundland history .
= = Aftermath = =
In Igor 's wake , a state of emergency was declared for 30 communities in Newfoundland . The mayor of one of the towns affected by Igor , Sam Synard , remarked that " We 've never seen such a violent storm before . " More than 50 families involved in the storm @-@ induced destruction were relocated to evacuation shelters . Electricity was gradually restored to residents ; by six days after the hurricane 's passage , a few hundred had yet to regain power .
In light of the widespread damage , 1 @,@ 000 personnel from the Canadian military were brought in for recovery efforts . The military operation , known as Operation Lama , was to last for the duration of the emergency phase in the immediate aftermath . An initial deployment of 120 soldiers and 40 vehicles arrived on September 25 from the Canadian Forces Base Gagetown in Oromocto , New Brunswick arrived in Newfoundland . Three ships and a fleet of helicopters were called in for the distribution of emergency aid and the military set up temporary bridges while long @-@ term plans for reconstruction were made . Operation Lama also enabled partial repairs of several buildings , and simultaneously , emergency personnel surveyed roughly 500 mi ( 900 km ) of roads in Newfoundland . On September 27 , government officials stated that it would take months for cleanup efforts to finish . Ten days after the storm , six towns were still isolated as progress on temporary road reconstruction was being made only slowly . Allocation of military aid continued through October 6 , though the number of on @-@ scene personnel began to decrease two days earlier .
Roughly a month after the storm , a benefit concert was held in St. John 's . The concert raised about $ 400 @,@ 000 ( 2010 CAD ) toward storm relief in one night . In late October , the Government of Newfoundland and Labrador allocated $ 275 @,@ 000 in funds for 200 workers who lost their jobs after two fish processing plants were damaged in Marystown and Port Union . However , union leaders claimed that the assistance was insufficient and accounted for just 420 of 600 work hours . Following more than a year of discussions , the plant 's parent company , Ocean Choice International , decided to permanently shut down operations on December 2 , 2011 . Numerous insurance claims , reaching $ 65 million by early November , were made following Hurricane Igor 's landfall Over the course of the recovery phase , several complaints , including concerns lodged by church ministers , that relief funds for victims of the storm were not being distributed fast enough and the overall process was taking too long . Roughly ten months after the hurricane , work on permanent reconstruction of roadways began in several areas across the Burin Peninsula . By January 24 , 2011 , The Salvation Army received about $ 1 @.@ 6 million worth of donations for residents affected by Hurricane Igor , roughly half of which had been distributed at that point . An additional $ 200 @,@ 000 had been pledged by donors .
In June 2011 , a federal document detailing the actions made by province officials was released to be public and incited further outcry from residents affected by the storm . The main complaint raised was related to the delay in accepting federal aid despite the severity of the damage . In an email sent on September 21 , 2010 , Denys Doiron , the nation 's Emergency Preparedness and Response Officer , relayed that local emergency services reported Igor to be the worst disaster they have had to deal with . Doiron also stated that no requests for federal aid were made .
Nearly a year after the passage of Igor , a weather buoy from St. John 's was spotted near the Shetland Islands north of Scotland on September 12 , 2011 . In early October , Newfoundland was again struck by a tropical cyclone – Hurricane Ophelia . Though a weaker storm , Ophelia caused more damage than expected as it destroyed infrastructure repaired in the wake of Igor . The mayor of Marystown criticized government officials for not increasing the size of repairs , especially to culverts , to account for flooding .
= = Retirement = =
Due to the extensive damage in Newfoundland , the name Igor was retired in the spring of 2011 by request of the Meteorological Service of Canada , and will never again be used for an Atlantic hurricane . In Canada 's report to the World Meteorological Organization , it was stated to be a storm without parallel in the island 's history . This was only the second time that the Meteorological Service of Canada had requested that a hurricane name be retired ( the first was Hurricane Juan in 2003 ) . The hurricane is also considered a probable benchmark for future cyclones in the region , having illustrated to residents that they are not immune from hurricanes and their impacts . The name was replaced by Ian for 2016 .
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= The Harbingers =
The Harbingers is an Australian video board game designed by Brett Clements and Phillip Tanner and published by Mattel as a major update to the Atmosfear series . The object of the game is to collect six different coloured " Keystones " , face player 's worst fear and thus beat the " Gatekeeper " . Each player adopts the persona of one of the " Harbingers " , otherwise must play as a " Soul Ranger " . The game is set in a place known as " The Other Side " . The Gatekeeper is to ensure the other characters do not " escape " from The Other Side . The game board is made up of a central hub and six two @-@ sided interchangeable " Provinces " which fit together , creating a hexagon . A videotape is included with the game , and acts as a game clock . The videotape stars Wenanty Nosul as The Gatekeeper .
= = Gameplay = =
= = = Game rules = = =
When they are ready , players roll the dice in turn , the one who rolls highest becoming the " Chosen One " who assembles the game board by connecting the Provinces to the central hub , creating a hexagon shape . The players write down their greatest fear on a slip of paper which is placed in the " well of fears " by the Chosen One . The Gatekeeper then starts the game , and the players , using their Numb Skulls , race to become a Harbinger by landing on the Harbinger 's headstone located in each province . If a player fails to make it to a headstone within ten minutes , they become Soul Rangers for the rest of the game . They must remain in the sewers until either they are released by the Gatekeeper , or collect the Keystone which allows them to release themselves .
Players who become Harbingers start collecting Keystones either by landing on them on the game board , or by taking them from other players by dueling . Soul Rangers cannot collect Keystones by landing on them ; instead , they chase down other players and steal their Keystones . Players must collect the six Keystones of different colours to win . Although players only need one keystone per colour , players can collect more than one which can prevent other players from completing the game . Each Keystone gives players different powers , depending on which Harbinger they are , the list of powers being described on the back of the character 's card . When players have collected the Keystones , they can win the game by returning home to the central hub . Then they must roll a six on the dice ; a fear is picked from the well of fears , and if it does not correspond to the player 's earlier expressed " greatest fear " , that player wins the game . Otherwise , players must return to their headstone and try again . If none of players is able to win the game within sixty minutes , the Gatekeeper is the winner .
= = = Characters = = =
The six Harbingers in the game are : Gevaudan the werewolf ; Hellin the poltergeist ; Khufu the mummy ; Baron Samedi the zombie ; Anne de Chantraine the witch , and Elizabeth Bathory the vampire . Each of the Harbingers is based on either a real person or a myth , except for Hellin . Hellin is the only Harbinger entirely created by Brett Clements .
Soul Rangers , players who have failed to become Harbingers , are described as miserable , skeletal scavengers , the scourge of The Other Side . Soul Rangers hunt down other players and steal their keystones . Soul Rangers were created during the game 's development . Brett Clements wanted to introduce characters that players did not want to become , but he later found that players enjoyed the anarchic role of the Soul Ranger . The final character in the game is the Gatekeeper , whose job is to make sure the other characters cannot escape from The Other Side to the real world . The Gatekeeper 's character is based on the old cemetery gatekeepers , whose job was to guard cemeteries from grave robbers .
= = = Layout = = =
The game board is made up of the Central Hub and six two @-@ sided Provinces which fit together creating a hexagon . The Central Hub is made up of the Well of Fears , the home positions and the Ring Road . The Well of Fears is a cup with a lid that fits inside the hole in the middle of the Central Hub . Located around the Well of Fears are six numbered grooves , called " Home " ; players must start from and return to Home . The Home positions are connected to the Ring Road , a path that runs around the Central Hub . The Ring Road give players access to all the Provinces .
Each Province is a two @-@ sided interchangeable board , on one side of which is a Harbinger 's province while on the other are the sewers . The Provinces can be assembled in any order , which can allow different game experiences when the Provinces are changed . Each Province has its own headstone and is in the Harbinger 's colours . Both sides of the Province board have paths used by the players to move around the board . Located along the paths are the six Keystones for that colour Province , and three different game symbols : the black holes , the lighting bolts and the compasses .
The game includes six boomerang @-@ shaped slabs which allow players to store their character card , Numb Skull and collected Keystones . The character card has a photograph of the character on the front , and on the back a list of powers each keystone gives to the player . To move around the game board , players use their own character 's playing pieces : a vampire bat for Elizabeth Bathory , a cobra for Khufu , a top hat for Baron Samedi , an " H " building block for Hellin , a fang for Gevaudan , a cauldron for Anne de Chantraine and a Numb Skull for Soul Rangers . The Numb Skull is also used at the beginning of the game , before players become Harbingers .
= = = Videotape = = =
A VHS videotape is included with The Harbingers which is played during the game . The videotape begins with The Gatekeeper – played by Wenanty Nosul – starting the game with " On your marks ... Get ready ... Get set ... Go ! " . As the game begins the game clock appears in the right @-@ hand corner of the screen , counting down from sixty minutes ; unless the game is won by a player within one hour the Gatekeeper is declared the winner . During the sixty minutes the Gatekeeper will appear on screen , to give players instructions or a choice between receiving a prize or imposing a penalty on an opponent . Players must carry out all instructions given by the Gatekeeper . When the Gatekeeper appears he demands that players stop and listen to him . He will not hold back from insulting players and is reluctant to reward or help players . During the game a computer @-@ generated storm can be seen in the background ; sometimes the storm partly covers the game clock . Along with the storm , spooky sounds and sometimes the Gatekeeper 's laughter can be heard .
During development there was a concern that the game might initially seem too complicated . At the end of the videotape there is a special fifteen @-@ minute presentation called the rules presentation in which a voice @-@ over along with the Gatekeeper explains the game , the characters and how to play . The rules presentation was created to help explain the game to new players . The videotape can be forwarded to the start of the instructions . During the rules presentation a game is played by actors who are dressed as three Harbingers – Baron Samedi , Anne de Chantraine and Elizabeth Bathory – and three Soul Rangers . The demonstration game is used throughout the rules presentation to help explain how to play the game .
= = Development = =
With the feedback received from players after the release of Nightmare , Brett Clements and Phillip Tanner started work on the major update to the series . They struck a deal with J. W. Spear & Sons , to use publishing experience and market research with Nightmare to help create the new game . The deal allowed J. W. Spear & Sons to have input into how the game was developed , which was not the case with Nightmare . Village Roadshow was also involved with the game 's development and with its release in the United States . The development ended six years after it started , with about six million dollars invested in the development of the game .
= = Reception = =
The Harbingers sold above the industry 's sales predictions in Australia and became one of the top ten best selling games in the United States and the United Kingdom , within months of its release . On the game 's release , Mattel launched a marketing campaign with a spot on MTV , cross @-@ promotions with soft drinks and a website for the game .
= = Expansions = =
= = = Booster tapes = = =
Two booster tapes were released following the success of The Harbingers . The tapes provide a challenging experience to The Harbingers for experienced players . The booster tapes run for forty @-@ five minutes instead of the sixty minutes of the original , and come with a new rule to limit the number of Keystones added to each province based on the number of players . Other than this limit the normal rules apply .
= = = The Soul Rangers = = =
A year later , an add @-@ on called The Soul Rangers was released . The add @-@ on allows players to play only as The Soul Rangers and is hosted by a Soul Ranger calling himself Dr. Mastiff . The add @-@ on was released because the creators found out that players enjoy causing damage as The Soul Rangers .
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= Andreas Thorkildsen =
Andreas Thorkildsen ( born 1 April 1982 ) is a former Norwegian javelin thrower , born in Kristiansand . He is the first male javelin thrower in history to be European champion , World champion and Olympic champion . He was Olympic champion in 2004 and 2008 , European champion in 2006 and 2010 , World Champion in 2009 as well as a three @-@ time silver medalist at the World championships in 2005 , 2007 and in 2011 . He set a world junior record in 2001 . He has a personal best of 91 @.@ 59 m set in 2006 .
= = Personal life = =
Thorkildsen 's father Tomm Thorkildsen is a former javelin thrower , achieving a personal best throw of 71 @.@ 64 metres in 1974 . His mother Bente ( née Amundsen ) became national champion in the 100 metres hurdles in 1972 , representing Hamar IL . He has one older brother . He took his secondary education at Kristiansand Cathedral School .
= = = Relationship with Christina Vukicevic = = =
Thorkildsen 's relationship with the Norwegian hurdler Christina Vukicevic generated some unwanted publicity on his part . When Thorkildsen and Vukicevic won the King 's Cup for men and women respectively at the 2006 Norwegian championships , Thorkildsen left the stadium to avoid photographers , whom he had shown the finger the previous day . Thorkildsen has performed as a fashion model for former footballer Martin Dahlin , fronting his 2007 winter and autumn collections .
In March 2011 Christina Vukicevic and Thorkildsen announced in Norwegian media that they no longer were a couple .
= = Career = =
Thorkildsen took up javelin throwing at the age of 11 , and was coached by his father Tomm until 1999 . He established numerous national boys ' records as a teenager . In 1996 he set a national record for the 14 years ' class ( 53 @.@ 82 m ) , in 1998 for the 16 years ' class ( 61 @.@ 57 m ) , in 1999 for the 17 years ' class ( 72 @.@ 11 m ) , and in 2000 a record for the 18 years ' class ( 77 @.@ 48 m ) . In 1999 he finished seventh at the European Junior Championships .
In 2000 Thorkildsen took his first medal at the Norwegian championships , finishing in silver medal position behind Ronny Nilsen . His form earned Thorkildsen his first call @-@ up to the Norwegian European Cup team . In October he participated at the World Junior Championships and received a silver medal behind winner Gerhardus Pienaar from South Africa .
= = = 2001 – 2003 = = =
In 2001 Thorkildsen moved to Oslo and started competing for the club SK Vidar under coach Åsmund Martinsen , a former javelin thrower who won the bronze medal at the 1994 Norwegian Championships , and had a career best throw of 68 @.@ 12 metres . The cooperation proved fruitful as Thorkildsen soon broke the 80 metre barrier , throwing 83 @.@ 87 metres on Fana stadion in June . This was a world junior record till 2011 . Participating in his second European Junior Championships , he won a silver medal behind Aleksandr Ivanov . Both competed at the World Championships in Edmonton , but while Ivanov managed to reach the final , Thorkildsen finished last in the entire competition with only 68 @.@ 41 metres . When asked to comment on his own throwing he described it as " completely awful " .
On the national level Thorkildsen became Norwegian champion for the first time . In August he competed in a discus throw meet at Sognsvann , establishing a personal best of 83 @.@ 02 metres . He has not competed on national level in other athletic events .
In 2002 , he recorded a season best of 83 @.@ 43 metres in June before witnessing his form gradually declining over the next months . At his first European Championships , which were held in August in Munich , he again failed to progress from the qualifying round . With a best throw of 78 @.@ 36 metres he finished fifteenth overall , 68 centimetres behind Ari Pakarinen who secured the last spot in the final . Although Thorkildsen only managed to take silver at the Norwegian championships behind Pål Arne Fagernes , his result of 83 @.@ 43 metres was enough to front the national top list in javelin throw for the first time .
Next year he finished eleventh at the 2003 World Championships in Paris , his first major international final . His performance and throw of 77 @.@ 75 metres was slightly disappointing as he had thrown 79 @.@ 44 metres in the qualifying round , having travelled to Paris with a personal best of 85 @.@ 72 metres , established in June in Ventspils . On the lighter side he took his second national title , consolidating his spot as Norway 's leading javelin thrower .
= = = 2004 = = =
In 2004 Thorkildsen faced competition from Ronny Nilsen , who threw 84 @.@ 73 metres in May . Although Thorkildsen did not retake the national number one spot right away , he did display increasing form in the preparations for the Olympic Games . He qualified for the Olympics with an 84 @.@ 12 m throw at the Bergen Bislett Games , an event which was won by Breaux Greer with a North American record and world leading throw of 87 @.@ 39 metres . On 27 July Thorkildsen took his first victory in an IAAF Grand Prix meet , beating Breaux Greer by a comfortable margin at the DN Galan meet in Stockholm . Three days later he improved his season best to 84 @.@ 45 metres at the London Grand Prix at Crystal Palace .
Even though several throwers , including Nilsen , still towered above Thorkildsen on the world list , the Olympic javelin contest was regarded as widely open – " one of the most open finals in Olympic history " , according to the IAAF Olympic coverage . Thorkildsen threw 81 @.@ 74 m in the qualification round , barely earning a mention in the event report as he safely passed the automatic qualifier mark of 81 metres to go through to the final . Breaux Greer won the qualification with 87 @.@ 25 m , but left the stadium in a limping state . In the javelin final held two days later , Thorkildsen opened with an 84 @.@ 82 m release which saw him ranked third at the end of the first round . Vadims Vasiļevskis of Latvia had thrown a personal best of 84 @.@ 95 m to earn a surprising lead ahead of reigning World champion Sergey Makarov . In the second round Thorkildsen threw a personal best of 86 @.@ 50 metres . As neither Aleksandr Ivanov , Greer nor anyone else managed to beat this , Thorkildsen won a surprising Olympic gold medal with Vasiļevskis and Makarov staying in place to take the silver and bronze medals respectively . Commenting on his win , Thorkildsen described the feeling as " completely insane " . A second place behind Breaux Greer at the World Athletics Final in Monte Carlo rounded off the season .
= = = 2005 = = =
The most important event of 2005 was the World Championships . The preparations for this event looked promising for Thorkildsen as he improved his personal best to 86 @.@ 82 metres in Kuortane in June , beating the Norwegian record of Pål Arne Fagernes . Tero Pitkämäki from Finland , who achieved a world leading result of 91 @.@ 53 metres in the same competition , seemed a likely contender for the world champion title . In July , When Thorkildsen further improved his national record to 87 @.@ 66 metres at the Bislett Games , reigning world champion Sergey Makarov had already thrown 90 @.@ 33 metres two weeks earlier at the Russian Championships in Tula . Going into the World Championships , Pitkämäki was still in first place on the world top list ahead of Makarov and Thorkildsen , who in turn was ahead of Breaux Greer by one centimetre .
In the qualification round at the World Championships , held in windy conditions on the Helsinki Olympic Stadium , only Pitkämäki , Makarov and Thorkildsen managed to beat the automatic qualification mark of 81 metres . Rain supplemented the wind the following day , constituting difficult weather conditions for the javelin final . Thorkildsen , in the lead after three rounds with 86 @.@ 18 metres , eventually finished in silver medal position behind Andrus Värnik of Estonia as the latter threw 87 @.@ 17 metres in the fourth round .
Pitkämäki , who finished a disappointing fourth at the World Championships , bounced back to win the World Athletics Final ahead of Thorkildsen , despite the latter improving his national record to 89 @.@ 60 metres . 89 @.@ 60 metres was enough to finish third on the world top list that season , behind Pitkämäki and Makarov .
= = = 2006 – 2008 = = =
In 2006 Thorkildsen returned to his original club Kristiansands IF , having represented SK Vidar in competitions the five previous seasons . In May he broke the 90 metre barrier for the first time , with 90 @.@ 13 metres from the Doha Super Grand Prix . At the Bislett Games he yet again improved his record to 91 @.@ 59 metres , reaching his goal of 300 feet . As no one managed to top his 91 @.@ 59 metre result , he entered the 2006 European Championships as a favorite , together with Tero Pitkämäki who had won the IAAF Golden League meet in Paris . Thorkildsen won the event with 88 @.@ 78 metres , having led the competition since the second round . Thorkildsen finished the season by winning his first World Athletics Final as well as the 2006 IAAF World Cup . With 91 @.@ 59 metres he finished on top of the world list for the first time .
Thorkildsen 's main goals for the 2007 season were the Bislett Games and the 2007 World Championships in Osaka , as well as winning the Golden League jackpot . In addition he aims to beat the old record of Terje Pedersen , who threw 91 @.@ 72 metres with the old javelin implement , by throwing in the range of 93 to 94 metres . The season started in a mediocre manner as he threw 81 @.@ 10 metres in Dakar and 86 @.@ 39 m in Doha . He recovered his form at the world championships , but once again could only achieve a silver medal , this time losing to Pitkämäki finally fulfilling his potential with a throw of 90 @.@ 33 ( though he 'd already been assured the medal by this point ) .
In 2008 Thorkildsen won the Golden League event at Bislett in Oslo , his main goal besides the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing . He won a gold medal in the Olympics where he set a new Olympic record with 90 @.@ 57 metres . Thorkildsen dominated the competition , leading it from his first throw and making the two longest throws in the competition without using his last attempt . All of his 5 throws would have given a medal . Thorkildsen also won the javelin competition of the 2008 IAAF Golden League in Zürich on 29 August .
= = = 2009 – 2010 = = =
He became the first male javelin thrower in history to hold all three titles of European champion , World champion and Olympic champion , winning IAAF World Championship in Berlin with 89.59m. Thorkildsen also has the season 's leading throw , with 91.28m. achieved in Zürich on 28 August .
He opened his 2010 season with a large throw of 90 @.@ 37 m at the Florö Track & Field Festival in May and went on to score a victory over Pitkamaki in their first match up in the 2010 IAAF Diamond League at the Bislett Games , finishing with a best throw of 86 @.@ 00 m . On 31 July he defended his European title with a throw of 88 @.@ 37 , finishing ahead of second @-@ placed Matthias de Zordo .
= = Awards = =
At the end of 2004 Thorkildsen was selected Norwegian Sportsperson of the Year by Norwegian sports journalists .
In 2008 he was awarded the European Athlete of the Year Trophy by the European Athletic Association , announced on 2 October 2008 , and to be presented at the European Athletics Awards Dinner in Amsterdam on 18 October . The Association cited Thorkildsen 's success at the Beijing Olympics and his breaching of the 90 @-@ metre barrier as part of their reasoning for the award .
= = Seasonal bests by year = =
1998 - 61 @.@ 57
1999 - 72 @.@ 11
2000 - 77 @.@ 48
2001 - 83 @.@ 87
2002 - 83 @.@ 43
2003 - 85 @.@ 72
2004 - 86 @.@ 50
2005 - 89 @.@ 60
2006 - 91 @.@ 59
2007 - 89 @.@ 51
2008 - 90 @.@ 57
2009 - 91 @.@ 28
2010 - 90 @.@ 37
2011 - 90 @.@ 61
2012 - 84 @.@ 72
2013 - 84 @.@ 64
2014 - 80 @.@ 52
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= Real ( Ivy Queen album ) =
Real is the fourth studio album by Puerto Rican reggaetón recording artist Ivy Queen , released on November 21 , 2004 , by Universal Music Latino . Initially to be Queen 's debut full @-@ length English @-@ language studio album , it featured collaborations with hip hop and fellow reggaetón artists Hector El Father , Fat Joe , Getto & Gastam , La India , Gran Omar and Mickey Perfecto . The album was primarily produced by Rafi Mercenario , and included guest production by American producer Swizz Beatz , Puerto Rican producers Ecko , Noriega , Monserrate and DJ Nelson . The executive producers were Goguito " Willy " Guadalupe , Gran Omar and Queen .
Real is Queen 's only record with a Parental Advisory label . The album departs from the lyrical content characterizing Queen 's musical style , detailing hood life in Puerto Rico and love . It alternates musically between reggaetón and hip hop , experimenting with electronica , funk , dancehall , pop , R & B , and acoustic ballads . The wide range of styles and musical exploration earned Real mainly positive reviews from critics . Many praised Queen 's raspy vocals and production quality , whilst others criticized the lack of instrumentation .
Spawning three singles ( " Chika Ideal " , " Rociarlos " and " Dile " ) , Real peaked at number twenty @-@ five on the Billboard Top Latin Albums chart , number four on the Billboard Top Reggae Albums chart and number six on the Billboard Tropical Albums chart . " Chika Ideal " and " Rociarlos " failed to attain chart success , although the former reached the top ten of Terra Networks ' music @-@ video countdown . " Dile " peaked at number eight on the Billboard Tropical Songs chart , earning Queen three Billboard Latin Music Award nominations ( including one for Tropical Airplay Track of the Year , Female ) . Several other tracks , including " Tócame " and " Baila Así " , received airplay on Anglophone and Hispanophone radio stations in the United States .
Real is regarded as a factor in 2004 's reggaetón exposure to mainstream English @-@ speaking markets , along with Queen 's previous album ( her 2003 studio recording , Diva ) and albums by Daddy Yankee and Tego Calderón . It became one of the best @-@ selling albums of 2005 ( along with her fifth studio album , Flashback ) , with sales of both going " through the roof " . Queen then embarked on concert tours of Latin America and the United States ; she also promoted the album with a network television @-@ news segment detailing her career and struggle for respect in reggaetón , performing " Chika Ideal " on Don Francisco Presenta . The album was re @-@ released on September 25 , 2007 by Machete Music , but failed to impact the charts .
= = Background = =
After the failure of Ivy Queen 's first two studio albums , En Mi Imperio ( 1997 ) and The Original Rude Girl ( 1998 ) , Sony Music Latin released Queen from her musical contract and she took a hiatus from her musical career in 1999 . The 1999 hip @-@ hop single " In The Zone " , a duet with Haitian singer Wyclef Jean , was moderately successful in the United States . However , the album " fizzled " . Over the next few years , Queen appeared on reggaetón compilation albums , spawning hits ( including " Quiero Bailar " ) and collaborations with artists on Tommy Boy and Columbia Records . In 2003 , Queen released her third studio recording , Diva , which was highly anticipated and acclaimed . It was a factor in reggaetón 's mainstream exposure in 2004 ( with Daddy Yankee 's Barrio Fino and Tego Calderon 's El Enemy de los Guasíbiri ) , and was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America . In early 2004 , after a string of compilation appearances , Queen appeared on the compilation album 12 Discípulos by Eddie Dee with " Los 12 Discípulos " , " Quítate Tu Pa ' Ponerme " and " Que Es La Que Hay " . " Los 12 Discípulos " managed to reach number eight of the Billboard Tropical Songs chart , becoming a top ten hit . It received a nomination for " Tropical Airplay Track of the Year , New Artist " at the 2005 Billboard Latin Music Award . The song featured eleven other reggaeton musicians , who were among the most requested in the genre at the time . These included Dee along with Queen , Daddy Yankee , Tego Calderón , Voltio , Vico C , Zion , Lennox , Nicky Jam , Johnny Prez , Gallego , and Wiso G. The song brought all twelve artist together as one to show that " unity is needed for the genre reggaetón to evolve and survive " .
That year , Queen released a platinum edition of the album which included new songs , such as " Papi Te Quiero " and " Tu No Puedes " , and began recording her next album . Queen 's fourth studio album was planned to be her debut full @-@ length English @-@ language album after she received record @-@ contract offers from a number of labels , including Sony . She said it was a good opportunity to reach the competitive Anglo hip hop music market after her success in Latin American countries . Queen received an offer to record an English @-@ language album after Sony notified her that her Sony albums from six years earlier were being played in cities such as London because of Diva 's success . Despite her concerns about her English pronunciation , she continued with the project . Queen recorded songs with some of hip hop 's most popular MCs , including American rapper Fat Joe ( who appeared on her debut English album ) . His song later became " Quítate Two " , and was included on Real ; American hip @-@ hop producer Swizz Beatz produced " Soldados " , showcasing her crossover appeal .
= = Recording and production = =
After the success of Diva : Platinum Edition , Ivy Queen began recording her fourth studio album in March 2004 ; it wrapped up in September at Marroneo Studios in Bayamón , Puerto Rico . The album was mastered and arranged by Esteban Piñero ; Dennis Nieves did the mixing and served as engineer .
Production was divided among several hip @-@ hop and reggaetón producers . Swizz Beatz produced " Soldados " ; longtime collaborator DJ Nelson reappeared with " Dile " ( the lead single ) and " Acércate " . Grammy @-@ Award winning Latin music producers Echo and Diesel , Hyde , Gran Omar , Noriega , Monserrate , Dennis Nieves , DJ Blass and DJ David Montañez also aided in production and Rafi Mercenario produced seven of the album 's nineteen tracks . Queen and Omar were executive producers .
Collaborations include " Matando " , " Rociarlos " ( also featuring Hector El Father ) and " Baila Así " with Queen 's then @-@ husband , Gran Omar ; a hip @-@ hop track , " Quítate Two " , with Fat Joe ; " Acércate " with Mikey Perfecto , " Tócame " with salsa singer La India and " Vas A Morir " with Puerto Rican duo Getto & Gastam . " Soldados " and " Dee Jay " were co @-@ written with Kasseem Dean and Omar Navarro , respectively . " People thought we were going to make a salsa track " , Queen said about the collaboration with La India , noting that the song was a dancehall track ( not salsa or reggaetón ) . She added that India was " original " and she worked well with people who are genuine , explaining the other collaborations . According to Navarro and Queen in an 2004 interview on mun2 The Roof , the album was expected to feature a duet with Puerto Rican singer Don Omar . Spin saw Queen 's collaboration with Fat Joe as a trend in reggaetón to have American rappers " team up with its stars " .
= = Music and lyrics = =
According to Rolling Stone , the album contains " raspy braggadocio and sexy rhymes " which complement Queen 's raspy vocals . It alternates between reggaetón and hip hop as Queen experiments with Caribbean music , R & B , pop , electronica , funk , dancehall and acoustic ballads : " I really think this album is for people to really just sit down and listen to it " . She explained that " there are times that the songs will make you want to dance " , but their lyrics are more meaningful . Although Queen said the album has its share of " battles against men " , she wants it to demonstrate that she is a well – rounded artist . Describing the songs , she said " [ they ] are always going to be real because they are feelings that people have ... The hits that I have now , the girls love them because they are real . If I am feeling hurt and need to curse to express that , then I will . I am going to be real all the way because that 's what made Ivy Queen " .
The introduction to the album features Queen lyrically blessing and thanking her audience for the support . " Chika Ideal " ( " Ideal Girl " ) assures the protagonist 's lover that she wants to be with him and fulfill his dreams . " Soldados " ( " Soldiers " ) , a hip @-@ hop track influenced by electronic music , was produced by Swizz Beatz . " Matando " ( " Killing " ) , a duet with Gran Omar , explores dancing in a club . The song , in a minor key , features the synthetic instrumentation of techno music . " Dale Volumen " ( " Add Volume " ) , in a minor key , is characterized by simple harmonic progressions , synthesizers and stick @-@ drum percussion and influenced by reggae and Afro @-@ Latin music . It features a techno @-@ influenced beat . " Dile " ( " Tell Her " ) features lilting rhythms from Colombia ( including cumbia ) , combining Latin vallenato with reggaetón . Queen noted that she sang the song without rapping to prove she is a complete musician and not just a rapper . " Mi Barrio " ( " My Hood " ) criticizes " the problems present in Añasco , Puerto Rico " . Queen compared the song to " Corazones " by Daddy Yankee from his album , Barrio Fino . " Dee Jay " is a reggaetón number which " recognizes the DJs " of reggaetón . In it , Queen mentions DJ Nelson , Noriega , DJ Adam , DJ Negro , DJ Baby , Rafi Mercenario , Luny Tunes , Monserrate & DJ Urba and others . " Quítate Two " ( " Remove Yourself " ) , with Fat Joe , combines hip @-@ hop and funk music . The acoustic guitar ballad " Ángel Caído " ( " Fallen Angel " ) and its acoustic version are the fourteenth and nineteenth tracks on the album , respectively . " Tócame " " ( " Touch Me " ) , a dancehall track , features La India . In a minor key , " Rebulera " , another minor @-@ key song , has Queen asserting that she is " queen " in the genre of reggaetón . The track features synthesizers and strings , and is influenced by reggae and Afro @-@ Latin music . " Baila Así " ( " Dance Like That " ) , produced by Gran Omar , has a Punjabi – influenced hip @-@ hop beat .
= = Release and promotion = =
Real was released on November 16 , 2004 , after originally being scheduled for release in September and on November 26 . The album was also released in a censored version . It was later re @-@ issued on September 25 , 2007 by Machete Music , after having been announced in July 2007 as a fourth @-@ quarter release . This was a result of Ivy Queen 's success with her seventh studio album , Sentimiento , which sold 9 @,@ 000 copies in its first week and was certified platinum within two months of release . Ivy Queen appeared on Don Francisco Presenta , where she performed " Chika Ideal " ( the first single from Real ) to promote the album . " Rociarlos " was released as the second single , and " Dile " was released as the third ( and final ) single later in 2004 after the album 's release . Music videos for both singles were also released , along with music videos for " Dale Volumen " and " Matando " . Queen performed on the Reggaeton Tour 2004 , also featuring Aldo Ranks and La Factoria , in a number of South American countries ( including Ecuador ) ; she sang " Papi Te Quiero " and " Tu No Puedes " , promoting Diva and Real .
This was her first tour in South America , following shows in Atlanta and New York City ( where she was " designated as the Puerto Rico Youth God Mother of the National Puerto Rican Day Parade " in June 2004 ) . At the end of June 2004 Queen appeared on a network @-@ television @-@ news segment , detailing her career and struggle for respect in reggaetón , during recording sessions for the album . In February 2005 Queen appeared at the Festival of Puerto Rican Stars — an historic achievement for reggaetón , since no other performer from the genre was invited . In June 2005 Queen appeared on the Invasion Del Reggaetón Tour with Daddy Yankee , which grossed $ 817 @,@ 220 for the week of June 18 . She also attended ( and performed at ) the Billboard Bash the night before the 2005 Billboard Latin Music Awards .
Unlike Queen 's previous albums , the artwork for Real features provocative photography ; her middle and thighs are emphasized to create a sexy image . Queen said her breasts were enlarged from a B to a C cup , adding that the packaging described the style of music on the album . The album cover also features Queen 's signature long nails , which she sports in a variety of colors . Incorporating graffiti , the album has " street cred " in the U.S.-centered hip @-@ hop world . The change in image for Queen is attributed to Universal Latino 's feeling that Real had crossover potential for U.S. mainstream audiences . The album 's title suggests this ; it means " real " in English and Spanish and " royal " in Spanish , hinting at Queen 's status as the Queen of Reggaetón . It is also Queen 's response to Puerto Rican criticism for looking like a tomboy , wearing baggy pants and large shirts ( which she addresses in her autobiography , Detrás Del Glamour [ Behind the Glamour ] ) . She accepted responsibility for her change in image , attributing it to a " new growth in person " and admitting that the makeover stemmed from a " crisis " and " female vanity " . To change her figure , Queen used a Colombian plastic surgeon .
= = Reception = =
The album was moderately commercially successful . On the Billboard Top Latin Albums chart , Real debuted at number twenty @-@ nine and peaked at number twenty @-@ five , one position higher than Diva 's peak at twenty @-@ four . It ended its chart run at number sixty @-@ nine on February 26 , 2005 . On the Reggae Albums chart the album debuted at number four , sharing its peak with Diva and spending seventeen consecutive weeks on the chart . On the Billboard Tropical Albums chart , the album debuted ( and peaked ) at number six , not matching Diva 's peak position at the top . It fell off the chart after being number eighteen for the week of April 9 , 2005 . At the time Diva was still on the countdown at number twenty , to be displaced two weeks later by Marc Anthony 's 2004 Valio La Pena . Sales were boosted by " distribution by Universal Music & Video Distribution , coupled with strong airplay at English- and Spanish @-@ language stations " . Queen did not enter the Billboard 200 until 2007 , when her sixth studio album ( Sentimiento ) reached number 105 on the chart . " Dile " was the only commercially successful of the three singles , reaching number eight on the Billboard Tropical Songs chart . After the reggaetón " explosion " on the west coast of the United States , Real helped Ivy Queen enter " Bay Area mainstream hip hop dials " with " Dile " , " Tócame " and " Baila Así " " staples " on Hispanic radio stations . " Dile " received a Billboard Latin Music Award nomination for Tropical Airplay Track of the Year , Female at the 2005 Billboard Latin Music Awards , where Queen was also nominated for Reggaeton Album of the Year and Tropical Airplay Track of the Year , New Artist . Echo and Diesel received a Latin Grammy Award for their production work on Real . At Telemundo 's El Premio De La Gente Latin Music Awards of 2005 , the album was nominated for Urban or Duranguense Album of the Year — Male or Female , where Queen was also nominated for Urban or Duranguense Artist of the Year — Male or Female .
Rolling Stone gave Real three out of five stars , complimenting the " combo of raspy braggadocio and sexy rhymes " and noting the " pop @-@ savvy " nature of the LP . According to Patricia Meschino of Miami New Times , the album features a " wide range of styles , including the lilting Haitian compas rhythms of ' Dile ' ( ' Tell Her ' ) , the bhangra – flavored ' Baila Asi ' ( ' Dance Like This ' ) , the acoustic guitar ballad ' Ángel Caído ' ( ' Fallen Angel ' ) and ' Tocame ' ( ' Caress Me ' ) , all of which are adapted to Ivy Queen 's ' confident , raspy vocals ' " . The latter track was labeled " spicy " . Meschino also noted the exploration of hip @-@ hop and dancehall rhythms set to " rough and rugged fast @-@ paced raps " . She ended her review by saying that it was " the audacious musical explorations that make Real a surprisingly nuanced and ultimately satisfying release " . Music journalist Rafer Guzman of Newsday complimented the " electro @-@ crunch of ' Soldados ' " and " snaky funk of ' Quítate Tu ' " . Leila Cobo of Billboard said the album was " highly anticipated " after the release of Diva : Platinum Edition several months earlier , with over 100 @,@ 000 copies sold . The album was considered a factor in reggaetón 's mainstream exposure to American and global audiences . Agustin Gurza of the Los Angeles Times criticized the album , saying " [ it ] lacks real instruments " and was bawdy and indecent . An editor for Bulb Magazine selected the album as one of reggaetón 's most classic albums in 2007 . The music magazine XLR8R put the album at number two on its " Five Important Reggaetón Albums " list behind Don Omar 's The Last Don ( 2003 ) and before Tego Calderon 's El Abayarde ( 2003 ) , Nicky Jam 's Vida Escante ( 2002 ) and Zion & Lennox 's Motivando a la Yal ( 2004 ) . While reviewing the reggaetón compilation album Jamz TV Hits , Vol . 3 , an editor for Allmusic listed " Chika Ideal " as an " Allmusic Pick " . The song was selected as a hit from " The Golden Era of Reggaetón " ( 2003 – 2007 ) by Jesus Trivino of Latina magazine . Terra Networks called the music video for " Chika Ideal " one of the hottest of the summer , saying the song showed " why she is the queen of reggaetón " . The video reached the Top 10 for four consecutive weeks on Terra Networks ' Top Music Video countdown .
= = Track listing = =
Standard edition
= = Personnel = =
Adapted from liner notes :
= = = Track credits = = =
= = = Guest credits = = =
= = = Technical credits = = =
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
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= Russian battleship Poltava ( 1911 ) =
Poltava was the second of the Gangut @-@ class battleships of the Imperial Russian Navy built before World War I. The Ganguts were the first class of Russian dreadnoughts . She was named after the Russian victory over Charles XII of Sweden in the Battle of Poltava in 1709 . She was completed during the winter of 1914 – 15 , but was not ready for combat until mid @-@ 1915 . Her role was to defend the mouth of the Gulf of Finland against the Germans , who never tried to enter , so she spent her time training and providing cover for mine laying operations . She was laid up in 1918 for lack of trained crew and suffered a devastating fire the following year that almost gutted her . Many proposals were made to reconstruct or modernize her in different ways for the next twenty years , but none were carried out . While all this was being discussed she served as source of spare parts for her sister ships and was used as a barracks ship . She was finally struck from the Navy List in 1940 and scrapping began at a very leisurely rate . She was intentionally grounded in late 1941 to prevent her from being sunk in some inconvenient location by the Germans . She was refloated in 1944 and scrapped beginning in 1949 .
= = Design = =
Poltava was 180 meters ( 590 ft ) long at the waterline and 181 @.@ 2 meters ( 594 ft ) long overall . She had a beam of 26 @.@ 9 meters ( 88 ft ) and a draft of 8 @.@ 99 meters ( 29 @.@ 5 ft ) , 49 centimeters ( 1 @.@ 61 ft ) more than designed . Her displacement was 24 @,@ 800 tonnes ( 24 @,@ 400 long tons ; 27 @,@ 300 short tons ) at load , over 1 @,@ 500 t ( 1 @,@ 500 long tons ; 1 @,@ 700 short tons ) more than her designed displacement of 23 @,@ 288 t ( 22 @,@ 920 long tons ; 25 @,@ 671 short tons ) .
Poltava 's machinery was built by the Franco @-@ Russian Works . Ten Parsons steam turbines drove the four propellers . The engine rooms were located between turrets three and four in three transverse compartments . The outer compartments each had a high @-@ pressure ahead and reverse turbine for each wing propeller shaft . The central engine room had two each low @-@ pressure ahead and astern turbines as well as two cruising turbines driving the two centre shafts . The engines had a total designed output of 42 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 31 @,@ 319 kW ) , but they produced 52 @,@ 000 shp ( 38 @,@ 776 kW ) during Poltava 's full @-@ speed trials on 21 November 1915 and gave a top speed of 24 @.@ 1 knots ( 44 @.@ 6 km / h ; 27 @.@ 7 mph ) . Twenty @-@ five Yarrow Admiralty @-@ type small @-@ tube boilers provided steam to the engines at a designed working pressure of 17 @.@ 5 standard atmospheres ( 1 @,@ 770 kPa ; 257 psi ) . Each boiler was fitted with Thornycroft oil sprayers for mixed oil / coal burning . They were arranged in two groups . The forward group consisted of two boiler rooms in front of the second turret , the foremost of which had three boilers while the second one had six . The rear group was between the second and third turrets and comprised two compartments , each with eight boilers . At full load she carried 1 @,@ 847 @.@ 5 long tons ( 1 @,@ 877 @.@ 1 t ) of coal and 700 long tons ( 710 t ) of fuel oil and that provided her a range of 3 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 6 @,@ 500 km ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ) .
Her main armament consisted of a dozen Obukhovskii 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) Pattern 1907 52 @-@ calibre guns mounted in four triple turrets distributed the length of the ship . The Russians did not believe that super firing turrets offered any advantage as they discounted the value of axial fire and believed that super firing turrets could not fire while over the lower turret because of muzzle blast problems . They also believed that distributing the turrets , and their associated magazines , over the length of the ship improved the survivability of the ship . Sixteen 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch ( 119 mm ) 50 @-@ calibre Pattern 1905 guns were mounted in casemates as the secondary battery intended to defend the ship against torpedo boats . She completed with only a single 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) 30 @-@ calibre Lender anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) gun mounted on the quarterdeck . Other anti @-@ aircraft guns were probably added during the course of World War I , but details are lacking . Conway 's says that four 75 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) were added to the roofs of the end turrets during the war . Four 17 @.@ 7 @-@ inch ( 450 mm ) submerged torpedo tubes were mounted with three torpedoes for each tube .
= = Service = =
Poltava was built by the Admiralty Shipyard at Saint Petersburg . She was laid down on 16 June 1909 and launched on 23 July 1911 . At the end of October 1914 she was struck by her sister Gangut which jammed her kedge anchor , damaged her hull and delayed her trials to late November 1914 . She entered service on 30 December 1914 when she reached Helsinki and was assigned to the First Battleship Brigade of the Baltic Fleet . However , gunnery and torpedo trials had to be postponed until mid @-@ 1915 because of the thick winter ice . She was the only ship of the class to perform a full @-@ power speed trial , which she did in November 1915 . She played a passive part in World War I as her role was to prevent the Germans from breaking into the Gulf of Finland , something the Germans never even tried . She ran aground in June 1916 , but suffered little damage . Her crew participated in the February Revolution of 1917 . She , and most of the Baltic Fleet , evacuated Helsingfors between 12 and 17 March 1918 despite the winter ice in the Gulf of Finland . Due to a shortage of crew she was placed into long @-@ term conservation at Petrograd in October 1918 .
On 24 November 1919 a fire broke out in her forward boiler room and gutted much of her interior . She was henceforth used as a source of spare parts for her sisters . Along with the Borodino @-@ class battlecruiser Izmail she was considered for conversion to an aircraft carrier in 1924 for service in the Black Sea , but this proved to be too ambitious and expensive given the state of the Soviet economy shortly after the end of the Russian Civil War . A more modest goal was to restore her to her original configuration and the Baltic Works actually began work in 1925 , but exhausted the allotted funds on 15 February 1926 by which time she was estimated to be 46 @.@ 5 % complete . On 7 January 1926 she was given the name Frunze , after the recently deceased Bolshevik military leader Mikhail Frunze . Subsequent plans that focused on reconstructing her as a modernized equivalent to her sisters or even as a battlecruiser , with one turret deleted to save weight , were considered , but finally abandoned on 23 January 1935 when all work was stopped . Kliment Voroshilov approved one last plan to turn her into a floating battery , but the Baltic Works had no capacity to spare and this project was cancelled on 9 July 1939 . During this period she was used as a barracks hulk while she was stripped for parts , until she was formally discarded 1 December 1940 , after scrapping had already begun at a leisurely pace . After the German invasion she was towed to Kronstadt and run aground late July 1941 near the Leningrad Sea Canal . During the Siege of Leningrad her hull was used as a base for small ships . She raised on 31 May 1944 , towed to Leningrad and scrapped beginning in 1949 .
After World War II two turrets and their guns were used to rebuild Coast Defence Battery 30 ( Maksim Gor 'kii I ) in Sevastopol . It remained in service with the Soviet Navy through 1997 .
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= Battle of Nalapani =
The Battle of Nalapani was the first battle of the Anglo @-@ Nepalese War of 1814 – 1816 , fought between the forces of the British East India Company and Nepal , then ruled by the House of Gorkha . The battle took place around the Nalapani fort , near Dehradun , which was placed under siege by the British between 31 October and 30 November 1814 . The fort 's garrison was commanded by Captain Balbhadra Kunwar , while Major @-@ General Rollo Gillespie , who had previously fought in the Battle of Java , was in charge of the attacking British troops . Gillespie was killed on the first day of the siege while rallying his men and despite considerable odds , both in terms of numbers and firepower , Balbhadra and his 600 @-@ strong garrison successfully held out against more than 3 @,@ 000 British troops for over a month .
After two costly and unsuccessful attempts to seize the fort by direct attack , the British changed their approach and sought to force the garrison to surrender by cutting off the fort 's external water supply . Having suffered three days of thirst , on the last day of the siege , Balbhadra , refusing to surrender , led the 70 surviving members of the garrison in a charge against the besieging force . Fighting their way out of the fort , the survivors escaped into the nearby hills . Considering the time , effort , and resources spent to capture the small fort , it was a pyrrhic victory for the British . A number of later engagements , including one at Jaithak , unfolded in a similar way ; but more than any other battle of the war , the fighting around Nalapani established the Gurkhas ' reputation as warriors . As a result , they were later recruited by the British to serve in their army .
= = Background = =
= = = Situation = = =
In 1814 under the new and ambitious Governor @-@ General Francis Edward Rawdon @-@ Hastings , the Earl of Moira , the long @-@ standing diplomatic disputes between British India and the Kingdom of Nepal , caused by expansionist policies of both parties , descended into open hostility . The British East India Company sought to invade Nepal not just to secure the border and to force the Nepali government to open trading routes to Tibet , but also for what Hastings saw as a geo @-@ political necessity to secure the foothold of the Company in the Indian sub @-@ continent .
The initial British campaign plan was to attack on two fronts across a frontier stretching more than 1 @,@ 500 km ( 930 miles ) , from the Sutlej river in the west to the Koshi river in the east . On the eastern front , Major @-@ Generals Bennet Marley and John Sullivan Wood led their respective columns across the Tarai towards the heart of the Kathmandu Valley ; at the same time Major @-@ General Rollo Gillespie and Colonel David Ochterlony led the columns on the western front . These two western columns faced the Nepalese army under the command of Amar Singh Thapa . Around the beginning of October 1814 , the British troops began to move towards their depots and the army was soon after formed into four divisions : one at Benares , one at Meerut , one at Dinapur , and one at Ludhiana .
The division at Meerut was formed under Gillespie , and originally consisted of one British infantry regiment , the 53rd , which with artillery and a few dismounted dragoons , made up about 1 @,@ 000 Europeans . In addition to this , there were about 2 @,@ 500 native infantrymen ; this made up a total force of 3 @,@ 513 men . Once assembled , it marched directly to Dehra Dun , which was the principal town in the Dun Valley . After having captured or destroyed the forts in the valley , the plan called for Gillespie to either move eastwards to expel Amar Singh Thapa 's troops from Srinagar , or westwards to take Nahan , the largest town in the Sirmaur district , where Amar Singh 's son , Ranjore Singh Thapa , controlled the government . Once completed , Gillespie was to sweep on towards the Sutlej in order to isolate Amar Singh , and force him to negotiate .
Of the four British divisions mentioned above , Gillespie 's was the first to penetrate the enemy 's frontier . The Nepalese had anticipated that Dehra Dun would be the first place of assault , and had tasked Captain Balbhadra Kunwar with the fortification of the place . When Balbhadra Kunwar , commander of the Nepalese defence army at Dehradun , heard of the approach of the British Army and its size , he realised that it would be impossible to defend the city . He withdrew from Dehradun and moved his force of about 600 , including dependents , to a hill north @-@ east of the city . He subsequently took up a position in the small fort of Nalapani , Khalanga . His force was ethnically diverse , consisting of Magar soldiers belonging to the Purano Gorakh Battalion and soldiers that had been recruited from Garhwal and nearby areas . On 22 October , before the British declaration of war on 1 November 1814 , Gillespie seized the Keree Pass leading into the Dun Valley . He then proceeded to Dehra unchallenged .
A letter was sent by the British to Balbhadra , summoning him to surrender the fort . Upon receiving the note , Balbhadra tore it up . The letter having been delivered to him at midnight , he observed that " it was not customary to receive or answer letters at such unseasonable hours " . Nevertheless , he responded by sending his " salaam " to the English " sirdar " , assuring him that he would soon visit him in his camp .
= = = Terrain and defences = = =
The Nalapani fort was situated on a 500 – 600 @-@ foot ( 150 – 180 m ) hill that was covered in dense jungle . The approach to the fort was very steep in most directions and the top of the hill , which formed a tabletop feature , was about .75 miles ( 1 @.@ 21 km ) in length . Its highest point was to the south , where the town of Kalanga was located . The fort was constructed in an irregular shape , having been built to conform with the shape of the ground upon which it was situated , and at the time the British entered the Dun Valley , its walls had not been finished . Upon their arrival , the British found the Nepalese defenders working to improve the fort 's defences and raising the height of the walls .
By the time the first attack took place , the walls of the fort still had not been finished , although they had been raised slightly . As a result of the hasty construction work , even at the wall 's lowest part , it was high enough that the attacking force would need ladders to reach the top of the rampart . Every point where the fort was approachable , or thought weak by its defenders , was bolstered by stockades made out of stones and stakes that had been stuck into the ground . These were covered by cannons that were placed where they could be most effective , and a wicket gate that flanked a large part of the wall , was left open but cross @-@ barred , to make it difficult for attacking soldiers to enter but also to channel their advance towards a cannon that had been placed at the gate to enfilade its approach with showers of grapeshot .
= = Battle = =
= = = First British attack = = =
Following their arrival , the British reconnoitred the fort and began planning for the assault . Parties were employed in preparing fascines and gabions for the establishment for artillery batteries , while two 12 @-@ pounder guns , four 5 @.@ 5 @-@ inch howitzers , and four six @-@ pounders were carried up the hill on elephants . The British secured the table @-@ land without any Nepalese resistance and the gun batteries were ready to open fire on the fort on the morning of 31 October , at a distance of 600 yards ( 550 m ) .
The first British attack on Nalapani took place on 31 October , a day before the official declaration of war . Gillespie planned to storm the fort from four sides . The storming party was formed into four columns , support by a reserve : the first , under Colonel Carpenter , consisted of 611 men ; the second , under Captain Fast , was 363 strong ; the third , under Major Kelly , was made up of 541 men ; the fourth , under Captain Campbell , had 283 men ; while 939 men made up the reserve , under Major Ludlow . It was intended for these columns to ascend from different points , at a signal made through the guns firing in a specific manner , and thus attack the Nepalese from different sides . In doing so , the British hoped to divert the attention of the Nepalese and prevent them from concentrating their fire on any one point , allowing the attackers to gain an advantage .
However , after the attack began only two columns , those under Carpenter and Ludlow , responded to Gillespie 's signal to assault , which was given some hours earlier than was intended . Under the cover of fire , pioneers twice swarmed up to the walls , only to be cut down by the enfilade fire of Bal Bhadra 's cannons that were positioned along a large part the wall . The garrison maintained a heavy bombardment from the walls , and heavy showers of arrows and of stones rained down on the assailants . Women inside the fort also threw missiles , exposing themselves to British fire . Gillespie 's men fell back and on seeing this , he moved forward from the artillery line to personally rally his men . With three fresh companies of the 53rd Regiment , he reached a spot within 30 yards ( 27 m ) of the wicket , where , " as he was cheering the men , waving his hat in one hand , and his sword in the other , " a Nepalese marksman shot him " through the heart , and he fell dead on the spot . " The General 's death forced the British to temporarily cease their attack and withdraw . Total British casualties for the day were 32 dead and 228 wounded , some of whom subsequently died .
= = = Second British attack = = =
Not having expected such a determined resistance from the Nepalese , Colonel Sebright Mawbey , who was next in command of the British troops at Nalapani , retired to Dehra until 24 November so that heavy guns could arrive from Delhi . After the reinforcements had arrived , the fighting resumed on 25 November and for three days the fort was bombarded until , at noon on 27 November , a large section of northern wall finally gave away . The British forces , seeing their opportunity , twice tried to charge into the breach that day , but were repelled and pinned to an exposed position just outside the wall . An attempt was then made to fire one of the light guns into the breach to provide obscuration with gun smoke to cover a further attack , but that too proved unsuccessful . The day ended with the British assault force withdrawing after spending two hours pinned outside the wall , exposed to heavy fire from the garrison , and having suffered significant losses . British casualties for the day amounted to 37 dead and over 443 wounded .
= = = Nepalese withdrawal = = =
After two failed attempts to capture the fort by straight forward attacks , the British resorted to attrition tactics . On 28 November , instead of launching another infantry assault , the fort was encircled from all sides and placed under siege . This prevented Nepalese reinforcements from entering the fort . Mawbey then instructed his gunners , by now strongly reinforced , to fire into the fort . He also sent scouts to locate and cut off the fort 's external water source . The water situation was made worse for the defenders when about a hundred earthen vessels stocked with water , stored in a portico , were destroyed in the bombardment . The eastern and northern walls of the fort were razed to the ground . The continuous bombardment also caused three of the four cannons installed on the fort 's battlements to fall outside the fort , while the other fell inside . The other cannons that the Nepalese possessed were unusable , having either been disabled by misfiring during previous attacks , or because they had been buried under rubble in the British bombardment . Left without any cannons to reply , the garrison suffered heavy casualties . They continued to resist using gunfire and stones , but eventually the few people that remained in the fort became desperate and could not hold on any longer . That night , despite threats to their person and property , desertion became rampant .
By the following day , 29 November , the garrison 's water supply had been exhausted . The walls of the fort had also collapsed and the garrison was exposed , leading to further casualties amongst the Nepali troops . Seeing the disheartened state of men , the Captain and other officers asked them to sign a pledge to fight to the last . Eighty @-@ four soldiers signed . However , that night the Mleccha Kalanala Company , which had arrived as reinforcements and was stationed at a portico east of Nalapani , secretly abandoned their post , taking with them their arms and colours . Seeing this , some of the men who had signed the pledge followed . The 50 or 60 men that remained , overcome by the hopelessness of the situation , felt that instead of confronting certain death by remaining in the fort , it was better to escape to the hills and hold their position there . Perhaps unable to convince their commanders with words , the escaping men caught hold of their Captain and other officers by their arms , and dragged them away from the fort . Learning of this new movement , the British renewed their fire ; but the Nepalese managed to cut through and make a successful escape .
Thus , after days of thirst and continuous bombardment , the Nepalese were forced to evacuate the fort on 30 November . Bal Bhadra refused to surrender and with about 70 of his surviving men he was able to fight his way through the besieging force and escape into the hills . When the British troops entered the fort , it was found , as Prinsep writes , in a " shocking state , full of the remains of men and women killed by the shot shells of our batteries ; a number of wounded were likewise lying about , and the stench was intolerable . "
Upwards of 90 dead bodies were found and cremated , while the wounded were sent to British hospitals ; the rest of the fort was then razed to the ground .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Conduct during battle = = =
During the fighting , the British were impressed by the conduct of the Nepalese soldiers during the battle who , according to British accounts , exhibited fair conduct towards them . This endeared them to the British , who were willing to reciprocate by giving medical aid to wounded and captured Nepalese . The confidence the Nepalese exhibited in the British officers was significant : they not only accepted , but also solicited surgical aid , even while continuing to fight . This gave rise , on one occasion , to a scene , which was recounted by the Scottish traveller James Baillie Fraser :
While the batteries were playing , a man was perceived on the breach , advancing and waving his hand . The guns ceased firing for a while , and the man came into the batteries : he proved to be a Ghoorkha , whose lower jaw had been shattered by a cannon shot , and who came thus frankly to solicit assistance from his enemy .
It is unnecessary to add , that it was instantly afforded . He recovered ; and , when discharged from the hospital , signified his desired to return to his corps to combat us again : exhibiting thus , through the whole , a strong sense of the value of generosity and courtesy in warfare , and also of his duty to his country , – separating completely in his own mind private and national feelings from each other , – and his frank confidence in the individuals of our nation , from the duty he owed his own , to fight against us collectively .
= = = Legacy = = =
The fighting around Nalapani , more than any other battle , established the reputation of the Gurkhas as warriors , and won the admiration of the British . Gillespie had been killed and Balbhadra and his 600 men had held the might of the British and their native Indian troops for a month . Even with only 70 remaining survivors after his water source had been cut off , Balbhadra had refused to surrender , and instead had charged out and successfully fought his way through the siege . It set the tone for the rest of the campaign .
Fraser recorded the situation in the following terms :
The determined resolution of the small party which held this small post for more than a month , against so comparatively large a force , must surely wring admiration from every voice , especially when the horrors of the latter portion of this time are considered ; the dismal spectacle of their slaughtered comrades , the sufferings of their women and children thus immured with themselves , and the hopelessness of relief , which destroyed any other motive for their obstinate defence they made , than that resulting from a high sense of duty , supported by unsubdued courage . This , and a generous spirit of courtesy towards their enemy , certainly marked the character of the garrison of Kalunga , during the period of its siege .
Whatever the nature of the Ghoorkhas may have been found in other quarters , there was here no cruelty to wounded or to prisoners ; no poisoned arrows were used ; no wells or waters were poisoned ; no rancorous spirit of revenge seemed to animate them : they fought us in fair conflict , like men ; and , in intervals of actual combat , showed us a liberal courtesy worthy of a more enlightened people .
So far from insulting the bodies of the dead and wounded , they permitted them to lie untouched , till carried away ; and none were stripped , as is too universally the case .
The battle also had significant political repercussions , shaking the British Army 's confidence . The fact that the siege had taken so long exposed the British forces ' vulnerabilities and encouraged the native Indian states – in particular the old Maratha Confederacy in central India – to continue their resistance against British imperialism in the hope that they could still be defeated .
In the years following the battle , the British constructed two small obelisks that still stand in Nalapani . One was laid in honour of Gillespie , while another was dedicated with the inscription " Our brave adversary Bul Buddur and his gallant men " . In Nepal , the story of the battle at Nalapani has gained a legendary status and has become an important part of the nation 's historical narrative , while Balbhadra himself has become a national hero . The fighting spirit displayed by the Nepalese in this and other following battles of Anglo @-@ Nepalese War ultimately led to the recruitment of Gurkhas into the British Army .
= = Nalapanima = =
The battle provides the setting to a Nepali musical drama called Nalapanima written by Bal Krishna Sama and composed by Shiva Shankar . In the drama , the patriotism of a Nepalese soldier is depicted when , after being wounded , the soldier seeks help from the British camp . Later he is grateful for the humanitarian assistance provided by the British but refuses an offer to defect to their army .
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