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= Wellington Mounted Rifles Regiment =
The Wellington Mounted Rifles Regiment was a mounted infantry regiment from New Zealand , raised for service during the First World War . It was assigned to the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade , part of the New Zealand Expeditionary Force .
The regiment , with an establishment of twenty @-@ six officers , 523 other ranks and 600 horses , was formed from three squadrons belonging to pre war Territorial Force regiments ; the Queen Alexandra 's 2nd ( Wellington West Coast ) Mounted Rifles , the 6th ( Manawatu ) Mounted Rifles and the 9th ( Wellington East Coast ) Mounted Rifles . It also included a small headquarters and , until 1916 , a Maxim machine @-@ gun section . The Maxim guns were withdrawn but the regiment 's fire @-@ power increased during the war , by the end of which each squadron had four Hotchkiss machine @-@ guns , one per troop .
As mounted infantry , the regiment rode into battle on their horses , but were expected to dismount for battle , and then fight on foot . The regiment fought predominantly against the forces of the Ottoman Turkish Empire . In the Gallipoli Campaign between May and December 1915 , they participated in the largest battle of that theatre at Chunuk Bair , and also in the fighting for Hill 60 . Evacuated to Egypt , they then took part in the Sinai and Palestine Campaign from 1916 to 1918 . The early battles there included those at Romani , Gaza and Beersheba . Later in the war they were part of the force that occupied the Jordan Valley , and took part in the raid on Amman and the raid on Es Salt . Their final war time operation was in connection with the capture of the Turkish Fourth Army . During the four years of war the regiment had 369 dead and 453 wounded , several of those wounded more than once . After the war , the regiment played a minor role in the Egyptian Revolution of 1919 , before being disbanded in June 1919 .
= = History = =
= = = Formation = = =
Raised on 8 August 1914 at the start of the First World War , the Wellington Mounted Rifles Regiment came from the region around Wellington on the North Island of New Zealand . It was commanded by Lieutenant @-@ Colonel William Meldrum , and comprised a headquarters , a machine @-@ gun section , and three squadrons formed from Territorial Force regiments . The New Zealand Territorial Force included a compulsory training system , and the four Military Districts were each required to supply a mounted regiment for the New Zealand Expeditionary Force . To meet that obligation the Territorial Force regiments each provided a squadron , which kept their own regimental badges and traditions . The regiment 's squadrons came from the Queen Alexandra 's 2nd ( Wellington West Coast ) Mounted Rifles ( 2nd Squadron ) , the 6th ( Manawatu ) Mounted Rifles ( 6th Squadron ) and the 9th ( Wellington East Coast ) Mounted Rifles ( 9th Squadron ) . The establishment was fixed at twenty @-@ six officers and 523 other ranks , who used 528 riding horses , seventy @-@ four draught horses and six pack horses . Each squadron , of 158 men , had a field headquarters and four troops . The Machine @-@ Gun Section , with two Maxim Guns , had one officer , twenty @-@ six other ranks , twenty riding horses and sixteen draught horses . Although the regiment used horses , they were not cavalry but mounted infantry , and expected to ride to the battlefield , dismount and then fight as traditional infantry . Attached to , but not part of , the regiment were medical and veterinary officers , an artificer , three more other ranks and another eighteen horses . The regiment was assigned to the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade , serving alongside two other regiments , the Auckland Mounted Rifles and the Canterbury Mounted Rifles .
= = = Embarkation = = =
The regiment conducted training until 24 September , when they received embarkation orders . Due to the fear of German warships being in the area , the wait for suitable escort ships delayed their departure until 15 October . With a short stop at Hobart , on 28 October they arrived at Albany , and anchored waiting to be joined by the Australian contingent . The combined convoy sailed on 1 November and reached Colombo on 15 November . Two days later it sailed into the Red Sea and the Suez Canal . They docked at Port Said on 2 December and Alexandria the next day . The regiment disembarked on 4 December and boarded a train for their camp in the Cairo suburb of Zeitoun . There they started a training programme , using the desert for manoeuvres , during both day and night .
In April 1915 the New Zealand and Australian forces , except the mounted troops , were sent to serve in the Gallipoli Campaign . Heavy casualties during the landings provided a need for reinforcements , so the regiment and other mounted troops , without their horses , were ordered to Gallipoli .
= = Gallipoli = =
On 8 May 1915 , the regiment , reduced to twenty @-@ five officers and 453 other ranks ( some men had to stay behind to look after the horses ) , with the remainder of the brigade , sailed for Gallipoli and landed three days later , under small arms fire , at ANZAC Cove , as part of the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps ( ANZAC ) .
They relieved elements of the Royal Naval Brigade , with the regiment taking over from the Nelson and Deal Battalions , on the right flank . One squadron occupied the front line , one squadron the support trench , and the third was the reserve . The regiment was on the left , the Auckland Mounted Rifles in the centre , and the Canterbury Mounted Rifles on the right . They spent the next few days improving the fire trenches , constructing communications trenches , and enlarging tracks so men and guns could move forward quickly . This was done under Turkish machine @-@ gun and rifle fire .
= = = First combat = = =
At midnight on 18 May the Turkish troops opened fire on the regiment until 03 : 30 , then left their trenches and charged the mounted brigade , concentrating on the Auckland Mounted Rifles . The Turkish attackers were engaged by the regiment 's machine @-@ guns with enfilade fire and the attack petered out at dawn , leaving hundreds of Turkish dead . Both sides continued shooting at each other with artillery and small arms fire . At 13 : 25 General Alexander Godley , commanding that section of the beach @-@ head , ordered the regiment to counter @-@ attack the Turkish trenches at " The Nek " . Their first trench was one hundred yards ( 91 m ) across no man 's land with no cover at all . The regiment prepared to obey the order , but arranged it so that no one squadron would be wiped out . The men were selected in equal proportion from all three squadrons and Captain William Hardham VC was chosen to command them . Brigadier @-@ General Andrew Russell , commanding the brigade , contacted Godley to advise him of the circumstances of such an attack and Russell was told to " use his own judgement " so promptly called it off .
The morning of 20 May started the same way , with Turkish artillery and small arms fire being directed at the regiment 's trenches . This lasted until 16 : 30 when the firing ceased and white flags appeared above the Turkish trenches . The Turkish commander asked for an armistice , so that they could collect their dead and wounded lying in the open . But as it appeared they were using the time to bring forward reinforcements , repair defences and collect arms and ammunition from the dead , the armistice was turned down . Negotiations continued and a truce was agreed for 24 May between 07 : 30 and 17 : 00 . The regiment sent out men to collect and bury Allied dead . The next day the 3rd Light Horse Brigade relieved the regiment , and they moved to a safer area in the rear . Even when " resting " in the rear , they were not safe as it was constantly shelled , and work details had to be provided to move supplies and construct better defences .
= = = Defence of No.3 Post = = =
On 28 May the regiment had to man a position just captured by the Canterbury Mounted Rifles , called No.3 Post . The 6th Squadron was chosen and started improving the trenches on arrival . Daylight was at 03 : 30 and although having worked all night , they had made no real impression on the position and were exposed to Turkish fire all day . However , instead of abandoning the post , at 21 : 00 they were relieved by the 9th Squadron . An hour later Major Selwyn Chambers , commanding the 9th Squadron reported they were surrounded by about one thousand Turkish troops . At 23 : 35 communications with the 9th Squadron failed . The squadron were fighting off attacks , but could not stop Turkish troops reaching the edge of their trench and throwing hand grenades into their positions . A troop from the 2nd Squadron , sent as reinforcements , were unable to break through . So at midnight the remainder of the 2nd Squadron attempted to reach them , but instead had to dig in to defend themselves . Even though outnumbered , both squadrons managed to hold out , providing covering fire for each other . At 03 : 30 another Turkish attempt to capture their trenches began , this time from the south . When Turkish troops got into the left side of the 2nd Squadron trench , Major James Elmslie led a troop in a counter @-@ attack , clearing them out . At 06 : 30 , by using signal flags , communications with regimental headquarters were re @-@ established . Casualties were mounting and supplies of ammunition dwindling , and the defence was becoming untenable . The 6th Squadron managed to reach the 2nd Squadron 's position , but in the face of heavy Turkish fire , were unable to advance any further . Around 12 : 00 Turkish troops got into the 9th Squadrons trenches , forcing one troop to withdraw . After Captain Spragg of 9th Squadron located an abandoned supply of British ammunition , the New Zealanders were able to return fire at will without having to conserve ammunition . Nevertheless , the Turkish force , now numbering about three thousand men , continued their attacks all day .
At 19 : 00 Turkish troops captured the northern section of the 9th Squadron trench . With no chance of any relief during daylight , the commanding officer was informed that two squadrons from the Canterbury Mounted Rifles would try to relieve the 9th Squadron after 20 : 00 . By this time the 6th Squadron had fought their way round the southern slopes of the hill and got within one hundred yards ( 91 m ) of the 9th Squadron 's trench , but could make no further progress . As darkness approached Turkish fire reduced , and at 22 : 30 the Canterbury Mounted Rifles reached 9th Squadron and took over from them at 23 : 00 . The 9th Squadron moved to the rear followed an hour later by the 2nd and 6th Squadrons . During the battle the squadrons were outnumbered and fighting at close quarters , but their casualties were rather light at nineteen dead and fifty @-@ two wounded .
= = = Walker 's Ridge = = =
The regiment returned to the front on 7 June , relieving the 8th Light Horse Regiment on Walkers Ridge . The 2nd and 9th Squadrons manned the front trench , with the 6th Squadron in reserve . Trench warfare , shelling and sniping continued all month but there was no major attack . The regiment spent their time rotating through the front and resting at the rear . On 1 July reinforcements of four officers and ninety @-@ seven other ranks arrived . On 18 July the regiment returned to the front , relieving the Canterbury Mounted Rifles , each squadron with two troops forward and the other two in reserve . They remained there until 31 July when they were relieved by the 10th Light Horse Regiment . Returning to the rear , the regiment only had twenty @-@ four officers and 338 other ranks , almost 200 men short of full establishment .
= = = Chunuk Bair = = =
In August Godley planned a new offensive . The brigade was designated as the " Right Covering Force " , and allocated several objectives including " No.3 Post " , " Big Table Top " and " Destroyer Ridge " . The regiment , supported by a Maori pioneer battalion , were given " Destroyer Ridge " and " Big Table Top " to capture . On 5 August the regiment moved to their starting position at " No.1 Post " , the attack being planned for the following day . Two troops from 6th Squadron were to capture " Destroyer Ridge " , and then clear the route to " Big Table Top " , which the remainder of the regiment was to assault at 22 : 00 .
At 21 : 30 6 August the attack began ; after covering around two hundred yards ( 180 m ) the leading troops were discovered by a Turkish sentry . The 6th Squadron charged the trenches , killing the occupants , but it cost them two men dead and one wounded including the squadron commander . The rest of the squadron continued clearing the route for the regiment . Thick impenetrable bush , forced the regiment to move further east to continue . Scaling the north @-@ eastern face of the hill , they reached the summit at 22 : 55 , and attacked the Turks from the rear . The regiment worked to secure the position from attack by the Turkish forces . Their total casualties for the operation were eight dead and nine wounded , but they had captured 158 prisoners , without firing a shot . The next morning , 7 August , the 6th Squadron and Maoris rejoined the regiment , just as they came under heavy machine @-@ gun and rifle fire . The next day the regiment , along with the Auckland Mounted Rifles , the New Zealand Infantry Brigade and two British battalions , were combined as No.1 Column commanded by Brigadier @-@ General Francis Johnston . The Column were to hold the ground already occupied and extend their lines to the south and east . Leaving the 9th Squadron defending " Big Table Top " , the rest of the regiment , 173 all ranks , reported to Johnstone at " Chailak Dere " , where they ordered to hold the position " to the last man " alongside the Otago Infantry Battalion . The regiment spent the night improving the crescent shaped position , on the rear slope of the hill . All during the following day , the attacking Turks , sky @-@ lining themselves at the crest of the hill , became easy targets for the regiment , and were engaged with enfilade fire , from the left and right of the regiment 's lines .
At 16 : 00 the regiment was attacked in force , but the Turks withdrew after suffering heavy casualties . But the British attack elsewhere had failed , and some units had been forced to retire , leaving the regiment exposed . They fought off attacks throughout the night , until 05 : 00 the next morning . Then for two hours they were harassed with sniper fire and hand grenades . Meldrum asked the brigade for reinforcements and more ammunition . There were no reserves of ammunition available and the only reinforcements were forty men from the 6th Battalion Loyal Regiment ( North Lancashire ) who were sent to assist , but did not arrive until noon . At 14 : 00 Meldrum reported he could now hold out until nightfall and at 22 : 30 they were relieved by the rest of the Loyal Regiment and the 5th Battalion Wiltshire Regiment . In the day 's fighting the regiment , from a total of 173 all ranks , had lost forty @-@ three dead and seventy @-@ four wounded .
Early on 10 August the survivors , less the 9th Squadron , moved into a camp at " No.1 Post " . The 9th Squadron , now one hundred men strong , remained at the front defending " Table Top " and " Old No.3 Post " . The next day at 19 : 30 the brigade moved back to man the inner defence line . The regiment , still without the 9th Squadron , occupied the " Camel 's Hump " with twelve men , and " Destroyer Ridge " with twenty @-@ five men , the remainder being held in reserve . They remained at the front until relieved on 23 August .
= = = Hill 60 = = =
On 21 August the regiment moved back to " Big Table Top " for the pending assault on Hill 60 . The attack , at 15 : 30 , succeeded in capturing around two hundred yards ( 180 m ) of Turkish trenches . Two days later , at 17 : 15 , the regiment was relieved and rejoined the brigade at Kabak Kuyu , but at 19 : 30 , five officers and 125 other ranks had to return to the front to defend the western slopes of Hill 60 . The same day , three officers and seventy @-@ seven other ranks arrived as reinforcements for the regiment . On 25 August those men still at the front were relieved by the Canterbury Mounted Rifles and Otago Mounted Rifles , in preparation for a night assault on Hill 60 by the brigade . The assault was postponed for two days to rest the men . Although the brigade was responsible for the centre objective during the assault , it could only provide three hundred men , with another one hundred men coming from the Australian 18th Battalion . The regiment 's contribution was five officers and 125 other ranks . The battle commenced with an hour @-@ long artillery bombardment . The Auckland and Canterbury Mounted Rifles formed the first line of attack , the Wellington regiment and the Otago Mounted Rifles the second , and the Australians made up the third line . At 17 : 00 the attack began , and despite taking heavy casualties crossing no man 's land , the first Turkish line was captured . The Wellington regiment and Otago Mounted Rifles continued on , took out a machine @-@ gun post and captured the second Turkish trench , but sustained heavy casualties . On the other flanks the supporting assaults had failed , leaving the regiment and the Otago Mounted Rifles isolated on a narrow front . The brigade therefore consolidated the ground already captured and moved forward their machine @-@ guns to support the defence ; the forward defensive line was only forty men . The regiment 's casualties during the battle were fifty dead and fifty @-@ nine wounded . That night the remainder of the regiment moved into the front line . They fought off several counter @-@ attacks , losing another man killed and eleven wounded . On 29 August the regiment was relieved by the 163rd ( Norfolk & Suffolk ) Brigade , but remained in the reserve trenches for the next three days . Even there the number of casualties continued to increase , so that by 2 September there were only six officers and ninety @-@ nine men left in the regiment . Despite this , they still had to supply five officers and thirty @-@ nine other ranks to occupy a trench on " Cheshire Ridge " .
= = = Evacuation = = =
By 13 September the regiment 's strength was four officers and eighty other ranks . All of them except fourteen machine @-@ gunners were evacuated to the island of Lemnos . Of the original contingent who had landed in May only twenty @-@ four men were still with the regiment . On 10 November reinforcements increased the regiment 's total to nine officers and 363 other ranks , and they returned to Gallipoli , reaching the front line at Hill 60 on 27 November . Lack of manpower meant they could not fully man their trenches , so a system was adopted where six men manned a post , with only two on duty during the day . At night all men were awake and also patrolled between posts and into no man 's land .
On 17 December , orders for the complete evacuation of the peninsula were issued . The regiment started leaving the next day , when six officers and 155 other ranks left for Lemnos before dawn . Those left behind had to make it appear that the trenches were fully occupied . At 21 : 30 two thirds of the remainder were evacuated . Other smaller parties left the trenches between 01 : 40 and 02 : 05 , when the last officer and eleven other ranks moved down to the beach and were evacuated . The surviving 375 men of the regiment camped on Lemnos until transport was available to take them back to Egypt . Their involvement in the Gallipoli Campaign had cost the regiment a total of 640 casualties .
= = Sinai = =
= = = Katia = = =
On 22 December the regiment left Lemnos ; they disembarked at Alexandria four days later . On 27 December they arrived back at Zeitoun camp . There they were reunited with their horses , and reinforcements arrived to bring the regiment back up to full establishment , plus another ten percent . At the same time the Machine @-@ Gun Section was doubled from two to four guns . On 23 January 1916 the regiment were deployed in defence of the Suez Canal , reaching Serapeum on 29 January and Ferry Post Rail Head on 5 March where they took over from two infantry brigades . Later that month the brigade was assigned to the newly formed ANZAC Mounted Division , alongside three Australian light horse brigades and a British Royal Horse Artillery ( RHA ) brigade .
The regiment mixed defending the canal with further training , each man getting used to their arms and equipment . They carried 240 rounds of ammunition in two bandoleers , one around the horse 's neck . The horses also carried saddle wallets containing clothing and a blanket or great coat , water , rations , cooking utensils , empty sandbags , and a rope for tethering the horse . On 23 April they were ordered to move into the Sinai Desert to assist the 5th Mounted Brigade who were under attack . Travelling thirty miles ( 48 km ) overnight they reached Kantara at dawn and crossed the canal . However the Turkish force had withdrawn , so the brigade established a chain of observation posts in the desert . The Wellingtons were near Hill 70 , in the No.3 Section of the canal 's defence zone .
The regiment remained at Hill 70 until 12 May , when they moved twenty @-@ six miles ( 42 km ) north @-@ east to Maler . On arrival they established a line of observation posts and sent reconnaissance patrols further east into the desert . Four days later the 2nd Squadron sent a troop on a reconnaissance to Sabhket El Bardawil . On 18 May the regiment occupied the Katia Oasis , and the next day sent a patrol to Ard sixteen miles ( 26 km ) to the east . They gained their first sight of Turkish forces in the region , but they were too distant to engage . On 29 May the regiment , along with the rest of the brigade , travelled thirty miles overnight to Salmana , and early next morning surprised the Turkish garrison . The main part of the assault was carried out by the Auckland Mounted Rifles . The water supply at Salmana was insufficient for a complete mounted brigade , so they had to return to Maler that night . Between 21 – 23 June the regiment provided flank protection for the 1st Light Horse Brigade on a reconnaissance of Katia . Then , on their return to Maler , they were attached to the 2nd Light Horse Brigade , who gave them the nickname " Well and Trulys " . In July the regiment lost its machine @-@ gun section , which was transferred to the newly formed brigade Machine @-@ Gun Squadron . The Maxim guns were replaced by three Lewis guns , one per squadron . The loss of the section also reduced the regiment 's establishment to twenty @-@ four officers and 499 other ranks .
= = = Romani = = =
On 19 July , reconnaissance aircraft located a Turkish force in the desert moving west . The regiment and the 2nd Light Horse Brigade were ordered to establish a line of observation posts in their path . They were to send out patrols to locate them , but withdraw if attacked . If possible , they were to retire towards Romani , enticing the Turks to follow them . At dawn on 20 July the regiment located the Turks digging trenches near Ogratina . Rifle fire was exchanged and some prisoners were captured . The prisoners revealed that the force comprised twelve battalions with artillery support , planning to attack Romani .
Two days later , on 22 July , the regiment again encountered Turkish troops , this time at Sagia . Over the following days they were employed checking the Turkish positions and shadowing their line of march . On 28 July , the 2nd Squadron located a strong Turkish force at Umm Ugba two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) north of Katia . Covered by artillery and machine @-@ guns , two of the regiment 's squadrons carried out a bayonet charge and captured the position . They lost two men dead and three wounded during the battle .
On 3 August , still with the 2nd Light Horse Brigade , the regiment returned to Katia . Forming the vanguard , they came under Turkish fire on their approach , and as Katia appeared to be held in strength by the Turks , the brigade set up a line of observation posts to monitor them until nightfall . They then retired to Maler , unknowingly being followed by the Turks . At 23 : 30 the 1st Light Horse Brigade reported movement to their front , and thirty minutes later shots were exchanged at Mount Meredith and Hod El Enna . The regiment had just settled down for the night and were ordered to stand to . At 02 : 15 4 August , fighting broke out along the front line and two hours later the 1st Light Horse Brigade carried out a fighting withdrawal . At dawn the regiment was the brigade reserve behind the 6th and 7th Light Horse Regiments . By 05 : 00 the Turkish force was outflanking both their defences and the ANZAC Mounted Division headquarters , which was co @-@ located at the regiment 's position . Two hours later they were ordered to gallop to the front line . Riding through rifle and machine @-@ gun fire , they moved to the left and rear of the 6th and 7th Light Horse Regiments . Once the regiment 's position was established , the Australian regiments pulled back to form a line with them . As the Turks advanced and occupied the ridge line previously held by the light horse , they brought artillery and machine @-@ gun fire down onto the division 's rear areas . The situation appeared serious , and the regiment 's clerks were ordered to burn all their papers . Just before 10 : 00 reinforcements , consisting of a yeomanry regiment , two Scottish infantry companies and the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade , arrived and began attacking the Turkish left . By 18 : 00 they had captured the position . The regiment 's casualties during the day were twenty @-@ four wounded .
Orders were given for a counter @-@ attack the next morning . The assault started at 04 : 00 on 5 August , and the regiment charged forward on foot with bayonets fixed . Ignoring the machine @-@ gun and rifle fire they broke through the Turkish lines , capturing several hundred prisoners . Meldrum ordered their horses forward and they continued the attack on horseback . They stopped when they came under heavy artillery and machine @-@ gun fire approaching Katia . In the face of such fire they were unable to continue without more support , so dismounted and observed the Turkish positions . Gradually the rest of the division arrived and strengthened the regiment 's line . At 09 : 00 Meldrum was asked by the artillery for assistance . Two batteries following behind the advance were being attacked by Turkish infantry . So Meldrum sent two of his squadrons to help , but the Turkish attackers vanished before they arrived . At 10 : 00 Meldrum had to take over as temporary commander of the 2nd Light Horse brigade , and Major Spragg became the temporary regimental commanding officer . The next attack was timed for 14 : 30 ; the regiment would be part of the force assaulting Katia , on the front left , alongside the 6th Light Horse Regiment . Advancing through artillery and machine @-@ gun fire until they were five hundred yards ( 460 m ) from the Turkish lines , they halted and returned fire . At one stage the regiment had to bend their line , when the unit to their left gave ground and the Turkish forces moved forward trying to outflank them . Heavy fire from the regiment broke that attack , and the counter @-@ attacking Turks withdrew . By nightfall no further move forward was possible , and as the horses needed watering , the attack was called off . The regiment had fought all day , but their casualties were rather light ; one officer and nine other ranks wounded , some mortally . They had captured one thousand prisoners .
= = = Abd = = =
Having not slept for the last three days , the Wellingtons and the 1st and 2nd Light Horse Brigades were rested . Meanwhile , the remainder of the division continued the counter @-@ attack against the Turkish rearguard . On 8 August the Turks were at Abd , and the 1st and 2nd Light Horse Brigades were ordered forward . Reaching Katia later that day , they were ordered to march through the night to take part in the assault at dawn the next morning . Setting out at 23 : 00 , they were in position north @-@ west of Ard by 05 : 00 on 9 August . Half an hour later the Wellington regiment , in the vanguard , led the 2nd Light Horse Brigade on foot to capture a ridge of high ground half a mile ( .8 km ) from the Turkish main defence line . Once in position there , they came under constant artillery fire . Later the regiment again led the brigade to capture another ridge four hundred yards ( 370 m ) to their left , with the 2nd Squadron advancing on the left and the 9th Squadron on the right , supported by the 6th Squadron in reserve . The attack , which was covered by the 7th Light Horse Regiment , advanced through machine @-@ gun and rifle fire until the ridge was captured , but the New Zealanders then came under an intense artillery bombardment . At 13 : 30 the Turks counter @-@ attacked , reaching the 1st Light Horse Brigade who were alongside the Wellingtons , and the 3rd Light Horse Brigade on the other flank who were forced to retire . At 16 : 30 the division 's situation appeared untenable ; orders were issued to evacuate the wounded and for the whole line to retire , while remaining in contact with the Turks . By nightfall the regiment had returned to Oghratina . Their casualties were three dead and twenty @-@ nine wounded . The next day the regiment rested as the Turkish force withdrew . On 11 August they moved forward across the battleground ; the only Turkish troops they encountered were engaged in burying their dead . The next day the Turkish force had withdrawn to Salmana . On 27 August Meldrum resumed command of the regiment , which then moved back to Kantara , with a strength of twenty @-@ two officers and 407 other ranks .
= = = El Arish = = =
While at Kantara leave was granted for all ranks in Port Said and Sidi Bishr during September . On 10 October , once more part of the New Zealand brigade , the regiment moved forward to Maler , and reached Geeila , twenty @-@ five miles ( 40 km ) further east , on 24 October . The next phase of the campaign was an advance of fifty miles ( 80 km ) across the desert to El Arish . The regiment continued moving east , reaching Moseifig on 27 October , and a troop from the 9th Squadron located a good water supply at Gererat only fifteen miles ( 24 km ) from El Arish . On 11 November , the regiment advanced another fourteen miles ( 23 km ) east to Mustagidda , establishing outposts at Arnussi and Zoabitia . Overnight 15 / 16 November the post at Arnussi was attacked by Turkish camel troops , which withdrew before dawn . The Allied attack on El Arish began on 20 December , the New Zealand and 3rd Light Horse Brigades being chosen to carry out the final assault from the south , while the rest of the division cut off any retreat . By dawn the brigade was in sight of its objective , and the town was surrounded . They then discovered that the Turkish forces , aware of the advance , had evacuated the town three days earlier .
= = = Magdhaba = = =
That night , 22 / 23 December , the advance continued towards Magdhaba . This village was surrounded on three sides by a wadi , and defended by several redoubts which were covered by artillery and machine @-@ guns . At 05 : 00 the regiment dismounted four miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) to the north @-@ east of the village . The attack started just before 10 : 00 . The regiment , positioned on the brigade 's right , headed towards their objective , Redoubt No.5. They galloped across the open ground , through artillery and machine @-@ gun fire , until they were 1 @,@ 600 yards ( 1 @,@ 500 m ) from the Turkish lines , at which point they dismounted and continued on foot . Their Lewis Guns , supported by a section from the Machine @-@ Gun Squadron , pinned down the Turkish defenders , while the assault continued . By 11 : 00 the 6th and 9th Squadrons were only five hundred yards ( 460 m ) from the objective when Harry Chauvel , who was in command of the ANZAC Mounted Division , asked the Desert Mounted Corps commander , Philip Chetwode , for permission to withdraw because he believed that no progress had been made . Chetwode instead ordered an all out assault . In the meantime , the regiment continued the advance anyway , and at 15 : 55 they fixed bayonets and charged the redoubt , capturing some of the Turkish defenders . At 16 : 40 the 10th Light Horse Regiment carried out a mounted charge into the middle of the position , and all resistance ceased . The battle had cost the regiment five dead .
= = Palestine = =
= = = Rafa = = =
On 9 January 1917 , around 01 : 00 , the regiment crossed the Egyptian – Palestine border , and continued northwards undetected until about 15 : 30 , when Turkish observation posts set off flares to alert their troops of the Allied approach . At 08 : 00 orders for the attack on Rafa were issued ; the brigade was to form the right flank . At 09 : 35 the whole brigade galloped forward to a position two miles east @-@ north @-@ east of their objective . The Auckland and Canterbury Mounted Rifles were to attack " C " Redoubt , while the Wellington Regiment was placed in reserve with a secondary task of providing protection against any attack on the brigade from the area of Khan Yunis . Already low on ammunition , once the assault began the regiment had to be resupplied with 24 @,@ 000 rounds of machine @-@ gun ammunition . At 13 : 00 two of the regiment 's troops went forward to occupy a gap in the line between the New Zealand brigade 's position and that of the Australian 1st Light Horse Brigade . Just before 14 : 00 one of the regiment 's flank patrols , two miles north @-@ east of Rafa , captured a Turkish officer and three Germans who , during questioning , claimed that the Rafa garrison consisted of 2 @,@ 000 men , with four mountain artillery guns , and that the 160th Regiment was en route to reinforce the defenders . Another patrol reported that two infantry battalions were heading to Rafa from Abu Khatli , while a third patrol reported that around 2 @,@ 000 men , about four miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) away , were coming from Khan Younis . Then another Turkish force was seen approaching , about five miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) away , but too far away to make out any details . At 15 : 45 the brigade was ordered to attack again , and fifteen minutes later another of the regiment 's patrols reported 500 Turkish troops approaching from the east .
The approaching Turkish forces convinced Chetwode to call off the attack . But at 16 : 30 , as the other brigades were retiring , the New Zealanders charged and captured their objective . This allowed them to bring enfilade fire onto the rest of the position . The rest of the division then resumed the attack and captured the village . By now the Turkish relief force was about two miles away to the north @-@ east . By 17 : 15 all the wounded had been evacuated and the covering patrols recalled . As there were no water supplies at Rafa , at 18 : 30 the brigade was ordered to withdraw back to Sheikh Zowaiid . Although not as heavily involved in the battle as other units , the regiment still had twelve men dead and eighteen wounded .
= = = Gaza = = =
At 02 @.@ 30 on 26 March , the regiment set out in thick fog for the assault on the town of Gaza . By 08 : 00 they had crossed the Wadi Ghuzze and reached Sheikh Abbas , confronted only by enemy aircraft and some Turkish camel patrols . Two hours later they were about three miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) to the east of Gaza , providing a guard force against any reinforcements that might approach from Hareira . The British assault did not go according to plan , and at 14 : 00 the ANZAC Mounted Division was ordered to attack the town from the north . The regiment galloped forward together with the rest of the New Zealand brigade , and occupied Meshahera Ridge north @-@ east of Gaza at 16 : 00 . Dismounting , the regiment moved into Gaza , with the 6th Squadron leading , followed by the 2nd Squadron , and the 9th Squadron bringing up the rear . At 16 : 25 they captured a Turkish field ambulance ; four officers , 125 other ranks and twenty vehicles . Continuing the assault through artillery and small arms fire , the 2nd and 9th Squadrons reached a cactus hedge . Cutting through it with their bayonets , they engaged the Turkish defenders behind it in hand @-@ to @-@ hand fighting . Two troops then charged across a lagoon , about 18 inches ( 460 mm ) deep , to capture a Turkish trench . To their right they sighted a Turkish artillery emplacement , and Meldrum ordered the position taken without delay . Two troops from the 2nd and one from the 9th Squadron carried out a bayonet charge and captured the guns intact . Back in the regiment 's centre they were held up by a strong Turkish defensive position at a cemetery . Instead of trying to attack the position , they held their line while the captured guns were recovered . The regiment was now some distance in front of the 2nd Light Horse Brigade to their left , and in danger of a flanking counter @-@ attack . To assist the defence of their position , they turned one of the captured guns onto the Turkish strong points , the inexperienced gun crew sighting by peering down the barrel until they could see their target .
At 18 : 35 , although Meldrum believed they could at least hold where they were , the regiment was ordered by Chetwode to withdraw . At 19 : 00 horse teams arrived to recover the guns , and at 19 : 45 they slowly retired back to the suburbs of Gaza . At 21 : 40 they rejoined the brigade and left the town . The next morning at 08 : 30 they arrived at Deir El Belah , where the division was now located . Casualties during the battle had again been rather light , at one dead and nineteen wounded . They had captured 197 prisoners , as well as the guns and field hospital .
The regiment 's involvement in the second attempt to capture Gaza began at 18 : 30 on 16 April . The brigade left Deir El Belah , marched through the night and at 04 : 30 the next morning were at a ford on the Wadi Ghuzze at Shellal . A Turkish machine @-@ gun post covering the crossing was taken out , and soon after the regiment formed the vanguard on the advance to the Rafa – Beersheba road . By midday , despite being attacked by hostile aircraft , they had established a line of observation posts beside Im Siri . Turkish cavalry patrols were observed in the distance , but they did not attempt an attack on the regiment . By nightfall the brigade was recalled to Shellal , where they camped for the night . The next day was similar , again setting up posts observing Turkish movements , then returning to Shellal after dark . The main assault on Gaza was floundering , and the next day the ANZAC Mounted Division was ordered to assist the Imperial Mounted Division in attacking the Atawineh Redoubt , six miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) to the south @-@ east of Gaza . To get into position for the attack , the brigade marched through the night . Initially held in reserve , the Wellingtons were sent to assist the 5th Mounted Brigade in an attack on " Sausage Ridge " , south of the Atawineh Redoubt . Getting into position at 11 : 30 , Meldrum ordered the 6th Squadron to assault along the length of the ridge , with the help of fire support from the 9th Squadron and the Inverness Battery Royal Horse Artillery . The attack was also supported by the 3rd Squadron Auckland Mounted Rifles on the right of the 6th Squadron . At 12 : 30 the attack had progressed around half way up the ridge , at which point the Leicestershire and half of the Ayeshire Battery Royal Horse Artillery arrived to support the assault . They could not , however , prevent around six hundred Turkish reinforcements reaching the redoubt .
Doubtful of their ability to capture the redoubt alone , at 13 : 15 Meldrum asked for reinforcements ; he was informed there were no more available . The Canterbury Mounted Rifles , advanced into a gap between the Wellingtons and the 5th Mounted Brigade , which eased the pressure . By 15 : 00 the superior Turkish numbers and their strong defences , forced Meldrum to commit his reserve , the 2nd Squadron and a section of the Machine @-@ Gun Squadron . At the same time , the horses were moved further to the rear so that they would be out of artillery range . At 15 : 15 the regiment 's right was counter @-@ attacked by three or four hundred Turkish troops . Fifteen minutes later Meldrum again asked for reinforcements ; he was again refused . Supported by their artillery , the regiment held out until 17 : 00 , when the Turks retired , having suffered heavy losses . An hour later the regiment was ordered to withdraw at nightfall . The 2nd Squadron reported that they had gained a position which allowed them to assault the redoubt . Meldrum , aware that the redoubt would have to be abandoned even if they were successful , refused to allow the assault . At 18 : 30 the Royal Horse Artillery withdrew . Then , confusingly , the regiment was ordered to remain where they were , until the yeomanry to their left had moved back . So it was not until 20 : 15 that the regiment left the front line . At 01 : 00 20 April the regiment reached the night camp at El Jemme . Their casualties during the battle amounted to one dead and twenty @-@ three wounded . The same night , this second attempt to capture Gaza was called off .
= = = Wadi Ghuzee line = = =
On 27 April Meldrum was promoted to brigadier @-@ general and given command of the New Zealand brigade , although he was temporarily replaced as commanding officer by Major Charles Dick . On 30 April the Wellington regiment returned to the front , manning a line of observation posts in the Weli Sheikh Nuran defence system . They were at the right of the British line , which stretched along the Wadi Ghuzze to the Mediterranean Sea , south of Gaza . As well as manning the trenches , they carried out mounted patrols into no man 's land . On 8 June it was their turn to return to the rear rest area at Marakeb , and Lieutenant @-@ Colonel James Whyte assumed command of the regiment . On 8 July the 9th Squadron captured a Turkish outpost four miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) to the west of Beersheba , from which they could clearly see the village 's defences . Ten days later the regiment assaulted what they believed was a strong Turkish position at Khalassa , but discovered the defenders had withdrawn before their approach . On 19 July a Turkish force attacked across the Wadi Imleih towards Karm . The regiment moved forward to occupy a line of observation posts the next day , but again discovered that the Turks had withdrawn . Over the next weeks the regiment carried out numerous patrols around Beersheba , checking on the Turkish defences and dispositions . On 18 August they were sent to Marakeb to rest . Four weeks later , on 18 September , they returned to the front line at Fukhari .
= = = Beersheba = = =
For the attack on Beersheba the New Zealand brigade was to move around the open Turkish left flank and assault the village from the east @-@ north @-@ east . They moved to Esani , fifteen miles ( 24 km ) to the south @-@ east , on 24 October , then on the next day the Wellingtons established a seven miles ( 11 km ) long observation line between two and three miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) south @-@ west of Beersheba . On 28 October the regiment moved another eight miles ( 13 km ) south @-@ east to Khalassa , then the next day to Asluj , sixteen miles ( 26 km ) to the south of Beersheba .
Over the night of 30 / 31 October the attack on Beersheba began ; the regiment formed part of the vanguard with the 6th Light Horse Regiment . At 00 : 45 , the 9th Squadron lead and the 2nd Squadron provided flank and rear protection as the Wellingtons left the main column to capture a Turkish position at Goz El Shegeib , eight miles ( 13 km ) south @-@ east of Beersheba . At 03 : 00 the position was secured - it was unoccupied - and the regiment remained there for instructions . Three hours later the 9th Squadron was attacked , from the north , by a squadron of Turkish cavalry . Supported by the 6th Squadron , they counter @-@ attacked and forced the Turks to withdraw towards Beersheba . The regiment then moved to rejoin the brigade , which was now five miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) to the south @-@ east of Beersheba . Continuing to move forward , at 08 : 00 they captured Salem Irgeig . The regiment now became the brigade reserve ; the brigade assaulted the Saba Redoubt and captured it at 14 : 40 . The 2nd Squadron was sent to reinforce the Auckland Mounted Rifles for their attack on Tel el Saba , which they captured at 15 : 00 . The rest of the regiment were not involved in the battle , and Beersheba was eventually captured with a mounted charge by the 4th Light Horse Brigade . The Wellingtons casualties during the battle amounted to one dead and five wounded .
Holding their position overnight , at 07 : 00 the next morning the regiment advanced towards the crossing at El Likeyeh , seven miles ( 11 km ) to the north of Beersheba . Two hours later , just short of the crossing , the 6th Squadron , leading the regiment , were engaged by around 100 Turkish cavalry and two machine @-@ guns . The squadron , supported by the 9th Squadron , immediately counter @-@ attacked , and captured the position . They then continued on to their objective , where they met up with the Imperial Camel Corps Brigade ( ICCB ) and held the crossing until nightfall , when they were relieved so that they could return and camp at the Saba Redoubt . A shortage of water had affected all the division 's operations , so on 2 November the brigade were moved eleven miles ( 18 km ) east to Bir Imshash .
= = = Ras El Nagb = = =
While the brigade was searching for water , the advance was running into problems . On 4 November the brigade was ordered to relieve the 5th Mounted Brigade at Ras El Nagb , thirteen miles ( 21 km ) north @-@ east of Beersheba . At 17 : 30 the Canterbury Mounted Rifles arrived , followed by the 6th Squadron of the Wellington Mounted Rilfes , who lined up to the left of the Canterbury regiment , facing towards Kheuwelfeh . Their opposition was estimated to be around two thousand men and three artillery batteries . At 03 : 00 on 3 November the Turks began their attack ; five hours later the 9th Squadron relieved the 6th Squadron in the front line . Only two hours later the 6th had to move back into the line , to the west of Ras El Nagb , where they stopped a Turkish attack trying to outflank the position . At 13 : 30 the 2nd Squadron came under a heavy artillery bombardment and suffered several casualties . After this the Turks carried out a bayonet charge , getting to within two hundred yards ( 180 m ) of the regiment 's lines before , under heavy fire , they were forced to withdraw . The regiment managed to hold their position , by the weight of their fire power , until nightfall . The next morning the regiment was relieved by the ICCB . The battle had cost them nine men wounded . Gaza was captured on 7 November , but the regiment remained around Ras El Nagb until the night of 9 November .
= = = Ayun Kara = = =
On 10 November the regiment returned to Beersheba , and the New Zealand brigade were ordered to move sixty miles ( 97 km ) across the British front to the opposite flank . Four days later , just after 11 : 00 , the 6th Squadron assisted the Canterbury Mounted Rifles in capturing a Turkish post defending the Wadi Hanein . But they could then see Turkish troops gathering in a nearby orange grove , and more Turkish troops to the north . When the rest of the brigade arrived Meldrum ordered an immediate attack . The regiment was to advance along the main road , with the Auckland Mounted Rifles on their left . The Somerset Battery Royal Horse Artillery and the Machine @-@ Gun Squadron would provide fire support . The Canterbury Mounted Rifles would be the reserve . At 13 : 30 , covered by artillery fire , the 9th Squadron started the assault . Their first target was a trench system at the top of the hill . Supported by covering fire from a 6th Squadron troop , they charged and captured the position , also capturing a Lewis Gun and a Turkish machine @-@ gun . As the 2nd Squadron secured the position , the 9th Squadron continued forward for their secondary objective , which they charged and captured ; here they captured two more machine @-@ guns . At 14 : 15 the Auckland Mounted Rifles sighted a strong Turkish force preparing for a counter @-@ attack , which began fifteen minutes later . Part of the assault came up against the left of the 9th Squadron , who fought off the attack with the support of five machine @-@ guns . On the other flank the Auckland Mounted Rifles were under severe pressure and the regiment was ordered to assist them . Two troops from the 2nd Squadron mounted and galloped forward around 200 yards ( 180 m ) across open ground . They then dismounted and charged a machine @-@ gun post on the top of a knoll . Engaging the defenders in hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat , they captured the post and another machine @-@ gun . From the knoll they were able to enfilade the Turkish troops attacking the Aucklanders , and forced them to retire . It was now 16 : 00 and the 9th Squadron , taking advantage of the Turkish withdrawal , charged and occupied the Turkish position in front of them . The 6th Squadron , on the right , also moved forward to support them . This prompted a general Turkish retirement , and by dusk they had left the battlefield . The Allies evacuated their wounded and , expecting another attack at dawn , prepared their defences . At 23 : 00 an Australian squadron and a camel squadron arrived to support the brigade . The regiment 's casualties during the battle were eleven dead and forty @-@ six wounded . Against that they had captured thirty @-@ four prisoners as well as seven machine @-@ guns and other military supplies .
= = = River Auja = = =
The next day , 15 November , the Turkish force had completely withdrawn . The brigade continued the advance north , stopping just beyond Richon @-@ le @-@ Zion . The next day , at 09 : 30 , patrols from the regiment entered the port of Jaffa . The town 's only inhabitants were the civilian population , the Turkish troops having evacuated the town beforehand . At 11 : 00 the regiment 's commander , Whyte , took formal possession of the Government buildings , posting guards at the German and Austrian Consulates and the post office .
Two days later , on 18 November , the regiment moved into a line of observation posts along the River Auja . The next day a troop from the 2nd Squadron were sent to locate crossing points across the river . They located a dam and a bridge to the north @-@ east . Dismounting and approaching on foot , they had one man wounded , who was later taken prisoner . The following day the regiment was relieved by the other rest of the brigade , and moved to the rear , returning to the front line on 21 November .
The brigade was ordered to mount an assault across the river at 13 : 00 on 24 November ; the regiment 's objective being Khirbet Hadrah . First across were the Canterbury Mounted Rifles who crossed by a ford at the rivers mouth . Behind them the 6th and 9th Squadrons crossed and moved along the river bank to the bridge at Jerisheh , which they captured at 15 : 30 , taking twenty @-@ two prisoners . With the bridge secure , the regimental headquarters and the 2nd Squadron moved across to reinforce the attack , which then captured Khirbet Hadrah , capturing twenty @-@ five prisoners and two machine @-@ guns .
With the crossing secured , the 161st ( Essex ) Brigade moved across the river to reinforce the defence . The Wellingtons established observation posts further to the north . The next morning the 2nd Squadron sent a patrol on a reconnaissance , which located a strong Turkish force approaching . By 05 : 30 this Turkish force were attacking the 2nd Squadron 's posts . At 07 : 00 the rest of the regiment , still south of the river , moved to support the defenders at Kirbet Hadrah , where they came under an artillery bombardment . At the same time the 2nd Squadron was ordered to fall back to support the infantry at Sheikh Muannis . The Turks continued their assault , and at 08 : 15 had forced the infantry to withdraw south of the river . Holding out until 09 : 30 , the last unit to cross back over the river was the 2nd Squadron . In an attempt to keep possession of a crossing , the 6th and 9th Squadrons moved to cover the ford at the river mouth where they managed to stop the Turkish advance four hundred yards ( 370 m ) short of the ford . That night the 161st Brigade took over all the defences , but the New Zealanders remained close by to support them . The regiment had twelve men wounded during the fighting . They remained in the area until 4 December , when the brigade left for Ibn Ibrak , to the south @-@ east of Jaffa , relieving the ICCB in the front line . On 11 December the regiment was attached to the 54th ( East Anglian ) Division at Beit Dejan as the army tactical reserve . Ten days later they were back with the New Zealand brigade , which was now north of the River Auja . The regiment encountered the Turkish rearguard at Ferrekhiyeh , but after locating the Turks ' positions , the regiment was ordered back to Beit Dejan . Then they were ordered to move back to Sukereir , arriving on Christmas Day 1917 .
= = Jordan Valley = =
= = = Jericho = = =
On 9 February the regiment started thirty @-@ five miles ( 56 km ) across country to Bethlehem , and by 17 February they were camped north @-@ east of Bethlehem around the Mar Elias Monastery and Ibn Obeid . The same day , Whyte was injured in an aeroplane crash and Major Spragg became the temporary commanding officer . The next day , orders were issued for the capture of Jericho . The regiment were attached to the 60th ( London ) Division and had to move that night to be in position to begin the advance at 06 : 00 the next morning . They were tasked to be ready to intercept any retreating Turkish forces from El Muntar , which would be attacked by the infantry division .
That evening , 18 February , the regiment moved out , but before long the width of the track forced them to dismount and lead their horses by hand in single file . At 22 : 30 the head of the column came under fire from Turkish cavalry . They forced the Turks to withdraw , and later surrounded and captured several prisoners , one being Ali Salem a well @-@ known Turkish spy . Continuing at 06 : 00 they captured their first objective two miles to the east of Mar Saba . Spreading out to capture any retreating Turkish forces , they advanced north , under fire , and at 10 : 40 joined up with the 60th Division . Mounted patrols were then sent out , one of which located a strong Turkish position . Located on the " Ancient Road " to Hill 306 and on to Hill 288 , the Turkish positions were supported by five artillery pieces at Neba Musa .
At 17 : 00 the regiment was released from their attachment to the 60th Division , and returned to the command of the New Zealand brigade , which was advancing along the Jordan Valley , joining them an hour later . Problems crossing the mountainous terrain postponed any attack until daylight . At 03 : 00 the brigade moved out again with the Wellingtons on the right , advancing towards Hill 306 , the Canterbury Mounted Rifles on the left towards Hill 288 and the Auckland Mounted Rifles forming the reserve . The 6th Squadron attacked Hill 306 from the south and the 2nd Squadron from the south @-@ west . At dawn they came up against a large group of Turks " in a fortress @-@ like position on the top of a steep hill @-@ face , bristling with machine guns , commanding the surrounding country " . With no artillery available , the squadrons were unable to advance with any speed , using only their small arms to support the assault . A gap appeared in the line between the regiment and the Canterbury Mounted Rifles , who had moved further north then had been intended . So the Auckland Mounted Rifles moved forward to assault Hill 288 instead . These galloped forward and captured Hill 288 , forcing the Turks to withdraw , and the Wellingtons occupied Hill 306 . Turkish artillery bombarded the hill , while their troops retired to the east . Holding an observation line overnight , at 06 : 00 the next morning the brigade advanced towards Jericho leaving the 9th Squadron to capture Rijm El Bahr , including its stores and boats , on the Dead Sea . Jericho was captured the same day by the Australian 1st Light Horse Brigade . As a whole , the operation cost the Wellingtons one killed and four wounded . On 22 February the regiment returned to Bethlehem along the Jericho – Jerusalem road , eventually returning to the Mar Elias Monastery . They met their commanding officer , Whyte , who had now recovered from his injuries . Three days later the brigade crossed back to the west , returning to Richon .
= = = Amman = = =
A raid on Amman was the next operation for the regiment . The ANZAC Mounted Division , the 60th ( London ) Division and the ICCB would all take part . On 13 March the regiment started back to the Jordan Valley , through heavy rain . Orders for the raid were issued ; the brigade would advance on mountain tracks via the village of Ain Es Sir , then to Amman . The rains continued postponing the raid and it was not until 01 : 30 on 24 March that the brigade crossed the River Jordan , by pontoon bridge at Hajlah . At 09 : 30 the regiment , the Canterbury Mounted Rifles and the 181st ( 2 / 6th London ) Brigade started clearing the area between the river and the foothills . At 11 : 25 they charged and captured three artillery pieces . The brigade advance continued at 15 : 00 , without the 6th Squadron which remained behind to assist the 181st Brigade in their assault on Es Salt . Still negotiating the mountain track , it started to rain again at 18 : 00 and the brigade camped for the night ; starting again next morning they reached Ain Es Sir just after midday . There they were forced to stop and wait for their supplies to catch up with them .
Early on 26 March the rest of the ANZAC Mounted Division arrived , and the ICCB that evening . To cut off Amman from reinforcements , one of the regiment 's troops set out that night and destroyed a section of the Hedjaz rail line to the south of the town . They returned the next morning without loss . Orders were issued for the attack on the town ; the brigade would assault from the south . The 2nd Squadron was to provide flank protection , located in the area four miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) south @-@ east of Es Sir . The rest of the regiment , including the headquarters , the 9th Squadron , and half a section of the Machine @-@ Gun Squadron , escorted a demolition party to destroy the railway station at Kissar , just under six miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) to the south of Amman . En route the 9th Squadron located a train carrying around three hundred Turkish troops , stopped in a cutting . When they opened fire the train pulled out towards Kissar , where it ran into a squadron from the Auckland Mounted Rifles and one of the 9th Squadron 's troops . Some of the Turks left the train to fight on foot , while the train continued on to Amman , leaving them behind . The regiment 's men left the demolition party to be escorted by troops from the ICCB , and returned to the brigade outside Amman .
On 28 March the brigade , reinforced by the 4th ( ANZAC ) Battalion ICCB , tried to capture Hill 3039 south @-@ west of Amman . The attack failed and further attempts were postponed until after nightfall . The night assault began at 02 : 00 ; two troops of the 9th Squadron were involved in the second line to protect the left flank . The attack was successful and the brigade commenced improvements to the defences in order to withstand any counter @-@ attack . The Wellingtons dug in at the centre of the position , with the Aucklands on their right and the Canterburys on the left . The expected counter @-@ attack started at 05 : 00 with an artillery bombardment . As the Turkish troop approached the brigade lines , at 09 : 20 an order to withdraw was given . As the regiment , the Canterburys and the cameliers started to retire , it allowed the Turks to reach the crest of Hill 3039 . It was then realised the order was mistaken , and the brigade officers rallied their man and charged back , forcing the Turks back down the hill . Further Turkish counter @-@ attacks continued throughout the day , and at 16 : 00 a troop from the 9th Squadron on the right flank , when the Turkish got close to their lines , had to do a counter @-@ attack of their own . By now it was appreciated that the division could not achieve their objectives , and a withdrawal back towards the Jordan river was ordered . By 22 : 30 the wounded had been evacuated and the regiment pulled back unopposed , reaching Ain Es Sir at 04 : 00 the next day . Turkish troops then closed on their position , but that evening the 6th Squadron rejoined the regiment . A line of observation posts were then established to monitor the approaching Turks . The regiment made plans to hold them off until the division passed through the village , and then withdraw back across the river . At 03 : 45 on 1 April , the 2nd Squadron formed a skirmish line to the north of Ain Es Sir , the 9th Squadron another line to the south @-@ east , while the 6th Squadron were the reserve . By 07 : 00 the brigade , bringing up the rear , reached the village . Once they had passed them the 6th Squadron joined the end of the line . At 07 : 45 the 2nd Squadron opened fire on Turkish troops coming from the north , while the 9th Squadron withdrew , followed soon after by the 2nd Squadron . As they entered the village , enemy troops in the hills opened fire on them . The squadron immediately counter @-@ attacked , supported by two troops from the 9th Squadron . The remainder of the regiment stopped three miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) to the south , forming a defensive line . The Turkish troops in the hills were soon dealt with by the 2nd Squadron , and as they withdrew , the regiment was able to provide covering fire . Finally , just after 20 : 00 , they arrived back at Shunet Nimrin , and camped for the night . Their casualties during the raid were fourteen dead and eight wounded . The brigade recrossed the River Jordan at the Ghoraniyeh pontoon bridge on 2 April .
= = = Ghoraniyeh = = =
As the ANZAC Mounted Division pulled back to the west bank of the Jordan , the Wellingtons remained behind strengthening the defences at the Ghoraniyeh bridge @-@ head . On 18 April , the regiment , less the 6th Squadron , were part of a brigade force that advanced on the village of Shunet Nimrin . The operation was a deception to convince the Turks that further raids on Amman were imminent . The next day patrols from the regiment located a large Turkish force in the foothills around the village . The brigade positioned as if to attack them , then when they reinforced their position , the brigade withdrew . That night they crossed back over the river and camped outside Jericho . The regiment moved again on 23 April , to camp in the foothills to the south of Jericho .
On 30 April the second raid across the Jordan began , their objective this time to capture Es Salt . This time a much larger force was involved , under command of the Desert Mounted Corps . The Wellingtons and the rest of the New Zealand brigade were part of the force assigned to attack the village of Shunet Nimrin . At 03 : 30 when the brigade crossed over the Ghoraniyeh pontoon , the regiment came under command of the 180th ( 2 / 5th London ) Brigade , providing protection for their right flank as they advanced on the village . The difficult terrain and the strength of the Turkish defences hindered progress , and by dusk they were still some distance away from their objective . The next day the advance continued , but in the face of growing Turkish resistance , and with the arrival of Turkish reinforcements , they were in danger of being cut off and surrounded . So on 4 May the whole force withdrew back across the River Jordan , leaving the Wellingtons behind to protect the bridge @-@ head .
Many men were infected with malaria , and the regiment was periodically rotated away from the valley bottom to the western hills . Their first move back west was on the 16 May , when they moved to the brigade camp site near Talaat Ed Dumm , remaining there for the next thirteen days . On 30 May they moved to Solomon 's Pools , to the south of Bethlehem . On 14 June the regiment returned to the front line at Ain Ed Duk , two miles north of Jericho . There they established observation posts to monitor Turkish activity , remaining until they were relieved on 30 June .
= = = Abu Tellul = = =
On 9 July Major Charles Dick assumed temporary command of the regiment , while Whyte was on leave and the regiment was in the front line near Abu Tellul . On 13 July the neighbouring sector of the line , a salient defended by the Australian 1st Light Horse Brigade , came under a heavy artillery bombardment . Some rounds landed on the regiment 's positions , causing casualties . At dawn on 14 July German soldiers attacked the light horse brigade . By 07 : 00 they had broken the Australian lines in the east , and the Wellingtons came under command of the light horse brigade to support their defence . Thirty minutes later the 9th Squadron advanced , on foot , along the Wadi Aujah , and occupied a position on the west of the salient just before the Germans ' Turkish allies attacked . The 9th Squadron managed to hold their line , but because they were engaging a far larger force , the 6th Squadron moved forward on their left to support them . The two squadrons ' lines were able to mutually support each other and engage the attacking Turks with a " withering fire " . Then the two squadrons and the light horse counter @-@ attacked , forcing back their opposition and capturing 400 prisoners , sixty @-@ one of them taken by the Wellingtons , along with a machine gun and a Bergman automatic rifle . The Turks continued to hold a position in the north until forced to withdraw by the New Zealanders . The regiment 's casualties during the battle were four dead and nine wounded . They remained at the front until 19 July when they rotated back to Talaat Ed Dumm .
= = = Chaytor 's Force = = =
In August the brigade formed the divisional reserve located around Jericho . In September they moved forward to form the left ( northern ) flank of the Jordan Valley defences . At the same time , the brigade took command of the 1st and 2nd Battalions British West Indies Regiment and the 38th and 39th Battalions Royal Fusiliers , which were part of a larger deception force commanded by the divisional commander , Chaytor . They were tasked with convincing the Turks that the next British attack would be from the Jordan Valley , while the forces were actually being realigned to attack in the west . The regiment was heavily involved in the deception , carrying out offensive patrolling , constructing dummy camps , and moving back and forwards behind the lines to give the impression of a much larger force than was actually present .
The British attack in the west began on 19 September ; the next day the New Zealand brigade started increasing pressure on the Turkish positions opposite them . The first breakthrough was made on 21 September , by the Auckland Mounted Rifles . At 18 : 30 the brigade was ordered to advance on Kherbet Fusail , with the objective of securing a position at Damieh . By midnight the brigade had reached Kerbet Fusail , and the Wellingtons were ordered to seize El Makhruk and at the same time occupy the roads leading north and west . The 9th Squadron lead the regiment , and moved along the Wadi Farah towards El Makhruk . As they closed on the village they could hear vehicles moving along the road . Pressing forward they captured four hundred prisoners , including the commander and staff of the Turkish 53rd Division , seventy transport vehicles and a large quantity of supplies . Moving on , at 04 : 30 they reached and occupied the village . The 2nd and 9th Squadrons remained at El Makhurk , while the 6th Squadron continued north @-@ west for another two thousand yards ( 1 @,@ 800 m ) to occupy the neighbouring village of Tel El Mazar where they captured even more Turkish supplies and equipment . On 23 September it was apparent that the Turkish Fourth Army was trying to withdraw north . The brigade was ordered to try and intercept them . The 6th Squadron , with a West Indies battalion , were left to guard the Damieh bridge , while the remainder of the brigade moved towards Es Salt , which they occupied at 16 : 20 the same day .
The next day , 24 September , the brigade continued its advance by heading towards Suweileh , with the Wellingtons protecting the open flank . The next day the ANZAC mounted division was ordered to capture Amman . The Wellingtons provided the vanguard , and at 07 : 45 , two miles north @-@ west of Amman , the 9th Squadron , in the lead , was engaged by machine @-@ gun and rifle fire and could see Turkish cavalry in the distance . At 08 : 10 the 2nd Squadron moved forward to support the 9th , but came under fire from two redoubts . They took cover and were able to bring enfilade fire onto the redoubts and also onto a force of Turkish reinforcements preparing a counter @-@ attack . At 10 : 00 the 9th Squadron were relieved by the 2nd Australian Light Horse Brigade . Manoeuvring enabled the division to press forward , forcing the Turkish defenders to retire . At 11 : 30 the regiment , with the Canterbury Mounted Rifles , were ordered to assault Amman . Leaving the 2nd Squadron to deal with concealed machine @-@ gun posts , the rest continued the attack . By 14 : 40 they had closed on Amman and the 9th Squadron had captured a hill in front of Stone Tower . At 15 : 00 the Canterbury Mounted Rifles galloped into the town and all resistance there ceased . The regiment pressed forward along the Wadi Amman and captured three artillery pieces . By 16 : 30 all Turkish positions had been taken , along with hundreds of prisoners . That was the last battle of the campaign fought by the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade . The regiment camped beside the town until 29 September , when they left for Ziza to assist the 2nd Light Horse Brigade , who had captured five thousand prisoners . On 1 October they set out to return to the Jordan Valley .
= = Post war = =
The regiment 's part in the war was now effectively over . On 4 October they camped to the north @-@ west of Jericho for the next four days . They then moved back to their old camp at the Mar Elias monastery , and eventually reached Richon le Zion on 14 October .
By January 1919 , the regiment were still waiting to return home , and had begun education courses , continuation training and playing sports . This occupied them until March when a revolt broke out in Egypt , and the regiment drew its equipment back out of storage and headed for the Nile Delta . Posted to Quesna , all of the regiment 's squadrons , except the 9th which went to Cairo , began policing the riots and trying to stop looting . Once the rioting had been quelled , the regiment once again waited to return home . Their return finally began on 30 June 1919 , when the majority of the brigade left the Suez Canal for New Zealand and the Wellington Mounted Rifles Regiment ceased to be a unit .
= = = Casualties = = =
During its service 369 of the regiment 's men died from all causes , either killed in action , died of wounds or of disease . Another 453 men were wounded , some more than once . More than half of the dead , 207 men , were killed during the seven months they fought in the static trench warfare of the Gallipoli Campaign ; another 129 men were killed during their two years of more mobile warfare in the Sinai and Palestine Campaign . Gallipoli also accounted for more than half of the wounded , a total of 258 men compared to 195 men who were wounded in Sinai and Palestine .
Many of the Gallipoli dead have no known grave . The Commonwealth War Graves Commission Chunuk Bair Cemetery , constructed on the site where the Turks buried Allied war dead after the evacuation , has 632 graves of which only ten men have been identified . Similarly , the nearby Hill 60 Cemetery has another 788 graves , of which only seventy @-@ six were identified .
= = = Honours = = =
Several men of the regiment were recognised for their service by the British Empire awards system . The regiment 's first commanding officer , Meldrum , was invested as a Companion of the Order of the Bath , a Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George and awarded the Distinguished Service Order ( DSO ) . His successor , Whyte , was also invested with a DSO , as well as a Bar as a second award . Another four officers were also invested with a DSO , while seven officers were awarded a Military Cross , one was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire , and another a Member of the Order of the British Empire . The regiment 's other ranks were awarded five Distinguished Conduct Medals and twenty Military Medals , and there were fifty @-@ nine Mentions in Despatches amongst all ranks , some men being mentioned more than once .
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= Pusztai affair =
The Pusztai affair is a controversy that began in 1998 . Protein scientist Árpád Pusztai went public with unpublished research he was conducting at the Rowett Institute with genetically modified potatoes . He claimed that the GM potatoes had stunted growth and repressed the subjects ' immune systems , while thickening their gut mucosa . He was severely criticized for making the announcement before the experiment was complete , much less peer @-@ reviewed , and for the experiment 's design , methodology and analysis . The study was eventually published , triggering further controversy . Pusztai was suspended and misconduct procedures were used to seize his data and ban him from speaking publicly . The Institute did not renew his annual contract .
= = Background = =
Before 1995 , no peer @-@ reviewed studies had been published investigating the safety of genetically modified food using human or animal feeding trials . In 1995 the Scottish Agriculture Environment and Fisheries Department commissioned a £ 1 @.@ 6 million three @-@ year research study to assess the safety of genetically engineered Desiree Red potatoes . The potatoes had been developed by biochemist John Gatehouse at Cambridge Agricultural Genetics ( later renamed Axis Genetics ) and had recently completed two years of field trials at Rothamsted Experimental Station . The GNA gene from the Galanthus ( snowdrop ) plant was inserted into the potato , allowing the GNA lectin protein to be synthesised . This lectin has been shown to be toxic to some insects .
Twenty @-@ eight studies were proposed , of which eight were selected for peer review by the Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council . From these eight the Rowett Research Institute 's proposal was chosen and a combined team of academics from the Scottish Crop Research Institute , the Durham University Department of Biology and the Rowett Institute was assembled , and coordinated by Pusztai .
Although the tested potatoes were not a commercial variety and not intended for human consumption a contract was signed with Cambridge Agricultural Genetics , which included a profit @-@ sharing agreement , if potatoes developed using this technology were approved and released commercially . In earlier ten @-@ day feeding trials on GNA @-@ fed rats , Pusztai concluded that they did not significantly affect growth , despite some hypertrophy of the small intestine and a slight decrease of gut enzyme activity .
= = Experiment = =
The experimental potatoes had been transformed with the Galanthus nivalis agglutinin ( GNA ) gene from the Galanthus ( snowdrop ) plant , allowing the GNA lectin protein to be synthesised . This lectin is toxic to some insects . Rats were fed raw and cooked genetically modified potatoes , using unmodified Desiree Red potatoes as controls . One control group ate an unmodified Desiree Red potato spiked with the GNA snowdrop lectin . Twelve feeding experiments were conducted , ten short @-@ term ( 10 days ) and two long @-@ term ( 110 days ) . Before the experiment Pusztai and his team said they expected no differences between the rats fed modified potatoes and rats fed the non @-@ modified ones .
The potatoes were chosen because they were deemed substantially equivalent to non @-@ GM Desiree Red potatoes . The study used two transgenic lines of potato , both with the GNA gene inserted . They were grown in the same conditions as the non @-@ GM parent plant . According to Pusztai , the potatoes were not substantially equivalent , as one of the transgenic lines contained 20 percent less protein than the other , and the starch and sugar contents varied by up to 20 percent among the three lines . Pusztai claimed that these differences were reason enough to discontinue further experimentation .
Their experiment showed a statistically significant difference in the thickness of the stomach mucosa . The mucosa of rats fed raw or cooked potato modified with the GNA gene was thicker than that of rats fed the unmodified potato . The crypt length in the jejunum was greater on rats fed the raw modified potato , although there was no statistical difference observed in the rats fed the cooked potato . As these effects were not observed in rats fed the control potatoes spiked with GNA , Pusztai concluded that the differences were a result of the transformation procedure , rather than the presence of GNA . Pusztai 's collaborator Stanley Ewen said that the cauliflower mosaic virus used as a promoter could likely be the cause of the observed changes .
= = Announcement = =
On June 22 , 1998 Pusztai revealed his research findings during an interview on Granada Television 's current affairs programme World in Action titled " Eat up your genes " . He was given permission to do the interview by Rowett Institute Director Philip James . Rowett 's press officer was present at the start of filming . During the interview Pusztai said he had " concerns that some of the testing techniques are not up to what we thought it was necessary to do , and therefore we should have more testing . " When asked why he felt concerned , he said " it was because we had done some experiments which made us feel concerned " and discussed his results in general terms .
Pusztai later said that at the time of the interview he was not sure if he should reveal results from experiments that had not been completed and did not think the programme would be hostile toward genetically modified food . He estimated that the experiments were 99 percent complete when the interview was conducted . He said that the rats in his experiments suffered stunted growth and had suppressed immune systems and that more safety research was required . He also said , " If you gave me the choice now , I wouldn 't eat it " and it was " very , very unfair to use our fellow citizens as guinea pigs " .
= = Reaction = =
World in Action issued a press release the day before the broadcast , stimulating numerous phone calls to Pusztai and the Institute from government , industrial , non @-@ governmental and media organisations . James says he was dismayed that unpublished data had been released and withdrew Pusztai from any further media commitments that morning . He eventually suspended Pusztai , used misconduct procedures to seize his data , banned him from speaking publicly and did not renew his annual contract .
Confusion reigned over just what experiments had been conducted . Pusztai had mentioned two lines of genetically modified potatoes , meaning the two GNA lines , and this was reported by the media . The Rowett institute mistakenly assumed the media was talking about a second line transformed with concanavalin A ( ConA ) , a Jack Bean lectin that is toxic to mammals . Transgenic ConA Potatoes had been developed , but had never been tested . Two press releases issued by the Rowett Institute on the 10th and 11th praised Pusztai 's research and supported increased safety tests on genetically modified food . The press releases also said that the potatoes were modified with ConA , adding to the confusion . Pusztai claimed that he had not seen the press releases before they went out and had no opportunity to correct the mistake . James says that he drafted it and Pusztai rewrote one section , but did not see the final copy . The mistaken belief that the ConA gene was inserted into the potato led scientist Sir Robert May and Agricultural Minister Jack Cunningham to release statements to the media saying that the findings were not surprising , as a known poison had been added to the potato . Some scientists still dismiss Pusztai 's work over this error .
= = = Audit = = =
The Rowett Institute audited Pusztai 's work on 22 October 1998 . It concluded that his data did not support his conclusions . In February 1999 , 22 scientists from 13 countries , organised by Friends of the Earth , published a memo responding to the audit . It stated that their independent examination supported Pusztai 's conclusions and that he should have been concerned by his findings .
= = = Royal Society peer review = = =
On 19 February the Royal Society publicly announced that a committee would review his work . World in Action reporters Laurie Flynn and Michael Sean Gillard claimed that this was an unusual step , as the Royal Society did not normally conduct peer reviews . The data were sent to six anonymous reviewers and the resulting review was published in June 1999 . It stated that Pusztai 's experiments were poorly designed , contained uncertainties in the composition of diets , tested too few rats , used incorrect statistical methods and lacked consistency within experiments . Pusztai responded by saying the reviewers had reviewed only internal Rowett reports , which did not include the design or methodology of the experiments .
= = = Lancet response = = =
The editors of The Lancet published an editorial in May 1999 in which they denounced all parties involved , criticizing Pusztai for " unwisely " announcing his results on television and stating that scientists should publish " results in the scientific press , not through the popular media " ; the editorial also denounced the Royal Society 's review as " breathtaking impertinence " .
= = Publication = =
The data were published as a letter in the The Lancet in October 1999 , co @-@ authored by Ewen . It reported significant differences in the thickness of the gut epithelium of rats fed genetically modified potatoes ( compared to those fed the control diet ) , but no differences in growth or immune system function were suggested .
The letter was reviewed by six reviewers – three times the Lancet 's usual number . Four reviewers found it acceptable after revisions . A fifth thought it was flawed , but wanted it published " to avoid suspicions of a conspiracy against Pusztai and to give colleagues a chance to see the data for themselves " . The sixth , John Pickett of the Institute of Arable Crops Research , also said it was flawed . After consulting with the Royal Society , Pickett publicly criticised The Lancet for agreeing to publish the study . The study , which used data held by Ewen , who was not subject to the veto of Pusztai 's work , reported significant differences in thickness of the gut epithelium between control and test subjects , but did not mention growth or immunity problems .
The published work was criticised on the grounds that the unmodified potatoes were not a fair control diet and that any rats fed only potatoes would suffer from protein deficiency . Pusztai responded to these criticisms by saying that all the experimental diets had the same protein and energy content , and that the food intake of all rats was the same . In an interview , Pickett later said that Lancet editor Richard Horton must have had a political motive for publishing the paper because the referees had rejected it . According to Pusztai this claim was repeated by academic critics who assumed that Pickett 's use of the plural suggested that the study had failed peer review .
Horton claimed that he had received a " very aggressive " phone call calling him " immoral " and threatening that if he published the paper it would " have implications for his personal position " as editor . Peter Lachmann , the former vice @-@ president and biological secretary of the Royal Society and president of the Academy of Medical Sciences , acknowledged making the call but denies that he threatened Horton and says the call was to " discuss his error of judgment " in publishing the letter and to discuss the " moral difficulties about publishing bad science " .
= = Aftermath = =
Ewen retired following publication , claiming that his career options had been " blocked at a very high level " .
A survey by the European Food Safety Authority GMO Panel Working Group on Animal Feeding Trials concluded : " Results obtained from testing GM food and feed in rodents indicate that large ( at least 100 @-@ fold ) ' safety ' margins exist between animal exposure levels without observed adverse effects and estimated human daily intake . The studies did not show any biologically relevant differences in the parameters tested between control and test animals . "
In 2005 Pusztai was given a whistleblower award from the Federation of German Scientists .
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= Whatever It Takes ( Leona Lewis song ) =
" Whatever It Takes " is a song by British singer @-@ songwriter Leona Lewis from her debut studio album , Spirit ( 2007 ) . Lewis co @-@ wrote it with Tony Reyes and Novel ; the latter also co @-@ produced it with Dallas Austin . It was the first song to be written for Spirit and one of only two songs on the album to involve Lewis in the writing process . It is a gospel @-@ pop @-@ influenced track . The song garnered a mixed response from music critics ; it was praised for its upbeat instrumentation but criticised for lacking any " kick " . Upon the release of Spirit , the song debuted at number 61 on the UK Singles Chart due to strong digital download sales . Lewis has performed the song at the 2010 Rock in Rio and on her debut concert tour , The Labyrinth . It was later included on the subsequent DVD release called The Labyrinth Tour : Live from the O2 .
= = Recording and production = =
Co @-@ written by Lewis with Novel and Tony Reyes , " Whatever It Takes " was recorded at DARP Studios and Doppler Studios , both located in Atlanta , Georgia and at Battery Studios in New York City , by Carlton Lynn . Lynn was assisted in the recording process by Lloyd Cooper ( at Doppler Studios ) and Tim Sturges ( at Battery Studios ) . It was also mixed by Lynn at DARP Studios ; Josh Houghkirk served as the assistant mixer . The song was produced by Novel and Dallas Austin . A variety of instrumentalists were enlisted for the production of " Whatever It Takes " : Eddie Horst was the string arranger , while Kenn Wagner , Olga Shiptko , Amy Chang and William Pu performed violins , Karen Freer and Daniel Laufer provided cello and co @-@ writer Reyes played the guitar . Stephen Lowman and Stephen Ferrera performed drums , while Novel played the keyboard . " Whatever It Takes " makes use of a choir , which consists of Tawatha Agee , Vanesse Thomas , Cindy Mizelle , Michelle Cobbs , Robin Clark , " Bibi " Straughn , Tammy Lucas , Billy Porter , Bennie Diggs and Fonzi Thornton ; Thornton was enlisted as the vocal contractor . Lewis provides background vocals on the track , and the production process was overseen by Kimberly L. Smith . As she introduced the track before performing it on her debut concert tour The Labyrinth ( 2010 ) , Lewis revealed that " Whatever It Takes " was the first song to be written for Spirit .
= = Composition and critical reception = =
" Whatever It Takes " is an upbeat , midtempo gospel @-@ pop song which lasts for a duration of 3 : 27 . The song was composed in the key of Eb major using common time at 96 beats per minute . Lewis ' vocal range spans over two octaves from low note of Bb3 to the high note of Bb5 . The song garnered a mixed response from music critics . Nate Chinen for The New York Times was complimentary of " Whatever It Takes " , writing that it is an " upbeat anthem . " A reviewer for The Sun also described the song as a " soaring anthem . " Sarah @-@ Louise James for the Daily Star wrote that although the element of gospel music was has a nice outro , it " lacks real kick " . Nick Levine was for Digital Spy wrote " ' Whatever It Takes ' is anchored by a rhythm track that wouldn 't shame a boy @-@ racer cruising through Harlem in his pimped @-@ up ride . " However , he noted that " Whatever It Takes " and " Best You Never Had " were Spirit 's only uptempo moments , and that Lewis tries to emulate her contemporaries too closely . Kitty Empire for The Guardian was critical of the song , writing that " Not even Dallas Austin - who has worked with Sugababes - can make ' Whatever It Takes ' any fun . "
= = Live performances = =
Lewis performed " Whatever It Takes " at the Rock in Rio festival held in Lisbon on 22 May 2010 . It was also included as the fourth song on the set list of The Labyrinth . It was later included on the DVD release of the tour , called The Labyrinth Tour : Live from the O2 . Lewis performed the song in the first section of the set list , along with " Brave " as the opener , " Don 't Let Me Down " , " Better in Time " and " Take a Bow " . The set was decorated in the style of a castle ; acrobats performed as they were hanging from the ceiling on large pieces of fabric while Lewis wore a gold sequined dress and thigh @-@ high boots .
= = Track listing = =
Spirit standard / deluxe edition
" Whatever It Takes " – 3 : 27
Spirit United States standard / deluxe version
" Whatever It Takes " – 3 : 27
The Labyrinth Tour : Live from the O2
" Whatever It Takes " ( Live from the 02 ) – 3 : 26
= = Credits and personnel = =
Recording
Recorded at DARP Studios , Atlanta , GA ; Doppler Studios , Atlanta , GA ; Battery Studios , NYC .
Mixed at DARP Studios , Atlanta , GA .
Personnel
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Spirit .
= = Charts = =
Upon the release of Spirit , " Whatever It Takes " debuted at number 61 on the strength of digital download sales in the chart issue released on 24 November 2007 .
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= Japanese battleship Kirishima =
Kirishima ( 霧島 ) was a warship of the Imperial Japanese Navy during World War I and World War II . Designed by British naval engineer George Thurston , she was the third launched of the four Kongō @-@ class battlecruisers . Laid down in 1912 at the Mitsubishi Shipyards in Nagasaki , Kirishima was formally commissioned in 1915 on the same day as her sister ship , Haruna . Kirishima patrolled on occasion off the Chinese coast during World War I , and helped with rescue efforts following the 1923 Great Kantō earthquake .
Starting in 1927 , Kirishima 's first reconstruction rebuilt her as a battleship , strengthening her armor and improving her speed . From 1934 , a second reconstruction completely rebuilt her superstructure , upgraded her engine plant , and equipped her with launch catapults for floatplanes . Now fast enough to accompany Japan 's growing carrier fleet , she was reclassified as a fast battleship . During the Second Sino @-@ Japanese War , Kirishima acted primarily as a support vessel and troop transport , moving army troops to mainland China . On the eve of World War II , she sailed as part of Vice @-@ Admiral Chuichi Nagumo 's Kido Butai as an escort for the six carriers that attacked Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941 .
As part of the Third Battleship Division , Kirishima participated in many of the Imperial Japanese Navy 's early actions in 1942 , providing support for the invasion of the Dutch East Indies ( now Indonesia ) and in the Indian Ocean raid of April 1942 . During the Battle of Midway , she provided escort to Nagumo 's four carriers , before redeploying to the Solomon Islands during the Battle of Guadalcanal . She escorted Japanese carrier fleets during the battles of the Eastern Solomons and Santa Cruz Islands , before sailing as part of a bombardment force under Admiral Nobutake Kondō during the Naval Battle of Guadalcanal . On the evening of 13 November 1942 , Kirishima engaged American cruisers and destroyers alongside her sister ship Hiei . On the night of 14 / 15 November , in one of only two battleship duels of the Pacific War , Kirishima heavily damaged USS South Dakota before being crippled in turn by the battleship USS Washington . Kirishima capsized and sank in the early morning on 15 November 1942 in Ironbottom Sound .
= = Design and construction = =
Kirishima was the third of the Imperial Japanese Navy 's Kongō @-@ class battlecruisers , a group of capital ships designed by the British naval engineer George Thurston . The class was ordered in 1910 in the Japanese Emergency Naval Expansion Bill after the commissioning of HMS Invincible in 1908 . The four battlecruisers of the Kongō class were designed to match the naval capabilities of the other major powers at the time ; they have been called the battlecruiser version of the British ( formerly Turkish ) battleship HMS Erin . With their heavy armament and armor protection ( which took up 23 @.@ 3 % of their approximately 30 @,@ 000 ton displacement ) , Kirishima and her sister ships were vastly superior to any other Japanese capital ship afloat at the time .
The keel of Kirishima was laid down at the Nagasaki shipyards of Mitsubishi Heavy Industries on 17 March 1912 , with most of the parts used in her construction manufactured in Japan . Due to a shortage of available slipways , Kirishima and her sister ship Haruna were the first two capital ships of the Imperial Japanese Navy to be built in private Japanese shipyards . After her launch on 1 December 1913 , Kirishima 's fitting @-@ out began later that month . On 15 December 1914 , Captain Kamaya Rokuro was assigned as her chief equipping officer , and she was completed on 19 April 1915 .
= = = Armament = = =
Kirishima 's main battery consisted of eight 14 @-@ inch ( 36 cm ) heavy @-@ caliber main guns in four twin turrets ( two forward , two aft ) . The turrets were noted by the US Office of Naval Intelligence to be " similar to the British 15 @-@ inch turrets " , with improvements made in flash @-@ tightness . Each of her main guns could fire high @-@ explosive or armor @-@ piercing shells a maximum distance of 38 @,@ 770 yards ( 19 @.@ 14 nmi ; 35 @.@ 45 km ) at a firing rate of two shells per minute . The ship 's magazines could accommodate ninety rounds of ammunition for each of the main guns , which had an approximate barrel life of 250 – 280 shots . In 1941 , dyes were introduced for the armor @-@ piercing shells of the four Kongō @-@ class battleships , with Kirishima 's shells using blue dye .
Her secondary battery was originally sixteen 6 @-@ inch ( 15 cm ) 50 @-@ caliber medium guns in single casemates ( all located amidships ) , eight 3 @-@ inch ( 7 @.@ 6 cm ) anti @-@ aircraft guns , and eight submerged 21 @-@ inch ( 53 cm ) torpedo tubes . The sixteen 6 @-@ inch / 50 caliber guns were capable of firing 5 – 6 rounds per minute , with a barrel life of 500 rounds . The 6 @-@ inch / 50 caliber gun was capable of firing both antiaircraft and antiship shells , though the positioning of the guns on Kirishima made antiaircraft firing impractical . During her second reconstruction , the 3 @-@ inch guns were removed and replaced with eight 5 @-@ inch ( 13 cm ) guns . These guns could fire between 8 and 14 rounds per minute , with a barrel life of 800 – 1500 rounds . Designed to fire antiaircraft , antiship , and illumination shells , the 5 @-@ inch / 40 caliber had the widest variety of shot type of Kirishima 's guns . During her second reconstruction , Kirishima was also fitted with a small number of 1 @-@ inch ( 2 @.@ 5 cm ) Type 96 antiaircraft autocannons .
= = Service = =
= = = 1914 – 1927 : Battlecruiser = = =
Kirishima was formally commissioned on 19 April 1915 , and along with Haruna was assigned to the 1st Battleship Division of the First Fleet . After seven months of trials , she was reassigned to the 3rd Battleship Division of the Second Fleet , with Captain Shima Takeshi in overall command of the ship . In April 1916 , Kirishima and Haruna departed Sasebo Naval Base to patrol the East China Sea for ten days . She remained in Sasebo until April 1917 , when she again deployed to the Chinese coast with her sister ships Haruna and Kongō . Her last patrol operation of World War I was off the Chinese and Korean coast in April 1918 . In July 1918 , Kirishima acted as the transport of Prince Arthur of Connaught for his extended cruise to Canada , before returning to Japan .
Following the end of World War I , the Japanese Empire gained control of former German possessions in the central Pacific per the terms of the Treaty of Versailles . Due to Japan 's warm relations with the British Empire and the United States at the time , Kirishima and other Japanese warships became significantly less active than during the war . On 1 December 1920 , she was reassigned to the Third Division of the Second Fleet . Other than a patrol alongside Kongō and Nagato off the Chinese coast in August 1921 , Kirishima remained in Sasebo . On 10 September 1922 , she collided with the destroyer Fuji during fleet maneuvers , with both ships sustaining minor damage . Following the Great Kantō earthquake of September 1923 , the capital ships of the Imperial Japanese Navy assisted in rescue work until the end of the month . She was placed in reserve in December 1923 .
With the conclusion of World War I and the signing of the Washington Naval Treaty , the size of the Imperial Japanese Navy was significantly lessened , with a ratio of 5 : 5 : 3 required between the capital ships of the United Kingdom , the United States , and Japan . The treaty also banned Japan from building any new capital ships until 1931 , with no capital ship permitted to exceed 35 @,@ 000 tons . Provided that new additions did not exceed 3 @,@ 000 tons , existing capital ships were allowed to be upgraded with improved torpedo bulges and deck armor . By the time the Washington Treaty had been fully implemented in Japan , only three classes of World War I @-@ era capital ships — the Fusō and Ise @-@ class battleships , and the Kongō @-@ class battlecruisers — remained active .
= = = 1927 – 1934 : Battleship = = =
Stripped of the ability to construct new capital ships , the Imperial Japanese Navy instead opted to significantly upgrade and reconfigure their existing battleships and battlecruisers . Kirishima was placed in Third Reserve in December 1926 , before beginning her first reconstruction in early 1927 . Horizontal armor over the ammunition magazines was strengthened , and she was also fitted with anti @-@ torpedo bulges , as permitted by the Washington Treaty . To upgrade Kirishima 's speed , the 36 coal @-@ fired Yarrow boilers were removed and replaced with ten new mixed @-@ firing Kampon boilers . To allow for more equipment to be installed on board , her forward superstructure was reconstructed in the Pagoda mast style , facilitating the removal of one of her three funnels . The reconstruction of the Kongō @-@ class battlecruisers added an additional 4 @,@ 000 tons of armor to the ships , directly violating the terms of the Washington Treaty . On 16 April 1930 , the reconstruction was declared complete .
Six days after Kirishima 's reconstruction was completed , Japan pledged to scrap several battleships and signed the London Naval Treaty , which placed further bans on capital ship construction until 1937 . From August to October 1930 , she was outfitted with the equipment necessary to equip reconnaissance seaplanes . Kirishima patrolled the coast of China near Shanghai in April 1932 , before she was again placed in the Third Reserve .
In September 1931 , Japan invaded Manchuria . On 25 February 1933 , based on a report by the Lytton Commission , the League of Nations agreed that Japan had violated Chinese sovereignty in its invasion of Manchuria . Refusing to accept the organization 's judgment , Japan withdrew from the League of Nations the same day . Immediately following , Japan also withdrew from the Washington and London Naval Treaties , thus removing all restrictions on the number and size of her capital ships .
= = = 1934 – 1941 : Fast battleship = = =
On 18 November 1934 , Kirishima was drydocked in Sasebo Naval Arsenal in preparation for her second reconstruction , which would enable her to function alongside Japan 's growing fleet of fast carriers . Her stern was lengthened by 26 feet ( 7 @.@ 9 m ) , while her superstructure was rebuilt to allow for new fire @-@ control mechanisms . Her boilers were removed and replaced with eight new oil @-@ fired Kampon Boilers , and she received newer geared turbines . The elevation of her main and secondary battery was increased , and she was equipped with two Nakajima E8N " Dave " and Kawanishi E7K " Alf " reconnaissance floatplanes . To this end , aircraft catapults and launch @-@ rails were also refitted . Her older 3 @-@ inch guns were removed and replaced with eight 5 @-@ inch dual @-@ purpose guns . She was also outfitted with twenty Type 96 25 mm antiaircraft guns in twin turrets , while two of her 6 inch guns and her remaining torpedo tubes were removed .
Kirishima 's armor was also extensively upgraded . Her main belt was strengthened to a uniform thickness of 8 inches ( as opposed to varying thicknesses of 6 – 8 inches before the upgrades ) , while diagonal bulkheads of a depth ranging from 5 to 8 inches ( 127 to 203 mm ) reinforced the main armored belt . The turret armor was strengthened to 10 inches ( 254 mm ) , while 4 inches ( 102 mm ) were added to portions of the deck armor . The armor around her ammunition magazines was also strengthened over the course of the refit . The reconstruction was declared complete on 8 June 1936 . Capable of speeds of up to 30 @.@ 5 knots ( 56 @.@ 5 km / h ; 35 @.@ 1 mph ) , Kirishima was reclassified as a fast battleship .
In August 1936 , Kirishima departed Sasebo alongside Fuso to patrol the Chinese coast off Amoy . From March 1937 to April 1939 , she was frequently deployed as a support vessel and troop transport during the Second Sino @-@ Japanese War . In November 1938 , Kirishima was designated the command vessel of the Third Battleship Division , and was under the command of Rear Admiral Chuichi Nagumo . In November 1939 , she was placed in reserve and fitted with additional armor on the front faces of her turrets and barbettes .
On 11 November 1941 , after a series of transfers between Japanese naval bases , Kirishima was outfitted in preparation for coming hostilities and assigned — alongside her sister ships — to the Third Battleship Division . On 26 November , Kirishima departed Hitokappu Bay , Kurile Islands in the company of Hiei and six Japanese fast carriers of the First Air Fleet Striking Force ( Akagi , Kaga , Sōryū , Hiryū , Shōkaku , and Zuikaku ) . On 7 December 1941 , aircraft from these six carriers attacked the United States Pacific Fleet at their home base of Pearl Harbor , sinking four U.S. Navy battleships and numerous other vessels . Following the attack and the declaration of war by the United States , Kirishima returned to Japan .
= = = 1942 : Combat and loss = = =
On 8 January 1942 , Kirishima departed Japan for Truk Naval Base in the Caroline Islands alongside the Carrier Strike Force . She provided escort during the invasion of New Britain on 17 January before returning to Truk . She sortied again in response to American carrier raids in the Marshall and Gilbert Islands . In March 1942 , while supporting fleet operations off of Java in the Dutch East Indies , one of Kirishima 's floatplanes bombed an enemy merchant vessel . South of Java , the Japanese fleet was surprised by the appearance of the destroyer USS Edsall . Hiei and Chikuma initially opened fire on the ship but failed to score any hits . After dive @-@ bombers from three of Admiral Nagumo 's carriers immobilized the destroyer , Kirishima and the other two ships resumed firing on Edsall until she sank .
In April 1942 , Kirishima and the Third Battleship division joined five fleet carriers and two cruisers in an attack against British naval bases in the Indian Ocean . On 5 April — Easter Sunday — the Japanese fleet attacked the harbor at Colombo in Ceylon , while seaplanes from the Tone spotted two fleeing British cruisers , both of which were later sunk by aerial attack . A floatplane from Kirishima also strafed a withdrawing oil tanker . On 8 April , Japanese carrier aircraft attacked the Royal Navy base at Trincomalee in Ceylon , only to find that all of Admiral James Somerville 's remaining warships had withdrawn the previous night . Returning from the attack , a floatplane from Kirishima 's sister ship Haruna spotted the aircraft carrier HMS Hermes and escorting destroyer HMAS Vampire , which was quickly sunk by a massive aerial attack . Upon returning to Japan , Kirishima was drydocked and her secondary armament configuration modified with the addition of 25 mm antiaircraft guns in twin mounts .
In June 1942 , Kirishima sailed as part of the Carrier Strike Force during the Battle of Midway , providing escort for Admiral Nagumo 's four fast carriers alongside Haruna . Following the disastrous battle , during which all four Japanese carriers were lost , she took on survivors from the four flattops before returning to Japan . In August 1942 , she departed Japan for the Solomon Islands in the company of Hiei , three carriers , three cruisers and eleven destroyers , in response to the American invasion of Guadalcanal . She escorted Japanese carriers during the Battle of the Eastern Solomons , during which the light carrier Ryūjō was sunk . Following the battle , the fleet returned to Truk Naval Base . During the Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands , Kirishima was part of Rear Admiral Hiroaki Abe 's Vanguard Force , which provided distant cover to Nagumo 's carrier groups . She was attacked by American dive @-@ bombers on 26 October , yet remained undamaged .
On 10 November 1942 , Kirishima departed Truk alongside Hiei and eleven destroyers in preparation to shell American positions on Guadalcanal in advance of a major transport convoy of Japanese troops . U.S. Navy reconnaissance aircraft spotted the Japanese fleet several days in advance , and deployed a force of two heavy cruisers , three light cruisers and eight destroyers under the command of Rear Admiral Daniel J. Callaghan in Ironbottom Sound to meet them . At 01 : 24 on 13 November , the Japanese force was detected 28 @,@ 000 yards ( 26 km ) out by the light cruiser USS Helena . In the ensuing First Naval Battle of Guadalcanal , the American task force concentrated the majority of their firepower on the battleship Hiei . This enabled Kirishima to score multiple hits on the heavy cruiser USS San Francisco and Helena , while Hiei crippled the light cruiser USS Atlanta , killing Rear Admiral Norman Scott . Both Hiei and Kirishima then raked San Francisco with shellfire , killing Rear Admiral Callaghan . However , Hiei was in turn crippled by San Francisco and several American destroyers . With Hiei effectively out of the battle , Kirishima and the surviving destroyers withdrew to the north . On the morning of 13 November , she was ordered to tow Hiei to safety . However , the heavily damaged battleship came under air attack , and was eventually abandoned and scuttled .
On the evening of 13 November , Kirishima and her escorting destroyers were joined by the Fourth Cruiser Division and prepared to reenter Ironbottom Sound under the command of Admiral Nobutake Kondō . In the early morning of 14 November , three Japanese heavy cruisers bombarded Guadalcanal before withdrawing . Aware of the damage suffered by his ships the previous night , Admiral William Halsey reinforced the American naval units with the new battleships USS South Dakota and USS Washington . The two fleets made contact on 14 November at 23 : 01 . They exchanged gunfire and torpedoes , with four American destroyers disabled ( three would later sink ) , while the destroyer Ayanami was crippled by Washington and South Dakota .
At 23 : 40 , South Dakota suffered a series of electrical failures , crippling her radar , radios and gun batteries . Kirishima and the heavy cruiser Atago illuminated the battleship with searchlights , and almost all of Kondō 's force opened fire . Kirishima achieved hits on South Dakota with at least three 14 @-@ inch salvos and several salvos from her secondary battery , which knocked out the battleship 's fire control systems and communications but failed to penetrate her armor . Washington , undetected , managed to evade the Japanese fleet , and at midnight fired on Kirishima from 5 @,@ 800 yards ( 5 @,@ 300 m ) , point blank range for Washington 's 16 @-@ inch / 45 @-@ caliber guns , which were easily capable of penetrating Kirishima 's armor at their maximum range . Kirishima was hit by at least nine primary and seventeen secondary battery projectiles , destroying her bow 14 @-@ inch turrets , jamming her rear 14 @-@ inch turrets and steering , setting her superstructure afire , and causing the battleship to list 18 degrees to starboard . Initially , the light cruiser Nagara attempted to tow her out of Ironbottom Sound . When it became clear she could not be salvaged , the surviving Japanese destroyers evacuated Admiral Kondō and the remaining survivors . Kirishima capsized at 03 : 25 on the morning of 15 November 1942 , with 212 crewmen lost .
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= Delaware Route 3 =
Delaware Route 3 ( DE 3 ) is a state highway northeast of Wilmington in New Castle County , Delaware . The route runs from an interchange at Interstate 495 ( I @-@ 495 ) in Edgemoor north to DE 92 in Brandywine Hundred . The route passes through the suburban areas of Brandywine Hundred , Bellefonte , and Arden . It intersects U.S. Route 13 ( US 13 ) in Edgemoor , US 13 Business ( US 13 Bus . ) in Bellefonte , and I @-@ 95 near Bellevue State Park . DE 3 was built as a state highway during the 1920s and 1930s . By 1968 , the route was designated between US 13 ( now US 13 Bus . ) north to DE 92 on Marsh Road . The route was moved to its current alignment and terminus by 1984 .
= = Route description = =
DE 3 begins at an intersection with Hay Road at an interchange with I @-@ 495 in an industrial section of Edgemoor , heading northwest on four @-@ lane divided Edgemoor Road . After the I @-@ 495 interchange , the road passes over Amtrak 's Northeast Corridor and intersects US 13 in areas of businesses . Past this intersection , DE 3 enters a more residential area as a three @-@ lane undivided road with two southbound lanes and one northbound lane . The route narrows to two lanes and turns west and north , coming to an intersection with US 13 Bus . At this point , DE 3 turns northeast to form a concurrency with that route on four @-@ lane undivided Philadelphia Pike , running through residential and commercial areas . DE 3 splits from US 13 Bus. in Bellefonte by turning northwest onto Washington Street Extension , a four @-@ lane divided highway . The route passes to the southwest of Mount Pleasant High School and turns north onto Marsh Road , a four @-@ lane undivided road that forms the western boundary of Bellevue State Park . The road becomes a divided highway as it comes to an interchange with I @-@ 95 .
Immediately after this interchange , DE 3 crosses under CSX 's Philadelphia Subdivision and narrows into a two @-@ lane undivided road that heads into Brandywine Hundred , passing residential neighborhoods and a few businesses . The route gains a second southbound lane between Wilson Road / Veale Road and Silverside Road . The road turns northeast and forms the western border of Arden . DE 3 turns north again and runs between neighborhoods to the west and woodland to the east , ending at an intersection with DE 92 . Marsh Road continues north past this intersection as an unnumbered road toward the Pennsylvania border .
DE 3 has an annual average daily traffic count ranging from a high of 13 @,@ 893 vehicles at the Carr Road intersection to a low of 5 @,@ 021 vehicles on Washington Street Extension . None of DE 3 is part of the National Highway System .
= = History = =
What is now DE 3 existed as a county road by 1920 . Four years later , the road was upgraded to a state highway between Philadelphia Pike and Harvey Road . The state highway was extended north to Naamans Road by 1931 . By 1968 , DE 3 was designated to run from US 13 ( now US 13 Business ) north to DE 92 along Marsh Road . DE 4 was extended onto the Washington Street Extension portion of present @-@ day DE 3 three years later . DE 4 was removed from Washington Street Extension by 1981 . Three years later , DE 3 was extended to I @-@ 495 in Edgemoor . At this time , DE 3 was realigned to follow Washington Street Extension from Marsh Road to a concurrency with US 13 Business , heading southwest along that route before heading southeast along Edgemoor Road .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in New Castle County .
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= Farleigh Hungerford Castle =
Farleigh Hungerford Castle , sometimes called Farleigh Castle or Farley Castle , is a medieval castle in Farleigh Hungerford , Somerset , England . The castle was built in two phases : the inner court was constructed between 1377 and 1383 by Sir Thomas Hungerford , who made his fortune working as a steward to John of Gaunt . The castle was built to a quadrangular design , already slightly old @-@ fashioned , on the site of an existing manor house overlooking the River Frome . A park was attached to the castle , requiring the destruction of a local village . His son , Sir Walter Hungerford , a successful knight and courtier to Henry V , became rich during the Hundred Years War with France and extended the castle with an additional , outer court , enclosing the parish church in the process . By Walter 's death in 1449 , the substantial castle was richly appointed and its chapel decorated with murals .
The castle largely remained in the hands of the Hungerford family over the next two centuries , despite periods during the War of the Roses in which it was held by the Crown following the attainder and execution of members of the family . At the outbreak of the English Civil War in 1642 , the castle , modernized to the latest Tudor and Stuart fashions , was held by Sir Edward Hungerford . Edward declared his support for Parliament , becoming a leader of the Roundheads in Wiltshire . Farleigh Hungerford was seized by Royalist forces in 1643 , but recaptured by Parliament without a fight near the end of the conflict in 1645 . As a result , it escaped slighting following the war , unlike many other castles in the south @-@ west of England .
The last member of the Hungerford family to hold the castle , Sir Edward Hungerford , inherited it in 1657 , but his gambling and expensive living forced him to sell the property in 1686 . By the 18th century the castle was no longer lived in by its owners and fell into disrepair ; in 1730 it was bought by the Houlton family , when much of it was broken up for salvage . Antiquarian and tourist interest in the now ruined castle increased through the 18th and 19th centuries . The castle chapel was repaired in 1779 and became a museum of curiosities , complete with the murals rediscovered on its walls in 1844 and a number of rare lead anthropomorphic coffins from the mid @-@ 17th century . In the 1915 Farleigh Hungerford Castle was sold to the Office of Works and a controversial restoration programme began . It is now owned by English Heritage , who operate it as a tourist attraction , and the castle is a Grade I listed building and a Scheduled Ancient Monument .
= = History = =
= = = 11th - 14th centuries = = =
After the Norman Conquest of England , the manor of Ferlege in Somerset was granted by William the Conqueror to Roger de Courcelles . Ferlege evolved from the Anglo @-@ Saxon name faern @-@ laega , meaning " the ferny pasture " , and itself later evolved into Farleigh . William Rufus gave the manor to Hugh de Montfort , who renamed it Farleigh Montfort . The manor passed from the Montfort family to Bartholomew de Bunghersh in the early years of the reign of Edward III .
Sir Thomas Hungerford bought the property from the Bunghersh family in 1369 for £ 733 . By 1385 the manor was known as Farley Hungerford , after its new owner . Sir Thomas Hungerford was a knight and courtier , who became rich as the Chief Steward to the powerful John of Gaunt and then the first recorded Speaker of the House of Commons . Thomas decided to make Farleigh Hungerford his principal home and , between 1377 and 1383 , built a castle on the site ; unfortunately he did not acquire the appropriate licence to crenellate from the king before commencing building , and Thomas had to acquire a royal pardon in 1383 .
Thomas 's new castle adapted the existing manor complex overlooking the head of the River Frome . Although the castle sat on a low spur it was overlooked by higher ground from the west and the north and was not ideally placed from a purely defensive perspective . Contemporary castle designs included the construction of huge , palatial tower keeps and apartments for the most powerful nobles , such as Kenilworth , expanded by Thomas 's patron , John of Gaunt ; or the construction of smaller , French influenced castles such as that seen at nearby Nunney Castle , built by one of Thomas 's fellow nouveau riche landowners . By contrast , Farleigh Hungerford drew on the tradition of quadrangular castles that had begun in France during the early 13th century , in which the traditional buildings of an unfortified manor were enclosed by a four @-@ sided outer wall and protected with corner towers . The style was well established by the late 14th century , even slightly old fashioned .
The castle was formed around a court , later called the inner court , enclosed by a curtain wall with a circular tower on each corner and a gatehouse at the front ; the north @-@ east tower was larger than the others , perhaps to provide additional defences . Over time the towers acquired their own names : the north @-@ west tower was called the Hazelwell Tower ; the north @-@ east the Redcap Tower and the south @-@ west the Lady Tower . The ground fell away sharply on most sides of the castle , but its south and west sides were protected with a wet moat , using a dam fed from a nearby spring using a pipe . The gatehouse had twin towers and a drawbridge .
Opposite the entrance , and running across the middle of the court , was the great hall of the castle , with a grand porch and steps leading up to the first floor , where prestigious guests would have been entertained amongst carved wall @-@ panels and murals . The design of the hall may have emulated Gaunt 's hall at Kenilworth ; at the very least , it was a powerful symbol of Thomas 's authority and status . The west side of the inner court included the castle kitchen , bakery , well and other service facilities ; on the east side was the lord 's great chamber and a range of other accommodation for other guests . Behind the great hall was a smaller courtyard or garden . Thomas appears to have built up his new castle in stages , with the curtain wall being built first , with the corner towers added afterwards .
A park was established next to the castle ; a park was highly prestigious and it enabled Thomas to engage in hunting , provided the castle with a supply of venison as well as generating income . Most of the village of Wittenham had to be destroyed to make way for the park and the site eventually became a deserted village . A new parish church , St Leonard 's Chapel , was built by Thomas just outside the castle , after he had demolished the earlier , simpler 12th @-@ century church during the construction of the inner court . Thomas died in 1397 and was buried in the newly built St Anne 's Chapel , forming the north transept of St Leonard 's Chapel .
= = = 15th century = = =
Sir Walter Hungerford inherited Farleigh Hungerford castle upon the death of his mother , Joan , in 1412 . Walter 's first political patron was John of Gaunt 's son , Henry IV , and later he became a close companion of Henry 's own son , Henry V ; Henry V made Walter , like his father before him , the Speaker of the Commons in 1414 . Walter prospered : he became known as an expert jouster , in 1415 fought at the battle of Agincourt during the Hundred Years War , was made Steward of the Royal Household and was a major figure in government during the 1420s , serving as the Treasurer of England and as one of the legal guardians of the young Henry VI . Despite having to pay a ransom of £ 3 @,@ 000 to the French after his son was captured in 1429 , Walter , by now created Baron Hungerford , amassed considerable wealth from his various sources of income , which included the right to one hundred marks ( £ 66 ) per year from the town of Marlborough , the wool taxes from Wells , and the ransoms gained from the taking of French prisoners . As a result , he was able to buy more land , acquiring around 110 new manors and estates over the course of his life .
Between 1430 and 1445 Walter expanded the castle considerably . An outer court was built to the south side of the original castle , with its own towers and an additional gatehouse which formed the new entrance to the castle . These new defences were less strong than those of the original inner court , and indeed the eastern gatehouse was not crenellated at the time . A barbican was built , extending the older gatehouse to the inner court . The new court enclosed the parish church , which became the castle chapel , with a replacement church being built by Walter in the village . Walter had the chapel decorated with a number of murals , depicting scenes from the story of Saint George and the Dragon ; Saint George was a favoured saint of Henry V , and associated with the prestigious Order of the Garter , of which Walter was a proud member . A house was built next to the chapel for the use of the chantry priest . Walter also legally combined the two parishes of Farleigh in Somerset and Wittenham in Wiltshire , which formed part of his castle 's park , altering the county boundaries of Somerset and Wiltshire in the process . As a village , Wittenham disappeared completely .
Walter left the castle to his son , Robert Hungerford . Records of the castle at the time show considerable luxuries , including valuable tapestries up to 60 feet ( 18 @.@ 3 m ) long , silk bedclothes , rich furs and silver bowls and utensils . Unfortunately , Robert 's eldest son , the later Lord Moleyns , was captured by the French at the battle of Castillon , which was fought at the end of the Hundred Years War in 1453 . The huge ransom of over £ 10 @,@ 000 required to ensure his release financially crippled the family , and Lord Moleyns did not return to England until 1459 . By this time England had entered the period of civil conflict between the Houses of York and Lancaster known as the Wars of the Roses . Moleyns was a Lancastrian supporter and fought against the Yorkists in 1460 and 1461 , leading to first his exile and then his attainder , under which Farleigh Hungerford Castle was seized by the Crown . Moleyns was captured and executed in 1464 , and his eldest son , Thomas , met the same fate in 1469 .
The Yorkist Edward IV gave Farleigh Hungerford Castle to his brother Richard , then Duke of Gloucester , in 1462 . Edward and Richard 's brother George Plantagenet may have taken up residence at the castle ; his daughter Margaret was certainly born there . Richard became king in 1483 and gave the castle to John Howard , the Duke of Norfolk . Meanwhile , the late Robert 's youngest son , Sir Walter , had become a close supporter of Edward IV ; nonetheless , he joined the failed revolt of 1483 against Richard and ended up detained in the Tower of London . When Henry Tudor invaded England in 1485 , Walter escaped custody and joined the invading Lancastrian army , fighting alongside Henry at the Battle of Bosworth . Victorious , the newly crowned Henry VII returned Farleigh Hungerford to Walter in 1486 .
= = = 16th century = = =
Sir Walter Hungerford died in 1516 , leaving Farleigh Hungerford Castle to his son , Sir Edward . Edward was a successful member of Henry VIII 's court and died in 1522 , leaving the castle to his second wife , Agnes . After Edward 's death , however , it emerged that Agnes had been responsible for the murder of her former , first husband , John Cotell : two of her servants had strangled him at Farleigh Hungerford Castle , before burning his body in the castle oven to destroy any evidence . Agnes appears to have been motivated by a desire for the wealth that would follow her second marriage to Sir Edward , but in 1523 Agnes and the two servants were hung for murder in London .
Due to this execution , Edward 's son , another Walter , inherited the castle instead of Agnes . Walter became a political client of Thomas Cromwell , the powerful chief minister of Henry VIII , and operated on his behalf in the local region . Walter became dissatisfied with his third wife , Elizabeth , after her father became a political liability to him , and Walter detained her in one of the castle towers for several years . Elizabeth complained that while she was imprisoned she was starved in an attempt to kill her , and subjected to several poisoning attempts . She was probably kept in the north @-@ west tower , although the south @-@ west " Lady Tower " is named after her . When Cromwell fell from power in 1540 , so did Walter , who was executed for treason , witchcraft and homosexuality : Elizabeth was allowed to remarry , but the castle reverted to the Crown .
Walter 's son , also called Walter , bought back the castle from the Crown in 1554 for £ 5 @,@ 000 . Farleigh Hungerford Castle and the surrounding park remained in good condition — indeed , unusually for the time , the visiting antiquarian John Leland was able to praise its " praty " ( pretty ) and " stately " condition — but Walter continued to update the property , including adding more fashionable , Elizabethan style windows and improving the east range of the inner court , which became the main living area for the family . Walter 's second wife , Jane , was a Roman Catholic and during the turbulent religious politics of the later Tudor period , their marriage collapsed , with Jane going into exile . Walter and Jane 's only son died young and , after the Walter 's death in 1596 , the castle passed to his brother , Sir Edward .
= = = 17th century = = =
Sir Edward Hungerford died in 1607 , leaving Farleigh Hungerford to his great @-@ nephew , another Sir Edward Hungerford . Edward continued to develop the castle , installing new windows in the medieval buildings of the inner court . In 1642 , however , the Civil War broke out in England between the supporters of King Charles and those of Parliament . As a reformist Member of Parliament and a Puritan , Edward was an active supporter of Parliament and volunteered himself as the leader of its forces in the neighbouring county of Wiltshire ; unfortunately this put him at odds with Sir Edward Bayntun , a Wiltshire gentleman with similar ambitions . The resulting feud between the two men turned violent before Parliament finally settled the issue by appointing Hungerford as its commander in Wiltshire at the start of 1643 . His military record during the conflict was unexceptional : he abandoned several towns to advancing Royalist armies and fought on the losing side at the battle of Roundway Down , although he did successfully seize Wardour Castle in 1643 .
Farleigh Hungerford Castle was captured by a Royalist unit in 1643 , following a successful campaign by the King 's forces across the south @-@ west . The castle was taken without a fight by Colonel John Hungerford , a half @-@ brother of Edward , who installed a garrison that then supported itself by pillaging the surrounding countryside . Several Parliamentary raids against Farleigh Hungerford were undertaken during 1644 , but they failed to take back the castle . By 1645 , however , the Royalist cause was close to military collapse ; Parliamentary forces began to mop up the remaining Royalist garrisons in the south @-@ west , and on 15 September they reached the castle . Colonel Hungerford immediately surrendered on good terms , and Sir Edward Hungerford peacefully reinstalled himself in the undamaged castle . As a result of this process , the castle escaped being slighted , or deliberately destroyed , by Parliament , unlike many other castles in the region , such as Nunney .
On Edward 's death in 1648 , Anthony Hungerford , his half @-@ brother , inherited the castle . The north chapel was extensively renovated during this period by Edward 's widow , Margaret Hungerford , who covered the walls with pictures of saints , cherubs , clouds , ribbons , crowns and heraldry , as part of an elaborate tomb for her and Edward which cost £ 1 @,@ 100 ( £ 136 @,@ 000 in 2009 terms ) . The renovation effectively blocked most of the access into the north chapel , making the new tomb the focus of attention for any visitor or religious activity . A number of lead , anthropomorphic coffins , some with moulded faces or death masks , were laid down in the crypt in the mid- to late @-@ 17th century . Four men , two women and two children were embalmed in the castle in this way , probably including Edward and Margaret , as well as the final Sir Edward Hungerford , his wife , son and daughter @-@ in @-@ law . Such lead coffins were extremely expensive during the period and reserved for the wealthiest in society . Originally the lead coffins would have been encased in wood , but this outer casing has since been lost .
Anthony passed on both the castle and a considerable fortune to his son , yet another Sir Edward Hungerford , in 1657 . After his marriage , Edward enjoyed an income of around £ 8 @,@ 000 ( £ 1 @,@ 110 @,@ 000 ) a year , making him a very wealthy man . Edward lived a lavish lifestyle , however , including giving a huge gift of money to the exiled Charles II shortly before his restoration to the throne , and later entertaining the royal court at Farleigh Hungerford Castle in 1673 . Edward later fell out with the king over the proposal that the Roman Catholic James II should succeed to the throne on Charles 's death , and after the discovery of the Rye House Plot in 1683 the castle was searched by royal officials looking for stocks of weapons that might be used in a possible revolt .
Meanwhile , Edward had been living a truly extravagant lifestyle , including extensive gambling , resulting in his running up debts of some £ 40 @,@ 000 , which in 1683 forced him to sell many of his estates in Wiltshire . Over the next two years , Edward incurred further debts of around £ 38 @,@ 000 ( £ 5 @,@ 270 @,@ 000 ) and in 1686 was finally forced to sell his remaining lands in the south @-@ west , including Farleigh Hungerford Castle , to Sir Henry Bayntun , who purchased them for £ 56 @,@ 000 ( £ 7 @,@ 750 @,@ 000 ) . Bayntun lived in the castle for a few years , until his death in 1691 .
= = = 18th - 20th centuries = = =
From the 18th century onwards , Farleigh Hungerford Castle slipped into decline . In 1702 , the castle was sold on to Hector Cooper , who lived in Trowbridge ; in 1730 it was passed in turn to the Houlton family , who had purchased the estates surrounding the castle . The Houlton family broke up castle 's stone walls and the internal contents for salvage . Some of the parts , such as the marble floors , were reused at Longleat or in the Houlton 's new house , Farleigh House , built nearby in the 1730s ; other elements were reused by local villagers . By the end of the 1730s the castle was ruinous and , although the castle chapel was repaired and brought back into use in 1779 , the north @-@ west and north @-@ east towers had both collapsed by the end of 1797 . The outer court became a farm yard , with the priest 's house becoming the farm house . The castle 's park was reassigned to serve Farleigh House instead .
Antiquarian curiosity in the castle had begun as early as 1700 , when Peter Le Neve visited and recorded some of the architectural details , but interest increased in the 19th century . This was partially due to the work of the local curate , the Reverend J. Jackson , who undertook the first archaeological excavations at the site during the 1840s , uncovering many of the foundations of the inner court . 17th and 18th century stained glass windows from the continent were installed in the chapel , where the 15th century wall paintings were rediscovered in 1844 . The then owner , Colonel John Houlton , turned the chapel into a museum of curiosities , where for a small fee visitors could see sets of armour , what was said to be a pair of Oliver Cromwell 's boots and other English Civil War artefacts , including letters from Cromwell written to the Hungerfords .
The foundations that Jackson discovered during the excavations were left exposed for the benefit of visitors and larger numbers of tourists began to come to the castle to see the ruins , including Louis @-@ Napoléon Bonaparte in 1846 . The lead coffins in the chapel crypt were popular with tourists , although the coffins were extensively damaged by those visitors keen to see the contents inside . The south @-@ west tower , completely covered by thick ivy , collapsed in 1842 , after local children accidentally set fire to the vegetation that was , by then , holding the tower together . Battlements were added to the east gatehouse during this period , transforming the appearance of its original gabled roof .
In 1891 , most of Farleigh Hungerford Castle was sold by the Houlton family to Lord Donington , whose heir in turn sold it onto Lord Cairns in 1907 . Cairns passed the castle to the Office of Works in 1915 , by which time it was almost all heavily overgrown with ivy . The Office of Works began a process of controversial restoration work , removing the ivy and repairing the stone work ; the result was critiqued by H. Avray Tipping at the time as " giving the whole castle the effect of a new concrete building " . Further excavations took place in 1924 as part of the project , which retained the castle as a tourist attraction . The last inhabitants of the farmhouse left in 1959 , when the last parts of the outer court were sold to the government and restored . Attempts were made to preserve the wall paintings in the chapel during 1931 and 1955 , but the treatments , which involved the use of red wax , stained the paintings and caused considerable damage : the wax was removed in the 1970s . Further excavations followed around the chapel and the priest 's house in 1962 and 1968 . English Heritage took over responsibility for running the castle in 1983 .
= = = 21st century = = =
Today , most of Farleigh Hungerford Castle is ruined . In the inner court only the exposed foundations remain of most of the castle buildings , along with the shells of the south @-@ west and south @-@ east towers . Unusually for English castles , the outer court has survived better than the inner . The restored eastern gatehouse is carved with the badge of the Hungerfords and the initials of the first Sir Edward Hungerford , who had them carved there between 1516 and 1522 . The priest 's house remains intact , measuring 39 feet ( 11 @.@ 9 m ) by 22 feet ( 6 @.@ 7 m ) with two rooms on the ground floor and four rooms above .
In Saint Leonard 's Chapel , the outlines of many of the medieval murals can still be made out , with the painting of Saint George and Dragon still in particularly good condition — historian Simon Roffey describes this work , one of only four such surviving works in England , as " remarkable " . The late 17th century tombs of the Hungerfords remain intact in the north transept chapel dedicated to Saint Anne . The surviving lead anthropomorphic coffins in the crypt are archaeologically significant : although numerous in the late 16th and 17th centuries , few lead coffins survive today and Farleigh Hungerford Castle has what historian Charles Kightly considers " the best collection " in the country .
The castle site is run by English Heritage as a tourist attraction . It is a Scheduled Monument and a Grade I listed building .
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= Animal coloration =
Animal coloration is the general appearance of an animal resulting from the reflection or emission of light from its surfaces . Some animals are brightly coloured , while others are hard to see . In some species , such as the peacock , the male has strong patterns , conspicuous colours and is iridescent , while the female is far less visible .
There are several separate reasons why animals have evolved colours . Camouflage enables an animal to remain hidden from view . Signalling enables an animal to communicate information such as warning of its ability to defend itself ( aposematism ) . Animals also use colour in advertising , signalling services such as cleaning to animals of other species ; to signal sexual status to other members of the same species ; and in mimicry , taking advantage of another species ' warning coloration . Some animals use colour to divert attacks by startle ( deimatic behaviour ) , surprising a predator e.g. with eyespots or other flashes of colour , and possibly by motion dazzle , confusing a predator 's attack by moving a bold pattern ( such as zebra stripes ) rapidly . Some animals are coloured for physical protection , such as having pigments in the skin to protect against sunburn , while some frogs can lighten or darken their skin for temperature regulation . Finally , animals can be coloured incidentally . For example , blood is red because the haem pigment needed to carry oxygen is red . Animals coloured in these ways can have striking natural patterns .
Animals produce colour in different ways . Pigments are particles of coloured material . Chromatophores are cells containing pigment , which can change their size to make their colour more or less visible . Some animals , including many butterflies and birds , have microscopic structures in scales , bristles or feathers which give them brilliant iridescent colours . Other animals including squid and some deep @-@ sea fish can produce light , sometimes of different colours . Animals often use two or more of these mechanisms together to produce the colours and effects they need .
= = History = =
Animal coloration has been a topic of interest and research in biology for centuries .
In his 1665 book Micrographia , Robert Hooke describes the " fantastical " ( structural , not pigment ) colours of the Peacock 's feathers :
The parts of the Feathers of this glorious Bird appear , through the Microscope , no less gaudy then do the whole Feathers ; for , as to the naked eye ' tis evident that the stem or quill of each Feather in the tail sends out multitudes of Lateral branches , ... so each of those threads in the Microscope appears a large long body , consisting of a multitude of bright reflecting parts .
... their upper sides seem to me to consist of a multitude of thin plated bodies , which are exceeding thin , and lie very close together , and thereby , like mother of Pearl shells , do not onely reflect a very brisk light , but tinge that light in a most curious manner ; and by means of various positions , in respect of the light , they reflect back now one colour , and then another , and those most vividly . Now , that these colours are onely fantastical ones , that is , such as arise immediately from the refractions of the light , I found by this , that water wetting these colour 'd parts , destroy 'd their colours , which seem 'd to proceed from the alteration of the reflection and refraction .
According to Charles Darwin 's 1859 theory of natural selection , features such as coloration evolved by providing individual animals with a reproductive advantage . For example , individuals with slightly better camouflage than others of the same species would , on average , leave more offspring . In his Origin of Species , Darwin wrote :
When we see leaf @-@ eating insects green , and bark @-@ feeders mottled @-@ grey ; the alpine ptarmigan white in winter , the red @-@ grouse the colour of heather , and the black @-@ grouse that of peaty earth , we must believe that these tints are of service to these birds and insects in preserving them from danger . Grouse , if not destroyed at some period of their lives , would increase in countless numbers ; they are known to suffer largely from birds of prey ; and hawks are guided by eyesight to their prey , so much so , that on parts of the Continent persons are warned not to keep white pigeons , as being the most liable to destruction . Hence I can see no reason to doubt that natural selection might be most effective in giving the proper colour to each kind of grouse , and in keeping that colour , when once acquired , true and constant .
Henry Walter Bates 's 1863 book The Naturalist on the River Amazons describes his extensive studies of the insects in the Amazon basin , and especially the butterflies . He discovered that apparently similar butterflies often belonged to different families , with a harmless species mimicking a poisonous or bitter @-@ tasting species to reduce its chance of being attacked by a predator , in the process now called after him , Batesian mimicry .
Edward Bagnall Poulton 's strongly Darwinian 1890 book The Colours of Animals , their meaning and use , especially considered in the case of insects argued the case for three aspects of animal coloration that are broadly accepted today but were controversial or wholly new at the time . It strongly supported Darwin 's theory of sexual selection , arguing that the obvious differences between male and female birds such as the Argus pheasant were selected by the females , pointing out that bright male plumage was found only in species " which court by day " . The book introduced the concept of frequency @-@ dependent selection , as when edible mimics are less frequent than the distasteful models whose colours and patterns they copy . In the book , Poulton also coined the term aposematism for warning coloration , which he identified in widely differing animal groups including mammals ( such as the skunk ) , bees and wasps , beetles , and butterflies .
Frank Evers Beddard 's 1892 book , Animal Coloration , acknowledged that natural selection existed but examined its application to camouflage , mimicry and sexual selection very critically . The book was in turn roundly criticised by Poulton .
Abbott Handerson Thayer 's 1909 book Concealing @-@ Coloration in the Animal Kingdom , completed by his son Gerald H. Thayer , argued correctly for the widespread use of crypsis among animals , and in particular described and explained countershading for the first time . However , the Thayers spoilt their case by arguing that camouflage was the sole purpose of animal coloration , which led them to claim that even the brilliant pink plumage of the flamingo or the roseate spoonbill was cryptic — against the momentarily pink sky at dawn or dusk . As a result , the book was mocked by critics including Theodore Roosevelt as having " pushed [ the " doctrine " of concealing coloration ] to such a fantastic extreme and to include such wild absurdities as to call for the application of common sense thereto . "
Hugh Bamford Cott 's 500 @-@ page book Adaptive Coloration in Animals , published in wartime 1940 , systematically described the principles of camouflage and mimicry . The book contains hundreds of examples , over a hundred photographs and Cott 's own accurate and artistic drawings , and 27 pages of references . Cott focussed especially on " maximum disruptive contrast " , the kind of patterning used in military camouflage such as disruptive pattern material . Indeed , Cott describes such applications :
the effect of a disruptive pattern is to break up what is really a continuous surface into what appears to be a number of discontinuous surfaces ... which contradict the shape of the body on which they are superimposed .
= = Evolutionary reasons for animal coloration = =
= = = Camouflage = = =
One of the pioneers of research into animal coloration , Edward Bagnall Poulton classified the forms of protective coloration , in a way which is still helpful . He described : protective resemblance ; aggressive resemblance ; adventitious protection ; and variable protective resemblance . These are covered in turn below .
Protective resemblance is used by prey to avoid predation . It includes special protective resemblance , now called mimesis , where the whole animal looks like some other object , for example when a caterpillar resembles a twig or a bird dropping . In general protective resemblance , now called crypsis , the animal 's texture blends with the background , for example when a moth 's colour and pattern blend in with tree bark .
Aggressive resemblance is used by predators or parasites . In special aggressive resemblance , the animal looks like something else , luring the prey or host to approach , for example when a flower mantis resembles a particular kind of flower , such as an orchid . In general aggressive resemblance , the predator or parasite blends in with the background , for example when a leopard is hard to see in long grass .
For adventitious protection , an animal uses materials such as twigs , sand , or pieces of shell to conceal its outline , for example when a caddis fly larva builds a decorated case , or when a decorator crab decorates its back with seaweed , sponges and stones .
In variable protective resemblance , an animal such as a chameleon , flatfish , squid or octopus changes its skin pattern and colour using special chromatophore cells to resemble whatever background it is currently resting on ( as well as for signalling ) .
The main mechanisms to create the resemblances described by Poulton – whether in nature or in military applications – are crypsis , blending into the background so as to become hard to see ( this covers both special and general resemblance ) ; disruptive patterning , using colour and pattern to break up the animal 's outline , which relates mainly to general resemblance ; mimesis , resembling other objects of no special interest to the observer , which relates to special resemblance ; countershading , using graded colour to create the illusion of flatness , which relates mainly to general resemblance ; and counterillumination , producing light to match the background , notably in some species of squid .
Countershading was first described by the American artist Abbott Handerson Thayer , a pioneer in the theory of animal coloration . Thayer observed that whereas a painter takes a flat canvas and uses coloured paint to create the illusion of solidity by painting in shadows , animals such as deer are often darkest on their backs , becoming lighter towards the belly , creating ( as zoologist Hugh Cott observed ) the illusion of flatness , and against a matching background , of invisibility . Thayer 's observation " Animals are painted by Nature , darkest on those parts which tend to be most lighted by the sky 's light , and vice versa " is called Thayer 's Law .
= = = Signalling = = =
Colour is widely used for signalling in animals as diverse as birds and shrimps . Signalling encompasses at least three purposes :
advertising , to signal a capability or service to other animals , whether within a species or not
sexual selection , where members of one sex choose to mate with suitably coloured members of the other sex , thus driving the development of such colours
warning , to signal that an animal is harmful , for example can sting , is poisonous or is bitter @-@ tasting . Warning signals may be mimicked truthfully or untruthfully .
= = = = Advertising = = = =
Advertising coloration signals an animal 's capability to other animals . These may be of the same species , as in sexual selection , or of different species , as in cleaning symbiosis . Signals , which often combine colour and movement , may be understood by many different species ; for example , the cleaning stations of the banded coral shrimp Stenopus hispidus are visited by different species of fish , and even by reptiles such as hawksbill sea turtles .
= = = = Sexual selection = = = =
Darwin observed that the males of some species , such as birds of paradise , were very different from the females .
Darwin explained such male @-@ female differences in his theory of sexual selection in his book The Descent of Man . Once the females begin to select males according to any particular characteristic , such as a long tail or a coloured crest , that characteristic is emphasized more and more in the males . Eventually all the males will have the characteristics that the females are sexually selecting for , as only those males can reproduce . This mechanism is powerful enough to create features that are strongly disadvantageous to the males in other ways . For example , some male birds of paradise have wing or tail streamers that are so long that they impede flight , while their brilliant colours may make the males more vulnerable to predators . In the extreme , sexual selection may drive species to extinction , as has been argued for the enormous horns of the male Irish elk , which may have made it difficult for mature males to move and feed .
Different forms of sexual selection are possible , including rivalry among males , and selection of females by males .
= = = = Warning = = = =
Warning coloration ( aposematism ) is effectively the " opposite " of camouflage , and a special case of advertising . Its function is to make the animal , for example a wasp or a coral snake , highly conspicuous to potential predators , so that it is noticed , remembered , and then avoided . As Peter Forbes observes , " Human warning signs employ the same colours - red , yellow , black , and white - that nature uses to advertise dangerous creatures . " Warning colours work by being associated by potential predators with something that makes the warning coloured animal unpleasant or dangerous . This can be achieved in several ways , by being any combination of :
distasteful , for example caterpillars , pupae and adults of the cinnabar moth , the monarch butterfly and the Variable Checkerspot butterfly have bitter @-@ tasting chemicals in their blood . One monarch contains more than enough digitalis @-@ like toxin to kill a cat , while a monarch extract makes starlings vomit .
foul @-@ smelling , for example the skunk can eject a liquid with a long @-@ lasting and powerful odour
aggressive and able to defend itself , for example honey badgers .
venomous , for example a wasp can deliver a painful sting , while snakes like the viper or coral snake can deliver a fatal bite .
Warning coloration can succeed either through inborn behaviour ( instinct ) on the part of potential predators , or through a learned avoidance . Either can lead to various forms of mimicry . Experiments show that avoidance is learned in birds , mammals , lizards , and amphibians , but that some birds such as great tits have inborn avoidance of certain colours and patterns such as black and yellow stripes .
= = = Mimicry = = =
Mimicry means that one species of animal resembles another species closely enough to deceive predators . To evolve , the mimicked species must have warning coloration , because appearing to be bitter @-@ tasting or dangerous gives natural selection something to work on . Once a species has a slight , chance , resemblance to a warning coloured species , natural selection can drive its colours and patterns towards more perfect mimicry . There are numerous possible mechanisms , of which by far the best known are :
Batesian mimicry , where an edible species resembles a distasteful or dangerous species . This is most common in insects such as butterflies . A familiar example is the resemblance of harmless hoverflies ( which have no sting ) to bees .
Müllerian mimicry , where two or more distasteful or dangerous animal species resemble each other . This is most common among insects such as wasps and bees ( hymenoptera ) .
Batesian mimicry was first described by pioneering naturalist Henry W. Bates . When an edible prey animal comes to resemble , even slightly , a distasteful animal , natural selection favours those individuals that even very slightly better resemble the distasteful species . This is because even a small degree of protection reduces predation and increases the chance that an individual mimic will survive and reproduce . For example , many species of hoverfly are coloured black and yellow like bees , and are in consequence avoided by birds ( and people ) .
Müllerian mimicry was first described by pioneering naturalist Fritz Müller . When a distasteful animal comes to resemble a more common distasteful animal , natural selection favours individuals that even very slightly better resemble the target . For example , many species of stinging wasp and bee are similarly coloured black and yellow . Müller 's explanation of the mechanism for this was one of the first uses of mathematics in biology . He argued that a predator , such as a young bird , must attack at least one insect , say a wasp , to learn that the black and yellow colours mean a stinging insect . If bees were differently coloured , the young bird would have to attack one of them also . But when bees and wasps resemble each other , the young bird need only attack one from the whole group to learn to avoid all of them . So , fewer bees are attacked if they mimic wasps ; the same applies to wasps that mimic bees . The result is mutual resemblance for mutual protection .
= = = Distraction = = =
= = = = Startle = = = =
Some animals such as many moths , mantises and grasshoppers , have a repertory of threatening or startling behaviour , such as suddenly displaying conspicuous eyespots or patches of bright and contrasting colours , so as to scare off or momentarily distract a predator . This gives the prey animal an opportunity to escape . The behaviour is deimatic ( startling ) rather than aposematic as these insects are palatable to predators , so the warning colours are a bluff , not an honest signal .
= = = = Motion dazzle = = = =
Some prey animals such as zebra are marked with high @-@ contrast patterns which possibly help to confuse their predators , such as lions , during a chase . The bold stripes of a herd of running Zebra have been claimed make it difficult for predators to estimate the prey 's speed and direction accurately , or to identify individual animals , giving the prey an improved chance of escape . Since dazzle patterns ( such as the Zebra 's stripes ) make animals harder to catch when moving , but easier to detect when stationary , there is an evolutionary trade @-@ off between dazzle and camouflage . Another theory is that the zebra 's stripes could provide some protection from flies and biting insects .
= = = Physical protection = = =
Many animals have dark pigments such as melanin in their skin , eyes and fur to protect themselves against sunburn ( damage to living tissues caused by ultraviolet light ) .
= = = Temperature regulation = = =
Some frogs such as Bokermannohyla alvarengai , which basks in sunlight , lighten their skin colour when hot ( and darkens when cold ) , making their skin reflect more heat and so avoid overheating .
= = = Incidental coloration = = =
Some animals are coloured purely incidentally because their blood contains pigments . For example , amphibians like the olm that live in caves may be largely colourless as colour has no function in that environment , but they show some red because of the haem pigment in their red blood cells , needed to carry oxygen . They also have a little orange coloured riboflavin in their skin . Human albinos and people with fair skin have a similar colour for the same reason .
= = Mechanisms of colour production in animals = =
Animal coloration may be the result of any combination of pigments , chromatophores , structural coloration and bioluminescence .
= = = Coloration by pigments = = =
Pigments are coloured chemicals ( such as melanin ) in animal tissues . For example , the Arctic fox has a white coat in winter ( containing little pigment ) , and a brown coat in summer ( containing more pigment ) . Many animals , including mammals , birds , and amphibians , are unable to synthesize most of the pigments that colour their fur or feathers , other than the brown or black melanins that give many mammals their earth tones . For example , the bright yellow of an American goldfinch , the startling orange of a juvenile red @-@ spotted newt , the deep red of a cardinal and the pink of a flamingo are all produced by carotenoid pigments synthesized by plants . In the case of the flamingo , the bird eats pink shrimps , which are themselves unable to synthesize carotenoids . The shrimps derive their body colour from microscopic red algae , which like most plants are able to create their own pigments , including both carotenoids and ( green ) chlorophyll . Animals that eat green plants do not become green , however , as chlorophyll does not survive digestion .
= = = Variable coloration by chromatophores = = =
Chromatophores are special pigment @-@ containing cells that can change their size , thus varying the colour and pattern of the animal . The voluntary control of chromatophores is known as metachrosis . For example , cuttlefish and chameleons can rapidly change their appearance , both for camouflage and for signalling , as Aristotle first noted over 2000 years ago :
The octopus ... seeks its prey by so changing its colour as to render it like the colour of the stones adjacent to it ; it does so also when alarmed .
When cephalopod molluscs like squid and cuttlefish find themselves against a light background , they contract many of their chromatophores , concentrating the pigment into a smaller area , resulting in a pattern of tiny , dense , but widely spaced dots , appearing light . When they enter a darker environment , they allow their chromatophores to expand , creating a pattern of larger dark spots , and making their bodies appear dark . Amphibians such as frogs have three kinds of star @-@ shaped chromatophore cells in separate layers of their skin . The top layer contains ' xanthophores ' with orange , red , or yellow pigments ; the middle layer contains ' iridophores ' with a silvery light @-@ reflecting pigment ; while the bottom layer contains ' melanophores ' with dark melanin .
= = = Structural coloration = = =
While many animals are unable to synthesize carotenoid pigments to create red and yellow surfaces , the green and blue colours of bird feathers and insect carapaces are usually not produced by pigments at all , but by structural coloration . Structural coloration means the production of colour by microscopically @-@ structured surfaces fine enough to interfere with visible light , sometimes in combination with pigments : for example , peacock tail feathers are pigmented brown , but their structure makes them appear blue , turquoise and green . Structural coloration can produce the most brilliant colours , often iridescent . For example , the blue / green gloss on the plumage of birds such as ducks , and the purple / blue / green / red colours of many beetles and butterflies are created by structural coloration . Animals use several methods to produce structural colour , as described in the table .
= = = Bioluminescence = = =
Bioluminescence is the production of light , such as by the photophores of marine animals , and the tails of glow @-@ worms and fireflies . Bioluminescence , like other forms of metabolism , releases energy derived from the chemical energy of food . A pigment , luciferin is catalysed by the enzyme luciferase to react with oxygen , releasing light . Comb jellies such as Euplokamis are bioluminescent , creating blue and green light , especially when stressed ; when disturbed , they secrete an ink which luminesces in the same colours . Since comb jellies are not very sensitive to light , their bioluminescence is unlikely to be used to signal to other members of the same species ( e.g. to attract mates or repel rivals ) ; more likely , the light helps to distract predators or parasites . Some species of squid have light @-@ producing organs ( photophores ) scattered all over their undersides that create a sparkling glow . This provides counter @-@ illumination camouflage , preventing the animal from appearing as a dark shape when seen from below . Some angler fish of the deep sea , where it is too dark to hunt by sight , contain symbiotic bacteria in the ' bait ' on their ' fishing rods ' . These emit light to attract prey .
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= Ciao Italia : Live from Italy =
Ciao Italia : Live from Italy ( credited as Madonna : Ciao , Italia ! Live from Italy in the video sequence ) is a video album by American singer @-@ songwriter Madonna and was released by Warner Reprise Video and Sire Records on May 24 , 1988 . It contained footage from a previous TV special of the Who 's That Girl World Tour , Madonna in Concerto , broadcast in Europe in 1987 , filmed at the Stadio Comunale in Turin , Italy . The video release also contained footage from shows recorded in Florence , Italy and Tokyo , Japan , the latter having previously been released as a Japanese TV special and home video release , Who 's That Girl : Live in Japan . The decision to release Ciao Italia was spurred by the fact that this previous release became a commercial success in Japan . A re @-@ release of the video took place in 1999 , when it was released in DVD format , with a stereo soundtrack containing the songs only .
The video received positive reviews from critics , who noted Madonna 's showmanship and her skills as a performer . They also complimented the camera work in the video , for enhancing the visual aspects of the tour . Ciao Italia topped the Music Video sales chart of Billboard , and became the second best @-@ selling music video cassette of 1988 . It was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for shipment of 100 @,@ 000 copies .
= = Background = =
Madonna 's 1987 Who 's That Girl World Tour was a critical and commercial success , earning US $ 25 million and playing in front of an audience of 1 @.@ 5 million . When the time came for the video release of the tour , Warner Bros. decided to release it only in Japan , where Madonna 's previous video albums had not been released . This decision was also backed by the profit that the Who 's That Girl World Tour had achieved from its Japanese leg . Named as Who 's That Girl : Live in Japan , the video contained a live date from the tour , filmed at Korakuen Stadium in Tokyo , Japan on June 22 , 1987 . It was also aired as a television special in Japan only and was the first television broadcast there , using Dolby Surround sound . The release was a commercial success , prompting Warner to release a different version of the tour video , for the rest of the world . Although the Japanese concert was released on VHS and LaserDisc , Warner Music Japan has never officially made it available on DVD .
The video was released on May 24 , 1988 , and contained video compilation of two different dates from the tour , Turin and from Florence , as well as clips from her concert in Tokyo , Japan . The video had an introduction , where Madonna was shown practicing with her troupe on the stage , rehearsing the songs and the dance moves . Madonna , who had gone through rigorous exercises and aerobics to prepare herself for the tour , demanded from director Egbert van Hees that the shape of her body be given prominence in the footage to be used for the video . She believed that her new shape and figure would make her appear highly attractive . In 1999 , Warner Bros. re @-@ released the video in DVD format , along with some of Madonna 's other video albums . The music video appears in an aspect ratio of 1 @.@ 33 : 1 ( 4 : 3 ) on the single @-@ sided , single @-@ layered DVD . The concert relied heavily on magenta tones ; from the lighting to Madonna ’ s outfits . A stereo soundtrack accompanied the DVD release , where the songs were mixed without having a surround sound effect .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Andrew Perala from Anchorage Daily News complimented the video , saying " If you have a secret fondness for pop singer Madonna , you would want to check out her Ciao Italia , the singer 's concert film from Italy . You can be pleasantly surprised at how amazing she is . " Heather Phares from Allmusic said : " Madonna 's Ciao Italia : Live From Italy captures a performance from her 1988 world tour and features hits like ' Lucky Star ' , ' True Blue ' , ' La Isla Bonita ' , ' Like a Virgin ' , and ' Material Girl ' . A much simpler , less choreographed performance than her later extravaganzas like The Girlie Show World Tour , Ciao Italia is still entertaining in its own right , and will definitely please fans nostalgic for some old @-@ school Madonna hits . " Dennis Hunt from Los Angeles Times gave a positive review , saying " A festive Italian stadium show featuring the Material Girl , who 's turned into a first @-@ rate entertainer , strutting and singing in flashy production @-@ number renditions of her recent most Billboard topping songs , is indeed a delight . The video captures the enormity of Madonna as a performer , and her theatrics , oomph and chutzpah . " Tom Shales from The Washington Post said that " Ciao Italia works wonderful because it makes Madonna look like she 's at home , with her Italian family all around her . [ ... ] A Turin soccer stadium became the sexual center of the universe last year when Madonna , one of our naughtiest superstars , taped this concert there before 75 @,@ 000 gyrating Italians . Ebullient and insouciant , Madonna sings her hits @-@ including the darkly beautiful ' Live to Tell ' — in cavernous stereo ; dances engagingly with 14 @-@ year @-@ old Chris Finch , the quintessential Lucky Little Boy ; and crowns herself queen of teases , bending over to reveal ' Kiss ' printed on her underpants [ ... ] Sheer showmanship is present in her performances as well as the camera work of this video . " Jim Farber from Rolling Stone said that " this version of Madonna 's Who 's That Girl Tour returns the star to the medium where she excels best . On videocassette , however , Madonna makes manipulation seem like an exciting message indeed . " Colin Jacobson from the DVD Movie Guide however , gave a negative review of the album , saying " Possibly the biggest problem with Ciao Italia regarded the sloppy manner in which the program was assembled . I can ’ t recall if Italia appeared as a TV special that aired live or if it was taped and edited specifically for future broadcast screenings , but it certainly looked like something that was created on the fly . Sloppy camerawork and editing abound , as those two factors don ’ t flow together terribly well . It felt as though they tried their best to get appropriate material at the time but that they failed to massage it after the fact . "
= = = Commercial performance = = =
The release debuted at number 17 on Billboard 's Top Music Video chart , on June 4 , 1988 and reached a peak of eight , the next week . The video started a steady climb on the chart , and on the issue dated August 20 , 1988 , it reached number three on the chart , being kept from the top spot by Callan Pinckney 's Callanetics and Jane Fonda 's Start Up With Jane Fonda workout videos . Ciao Italia ultimately reached the top of the chart , remaining there for eight weeks . It was the 27th top selling music videocassette for 1988 . The video was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for shipment of 100 @,@ 000 copies . Ciao Italia debuted and peaked at number three on the Canadian RPM Top 10 Video chart on June 9 , 1990 . It was present for a total of eight weeks on the chart . It also charted at number three on the Finnish DVD chart in 2009 . Ciao Italia was also certified platinum by the Argentine Chamber of Phonograms and Videograms Producers ( CAPIF ) for shipment of 15 @,@ 000 copies in DVD units .
= = Track listing = =
= = = Formats = = =
It was released on VHS , Laserdisc and later DVD , in an aspect ratio of 1 @.@ 33 : 1 on the single @-@ sided , single @-@ layered DVD .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits and personnel adapted from Ciao Italia : Live from Italy video liner notes .
= = Charts and certifications = =
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= Ontario Highway 12 =
King 's Highway 12 , commonly referred to as Highway 12 and historically known as the Whitby and Sturgeon Bay Road , is a provincially maintained highway in the Canadian province of Ontario . The highway connects the eastern end of the Greater Toronto Area ( GTA ) with Kawartha Lakes ( via Highway 7 ) , Orillia and Midland before ending at Highway 93 . It forms a part of the Trans @-@ Canada Highway system from north of Sunderland to Coldwater . Highway 12 connects several small towns along its 146 km ( 91 mi ) route , and bypasses a short distance from many others . It is signed as a north – south route between Whitby and Orillia , and as an east – west route from there to Midland . The rural portions of the highway feature a posted speed limit of 80 km / h ( 50 mph ) , often dropping to 50 km / h ( 31 mph ) through built @-@ up areas . The entire route is patrolled by the Ontario Provincial Police .
Highway 12 was first established in early 1922 between Highway 2 in Whitby and Lindsay . The section running east from Sunderland became part of Highway 7 before route numbering was introduced in 1925 . Highway 12 was then routed through Beaverton and around the eastern and northern shores of Lake Simcoe to Orillia and later to Midland ; Beaverton was bypassed during the 1960s . The section south of Highway 7 in Brooklin was transferred to the Regional Municipality of Durham in mid @-@ 1997 and redesignated as Durham Regional Highway 12 . A majority of Highway 12 follows the historic Whitby and Sturgeon Bay Road , constructed in the mid @-@ 1800s to connect Whitby and Penetanguishene , both important naval ports of the time .
= = Route description = =
The highway begins at the hydro easement ( the future location of Highway 407 ) just south of the community of Brooklin in the town of Whitby . It travels north and joins with Highway 7 on the southern edge of Brooklin . Highway 7 travels west to Markham , and is signed concurrently with Highway 12 for 39 @.@ 1 km ( 24 @.@ 3 mi ) north of this point to Sunderland . North of Sunderland , Highway 7 separates and travels east to Lindsay ; Highway 12 thereafter is designated as the Central Ontario Route of the Trans @-@ Canada Highway .
The highway continues north , following the eastern and northern shores of Lake Simcoe and bypassing Beaverton while curving to the northwest towards Orillia . It bypasses south of Orillia , and shares a routing with Highway 11 northwards for approximately two kilometres between interchanges 131 and 133 . At the latter interchange , Highway 12 branches northwest towards Coldwater , where it joins Highway 400 between interchanges 141 and 147 ; this concurrency is not signed .
At Waubaushene , the Trans @-@ Canada Highway designation continues north along Highway 400 towards Parry Sound and Sudbury , while Highway 12 continues west towards Victoria Harbour , Port McNicoll , and the Martyrs ' Shrine . The highway ends at a junction with Highway 93 at the western town limits of Midland .
= = History = =
The oldest portion of Highway 12 was originally known as the Coldwater Portage and later the Coldwater Road , connecting the modern sites of Orillia and Coldwater by a 14 mi ( 23 km ) trail . Upper Canada Governor John Colborne surveyed the portage in 1830 and ordered it to be widened for wagon use . As the area was settled and an increasing need for land connection with the south arose , a new road was proposed from Whitby to Sturgeon Bay ( near Waubaushene ) . In February 1843 , the residents formally petitioned the government to construct the route . The Sturgeon Bay Road , from Coldwater to Sturgeon Bay , was opened as a rough wagon road in 1844 . The Atherley Narrows , separating Lake Simcoe from Lake Couchiching , were surveyed in the early 1840s and the first causeway and bridge constructed in the years that followed . The portion of the route between Whitby and Orillia , however , was still under construction during the second half of the decade .
Highway 12 was first introduced into the provincial highway system on January 22 , 1922 , The highway , initially known as the Whitby – Lindsay Road , was not numbered until the summer of 1925 . The route followed the present – day Highway – 12 from Whitby to Sunderland , then travelled east to Lindsay .
Highway assumptions carried out on June 22 and July 2 , 1927 , extended Highway 7 east from Brampton to Peterborough . In doing so , it became concurrent with Highway 12 between Whitby and Sunderland . The route of Highway 12 between Sunderland and Lindsay was renumbered as part of Highway 7 at this time . Highway 12 was later extended north to Orillia , via Beaverton . This was accomplished through two assumptions. on August 17 , the majority of the route through Brock , Thorah and Mara Townships was assumed . Several more miles were assumed on December 28 , 1927 , extending Highway 12 as far as Orillia . On August 5 , 1931 , Highway 12 was extended from Orillia to Midland . The majority of the route paralleled an existing railway that was constructed over a native portage .
Highway 12 remained unaltered for several decades , until the mid @-@ 1960s , when the Beaverton Bypass was constructed . On November 4 , 1966 , the 10 @.@ 3 km ( 6 @.@ 4 mi ) bypass opened , routing Highway 12 to the east . Portions of the former route of Highway 12 were renumbered as Highway 48B . The highway again remained unchanged for several decades , until a short portion of the southern end of the highway was decommissioned in the late 1990s . On April 1 , 1997 , the portions of Highway 12 south of Brooklin were transferred to the Regional Municipality of Durham , which subsequently redesignated the road as Durham Regional Highway 12 .
Prior to the highway downloadings of 1997 and 1998 , Highway 12 was also not routed along Highway 400 between Coldwater and Waubaushene , but instead followed a separate route , parallel to the 400 , along what is now Simcoe County Road 16 .
= = Major intersections = =
The following table lists the major junctions along Highway 12 , as noted by the Ministry of Transportation of Ontario .
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= St John 's Church , Manchester =
St John 's Church , Manchester , also known as St John 's , Deansgate , was an Anglican parish church in Manchester , England , established in 1769 and demolished in 1931 . Its site is now that of St John 's Gardens , situated between Lower Byrom Street , Byrom Street and Quay Street .
St John 's Church was built in 1769 by Edward Byrom , a co @-@ founder of the first bank in Manchester . Its parish encompassed a large and important section of the city of Manchester . The first rector , John Clowes , held the office for 62 years until his death in 1831 . Clowes preached the first Sunday school sermon in the Manchester area , introduced Swedenborgianism there and was prominent in championing Whit Walks . Clowes was succeeded by William Huntington , who had held the post of curate since 1826 and continued as rector until his death in 1874 . Huntington established the Sunday school , for which he laid the foundation stone in 1827 . In 1906 , around 250 children attended the Sunday school and the church had numerous affiliated groups , such as a Penny Bank and a Choral Society . By the early 1900s , the graveyard was overshadowed on its northern side by a warehouse built on the Quay Street site of the Byrom family residence , and with a declining congregation and some redundancy of provision given the nearby St Matthew 's Church , the Manchester diocese decided to merge the parish of St John 's with St Matthew 's in 1927 . As a result , the church was demolished in 1931 .
The church has been described as the first significant building in Manchester to be constructed in the Gothic Revival style of architecture . Construction of the tower , which contained a peal of eight bells manufactured by Lester and Pack , was completed in May 1770 . The first restoration took place in 1821 , including a re @-@ roofing paid for by a daughter of Byrom . Between 1874 and 1878 work was done at a cost of £ 1600 and in 1898 the lighting was converted from gas to electric . The church bells , which were described as " among the best peal of bells in Manchester " , were rehung in 1832 and again around 1883 . The roof collapsed in 1924 and was rebuilt by 1926 . Among people who were commemorated in the church windows were John Owens , and Sir Thomas Bazley .
Today the graveyard of the church is commemorated by a stone cross and a plaque states that more than 22 @,@ 000 bodies lie buried in the vicinity . Among those buried in the churchyard are John Owens , the founder of Owens College , and William Marsden , who founded the concept of a half @-@ day holiday on Saturdays .
= = Origins = =
The rapid population growth of Manchester during the mid @-@ 18th century saw a rising demand for more churches . St John 's Church was built in 1769 by Edward Byrom ( 13 June 1724 – 24 April 1773 ) , a co @-@ founder of the first bank in Manchester and the oldest surviving son of John Byrom , whose affluent family was well known in the area . According to William Shaw , a local historian and fellow of Owens College , the church was " intended for the ' genteel ' residents who were migrating to the south side of the town " .
Byrom obtained permission from Edmund Keene , the Bishop of Chester , and was supported by many prominent local people . Its parish , which was not formalised until at least 1839 , encompassed an area described by the Manchester Courier in 1900 as
Between Quay @-@ street and Brazennose @-@ street on the north , and the Central Station and Bridgewater @-@ street on the south . Its eastern boundary is the Town Hall ( which is within the parish ) , Cooper @-@ street , and Lower Mosley @-@ street ; and its western limit the River Irwell , forming the boundary of Manchester and Salford . [ Thus it covered ] a large and important section of the city of Manchester .
J. M. W. Turner sketched the tower of St John 's and two nearby church spires in 1831 . The sketch is in the Tate 's collection .
= = Structure = =
Although contemporary sources such as the Manchester Mercury name Byrom as the sponsor of the building , they do not identify his architect . The church was described by the English author and historian Clare Hartwell as being the first significant building in Manchester to be constructed in the Gothic Revival style of architecture . It had galleries supported by slender cast @-@ iron columns . The foundation stone was laid by Edward Byrom on 28 April 1768 and Keene performed the consecration on 7 July 1769 , when the sermon was given by John Byrom 's friend , John Clayton . Construction of the tower , which contained a peal of eight bells manufactured by Lester and Pack , was completed in May 1770 .
The first restoration took place in 1821 , including a re @-@ roofing paid for by a daughter of Byrom . Between 1874 and 1878 work was done at a cost of £ 1600 and in 1898 the lighting was converted from gas to electric , substantial internal modifications were carried out and repairs made to the clock tower which cost around £ 2200 . The church bells , which were described by a local journalist for the Manchester Courier and Lancashire General Advertiser as " among the best peal of bells in Manchester " , were rehung in 1832 and again around 1883 . The tower had clock dials on all four sides . A minute hand was added to the clock in 1833 and its mechanism was replaced around 1906 . The graveyard was paved with tombstones .
In 1906 , the church was looking to raise funds to acquire and convert the nearby St John 's Hospital of Manchester and Salford for the Ear for use as a rectory .
The roof collapsed in 1924 and was rebuilt by 1926 . Among people who were commemorated in the church windows were John Owens , and Sir Thomas Bazley . Another window was of some antiquity , originating from a convent in Rouen , France , and presented to the church by a grateful French refugee priest . This Entry to Jerusalem window were moved in 1929 to the Church of St Mary the Virgin , Eccles and windows depicting St John , St Peter and St Matthew , dating from 1760 by William Peckitt , were at some time moved to St Ann 's Church in the city .
= = Functions = =
The church held the right to conduct the marriages of people throughout Manchester , not only from within its parish , until 1874 . Despite this , there were no such services for the first 35 years of its existence , perhaps because of the continued popularity of the Collegiate Church as a venue for weddings but probably because the latter insisted on collecting its own fees for marriages held in other local churches , which effectively doubled the cost of being married at St John 's rather than at the Collegiate Church . Later , after the rights of the Collegiate Church were curtailed , some weeks saw more than 100 marriage services at St John 's in the years just before 1874 . Burials ceased completely in 1900 but there had been very few for some years previously because the available space had been exhausted and most graves were full .
In 1827 , the church erected a building dedicated as a Sunday school . This was also used as a day school from 1838 . In 1906 , around 250 children attended the Sunday school and the church had numerous affiliated groups , such as a Penny Bank and a Choral Society . The day school accommodation was at that time condemned by the Board of Education as unfit for purpose and it was operating under a stay issued by the board . In the same year , Hannah Mitchell , a suffragette , was arrested at the day school for protesting during an election campaign speech by Winston Churchill . The building was closed in 1908 and a new school building opened on Gartside Street in 1910 at a cost of £ 4000 . This new facility was used only as Sunday school because , said the local clergy , the Board of Education put too many administrative obstacles and demands in their way , such as stipulating such a small attendance roll as to render any day school uneconomic and insisting on a dedicated playground despite there being a large open space next door that was traditionally used for that purpose . According to the foundation stone of the new school building , the church had operated the first Sunday school in Manchester , although Shaw attributes that distinction to a Mr Fildes , a Methodist whose establishment began operating from a Travis Street cellar in 1782 . Shaw says that several other schools preceded that of St John 's .
Around 1781 , the church had been the base for one of Manchester 's eight fire engines .
= = Clergy = =
A condition imposed by Byrom was that he had the right to present the living . The first rector , John Clowes , held the office for 62 years until his death in 1831 . He was commemorated by two stone tablets in the church , one by either Richard Westmacott or his son , erected after his death and one , the only example of the work of John Flaxman in Manchester , to celebrate his 50th anniversary as rector . Clowes preached the first Sunday school sermon in the Manchester area , introduced Swedenborgianism there and was prominent in championing Whit Walks .
Clowes was succeeded by William Huntington , who had held the post of curate since 1826 and continued as rector until his death in 1874 . Huntington established the Sunday school . Huntington 's successor as rector was John Henn , who held office for 14 years before moving to Heaton Chapel . The next rector , G. R. Youngman , was in office from 1888 until his death in 1890 . His position was taken by E. F. Leach . The last rector was Herbert Edmonds .
William Cowherd , a Swedenborgian proponent of teetotalism and vegetarianism , was a curate in the late 1700s , before leaving to establish the Bible Christian Church in Salford .
= = Demise = =
By the early 1900s , the graveyard was overshadowed on its northern side by a warehouse built on the Quay Street site of the Byrom family residence . The area had been residential — Richard Cobden was among those who lived nearby and attended the church — but changed in character during the 19th century , as many homes once occupied by affluent families became lodging houses and the locale became increasingly a place of business . Those who did live there , or were patients in the nearby hospitals , were poor and unable to contribute significantly to the funds of the church and its schools . Fundraising bazaars were held in the 1890s and 1900s at the Free Trade Hall , in a nearby area that was more salubrious .
Falling attendances due to the commercial nature of the district , and also a sense that there was some redundancy of provision given the nearby St Matthew 's Church , caused the Manchester diocese to review the status of St John 's and its parish in the 1920s . Following an internal review and a public consultation , in 1927 it was formally proposed that the two parishes should be merged as St Matthew 's parish . The diocese preferred to retain St Matthew 's and demolish St John 's , at least in part because the former was a more recent construction . This was a reversal of a proposal made in 1919 , when the predominantly transient Roman Catholic population of the St Matthew 's parish was given as a reason to merge it into St John 's .
The Ecclesiastical Commissioners proposed to hand over the church site to Manchester Corporation in 1929 , with the hope that the city would convert it into an open space similar to Parsonage Gardens . The Manchester Guardian had reported a similar proposal to convert the " bleak expanse " of the graveyard into a " open , cultivated space " in 1914 .
The church was demolished in 1931 . It is commemorated by a stone cross and a plaque states that more than 22 @,@ 000 bodies lie buried in the vicinity . Among those buried in the churchyard are John Owens , founder of Owens College , the forerunner of Manchester University and William Marsden , who pioneered the concept of a half @-@ day holiday on Saturdays .
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= Brazilian monitor Pará =
The Brazilian monitor Pará was the lead ship of the Pará @-@ class river monitors built for the Brazilian Navy during the Paraguayan War in the late 1860s . Pará participated in the Passagem de Humaitá in February 1868 and provided fire support for the army for the rest of the war . The ship was assigned to the Mato Grosso Flotilla after the war . Pará was disarmed and discarded in 1884 .
= = Design and description = =
The Pará @-@ class monitors were designed to meet the need of the Brazilian Navy for small , shallow @-@ draft armored ships capable of withstanding heavy fire . The monitor configuration was chosen as a turreted design did not have the same problems engaging enemy ships and fortifications as did the casemate ironclads already in Brazilian service . The oblong gun turret sat on a circular platform that had a central pivot . It was rotated by four men via a system of gears ; 2 @.@ 25 minutes were required for a full 360 ° rotation . A bronze ram was fitted to these ships as well . The hull was sheathed with Muntz metal to reduce biofouling .
The ships measured 39 meters ( 127 ft 11 in ) long overall , with a beam of 8 @.@ 54 meters ( 28 ft 0 in ) . They had a draft between of 1 @.@ 51 – 1 @.@ 54 meters ( 4 ft 11 in – 5 ft 1 in ) and displaced 500 metric tons ( 490 long tons ) . With only 0 @.@ 3 meters ( 1 ft 0 in ) of freeboard they had to be towed between Rio de Janeiro and their area of operations . Their crew numbered 43 officers and men .
= = = Propulsion = = =
The Pará @-@ class ships had two direct @-@ acting steam engines , each driving a single 1 @.@ 3 @-@ meter ( 4 ft 3 in ) propeller . Their engines were powered by two tubular boilers at a working pressure of 59 psi ( 407 kPa ; 4 kgf / cm2 ) . The engines produced a total of 180 indicated horsepower ( 130 kW ) which gave the monitors a maximum speed of 8 knots ( 15 km / h ; 9 @.@ 2 mph ) in calm waters . The ships carried enough coal for one day 's steaming .
= = = Armament = = =
Pará carried a single 70 @-@ pounder Whitworth rifled muzzle loader ( RML ) in her gun turret . The 70 @-@ pounder gun had a maximum elevation of 15 ° . It had a maximum range of 5 @,@ 540 meters ( 6 @,@ 060 yd ) . The 70 @-@ pounder gun weighed 8 @,@ 582 pounds ( 3 @,@ 892 @.@ 7 kg ) and fired a 5 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 140 mm ) shell that weighed 81 pounds ( 36 @.@ 7 kg ) . Most unusually the gun 's Brazilian @-@ designed iron carriage was designed to pivot vertically at the muzzle ; this was done to minimize the size of the gunport through which splinters and shells could enter .
= = = Armor = = =
The hull of the Pará @-@ class ships was made from three layers of wood that alternated in orientation . It was 457 millimeters ( 18 @.@ 0 in ) thick and was capped with a 102 @-@ millimeter ( 4 in ) layer of peroba hardwood . The ships had a complete wrought iron waterline belt , 0 @.@ 91 meters ( 3 @.@ 0 ft ) high . It had a maximum thickness of 102 millimeters amidships , decreasing to 76 millimeters ( 3 in ) and 51 millimeters ( 2 in ) at the ship 's ends . The curved deck was armored with 12 @.@ 7 millimeters ( 0 @.@ 5 in ) of wrought iron .
The gun turret was shaped like a rectangle with rounded corners . It was built much like the hull , but the front of the turret was protected by 152 millimeters ( 6 in ) of armor , the sides by 102 millimeters and the rear by 76 millimeters . Its roof and the exposed portions of the platform it rested upon were protected by 12 @.@ 7 millimeters of armor . The armored pilothouse was positioned ahead of the turret .
= = Service = =
Pará was laid down at the Arsenal de Marinha da Côrte in Rio de Janeiro on 8 December 1866 , during the Paraguayan War , which saw Argentina and Brazil allied against Paraguay . She was launched on 21 May 1867 and commissioned on 15 June 1867 . She was towed to the Río de la Plata on 20 June 1867 and steamed up the Paraná River , although her passage further north was barred by the Paraguayan fortifications at Humaitá . On 19 February 1868 six Brazilian ironclads , including Pará , sailed past Humaitá at night . Pará and her two sister ships , Alagoas and Rio Grande , were lashed to the larger ironclads in case any engines were disabled by the Paraguayan guns . Barroso led with Rio Grande , followed by Bahia with Alagoas and Tamandaré with Pará . The monitor had to be beached after passing the fortress to prevent her from sinking . Pará was repaired by 27 February when she joined a squadron dispatched to capture the town of Laureles . On 15 October she bombarded Angostura Fort in company with Brasil , Silvado , Rio Grande and her sister Ceará . On 17 May 1869 she joined a blockading squadron on the Jejuy and Araguaya Rivers . After the war Pará was assigned to the newly formed Mato Grosso Flotilla . She was disarmed and discarded on 10 December 1884 at Ladário .
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= London Necropolis railway station =
London Necropolis railway station was the Waterloo , London terminus of the London Necropolis Railway . The London Necropolis Railway was opened in 1854 as a reaction to severe overcrowding in London 's existing graveyards and cemeteries . It aimed to use the recently developed technology of the railway to move as many burials as possible to the newly built Brookwood Cemetery in Brookwood , Surrey . This location was within easy travelling distance of London , but distant enough for the dead not to pose any risk to public hygiene . There were two locations for the station ; the first was in operation from 1854 to 1902 , the second from 1902 to 1941 .
Although it had its own branch line into Brookwood Cemetery , most of the route of the London Necropolis Railway ran on the existing London and South Western Railway ( LSWR ) . Consequently , a site was selected in Waterloo , near the LSWR 's recently opened London terminus at Waterloo Bridge station ( now London Waterloo ) . The building was specifically designed for the use of mourners . It had many private waiting rooms , which could also be used to hold funeral services , and a hydraulic lift to raise coffins to platform level . Existing railway arches were used for the storage of bodies .
In 1899 the location of the terminus was blocking the expansion of Waterloo station . After much negotiation , the LSWR reached agreement with the London Necropolis Company , the owners of the cemetery and the railway : in return for the existing site , the LSWR re @-@ equipped the London Necropolis Railway and supplied it with a new station on Westminster Bridge Road . This new building was designed to contrast with other funeral directors ' premises by being as attractive as possible . In 1902 the railway moved into the new building , and the earlier station was demolished .
On 16 April 1941 , during World War II the station was heavily damaged in an air raid . Much of the building was destroyed and the tracks to the station were rendered unusable . Although some funeral trains continued to run from nearby Waterloo station , the London terminus was never used again . Following the end of the war the London Necropolis Company decided that reopening the London Necropolis Railway was not financially worthwhile , and the surviving part of the station building was sold as office space . This remnant remains intact , and relatively unaltered since its opening .
= = Background = =
In the first half of the 19th century the population of London more than doubled , from a little under a million people in 1801 to almost two and a half million in 1851 . The city 's dead had been buried in and around the local churches . With a limited amount of space for burials , the oldest graves were regularly exhumed to free space for new burials . Despite the rapid growth in population , the amount of land set aside for use as graveyards remained unchanged at approximately 300 acres ( 0 @.@ 5 sq mi ; 1 @.@ 2 km2 ) , spread across around 200 small sites . Even relatively fresh graves had to be exhumed to free up space for new burials , their contents being unearthed and scattered . Decaying corpses contaminated the water supply , and the city suffered regular epidemics of cholera , smallpox , measles and typhoid . A Royal Commission established in 1842 to investigate the problem concluded that London 's burial grounds had become so overcrowded that it was impossible to dig a new grave without cutting through an existing one . In 1848 – 49 a cholera epidemic killed 14 @,@ 601 people in London and overwhelmed the burial system completely .
In the wake of public concerns following the cholera epidemics and the findings of a Royal Commission , the Act to Amend the Laws Concerning the Burial of the Dead in the Metropolis ( Burials Act ) was passed in 1851 . Under the Burials Act , new burials were prohibited in what were then the built @-@ up areas of London .
= = = London Necropolis Company = = =
Sir Richard Broun and Richard Sprye proposed to use the emerging technology of mechanised land transport to solve the problem of London 's dead . Broun and Sprye envisaged buying a single very large tract of land around 23 miles ( 37 km ) from London in Brookwood near Woking , Surrey , to be called Brookwood Cemetery or the London Necropolis . At this distance , the land would be far beyond the maximum anticipated size of the city 's growth , greatly reducing any potential hazards . The London and South Western Railway ( LSWR ) – which had connected London to Woking in 1838 – would enable bodies and mourners to be shipped from London to the site easily and cheaply . Although the Brookwood site was a long distance from London , Broun and Sprye argued that the speed of the railway made it both quicker and cheaper to reach than the seven existing cemeteries , all of which required a slow and expensive horse @-@ drawn hearse to carry the body and mourners from London to the burial site .
On 30 June 1852 the promoters of the Brookwood scheme were given Parliamentary consent to proceed , and the London Necropolis and National Mausoleum Company ( LNC ) was formed . The former Woking Common , owned by the Earl of Onslow at Brookwood was chosen as the site for the new cemetery . To prevent the LSWR from exploiting its monopoly on access to the cemetery , the private Act of Parliament authorising the scheme bound the LSWR to carry corpses and mourners to the cemetery in perpetuity and set a maximum tariff which could be levied on funeral traffic , but did not specify detail of how the funeral trains were to operate .
On 7 November 1854 the new cemetery opened and the southern Anglican section was consecrated by Charles Sumner , Bishop of Winchester . On 13 November the first scheduled London Necropolis Railway train left the new London Necropolis railway station for the cemetery , and the first burial ( that of the stillborn twins of a Mr and Mrs Hore of Ewer Street , Southwark Borough ) took place .
= = First station ( 1854 – 1902 ) = =
A site for the London terminus near Waterloo had been suggested by Sir Richard Broun . Its proximity to the River Thames meant that bodies could be cheaply transported to the terminus by water from much of London , while being situated near three major Thames bridges meant that the area was easily accessed from both north and south of the river by road . The arches of the huge brick viaduct carrying the LSWR into Waterloo Bridge station ( now London Waterloo station ) were easily converted into mortuaries . Broun also felt that the journey out of London from Waterloo Bridge would be less distressing for mourners : while most of the rail routes out of London ran through tunnels and deep cuttings , or through densely populated areas , at this time the urban development of what is now south London had not taken place and the LSWR route ran almost entirely through parkland and countryside . The LNC also contemplated taking over the LSWR 's former terminus at Nine Elms railway station ( which following the 1848 opening of the much more convenient Waterloo Bridge station was used only for goods traffic , chartered trains taking migrants to North America , and the private trains of the royal family ) as either the main or a secondary terminus . Despite objections from local residents concerned about the effects of potentially large numbers of dead bodies being stored in a largely residential area , in March 1854 the LNC settled on a single terminus in Waterloo and purchased a plot of land between Westminster Bridge Road and York Street ( now Leake Street ) for the site .
Architect William Tite and engineer William Cubitt drew up a design for a station , which was approved in June 1854 . The station was completed in October 1854 , at a total construction cost of £ 23 @,@ 231 14s 4d ( about £ 1 @.@ 97 million in terms of 2016 spending power ) . On 13 November 1854 the first train left London for the new London Necropolis .
Tite and Cubitt 's design was based around a three @-@ storey main building , separated from the LSWR 's main viaduct by a private access road beneath the LNC 's twin rail lines . The private access road was intended to allow mourners to arrive and leave discreetly , and to avoid the need for hearses to stop in the public road . The ground floor contained a grand entrance hall and staircase for mourners attending first and second class funerals , a smaller entrance hall and staircase for those attending lower classes of funeral , and two mortuaries which occupied the majority of the floor . A large room adjacent to the mortuary held a reserve stock of around 300 coffins . Most mourners would have commissioned their own coffins , or used coffins bought by the deceased during their lifetime but , explained an official of the LNC ( in 1898 ) the reserve of coffins was kept so that " should a guest die in a hotel , and the landlord wished to keep it quiet , we are notified , and in the middle of the night we come for the corpse , and take it away in one of our ready @-@ made wooden overcoats " . The first floor held the LNC 's boardroom , the LNC 's funerary workshops , a series of separate waiting rooms for those attending second and third class funerals , and the building 's main toilets . The second floor , level with the LSWR railway line , held the train shed covering the two private rail lines and the single platform at which the trains stopped , eight or nine waiting rooms for first class mourners , and further toilets for their use . A steam @-@ powered lift carried coffins from the lower floors to the platform level . A glass roof was positioned in order that no shadow be cast on the hearse carriage waiting at the platform at the time the trains were scheduled to depart , and the western wall was windowless to avoid passengers using the LSWR station being able to see into the Necropolis station . Glass panels inset between the two rail lines allowed sunlight through to the private access road below . Unlike most railway stations of the period , the designs of the first , second and third class waiting rooms were largely identical with only superficial differences .
Although the original terminus did not have its own chapel , on some occasions mourners would not be able or willing to make the journey to a ceremony at Brookwood but for personal or religious reasons were unable to hold the funeral service in a London church . On these occasions one of the waiting rooms would be used as a makeshift funeral chapel . One of the more notable funerals to be held at the terminus was that of Friedrich Engels , co @-@ creator ( with Karl Marx ) of modern communism , who died in London on 5 August 1895 . Engels had expressed a wish to be cremated and his ashes scattered at sea , but there was no crematorium near London . The LNC had an arrangement with Woking Crematorium , by which Necropolis Railway stations and trains could be used by mourners attending cremations at Woking . For Engels 's funeral on 10 August 1895 around 150 people attended a morning service in a waiting room at the LNC terminus . Although the cremation was scheduled for 1 : 15 pm formalities with the death certificate delayed the departure , and the special train did not arrive at the cemetery 's North station ( the station serving the part of the cemetery reserved for non @-@ Anglicans ) until after 4 : 00 pm . The majority of the mourners remained at North station in the cemetery , and only 12 mourners accompanied the coffin to Woking ; as the service had already been held in London , on arrival at Woking , Engels 's body was transferred straight from the hearse to the furnace . Engels 's ashes ( cremated remains ) were recovered from the furnace and transferred to an unrecorded location in Brookwood Cemetery , and 17 days later removed from the cemetery and scattered from Beachy Head ( in East Sussex ) . Karl Marx 's daughter Eleanor Marx died in 1898 and was also cremated at Woking following a service at the LNC 's London terminus ( probably in the same room in which Engels 's service had been held three years previously ) and carriage to North station by the Necropolis Railway . Woking Crematorium , first used for human cremation in 1885 , cooperated closely with the LNC , as they hoped to prevent the LNC building their own crematorium at Brookwood . The LNC never built their own crematorium , although a columbarium ( building for the storage of cremation ashes ) was added to Brookwood Cemetery in 1910 .
For extremely large funerals such as those of major public figures , the LSWR would provide additional trains from Waterloo to Brookwood station on the main line to meet the demand . Charles Bradlaugh , Member of Parliament for Northampton , was a vocal advocate of Indian self @-@ government and a popular figure among the Indian community in London , many of whom attended his funeral on 3 February 1891 . Over 5 @,@ 000 mourners , including 21 @-@ year @-@ old Mohandas Gandhi , were carried on three long special LSWR trains , one of which was 17 carriages long .
In 1874 , with Waterloo Bridge station becoming extremely busy , the LSWR attempted to take over one of the LNC 's two rail lines . An 1875 agreement between the LSWR and LNC permitted the LSWR to take over the westernmost track ( that not served by the platform ) , in return for improved terms on the lease of the land currently leased by the LNC from the LSWR , and the LSWR taking over the maintenance of the structure supporting the LNC lines . In 1876 and 1877 the roof and western wall of the LNC train shed were demolished and replaced with a cantilevered awning over the single platform ; the platform was extended to compensate for the loss of the second line .
= = = Waterloo expansion proposal = = =
In 1889 Waterloo Station ( renamed from Waterloo Bridge station in 1886 ) was equipped with new signals , which required a gantry spanning all the lines into the station . In return for the LSWR cladding the LNC 's entrance on Westminster Bridge Road with white glazed brick , the LNC gave consent for the stanchion supporting the gantry to rest on the LNC 's platform , while reserving the right to demand the gantry be removed . At this time the LSWR also leased a small plot of land west of the Westminster Bridge Road entrance to serve as the site of new offices for the LNC , designed by Cyril Bazett Tubbs .
As the site of the Necropolis station had been intentionally chosen to abut the arches of the LSWR 's viaduct , it acted as an obstacle to any increase in the number of lines serving Waterloo station . Urban growth in the area of what is now south west London , through which trains from Waterloo ran , led to congestion at the station , only slightly alleviated by the LSWR 's 1877 takeover of the western LNC track . In the 1890s the situation became untenable , and the LSWR began to investigate the possibility of repositioning the LNC station to permit the expansion of the main line terminus .
In 1896 the LSWR formally presented the LNC with a proposal to provide the LNC with a new station in return for the existing station . The LNC agreed to the proposals , but with a number of conditions attached . The LSWR was to allow the LNC control of the design of the new station , lease the new station to the LNC for a token rent in perpetuity , provide new rolling stock , remove any limit on the number of passengers using the Necropolis service , and provide the free carriage of machinery and equipment to be used in the cemetery . The LNC had an extremely strong negotiating position as their existing site was crucial to any expansion of Waterloo station , and in addition they had the legal right to demand the removal of the stanchion supporting Waterloo 's signal gantry . Although the LSWR was extremely unhappy at what they considered excessive demands , they had no choice but to comply . In May 1899 the companies signed an agreement , in which the LSWR gave in to every LNC demand . In addition the LSWR paid £ 12 @,@ 000 compensation ( about £ 1 @.@ 22 million in terms of 2016 consumer spending power ) for the inconvenience of relocating the LNC station and offices , and agreed that mourners returning from the cemetery could travel on any LSWR train to Waterloo , Vauxhall or Clapham Junction .
= = Second station ( 1902 – 1941 ) = =
The site for the replacement terminus was identified in 1896 , and bought by the LSWR in 1899 for £ 5 @,@ 500 ( about £ 444 @,@ 000 in terms of 2016 consumer spending power ) . South of the existing station and on the opposite side of Westminster Bridge Road , its main entrance was at 188 Westminster Bridge Road . The site was roughly S @-@ shaped : the entrance from Westminster Bridge Road led to a strip of land at a right angle to the entrance and running behind existing buildings on Westminster Bridge Road . This in turn led to the location identified for the two new rail lines , at a right angle to the central strip ( i.e. parallel to the entrance ) . Work on the new station began in the summer of 1900 , and was completed on 8 February 1902 at a total construction cost to the LSWR of £ 43 @,@ 494 ( about £ 4 @.@ 26 million in terms of 2016 consumer spending power ) excluding the cost of the land .
While construction was underway the original terminus remained in use , although the LSWR was granted running rights through the station . On 23 February Major J. W. Pringle of the Board of Trade inspected the new building and expressed concerns over the safety of the arrangements for trains entering the station from the main line , which entailed crossing the LSWR 's multiple tracks . He was also unhappy about the newly installed passenger lifts and the unfinished nature of the passenger terminus , but nonetheless approved the limited use of the new station for funeral trains . Soon after the transfer of LNC services to the new building the LSWR viaduct was widened to serve a greatly enlarged Waterloo station , destroying all traces of the original LNC terminus .
The new building , also designed by Cyril Bazett Tubbs , was designed for attractiveness and modernity to contrast with the traditional gloomy decor associated with the funeral industry . A narrow four @-@ storey office building stood at 188 Westminster Bridge Road . The ground floor was taken up by a large arch leading to a waiting room , an office for general enquiries , and the long driveway leading to the station itself ; above this were the LNC 's offices and boardrooms .
First class mourners entered through the driveway under the office building which turned sharply left to run beneath a glass canopy parallel to Westminster Bridge Road ; this stretch was faced with glazed white brick and lined with palm and bay trees . The driveway ran past mortuaries and storerooms to the lifts and stairs to the platforms , and also to a secondary entrance on Newnham Terrace ( off Hercules Road ) . Above the mortuaries and storerooms were the LNC 's workshops . Lifts and an elaborate wrought @-@ iron staircase led from the lower two floors to platform level on the second floor . This upper level housed a sumptuous oak @-@ panelled Chapelle Ardente , intended for mourners unable to make the journey to Brookwood to pay their respects to the deceased . A short and wide pathway led to the first class platform , lined with waiting rooms and a ticket office ; the first class platform was equipped with five separate waiting rooms to keep mourners from different funeral parties separate .
A glass screen separated the first class platform and circulating area from the platform and circulating area for third class passengers . The third class section was entered from the secondary entrance in Newnham Terrace , and was more sparsely furnished and not equipped with lifts . From the Newnham Terrace entrance a staircase led to a single communal waiting room on the first floor , and to the third class platform on the second floor , much shorter than the first class platform .
There was still an ability to transport large parties on occasions . The funeral of Indian businessman Sir Nowroji Saklatwala on 25 July 1938 saw 155 mourners travelling first class on a dedicated LNC train .
= = Operations = =
The London Necropolis Company offered three classes of funerals . A first class funeral allowed the person buying the funeral to select the grave site of their choice anywhere in the cemetery ; at the time of opening , first class prices began at £ 2 10s ( about £ 212 in 2016 terms ) for a basic 9 @-@ by @-@ 4 @-@ foot ( 2 @.@ 7 m × 1 @.@ 2 m ) plot with no special coffin specifications . It was expected by the LNC that those using first class graves would erect a permanent memorial of some kind in due course following the funeral . Second class funerals cost £ 1 ( about £ 85 in 2016 terms ) and allowed some control over the burial location . The right to erect a permanent memorial cost an additional 10 shillings ( about £ 42 in 2016 terms ) ; if a permanent memorial was not erected the LNC reserved the right to re @-@ use the grave in future . Third class funerals were reserved for pauper funerals ; those buried at parish expense in the section of the cemetery designated for that parish . Although the LNC was forbidden from using mass graves ( other than the burial of next of kin in the same grave ) and thus even the lowest class of funeral provided a separate grave for the deceased , third class funerals were not granted the right to erect a permanent memorial on the site . ( The families of those buried could pay afterwards to upgrade a third class grave to a higher class if they later wanted to erect a memorial , but this practice was rare . ) Despite this , Brookwood 's pauper graves granted more dignity to the deceased than did other graveyards and cemeteries of the period , all of which other than Brookwood continued the practice of mass graves for the poor . Brookwood was one of the few cemeteries to permit burials on Sundays , which made it a popular choice with the poor as it allowed people to attend funerals without the need to take a day off work . As theatrical performances were banned on Sundays at this time , it also made Brookwood a popular choice for the burial of actors for the same reason , to the extent that actors were provided with a dedicated section of the cemetery near the station entrance .
For those third class funerals paid for by the parish , two third class tickets would be provided at the parish 's expense ( one ticket in the case of a child 's death ) . Further mourners for third class funerals were obliged to pay for their own tickets to the Necropolis .
On arrival at the terminus the mourners would be led either to one of the dedicated first class waiting rooms ( for first and second class funerals ) or to the communal third class waiting room . The coffin would be discreetly unloaded from the hearse and sent to the platform level by lift . Those attending first and second class funerals would be permitted to watch the coffins being loaded onto the train if they so wished . ( After the relocation to the new London terminus in 1902 , some funeral services would be held in the Chapelle Ardente at platform level , for those cases where mourners were unable to make the journey to Brookwood . ) Each door of the waiting train would be labelled with the name of the deceased , to ensure all passengers travelled with the correct funeral party ; the names of the deceased being carried on the train would be called in turn , and that person 's mourners would board the train .
At the time the service was inaugurated , the LNC 's trains were divided both by class and by religion , with separate Anglican and Nonconformist sections of the train . This distinction applied to both living and dead passengers . Intended to prevent persons from different social background from mixing and potentially distressing mourners and to prevent bodies of persons from different social classes being carried in the same compartment rather than to provide different facilities , the carriages intended for all classes and religions were very similar in design , and the primary difference was different ornamentation on the compartment doors .
At 11 @.@ 35 am ( 11 @.@ 20 am on Sundays ) the train would leave London for Brookwood , arriving at Necropolis Junction ( where the branch line into the cemetery left the main LSWR line ) at 12 @.@ 25 pm ( 12 @.@ 20 pm on Sundays ) .
The train only ran if there was a coffin or passengers at the London terminus waiting to use it , and both the journey from London to Brookwood and the later return would be cancelled if nobody was due to leave London that morning . It would not run if there was only a single third or second class coffin to be carried , and in these cases the coffin and funeral party would be held until the next service . Generally the trains ran direct from London to the cemetery , other than occasional stops to take on water . Between 1890 and 1910 the trains also sometimes stopped at Vauxhall and Clapham Junction for the benefit of mourners from south west London who did not want to travel via the Waterloo terminus , but these intermediate stops were discontinued and never reinstated . After 1 October 1900 the Sunday trains were discontinued , and from 1902 the daily train service was ended and trains ran only as required .
= = Destruction = =
During the Second World War Waterloo station and the nearby Thames bridges were a significant target for Axis bombing , and there were several near @-@ misses on the Necropolis station during the London Blitz of 1940 – 41 . Although there were several interruptions to the Necropolis train service owing to enemy action elsewhere on the line , the Necropolis station was undamaged during the early stages of the bombing campaign , and services generally continued as normal .
During the night of 16 – 17 April 1941 , in one of the last major air raids on London , bombs repeatedly fell on the Waterloo area , and the LNC 's good fortune in avoiding damage to their facilities finally ran out . In the early stages of the air raid the rolling stock stored in the Necropolis siding was burned , and the railway arch connecting the main line to the Necropolis terminus was damaged , although the terminal building itself remained unscathed .
At 10 @.@ 30 pm multiple incendiary devices and high explosive bombs struck the central section of the terminus building . While the office building and platforms survived , the workshops , driveway and Chapelle Ardente were destroyed , along with the third class waiting room . The Divisional Engineer of the Southern Railway ( SR , which had absorbed the LSWR in the 1923 restructuring of Britain 's railways ) inspected the damage at 2 @.@ 00 pm on 17 April , and his report read simply " Necropolis and buildings demolished " .
On 11 May 1941 the station was officially declared closed . The last recorded funeral carried on the London Necropolis Railway was that of Chelsea Pensioner Edward Irish ( 1868 – 1941 ) , buried on 11 April 1941 . The SR offered the LNC the temporary use of platform 11 or 12 of Waterloo station to allow the service to be continued , but refused to allow the LNC to continue to sell cheap tickets to visitors travelling to and from the cemetery stations other than those involved in a funeral that day , meaning those visiting the cemetery had little reason to choose the LNC 's irregular and infrequent trains over the SR 's fast and frequent services to their own Brookwood railway station . The LNC attempted to negotiate a deal by which bona fide mourners could still travel cheaply to the cemetery on the 11 @.@ 57 am service to Brookwood ( the SR service closest to the LNC 's traditional departure time ) , but the SR management ( themselves under severe financial pressure owing to wartime constraints and damage ) refused to entertain any compromise .
= = Closure = =
In September 1945 , following the end of hostilities , the directors of the LNC met to consider whether to rebuild the terminus and reopen the London Necropolis Railway . Although the main line from Waterloo to Brookwood had remained in use throughout the war and was in good condition , the branch line from Brookwood into the cemetery had been almost unused since the destruction of the London terminus . With the soil of the cemetery causing the branch to deteriorate even when it had been in use and regularly maintained , the branch line was in extremely poor condition .
Although the original promoters of the scheme had envisaged Brookwood Cemetery becoming London 's main or only cemetery , the scheme had never been as popular as they had hoped . In the original proposal , Sir Richard Broun had calculated that over its first century of operations the cemetery would have seen around five million burials at a rate of 50 @,@ 000 per year , the great majority of which would have utilised the railway . In reality at the time the last train ran on 11 April 1941 , almost 87 years after opening , only 203 @,@ 041 people had been buried in the cemetery . Before the outbreak of hostilities increased use of motorised road transport had damaged the profitability of the railway for both the LNC and the SR . Faced with the costs of rebuilding the cemetery branch line , building a new London terminus and replacing the rolling stock damaged or destroyed in the air raid , the directors concluded that " past experience and present changed conditions made the running of the Necropolis private train obsolete " . In mid @-@ 1946 the LNC formally informed the SR that the Westminster Bridge Road terminus would not be reopened .
The decision prompted complicated negotiations with the SR over the future of the LNC facilities in London . In December 1946 the directors of the two companies finally reached agreement . The railway @-@ related portions of the LNC site ( the waiting rooms , the caretaker 's flat and the platforms themselves ) would pass into the direct ownership of the SR , while the remaining surviving portions of the site ( the office block on Westminster Bridge Road , the driveway and the ruined central portion of the site ) would pass to the LNC to use or dispose of as they saw fit . The LNC sold the site to the British Humane Association in May 1947 for £ 21 @,@ 000 ( about £ 741 @,@ 000 in terms of 2016 consumer spending power ) , and the offices of the LNC were transferred to the Superintendent 's Office at Brookwood . The SR continued to use the surviving sections of the track as occasional sidings into the 1950s , before clearing what remained of their section of the site .
With most of the LNC 's business being operated by road , an agreement on 13 May 1946 allowed the LNC to make use of SR services from Waterloo to Brookwood station for funerals , subject to the condition that should the service be heavily used the SR ( British Railways after 1948 ) reserved the right to restrict the number of funeral parties on any given train . Although one of the LNC 's hearse carriages had survived the bombing it is unlikely that this was ever used , and coffins were carried in the luggage space of the SR 's coaches . Coffins would either be shipped to Brookwood ahead of the funeral party and transported by road to one of the mortuaries at the disused cemetery stations , or travel on the same SR train as the funeral party to Brookwood and be transported from Brookwood station to the burial site or chapel by road .
= = = The site today = = =
The site of the first terminus was cleared during the expansion of the viaduct into Waterloo in the early 20th century , and no trace of it remains . Most of the site of the second station was sold by the LNC and built over with new office developments in the years following the end of the Second World War , but the office building on Westminster Bridge Road , over the former entrance to the station driveway , remains relatively unaltered externally although the words " London Necropolis " carved into the stone above the driveway have been covered . Refurbishments and cleaning in the 1980s restored the façade of the building to an appearance similar to that of the time of its building . Other than iron columns in Newnham Terrace which once supported the Necropolis Railway tracks , and a surviving section of the internal driveway used as a car park , the Westminster Bridge Road building is the only surviving part of the London Necropolis Railway in London .
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= Church of the Holy Mother of God , Donja Kamenica =
The Church of the Holy Mother of God ( Serbian : Црква свeте Богородице , Crkva svete Bogorodice ; Bulgarian : Църква „ Света Богородица “ , Tsarkva „ Sveta Bogoroditsa “ ) is a medieval Eastern Orthodox church in the village of Donja Kamenica in Knjaževac municipality , Zaječar District , eastern Serbia . The church is generally considered to have been built in the 14th century , when this area was part of the Second Bulgarian Empire 's Vidin appanage , though alternative datings have been proposed .
While small , the Church of the Holy Mother of God is notable for its unusual architectural style , in particular for its high narthex flanked by two sharp @-@ pointed towers . These features , which hint at Hungarian or Transylvanian influences , are highly atypical for medieval Bulgarian church architecture . The church is richly decorated on the inside , with as many as eleven frescoes of historical figures . One of these portraits , captioned as a despot , is variously identified as an eponymous son of Bulgarian tsar Michael Shishman or as an undocumented son of co @-@ tsar Michael Asen IV ; earlier speculation that the image depicted Serbian noble Mihailo Anđelović or Michael Shishman himself have since fallen out of favor with art historians . In addition to these early portraits , the interior walls of the church were painted with canonical murals , which can stylistically be assigned to the 14th – 15th century . The church was reconstructed in 1958 and has been under Serbian state protection since 1982 .
= = History and architecture = =
The Church of the Holy Mother of God lies in the eastern Serbian village of Donja Kamenica , some 10 to 15 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 2 to 9 @.@ 3 mi ) southeast of Knjaževac , northeast of Niš and not far from the Bulgarian border . The church is located at the square in the centre of the village , by the left bank of the Trgoviški Timok river and along an old military road from Pirot to Vidin . The church acquired its name due to its abundance of frescoes featuring Mary , the mother of Jesus .
The prevalent opinion is that the church was constructed and painted in the early 14th century , which coincides with the lifetimes of the individuals most widely accepted as represented by the figures depicted in the church 's frescoes . At the time , the village of Donja Kamenica , along with much of the Timočka Krajina region , belonged to the Vidin appanage of the Second Bulgarian Empire . However , alternative theories place the construction of the church in the mid @-@ 14th century , the mid @-@ 15th century or even the 16th century . The church and its frescoes were restored in 1958 . The church was declared a Monument of Culture of Great Importance in 1982 , and it is protected by the Republic of Serbia .
In terms of architecture , the church features a round dome and a single apse . The naos or cella has the shape of a cross , in line with the popular Byzantine cross @-@ in @-@ square design . Of particular interest is the formerly two @-@ storey narthex , which is notable for its unusual verticality and the towers on either side of the entrance . Judging by the models depicted in the donor 's portraits inside the church , it is clear that the towers were originally further apart and the west facade with the narthex included much woodwork . The towers are topped off by sharp @-@ pointed pyramidal elements , with additional sharp @-@ pointed details in each of the pyramids ' four corners . The towers and their design are entirely unusual and unprecedented in medieval Bulgarian church architecture . Art historian Nikola Mavrodinov believes these resemble Gothic architecture , though a more modern researcher , Bistra Nikolova , dismisses his assessment and considers these an influence from Hungary or Transylvania .
Despite its monumental appearance , the church is rather small in size . It measures 7 @.@ 80 by 6 @.@ 50 metres ( 25 @.@ 6 ft × 21 @.@ 3 ft ) ( according to Nikolova ) or 7 @.@ 70 by 6 @.@ 20 metres ( 25 @.@ 3 ft × 20 @.@ 3 ft ) ( per Mavrodinova ) . The materials employed in the church 's construction were chiefly chiseled stones welded together using mortar masonry . Several rows of bricks were added in order to even out the structure and to serve as decoration , particularly in the dome , which features more elaborate brickwork .
= = Decoration = =
The frescoes inside the church are commonly dated to the 14th – 15th century , though they follow a standard compositional model which had been established in Bulgarian church decoration since the 13th century . Unusually , most of the captions which accompany the images are in Byzantine Greek , though a few are in Old Church Slavonic . In terms of style , the murals have much in common with churches from the southwestern Bulgarian lands .
Biblical scenes and figures depicted in the Church of the Holy Mother of God include the worshiping of the Christ child as the eucharistic victim ( the Melismos ) in the lower part of the apse , the raising of Lazarus , the Annunciation , Jesus ' triumphal entry into Jerusalem , Judas Iscariot 's betrayal of Jesus , the Passion of the Christ in the upper part of the cella , the Descent from the Cross , the mourning of Jesus , and the Dormition of the Theotokos on the west wall . The north and south walls of the cella , as well as the wall piers , bear frescoes of saints , including rare images of military saints on horseback . Murals of Saint Petka and Saint Nicholas were painted in the upper reaches of the narthex , in the south and the north tower respectively .
Besides religious imagery , the frescoes of the Donja Kamenica church also include eleven portraits of contemporary historical figures , separated into four compositions . Three of the compositions are uncaptioned , making the identification of the people practically impossible . The first composition is located in the cella and depicts two men preserved from the waist up , of which one holds a model of the church , and a child , of which only the head is visible today . The second composition was painted on the upper west wall of the narthex and portrays a man , a woman , a boy and a girl , with the man also holding a model of the church , a common symbol of donorship . Art historian Dragana Frfulanović believes that the images of men holding models in both compositions depict the same person , the main donor . The third composition is in the cella and depicts two men : a monk and a priest .
= = = Despot and despotissa 's portraits = = =
Of greatest interest is the fourth composition of historical figures , a young man and a woman , which was painted on the lowest west wall of the narthex and includes inscriptions in Old Church Slavonic . The figures are painted facing the viewer . The man 's red clothing is covered in pearls and double @-@ headed eagles , and he wears an archaic @-@ looking despot 's crown on his head . In his right hand , the man holds a sceptre with a cross . He extends his hand to a woman , clad in a despotissa 's attire and wearing a fitting crown .
The inscription next to the figure of the man has been deciphered either as “ Michael despot , in Christ [ our ] God ... faithful ” or “ Michael despot , in Christ [ our ] God faithful , son of Tsar Michael ” . Either reading presents significant challenges as to the proper identification of the portrayed person , who was clearly a despot , bore the name Michael , and , if the latter reading is correct , was the son of an eponymous tsar . As a result , various theories have been proposed by Bulgarian and Serbian researchers alike .
Early Bulgarian historian Petar Nikov suggested that despot Michael of the Donja Kamenica church is identical with Bulgarian tsar Michael Shishman ( r . 1323 – 1330 ) who , before his accession to the throne , was despot of Vidin . However , Michael Shishman 's father was named Shishman , not Michael , and was usually titled despot rather than tsar . In turn , Mavrodinov proposed the theory that despot Michael is an otherwise unknown son of Michael Shishman , who was installed as despot of Vidin by his father after his coronation in 1323 . In any case , this unknown son of Michael Shishman was probably dead by 1331 because Belaur is mentioned as the ruler of Vidin shortly thereafter . The latter theory is the most established identification of despot Michael in Bulgarian historiography .
A third theory , supported by both Serbian and Bulgarian researchers , is that despot Michael is an unknown son of Michael Asen IV , the first @-@ born son of Bulgarian tsar Ivan Alexander ( r . 1331 – 1371 ) , who was proclaimed co @-@ tsar shortly after his father 's accession and died in a battle against the Ottomans before 1354 – 1355 . Against this identification is the account of Nikephoros Gregoras , who mentions that Michael Asen 's widow returned childless to Constantinople after his death . Another issue with this theory is that no source mentions Michael Asen as a despot .
Another theory , which was put forward by early Serbian historians and has subsequently lost support in Serbian scholarship , is that despot Michael is to be identified with mid @-@ 15th @-@ century Serbian noble Mihailo Anđelović , a brother of Ottoman statesman Mahmud Pasha Angelović . However , in @-@ depth research of the frecoes has concluded that they cannot be ascribed to the 1450s , as the artistic style , the clothing and hairstyles in the portraits are uncommon for this period . Furthermore , the church seems to bear little architectural similarity to churches of the Morava school , which dominated 15th @-@ century Serbian architecture . It has also been revealed that in 1454 – 1455 , Donja Kamenica was controlled by the Ottomans and in possession of a certain Yusuf , rather than part of the Serbian Despotate , and Mihailo Anđelović was never titled despot .
The identity of the woman has also been a matter of debate . The inscription which accompanies her image clearly includes her title , despotissa , as well as the word “ daughter ” . Based on a possible reading of her name as Anna , she has been identified as Anna Neda , the Serbian wife of Michael Shishman , which is in line with the first identification of the despot . Nikolova believes that it is possible that the woman is Anna Neda even if the despot is her son rather than her husband . She theorises that Anna Neda settled in Vidin after Michael Shishman 's second marriage and owned a personal domain which included Donja Kamenica . Another reading of the inscription deciphers the name of the despotissa as Elena .
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= Ice hockey at the Olympic Games =
Ice hockey tournaments have been staged at the Olympic Games since 1920 . The men 's tournament was introduced at the 1920 Summer Olympics and was transferred permanently to the Winter Olympic Games program in 1924 , in France . The women 's tournament was first held at the 1998 Winter Olympics . The Olympic Games were originally intended for amateur athletes until 1988 , and the National Hockey League ( NHL ) did not allow its players to compete until 1998 . From 1924 to 1988 , the tournament started with a round @-@ robin series of games and ended with the medal round . Medals were awarded based on points accumulated during that round . The games of the tournament follow the rules of the International Ice Hockey Federation ( IIHF ) , which differ slightly from the rules used in the NHL . The tournament follows the World Anti @-@ Doping Agency 's ( WADA ) rules on performance @-@ enhancing drugs and the IIHF maintains a Registered Testing Pool , a list of top players who are subjected to random in @-@ competition and out @-@ of @-@ competition drug tests . Several players have tested positive for banned substances since the 1972 Winter Olympics .
In the men 's tournament , Canada was the most successful team of the first three decades , winning six of seven gold medals . Czechoslovakia , Sweden and the United States were also competitive during this period and won multiple medals . Between 1920 and 1968 , the Olympic hockey tournament was also counted as the Ice Hockey World Championship for that year . The Soviet Union first participated in 1956 and overtook Canada as the dominant international team , winning seven of the nine tournaments in which they participated . The United States won gold medals in 1960 and in 1980 , which included their " Miracle on Ice " upset of the Soviet Union . Canada went 50 years without a gold medal , before winning one in 2002 , and following it with back @-@ to @-@ back wins in 2010 and 2014 . Other nations to win gold include Great Britain in 1936 , the Unified Team in 1992 , Sweden in 1994 and 2006 and the Czech Republic in 1998 . Other medal @-@ winning nations include Switzerland , Germany , Finland and Russia .
In 1986 , the International Olympic Committee ( IOC ) voted to allow all athletes to compete in Olympic Games starting in 1988 . The NHL was initially reluctant to allow its players to compete because the Olympics are held in the middle of the NHL season , and the league would have to halt play if many of its players participated . However , NHL players were allowed to compete starting in 1998 . The format of the tournament was adjusted to accommodate the NHL schedule ; a preliminary round was played without NHL players or the top six teams — Canada , the Czech Republic , Finland , Russia , Sweden and the United States — followed by a final round which included them . The tournament format was changed again in 2006 ; every team played five preliminary games with the full use of NHL players .
In July 1992 , the IOC voted to approve women 's hockey as an Olympic event ; it was first held at the 1998 Winter Olympics in Nagano . The Nagano Organizing Committee was hesitant to include the event because of the additional costs of staging the tournament , but an agreement was reached that limited the field to six teams , and ensured that no additional facilities would be built . The Canadian and American teams have dominated the event , typically losing only to each other . The United States won the first tournament in 1998 , while Canada won in 2002 , 2006 , 2010 and 2014 .
= = Inception as an Olympic sport = =
The first Olympic ice hockey tournament took place at the 1920 Summer Olympics in Antwerp , Belgium . At the time , organised international ice hockey was still relatively new . The International Ice Hockey Federation ( IIHF ) , the sport 's governing body , was created on May 15 , 1908 , under the name Ligue Internationale de Hockey sur Glace . At the 1914 Olympic Congress in Paris , ice hockey was added to the list of optional sports that Olympics organisers could include . The decision to include ice hockey for the 1920 Summer Olympics was made in January , three months before the start of the Games . Several occurrences led to the sport 's inclusion in the programme . Five European nations had committed to participating in the tournament and the managers of Antwerp 's Palais de Glace stadium refused to allow the building to be used for figure skating unless ice hockey was included . The IIHF considers the 1920 tournament to be the first Ice Hockey World Championship . From then on , the two events occurred concurrently , and every Olympic tournament until 1968 is counted as the World Championship . The Olympic Games were originally intended for amateur athletes , so the players of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) and other professional leagues were not allowed to play .
The first Winter Olympic Games were held in 1924 in Chamonix , France . Chapter 1 , article 6 , of the 2007 edition of the Olympic Charter defines winter sports as " sports which are practised on snow or ice " . Ice hockey and figure skating were permanently integrated in the Winter Olympics programme . The IOC made the Winter Games a permanent fixture and they were held the same year as the Summer Games until 1992 . Following that , further Winter Games have been held on the third year of each Olympiad .
= = Events = =
= = = Men 's tournament = = =
= = = = 1920 Summer Olympics = = = =
The men 's tournament held at the 1920 Summer Olympics was organised by a committee that included future IIHF president Paul Loicq . The tournament used the Bergvall System , in which three rounds were played . The first round was an elimination tournament that determined the gold medal winner . The second round consisted of the teams that were defeated by the gold medal winner ; the winner of that round was awarded the silver medal . The final round was played between teams that had lost to the gold or silver medal winners ; the winner of that round received the bronze medal .
The tournament was played from April 23 to April 29 and seven teams participated : Canada , Czechoslovakia , the United States , Switzerland , Sweden , France and Belgium . Canada chose to send the Allan Cup @-@ winning Winnipeg Falcons . The Americans began a tournament to determine their representative team but abandoned it , deciding instead to send an all @-@ star team that included four Canadian @-@ born players . The Swedish team consisted of mostly bandy players , many of whom had only started playing hockey in preparation for the tournament . Canada won all three of the team 's games in the first round and won the gold medal , defeating Sweden in the final and outscoring opponents 27 – 1 . In the two subsequent rounds , the United States and Czechoslovakia won the silver and bronze medals respectively . The Bergvall System was criticised , especially in Sweden , because the Swedish team had to play six games ( winning three ) while the bronze medal winning Czech team only had to play three ( winning one ) . Erik Bergvall , the creator of the system , stated that it was used incorrectly and that a tournament of all of the losing teams from the first round should have been played for the silver medal . Because of these criticisms , the Bergvall System was not used again for ice hockey .
= = = = 1924 – 1952 = = = =
In 1924 , the tournament was played in a round @-@ robin format , consisting of a preliminary round and a medal round . The medals were awarded based on win – loss records during the medal round . This format was used until 1988 , although the number of teams and games played varied slightly . The Toronto Granites , representing Canada , became one of the dominant hockey teams in Olympic history , outscoring opponents 110 – 3 , led by Harry Watson , who scored 36 goals . The United States won silver and Great Britain won bronze . Watson 's 36 goals remains the tournament record for career goals . He also set the record for career points with 36 ( assists were not counted at the time ) , which stood until 2010 .
Eleven teams participated in the 1928 Winter Olympics in St. Moritz , Switzerland . The Canadian team was given a bye to the medal round and won all of its games by a combined score of 38 – 0 . The Swedish and Swiss teams won their first medals — silver and bronze respectively — and a German team participated for the first time , finishing ninth . At the 1932 Winter Olympics , Canada won gold in a tournament that consisted of four teams that played each other twice . Germany won bronze , the nation 's first medal in the sport .
Two days before the 1936 Winter Olympics in Garmisch @-@ Partenkirchen , Germany , Canadian officials protested that two players on the British team — James Foster and Alex Archer — had played in Canada but transferred without permission to play for clubs in the English National League . The IIHF agreed with Canada , but Great Britain threatened to withdraw the team if the two were barred from competing . To avoid a conflict , Canada withdrew the protest shortly before the Games began . The tournament consisted of four groups and fifteen teams . Great Britain became the first non @-@ Canadian team to win gold ; Canada won silver and the United States bronze . World War II forced the cancellation of the 1940 and 1944 Winter Olympics .
During the run @-@ up to the 1948 Winter Olympics in St. Moritz , Switzerland , a conflict broke out between two American ice hockey bodies , the American Hockey Association ( AHA ) and the Amateur Athletic Union ( AAU ) . The AAU , which had run amateur hockey in the United States since 1930 , was expelled by the IIHF in 1947 when it refused to support a team composed of players from the AHA . The AAU stated that the AHA players were " openly paid salaries " ; at the time , the Olympics were strictly for amateur players . The Swiss Olympic Organizing Committee ( SOOC ) had accepted the AHA 's application , but Avery Brundage of the United States Olympic Committee ( USOC ) threatened to withdraw the entire American team if the AHA participated in the Olympics . The IIHF countered by threatening to withdraw hockey from the Games if the AHA were banned . The IOC suggested that both American teams be banned but the SOOC rejected this proposal . The IOC decided to switch hockey to an unofficial event but relented when a compromise was reached . The AHA team was allowed to compete but would not be considered an official participant or allowed to win a medal . The AHA team finished fourth in the standings . Both Czechoslovakia and Canada won seven games and tied when they played each other . The gold medal winner was determined by goal difference : Canada won the gold because it had an average of 13 @.@ 8 goals per game compared to Czechoslovakia 's average of 4 @.@ 3 . Czechoslovakia 's team was quickly improving ; it won the 1947 and 1949 World Championships .
At the 1952 Winter Olympics in Oslo , Norway , the gold medal was won by Canada 's team for the second consecutive Games . It would be the last time that a Canadian team would win a gold medal in hockey for 50 years . The United States won silver and Sweden won bronze . A team from Finland competed for the first time .
= = = = 1956 – 1976 = = = =
The Soviet Union competed in its first World Championship in 1954 , defeating Canada and winning the gold medal . At the 1956 Winter Olympics in Cortina d 'Ampezzo , Italy , the Soviet team went undefeated and won its first gold medal . Canada 's team lost to the Soviets and the United States in the medal round , winning the bronze . The 1960 Winter Olympics , in Squaw Valley , United States , saw the first , and to date only , team from Australia compete in the tournament . Canada , the Soviet Union , Czechoslovakia and Sweden were the top four teams heading into the Games , but were all defeated by the American team , which won all seven games en route to its first Olympic gold medal . Canada won the silver medal and the Soviet Union won the bronze .
At the 1964 Winter Olympics in Innsbruck , Austria , the Soviet team won all seven of its games , earning the gold medal . Canada finished the tournament with five wins and two losses , putting the team in a three @-@ way tie for second place with Sweden and Czechoslovakia . Before 1964 , the tie @-@ breaking procedure was based on goal difference in games against teams in the medal round ; under that system , Canada would have placed third ahead of the Czechoslovakian team . During the tournament the procedure was changed to take all games into consideration , which meant that the Canadians finished fourth . At the time , the Olympics counted as the World Championships ; under their ( unchanged ) rules , Canada should have received bronze for the World Championships .
Soviet domination continued at the 1968 Winter Olympics held in Grenoble , France , as the team won its third gold medal . Czechoslovakia and Canada won the silver and bronze medals . It was the last time that the Olympics were counted as the World Championships . In 1970 , Canada withdrew from international ice hockey competition following a dispute over the use of professional players , and the team did not participate in the 1972 or 1976 Winter Olympics . Led by goaltender Vladislav Tretiak and forwards Valeri Kharlamov , Alexander Yakushev , Vladimir Petrov and Boris Mikhailov , the Soviet team won gold at both the 1972 Games in Sapporo , Japan and 1976 Winter Olympics in Innsbruck , Austria . In 1971 , the United States finished last at the World Championships and was relegated to Pool B. The team qualified for the 1972 Olympics and won silver , making it the first Pool B team to win an Olympic medal . Czechoslovakia won the bronze medal in 1972 . In 1976 , Czechoslovakia won the silver and West Germany won bronze . Along with Canada , the Swedish team did not participate in the 1976 tournament in protest at their inability to use professional players .
= = = = 1980 : The " Miracle on Ice " = = = =
The Winter Olympics returned to Lake Placid , New York in 1980 . Twelve teams participated in the tournament , including Canada for the first time since 1968 . The Soviet Union entered the tournament as favourites and were considered natural rivals with the American team due to the Cold War . The Americans , coached by Herb Brooks and consisting mainly of college students , tied Sweden and scored an upset win over Czechoslovakia in the preliminary round . They advanced to the medal round along with Sweden , Finland and the Soviet Union .
The February 22 medal @-@ round game between the Soviet Union and the United States became famously known as the " Miracle on Ice . " The Soviets took a 2 – 1 lead , but the Americans tied the game with one second left in the first period . In the second period , Soviet goaltender Vladislav Tretiak was replaced by Vladimir Myshkin . The Soviets regained the lead early in the second period . However , the Americans kept the game close due to the goaltending of Jim Craig . In the third period , the Americans scored two goals , including the game winner by captain Mike Eruzione with exactly 10 minutes left to give the Americans a 4 – 3 lead . Craig withstood another series of Soviet shots to preserve the win . In the final seconds of the game , American Broadcasting Company sportscaster Al Michaels delivered his famous line : " Do you believe in miracles ? Yes ! "
The final rankings were based on points accumulated in matches against the other teams in the medal round . Despite the common misconception that the Americans won gold the night they beat the Soviets , this did not occur until February 24 when they defeated Finland 4 – 2 and finished the tournament undefeated . The Soviets finished with silver ; Sweden won the bronze . In 2008 , the IIHF picked the Miracle on Ice as the top international hockey story of the past 100 years .
= = = = 1984 – 1994 = = = =
At the 1984 Winter Olympics in Sarajevo , Yugoslavia , the Soviet Union won its sixth gold medal . Czechoslovakia and Sweden won the silver and bronze medals . The 1988 Winter Olympics were held in Calgary , Alberta , Canada , where the Soviet team captured its seventh and final gold medal . The Soviets ' last Olympic game was a loss to Finland . The Finnish team was not considered a serious medal contender — it had competed in the World Championships since 1939 and had not won a single medal . However , Finland upset the Soviets 2 – 1 and won silver . The IIHF decided to change the tournament format because in several cases , the gold medal winner had been decided before the final day of play . During a congress in 1990 , the IIHF introduced a playoff system . The new system was used at the 1992 Winter Olympics in Albertville , France . Preliminary round @-@ robin games were held and followed by an eight @-@ team cup @-@ system style medal round that culminated in a gold medal game .
Before 1989 , players who lived in the Soviet Union , Czechoslovakia , and other nations behind the Iron Curtain were not allowed to leave and play in the NHL . Soviet officials agreed to allow players to leave following the 1989 World Championships . Many of the Soviet Union 's top players left to play in the NHL , including the entire " Green Unit " — Igor Larionov , Viacheslav Fetisov , Vladimir Krutov , Sergei Makarov and Alexei Kasatonov . The Soviet Union dissolved in December 1991 . Nine former Soviet states became part of the IIHF and started competing internationally , including Belarus , Kazakhstan , Latvia and Ukraine . At the 1992 Olympics , Armenia , Belarus , Kazakhstan , Russia , Ukraine and Uzbekistan competed as one entity , known as the Unified Team . In the final , the Unified Team defeated Canada to win gold while Czechoslovakia won the bronze .
Czechoslovakia split into the Czech Republic and Slovakia in January 1993 . The IIHF recognized the Czech Republic as the successor to Czechoslovakia , allowing the team to retain its position in the top World Championship division , while Slovakia started in the lowest division ( Pool C ) in 1994 and was forced to work its way up . Both nations competed in the tournament at the 1994 Winter Olympics , as did Russia . Slovakia and Finland both finished the preliminary round undefeated . Slovakia lost their medal round quarter @-@ final game to Russia , who later lost to Finland in the bronze medal game . In the gold medal game between Sweden and Canada , both teams finished regulation and overtime play with a 2 – 2 tie . In the resulting shootout , the first in Olympic competition , both nations scored two goals , which resulted in a sudden death shootout . Peter Forsberg of Sweden scored one of the most famous goals in Olympic history by faking a forehand shot , then sliding a one @-@ handed backhand shot past goaltender Corey Hirsch . Canada 's final shooter Paul Kariya 's shot was saved by Tommy Salo and Sweden won the game and its first gold medal .
= = = = 1998 – 2014 = = = =
In 1995 , an agreement to allow NHL players to participate in Olympics was reached between the IOC , IIHF , NHL , and National Hockey League Players ' Association ( NHLPA ) . The format of the 1998 tournament was adjusted to accommodate the NHL 's schedule . On February 7 , a preliminary round without NHL players or the " Big Six " teams ( Canada , the Czech Republic , Finland , Russia , Sweden and the United States ) began . The NHL had games on that day , but then halted play for the next 17 days to allow participating players to fly to Japan and recover from fatigue . The tournament format drew criticism for not allowing all teams the full use of their NHL players during the entire event . The top six teams were given a bye to the final round and began play on February 13 . Canada , considered a pre @-@ tournament favourite , was upset in the semi @-@ final round by the Czech Republic and then lost the bronze medal game to Finland . Led by goaltender Dominik Hašek , the Czech team defeated Russia , who defeated them previously in the round robin , winning its first gold medal in the sport . During the tournament , Pavel Bure set an Olympic Record for Goals in a Game with 5 against Finland in the Semifinals . Swedish player Ulf Samuelsson was discovered to have applied for American citizenship . Under Swedish law at the time , when one acquires a foreign passport , their citizenship is annulled . Samuelsson was ejected after having played the first game against Belarus , although Sweden kept their points from the win . The Czech National Olympic Committee felt that Sweden should lose the points and filed a protest with the Court of Arbitration for Sport , which was rejected . Following the tournament , NHL commissioner Gary Bettman commented that it " was what we had predicted and hoped for from a pure hockey perspective , [ it was ] a wonderful tournament " .
The same tournament format was used at the 2002 Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City , United States . The NHL 's Olympic break did not start until the second week of the Games . Because the Olympics were in the United States , where the majority of NHL teams are located , teams participating in the preliminary tournament were allowed to use NHL players who were not obligated to play with their NHL club . Slovakia was particularly affected by the inability to use all of its NHL players , and the team failed to advance to the final round . Three months later , Slovakia won gold at the 2002 World Championships . Finnish centre Raimo Helminen became the first ice hockey player to compete in six tournaments . In the quarter @-@ finals , Belarus defeated Sweden in one of the biggest upsets since the Miracle on Ice . The team advanced to the bronze medal game , but lost to Russia . The Canadian team rebounded from a disappointing first round and defeated the American team in the gold medal game , winning their first gold medal in 50 years .
The tournament format was adjusted for 2006 . The NHL went on hiatus for the duration of the games , allowing all players to compete . The number of teams was lowered to 12 ; the top six teams did not get a bye and played five preliminary round games . Sweden won the gold medal over Finland and the Czech Republic won the bronze medal . Three months later , Sweden won the 2006 World Championships and became the first team to win the Olympic and World Championship gold in the same year .
The 2010 Winter Olympics were held in Vancouver , Canada , the first time since NHL players were allowed to compete that the Olympics were held in a city with an NHL team . For the first time , Olympic games were played on a narrower NHL @-@ sized ice rink , measuring 61 metres × 26 metres ( 200 ft × 85 ft ) , instead of the international size of 61 m × 30 @.@ 5 m ( 200 ft × 100 ft ) . This change saved an expected $ 10 million ( CAD ) in construction costs and allowed more spectators to attend games . Games were played at the UBC Winter Sports Centre and Rogers Arena ( then GM Place at the time ) , which was renamed Canada Hockey Place during the event because corporate sponsorship is not allowed for an Olympic venue . Twelve teams qualified for the men 's event and were split into three groups of four teams . At the NHL 's request , the number of preliminary games was lowered to three . Following the completion of the preliminary round , all teams were ranked 1 through 12 based on points . The top four ranked teams received byes to the quarter @-@ finals , and the other eight teams played for the remaining four positions . Following that , the final eight teams competed in a playoff .
Teemu Selänne of Finland scored his 37th point , breaking the record of 36 first set by Canadian Harry Watson in 1924 and later tied by Vlastimil Bubník of Czechoslovakia , and Valeri Kharlamov of the Soviet Union . Slovakia made the final four for the first time , but lost the bronze medal game to Finland . In the gold medal game , Canada and the United States ended regulation play with a 2 – 2 tie , making it only the second Olympic gold medal match to go into overtime . Canadian player Sidney Crosby scored the winning goal 7 : 40 into overtime play to give Canada its eighth gold medal in men 's hockey .
The 2014 Winter Olympics were held in Sochi , Russia , and retained the same game format used in Vancouver 2010 , while returning to the larger international @-@ sized ice rinks . Slovenia participated for the first time , upsetting Slovakia in the round robin before losing to Sweden in the quarterfinals , for its best finish in any international tournament . Latvia upset Switzerland in the qualification playoffs , also making it to the Olympic quarterfinals for the first time , where they were narrowly defeated by Canada . Host nation Russia , considered a pre @-@ tournament favourite , lost 3 – 1 in the quarterfinals to Finland and finished 5th . Entering the semi @-@ finals undefeated after outscoring opponents 20 – 6 , the United States lost to Canada 1 – 0 , then lost the bronze medal game against Finland 5 – 0 . Teemu Selänne scored six more points in the tournament , was named tournament MVP and boosted his modern @-@ era Olympic career record for points to 43 ( 24 goals , 19 assists ) . At the age of 43 , he also set records as both the oldest Olympic goal @-@ scorer and oldest Olympic ice hockey medal winner . Canada defeated Sweden 3 – 0 to win its ninth Olympic gold medal . The team did not trail at any point over the course of the tournament , and became the first back @-@ to @-@ back gold medal winner since the start of NHL participation in 1998 , as well as the first team to go undefeated since 1984 .
= = = Women 's tournament = = =
= = = = Addition to the programme = = = =
At the 99th IOC Session in July 1992 , the IOC voted to approve women 's hockey as an Olympic event beginning with the 1998 Winter Olympics as part of their effort to increase the number of female athletes at the Olympics . Women 's hockey had not been in the programme when Nagano , Japan had won the right to host the Olympics , and the decision required approval by the Nagano Winter Olympic Organizing Committee ( NAOOC ) . The NAOOC was initially hesitant to include the event because of the additional costs of staging the tournament and because they felt their team , which had failed to qualify for that year 's World Championships , could not be competitive . According to Glynis Peters , the Canadian Amateur Hockey Association 's ( CAHA ) head of female hockey , " the Japanese would have to finance an entirely new sports operation to bring their team up to Olympic standards in six years , which they were also really reluctant to do . " In November 1992 , the NWOOC and IOC Coordination Committee reached an agreement to include a women 's ice hockey tournament in the programme . Part of the agreement was that the tournament would be limited to six teams , and no additional facilities would be built . The CAHA also agreed to help build and train the Japanese team so that it could be more competitive . The IOC had agreed that if the NAOOC had not approved the event , it would be held at the 2002 Winter Olympics . The format of the first tournament was similar to the men 's : preliminary round @-@ robin games followed by a medal round playoff .
= = = = 1998 – 2014 = = = =
Before 1998 , women 's hockey had been dominated by Canada . Canadian teams had won every World Championship up to that point ; however , by 1997 , the American team had improved and was evenly matched with Canada . In thirteen games played between the two teams in 1997 , Canada won seven and the United States won six . The 1998 Olympic tournament also included teams from Finland , Sweden , China and host Japan . Canada and the United States dominated the round @-@ robin portion . In their head @-@ to @-@ head match , the United States overcame a 4 – 1 deficit to win 7 – 4 . The two teams met in the final , which the United States won 3 – 1 to become the third ice hockey team to win Olympic gold .
For the 2002 Winter Olympics , the number of teams was increased to eight and Russia , Germany and Kazakhstan qualified for the first time . The Canadian and American teams went undefeated in the first round and semi @-@ finals , setting up a gold medal rematch that the Canadian team won 3 – 2 . Following the game , members of the Canadian team accused the Americans of stomping on a Canadian flag in their dressing room , although an investigation later proved the rumour false . The Swedish team won the bronze medal over Finland , the nation 's first in women 's ice hockey .
In 2006 , Italy and Switzerland participated for the first time . The Italian team , at the time ranked 17th in the world , had qualified because Italy was the host nation . They were outscored 32 – 1 in three games and IIHF president René Fasel declared his intention to make future tournaments more competitive and not allow host nations to automatically qualify . The Canadian team started the tournament by outscoring opponents 36 – 1 over three games . American defenceman Angela Ruggiero accused the team of running up the score and warned that the event 's Olympic status could be called into question due to a perceived lack of competitive teams . In response , René Fasel stated that other women 's teams were improving and that there was similar dominance in the early years of the men 's tournament but the sport continued to grow . He added , " I promise you that it won 't take the [ Swedish ] women 64 years to win " — in reference to the Swedish men 's team inability to defeat Canada in Olympic play until 1984 ( the Swedish women 's team defeated Canada for the first time at the 2008 4 Nations Cup ) .
In its semi @-@ final game , the American team was upset by Sweden , marking the first time that it had lost to an opponent other than Canada . The upset drew comparisons to the Miracle on Ice from 1980 . In the medal games , Canada defeated Sweden to claim its second consecutive gold medal , while the Americans beat Finland to win the bronze .
In 2010 , eight teams participated , including Slovakia for the first time . The Canadian and American teams outscored opponents in the preliminary round by 41 – 2 and 31 – 1 margins , respectively . This brought on more criticism about uneven competition . IOC president Jacques Rogge said , " There is a discrepancy there , everyone agrees with that . This is maybe the investment period in women 's ice hockey . I would personally give them more time to grow but there must be a period of improvement . We cannot continue without improvement . " Swedish team coach Peter Elander said it is hard for other nations to compete because of a lack of funding and a smaller pool of players to choose from . He said , " The finances for all teams have to be the same . ... If you want to have a close tournament in Sochi ( for the 2014 Olympics ) , have ( comparable ) national programs in all countries . " Some critics suggested that a mercy rule be implemented to prevent such lopsided scores . René Fasel said the IIHF would consider adding one . Chinese team coach Hannu Saintula , whose team was defeated 12 – 1 by the Americans , and American coach Mark Johnson , did not favor the idea .
In the gold medal game , Canada defeated the United States 2 – 0 to win their third consecutive gold . The Finnish team won the bronze medal , their first since 1998 .
At the 2014 Winter Olympics , Canada defeated the United States 3 @-@ 2 , as Marie @-@ Philip Poulin scored at 8 : 10 of overtime to win their fourth consecutive gold , rebounding from a two @-@ goal deficit . With the win , Canadians Hayley Wickenheiser , Jayna Hefford and Caroline Ouellette became the first athletes to win four ice hockey gold medals . They also joined Soviet biathlete Alexander Tikhonov and German speedskater Claudia Pechstein as the only athletes to win gold medals in four straight Winter Olympics . In the bronze medal game Switzerland beat Sweden 4 – 3 to win their first women 's medal .
= = Rules = =
= = = Qualification = = =
Since 1976 , 12 teams have participated in the men 's tournament , except in 1998 and 2002 , when the number was raised to 14 . The number of teams has ranged from 4 ( in 1932 ) to 16 ( in 1964 ) . After the NHL allowed its players to compete at the 1998 Winter Olympics , the " Big Six " teams ( Canada , the Czech Republic , Finland , Russia , Sweden and the United States ) were given automatic qualification and byes to the final round . The number of teams was increased to 14 so that a preliminary round @-@ robin tournament consisting of eight teams could be held . The top two teams from the preliminary round ( Belarus and Kazakhstan ) joined the " Big Six " in the finals . A similar system was used in 2002 . For the following tournament , the number of teams was lowered to 12 so that all teams played fewer games . Qualification for the men 's tournament at the 2010 Winter Olympics was structured around the 2008 IIHF World Ranking . Twelve spots were made available for teams . The top nine teams in the World Ranking after the 2008 Men 's World Ice Hockey Championships received automatic berths . Teams ranked 19th through 30th played in a first qualification round in November 2008 . The top three teams from the round advanced to the second qualification round , joined by teams ranked 10th through 18th . The top three teams from this round advanced to the Olympic tournament .
The women 's tournament uses a similar qualification format . The top six teams in the IIHF Women 's World Ranking after the 2008 Women 's World Ice Hockey Championships received automatic berths . Teams ranked 13th and below were divided into two groups for a first qualification round in September 2008 . The two group winners advanced to the second qualification round , where the teams ranked seventh through twelfth joined them .
= = = Players = = =
= = = = Eligibility = = = =
The IIHF lists the following requirements for a player to be eligible to play in international tournaments :
" Each player must be under the jurisdiction of an IIHF member national association . "
" Each player must be a citizen of the country he / she represents . "
If a player who has never played in an IIHF competition changes their citizenship , they must participate in national competitions in their new country for at least two consecutive years and have an international transfer card ( ITC ) . If a player who has previously played in an IIHF tournament wishes to change their national team , they must have played in their new country for four years . A player can only do this once . The original IOC rules stated that an athlete that had already played for one nation could not later change nations under any circumstances .
= = = = Use of professional players = = = =
Pierre de Coubertin , founder of the IOC , was influenced by the ethos of the aristocracy as exemplified in the English public schools . The public schools subscribed to the belief that sport formed an important part of education and there was a prevailing concept of fairness in which practicing or training was considered cheating . As class structure evolved through the 20th century , the definition of the amateur athlete as an aristocratic gentleman became outdated . The advent of the state @-@ sponsored " full @-@ time amateur athlete " of the Eastern Bloc countries further eroded the ideology of the pure amateur , as it put the self @-@ financed amateurs of the Western countries at a disadvantage . The Soviet Union entered teams of athletes who were all nominally students , soldiers , or working in a profession , but many of whom were in reality paid by the state to train on a full @-@ time basis . Nevertheless , the IOC held to the traditional rules regarding amateurism .
Near the end of the 1960s , the Canadian Amateur Hockey Association ( CAHA ) felt their amateur players could no longer be competitive against the Soviet team 's full @-@ time athletes and the other constantly improving European teams . They pushed for the ability to use players from professional leagues but met opposition from the IIHF and IOC . Avery Brundage , president of the IOC from 1952 to 1972 , was opposed to the idea of amateur and professional players competing together . At the IIHF Congress in 1969 , the IIHF decided to allow Canada to use nine non @-@ NHL professional hockey players at the 1970 World Championships in Montreal and Winnipeg , Canada . The decision was reversed in January 1970 after Brundage said that ice hockey 's status as an Olympic sport would be in jeopardy if the change was made . In response , Canada withdrew from international ice hockey competition and officials stated that they would not return until " open competition " was instituted . Günther Sabetzki became president of the IIHF in 1975 and helped to resolve the dispute with the CAHA . In 1976 , the IIHF agreed to allow " open competition " between all players in the World Championships . However , NHL players were still not allowed to play in the Olympics , because of the unwillingness of the NHL to take a break mid @-@ season and the IOC 's amateur @-@ only policy .
Before the 1984 Winter Olympics , a dispute formed over what made a player a professional . The IOC had adopted a rule that made any player who had signed an NHL contract but played less than ten games in the league eligible . However , the United States Olympic Committee maintained that any player contracted with an NHL team was a professional and therefore not eligible to play . The IOC held an emergency meeting that ruled NHL @-@ contracted players were eligible , as long as they had not played in any NHL games . This made five players on Olympic rosters — one Austrian , two Italians and two Canadians — ineligible . Players who had played in other professional leagues — such as the World Hockey Association — were allowed to play . Canadian hockey official Alan Eagleson stated that the rule was only applied to the NHL and that professionally contracted players in European leagues were still considered amateurs . Murray Costello of the CAHA suggested that a Canadian withdrawal was possible . In 1986 , the IOC voted to allow all athletes to compete in Olympic Games starting in 1988 , but let the individual sport federations decide if they wanted to allow professionals .
= = = = NHL participation = = = =
The NHL decided not to allow all players to participate in 1988 , 1992 or 1994 because the Winter Olympics typically occur in February , during the league 's regular season . To allow participation , the NHL would have been forced to take a break in its schedule .
In 1992 , National Basketball Association ( NBA ) players participated in the 1992 Summer Olympics . The American " Dream Team " dominated the tournament , and NHL commissioner Gary Bettman ( an NBA executive in 1992 ) commented that the " [ NBA ] ' s worldwide awareness grew dramatically " . He hoped that NHL participation would " get exposure like the world has never seen for hockey " . The typical NBA season is held in the winter and spring , so the Summer Olympics do not conflict with the regular season schedule . Bettman " floated a concept of moving hockey to the Summer Games " , but this was rejected because of the Olympic Charter . In March 1995 , Bettman , René Fasel , IOC president Juan Antonio Samaranch and NHLPA executive director Bob Goodenow met in Geneva , Switzerland . They reached an agreement that allowed NHL players to participate in the Olympics , starting with the 1998 Games in Nagano , Japan . The deal was officially announced by the NHL on October 2 , 1995 . Bettman said : " We 're doing this to build the game of hockey , pure and simple , we think whatever benefits are recouped , it will end up making this game bigger , stronger and healthier . "
The 2004 – 05 NHL season was locked out and eventually cancelled because of a labour dispute between the league and its players . In January 2005 , Bettman commented that he was hesitant to allow league participation in the Olympics because he did not like the idea of stopping play mid @-@ season after the cancellation of the previous season . The lockout was resolved in July 2005 and the newly negotiated NHL Collective Bargaining Agreement allowed league participation in the 2006 and 2010 Winter Olympics . Some NHL team owners were against their players participating in the tournament because of concerns about injury or exhaustion . Philadelphia Flyers owner Ed Snider commented that " I 'm a believer in the Olympics and I think it 's good for the NHL to participate , having said that , the people who participate should be the ones who are absolutely healthy . " Some NHL players used the break as an opportunity to rest and did not participate in the tournament , and several players were injured during the Olympics and were forced to miss NHL games . Bettman said that several format changes were being discussed so that the tournament would be " a little easier for everybody " .
It was originally thought that for NHL participating in the 2014 Winter Olympics a deal would have to be negotiated between the NHL and NHLPA in the Collective Bargaining Agreement . In January 2013 , the NHL and NHLPA agreed on a new Collective Bargaining Agreement . However , the decision on NHL participation at the Olympics was later announced on 19 July 2013 . As part of the deal , the NHL will go on break for 17 days during the Olympics and will send 13 on @-@ ice officials to help with the Games . NHL management was hesitant to commit to the tournament ; Bettman argued the Olympic break is a " strain on the players , on the schedule and on fans " , adding that " the benefits we get tend to be greater when the Olympics are in North America than when they 're in distant time zones . " According to Bettman , most of the NHL team owners agree with his position , and feel that the league does not receive enough benefits to justify the schedule break and risk of player injuries . René Fasel wants NHL participation and vowed that he would " work day and night to have NHL players in Sochi " . At an October 2008 press conference , then @-@ NHLPA executive director Paul Kelly stated that the players want to return to the Olympics and would try to include the ability in the next agreement . Russian NHL players Alexander Ovechkin and Evgeni Malkin stated that they want to participate in the tournament and would do so without the permission of the NHL , if necessary . Paul Kelly also believes that the NHL 's strained relationship with the Ice Hockey Federation of Russia and the Kontinental Hockey League ( KHL ) could affect participation . In a 2009 interview , KHL president Alexander Medvedev claimed that the unwillingness of NHL officials to immediately commit to the Sochi Games was " an instrument of pressure " to force a transfer agreement between the two leagues . As part of the agreement for the 2014 Games , the International Olympic Committee had to pay around $ 8 million to insure NHLers playing in Sochi , a price tag that was a major sticking point during negotiations with the NHL , NHLPA , and IIHF , making this a one @-@ time deal that may make participating in the 2018 Games unlikely .
= = = Game rules = = =
At the first tournament in 1920 , there were many differences from the modern game : games were played outdoors on natural ice , forward passes were not allowed , the rink ( which had been intended to be used only for figure skating ) was 56 m × 18 m ( 165 ft × 58 @.@ 5 ft ) and two 20 @-@ minute periods were played . Each team had seven players on the ice , the extra position being the rover . Following the tournament , the IIHF held a congress and decided to adopt the Canadian rules — six men per side and three periods of play .
The tournaments follow the rules used by the IIHF . At the 1969 IIHF Congress , officials voted to allow body @-@ checking in all three zones in a rink similar to the NHL . Before that , body @-@ checking was only allowed in the defending zone in international hockey . Several other rule changes were implemented in the early 1970s : players were required to wear helmets starting in 1970 , and goaltender masks became mandatory in 1972 . In 1992 , the IIHF switched to using a playoff system to determine medalists and decided that tie games in the medal round would be decided in a shootout . In 1998 , the IIHF passed a rule that allowed two @-@ line passes . Before then , the neutral zone trap had slowed the game down and reduced scoring .
The current IIHF rules differ slightly from the rules used in the NHL . One difference between NHL and IIHF rules is standard rink dimensions : the NHL rink is narrower , measuring 61 m × 26 m ( 200 ft × 85 ft ) , instead of the international size of 61 m × 30 @.@ 5 m ( 200 ft × 100 ft ) The larger international size allows for a faster and less physical style of play . Another rule difference between the NHL and the IIHF rules concerns how icing is called . In the NHL , a linesman stops play due to icing if a defending player ( other than the goaltender ) is not behind an attacking player in the race to the end @-@ zone faceoff dots in his defensive zone , in contrast to the IIHF rules in which play is stopped the moment the puck crosses the goal line . The NHL and IIHF also differ in penalty rules . The NHL calls five @-@ minute major penalties for more dangerous infractions of the rules , such as fighting , in addition to the minor and double minor penalties called in IIHF games . This is in contrast to the IIHF rule , by which players who fight are ejected from the game . Beginning with the 2005 – 06 season , the NHL instituted several new rules . Some were already used by the IIHF , such as the shootout and the two @-@ line pass . Others were not picked up by the IIHF , such as those requiring smaller goaltender equipment and the addition of the goaltender trapezoid to the rink . However , the IIHF did agree to follow the NHL 's zero @-@ tolerance policy on obstruction and required referees to call more hooking , holding , and interference penalties .
Each team is allowed to have between 15 and 20 skaters ( forwards and defencemen ) and two or three goaltenders , all of whom must be citizens of the nation they play for .
One of the conditions of the NHL 's participation in the Olympics is to include regular NHL referees and linesmen in the tournament , despite the fact that they are American or Canadian , and thus gives the perception of American or Canadian bias in the officiating .
= = = Banned substances = = =
The IIHF follows the World Anti @-@ Doping Agency 's ( WADA ) regulations on performance @-@ enhancing drugs . The IIHF maintains a Registered Testing Pool , a list of top players who are subjected to random in @-@ competition and out @-@ of @-@ competition drug tests . According to the WADA , a positive in @-@ competition test results in disqualification of the player and a suspension that varies based on the number of offences . When a player tests positive , the rest of their team is subjected to testing ; another positive test can result in a disqualification of the entire team . In 2001 , the United States Olympic Committee ( USOC ) pushed for American NHL players who were potential Olympians to be subject to random drug tests . The USOC requires all Olympic @-@ bound athletes to be randomly tested by the United States Anti @-@ Doping Agency , but had exempted NHL players in 1998 . The NHL preferred a more uniform method , in which all players would undergo the same number of tests from the WADA . An agreement was reached that the WADA would start testing players after the NHL playoffs were finished .
In late 2005 , two NHL players who had been listed as potential Olympians failed drug tests administered by the WADA . American Bryan Berard , who had competed in the 1998 Winter Olympics , tested positive for 19 @-@ Norandrosterone . Canadian José Théodore failed a drug test because he was taking Propecia , a hair loss medication that contains the non @-@ performance @-@ enhancing drug Finasteride . Both players received two @-@ year bans from international competition , although neither had made their team 's final roster .
= = Statistics = =
= = = Participating nations = = =
Key
Men
Women
= = = Medal winners = = =
Men
Women
= = = Medal table = = =
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= Mellor hill fort =
Mellor hill fort is a prehistoric site in North West England , that dates from the British Iron Age — about 800 BC to 100 AD . Situated on a hill in Mellor , Greater Manchester , on the western edge of the Peak District , the hill fort overlooks the Cheshire Plain . Although the settlement was founded during the Iron Age , evidence exists of activity on the site as far back as 8 @,@ 000 BC ; during the Bronze Age the hill may have been an area where funerary practices were performed . Artefacts such as a Bronze Age amber necklace indicate the site was high status and that its residents took part in long @-@ distance trade . The settlement was occupied into the Roman period . After the site was abandoned , probably in the 4th century , it was forgotten until its rediscovery in the 1990s .
= = Location = =
Mellor lies on the western edge of the Peak District in the Metropolitan Borough of Stockport . At grid reference SJ9820088929 , the known site of the Iron Age settlement in Mellor is partially under St Thomas Church and extends into the gardens of several nearby houses . It is on a spur about 220 metres ( 720 ft ) above sea level , between two valleys which drop steeply away and run west where the two small streams in the valleys meet the River Goyt , approximately 100 metres ( 330 ft ) above sea level . The site commands views of the Cheshire Plain and Alderley Edge to the south and the range of hills to the north . Although there are higher points locally , the site has access to a water supply and the river valleys , and there is flat land to the west which could have been used agriculturally .
= = Background = =
Until the 19th century little was known about hill forts ; none had been excavated and their original purpose had long been forgotten . In the medieval period their origin was ascribed to various iconic figures such as Julius Caesar , King Arthur , King Alfred , the Danes , and even giants . By the 18th century it was thought that hill forts were Roman in origin . Opinion changed again in the 19th century following a large scale investigation by Augustus Pitt @-@ Rivers , who concluded that hill forts were built during the Iron Age .
The study of hill forts was popular in the 19th century , with a revival in the 20th century due to excavations at Danebury . However it was not until the 1990s that the settlement at Mellor was discovered ; the site had a lack of tell @-@ tale earthworks , such as a circular ditch ( which would indicate ancient activity ) . Excavations began in 1998 where unusual marks had been noted in 1995 during a drought . Instead of the medieval ditch the marks were thought to denote , the ditch of an Iron Age hill fort was revealed . As of 2009 the excavations are ongoing . Before these excavations began , relatively little was known about the prehistory of the Stockport area before about 1 @,@ 200 BC . It was generally thought that the areas of Marple and Mellor had been mostly untouched by prehistoric human activity , including during the Romano @-@ British period . Little is known about Iron Age activity in North West England as pottery is rare on the sites excavated in the region , and there is a dearth of settlement sites . Of the more than 1 @,@ 300 hill forts found in England relatively few are in the northwest . The paucity of known sites led archaeologist Colin Haselgrove to describe the region as a " black hole " for the Iron Age . Mellor is the only hill fort in Greater Manchester , and one of four known Iron Age settlement sites in the county .
= = History = =
There is evidence of human activity on the site pre @-@ dating the Iron Age , as far back as 8 @,@ 000 – 6 @,@ 000 BC . During this period Mellor may have been a knap site where flint tools were produced , and also may have been a seasonal camp . Over 200 lithics have been recovered and range from the early to the late Mesolithic . A high proportion of the flints are bladed tools , indicating that the people who produced them were hunter gatherers . Bronze Age artefacts are rare on the site , and there is no definitive indication of habitation in this period . Despite this , it is likely that the long @-@ term habitation of the site had its roots in the late Bronze Age .
A flint dagger was discovered on the site . This type of artefact is rare in Greater Manchester ; the nearest comparable site is in Saddleworth . Its presence has been taken as an indication that during the Bronze Age the site was used for funerary practices . Many of the hills near Mellor are surmounted by Bronze Age funerary monuments such as Brown Low , Shaw Cairn , and Werneth Low , supporting the possibility that Mellor was also a funerary site . Also dating from the Bronze Age and found on the site was a rare high @-@ status amber necklace . Amber does not occur naturally in Britain – the nearest source is the Baltic . It would have been traded over long distances . The necklace was discovered as part of a 4 @,@ 000 ‑ year ‑ old burial .
The hill fort was built in and used throughout the Iron Age , as demonstrated by finds from the site which span the period . Occupants lived in roundhouses , and habitation of the site was spread over a long period . In common with many other hill forts , the site was probably divided into separate areas for habitation , industry , and agricultural activities such as storage , although the layout of these areas changed over time . Excavations indicate that the area enclosed by the inner ditch was used mainly for habitation , while the area between the inner and outer ditches was agricultural . The separation was not necessarily fixed as some of the outer area shows signs that it was used as a living space . The Roman fort of Melandra is nearby .
Fragments of glass , possibly Roman in origin , and shards of pottery which date to the 1st and 2nd centuries AD , indicate the site was used in the Romano @-@ British period . However no Roman structures have been discovered , and the nature of Roman activity at the site is a source of speculation . The position of the hilltop indicate that it was easily defended ; however , local finds indicate it was a high @-@ status settlement rather than a military outpost unless a similar feature was located nearby . One reason that Roman structures have not been identified is that the Romano @-@ British inhabitants may have used roundhouses rather than buildings of a typically rectilinear Roman style . This would make them more difficult to differentiate from Iron Age roundhouses and would imply a continuation of local culture rather than an imposition of Roman style . It is also possible that Romans simply influenced the area , rather than actively occupying the site . The site was later abandoned and forgotten until its rediscovery in the 1990s .
= = Investigation = =
With sites such as Danebury where there is no modern habitation or built environment , extensive excavations can be undertaken to establish the general layout . The modern settlement of Mellor extends over the Iron Age hill fort , which restricts archaeological investigation . A geophysical survey was performed to establish the extent of the settlement ; methods such as magnetometry and ground @-@ penetrating radar were successful in identifying the eastern and northern sections of the ditch encircling the site . Excavations have been concentrated around the Old Vicarage . By 2004 there were 43 trenches , 14 trial trenches , and 17 test pits . The investigation of the site has revealed two ditches . While the external ditch encloses a larger area , it has smaller dimensions than the internal ditch .
The chronological relation between the two ditches is uncertain . The internal ditch has been cut into the sandstone bedrock and is 4 m ( 13 ft ) wide and 2 @.@ 1 m ( 6 ft 11 in ) deep ; there was a palisade 3 @.@ 25 m ( 11 ft ) beyond the inner edge of the ditch . At some point , part of the ditch was refilled and a posthole inserted into it , possibly relating to a gateway . Artefacts recovered from the ditch indicate that the inhabitants of the site had links with salt @-@ producing communities in lowland Cheshire . The Very Coarse Pottery ( VCP ) which was used to contain the salt at Mellor is similar to fragments recovered from the Iron Age site at Beeston Castle . A layer of charcoal has been radiocarbon dated to 830 – 190 BC . The latest deposits in the ditch include hundreds of fragments of Roman pottery dating from the 1st to 4th centuries , bronze Roman brooches , and Roman nails .
The outer ditch is 1 @.@ 5 m ( 4 ft 11 in ) wide and 1 @.@ 4 m ( 4 ft 7 in ) deep , and like the inner ditch was cut in the local bedrock . A rare Iron Age pot was recovered from the outer ditch , with 125 shards found . The material used to make the pot originated about 15 to 20 km ( 9 to 12 mi ) away in Castleton , Derbyshire . The pot was found in one of the earliest contexts in the ditch , and dates to the Iron Age . It was probably deliberately placed at the bottom of the ditch as part of a ritual after a significant event such as digging the ditch . While the inner ditch did have a palisade , neither ditch had a bank associated with it .
The archaeological excavations that have been undertaken since 1998 are funded by Stockport Metropolitan Borough Council and grants from the Heritage Lottery Fund , and have received news coverage . The site is used as a training excavation for students and a community dig to introduce people to ancient history , with the participation of Mellor Archaeological Trust . In 2002 , students from Ridge Danyers Sixth Form College built a replica roundhouse that is still standing on the site . Many of the artefacts discovered at Mellor during the excavations are on permanent display at Stockport Museum . The site is open to the public annually , in the first week of September , so that people can view the work done over the past season of digging .
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= Alan Pastrana =
Charles Alan Pastrana ( born November 20 , 1944 ) is a former American football quarterback . He played college football for the University of Maryland from 1965 to 1968 . In 1966 , he set the Atlantic Coast Conference record for single @-@ season passing touchdowns with 17 . At Maryland , Pastrana also played on the lacrosse team and was named a first @-@ team All @-@ American defenseman in 1966 . The Denver Broncos of the National Football League selected Pastrana in the 11th round of the 1969 NFL Draft . He played for Denver for two seasons , including three games as the starting quarterback . After his playing career , Pastrana coached football and lacrosse at Anne Arundel Community College , where he taught as an associate professor , and coached football at the Severn School .
= = Early life = =
Pastrana was born on November 20 , 1944 , in Annapolis , Maryland , to a family of Puerto Rican descent . He attended Annapolis High School , where he served as the captain of the football , lacrosse , and wrestling teams . After he graduated from Annapolis High in 1964 , Pastrana attended the college preparatory Severn School .
= = College career = =
Pastrana enrolled at the University of Maryland , where he earned three letters on the football team in 1965 , 1966 , and 1968 , and two on the lacrosse team in 1966 and 1967 . He played lacrosse as a defenseman under head coach John Howard . After the 1966 season , the United States Intercollegiate Lacrosse Association named him a first @-@ team All @-@ American .
In 1965 , he played football on defense as a linebacker . The following season , Lou Saban took over as head coach from Tom Nugent , and held open quarterback try @-@ outs , which included everyone who had played the position in high school . Early in the season , Saban dismissed several players " not good enough to play for Maryland " , including former starting quarterback Phil Petry , and the job went to Pastrana . Saban employed a pro @-@ style offense .
After losses to Penn State and Syracuse , Pastrana led the underdog Maryland team to a surprising three @-@ game winning streak over Duke , West Virginia , and South Carolina , which improbably placed the Terrapins atop the Atlantic Coast Conference and into the bowl game picture . Maryland , however , lost its final four games of the season to finish 4 – 6 and 3 – 3 in the ACC . In the penultimate game against Virginia , Pastrana broke the ACC record with his 13th and 14th touchdown passes of the season . Florida State routed Maryland in the season finale , 45 – 21 , where Pastrana 's passing accounted for all three Terrapin scores in a failed second @-@ half comeback bid . He finished the year with 102 completions on 195 attempts for 1 @,@ 499 yards and 17 touchdowns . After the season , Saban left to become head coach for the Denver Broncos and he was replaced by former Maryland All @-@ American guard Bob Ward .
In April 1967 , Pastrana suffered a serious injury when he tore his medial collateral ligament and cartilage in his knee during a spring football practice . The injury required surgery , and he was lost for the 1967 season . Pastrana returned for his final year of eligibility in 1968 , but had " only a mediocre season " , although he " kept the team spirits high with his never @-@ say @-@ die attitude . " Maryland finished with a 2 – 8 record . Pastrana recorded 81 completions on 172 attempts for 1 @,@ 053 yards and six touchdowns .
During his collegiate career , Pastrana set the school record for season efficiency rating at 131 @.@ 29 in 1966 , which was broken by Bob Avellini in 1974 . Pastrana also set school records with 23 career passing touchdowns and 17 single @-@ season passing touchdowns , both of which were later broken by Boomer Esiason .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Denver Broncos = = =
The Denver Broncos selected Pastrana in the eleventh round of the 1969 NFL Draft with the 270th overall pick . In 1969 , he saw action in two games and did not attempt a pass , but did have one reception for 15 yards . The following season , he played in five games , including three as starter in relief of Steve Tensi , who had suffered a shoulder injury . Against the San Diego Chargers , Pastrana drove the team to the opposing 35 @-@ yard line and within field goal range , but he was knocked unconscious and could not call a crucial timeout . As the offensive captain , he was the only person authorized to do so under the rules at the time , and the clock expired to result in a 17 – 17 stalemate . The rules regarding timeouts were changed after the season . In 1970 , Pastrana completed 29 of 75 pass attempts for 420 yards and one touchdown , rushed 14 times for 89 yards and one touchdown , threw nine interceptions , and was sacked eight times . Five of his interceptions came against the Kansas City Chiefs . Pastrana suffered a severe concussion that effectively ended his career near the end of the 1970 season and also heavily altered his personality . In the 1971 offseason , head coach Lou Saban held try @-@ outs with seven quarterbacks . By the end of August , Pastrana made the cut to the final three , alongside Don Horn and Steve Ramsey , and was the only quarterback remaining on the team from the prior season . Pastrana , however , was cut in early September .
= = = After the NFL = = =
Pastrana became an assistant football coach at Anne Arundel Community College in 1973 . From 1980 to 1989 , he served as the head coach and directed a multiple @-@ I and pro @-@ set offense until the school discontinued the program . He also served as a co @-@ head coach of the Anne Arundel Community College men 's lacrosse team alongside former Maryland coach Bud Beardmore .
In 1993 , the Severn School hired Pastrana as its football coach , but he resigned after just three games amid complaints from parents and players over his laid @-@ back coaching style . Some were concerned that Pastrana visited with friends in the stands during the halftime of two losses . In 2001 , Pastrana was an associate professor of health and education at Anne Arundel Community College , where he was still teaching as of 2006 . Pastrana has been inducted into the Anne Arundel County Sports Hall of Fame .
= = Personal life = =
Pastrana and his wife have an adult daughter . He is the uncle of stuntman and motorsports competitor Travis Pastrana . Another nephew , Greg Powell , played football at Maryland as a walk @-@ on in 2005 and 2006 . His nephew , Darren Pastrana , entered the United States Naval Academy in 2008 , where he played on the lacrosse team . His niece , Kim Pastrana , played women 's lacrosse at Duke University from 2005 to 2007 .
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= The Computer Wore Menace Shoes =
“ The Computer Wore Menace Shoes ” is the sixth episode of The Simpsons ' twelfth season . It first aired on the Fox network in the United States on December 3 , 2000 . In the episode , Homer buys a computer and creates his own website to spread gossip . However , when Homer starts writing conspiracy theories about flu shots , he gets sent to an island where people who know too much are imprisoned .
" The Computer Wore Menace Shoes " was written by John Swartzwelder and directed by Mark Kirkland . The current title of the episode is a reference to the 1969 film The Computer Wore Tennis Shoes , but the episode is not related to the film in any other way . The episode 's third act features many references to the 1967 science fiction series The Prisoner .
The episode features Patrick McGoohan as Number Six , the main character from The Prisoner . In its original broadcast , the episode was seen by approximately 9 @.@ 1 million viewers , finishing in 28th place in the ratings the week it aired . Following its broadcast , the episode received mixed reviews from critics ; commentators were divided over the episode 's third act .
= = Plot = =
After finding out that all of the nuclear plant 's staff members had been informed of the plant 's maintenance via e @-@ mail , Homer decides to buy a computer . After he gives up on learning how to use it , Lisa sets up the computer . Homer eventually catches on and starts his own webpage , which contains copyrighted material from other pages . To avoid getting sued , Homer calls himself " Mister X " . Late at night , unable to sleep until someone visits his page , Homer hears a rumor from Bart started by either Nelson Muntz or Jimbo Jones that Mayor Quimby spent the street repair fund on a secret swimming pool . He posts this rumor on his page , which is seen by several of Springfield 's citizens .
Mayor Quimby is the subject of a city @-@ wide scandal when a barrage of reporters find a luxurious pool along with many scantily dressed women in Quimby 's office . Homer keeps his anonymity while posting more rumors and finds out Mr. Burns plans to sell plutonium to terrorists and is later arrested by the CIA . Eventually , Mr. X wins the Pulitzer Prize for his journalistic achievements , despite nobody knowing who he is . When he hears that the prize money will be given to starving children , Homer reveals that he is Mr. X.
However , this ends up alienating Homer from the rest of the town , as nobody feels comfortable confessing their secrets now that they know Homer 's Mr. X , and his fame soon plummets . To boost his popularity , Homer begins posting outrageous stories on his webpage . His fame back , Homer celebrates by going to a fake Kwik @-@ E @-@ Mart , and ends up getting kidnapped .
Homer wakes up on the " Island " , a place where the inhabitants are people who have been exiled from society for harboring dangerous secrets . Homer learns from the organization 's leader , Number Two , that a story he wrote about flu vaccinations containing mind @-@ control serum was true . The mind control drug is calibrated to drive people into a frenzy of shopping , which is why flu shots are administered shortly before Christmas . While Homer is trapped on the Island , he is replaced by a doppelgänger who looks identical to him but speaks with a thick German accent .
Number Six , who is trapped on the Island for inventing the bottomless peanut bag , tells Homer about a makeshift boat he spent thirty @-@ three years making , which Homer steals and escapes the Island with , popping the Rover that emerged from the water to trap him . When he gets home , Homer tries to send out a message to the police through his computer , but is stopped by Number Two taking over the computer and is caught by his doppelgänger .
Homer fights his double and defeats him by kicking him in the crotch . His family is happy the real Homer is back , but then a fake Santa 's Little Helper spouts a gas that drugs the entire family . The episode ends with everyone in the family enjoying their strange , new life on the " Island " ( with Marge even saying that after getting used to the druggings , the Island itself is actually a " pretty nice place " ) .
= = Production = =
" The Computer Wore Menace Shoes " was written by John Swartzwelder and directed by Mark Kirkland . It was first broadcast on the Fox network in the United States on December 3 , 2000 . Originally , the episode was about Homer becoming Matt Drudge , the creator and an editor of the news aggregation website the Drudge Report , which Swarzwelder is a fan of . At that point , the episode was called " Homer the Drudge " . The chalkboard gag was written by staff writer Don Payne , and the couch gag was conceived by producer Laurie Biernackie .
Because it was accidentally commissioned without his approval , the animators had to apologize to Scully . When he looked at the couch gag however , he was pleased with it and ordered the animators to " go with it " . At one point in the episode , Homer wins a Pulitzer Prize for his achievements in journalism . According to Kirkland , none of the animators knew what the prize looked like and had to do some research in order to make it accurate .
The third act of " The Computer Wore Menace Shoes " is a pastiche of the 1967 science fiction television series The Prisoner . In order to " get the feel " of The Prisoner , the writers watched its opening sequence , which summarizes the story of the series . Kirkland , who had seen a couple of episodes as a child , watched several episodes of the series with The Simpsons ' animators in order to make " The Computer Wore Menace Shoes " resemble it . They were also influenced by 1960 's modernism and furniture designs from the 1971 science fiction film A Clockwork Orange .
The episode features American @-@ born actor Patrick McGoohan as Number Six , the central character in The Prisoner , which McGoohan played . " The Computer Wore Menace Shoes " was the only time McGoohan reprised his role as Number Six . In the DVD commentary for the episode , Payne said that McGoohan was " very funny " , and that all the writers wanted to meet him when he came to record his dialogue for the episode .
McGoohan was reportedly very pleased with his role in the episode ; when his wife Joan McGoohan , who is a real estate broker , helped staff writer Max Pross buy a house , she told him that Patrick McGoohan was as proud of the episode as anything in his career .
= = Cultural references = =
" The Computer Wore Menace Shoes " makes fun of use of the Internet , which was rapidly growing in popularity at the time . " [ ... ] The Internet was just starting to turn into a serious waste of time around this point in history " , staff writer Matt Selman said in the episode 's DVD commentary . The news website that Homer creates is based on the Drudge Report , a news aggregator created by journalist Matt Drudge . The episode was also written at a time when several The Simpsons producers invested in an animated web series ' company called icebox.com , which was co @-@ created by two former The Simpsons writers .
Although the title of the episode is a reference to the 1969 Disney film The Computer Wore Tennis Shoes , the episode itself has " essentially nothing " to do with the film , according to M. Keith Booker in his book Drawn to Television : Prime @-@ Time Animation from The Flintstones to Family Guy . In the episode , the slogan of Homer 's webpage is " All the muck that 's fit to rake " . This is a reference to the American newspaper The New York Times , whose slogan is " All the News That 's Fit to Print " . The word " muck " refers to muckrakers , a term closely associated with reform @-@ oriented journalists who wrote largely for popular magazines after 1900 .
The episode 's third act , which serves as a parody of The Prisoner , features several references to the series . When the secret organization finds out about Homer 's discovery , he is taken to a secret location called the " Island " . The " Island " is modeled after the " Village " , where Number Six is taken in The Prisoner .
While he is in the " Island " , Homer is repeatedly gassed by unexpected objects , a reference to the way Number Six would often be gassed in The Prisoner . " George [ Meyer ] and I used to laugh a lot about how often [ Number Six ] would be gassed by unexpected devices in the show " , Scully said in the episode 's DVD commentary . " And we wanted to cram as many in as we could . " While escaping the " Island " , Homer is chased by a " big balloon " . The balloon is a reference to Rover , a floating white ball in The Prisoner that was created to keep inhabitants in the " Village " , which was also featured in the season 9 episode The Joy of Sect . The music heard in the scene is based on The Prisoner 's theme music .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast on December 3 , 2000 , " The Computer Wore Menace Shoes " received a 9 @.@ 0 rating , according to Nielsen Media Research , translating to approximately 9 @.@ 1 million viewers . The episode finished in 28th place in the ratings for the week of November 27 @-@ December 3 , 2000 , tying with an episode of the news magazine Dateline NBC and the CBS sitcom The King of Queens . After the episode was released , The Simpsons ' writers created a website called mrxswebpage.com , which was made to resemble Homer 's website in the episode .
This was at a time when many television shows created websites to promote episodes ; earlier that year , Fox created a website called whatbadgerseat.com in conjunction with the season premiere , in which badgers played an important role . On August 18 , 2009 , the episode was released as part of a DVD set called The Simpsons : The Complete Twelfth Season . Mike Scully , Ian Maxtone @-@ Graham , Don Payne , John Frink , Matt Selman , Tom Gammill , Max Pross , Mark Kirkland and Joel H. Cohen participated in the audio commentary for the episode .
Following its broadcast , " The Computer Wore Menace Shoes " received mixed reviews from critics . Giving it a positive review , DVD Talk 's Jason Bailey described the episode as a " smart piece of social satire " . He especially enjoyed Homer 's part in the episode , and found that his incompetence at handling computers is " comedic gold " . Casey Burchby , another reviewer for DVD Talk , also enjoyed the social satire in the episode , and although he found the parody of The Prisoner " bizarre " , he maintained that it was " bold " .
Writing for DVD Verdict , Mac MacEntire argued that the episode is " hilarious " , provided one has seen The Prisoner . DNA Smith described the episode as " memorable " . The episode is also often considered to be a fan favorite , according to Matt Haigh of Den of Geek . On the other hand , DVD Movie Guide 's Colin Jacobson was less impressed with the episode .
In his review of The Simpsons : The Complete Twelfth Season , Jacobson wrote that he enjoyed the episode 's take on " Internet idiocy " . He wrote , " Some parts of it feel dated , but the web features even more ill @-@ informed opinions today than it did nine years ago , so much of it remains timeless and on target . " However , he was critical of the episode 's third act . " The side of the show feels like it was intended to amuse a few fans and it doesn ’ t show a lot of real cleverness or wit " , he wrote . He summarized the episode as being decent , but inconsistent .
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= 12 Years a Slave ( film ) =
12 Years a Slave is a 2013 period drama film and an adaptation of the 1853 slave narrative memoir Twelve Years a Slave by Solomon Northup , a New York State @-@ born free African @-@ American man who was kidnapped in Washington , D.C. , in 1841 and sold into slavery . Northup worked on plantations in the state of Louisiana for 12 years before his release . The first scholarly edition of Northup 's memoir , co @-@ edited in 1968 by Sue Eakin and Joseph Logsdon , carefully retraced and validated the account and concluded it to be accurate . Other characters in the film were also real people , including Edwin and Mary Epps , and Patsey .
The film was directed by Steve McQueen . The screenplay was written by John Ridley . Chiwetel Ejiofor stars as Solomon Northup . Michael Fassbender , Benedict Cumberbatch , Paul Dano , Paul Giamatti , Lupita Nyong 'o , Sarah Paulson , Brad Pitt , and Alfre Woodard are all featured in supporting roles . Principal photography took place in New Orleans , Louisiana , from June 27 to August 13 , 2012 . The locations used were four historic antebellum plantations : Felicity , Bocage , Destrehan , and Magnolia . Of the four , Magnolia is nearest to the actual plantation where Northup was held .
12 Years a Slave received widespread critical acclaim , and was named the best film of 2013 by several media outlets . It proved to be a box office success , earning over $ 187 million on a production budget of $ 22 million . The film won three Academy Awards : Best Picture , Best Supporting Actress for Nyong 'o , and Best Adapted Screenplay for Ridley . The Best Picture win made McQueen the first black producer ever to have received the award and the first black director to have directed a Best Picture winner . The film was awarded the Golden Globe Award for Best Motion Picture – Drama , and the British Academy of Film and Television Arts recognized it with the Best Film and the Best Actor award for Ejiofor .
= = Plot = =
In 1841 , Solomon Northup is a free African @-@ American man working as a violinist , living with his wife and two children in Saratoga Springs , New York . Two white men , Brown and Hamilton , offer him short @-@ term employment as a musician if he will travel with them to Washington , D.C. However , once they arrive , the duo drug Northup and conspire to deliver him to a slave pen . Northup is later shipped to New Orleans along with others who have been detained against their will . A slave trader named Freeman gives Northup the identity of " Platt " , a runaway slave from Georgia , and sells him and another slave Eliza to plantation owner William Ford . Due to tension between Northup and another plantation worker , Ford sells him to another slave owner named Edwin Epps . In the process , Northup attempts to explain that he is actually a free man , but to no avail .
Some time later , an outbreak of cotton worm befalls Epps ' plantation . Unable to work his fields , Epps leases his slaves to a neighboring plantation for the season . While there , Northup gains the favor of the plantation 's owner , Judge Turner , who allows him to play the fiddle at a neighbor 's wedding anniversary celebration , and to keep his earnings . When Northup returns to Epps , he attempts to use the money to pay a white field hand and former overseer , Armsby , to mail a letter to his friends in New York state . Armsby agrees to deliver the letter , and accepts Northup 's saved money in return , but later betrays him to Epps . Northup is narrowly able to convince Epps that Armsby is lying and avoids punishment .
Northup begins working on the construction of a gazebo with a Canadian laborer named Samuel Bass . Bass is unsettled by the brutal way that Epps treats his slaves and expresses his opposition to slavery , earning Epps 's enmity . Patsy sneaks off to Mistress Shaw 's house to get some soap to clean herself . Epps calls her a liar and ties her to post to prepare her for a whipping . Epps hands the whip to Northup and forces him to whip Patsy . Northup reluctantly begins to whip her but Epps rips the whip out of Northup 's hands and unleashes a brutal whipping on Patsy . Her back is shredded and her flesh is torn apart . Later Northup confides his kidnapping to Bass . Once again , Northup asks for help in getting a letter to Saratoga Springs . Bass , risking his life , agrees to send it . One day , Northup is called over by the local sheriff , who arrives in a carriage with another man . The sheriff asks Northup a series of questions to confirm his answers match the facts of his life in New York . Northup recognizes the sheriff 's companion as Mr. Parker , a shopkeeper he knew in Saratoga . Parker has come to free him , and the two embrace , though an enraged Epps furiously protests the circumstances and tries to prevent him from leaving .
After being enslaved for 12 years , Northup is restored to freedom and returned to his family . As he walks into his home , he sees his wife with their son and daughter and her husband , who present him with his grandson and namesake , Solomon Northup Staunton . The film 's epilogue displays a series of graphics recounting Northup 's unsuccessful suits against Brown , Hamilton and Burch , the 1853 publication of Northup 's slave narrative memoir , Twelve Years a Slave , his role in the abolitionist movement , and the mystery surrounding details of his death and burial .
= = Cast = =
Quvenzhané Wallis and Dwight Henry have small roles as Margaret Northup and Uncle Abram , respectively .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
After meeting screenwriter John Ridley at a Creative Artists Agency screening of Hunger in 2008 , director Steve McQueen got in touch with Ridley about his interest in making a film about " the slave era in America " with " a character that was not obvious in terms of their trade in slavery . " Developing the idea back and forth , the two did not strike a chord until McQueen 's partner , Bianca Stigter , found Solomon Northup 's 1853 memoir Twelve Years a Slave . McQueen later told an interviewer :
I read this book , and I was totally stunned . At the same time I was pretty upset with myself that I didn 't know this book . I live in Amsterdam where Anne Frank is a national hero , and for me this book read like Anne Frank 's diary but written 97 years before – a firsthand account of slavery . I basically made it my passion to make this book into a film .
After a lengthy development process , during which Brad Pitt 's production company Plan B Entertainment backed the project , which eventually helped get some financing from various film studios , the film was officially announced in August 2011 with McQueen to direct and Chiwetel Ejiofor to star as Solomon Northup , a free African @-@ American who was kidnapped and sold into slavery in the Deep South . McQueen compared Ejiofor 's conduct " of class and dignity " to that of Sidney Poitier and Harry Belafonte . In October 2011 , Michael Fassbender ( who starred in McQueen 's previous films Hunger and Shame ) joined the cast . In early 2012 , the rest of the roles were cast , and filming was scheduled to begin at the end of June 2012 .
To capture the language and dialects of the era and regions in which the film takes place , dialect coach Michael Buster assisted the cast in altering their speech . The language has a literary quality related to the style of writing of the day and the strong influence of the King James Bible . Buster explained :
We don 't know what slaves sounded like in the 1840s , so I just used rural samples from Mississippi and Louisiana [ for actors Ejiofor and Fassbender ] . Then for Benedict [ Cumberbatch ] , I found some real upper @-@ class New Orleanians from the ' 30s . And then I also worked with Lupita Nyong 'o , who is Kenyan but she did her training at Yale . So she really shifted her speech so she could do American speech .
After both won Oscars at the 86th Academy Awards , it was reported that McQueen and Ridley had been in an ongoing feud over screenplay credit . McQueen reportedly had asked Ridley for shared credit , which he declined . McQueen appealed to Fox Searchlight , which sided with Ridley . Neither thanked the other during their respective acceptance speeches at the event . Since the event , Ridley has noted his regret for not mentioning McQueen and denied the feud . He spoke favorably of working with McQueen , and explained that his sole screenplay credit was due to the rules of the Writers Guild of America . McQueen has not commented on the alleged feud .
= = = Filming = = =
With a production budget of $ 22 million , principal photography began in New Orleans , Louisiana , on June 27 , 2012 . After seven weeks , filming concluded on August 13 , 2012 . As a way to keep down production costs , a bulk of the filming took place around the greater New Orleans area – mostly south of the Red River country in the north of the state , where the historic Northup was enslaved . Among locations used were four historic antebellum plantations : Felicity , Bocage , Destrehan , and Magnolia . Magnolia , a plantation in Schriever , Louisiana , is just a few miles from one of the historic sites where Northup was held . " To know that we were right there in the place where these things occurred was so powerful and emotional , " said actor Chiwetel Ejiofor . " That feeling of dancing with ghosts – it 's palpable . " Filming also took place at the Columns Hotel and Madame John 's Legacy in the French Quarter of New Orleans .
Cinematographer Sean Bobbitt , the film 's primary camera operator , shot 12 Years a Slave on 35 mm film with a 2 @.@ 35 : 1 widescreen aspect ratio using both an Arricam LT and ST . " Particularly for a period piece , film gives the audience a definite sense of period and quality , " said Bobbitt . " And because of the story 's epic nature , widescreen clearly made the most sense . Widescreen means a big film , an epic tale – in this case an epic tale of human endurance . "
The filmmakers avoided the desaturated visual style that is typical of a more gritty documentary aesthetic . Deliberately drawing visual comparisons in the filming to the works of Spanish painter Francisco Goya , McQueen explained :
When you think about Goya , who painted the most horrendous pictures of violence and torture and so forth , and they 're amazing , exquisite paintings , one of the reasons they 're such wonderful paintings is because what he 's saying is , ' Look – look at this . ' So if you paint it badly or put it in the sort of wrong perspective , you draw more attention to what 's wrong with the image rather than looking at the image .
= = = Design = = =
To accurately depict the time period of the film , the filmmakers conducted extensive research that included studying artwork from the era . With eight weeks to create the wardrobe , costume designer Patricia Norris collaborated with Western Costume to compile costumes that would illustrate the passage of time while also being historically accurate . Using an earth tone color palette , Norris created nearly 1 @,@ 000 costumes for the film . " She [ Norris ] took earth samples from all three of the plantations to match the clothes , " McQueen said , " and she had the conversation with Sean [ Bobbitt ] to deal with the character temperature on each plantation , there was a lot of that minute detail . " The filmmakers also used some pieces of clothing discovered on set that were worn by slaves .
= = = Music = = =
The musical score to 12 Years a Slave was composed by Hans Zimmer , with original on @-@ screen violin music written and arranged by Nicholas Britell and performed by Tim Fain . The film also features a few pieces of western classical and American folk music such as Franz Schubert 's " Trio in B @-@ flat , D471 " and John and Alan Lomax 's arrangement of " Run , Nigger , Run " . A soundtrack album , Music from and Inspired by 12 Years a Slave , was released digitally on November 5 and received a physical format release on November 11 , 2013 by Columbia Records . In addition to Zimmer 's score , the album features music inspired by the film by artists such as John Legend , Laura Mvula , Alicia Keys , Chris Cornell , and Alabama Shakes . Legend 's cover of " Roll , Jordan , Roll " debuted online three weeks prior to the soundtrack 's release .
= = Historical accuracy = =
African @-@ American history and culture scholar Henry Louis Gates Jr. was a consultant on the film , and researcher David Fiske , co @-@ author of Solomon Northup : The Complete Story of the Author of Twelve Years a Slave , provided some material used to market the film . Nevertheless , news and magazine articles around the time of the film 's release described a scholar alleging some license that Northup could have taken with his book , and liberties that McQueen definitely took with Northup 's original , for dramatic , modernizing , or other reasons .
Scott Feinberg wrote in the The Hollywood Reporter about a September 22 New York Times article that " dredged up and highlighted a 1985 essay by another scholar , James Olney , that questioned the ' literal truth ' of specific incidents in Northup 's account and suggested that David Wilson , the white amanuensis to whom Northup had dictated his story , had taken the liberty of sprucing it up to make it even more effective at rallying public opinion against slavery . " According to Olney , when abolitionists invited an ex @-@ slave to share his experience in slavery at an antislavery convention , and when they subsequently funded the appearance of that story in print , " they had certain clear expectations , well understood by themselves and well understood by the ex @-@ slave , too . "
Noah Berlatsky wrote in the The Atlantic about a scene in McQueen 's adaptation . Shortly after Northup 's kidnapping , he is sent on a slave ship . One of the sailors attempts to rape a female slave , but is stopped by a male slave . " The sailor unhesitatingly stabs and kills [ the male slave ] , " he wrote , stating that " this seems unlikely on its face — slaves are valuable , and the sailor is not the owner . And , sure enough , the scene is not in the book . "
Forrest Wickman of Slate wrote of Northup 's book giving a more favorable account of the author 's onetime master , William Ford , than the McQueen film . In Northup 's own words , " There never was a more kind , noble , candid , Christian man than William Ford , " adding that Ford 's circumstances " blinded [ Ford ] to the inherent wrong at the bottom of the system of Slavery . " The movie , however , according to Wickham , " frequently undermines Ford . " McQueen undercuts Christianity itself as well , in an effort to update the ethical lessons from Northup 's story for the 21st century , by holding the institutions of Christianity up to the light for their ability to justify slavery at the time . Northup was a Christian of his time , writing of his former master being " blinded " by " circumstances " that in retrospect meant a racist acceptance of slavery despite being a Christian , a position untenable to some Christians now and to Christian abolitionists of the 19th century but not contradictory to Northup himself . Valerie Elverton Dixon in The Washington Post characterized the Christianity depicted in the movie as " broken " .
Emily West , an associate professor of history at the University of Reading who specializes in the history of slavery in the U.S. , said she had " never seen a film represent slavery so accurately " . Reviewing the film for History Extra , the website of BBC History Magazine , she said : " The film starkly and powerfully unveiled the sights and sounds of enslavement – from slaves picking cotton as they sang in the fields , to the crack of the lash down people ’ s backs . We also heard a lot about the ideology behind enslavement . Masters such as William Ford and Edwin Epps , although very different characters , both used an interpretation of Christianity to justify their ownership of slaves . They believed the Bible sanctioned slavery , and that it was their ‘ Christian duty ’ to preach the scriptures to their slaves . "
= = Release = =
= = = Initial screenings = = =
12 Years a Slave premiered at the Telluride Film Festival on August 30 , 2013 ; it was later screened at the 2013 Toronto International Film Festival on September 6 , the New York Film Festival on October 8 , the New Orleans Film Festival on October 10 , and the Philadelphia Film Festival on October 19 . On November 15 , 2011 , Summit Entertainment announced it had secured a deal to distribute 12 Years a Slave to international markets . In April 2012 , a few weeks before principal photography , New Regency Productions agreed to co @-@ finance the film . Because of a distribution pact between 20th Century Fox and New Regency , Fox Searchlight Pictures acquired the film 's United States distribution rights . However , instead of paying for the distribution rights , Fox Searchlight made a deal in which it would share box @-@ office proceeds with the financiers of the independently financed film . 12 Years a Slave was commercially released on October 18 , 2013 in the United States for a limited release of 19 theaters , with a wide release in subsequent weeks . The film was initially scheduled to be released in late December 2013 , but " some exuberant test screenings " led to the decision to move up the release date . The film was distributed by Entertainment One in the United Kingdom .
= = = Marketing = = =
Due to both the film 's explicit nature and award contender status , 12 Years a Slave 's financial success was being watched closely . Many analysts compared the film 's content to other drama films of a similar vein such as Schindler 's List ( 1993 ) and The Passion of the Christ ( 2004 ) , which became box office successes despite their respective subject matters . " It may be a tough subject matter , but when handled well ... films that are tough to sit through can still be commercially successful , " said Phil Contrino of Boxoffice Magazine . Despite its content , the film 's critical success has assisted its domestic distribution by Fox Searchlight that began with a limited released aimed primarily towards art house and African @-@ American patrons . The film 's release was gradually widened in subsequent weeks , similarly to how the studio had successfully done in years prior with films such as Black Swan and The Descendants . International release dates for 12 Years a Slave were largely delayed to early 2014 in order to take advantage of the attention created by awards seasons .
During its marketing campaign , 12 Years a Slave received unpaid endorsements by celebrities such as Kanye West and Sean Combs . In a video posted by Revolt , Combs urged viewers to see 12 Years a Slave by stating : " This movie is very painful but very honest , and is a part of the healing process . I beg all of you to take your kids , everybody to see it . ... You have to see this so you can understand , so you can just start to understand . "
= = = Home media = = =
Following its cinematic release in theaters , the Region 1 Code widescreen edition of the film was released on DVD in the United States on March 4 , 2014 . Special features for the DVD include ; a Closed Caption option , The Team - Meet the creative minds assembled by Director Steve McQueen and bring Solomon Northup 's journey to life bonus selection , and The Score - Follow film Composer Hans Zimmer creating his dramatic score feature . In supplemental fashion , a widescreen hi @-@ definition Blu @-@ ray Disc version of the film was also released on the same day . Special features include ; a historical portrait from Director Steve McQueen 's documentary feature , cast and crew interviews , The Team special feature , and The Score selection . An additional viewing option for the film in the media format of Video on demand has been made available as well .
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office = = =
12 Years a Slave earned $ 187 @.@ 7 million , including $ 56 @.@ 7 million in the United States . During its opening limited release in the United States , 12 Years a Slave debuted with a weekend total of $ 923 @,@ 715 on 19 screens for a $ 48 @,@ 617 per @-@ screen average . The following weekend , the film entered the top ten after expanding to 123 theatres and grossing an additional $ 2 @.@ 1 million . It continued to improve into its third weekend , grossing $ 4 @.@ 6 million at 410 locations . The film release was expanded to over 1 @,@ 100 locations on November 8 , 2013 . In 2014 , 12 Years a Slave was the 10th most @-@ illegally downloaded movie , with 23 @.@ 653 million such downloads , according to Variety .
= = = Critical response = = =
12 Years a Slave received near @-@ universal acclaim by critics and audiences , for its acting ( particularly Ejiofor , Fassbender and Nyong 'o ) , Steve McQueen 's direction , John Ridley 's screenplay , its production values , and its faithfulness to Solomon Northup 's account . Film review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports that 96 % of critics gave the film a " Certified Fresh " rating , based on 304 reviews with an average score of 9 / 10 , with the site 's consensus stating , " It 's far from comfortable viewing , but 12 Years a Slave 's unflinchingly brutal look at American slavery is also brilliant — and quite possibly essential — cinema . " Metacritic , another review aggregator , assigned the film a weighted average score of 97 ( out of 100 ) based on 48 reviews from mainstream critics , considered to be " universal acclaim " . It is currently one of the site 's highest @-@ rated films as well as the best reviewed film of 2013 . CinemaScore reported that audiences gave the film an " A " grade .
Richard Corliss of TIME heralded the film and its director , Steve McQueen , by stating : " Indeed , McQueen 's film is closer in its storytelling particulars to such 1970s exploitation @-@ exposés of slavery as Mandingo and Goodbye , Uncle Tom . Except that McQueen is not a schlockmeister sensationalist but a remorseless artist . " Corliss draws parallels with Nazi Germany , saying , " McQueen shows that racism , aside from its barbarous inhumanity , is insanely inefficient . It can be argued that Nazi Germany lost the war both because it diverted so much manpower to the killing of Jews and because it did not exploit the brilliance of Jewish scientists in building smarter weapons . So the slave owners dilute the energy of their slaves by whipping them for sadistic sport and , as Epps does , waking them at night to dance for his wife 's cruel pleasure . " Gregory Ellwood of HitFix gave the film an " A- " rating , stating , " 12 Years is a powerful drama driven by McQueen 's bold direction and the finest performance of Chiwetel Ejiofor 's career . " He continued by praising the performances of Fassbender and Nyong 'o , citing Nyong 'o as " the film 's breakthrough performance [ that ] may find Nyong 'o making her way to the Dolby Theater next March . " He also admired the film 's " gorgeous " cinematography and the musical score , as " one of Hans Zimmer 's more moving scores in some time . " Paul MacInnes of The Guardian scored the film five out of five stars , writing , " Stark , visceral and unrelenting , 12 Years a Slave is not just a great film but a necessary one . "
Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly praised it as " a new movie landmark of cruelty and transcendence " and as " a movie about a life that gets taken away , and that 's why it lets us touch what life is . " He also commented very positively about Ejiofor 's performance , while further stating , " 12 Years a Slave lets us stare at the primal sin of America with open eyes , and at moments it is hard to watch , yet it 's a movie of such humanity and grace that at every moment , you feel you 're seeing something essential . It is Chiwetel Ejiofor 's extraordinary performance that holds the movie together , and that allows us to watch it without blinking . He plays Solomon with a powerful inner strength , yet he never soft @-@ pedals the silent nightmare that is Solomon 's daily existence . " Peter Travers of Rolling Stone , gave the film a four @-@ star rating and said : " you won 't be able to tuck this powder keg in the corner of your mind and forget it . What we have here is a blistering , brilliant , straight @-@ up classic . " He later named the film the best movie of 2013 .
Manohla Dargis wrote , in her review for The New York Times , " the genius of 12 Years a Slave is its insistence on banal evil , and on terror , that seeped into souls , bound bodies and reaped an enduring , terrible price . " The Daily Telegraph 's Tim Robey granted the film a maximum score of five stars , stating that " it 's the nobility of this remarkable film that pierces the soul , " while praising Ejiofor and Nyong 'o's performances . Tina Hassannia of Slant Magazine said that " using his signature visual composition and deafening sound design , Steve McQueen portrays the harrowing realism of Northup 's experience and the complicated relationships between master and slave , master and master , slave and slave , and so on . " David Simon , the creator of the TV series The Wire , highly praised the movie , commenting that " it marks the first time in history that our entertainment industry , albeit with international creative input , has managed to stare directly at slavery and maintain that gaze " .
The film , however , was not without its criticisms . Stephanie Zacharek of The Village Voice was more critical of the film . While praising Ejiofor 's work , she stated : " It 's a picture that stays more than a few safe steps away from anything so dangerous as raw feeling . Even when it depicts inhuman cruelty , as it often does , it never compromises its aesthetic purity . " Peter Malamud Smith of Slate criticized the story , saying , " 12 Years a Slave is constructed as a story of a man trying to return to his family , offering every viewer a way into empathizing with its protagonist . Maybe we need a story framed on that individual scale in order to understand it . But it has a distorting effect all the same . We 're more invested in one hero than in millions of victims ; if we 're forced to imagine ourselves enslaved , we want to imagine ourselves as Northup , a special person who miraculously escaped the system that attempted to crush him . " Describing this as " the hero problem " , Malamud Smith concluded his review explaining , " We can handle 12 Years a Slave . But don 't expect 60 Years a Slave any time soon . And 200 Years , Millions of Slaves ? Forget about it . " Ignatiy Vishnevetsky of The A.V. Club opined that McQueen is " essentially tone @-@ deaf when it comes to performance , and skirts by on casting . " The film " lacks a necessary emotional continuity . I don ’ t think it ’ s something the movie is denying in the way it intentionally denies so many other conventions ; it ’ s still structured around an ending that ’ s supposed to function as a release , but because it can ’ t organize that sense of catharsis it so badly needs , it just feels as though McQueen is scurrying for an exit . Also : The cast is wildly uneven . " At The Guardian , black Canadian author Orville Lloyd Douglas said he would not be seeing 12 Years a Slave , explaining : " I 'm convinced these black race films are created for a white , liberal film audience to engender white guilt and make them feel bad about themselves . Regardless of your race , these films are unlikely to teach you anything you don 't already know . "
= = = Accolades = = =
12 Years a Slave has received numerous awards and nominations . It earned three Academy Awards , including Best Picture . It won the Golden Globe Award for Best Motion Picture – Drama . The film also won the BAFTA Award for Best Film , while Ejiofor received the Best Actor award . In addition , the motion picture has been named as one of the best films of 2013 by various ongoing critics , appearing on 100 critics ' top @-@ ten lists in which 25 had the film in their number @-@ one spot . This is both the most of any film released in its production year .
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= The Job ( The Office ) =
" The Job " is the third season finale of the U.S. version of The Office , and the show 's 52nd and 53rd episodes overall . In this episode , Michael prepares for his interview for the corporate job and names Dwight as his successor , whose managing methods are unpopular . Jan arrives at the office to see Michael and everyone is shocked when it appears she has undergone breast augmentation . Jim and Karen also interview for the corporate position , and Pam deals with the consequences of her earlier outburst .
The episode was written by Paul Lieberstein and Michael Schur , and was directed by Ken Kwapis . It was cut down from an hour and twelve minutes to forty @-@ two minutes , making it the season 's second hour @-@ long episode after " A Benihana Christmas " . Kwapis carefully shot Jim 's reaction shots , as he did not want to reveal Jim 's choice of Karen or Pam to the audience . The cast were unaware how the season would end , as multiple endings were shot by the crew . Filming wrapped up in April 2007 .
The finale first aired in the United States on May 17 , 2007 on NBC . An estimated 7 @.@ 9 million viewers watched the episode ; it earned a 3 @.@ 9 / 12 ratings share among adults 18 @-@ 49 , making it rank first for the night . Television critics gave positive reviews to the finale . It won the Writers Guild of America Award for Best Screenplay – Episodic Comedy and the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Single @-@ Camera Picture Editing for a Comedy Series . In addition , Jenna Fischer received a nomination for Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series .
= = Plot = =
Confident that he will get the corporate job in New York City , Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) sells his condo and names Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) his successor as Regional Manager . Pam Beesly ( Jenna Fischer ) cheerfully withstands her colleagues ' teasing over her speech from " Beach Games , " and tells Karen Filippelli ( Rashida Jones ) that she is not sorry about what she said but regrets putting Karen in an awkward position . Meanwhile , Kevin Malone ( Brian Baumgartner ) asks Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) whom he finds more attractive between Karen and Pam . Though Jim initially refuses to answer , he becomes intrigued when Kevin starts to compare the two women . He tells Kevin to keep thinking about it in a joking way , but appears to be very interested in the results .
Jan Levinson ( Melora Hardin ) arrives at the office to win Michael back . In a panic , Michael consults the women of the office . Pam tells him not to reconcile with Jan. Michael attempts to reject Jan , but reverses himself immediately when he sees that she has had a breast augmentation . Jim and Karen drive to New York City together and spend the night before their interviews . Karen tells Jim that if either of them gets the job , both should move to New York . She promises to do so , but is met with awkward silence when she asks Jim to reciprocate . Meanwhile , Dwight begins his new regime , assigning Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) the role of his number two and asking Pam to be his secret " Assistant to the Regional Manager . " Dwight 's new motivational style is not popular , and so he and Andy repaint the walls of Dwight 's new office black in order to instill fear .
During his interview at Corporate , Michael learns from CFO David Wallace ( Andy Buckley ) that he is interviewing for the job currently held by Jan , who will be fired . Michael goes to Jan 's office after the interview and quickly bumbles into revealing her impending termination . Jan storms into Wallace 's office , interrupting Karen 's interview , and refuses to leave . After Jan is escorted out by security , Michael learns that he will not be getting the position . On the drive home , Jan tells Michael that she will make their relationship her " full @-@ time job " . Upon hearing that , Michael becomes visibly uncomfortable .
Jim 's interview with David goes well until he discovers an encouraging note from Pam along with a yogurt lid medal ( reminiscent of an earlier episode ) . Jim recalls a conversation with Pam after her confession on the beach . He discreetly admits that he left Scranton because of her rejection and that he feels that he has " never really come back , " meaning that he has been actively fighting his feelings for her . Pam tells him that she wishes that he would come back .
Just as Pam is telling the cameras that she does not think that it would work out between her and Jim , he bursts into the room and asks her out to dinner . Stunned , she agrees , and Jim says , " Alright . Then , it 's a date . " After Jim exits the room , Pam becomes visibly joyous and forgets what she was talking about .
During a phone call , David Wallace offers the job to Ryan Howard ( B. J. Novak ) , who accepts and immediately breaks up with Kelly Kapoor ( Mindy Kaling ) .
= = Production = =
" The Job " was written by Paul Lieberstein and Michael Schur . It was directed by Ken Kwapis , who had , around the same time , directed The Office actor John Krasinski in the 2007 film License to Wed . Script reading for the episode took place on a beach during the filming of the season 's twenty @-@ third episode , " Beach Games " . Actress Kate Flannery remarked that " we were so excited that we almost had another hot dog eating contest . Not . It 's a great script . Lots of questions answered . Lots . The Office fans have been anxiously awaiting a one @-@ hour episode , and guess what ? You got it . " The original cut of the episode was an hour and twelve minutes long , and had to be edited down to forty @-@ two minutes of screentime . It was the second Office episode to fill the entire hour timeslot ; the first was the third season episode " A Benihana Christmas " .
Krasinski received a haircut due to production on another film , which he thought " ended up working perfectly " for the season finale . Co @-@ creator Greg Daniels had wanted Jim to get a haircut for a while , as he thought it would " change [ him ] up a little bit . " Krasinski thought it was " really smart " to make it seem like Karen 's idea . Kwapis was careful with Jim 's reaction shots in the episode , as he did not want to " tip anything " to the audience about Jim 's choice of Karen or Pam . Kwapis explained , " That to me was actually one of the big challenges of the episode is how to keep you on your toes in terms of not knowing where the story was going . " Jim 's flashback scene with Pam on the beach was initially intended to be the cold open of the episode before Michael Schur suggested it be moved . Kwapis shot multiple endings , and the cast was unaware how the season would end .
Jenna Fischer enjoyed doing her individual scenes with Rainn Wilson because their characters rarely interacted one @-@ on @-@ one . The filming of these scenes took place on the last days of production for the season , and not many people were still on set . The episode finished shooting in April 2007 . Two weeks before the finale , actor Oscar Nunez gave brief allusions in an interview with Entertainment Weekly , " There will be some movement . Major things moving . Major shifts that affect the entire office . So there 's some good stuff coming up . That 's all I can say . "
= = Reception = =
The episode first aired in the United States on May 17 , 2007 , several days after NBC announced a fourth season . " The Job " attracted 7 @.@ 9 million viewers and earned a 3 @.@ 9 / 12 ratings share among adults 18 to 49 . It ranked first for the night in that demographic , and was NBC 's highest among adults and total viewers in its timeslot since the broadcast of " Cocktails " . Among total viewers , The Office ranked third in its timeslot ( behind a CBS tribute to the retiring Bob Barker and ABC 's first season finale of Ugly Betty ) .
The season finale received generally positive reviews from television critics . Entertainment Weekly columnist Abby West wrote that it " was hands down one of the most satisfying hours of television I have ever had the pleasure of watching , " explaining that it created " entirely new dynamics " for the fourth season , hit " all major beats , " and had " real story progression " and heart . Give Me My Remote writer Kath Skerry declared that the episode was " brilliantly written , acted , and well paced . It was filled with twists and turns that I didn ’ t see coming . And I know that it sounds cliche , and I know saying it sounds cliche , sounds cliche . Maybe I ’ m being cliche but I don ’ t care . I am what I am – a full fledged Office addict who got exactly what she wanted , and in fact needed from the finale . " James Poniewozik of Time magazine voiced similar sentiments , believing the finale to be a " good if not great season @-@ ender , and if the conclusion didn ’ t have the holy @-@ crap factor of The Kiss last year , Pam ’ s closeup reaction to Jim ’ s return during her interview was – like everything Jenna Fischer does on this show – winning and sweet . " Poniewozik disliked how the season left Karen , calling it " an uncharacteristic way to end this love triangle , which was distinguished by the writers ’ refusal to make anyone the bad guy . "
IGN 's Travis Fickett rated " The Job " 8 @.@ 2 / 10 . He believed that the episode " pulled off some rather brilliant turns " with the storylines concerning Jan and Jim , Karen , and Pam . Fickett opined however that the episode was at its weakest during the Dwight 's take @-@ over scenes in Scranton , as he knew Michael would be returning . He concluded his review on a more positive note by commenting that Ryan 's selection " makes for some interesting scenarios for next season . All in all this was a funny episode that wrapped up some key story lines while still leaving open some questions to be answered next season . It wasn 't a home run finale , but it certainly has us eagerly await the fall premiere . " AOL TV contributor Jay Black highlighted scenes he found humorous , including Dwight 's preferred choice of an assistant and Michael 's reaction to Jan 's implants . He gave the episode " 7 Shrute Bucks out of 7 . " Various cast members were also lauded for their performances , including Jenna Fischer , John Krasinski , and Melora Hardin .
In an article written after the episode 's broadcast , actress Kate Flannery observed that " lots of questions " were answered and that it was " like a movie . " Referring to the agreed @-@ to date between Jim and Pam , Flannery said , " The point is that the elephant in the room has not only been addressed but asked to dinner . Makes Season 4 seem filled with possibilities – like an empty glass in front of a full bar . " In an article written around the time of actor Steve Carell 's last performance on The Office in 2011 , IGN 's Cindy White listed Michael 's quote about Jan 's " breast enhancement " as among the best of the series . Dan Philipps , another writer for IGN , ranked Jim 's date proposal among the best moments for the couple , stating that " after toying with fans ' expectations for two whole seasons , the series ' writers finally allowed fans to breathe a sigh of relief . For many , the moment was well worth the wait . "
For their writing of " The Job " , Paul Lieberstein and Michael Schur won the Writers Guild of America Award for Best Screenplay – Episodic Comedy , beating The Office episodes " Local Ad " and " Phyllis 's Wedding " as well as episodes of 30 Rock , Flight of the Conchords , and Pushing Daisies . At the 59th Creative Arts Emmy Awards , editors David Rogers and Dean Holland won for Outstanding Single @-@ Camera Picture Editing for a Comedy Series . For her work in " The Job " , Jenna Fischer received a nomination for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series , but lost to Jaime Pressly for her performance in My Name is Earl .
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= Coropuna =
Coropuna is a dormant volcano in the southern Peruvian Andes and belonging to the Central Volcanic Zone ; its summit reaches an altitude of 6 @,@ 377 metres ( 20 @,@ 922 feet ) above sea level . The volcano , located 155 kilometres ( 96 miles ) from Arequipa , is mostly made of lava flows on a basement formed by Miocene ignimbrites . Coropuna has been active for at least five million years , with the bulk of the current cone having formed during the Pliocene – Pleistocene .
The volcano is covered by a thick ice cap , the second largest in the tropics , that has existed since at least the Pliocene and has undergone several phases of expansion and reduction . As of 2016 , the ice cap is in retreat ; one estimate predicts that it will disappear by 2045 . The retreat of the Coropuna glaciers threatens the water supply of tens of thousands of people , and interaction between volcanic activity and glacial effects has generated mudflows that could be a hazard to surrounding populations if the mountain returns to volcanic activity .
The mountain was considered sacred by the Inca , and a number of archaeological sites have been discovered there . The Inca built the highest irrigation system in the world on Coropuna .
= = Geography and geology = =
Part of the Cordillera Ampato , it is Peru 's largest and highest volcano . Coropuna is located south of the Pucuncho basin in the Peruvian Andes and 110 kilometres ( 68 mi ) away from the Pacific coast . Neighbouring volcanoes are the 5 @,@ 498 @-@ metre ( 18 @,@ 038 ft ) Firura ( 15 ° 14 ′ S 72 ° 48 ′ W ) and the 6 @,@ 093 @-@ metre ( 19 @,@ 990 ft ) Solimana ( 15 ° 24 ′ S 72 ° 52 ′ W ) . Firura is a structure with two dome shaped summits , while Solimana features a caldera and a high , glacially affected topography . Another volcano , Ampato , lies 85 kilometres ( 53 mi ) southeast .
Ten summits , including four main ones , separated by broad saddles , form the Coropuna massif , which covers an area of 20 × 12 kilometres ( 12 @.@ 4 × 7 @.@ 5 mi ) at 5 @,@ 000 metres ( 16 @,@ 000 ft ) altitude . Another description counts six main summits arranged in an ellipse . Mapping of the volcano is made difficult by the ice cap . The main summits are found in the western part of the massif , and two are aligned in a north – south direction with heights of 6 @,@ 377 metres ( 20 @,@ 922 ft ) and 6 @,@ 350 metres ( 20 @,@ 830 ft ) . The eastern part features two summits : a central one has an ice @-@ filled crater at 6 @,@ 234 metres ( 20 @,@ 453 ft ) , and the eastern one , at 6 @,@ 305 metres ( 20 @,@ 686 ft ) , is the summit that has generated the most recent lava flows . Cerro Cuncaicha forms a spur on Coropuna 's eastern flank . All of these summits have a mostly smooth appearance . The volcano developed in two phases : Coropuna I , at 4 @,@ 200 – 5 @,@ 000 metres ( 13 @,@ 800 – 16 @,@ 400 ft ) , has a conical shape ; other summits , including Coropuna II , have grown above it . The terrain of Coropuna has moderate slopes rising from a basement of 4 @,@ 600 metres ( 15 @,@ 100 ft ) . Erosion has incised deep gorges around Coropuna . The total volume of Coropuna is about 283 cubic kilometres ( 68 cu mi ) .
Volcanism in the Andes originates in the collision of the Pacific Ocean floor with the South American Plate . This collision generates tectonic forces which lift up blocks of the Central Andes and create fissures through which magma reaches the surface . Coropuna is part of the northern Central Volcanic Zone ( CVZ ) and , along with Ampato – Sabancaya – Hualca Hualca , Chachani , and El Misti , forms part of the main volcanic arc . Coropuna , Sara Sara , and Solimana are close to the northern border of the CVZ , where the Benioff zone becomes shallower . In this area , the Andes mountains are still growing , and erosion has cut deep valleys into them . The area also features numerous fault zones , best visible south and southwest of Coropuna where shifts of 10 metres ( 33 ft ) and more have occurred . Coropuna lies on a line of volcanoes that runs from Solimana to Sabancaya .
The bulk of the volcano was formed in the Quaternary , with activity commencing in the Miocene . Five million years ago , the first latiandesites were erupted . The minor eruptive centres of Pumaranra and Antapuna are K @-@ Ar dated at 1 @.@ 3 ± 0 @.@ 11 and 1 @.@ 02 ± 0 @.@ 11 million years old . Much of the volcano was constructed by lava flows .
= = = Volcanic history and future threat = = =
Coropuna is constructed on Tertiary ignimbrites that form the Puna ( one of which is dated 14 million years ) ; these are completely buried around the volcano . The dates of these ignimbrites are not entirely clear . The Barroso group beneath Coropuna is dated 5 @.@ 3 million years by K @-@ Ar . Beginning in the mid @-@ Pliocene , the Coropuna I and Coropuna II volcanoes were constructed by large lava flows . Of the former there remain only planezes , sectors that were once part of the volcano but are now separated by gaps created through erosion . Evidence found in the Majes river valley indicates that volcanic activity frequently resulted in lahars when parts of the ice cap melted under the influence of volcanic activity . Some explosive activity has thrown lava bombs up to 7 kilometres ( 4 @.@ 3 mi ) away .
The bulk of the volcano was formed during the Pliocene and Pleistocene , one tephra deposit being carbon @-@ 14 dated to 27 @,@ 200 – 37 @,@ 370 BP . In the early Holocene , andesite lava flows overran late moraines . Strong glacial and other erosion effects can be seen on Coropuna . Chlorine @-@ 36 exposure dating has found ages of 6 @,@ 000 years ago for the western lava flow and 2 @,@ 000 years ago and less for the eastern lava flows . These flows are tens of meters thick and 5 – 9 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 1 – 5 @.@ 6 mi ) long and are only weakly eroded , conserving most of their breccia cover . Each of these lava emissions is associated with the formation of mudflows from lava – ice interaction . The youngest date reported for one of these lava flows is 1 @,@ 100 ± 100 years ago .
Present @-@ day activity includes a chain of warm springs associated with the volcano . An earthquake swarm and associated ground deformation were observed near Coropuna and Sabancaya in 2001 , and the 2001 southern Peru earthquake caused seismic swarms at Coropuna . Interaction between the ice cap and future eruptive activity is considered to be a hazard at Coropuna , especially in light of the extreme altitude differences that are found in the territory . The consequent sudden melting of the glaciers could endanger towns in the valleys . Likewise , earthquakes could result in the collapse of part of the ice cap . There is a hazard of lahars which is further augmented by the extreme relief around the volcano , with a difference in height of 4 @,@ 000 metres ( 13 @,@ 000 ft ) within a horizontal space of 15 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) . Several towns are located downstream of Coropuna , including Viraco , Machahuay , Salamanca , Chichas , Yanaquihua , Andaray , and Punta Colorada . The town of Camaná at the mouth of the Majes has 20 @,@ 000 inhabitants .
= = = Petrology = = =
Petrologically , dark @-@ coloured andesites form the bulk of the lavas , while ignimbrites are rhyodacitic . The andesites contain plagioclase and quartz as well as smaller amounts of amphibole and biotite . Pyroxene and titanomagnetite are also found . The groundmass of Coropuna rocks contains plagioclase and pyroxene embedded in brown glass , the whole having a hyalophilic ( glassy ) appearance . The magmas originated at a depth of 8 – 12 kilometres ( 5 @.@ 0 – 7 @.@ 5 mi ) . Earlier andesites are more basic than later ones .
Based on chemical and petrographic data , the lavas formed from water @-@ poor source material at depth . Phenocrysts formed at depths of less than 35 kilometres ( 22 mi ) . Temperatures of Coropuna 's eruption products are estimated at 700 – 1 @,@ 200 ° C ( 1 @,@ 292 – 2 @,@ 192 ° F ) . The magmas , during their whole journey to the surface , moved over vertical distances of 70 – 120 kilometres ( 43 – 75 mi ) . During this ascent , secondary magmas were formed that generated intermediate and felsic rocks . Post @-@ eruption , meltwater derived from the ice cap has caused hydrothermal alteration of the volcano .
= = Ice cap = =
The Coropuna glacier is located 155 kilometres ( 96 mi ) northwest of Arequipa . Exceeded in size solely by the Quelccaya ice cap , it is the second @-@ largest tropical ice cap in the world . The highest point of the Coropuna ice cap is measured at 6 @,@ 446 metres ( 21 @,@ 148 ft ) altitude . A 2010 study showed the average thickness was 80 @.@ 8 ± 16 @.@ 5 metres ( 265 ± 54 ft ) , with a total volume of 4 @.@ 62 ± 0 @.@ 94 cubic kilometres ( 1 @.@ 11 ± 0 @.@ 23 cu mi ) . In 1962 at least 17 glaciers combined to form this ice cap . Present @-@ day outlet glaciers reach down to 5 @,@ 500 metres ( 18 @,@ 000 ft ) and 5 @,@ 100 metres ( 16 @,@ 700 ft ) on the southern and northern side , respectively . The northeastern glaciers are smaller than the southeastern ones . Beneath the glacier above 4 @,@ 500 metres ( 14 @,@ 800 ft ) altitude , gelifluction and other periglacial features form the terrain . No significant valley glaciers are present on Coropuna .
There is evidence of glaciation during the Coropuna I stage of volcanic activity ; the mountain was glaciated at least since the Pliocene . During the Last Glacial Maximum , Coropuna 's longest glacier was the 12 @-@ kilometre ( 7 @.@ 5 mi ) -long Quebrada Ullulo glacier , and the ice cap covered a surface area of at least 365 square kilometres ( 141 sq mi ) . Outlet glaciers descended to 4 @,@ 540 feet ( 1 @,@ 380 m ) and 3 @,@ 780 metres ( 12 @,@ 400 ft ) altitude on the northern and southern flank , respectively . Equilibrium line altitudes ranged from 5 @,@ 120 – 5 @,@ 230 metres ( 16 @,@ 800 – 17 @,@ 160 ft ) on the northern side to 4 @,@ 700 – 4 @,@ 800 metres ( 15 @,@ 400 – 15 @,@ 700 ft ) on the southern side . Aside from a north – south gradient , a possibly wind sublimation @-@ driven east – west gradient in equilibrium line altitudes is visible . In addition to Ullulo on the northern flank , other outlet glaciers were Huayllaura and Quipchane on the southern flank , Pucunchiloyocc on the western flank , and Cospanjaon on the eastern flank . Based on chlorine @-@ 36 accumulation data on moraines , it has been determined that the volcano underwent a major expansion between 20 @,@ 000 and 16 @,@ 000 years ago , a minor expansion 12 @,@ 000 to 11 @,@ 000 years ago , and another minor expansion 9 @,@ 000 years ago . On the southern flank , a major expansion took place 14 @,@ 000 years ago and a minor one 10 @,@ 000 – 9 @,@ 000 years ago . Evidence has been found of a later minor expansion 6 @,@ 000 years ago . It has been determined that in the late Holocene , the snowline was located at 5 @,@ 200 – 5 @,@ 775 metres ( 17 @,@ 060 – 18 @,@ 947 ft ) of elevation .
Coropuna 's largest moraines were formed during the Last Glacial Maximum ( LGM ) , about 25 @,@ 000 – 20 @,@ 000 years ago . The Ullulo moraine on the northern flank is the largest , with a relief of 100 metres ( 330 ft ) . Gravel and boulders form the bulk of the LGM moraines . There are several stages of moraines between these LGM moraines and the present @-@ day ones , some linked to the late 19th @-@ century advance and other more extensive ones to late glacial advances . All of these moraines are crisp and have been well preserved by the arid conditions . The moraines within 0 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 31 mi ) of the present @-@ day ice margin are steep @-@ sided . The current retreat has left small and poorly developed terminal moraines .
In 1970 Coropuna 's glaciers formed 4 % of Peru 's total glacier surface . The Coropuna ice cap has shrunk between 1955 and 2008 , from 122 @.@ 7 square kilometres ( 47 @.@ 4 sq mi ) to 48 @.@ 1 square kilometres ( 18 @.@ 6 sq mi ) surface area . Much of the surface loss happened in the 1980s and 1990s . This shrinkage of 1 @.@ 4 square kilometres ( 0 @.@ 54 sq mi ) per year may result in the disappearance of the ice cap by 2045 . The surface area of the ice cap as measured by satellite images decreased from 105 ± 16 square kilometres ( 40 @.@ 5 ± 6 @.@ 2 sq mi ) in 1975 to 96 ± 15 square kilometres ( 37 @.@ 1 ± 5 @.@ 8 sq mi ) in 1986 , 64 ± 8 square kilometres ( 24 @.@ 7 ± 3 @.@ 1 sq mi )
in 1996 , 56 ± 6 square kilometres ( 21 @.@ 6 ± 2 @.@ 3 sq mi ) in 2003 , and to 47 square kilometres ( 18 sq mi ) in 2007 . It is likely that some ice masses will disappear soon , while others will persist for decades . Further , the snowline has risen much higher than the glacier termini . This retreat mirrors the retreat of most glaciers in the world since the end of the Little Ice Age .
Coropuna is drained by deep gorges , with water eventually reaching the Arma and Majes rivers , both of which empty into the Pacific Ocean . During the dry season , Coropuna 's glaciers are a major source of water for the region , and concern has been raised that their disappearance may result in water shortages at a time when population growth has increased water consumption and begun to create conflict over water distribution . 30 @,@ 000 people depend on the Coropuna glacier in one way or the other , 8 @,@ 000 of them just for their water supply .
A major ice core was drilled in 2003 on Coropuna , covering more than 16 @,@ 000 years . Ice cores indicate that the Coropuna glacier receives mostly continental dust , and that 4 @,@ 200 years ago there was a severe drought , while 5 @,@ 200 years ago a wet and cold period occurred . More recent data show a severe drought from 1790 to 1796 . Fossil remains of rock glaciers have been found on the southeastern flank at altitudes of 4 @,@ 500 – 5 @,@ 250 metres ( 14 @,@ 760 – 17 @,@ 220 ft ) .
= = Climate and vegetation = =
Close to the ice , diurnal temperature variation dominates seasonal effects . The temperature has generally increased in the area ( 0 @.@ 1 ° C ( 0 @.@ 2 ° F ) per decade since 1939 ) , with El Niño events possibly playing a role . Analysis of plankton in Lake Titicaca indicates that a glacial climate prevailed until 10 @,@ 000 – 9 @,@ 000 years ago .
Because of the rain shadow of the Andes and the temperature inversion over the Pacific , the climate is arid , with precipitation of 390 millimetres ( 15 in ) per year at 6 @,@ 080 metres ( 19 @,@ 950 ft ) altitude . Water cannot reach Coropuna from the Pacific Ocean . Most precipitation ( 70 – 90 % ) falls during summer ( December – March ) . A sharp reduction in precipitation was found during the El Niño years of 1982 – 1983 and 1992 . These events were also accompanied by lower cloud cover , higher temperatures , and lower wind speed , increasing the glacier surface loss . However , the El Niño of 1997 – 1998 was accompanied by high precipitation . Precipitation mostly originates from the Atlantic Ocean via the Amazon basin . Pollen data tend to be dominated by local species during dry spells . Occasionally , strong southern cold outbreaks reach Coropuna 's latitudes . As evidenced by the Sajsi ( 25 @,@ 000 – 19 @,@ 000 years ago ) , Tauca ( 18 @,@ 000 – 14 @,@ 000 years ago ) , and Coipasa ( 13 @,@ 000 – 11 @,@ 000 years ago ) lake highstands , ice age humidity was much higher in the Altiplano .
Based on mapping , in 1955 the equilibrium line altitude had a mean elevation of 5 @,@ 687 ± 49 metres ( 18 @,@ 658 ± 161 ft ) but has since then risen by 80 – 90 metres ( 260 – 300 ft ) . As is the case farther south in Chile , the snowline altitude is chiefly governed by precipitation and not by temperature . Winds in the Coropuna area are chiefly from the east .
Coropuna rises over the Puna , a grassland at an altitude of 4 @,@ 000 – 4 @,@ 800 metres ( 13 @,@ 100 – 15 @,@ 700 ft ) that contains Asteraceae shrubs . Local plant families and genera attested by pollen data are Asteroideae , Poaceae , and Polylepis . Vegetation ends at 5 @,@ 000 metres ( 16 @,@ 000 ft ) altitude . Beneath this line it is composed of Azorella compacta and ichu grass . Cushion plants are also frequent around 5 @,@ 000 metres ( 16 @,@ 000 ft ) . The arid climate means that the flora is highly xerophilic . Marsh vegetation and a distinct peat bog are found in wetter parts of Coropuna 's slopes . Polylepis woodlands are found on the southern slope .
= = Religious and archaeological importance = =
In Inca mythology , Coropuna was identified as an Apu , a sacred mountain . An Inca path leading up the mountain has been found , with bones and pottery fragments up to 6 @,@ 200 metres ( 20 @,@ 300 ft ) . Over thirty archaeological sites , many of them predating the Incas , have been found around Coropuna . The Inca sites are the highest ones , though some occur next to bogs such as the one next to the village Maucta Llacta . The influence of human habitation on the environment is noticeable from 2 @,@ 200 BP onward .
The Inca used the waters of Coropuna , building an irrigation system that drew water from the glaciers at 5 @,@ 600 metres ( 18 @,@ 400 ft ) altitude , the highest irrigation system in the world .
= = Books = =
Biggar , John ( 2005 ) . The Andes : A Guide for Climbers ( 3rd ed . ) . Andes Publishing ( Scotland ) . ISBN 0 @-@ 9536087 @-@ 2 @-@ 7 . 304 pp .
González @-@ Ferrán , Oscar ( 1995 ) . Volcanes de Chile ( in Spanish ) . Santiago , Chile : Instituto Geográfico Militar . ISBN 956 @-@ 202 @-@ 054 @-@ 1 . 640 pp . ( also includes volcanoes of Argentina , Bolivia , and Peru )
De Silva , Shanaka L. ; Francis , Peter ( 1991 ) . Volcanoes of the Central Andes . Springer @-@ Verlag . ISBN 3 @-@ 540 @-@ 53706 @-@ 6 . 216 pp .
" Coropuna " . Global Volcanism Program . Smithsonian Institution .
Reinhard , Johan ( 1999 ) . " Coropuna : Lost Mountain Temple of the Incas . " South American Explorers Journal 58 : 5 , 26 – 30 .
Reinhard , Johan ( 2005 ) . The Ice Maiden : Inca Mummies , Mountain Gods , and Sacred Sites in the Andes . Washington , D.C. : National Geographic Society . ISBN 0 @-@ 7922 @-@ 6838 @-@ 5 .
Ziólkowski , Mariusz ( 2008 ) . " Coropuna y Solimana : Los Oráculos de Condersuyos . " In Adivinación y oráculos en le Mundo Andino Antiguo , Curatola , Marco and Mariusz Ziólkowski ( eds . ) , pp. 121 – 159 . Fundo Editorial de la Pontificia Universidad Católica del Perú , Lima .
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= Max Boot =
Max Boot ( born September 12 , 1969 ) is an American author , consultant , editorialist , lecturer , and military historian . He has been a prominent advocate of American values in foreign policy . He once described his ideas as " American might to promote American ideals . " He identifies as a conservative , once joking that " I grew up in the 1980s , when conservatism was cool " . Boot worked as a writer and editor for Christian Science Monitor and then for The Wall Street Journal in the 1990s . He is now Jeane J. Kirkpatrick Senior Fellow in National Security Studies at the Council on Foreign Relations . He has written for numerous publications such as The Weekly Standard , The Los Angeles Times , and The New York Times , and he has also authored well @-@ reviewed and best @-@ selling books of military history . Boot 's most recent book , titled Invisible Armies , came out in 2013 , and it details the history of guerrilla warfare .
= = Personal life = =
Boot was born in Moscow . His parents , both Russian Jews , later emigrated from the Soviet Union to Los Angeles , where he was raised . Max Boot was educated at the University of California , Berkeley ( BA , History , 1991 ) and Yale University ( MA , Diplomatic History , 1992 ) . He started his journalistic career writing columns for the Berkeley student newspaper The Daily Californian . He later stated that he believes he is the only conservative writer in that paper 's history . Boot and his family currently live in the New York area .
= = Career = =
Boot is the Jeane J. Kirkpatrick Senior Fellow in National Security Studies at the Council on Foreign Relations , a contributing editor to The Weekly Standard and the Los Angeles Times , and a regular contributor to other publications such as The Wall Street Journal , The Washington Post and The New York Times . He blogs for Commentary Magazine on its page Contentions . He serves as a consultant to the U.S. military and as a regular lecturer at U.S. military institutions such as the Army War College and the Command and General Staff College .
Boot worked as a writer and as an editor for The Christian Science Monitor from 1992 to 1994 . He moved to The Wall Street Journal for the next eight years . He wrote an investigative column called ' Rule of Law ' about legal issues . After a short , four @-@ year career with the column , he rose to the position of editor of the Op @-@ Ed page .
Boot left the Journal in 2002 , and he then joined the Council on Foreign Relations . He became a ' Jeane J. Kirkpatrick Senior Fellow ' with the group . His writings with the Council appeared in several publications such as The New York Post , The Times , Financial Times , and International Herald Tribune in 2002 .
Boot wrote Savage Wars of Peace , a study of small wars in American history , with Basic Books in 2002 . The title came from Kipling 's poem ' White Man 's Burden ' . James A. Russell in Journal of Cold War Studies criticized the book , saying that " Boot did none of the critical research , and thus the inferences he draws from his uncritical rendition of history are essentially meaningless . " Benjamin Schwarz argued in The New York Times that Boot asked the U.S. military to do a " nearly impossible task " , and he criticized the book as " unrevealing " . Victor Davis Hanson in History News Network gave a positive review , saying that " Boot 's well @-@ written narrative is not only fascinating reading , but didactic as well " . Robert M. Cassidy in Military Review labeled it " extraordinary " . Boot 's book also won the 2003 General Wallace M. Greene Jr . Award from the Marine Corps Heritage Foundation as the best non @-@ fiction book recently published pertaining to Marine Corps history .
Boot wrote numerous articles with the Council in 2003 and 2004 . The World Affairs Councils of America named Boot one of " the 500 most influential people in the United States in the field of foreign policy " in 2004 . He also worked as member of the Project for the New American Century ( PNAC ) in 2004 .
He published the work War Made New , an analysis of revolutions in military technology since 1500 , in 2006 . The book 's central thesis is that a military succeeds when it has the dynamic , forward @-@ looking structures and administration in place to exploit new technologies . It concludes that the U.S. military may lose its edge if it does not become flatter , less bureaucratic , and more decentralized . The book received praise from Josiah Bunting III in The New York Times , who called it " unusual and magisterial " , and criticism from Martin Sieffin in The American Conservative , who called it " remarkably superficial " .
Boot wrote many more articles with the Council in 2007 , and he received the Eric Breindel Award for Excellence in Opinion Journalism that year . In an April 2007 episode of Think Tank with Ben Wattenberg , Boot stated that he " used to be a journalist " and that he currently views himself purely as a military historian . Boot served as a foreign policy adviser to Senator John McCain in his 2008 United States presidential election bid . He stated in an editorial in World Affairs Journal that he saw strong parallels between Theodore Roosevelt and McCain . Boot continued to write for the Council in several publications in 2008 and 2009 .
Boot wrote for the Council through 2010 and 2011 for various publications such as Newsweek , The Boston Globe , The New York Times , and The Weekly Standard among others . He particularly argued that President Obama 's health care plans made maintaining the U.S. ' superpower status harder , that withdrawal of U.S. troops from Iraq occurred prematurely while making another war there more likely , and that the initial U.S. victory in Afghanistan had been undone by government complacency though forces could still pull off a victory . He also wrote op @-@ eds criticizing planned budget austerity measures in both the U.S. and the U.K. as hurting their national security interests .
In September 2012 , Boot co @-@ wrote with Brookings Institution senior fellow Michael Doran a New York Times op @-@ ed titled " 5 Reasons to Intervene in Syria Now " , advocating U.S military force to create a countrywide no @-@ fly zone reminiscent of NATO 's role in the Kosovo War . He stated first and second that " American intervention would diminish Iran 's influence in the Arab world " and that " a more muscular American policy could keep the conflict from spreading " with " sectarian strife in Lebanon and Iraq " . Third , Boot argued that " training and equipping reliable partners within Syria 's internal opposition " could help " create a bulwark against extremist groups like Al Qaeda " . He concluded that " American leadership on Syria could improve relations with key allies like Turkey and Qatar " as well as " end a terrible human @-@ rights disaster " .
Boot 's most recent book , titled Invisible Armies , came out in 2013 , and it details the history of guerrilla warfare going through various cases of successful and unsuccessful insurgent efforts such as the fighting during the American war of independence , the Vietnam War , the current Syrian Civil War . He additionally states that traditional , conventional army tactics as employed by the American military under the administrations of President Bush and President Obama against guerrilla organizations have produced big strategic failures . Boot has discussed his book in various programs such as the Hoover Institution 's Uncommon Knowledge series. appearing on it in January 2014 .
= = Beliefs = =
In general , Boot considers himself to be a " natural contrarian " . He is in favor of limited government at home and American leadership abroad . He strongly opposed Donald Trump 's presidential candidacy in 2016 .
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= W. G. Grace in the 1878 English cricket season =
W. G. Grace is believed to have considered retirement from cricket before the 1878 season after he was seriously injured in a shooting accident the previous autumn which nearly cost him the sight of an eye . Having recovered , he reconsidered and in 1878 played in 33 matches , 24 of which are generally recognised as first @-@ class . His main roles in the season were captain of Gloucestershire County Cricket Club and both match organiser and captain of the United South of England Eleven ( USEE ) . In addition , he represented Marylebone Cricket Club ( MCC ) , the Gentlemen in the Gentlemen v Players fixture and the South in the North v South series . 1878 was a cold , wet summer and not one of Grace 's better seasons as a batsman , but he was very effective in such conditions as a right arm medium pace roundarm bowler and completed a sixth successive " double " by scoring 1 @,@ 151 runs and taking 152 wickets in the recognised first @-@ class matches .
Grace was always notorious for gamesmanship and moneymaking during his cricket career and he cut an especially controversial figure in 1878 . After the season ended , he and his brother E. M. Grace were called to account by the Gloucestershire membership and a special enquiry was ordered to investigate their blatant " shamateurism " . As amateur players , they should only have been claiming reasonable expenses for travel and accommodation but they were accused of claiming inflated expenses and appearance fees . The matter came to a head after Surrey County Cricket Club refused to meet their expense claims when Gloucestershire played at The Oval in June . Prior to the same match , Grace was accused of " kidnapping " the Australian player Billy Midwinter when he insisted that Midwinter was contractually bound to play for Gloucestershire and not the Australian touring team . A furious altercation between Grace and members of the Australian party took place in front of bystanders outside The Oval , but Grace got his way and Midwinter played for Gloucestershire .
The season was notable for the MCC v Australians match at Lord 's in May . Grace played for MCC in the match that , completed in a single day , is considered a milestone in cricket history . In July , Gloucestershire made their first visit to Old Trafford to play Lancashire and the match was immortalised by Francis Thompson in his idyllic poem " At Lord 's " .
On a personal level , Grace was still unqualified as a doctor and had a growing family to support , his daughter Bessie being born in May . When not playing cricket , he had to study a backlog of medical theory . He did not qualify as a doctor until the end of the following year . He then needed a practice and this was effectively purchased for him by MCC in 1878 after they launched a National Testimonial on his behalf , though the underlying and hopeful purpose of the appeal was to terminate Grace 's embarrassing mercenary activity .
= = Background = =
It is believed that Grace contemplated retirement from cricket in the winter of 1877 – 78 . He had been seriously injured in a shooting accident in September 1877 , which nearly cost him the sight of one eye , and this may have caused him to review his life . Still unqualified as a doctor and with a growing family to support , Grace had doubts about his long @-@ term security even though he was making considerable profit from cricket by way of " grossly inflated " expense claims and appearance fees . Unexpectedly , Marylebone Cricket Club ( MCC ) solved his financial problems by voting him a National Testimonial with a view to purchasing a medical practice out of the proceeds . It was hoped that a regular income would " end the embarrassment of his blatant shamateurism " . One of Grace 's biographers , Bernard Darwin , who knew him personally , wrote that the arrival of the first Australian touring team " tipped the beam in favour of cricket " but it was also the case that no one , especially Grace , took the Australian players too seriously . It is more likely that A. J. Webbe was right when he said : " W. G. never could have given up cricket " .
Grace was living in Gloucestershire in 1878 . He and his wife Agnes had moved to London in February 1875 when he was assigned to St Bartholomew 's Hospital to further his medical education . They lived in an Earl 's Court apartment until autumn 1877 when they returned to Gloucestershire and lived with Grace 's elder brother Henry , who was a general practitioner ( GP ) at Kingswood , near Bristol . The Graces already had two sons and their third child Bessie was born in May 1878 . When not playing cricket , Grace had to study a backlog of medical theory and , after the season ended , he was assigned to Westminster Hospital for his final year of medical practice ; the family moved back to London and lived at Acton until he finally qualified in November 1879 .
By the time Grace celebrated his 30th birthday in July 1878 , he was arguably the most famous man in England ; but he was also one of the most controversial on account of his gamesmanship and moneymaking . Both of these aspects were subject to serious challenge in the light of events in 1878 .
= = May : the season begins = =
1878 was a " chilly and wet summer " in which the bad wickets reduced " all ( batsmen ) to comparative impotence " but enabled bowlers to dominate and cause " havoc " . This summed up Grace 's season too , for he was outstanding in the field but he struggled with the bat , as his statistics plainly show .
The season began in cold , wet conditions and Grace did not start well . He was conscious of his domestic and medical distractions , the most pressing of which was the birth of his daughter just before the famous match at Lord 's between MCC and the Australians .
Grace 's first match was for the United South of England Eleven ( USEE ) against Twenty of Rochdale from Thursday , 2 May to Saturday , 4 May at Butcher 's Meadow in Rochdale . The match was drawn after USEE had been behind on first innings . Although they saved the game , largely because Grace scored 57 in the second innings , it was not an auspicious performance by a team that included W. G. and Fred Grace along with five players who had taken part in the inaugural Test series in Australia the previous year : Henry Charlwood , Harry Jupp , James Lillywhite , Billy Midwinter and James Southerton . From Rochdale , Grace travelled by train to London for his next fixture on Monday , 6 May and Tuesday , 7 May which was for MCC at Lord 's against a team called the Colts of England . It was another odds match with 11 against 22 and another draw . Grace made scores of 15 and 9 . His team included A. N. Hornby , Alfred Shaw and Fred Morley .
On Thursday , 9 May , Grace was in Cambridge and played for an England XI against Cambridge University at Fenner 's . This was a three @-@ day match culminating on Saturday , 11 May and was the opening first @-@ class fixture of the season . Cambridge had one of its strongest @-@ ever teams in 1878 and won by 79 runs after having to follow on . Grace scored 45 and 11 , and he was the outstanding bowler in the match with 10 wickets .
Grace returned to London and played in his next match , starting on Monday , 13 May , for MCC against an England XI at Lord 's . This was another first @-@ class fixture , scheduled for three days but completed in two , the mostly professional England XI winning by 3 wickets . MCC won the toss , batted first and totalled 93 , half of which were scored by Grace himself with 47 . England reached 75 – 6 at the close and were all out for 115 on Tuesday morning , but MCC were then dismissed for only 58 , Grace having been first out for 1 . Nevertheless , England struggled to complete their victory and lost 7 wickets in scoring the necessary 37 runs . In cold , damp conditions it was therefore a bowlers ' match . Grace was dismissed in both innings by Tom Emmett , who was well supported by Billy Midwinter and Alex Watson . The MCC attack was led by Alfred Shaw , who took 10 wickets . Grace bowled in the first innings only and returned figures of 3 – 43 . Grace 's 47 in the first innings was the top score in the game , the second highest being 30 by Arthur Shrewsbury for England . Grace sustained a thumb injury during the match which prevented him taking part in the England second innings .
Grace was inactive for over a week after that match , partly because of his injury but also as his daughter was born in London , and his next appearance was in Ireland where he played for the USEE against 15 past and present players of the University of Dublin at its College Park venue . This match was played over three days , starting on Thursday , 23 May . A guest player in the USEE team was the Australian batsman Charles Bannerman . However , Grace and Bannerman scored just 11 and 1 respectively in the USEE first innings , while Fred Grace and Bannerman 's fellow Australian Midwinter scored 46 and 64 . The match was ruined by the weather and ended in a draw .
On Sunday , 26 May , the USEE team caught the ferry back to England and Grace continued by train to London , probably in the company of Bannerman and Midwinter , as all three were due to take part in another match at Lord 's the following day . They could not have guessed that the match would be remembered as , to quote Grace 's biographer Simon Rae , " arguably the most momentous six hours in cricket history " .
= = Monday , 27 May 1878 – MCC v Australians at Lord 's = =
CricketArchive states without elaboration that : " the match was scheduled for three days but completed in one " . Having won the toss , MCC were dismissed for 33 and then they bowled out the Australians for 41 . MCC hoped for a better total in the afternoon but were skittled for a mere 19 . The Australians needed 12 to win and were by no means sure of getting them , but they did , and won a sensational match by 9 wickets . With a match aggregate of 105 runs , it remains the lowest scoring first @-@ class match on record . In his ghost @-@ written Reminiscences ( 1899 ) , Grace recalled that there had been " only four and a half hours of actual cricket " net of the lunch interval and breaks between innings .
With James Lillywhite acting as their agent , the first official Australian team to tour England was managed by John Conway and captained by Dave Gregory . As Billy Midwinter was already in England , he joined his compatriots ahead of their opening game . The other ten players in the party were Charles Bannerman , his brother Alec , future Test captain Billy Murdoch , wicket @-@ keeper Jack Blackham , Frank Allan , George Bailey , Harry Boyle , Tom Garrett , Tom Horan and the original " Demon Bowler " , Fred Spofforth .
Play started at three minutes past twelve on a " sticky wicket " , a wet pitch drying out as the sun began to shine . Only a small crowd was present and it all began well enough for Grace as he hit the opening ball of the match from Allan for four . But another firm shot off his legs sent the second ball straight to Midwinter and Grace was " easily caught at square leg " . Another wicket fell to Boyle in the next over and MCC were 5 – 2 but , with Hornby and Arthur Ridley seemingly settling in , they pushed the total on to 27 . Then there was a change of bowling and Spofforth came on instead of Allan . Spofforth 's first spell at Lord 's was " truly demonic " . Within another 11 overs , MCC were all out , Spofforth taking 6 – 4 in just 5 @.@ 3 overs including a hat @-@ trick with the wickets of George Hearne , Alfred Shaw and George Vernon . Shaw and Morley took five wickets apiece as they dismissed the Australians for 41 but Gregory decided to open his second innings attack with Spofforth and Boyle . The decisive moment was Spofforth 's second ball to Grace , which clean bowled him for 0 . The MCC innings lasted just 50 minutes , Boyle taking 6 – 3 and Spofforth 4 – 16 . As news of the proceedings spread , the crowd grew in the afternoon sunshine and they " mobbed the Australians as they left the field in a spirit of non @-@ partisan enthusiasm " . Around 500 had been present at the start but the number grew to 4 @,@ 742 by the end ; the receipts of £ 119 7s were given to the Australians and MCC paid the expenses .
So ended a " memorable day of cold and puddles and calamity " . Afterwards , the match was seized upon by the media and widely reported by the press . The news " spread like wildfire and created a sensation in London and throughout England " . The satirical magazine Punch responded to the event by publishing a parody of Byron 's poem The Destruction of Sennacherib including a wry commentary on Grace 's contribution :
The Australians came down like a wolf on the fold ,
The Mary 'bone Cracks for a trifle were bowled ; Our Grace before dinner was very soon done ,
And Grace after dinner did not get a run .
No one in England had taken the Australians very seriously at first , even though they had beaten Lillywhite 's team in the inaugural Test match , and no one was too surprised when they lost their tour opener by an innings to the strong Nottinghamshire attack of Shaw and Morley on a rain @-@ affected wicket . This perception of Australian cricketers was immediately and permanently revised such that " henceforth a match between Australia and any representative English team would overshadow any of the ' great matches ' " . Although the match did not mark the birth of international cricket , it was the point in time at which the English sporting public wholeheartedly embraced the concept . As Lord Hawke put it :
( 27 May 1878 ) this marked the commencement of the modern era of cricket .
As for William Gilbert Grace , his whole approach to cricket was about what was needed to win the game in hand and he never took kindly to defeat . But , two decades later in his Reminiscences , he gave the Australians due credit for their " glorious victory " .
= = June : MCC v Derbyshire = =
A whole week passed before Grace reappeared , again at Lord 's , on Monday , 3 June . He played seven matches in June , all first @-@ class , starting with MCC v Derbyshire . This was a three @-@ day match completed on the Tuesday with MCC winning by 5 wickets . Derbyshire won the toss , elected to bat and Grace proceeded to bowl them out for a mere 36 . His figures were 8 – 23 . Derbyshire then bowled MCC out for 74 , Grace scoring 7 . Grace took 2 more wickets in Derbyshire 's second innings of 118 to give him his second 10 @-@ wicket match of the season . He scored 37 in the second innings as MCC made 81 – 5 to take the match .
Despite Grace 's presence , this match attracted few spectators as it coincided with the Surrey v Australians match at The Oval , which drew very large crowds . Wisden Cricketers ' Almanack commented that " the Australians were attracting monster gatherings at The Oval on the days that this match was played , consequently very few visitors were at Lord 's " .
= = June : North v South = =
There were three North v South fixtures in June . The first two were played at Prince 's Cricket Ground and Lord 's with the South as the " home " team ; the third took place at the end of the month at Trent Bridge as a home game for the North .
The match at Prince 's began on Thursday , 6 June and was played over three days , ending in a draw after being impacted by the weather . The North won the toss and batted first , scoring 156 all out and 196 – 5 . In their only innings , the South scored 197 all out . Grace opened the bowling for the South and took 4 – 73 and 2 – 59 . Once more he failed with the bat and was caught and bowled for 4 , again losing his wicket to the irrepressible Tom Emmett . The match raised about £ 100 for the Cricketers ' Fund Friendly Society .
The match at Lord 's was the following Monday , 10 June , and this time a full match could take place over three days . The North won by 3 wickets after scoring 180 and 226 – 7 in reply to the South 's 202 and 203 . Although his team lost , Grace could take consolation from his best batting performance of the season so far , and his first half @-@ century , as he scored 45 and 77 . He had 9 wickets in the match with 5 – 60 and 4 – 89 . The match was played for the benefit of the Marylebone Professional Cricketers ' Fund and drew an attendance of 10 @,@ 858 on the first day , which was Whit Monday .
Grace was directly involved in a controversial incident in this match when Dick Barlow was given out hit the ball twice . Barlow did something that is commonplace by knocking the ball away with his bat after he had " dead @-@ batted " it ( i.e. , played a defensive stroke to stop the ball at his feet ) . The problem was that Barlow then " dashed a couple of yards down the pitch and back again " to tease the fielders and amuse the spectators . The joke backfired when Grace , fielding nearby , appealed on the grounds that Barlow had hit the ball twice and then " attempted a run " . Barlow never had any intention of attempting a run but the Laws of cricket had to be observed and he was given out . It was just one in a catalogue of incidents that highlighted Grace 's determination to " win at all costs " .
The third match in the series began on Thursday , 27 June at Trent Bridge and the South won by 10 wickets after forcing the North to follow on . The South won the toss and decided to bat , scoring 204 with Grace contributing 12 before again being dismissed by Emmett . Grace took 9 wickets ( 6 – 46 and 3 – 64 ) as the North were bowled out for 116 and 136 to leave the South needing 49 to win . Grace did not bat in the second innings , allowing his elder brother E. M. Grace and Richard Humphrey to secure the 10 wicket victory . The match was played for the benefit of George Parr , who received about £ 250 .
There was a fourth North v South match at The Oval in September but Grace did not play and the North won by an innings and 123 runs . In between the second and third North v South games , Grace played for the Gentlemen of England against the Australians at Prince 's and then twice for Gloucestershire in away matches at The Oval against Surrey and Hove against Sussex .
= = June : Gentlemen v Australians and first Gloucestershire matches = =
Grace and his amateur colleagues took a measure of revenge at Prince 's as they defeated the Australians by an innings and 1 run . The match began on Monday , 17 June and was completed within two days . The Australians won the toss and decided to bat , but were bowled out for only 75 with Grace and Allan Steel taking 4 wickets apiece . The Gentlemen scored 139 ( Grace 25 ) and then dismissed the tourists for 63 , Grace taking 2 wickets in support of Steel 's 7 – 35 .
The County Championship was a semi @-@ official competition in 1878 as it was not formally structured until December 1890 , but the age @-@ old ad hoc claims on behalf of a " Champion County " had been regulated somewhat by the introduction of residential criteria for players in 1873 . Gloucestershire , who had been recognised as the champions in 1877 , were expected to be in contention for the title again as the county fixtures began in 1878 .
The first match began under a cloud of Grace @-@ inspired controversy on Thursday , 20 June at The Oval , where Gloucestershire were beaten by 16 runs . Surrey made 150 ( Grace 4 – 43 ) and 136 ( Grace 6 – 70 ) , but Gloucestershire 's response was 111 ( Grace 40 ) and 159 ( Grace 31 ) . This was a fine all @-@ round performance by Grace , though he would not have been happy with two more innings under 50 , and it serves to illustrate just how much Gloucestershire depended on him . The next match at Hove began the following Monday , 24 June , and Gloucestershire won by an innings and 67 runs after losing the toss and being asked to field . Sussex were all out for 93 ( Grace 0 – 21 ) and 71 ( Grace 4 – 13 ) ; in between , Gloucestershire made 231 despite Grace scoring a duck . His brothers did the batting in this one , Fred scoring 71 and E. M. 53 .
= = June : the Midwinter incident = =
Gloucestershire arrived shorthanded at The Oval on 20 June . Their regular players present were the three Grace brothers , their cousin Walter Gilbert , wicket @-@ keeper James Bush and batsmen James Cranston and Thomas Matthews . They also had the inexperienced William Woof , Carleton Haynes and Edward Wright , all of whom made their first @-@ class debuts against Surrey . That was ten , so another player had to be found and Grace decided to take action .
The Australian Billy Midwinter had played for Gloucestershire in 1877 and , as luck or the fixture list would have it , he was at Lord 's on 20 June to represent the Australians against Middlesex . Midwinter was at net practice when he saw W. G. and E. M. Grace , accompanied by James Bush , approaching . They argued that he was under contractual obligation to play for Gloucestershire if required and Grace demanded that he accompany them to The Oval at once . One source says that Midwinter was still under a contractual obligation to Gloucestershire and that the Australian press had reported this before the team embarked . Midwinter 's reaction to Grace 's demand is unknown but Tom Horan later wrote that Midwinter " did not seem to know his own mind for two minutes together " . Whether he was in agreement or not , Midwinter did go to The Oval with the Graces . They were pursued by Conway , Gregory and Boyle who caught them at The Oval gates where a furious altercation ensued in front of bystanders . In another account , the incident is dismissed as " an amusing little quarrel " . The argument was serious enough and was fuelled by a long @-@ standing " antagonism " between Grace and Conway which dated back to Grace 's 1873 visit to Australia . At one point , Grace called the Australians " a damned lot of sneaks " , though he later apologised in a letter to Gregory . In the end , Grace got his way and Midwinter stayed with Gloucestershire for the rest of the season , although he did not play for the county against the Australians in September , due to a hand injury .
Grace may have felt pleased that he had got his man but he did not get his expenses , for Surrey refused to pay them . There was a subscript the following winter when Grace and his brother E. M. were called to account by the Gloucestershire membership and a special enquiry was ordered .
= = July : Gentlemen v Players = =
There were two Gentlemen v Players matches in 1878 and they took place consecutively in early July . The first was played at The Oval , starting on Thursday , 4 July , and the second at Lord 's , starting on Monday , 8 July . A.N. Hornby captained the Gentlemen at The Oval and Grace at Lord 's . The Gentlemen won both matches : by 55 runs at The Oval ; and by 206 runs at Lord 's .
Grace 's bad wicket batting skills were fully tested in the first innings at The Oval and he scored 40 in a total of only 76 , Alfred Shaw and Fred Morley taking five wickets each for the Players . The Players replied with 122 to take a first innings lead of 46 . Grace took 2 – 37 in support of Allan Steel who claimed 6 – 60 . The Gentlemen produced a much better batting performance on the Friday and scored 202 , Grace again top @-@ scoring with 63 . He then took 3 – 30 as the Players were bowled out for 101 , the match ending on Friday afternoon .
Under Grace 's leadership at Lord 's , the Gentlemen batted very well and totalled 310 on the first day before reducing the Players to 39 – 4 at the close . Grace scored 90 , his highest score of the season so far , and was well supported by Alfred and Edward Lyttelton . The Players recovered on Tuesday morning , thanks to a seventh wicket century stand by John Selby and Tom Emmett , to reach 231 all out which left the Gentlemen with a first innings lead of 79 . Grace took 2 – 31 . In the second innings , Grace was bowled by Shaw for 2 with the score at 6 – 1 but his opening partner A. P. Lucas steadied the innings with 91 and was well supported by Ridley , Edward Lyttelton and Steel . The Gentlemen finally amassed 326 to leave the Players needing 406 to win . They were never in the hunt and , although Selby was defiant with another half @-@ century , Grace took 4 – 55 to lead the Gentlemen to victory .
= = July : USEE tour = =
Most of July was taken up with USEE matches which were Grace 's " bread and butter " at the time . The team travelled to Melton Mowbray , Holbeck ( near Leeds ) , Newcastle upon Tyne , Bolton and Birmingham to play odds games against local opposition .
Grace took 21 wickets in the match against the 22 men of Melton Mowbray in a three @-@ day match starting on Monday , 1 July . He scored 42 and 57 not out in his two innings , the match ending in a draw . Grace caught the evening train to be in London ready for the first Gentlemen v Players match at The Oval , starting on Thursday , 4 July .
The next USEE match at Leeds Holbeck followed the second Gentlemen v Players fixture and began on Thursday , 11 July . The opposition had 18 players and included the Yorkshire batsman Louis Hall , the lay preacher who was famously the sole teetotaller in the Yorkshire team at that time . Besides Grace himself , other noted players in the USEE team were Fred Grace , Billy Midwinter , Henry Charlwood and James Southerton . Grace took 20 wickets in the match and , batting at number six ( he was habitually an opening batsman despite his status as an all @-@ rounder ) , scored 22 and 73 . The USEE won by 193 runs . The railways served Grace well in July and he was immediately away north to Newcastle upon Tyne for the next engagement against Eighteen of Newcastle upon Tyne , starting on Monday 15 July . The Newcastle team included Dick Barlow , Alex Watson and Arnold Fothergill so Grace may have bitten off more than he could chew . Fothergill dismissed him for 5 in the first innings after Newcastle had made a sizeable 251 ( Barlow 42 ) . The USEE were humiliatingly bowled out for 66 and had to follow on . Grace could only score 14 in a second innings total of 116 and Newcastle won the match in two days by an innings and 69 runs .
The USEE had a scare against Eighteen of Bolton in the three @-@ day match starting on Thursday , 18 July . They won by just 21 runs having been slightly behind on first innings . Grace and Southerton bowled the Bolton team out but the difference was a second innings of 63 by Charlwood in a total of just 120 . Grace scored 51 and 22 and took 20 wickets . The USEE won the final match of this tour , starting on Monday , 22 July , against Twenty @-@ two of Birmingham by 5 wickets , having been 23 behind on first innings . The USEE had a strong Gloucestershire flavour in this match with all three Grace brothers , Midwinter , Gilbert and Cranston involved . Birmingham scored 128 and 119 , Grace taking 21 wickets . USEE scored 105 and 144 – 5 , Grace making 7 and 59 . He needed the support of his brother E. M. , who scored 52 not out , to secure the five wicket victory .
= = July / August : Gloucestershire 's northern tour = =
Gloucestershire made their first visit to Old Trafford Cricket Ground on Thursday , 25 July , to play Lancashire and this was the match immortalised by Francis Thompson in his idyllic poem At Lord 's :
It is little I repair to the matches of the Southron folk ,
Though my own red roses there may blow ;
It is little I repair to the matches of the Southron folk ,
Though the red roses crest the caps , I know .
For the field is full of shades as I near a shadowy coast , And a ghostly batsman plays to the bowling of a ghost , And I look through my tears on a soundless @-@ clapping host
As the run stealers flicker to and fro ,
To and fro :
O my Hornby and my Barlow long ago !
It 's Glo 'ster coming North , the irresistible ,
The Shire of the Graces , long ago !
It 's Gloucestershire up North , the irresistible ,
And new @-@ risen Lancashire the foe !
A Shire so young that has scarce impressed its traces , Ah , how shall it stand before all @-@ resistless Graces ? O , little red rose , their bats are as maces
To beat thee down , this summer long ago !
This day of seventy @-@ eight they are come up north against thee
This day of seventy @-@ eight long ago !
The champion of the centuries , he cometh up against thee ,
With his brethren , every one a famous foe !
The long @-@ whiskered Doctor , that laugheth the rules to scorn , While the bowler , pitched against him , bans the day he was born ; And G.F. with his science makes the fairest length forlorn ;
They are come from the West to work thee woe !
It is little I repair to the matches of the Southron folk ,
Though my own red roses there may blow ;
It is little I repair to the matches of the Southron folk ,
Though the red roses crest the caps , I know .
For the field is full of shades as I near a shadowy coast , And a ghostly batsman plays to the bowling of a ghost , And I look through my tears on a soundless @-@ clapping host
As the run stealers flicker to and fro ,
To and fro :
O my Hornby and my Barlow long ago !
Grace was not " the long @-@ whiskered Doctor " for he was still unqualified in 1878 : it was his elder brother E. M. ( a coroner ) " that laugheth the rules to scorn " . Grace was of course " the champion of the centuries " , although he had still not scored one in 1878 . The opening ( and closing ) verse of the poem is the most famous stanza ever written about cricket and it eulogised two Lancashire players who were widely known as " Monkey " ( AN Hornby ) and " Stonewaller " ( Dick Barlow ) .
The match was played over three days and culminated in a draw on Saturday , 27 July . Lancashire won the toss and decided to bat , but were dismissed for only 89 after rain shortened the first day 's play . Grace took 3 – 44 and the left arm spinner Robert Miles took 7 – 38 . Gloucestershire responded with 116 , Grace making the top score of 32 . At close of play on the second day , Lancashire had made 90 – 0 with Hornby on 68 and Barlow on 15 ; and the legend of the run stealers was born in the mind of the watching Francis Thompson . Hornby and Barlow put on 108 for the first wicket and then Barlow was out for 26 . Hornby went on to score exactly 100 and Lancashire 's total was 262 ( Grace 1 – 65 ) . Gloucestershire scored 125 – 5 in the last innings with Grace , batting at six , on 58 not out at the close .
Gloucestershire went over the Pennines to Sheffield and began the next game against Yorkshire at Bramall Lane on Monday , 29 July . Gloucestershire were soundly beaten by 244 runs , a big margin at the time . Yorkshire scored 158 and 360 ; Gloucestershire scored 201 to claim a good first innings lead but were then bowled out for 73 and crashed to a heavy defeat . Grace batted quite well , scoring 62 and 35 . With the ball , he took 2 – 48 and 4 – 128 . They were undone by the bowling of Billy Bates who took 11 wickets in the match , including 7 – 38 in the second innings ; while George Ulyett and Ephraim Lockwood both scored centuries in Yorkshire 's second innings . The match was played for the benefit of Tom Emmett , who received £ 616 13s 1d .
The final leg of Gloucestershire 's northern tour was at Trent Bridge where they played Nottinghamshire from Thursday , 1 August , to Saturday , 3 August . This match was drawn after rain intervened . Gloucestershire scored 165 ( Grace 9 ) and 253 ( Grace 116 ) . Nottinghamshire scored 258 ( Grace 2 – 91 ) and 10 for 1 ( Grace ( 1 – 2 ) . So Grace finally made his first ( and only ) century of the 1878 season , surprisingly against arguably the strongest bowling attack in the country .
= = August : Canterbury Cricket Week = =
The 1878 Canterbury Festival consisted of two first @-@ class matches played between Monday , 5 August and Friday , 9 August. at the St Lawrence Ground in Canterbury . The first match , between Thirteen of Kent and an England XI , finished early on the Wednesday . The second match , between Twelve of Kent and Twelve of MCC , began later the same afternoon and finished on Friday afternoon . Grace played in both games , representing England and MCC . The Kent XIII won the match against England by 8 wickets . Grace scored 21 and 14 ; with the ball , he took 5 – 72 and 1 – 21 . Kent defeated MCC in the twelves game by 9 wickets after Grace was out for 0 and 1 . He took 4 – 82 in Kent 's first innings total of 216 but did not bowl in the second innings when Kent needed just 20 to win .
= = August / September : Gloucestershire at home = =
From Monday , 12 August to Friday , 6 September , Grace was entirely involved with Gloucestershire who played seven matches in less than four weeks . Six of these were at home and one , against an England XI , was at The Oval . Gloucestershire played its home games at the College Ground , Cheltenham and at the Clifton College Close Ground .
Gloucestershire 's return game against Nottinghamshire began on Monday , 12 August , at Clifton College . Gloucestershire won a low @-@ scoring match by 109 runs after batting first . They totalled 127 ( Grace 26 ) and 137 ( Grace 6 ) which were modest scores , but Nottinghamshire 's replies amounted only to 84 and 71 . Grace produced another fine bowling performance with figures of 5 – 29 and 6 – 35 against one of the strongest batting sides in England . Alfred Shaw was unable to play for Nottinghamshire .
In a three @-@ day match starting on Thursday , 15 August , the England XI defeated Gloucestershire at The Oval by 6 wickets after Grace had won the toss for his county and decided to bat . They scored 118 ( Grace 25 ) and England replied with 163 ( Grace 3 – 67 ) . Rain prevented play for most of the Friday and Gloucestershire in their second innings had reached 27 – 1 at the end of the day . On the Saturday , England bowled them out for 118 ( Grace 29 ) with Tom Emmett taking 8 – 51 ( 12 – 93 in the match ) . Grace took 3 – 39 in England 's second innings as they made 7 – 44 to win by six wickets . Midwinter suffered a hand injury in the field when he attempted to stop a powerful drive played by George Ulyett ; he was unable to play again in 1878 .
The Cheltenham Festival took place the following week with two matches on the College Ground : against Sussex starting on Monday , 19 August ; and a return against Yorkshire starting on Thursday , 22 August . Gloucestershire made short work of Sussex , winning by an innings and 24 runs in less than two days . Grace made only 2 of Gloucestershire 's total of 198 but he was again outstanding with the ball and took 13 wickets in the match ( 6 – 18 and 7 – 88 ) . The Yorkshire match was drawn after being ruined by the weather . Yorkshire had claimed a first innings lead after Grace was yet again dismissed by Tom Emmett , this time for 10 , but he compensated by having taken 6 – 77 to restrict the Yorkshire lead to 39 . He captured a further two wickets in the second innings before the match was washed out .
On Monday , 26 August , Gloucestershire met Lancashire again at the Clifton College Close Ground and , despite another good innings by Hornby , Gloucestershire this time were victorious by 8 wickets . Grace had won the toss and put Lancashire in to bat first . Grace the bowler was once more the star performer as he took 7 – 77 and 5 – 32 , but this time he did well with the bat and made a good 49 in difficult conditions . His brother Fred scored 73 not out and this was crucial to the Gloucestershire success . Grace scored 20 not out in the second innings as Gloucestershire made 32 – 2 to win .
A return match against Surrey began on Thursday , 29 August , at Clifton College Close Ground and Gloucestershire were fortunate to get a draw after being forced to follow on . For once this season , Grace struggled to take wickets and could manage only 1 – 86 in Surrey 's total of 232 which was made over two days because of rain . Gloucestershire struggled to 84 – 9 at the close on Friday , Grace out for 3 , and were immediately dismissed for 84 on Saturday . Grace was out for 25 in the second innings but Fred again came to the rescue with 63 as Gloucestershire held on for the draw , scoring 161 – 4 . An oft @-@ recounted incident involving Grace occurred in this match . While he was batting , he had run three when a fielder 's throw caused the ball to lodge in his shirt and he seized the opportunity to complete several runs before the fielders forced him to stop . He disingenuously claimed that he would have been out handled the ball if he had removed it and , following a discussion , the umpires agreed that only the initial three runs should be awarded as the ball was dead ( out of play ) when it went into his shirt .
= = County Championship = =
Gloucestershire played 10 matches against the other first @-@ class county clubs and ended with a record of 4 wins , 4 draws and 2 defeats . This was not good enough for them to retain the title they had claimed in 1877 , when they had won 7 and drew 1 of 8 matches played . The main claimant was unbeaten Middlesex but they had only played 6 matches and Roy Webber , deploying a " rationalisation " method based on a points system used by the official competition in the 20th century , argued that Nottinghamshire was the champion county in 1878 .
= = September : Gloucestershire v Australians = =
On Thursday , 5 September , the Australians arrived at Clifton for what promised to be an explosive encounter . Midwinter did not play for Gloucestershire due to his hand injury but his absence probably counted for little as the Australians took due revenge on the Graces and beat Gloucestershire soundly by 10 wickets inside two days . Spofforth had 12 wickets in the match , taking 7 – 49 and 5 – 41 as Gloucestershire struggled to 112 and 85 , Grace making 22 and 5 . As it happened , Spofforth did not get his wicket , though he caught Grace off Boyle in the first innings . In the second , Grace was lbw to Garrett . Grace could take only 1 – 90 in the Australian first innings of 183 , in which Spofforth , who really did have a score to settle , top @-@ scored with 44 . To completely make his point , Spofforth then opened the Australian second innings in which he and Bailey scored the necessary 17 without loss . It was the first time Gloucestershire , formed in 1870 , had been beaten in a home match .
= = September : Essex v USEE = =
Grace 's final appearance in 1878 was for the USEE against Twenty of Essex in a two @-@ day match at Witham , starting on Friday , 13 September . The game was played for the benefit of the Essex and USEE stalwart Frank Silcock . Essex at this time was not a first @-@ class club but capable of providing the USEE with a stern test , especially with odds in their favour , and they had by far the best of a drawn game . Essex scored 175 and 235 ; USEE replied with 134 and 65 – 5 , so Essex would almost certainly have won with more time . Grace starred with the ball and took a total of 26 wickets . But his indifferent form with the bat haunted him right to the end of the season and he could only score 10 and 4 .
= = The expenses inquiry = =
It was in November 1878 that MCC defined amateur status . Their dictum was that " a gentleman ought not to make any profit from playing cricket " . This was carefully worded so that an amateur was allowed to claim reasonable expenses , but controversy persisted about what were " reasonable expenses " and what were actually " fees " . Fred Grace fell foul of this by claiming a fee for representing the USEE and was subsequently banned from representing the Gentlemen in matches at Lord 's . W. G. Grace got around his USEE fee by having it classed as a salary for his work in organising the matches .
The controversy rumbled on and there was a long debate in the press through the winter of 1878 – 79 about the various payments received by the " amateurs " of Gloucestershire . The enquiry at Gloucestershire CCC took place in January 1879 . W. G. and E. M. Grace were forced to answer charges that they had claimed " exorbitant expenses " , one of the few times that their money @-@ making activity was seriously challenged . The claim had been submitted to Surrey re the controversial 1878 match in which Billy Midwinter was brought in as a late replacement , but Surrey refused to pay it and this provoked the enquiry . The Graces managed to survive " a protracted and stormy meeting " with E. M. retaining his key post as club secretary , although he was forced to liaise in future with a new finance committee and abide by stricter rules . The incident served to highlight an ongoing issue about the nominal amateur status of the Grace brothers . Like all amateur players , they claimed expenses for travel and accommodation to and from cricket matches , but there is plenty of evidence that the Graces made rather more money by playing than their basic expenses would allow and W. G. in particular " made more than any professional " .
The national testimonial voted for Grace by MCC was realised six months later in the form of a presentation to him by Lord Fitzhardinge at Lord 's on 22 July 1879 in the form of a marble clock , two bronze ornaments and a cheque for £ 1 @,@ 458 .
= = Season summary = =
Despite his troubles in 1878 , it was another good season for Grace on the field as he completed a sixth successive double with 1 @,@ 151 runs and 153 wickets . He made 24 first @-@ class appearances , scoring 1 @,@ 151 runs with a highest score of 116 at an average of 28 @.@ 77 . He completed one century and five half @-@ centuries . In the field , he held 42 catches and took 153 wickets with a best analysis of 8 – 23 . His bowling average was 14 @.@ 43 ; he took five wickets in an innings 13 times and ten wickets in a match six times .
Grace was seventh in the overall national batting averages and third among those batsmen who completed 10 innings . The two above him were John Selby ( 31 @.@ 26 ) and Edward Lyttelton ( 29 @.@ 96 ) . In terms of runs scored , Grace was one of only two players to complete 1 @,@ 000 . The other was George Ulyett who made 1 @,@ 270 at an average of 27 @.@ 02 . Due to generally damp conditions , 1878 was not a good season for batsmen with only 14 centuries being scored ; only one player , A. J. Webbe , scored two .
Grace 's bowling average of 14 @.@ 50 left him eighth among bowlers who took 100 wickets , the best of whom was Allan Steel with 164 wickets at 9 @.@ 43 . Grace 's 153 wickets was the fourth highest tally behind Alfred Shaw ( 201 ) , Fred Morley ( 197 ) and Allan Steel ( 164 ) .
Grace had an outstanding season as a fielder , holding 42 catches in just 24 appearances . His tally was higher than anyone else including wicket @-@ keepers . The second highest was Alfred Shaw with 32 catches in 30 appearances . The best performance by a wicket @-@ keeper was Ted Pooley of Surrey who held 25 catches and completed 31 stumpings .
= = Footnote = =
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= Duffless =
" Duffless " is the sixteenth episode of The Simpsons ' fourth season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on February 18 , 1993 . After getting arrested for drunk driving , Homer tries to remain sober , at Marge 's request . Meanwhile , Lisa attempts to prove that Bart is less intelligent than a hamster after he ruins her first science fair project . It was written by David M. Stern , and directed by Jim Reardon . The episode received a positive reception .
= = Plot = =
Bart has a dream that he is at the school science fair presenting a Go @-@ Go Ray . He zaps all the teachers , resulting in their dancing uncontrollably . Principal Skinner declares him the winner , but Bart wakes up realizing it was Lisa messing with him .
At breakfast , Lisa shows the family her science fair project , a steroid @-@ enhanced tomato that she hopes will cure world hunger . Bart 's project is to study the effects of cigarette smoking on dogs ; his " volunteer " is Santa 's Little Helper .
At the Springfield Nuclear Power Plant , Homer ducks out of work early and accompanies Barney on a tour of the Duff brewery . After the tour , Homer refuses to let the exceptionally drunk Barney drive home and forces him to hand over his keys . On their way out of the parking lot , their car is pulled over by Police Chief Wiggum , along with Eddie and Lou . They administer a breathalyzer test to Homer , which he fails . He is arrested , his license is revoked , and he must attend traffic school and Alcoholics Anonymous meetings .
At school , three days before the science fair , Lisa leaves her super tomato under Bart 's care for a moment and he takes the opportunity to hurl it at Skinner while he is bent over tying his shoe . When Lisa sees what Bart has done with her project , she is furious . Lisa appeals to Marge for help , who suggests she run a hamster through a maze . Lisa takes the idea to heart , but instead of just testing the intelligence of a rodent , she pits a hamster against an unknowing Bart to find out who is smarter . After two simple tests , the hamster leads two to zero .
In bed , Marge gives Homer a magazine quiz about his drinking . Hearing his answers , she asks him to give up beer for a month , to which he agrees . Homer tries not to think about beer while he rides Lisa 's bike to work . After a series of severe temptations , Homer crashes the bike as hundreds of bottles of Duff parachuted down on him from a blimp .
Bart later discovers Lisa 's plans to humiliate him at the science fair and preempts them with a project of his own , " Can hamsters fly planes ? " . Lisa tries to reason that his project has no scientific merit , but everyone ignores her . A cute hamster sitting in the cockpit of a miniature plane wins over Skinner and he hands Bart the winning ribbon , much to Lisa 's dismay .
At Homer 's Alcoholics Anonymous meeting , he is kicked out by Reverend Lovejoy after confessing that his desperation for the taste of beer led him to " sneak into the football stadium and eat the dirt underneath the bleachers " . But he exhibits more positive changes such as losing weight , saving over $ 100 and no longer sweating while he eats . After thirty days of sobriety , Homer rushes back to Moe 's , despite Marge asking him to stay home . However , after seeing how alcohol has ruined the lives of Barney and the other barflies , he turns around and goes home . Homer and Marge ride a bike into the sunset .
= = Production = =
Bart 's go @-@ go ray idea was " stolen " from the opening credits of Johnny Quest . Mike Reiss said they did not want to show the hamster getting shocked but had to for plot purposes . The first line Richard Nixon says , during the Duff commercial , was taken verbatim from the Kennedy @-@ Nixon Debate during the 1960 Presidential Campaign . Adolf Hitler 's head , among other things , can be seen going by in bottles of Duff when the quality control man is not paying attention .
The episode contains the first appearance of Sarah Wiggum .
The episode contains a two @-@ second snippet of footage from " Bart the Daredevil " : a close @-@ up of Homer making a disappointed face and saying " D 'oh ! " when he gets arrested .
= = Cultural references = =
When Bart reaches for the cupcakes and collapses , it is a parody of a scene in A Clockwork Orange , where the main character Alex reaches for a woman 's breasts . The Duff clock is a parody of the " It 's a Small World " clock . In the Duff TV advertisement , a group of women were leading an anti @-@ sexism protest in front of the McMahon and Tate building , a reference to the advertising agency from Bewitched . The scene toward the end where Moe points toward individual customers declaring they will " be back " before pointing toward and addressing the viewer ( later revealed to be Barney via a cutaway ) is a parody of the end of the film Reefer Madness . The final scene , where Homer and Marge cycle into the distance while " Raindrops Keep Fallin ' on My Head " plays is a reference to the film Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid . Homer 's song " It was a Very Good Beer " is sung to the tune of the 1961 song " It Was a Very Good Year " ; one of its lyrics is Homer stating he stayed up and listened to the music of the British band Queen . Bart sitting in the chair , stroking the hamster is a reference to James Bond character Ernst Stavro Blofeld , who strokes a cat in his chair .
= = Reception = =
" Duffless " aired during February sweeps and finished 19th in the weekly ratings for the week of February 15 – 21 , 1993 with a Nielsen rating of 15 @.@ 2 and was viewed in 14 @.@ 2 million homes . It was the highest rated show from the Fox Network that week .
The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood said , " A superb episode with a sincere message . Homer is excellent throughout , but it is the cameos by Principal Skinner and Edna Krabappel that steal the show , especially the latter 's reaction to Milhouse 's Slinky . " Entertainment Weekly ranked the episode as number eleven on their list of the top twenty @-@ five The Simpsons episodes .
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= Women in early modern Scotland =
Women in early modern Scotland , between the Renaissance of the early sixteenth century and the beginnings of industrialisation in the mid @-@ eighteenth century , were part of a patriarchal society , though the enforcement of this social order was not absolute in all aspects . Women retained their family surnames at marriage and did not join their husband 's kin groups . In higher social ranks , marriages were often political in nature and the subject of complex negotiations in which women as matchmakers or mothers could play a major part . Women were a major part of the workforce , with many unmarried women acting as farm servants and married women playing a part in all the major agricultural tasks , particularly during harvest . Widows could be found keeping schools , brewing ale and trading , but many at the bottom of society lived a marginal existence .
Women had limited access to formal education and girls benefited less than boys from the expansion of the parish school system . Some women were taught reading , domestic tasks , but often not writing . In noble households some received a private education and some female literary figures emerged from the seventeenth century . Religion may have been particularly important as a means of expression for women and from the seventeenth century women may have had greater opportunities for religious participation in movements out side of the established kirk . Women had very little legal status at the beginning of the period , unable to act as witnesses or legally responsible for their own actions . From the mid @-@ sixteenth century they were increasingly criminalised , with statutes allowing them to be prosecuted for infanticide and as witches . Seventy @-@ five per cent of an estimated 6 @,@ 000 individuals prosecuted for witchcraft between 1563 and 1736 were women and perhaps 1 @,@ 500 were executed . As a result , some historians have seen this period as characterised by increasing concern with women and attempts to control and constrain them .
= = Status = =
Early modern Scotland was a patriarchal society , in which men had total authority over women . From the 1560s the post @-@ Reformation marriage service underlined this by stating that a wife " is in subjection and under governance of her husband , so long as they both continue alive " . As was common in Western Europe , Scottish society stressed a daughter 's duties to her father , a wife 's duties to her husband and the virtues of chastity and obedience . Given very high mortality rates , women could inherit important responsibilities from their fathers and from their husbands as widows . Evidence from towns indicates that around one in five households were headed by women , often continuing an existing business interest . In noble society , widowhood created some very wealthy and powerful women , including Catherine Campbell , who became the richest widow in the kingdom when her husband , the ninth earl of Crawford , died in 1558 and the twice @-@ widowed Margaret Ker , dowager lady Yester , described in 1635 as having " the greatest conjunct fie [ fiefdom ] that any lady hes in Scotland " .
In politics the theory of patriarchy was complicated by regencies led by Margaret Tudor and Mary of Guise and by the advent of a regnant queen in Mary , Queen of Scots from 1561 . Concerns over this threat to male authority were exemplified by John Knox 's The First Blast of the Trumpet Against the Monstruous Regiment of Women ( 1558 ) , which advocated the deposition of all reigning queens . Most of the political nation took a pragmatic view of the situation , accepting Mary as queen , but the strains that this paradox created may have played a part in the later difficulties of the reign . How exactly patriarchy worked in practice is difficult to discern . Scottish women in this period had something of a reputation among foreign observers for being forthright individuals , with the Spanish ambassador to the court of James IV noting that they were " absolute mistresses of their houses and even their husbands " .
= = Family and marriage = =
Unlike in England , where kinship was predominately cognatic ( derived through both males and females ) , in Scotland kinship was agnatic , with members of a group sharing a ( sometimes fictional ) common ancestor . Women retained their original surname at marriage , symbolising that they did not join their husband 's kin , and marriages were intended to create friendship between kin groups , rather than a new bond of kinship . Women could marry from the age of 12 ( while for boys it was from 14 ) and , while many girls from the social elite married in their teens , most in the Lowlands only married after a period of life @-@ cycle service , in their twenties , by which they accrued resources , status and skills that would allow them to establish a household . Normally marriage followed handfasting , a period of betrothal , which in the Highlands may have effectively been a period of trial marriage , in which sexual activity may have been accepted as legitimate . Highland women , based on the higher birth rate of the Highlands , might have married earlier than their Lowland counterparts .
Marriages , particularly higher in society , were often political in nature and the subject of complex negotiations over the tocher ( dowry ) . Some mothers took a leading role in negotiating marriages , as Lady Glenorchy did for her children in the 1560s and 1570s , or as matchmakers , finding suitable and compatible partners for others . Before the Reformation , the extensive marriage bars for kinship meant that most noble marriages necessitated a papal dispensation , which could later be used as grounds for annulment if the marriage proved politically or personally inconvenient , although there was no divorce as such . Separation from bed and board was allowed in exceptional circumstances , usually adultery . Under the reformed Kirk , divorce was allowed on grounds of adultery , or of desertion . Scotland was one of the first countries to allow desertion as legal grounds for divorce and , unlike England , divorce cases were initiated relatively far down the social scale .
= = Work = =
Women acted as an important part of the workforce . In addition to the domestic tasks carried out by wives and female servants , many unmarried women worked away from their families as farm servants and married women worked with their husbands around the farm , taking part in all the major agricultural tasks . They had a particular role as shearers in the harvest , forming most of the reaping team of the bandwin . Women also played an important part in the expanding textile industries , spinning and setting up warps for men to weave . In the Highlands they may have been even more significant as there is evidence that many men considered agricultural work to be beneath their status and in places they may have formed the majority of the rural workforce . There were roles that were the preserve of women alone , including as midwives and wet @-@ nurses . There is evidence of single women engaging in independent economic activity , particularly for widows , who can be found keeping schools , brewing ale and trading . Some were highly successful , like Janet Flockhart , an Edinburgh Wadwife or moneylender , who had been left a widow with seven children after her third husband 's suicide , and who managed her business affairs so successfully that she had amassed a moveable estate of £ 22 @,@ 000 by her death in the late sixteenth century . Lower down the social scale the rolls of poor relief indicate that large numbers of widows with children endured a marginal existence and were particularly vulnerable in times of economic hardship . " Masterless women " , who had no responsible fathers or husbands may have made up as much as 18 per cent of all households and particularly worried authorities who gave instructions to take particular notice of them .
= = Education and writing = =
By the end of the fifteenth century , Edinburgh had schools for girls , sometimes described as " sewing schools " , and probably taught by lay women or nuns . There was also the development of private tuition in the families of lords and wealthy burghers , which may have extended to women . From the mid @-@ seventeenth century there were boarding schools for girls , particularly in Edinburgh or London . These were often family @-@ sized institutions headed by women . Initially these were aimed at the girls of noble households , but by the eighteenth century there were complaints that the daughters of traders and craftsmen were following their social superiors into these institutions . By the eighteenth century many poorer girls were being taught in dame schools , informally set up by a widow or spinster to teach reading , sewing and cooking .
The widespread belief in the limited intellectual and moral capacity of women , vied with a desire , intensified after the Reformation , for women to take personal moral responsibility , particularly as wives and mothers . In Protestantism this necessitated an ability to learn and understand the catechism and even to be able to independently read the Bible , but most commentators , even those that tended to encourage the education of girls , thought they should not receive the same academic education as boys . In the lower ranks of society , they benefited from the expansion of the parish schools system that took place after the Reformation , but were usually outnumbered by boys , often taught separately , for a shorter time and to a lower level . They were frequently taught reading , sewing and knitting , but not writing . Female illiteracy rates based on signatures among female servants were around 90 per cent , from the late seventeenth to the early eighteenth centuries and perhaps 85 per cent for women of all ranks by 1750 , compared with 35 per cent for men .
Among the nobility there were many educated and cultured women , of which Queen Mary is the most obvious example . By the early eighteenth century their education was expected to include basic literacy and numeracy , musical instruments ( including lute , viol and keyboard ) , needlework , cookery and household management , while polite accomplishments and piety were also emphasised . From the seventeenth century they were some notable aristocratic female writers . The first book written by a woman and published in Scotland was Elizabeth Melville 's Ane Godlie Dreame in 1603 . Later major figures included Lady Elizabeth Wardlaw ( 1627 – 1727 ) and Lady Grizel Baillie ( 1645 – 1746 ) . There are 50 autobiographies extant from the late seventeenth to the early eighteenth century , of which 16 were written by women , all of which are largely religious in content .
= = Religion = =
Historian Katharine Glover argues that women had less means of public participation than men and that as a result piety and an active religious life may have been more important for women from the social elite . Church going played an important part in the lives of many women . Women were largely excluded from the administration of the kirk , but when heads of households voted on the appointment of a new minister some parishes allowed women in that position to participate .
The upheavals of the seventeenth century saw women autonomously participating in radical religion . The most prominent examples were the women who threw their cuttie @-@ stools at the dean who was reading the new " English " service book in St. Giles Cathedral in 1637 , precipitating the Bishop 's Wars ( 1639 – 40 ) , between the Presbyterian Covenanters and the king , who favoured an episcopalian structure in the church , similar to that in England . They were later said to have been led by Edinburgh woman Jenny Geddes . According to R. A. Houston , women probably had more freedom of expression and control over their spiritual destiny in groups outside the established church such the Quakers , who had a presence in the country from the mid @-@ seventeenth century . The principle of male authority could be challenged when women chose different religious leaders from their husbands and fathers . Among the Cameronians , who broke away from the kirk when episcopalianism was re @-@ established at the Restoration in 1660 , several reports indicate that women could preach and excommunicate , but not baptise . Several women are known to have been executed for their part in the movement .
= = Crime and the law = =
At the beginning of the period , women had a very limited legal status . A married woman had few property rights and could not make a will without her husband 's permission , although jurists expected this to be given . Men had considerable latitude in disciplining the women under their authority and although a handful of cases turn up in higher courts , and the kirk session did intervene to protect women from domestic abuse , it was usually only when the abuse began to disturb public order . The criminal courts refused to recognise women as witnesses , or as independent criminals , and responsibly for their actions was assumed to lie with their husbands , fathers and kin . As a result , a married woman could not sell property , sue in court or make contracts without her husband 's permission .
In the post @-@ Reformation period there was a criminalisation of women . Women were disciplined in kirk sessions and civil courts for stereotypical offenses including scolding and prostitution , which were seen as deviant , rather than criminal . Through the 1640s there were independent commissions set up to try women for child murder and , after pressure from the kirk , a law of 1690 placed the presumption of guilt on a woman who concealed a pregnancy and birth and whose child later died . In the aftermath of the initial Reformation settlement , Parliament passed the Witchcraft Act 1563 , similar to that passed in England one year earlier , which made the practice of witchcraft itself and consulting with witches capital crimes . Between the passing of the act and its repeal in 1736 , an estimated 6 @,@ 000 persons were tried for witchcraft in Scotland . Most of the accused , some 75 per cent , were women , with over 1 @,@ 500 executed , and the witch hunt in Scotland has been seen as a means of controlling women . Various reasons for the Scottish witch @-@ hunt , and its more intense nature than that in England , have been advanced by historians . Many of the major periods of prosecution coincided with periods of intense economic distress and some accusations may have followed the withdrawal of charity from marginal figures , particularly the single women that made up many of the accused . Changing attitudes to women , particularly in the reformed kirk , which may have perceived women as more of a moral threat , have also been noted . The proliferation of partial explanations for the witch hunt has led some historians to proffer the concept of " associated circumstances " , rather than one single significant cause .
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= Positive Black Soul =
Positive Black Soul ( also known as PBS ) is a hip hop group based in Dakar , Senegal , one of the first such collectives in the country . Founded in 1989 , the group is composed of Didier Sourou Awadi ( alias DJ Awadi ) and Amadou Barry ( alias Doug E. Tee or Duggy @-@ Tee ) , both of whom had previously been in other hip hop groups . They perform in the English , French , and Wolof languages and use traditional Senegalese instruments as part of their songs . Political and social activism have played important roles in the group since it was founded .
= = History = =
The two members of Positive Black Soul were both born in the city of Dakar , Senegal . As teenagers , Awadi and Barry were involved in the Dakar hip hop scene — Awadi leading his own group , Didier Awadi 's Syndicate , a breakdancer as well as a rapper ; and Barry performing with the King MCs . Originally Awadi and Barry were rivals , competing with each other in performances and coming from separate neighborhoods of Dakar . During a birthday party held by Awadi to which Barry was invited , however , the two performed together and realized their similarities , founding Positive Black Soul very soon after . Activism and politics are central parts of the group 's philosophy — its shortened name ( PBS ) was a play on the Parti Démocratique Sénégalais initialism " PDS " .
In 1992 , the group performed at a music festival held by the Dakar French Cultural Center , where the French rapper MC Solaar heard their performance and invited the group to open for him when he debuted in Dakar in October of that year . The rapper was impressed with Positive Black Soul , inviting them to continue performing with him in France . Two years later the group put out its first release , a cassette entitled Boul Falé . The album was followed by more touring in France , as well as in England and Switzerland . In the same year , the Senegalese musician Baaba Maal offered PBS the opportunity to be on his album Firin ' in Fouta . Maal was signed to Mango Records and because of this recording with him , Positive Black Soul were signed as well . They released their album debut Salaam on Mango Records . After achieving success in Senegal and some abroad , the group continued touring , including 130 performances in 1997 . They also began organizing concerts in Dakar and promoting new groups including Daara J and Pee Froiss .
Positive Black Soul 's first international release , New York Paris @-@ Dakar , had been previously released as a cassette in Senegal . However it was only in 1997 , six years after its initial appearance , that it was sold outside of the country . The American rapper KRS @-@ One , one of the group 's collaborators on the album , shared a similar philosophy and interest in Pan @-@ Africanism with Awadi and Barry .
In 2002 , the group appeared on the Red Hot Organization 's tribute album to Fela Kuti , Red Hot and Riot . They contributed to a track titled " No Agreement " alongside Res , Tony Allen , Ray Lema , Baaba Maal , and Archie Shepp .
Since about 2002 , the group 's members have been pursuing solo projects . On August 14 , 2009 , PBS performed in Dakar for their 20th anniversary effectively ending speculations about whether they have disbanded . Guests at the concert included powerful Senegal music stars such as Youssou Ndour and Ismael Lo .
= = Activism = =
Positive Black Soul has promoted political activity and activism in other areas . The group urged Senegalese people to participate in the country 's government and vote in elections . PBS also decries images of Africa in the media , which they view as one @-@ sided . They state : " We want to show the positivity in the black soul . That 's our fight . Africa is not only a land of suffering , misery , war and disease . We 're proud to live there and we are not suffering . " They view their chosen medium of rap as an accessible way to talk about issues such as corruption and politics . AIDS has also been featured in their music : one song , " Écoute Fils " ( " Listen Son " ) , is written about the disease and cautions listeners about its dangers .
= = Discography = =
Boul Falé ( 1994 )
Salaam ( 1995 )
Daw Thiow ( 1996 )
Wakh Feign ( 1996 )
New York @-@ Paris @-@ Dakar ( 1997 )
Revolution ( 2000 )
Run Cool ( 2001 )
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= Flag of Portugal =
The Flag of Portugal ( Portuguese : Bandeira de Portugal ) is the national flag of the Portuguese Republic . It is a rectangular bicolour with a field unevenly divided into green on the hoist , and red on the fly . The lesser version of the national coat of arms ( i.e. armillary sphere and Portuguese shield ) is centred over the colour boundary at equal distance from the upper and lower edges . On June 30 , 1911 , less than a year after the downfall of the constitutional monarchy , this design was officially adopted for the new national flag , after selection by a special commission whose members included Columbano Bordalo Pinheiro , João Chagas and Abel Botelho .
The conjugation of the new field colours , especially the use of green , was not traditional in the Portuguese national flag 's composition and represented a radical republican @-@ inspired change that broke the bond with the former monarchical flag . Since a failed republican insurrection on January 31 , 1891 , red and green had been established as the colours of the Portuguese Republican Party and its associated movements , whose political prominence kept growing until it reached a culmination period following the Republican revolution of October 5 , 1910 . In the ensuing decades , these colours were popularly propagandized as representing the hope of the nation ( green ) and the blood ( red ) of those who died defending it , as a means to endow them with a more patriotic and dignified , therefore less political , sentiment . Although the flag flown from the Oporto city hall in the morning of January 31 , 1891 , symbol of the republican uprising was red and green . Totally red with a green circle in the center , to which were added the inscriptions referring to the republican center to whom it belonged - the Centro Democrático Federal 15 de Novembro.'
The current flag design represents a dramatic change in the evolution of the Portuguese standard , which had always been closely associated with the royal arms , blue and white . Since the country 's foundation , the national flag developed from the blue cross @-@ on @-@ white armorial square banner of King Afonso I to the liberal monarchy 's arms over a blue @-@ and @-@ white rectangle . In between , major changes associated with determinant political events contributed to its evolution into the current design .
= = Design = =
The decree that legally replaced the flag used under the constitutional monarchy with the new design was approved by the Constituent Assembly and published in government journal no . 141 ( Portuguese : diário do Governo ) , on June 19 , 1911 . On June 30 , this decree had its regulations officially published in government diary no . 150 .
= = = Construction = = =
The flag 's length is equal to 1 1 ⁄ 2 times its width , which translates into an aspect ratio of 2 : 3 . The background is vertically divided into two colours : dark green on the hoist side , and scarlet red on the fly . The colour division is made in a way that green spans 2 ⁄ 5 of the length and the remaining 3 ⁄ 5 are filled by red ( ratio 2 @-@ 3 ) . The lesser version of the national coat of arms ( without the laurel wreaths ) — a white @-@ rimmed national shield on top of a black @-@ highlighted yellow armillary sphere — is positioned over the border between both colours .
The armillary sphere has a diameter equal to 1 ⁄ 2 width and is equidistant from the upper and lower edges of the flag . The sphere , drawn in perspective , possesses six edge @-@ embossed arcs , four of which are great circles and two are small circles . The great circles represent the ecliptic ( wider oblique arc ) , the equator , and two meridians . These last three are positioned so that the intersections between each two arcs make a right angle ; one meridian lies on the flag 's plane while the other is perpendicular to it . The small circles consist of two parallels ( the tropics ) , each tangent to one of the ecliptic @-@ meridian intersections .
Vertically centred over the sphere is the national shield , a white @-@ rimmed curved bottom red shield charged with a white inescutcheon . Its height and width are equal to 7 ⁄ 10 and 6 ⁄ 10 of the sphere 's diameter , respectively . The shield is positioned in a way that its limits intersect the sphere :
at the inflection points of the distal edges of the Tropic of Cancer 's anterior half ( top ) and Tropic of Capricorn 's posterior half ( bottom ) ;
at the intersection of the lower edges of the ecliptic 's posterior half and of the equator 's anterior half ( dexter or viewer 's left side ) ; and
at the intersection of the upper edge of the ecliptic 's anterior half with the lower edge of the equator 's posterior half ( sinister or viewer 's right side ) .
A curious aspect of the official design is the absence of a segment of the Tropic of Capricorn , between the national shield and the ecliptic arc .
The white inescutcheon is itself charged with five smaller blue shields ( escudetes ) arranged like a Greek cross ( 1 + 3 + 1 ) . Each smaller shield holds five white bezants displayed in the form of a saltire ( 2 + 1 + 2 ) . The red bordure is charged with seven yellow castles : three on the chief portion ( one in each corner and one in the middle ) , two in the middle points of each quadrant of the curved base ( rotated 45 degrees ) , and two more on each side of the bordure , over the flag 's horizontal middle line . Each castle is composed by a base building , showing a closed ( yellow ) gate , on top of which stand three battlemented towers . In heraldic terminology , the shield 's blazon is described as Argent , five escutcheons in cross azure each charged with five plates in saltire , on a bordure gules seven towers triple @-@ turreted Or , three in chief.a
The colour tones of the flag are not accurately specified in any legal document . Approximate tones are listed below :
= = = Background = = =
The Republican revolution of October 5 , 1910 , brought a need to replace the symbols of the overthrown monarchy , represented in the first instance by the old national flag and anthem . The choice of the new flag was not one without conflict , especially over the colours , as partisans of the republican red @-@ and @-@ green faced opposition from supporters of the traditional royal blue @-@ and @-@ white . Blue also carried a strong religious meaning as it was the colour of Our Lady of the Conception ( Portuguese : Nossa Senhora da Conceição ) , who was crowned Queen and Patroness of Portugal by King John IV , so its removal or replacement from the future flag was justified by Republicans as one of the many measures needed to secularize the state .
After the presentation and discussion of the many proposals , a governmental commission was set up on October 15 , 1910 . It included Columbano Bordalo Pinheiro ( painter ) , João Chagas ( journalist ) , Abel Botelho ( writer ) and two military leaders of 1910 : Ladislau Pereira and Afonso Palla . This commission ultimately chose the red @-@ and @-@ green of the Portuguese Republican Party , delivering an explanation based on patriotic reasons , which disguised the political significance behind the choice , as these had been the colours present on the banners of the rebellious during the republican insurrection of January 31 , 1891 , in Porto , and during the monarchy @-@ overthrowing revolution , in Lisbon .
The commission considered that red should " ( ... ) be present as one of the main colours , because it is the battling , warm , virile colour , par excellence . It is the colour of conquest and laughter . A singing , burning , joyful colour ( ... ) Recalls the idea of blood and urges to achieve victory " . An explanation for the inclusion of the green was harder to come up with , given that it was not a traditional colour of the Portuguese flag 's history . Eventually , it was justified on the grounds that , during the 1891 insurrection , this was the colour present on the revolutionary flag that " sparked the redeeming lightning " of republicanism . Finally , white ( on the shield ) represented " a beautiful and fraternal colour , into which all other colours merge themselves , colour of simplicity , of harmony and peace " , adding that " ( ... ) it is this same colour that , charged with enthusiasm and faith by the red cross of Christ , marks the Discoveries epic cycle " .
The Manueline armillary sphere , which had been present on the national flag under the reign of John VI , was revived because it consecrated the " Portuguese epic maritime history ( ... ) the ultimate challenge , essential to our collective life . " . The Portuguese shield was kept , being positioned over the armillary sphere . Its presence would immortalize the " human miracle of positive bravery , tenacity , diplomacy , and audacity , that managed to bind the first links of the Portuguese nation 's social and political affirmation " , since it is one of the " most vigorous symbols of the national identity and integrity " .
The new flag was produced in large numbers at the Cordoaria Nacional ( English : National Rope House ) and was officially presented nationwide on December 1 , 1910 , on occasion of the 270 years of the Restoration of Independence . This day had already been declared by the government as the " Flag Day " ( currently not celebrated ) . In the capital , it was paraded from the city hall to the Restauradores ( English : Restorers ) Monument , where it was hoisted . This festive presentation did not mask , however , the turmoil caused by a design chosen single @-@ handedly without prior popular consultation , and that represented more of a political regime than a whole nation . To encourage a greater acceptance of the new flag , the government issued all teaching establishments with one exemplar , whose symbols were to be explained to the students ; textbooks were changed to intensively display these symbols . Also , December 1 ( " Flag Day " ) , January 31 and October 5 were declared national holidays .
= = Symbolism = =
The Portuguese flag displays three important symbols : the field colours , and the armillary sphere and national shield , which make up the coat of arms .
= = = Colours = = =
The explanation for the green and red colours that make up the background field arose during the Estado Novo period , the nationalist authoritarian regime that held power from 1933 to 1974 . It claims that the green represented the hope of the Portuguese people , while the red represented the blood of those who died serving the nation . Sources believe these noble meanings are far from the truth and are nothing more than propaganda , to provide an honourable justification to their choice .
Despite the fact that these colours never constituted a major part of the national flag until 1910 , they were present in several historical banners during important periods . King John I included a green Aviz cross on the red bordure of his banner . The red cross of the Order of Christ was used over a white field as a naval pennon during the Discoveries and frequently on ship sails . A green background version was a popular standard of the rebellious during the 1640 revolution that restored Portugal 's independence from Spain . There are no registered sources to confirm that this was the origin of the republican colours . Another explanation gives full credit to the flag that was hoisted on the balcony of Porto 's city hall during the 1891 insurrection . It consisted of a red field bearing a green disc and the inscription Centro Democrático Federal « 15 de Novembro » ( English : Federal Democratic Centre « 15 of November » ) , representing one of many masonry @-@ inspired republican clubs . Over the following 20 years , the red @-@ and @-@ green was present on every republican item in Portugal . The 1891 flag @-@ inherited red stands for the colour of the republican @-@ inspired masonry @-@ backed revolutionaries , whereas green was the colour Auguste Comte had destined to be present in the flags of positivist nations , an ideal incorporated into the republican political matrix .
= = = Armillary sphere = = =
The armillary sphere was an important astronomical and navigational instrument for the Portuguese sailors who ventured into unknown seas during the Age of Discoveries . It was introduced by the Knights Templar , whose knowledge was essential to the Portuguese Discoveries — Henry , the Navigator , the person mainly responsible for the development of Age of Discovery was actually the Grand Master of the Order of Christ . It thus became the symbol of the most important period of the nation — the Portuguese discoveries . In light of this , King Manuel I , who ruled during this period , incorporated the armillary sphere into his personal banner . It was simultaneously used as the ensign of ships plying the route between the metropolis and Brazil , thus becoming a colonial symbol and a fulcral element of the flags of the future Brazilian kingdom and empire .
Adding to the sphere 's significance was its common use on every Manueline @-@ influenced architectural work , where it is one of the major stylistic elements , as seen on the Jerónimos Monastery and Belém Tower .
= = = Portuguese shield = = =
The Portuguese shield rests over the armillary sphere . Except during the reign of Afonso I , it is present in every single historical flag , in one form or another . It is the prime Portuguese symbol as well as one of the oldest , with the first elements of today 's shield appearing during the reign of Sancho I. The evolution of the Portuguese flag is inherently associated with the evolution of the shield .
Within the white inescutcheon , the five small blue shields with their five white bezants representing the five wounds of Christ ( Portuguese : Cinco Chagas ) when crucified and are popularly associated with the " Miracle of Ourique " . The story associated with this miracle tells that before the Battle of Ourique ( July 25 , 1139 ) , an old hermit appeared before Count Afonso Henriques ( future Afonso I ) as a divine messenger . He foretold Afonso 's victory and assured him that God was watching over him and his peers . The messenger advised him to walk away from his camp , alone , if he heard a nearby chapel bell tolling , in the following night . In doing so , he witnessed an apparition of Jesus on the cross . Ecstatic , Afonso heard Jesus promising victories for the coming battles , as well as God 's wish to act through Afonso , and his descendants , in order to create an empire which would carry his name to unknown lands , thus choosing the Portuguese to perform great tasks .
Boosted by this spiritual experience , Afonso won the battle against an outnumbering enemy . Legend has it that Afonso killed the five Moorish kings of the Seville , Badajoz , Elvas , Évora and Beja taifas , before decimating the enemy troops . Hence , in gratitude to Jesus , he incorporated five shields arranged in a cross — representing his divine @-@ led victory over the five enemy kings — with each one carrying Christ 's five wounds in the form of silver bezants . The sum of all bezants ( doubling the ones in the central shield ) would give thirty , symbolizing Judas Iscariot 's thirty pieces of silver .
However , evidence pointing out that the number of bezants on each shield was greater than five during long periods following Afonso I 's reign , as well as the fact that only in the 15th century was this legend registered on a chronicle by Fernão Lopes ( 1419 ) , support this explanation as one of pure myth and highly charged with patriotic feeling in the sense that Portugal was created by divine intervention and was destined for great things .
The seven castles are traditionally considered a symbol of the Portuguese victories over their Moorish enemies , under Afonso III , who supposedly captured seven enemy fortresses in the course of his conquest of the Algarve , concluded in 1249 . However , this explanation is weakly founded since this king did not have seven castles on his banner , but an unspecified number . Some reconstructions display about sixteen castles ; this number changed to twelve , in 1385 , and was only fixed at seven in 1485 . An hypothesis about the origin of the castles on a red bordure lies in the family ties of Afonso III with Castile ( both his mother and second wife were Castilian ) , whose arms consisted of a golden castle on a red field .
= = Evolution = =
Since the foundation of Portugal , the national flag was always linked to the royal arms and , up until 1640 , there was no official distinction between both . It evolved in a way that gradually incorporated most of the symbols present on the current coat of arms .
= = = 1095 – 1248 = = =
The first heraldic symbol that can be associated with what would become the Portuguese nation was on the shield used by Henry of Burgundy , Count of Portugal since 1095 , during his battles with the Moors . This shield consisted of a blue cross over a white field . Nevertheless , this design has no reliable sources since it is a reconstruction that became popular and widely accepted thanks to the nationalistic purposes of the Estado Novo regime .
Henry 's son Afonso Henriques succeeded him in the county and took on the same shield . In 1139 , despite being outnumbered , he defeated an army of Almoravid Moors at the Battle of Ourique and proclaimed himself Afonso I , King of Portugal , in front of his troops . Following the official recognition by the neighbouring León , Afonso changed his shield in order to reflect his new political status . Sources state he charged the cross with five sets of an unspecified number of silver bezants ( most likely large @-@ headed silver nails ) , one set on the centre and one on each arm , symbolizing Afonso 's newly gained right to issue currency .
During the time of Afonso I , it was typical not to repair battle damage inflicted on the shield , so changes such as the breaking off of pieces , colour shifting or stains were very common . When Sancho I succeeded his father Afonso I , in 1185 , he inherited a very worn off shield : the blue @-@ stained leather that made the cross had been lost except where the bezants ( nails ) held it in place . This involuntary degradation was the basis for the next step on the evolution of the national coat of arms , where a plain blue cross transformed into a compound cross of five blue bezant @-@ charged escutcheons — the quina ( Portuguese word meaning “ group of five ” ) were thus born . Sancho 's personal shield ( called " Portugal ancien " ) consisted of a white field with a compound cross of five shields ( each one charged with eleven silver bezants ) with the bottom edges of the lateral ones facing towards the centre . Both Sancho 's son Afonso II and grandson Sancho II used these arms , as it was usual with direct succession lines ( cadency system ) . A new modification of the royal arms was made when Sancho II 's younger brother became king , in 1248 .
= = = 1248 – 1495 = = =
Afonso III of Portugal was not the eldest son , therefore heraldic practices stated he should not take his father 's arms without adding a personal variation . Before becoming king , Afonso was married to Matilda II of Boulogne but her inability to provide him with a royal heir led Afonso to divorce her , in 1253 . He then married Beatrice of Castile , an illegitimate daughter of Alfonso X of Castile . It is more likely that it was this family connection with Castile ( his mother was also Castilian ) that justified the new heraldic addition to the royal arms — a red bordure charged with an undetermined number of yellow castles — rather than the definitive conquest of the Algarve and its Moorish fortresses , considering that the number of castles was only fixed in the late 16th century .
The inner portion contained the arms of Sancho I , although the number of bezants varied between seven , eleven and sixteen ( the latter number was used on Afonso 's personal standard while he was still Count of Boulogne ) . This same design was used by the Portuguese kings until the end of the first dynasty , in 1383 ; a succession crisis put the country at war with Castile and left it without a ruler for two years .
In 1385 , in the wake of the Battle of Aljubarrota , a second dynasty was founded when John , Master of the Order of Aviz and illegitimate son of King Peter I , acceded to the throne as John I. To his personal banner , John I added his Order 's fleur @-@ de @-@ lys cross , displayed as green flowery points on the red bordure ; this inclusion reduced the number of castles to twelve ( three around each corner ) . The number of bezants in each escutcheon was reduced from eleven to seven . This banner lasted a hundred years until John I 's great @-@ grandson John II restyled it , in 1485 , introducing important changes : the removal of the Aviz cross , a downward arrangement and edge @-@ smoothing of the shields , and the definitive fixing of five saltire @-@ arranged bezants in each shield ( summing up six quinas , i.e. , six “ groups of five ” : one quina of shields and five quinas of bezants ) and seven castles on the bordure ( as it is currently ) . John II 's banner was the last armorial square banner used as the " national " flag or standard . Following his death , in 1495 , radical changes were made by his successor .
= = = 1495 – 1667 = = =
John II was succeeded by his first cousin Manuel I , in 1495 . This king was the first to convert the traditional square armorial banner into a rectangular ( 2 : 3 ) field with the coat of arms on its centre . Specifically , the flag was now a white rectangle centrally charged with the coat of arms ( bearing eleven castles ) on an ogival or heater @-@ shaped shield and surmounted by an open royal crown . This flag was used exclusively as the kingdom 's banner since Manuel I possessed a personal standard which included the armillary sphere for the first time .
In 1578 , during the reign of Sebastian and on the eve of the fatal Battle of Alcácer Quibir , the flag was again modified . The number of castles was permanently fixed at seven and the royal crown was converted into a closed three @-@ arched crown , which symbolized a stronger royal authority . With Sebastião 's death and the short @-@ lived reign of his great @-@ uncle Cardinal Henry , in 1580 , a dynastic crisis was solved with the Spanish king Philip II acceding to the Portuguese throne as Philip I , installing a Spanish dynasty . The accession was made on the condition that Portugal was ruled as a separate , autonomous state , not as a province . This was fulfilled as Portugal and Spain formed a personal union under Philip I and his successors . A consequence of this administrative situation was the maintenance of the flag created under Sebastian 's reign as the Portuguese national flag , while Spain had its own . As the ruling house in Portugal , the Habsburg banner also included the Portuguese arms .
The country regained its independence from Spain , in 1640 , in a coup d 'état that placed on the throne John , Duke of Bragança , as King John IV . Under his rule , the national flag was slightly changed as the ogival shield became rounded . It was from this reign forward that the royal arms and the kingdom 's arms became separate banners .
= = = 1667 – 1830 = = =
When Afonso VI 's younger brother Peter II replaced him on the throne , in 1667 , he adapted the flag 's crown to fit the contemporary trends by transforming it into a five @-@ arched crown . The new flag did not remain unchanged for too long , as it was refurbished by Peter 's son John V , after he took the throne , in 1707 . Heavily influenced by the luxurious and ostentatious court of the French king Louis XIV , and by France 's political and cultural impact in Europe , John V wanted to transpose such style into the country 's coat of arms . A red beret was then added under the crown . Besides the change of the crown , the shields started to be represented , on the flags , not only in the traditional round bottom shape ( " Iberian type " ) , but also in other formats like the samnitic ( " French type " ) , the horsehead ( " Italian type " ) or the oval ( " cartouche " ) shapes . Instated by an absolute monarch like John V , this flag endured through almost the entire absolutist period in Portugal — John V ( 1707 – 1750 ) , Joseph I ( 1750 – 1777 ) and Maria I ( 1777 – 1816 ) .
During the second half of the 17th century , the maritime use of the white flag with the Royal coat of arms of Portugal was increasingly restricted to the war ships . An ordinance of 1692 expressly banned the use of this flag by the Portuguese merchant ships , restricting its use to ships with 20 or more cannons and with a complement of 40 or more men . The Portuguese merchant ships flew instead green and white striped flags , which were the national colours of Portugal at that time . The colours green and white were also used in other Portuguese flags , like the naval commissioning pennants .
With the invasion of Portugal by Napoleon 's imperial army in 1807 , the Portuguese Royal Court fled to Brazil , establishing the capital of the Portuguese Monarchy and Empire in Rio de Janeiro . In 1815 , the Portuguese state of Brazil was elevated to a kingdom , thus receiving the same status as the Kingdom of Portugal and the Algarves . The whole of the Portuguese Monarchy became then the United Kingdom of Portugal , Brazil and the Algarves . To reflect the change of the status of the Portuguese Monarchy , the Prince Regent John ( future King John VI , at that time still reigning in name of his mother , Queen Mary I ) established a new Royal coat of arms , where the Portuguese shield ( representing Portugal and the Algarves ) charged a blue @-@ filled yellow armillary sphere ( representing Brazil ) surmounted by the same beret @-@ bearing five @-@ arched crown . The new coat of arms replaced the previous one in the Portuguese flags .
Despite the United Kingdom of Portugal , Brazil and the Algarves ceased to exist in 1822 , when Brazil became independent , its coat of arms continued to be used , inclusive in flags , until the death of John VI in 1826 . From then on , the previous coat of arms , without the armillary sphere , became in use again .
= = = 1830 – 1910 = = =
John VI died in Lisbon in 1826 . His elder son Peter , who had declared the independence of Brazil in 1822 , becoming Emperor Peter I , succeeded to the Portuguese throne as Peter IV . Because the new Brazilian constitution did not allow further personal unions of Portugal and Brazil , Peter abdicated the Portuguese crown in favour of his elder daughter Maria da Glória , who became Maria II of Portugal . She was only seven years old , so Peter stated she would marry his brother Miguel who would act as regent . However , in 1828 , Miguel deposed Maria and proclaimed himself king , abolishing the 1822 liberal constitution and ruling as an absolute monarch . This started the period of the Liberal Wars .
The liberals formed a separate government exiled on the Azorean island of Terceira . This government issued two decrees establishing modifications to the national flag . While supporters of usurper King Miguel I still upheld the flag established by John VI , the liberal supporters imposed important changes on it . The background was equally divided along its length into blue ( hoist ) and white ( fly ) ; the armillary sphere ( associated with Brazil ) was removed and the coat of arms was centred over the colour boundary ; and the shield reverted to the " French type " shape of John V. This new flag configuration was decreed solely for terrestrial use , but a variation of it was used as the national ensign . This ensign differed in the way the colours occupied the background ( blue 1 ⁄ 3 , white 2 ⁄ 3 ) with a consequent positional shift of the arms .
With the defeat and exile of Miguel in 1834 , Queen Maria II returned to the throne and the standard of the victorious side was hoisted in Lisbon as the new national flag . It would survive for 80 years , witnessing the last period of the Portuguese monarchy until its abolition , in 1910 . Currently this flag is used by Portuguese monarchists .
= = Flag protocol = =
= = = Use = = =
The Portuguese legislation concerning the use of the National Flag is mostly limited to the Decree @-@ law 150 / 87 , issued in 30 March 1987 , which replaced the previous scarce legislation dated back to the beginning of the 20th century .
The Decree @-@ law 150 / 87 states that the flag is to be hoisted from 9 : 00 a.m. to sunset ( during the night , it must be properly lit ) , on Sundays and national holidays , throughout the entire national territory . It can also be displayed on days where official ceremonies or other solemn public sessions are held ; in this case , the flag is hoisted on @-@ site . The flag can be hoisted in other days if it is considered appropriate by the central government , or by other regional or local governing bodies , or by heads of private institutions . It must follow the official design standard and be preserved in good condition .
On the headquarters buildings of the bodies of sovereignty , the flag can stay hoisted on a daily basis . It can also be hoisted on civilian and military national monuments ; on public buildings associated with the central , regional or local administration ; and on headquarters of public corporations and institutions . Citizens and private institutions can also display it , on the condition that they respect the relevant legal procedures . In the facilities of nationally @-@ based international organizations or in the case of international meetings , the flag is hoisted according to the protocol used on those situations .
If national mourning is declared , the flag will be flown at half @-@ staff during the fixed amount of days ; any flag hoisted along with it will be flown in the same manner .
When unfurled in the presence of other flags , the national flag must not have smaller dimensions and must be situated in a prominent , honourable place , according to the relevant protocol .
If there are more than one flagpole , the National Flag should be flown :
Two flagpoles – in the right pole viewed by a person facing the exterior ;
Three flagpoles – in the central pole ;
More than three flagpoles :
Within a building – if odd number of poles , in the central pole ; if even number , in the first pole on the right of the central point ;
Outside a building – always in the rightmost pole ;
If the flagpoles have not the same height , the flag must be flown in the highest pole . The poles should be placed in honourable locations of the ground , building façades and roofs . On public acts where the flag is not hoisted , it can be suspended from a distinct spot , but never used as decoration , covering or for any purpose that can diminish its dignity .
= = = Penalties = = =
An early decree , from December 28 , 1910 , established that " any person who , through speech , published writings or any other public act , shows lack of respect to the national flag , which is the motherland 's symbol , will be sentenced to a three to twelve @-@ month prison term with corresponding fine and , in case of relapse , will be sentenced to exile , as stated in the 62nd article of the Penal Code " . In its 332nd article , the current penal code punishes infractions with a prison sentence of up to two years . If the sentence is shorter than 240 days , there is a formula for converting it into a fine . If the offense is directed towards regional symbols , the penalties are halved .
= = = Folding = = =
During formal occasions , four people are required to properly fold the flag , where each person holds one of the sides . A correctly folded flag must be a square limiting the national shield . However , the order by which the different folding steps are performed to achieve this result is not legislated .
The procedure begins with the flag fully extended and held in a horizontal plane with the obverse facing down . One of the possible folding sequences is demonstrated below :
= = Military flags = =
The National Flag of Portugal also serves as war flag and ensign , so being flown on military facilities and naval ships . There are however specific national military flags for specific uses , namely the military colors , the naval jack and the naval pennant . The military colors are occasionally referred as war flag , however they are not to be flown on military facilities but are only to be carried by the military units on parades .
= = = National colours = = =
The national colours constitute the variants of the National Flag for use on parades by the military units . Originally , the colours were referred as " regimental flags " or " military units flags " , but now they are referred as " national standards " ( estandartes nacionais ) . The colours are always carried in parade by a junior officer , escorted by a colour guard .
The standard model of the colours - also adopted in 1911 - is a rectangular flag measuring 1 @.@ 20 metres ( 3 @.@ 94 ft ) in width and 1 @.@ 30 metres ( 4 @.@ 26 ft ) in length ( ratio 12 : 13 ) . Green and red are positioned at the hoist and fly , respectively , but occupy the field in an equal manner ( 1 – 1 ) . Centred over the colour boundary lie the armillary sphere and Portuguese shield , surrounded by two yellow laurel branches intersecting at their stems . These are bound by a white stripe bearing the verse by Luís de Camões " Esta é a ditosa pátria minha amada " ( English : " This is my beloved fortunate motherland " ) as the motto . This differs from the version of coat of arms employed as emblem , where the laurel shoots are tied by a green and red stripe without the verse . The sphere 's outer diameter is ⅓ of the width and lies 35 centimetres ( 14 in ) from the upper edge and 45 centimetres ( 18 in ) from the lower edge .
Although the 1911 regulation is , theoretically , still in force , the various branches of the Armed Forces made specific changes to it and so , several types of colours are used by the different military units . For example , the colours adopted by the Portuguese Army , in 1979 , measures just 0 @.@ 80 m ( 4 @.@ 26 ft ) by 0 @.@ 80 m .
= = = Naval jack = = =
The Portuguese naval jack ( jaco or jaque ) is only hoisted at the prow of docked or anchored Navy ships , from sunrise to sunset . The national flag is permanently hoisted at the stern , when sailing , and from sunrise to sunset , when docked . It is a square flag ( ratio 1 : 1 ) bearing a green @-@ bordered red field with the minor coat of arms on the centre . The width of the green border and the diameter of the armillary sphere are equal to 1 / 8 and 3 / 7 of the side 's dimension , respectively .
= = = Commissioning pennant = = =
The Portuguese commissioning pennant ( flâmula ) is a long triangular flag , green on the hoist and red on the fly . It is to be flown on the main mast of the naval ships commanded by officers .
= = Government flags = =
Highly ranked state and governmental offices are also represented by their own flag . The President of the Republic ( Portuguese : Presidente da República ) uses a flag largely similar to the national flag , except for having dark green as the only background colour . It is usually hoisted at the President 's official residence , the Palace of Belém , as well as on the presidential car , as small @-@ sized flags . The flag of the Prime @-@ Minister is a white rectangle ( ratio 2 : 3 ) with a dark green saltire , holding the lesser coat of arms on its centre , and a red bordure charged with a pattern of yellow laurel leaves . Other ministerial flags do not possess the red bordure . The flag of the Assembly of the Republic ( Portuguese : Assembleia da República ) , the national parliament , is also a white rectangle ( ratio 2 : 3 ) with the lesser coat of arms in the centre and a dark green bordure .
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= Family structure in the United States =
The traditional family structure in the United States is considered a family support system involving two married individuals providing care and stability for their biological offspring . However , this two @-@ parent , nuclear family has become less prevalent , and alternative family forms have become more common . The family is created at birth and establishes ties across generations . Those generations , the extended family of aunts , uncles , grandparents , and cousins , can hold significant emotional and economic roles for the nuclear family .
Over time , the traditional structure has had to adapt to very influential changes , including divorce and the introduction of single @-@ parent families , teenage pregnancy and unwed mothers , and same @-@ sex marriage , and increased interest in adoption . Social movements such as the feminist movement and the stay @-@ at @-@ home dad have contributed to the creation of alternative family forms , generating new versions of the American family .
= = At a glance = =
= = = Nuclear family = = =
The nuclear family has been considered the " traditional " family since the communist scare in the cold war of the 1950s . The nuclear family consists of a mother , father , and the children . The two @-@ parent nuclear family has become less prevalent , and pre @-@ American and European family forms have become more common .
These include same @-@ sex relationships , single @-@ parent households , adopting individuals , and extended family systems living together . The nuclear family is also choosing to have fewer children than in the past . The percentage of married @-@ couple households with children under 18 has declined to 23 @.@ 5 % of all households in 2000 from 25 @.@ 6 % in 1990 , and from 45 % in 1960 .
= = = Single parent = = =
A single parent ( also termed lone parent or sole parent ) is a parent who cares for one or more children without the assistance of the other biological parent . Historically , single @-@ parent families often resulted from death of a spouse , for instance in childbirth . Single @-@ parent homes are increasing as married couples divorce , or as unmarried couples have children . Although widely believed to be detrimental to the mental and physical well being of a child , this type of household is tolerated .
The percentage of single @-@ parent households has doubled in the last three decades , but that percentage tripled between 1900 and 1950 . The sense of marriage as a " permanent " institution has been weakened , allowing individuals to consider leaving marriages more readily than they may have in the past . Increasingly single parent families are due to out of wedlock births , especially those due to unintended pregnancy .
= = = Stepfamilies = = =
Stepfamilies are becoming more familiar in America . Divorce rates are rising and the remarriage rate is rising as well , therefore , bringing two families together making step families . Statistics show that there are 1 @,@ 300 new stepfamilies forming every day . Over half of American families are remarried , that is 75 % of marriages ending in divorce , remarry .
= = = Extended family = = =
The extended family consists of grandparents , aunts , uncles , and cousins . In some circumstances , the extended family comes to live either with or in place of a member of the nuclear family . An example includes elderly parents who move in with their children due to old age . This places large demands on the caregivers , particularly the female relatives who choose to perform these duties for their extended family .
Historically , among certain Asian and Native American cultures the family structure consisted of a grandmother and her children , especially daughters , who raised their own children together and shared child care responsibilities . Uncles , brothers , and other male relatives sometimes helped out . Romantic relationships between men and women were formed and dissolved with little impact on the children who remained in the mother 's extended family .
= = Roles and relationships = =
= = = Married partners = = =
A married couple was defined as a " husband and wife enumerated as members of the same household " by the U.S. Census Bureau , but they will be categorizing same @-@ sex couples as married couples if they are married . Same @-@ sex couples who were married were previously recognized by the Census Bureau as unmarried partners . Same @-@ sex marriage is legally permitted across the country since June 26 , 2015 , when the Supreme Court issued its decision in Obergefell v. Hodges . Polygamy is illegal throughout the U.S.
Although Cousin marriages are illegal in most states , they are legal in many states , the District of Columbia and some territories . Some states have some restrictions or exceptions for cousin marriages and / or recognize such marriages performed out @-@ of @-@ state . Since the 1940s , the United States marriage rate has decreased , whereas rates of divorce have increased .
= = = Unwed partners = = =
Living as unwed partners is also known as cohabitation . The number of heterosexual unmarried couples in the United States has increased tenfold , from about 400 @,@ 000 in 1960 to more than five million in 2005 . This number would increase by at least another 594 @,@ 000 if same @-@ sex partners were included . Of all unmarried couples , about 1 in 9 ( 11 @.@ 1 % of all unmarried @-@ partner households ) are homosexual .
The cohabitation lifestyle is becoming more popular in today 's generation . It is more convenient for couples not to get married because it can be cheaper and simpler . As divorce rates rise in society , the desire to get married is less attractive for couples uncertain of their long @-@ term plans .
= = = Parents = = =
Parents can be either the biological mother or biological father , or the legal guardian for adopted children . Traditionally , mothers were responsible for raising the kids while the father was out providing financially for the family . The age group for parents ranges from teenage parents to grandparents who have decided to raise their grandchildren , with teenage pregnancies fluctuating based on race and culture . Older parents are financially established and generally have fewer problems raising children compared to their teenage counterparts .
= = = Housewives = = =
A housewife is a married woman who does not work outside of the home for income but stays and takes care of the home and children . This includes doing the cooking , washing , cleaning , etc . The roles of women working within the house has changed drastically as more women start to pursue careers . The amount of time women spend doing housework declined from 27 hours per week in 1965 to less than 16 hours in 1995 , but it is still substantially more housework than their male partners .
= = = " Breadwinners " = = =
A breadwinner is the main financial provider in the family . Historically the husband has been the breadwinner ; that trend is changing as wives start to take advantage of the women 's movement to gain financial independence for themselves . According to the New York Times , " In 2001 , wives earned more than their spouses in almost a third of married households where the wife worked . " Yet , even within nuclear families in which both spouses are employed outside of the home , many men are still responsible for a substantially smaller share of household duties .
= = = Stay @-@ at @-@ home dads = = =
Stay @-@ at @-@ home dads are fathers that do not participate in the labor market and raise their children — the male equivalent to housewives . Stay @-@ at @-@ home dads are not as popular in American society . According to the U.S. Census Bureau , " There are an estimated 105 @,@ 000 ' stay @-@ at @-@ home ' dads . These are married fathers with children under 15 who are not in the labor force primarily so they can care for family members while their wives work outside the home . Stay @-@ at @-@ home dads care for 189 @,@ 000 children . "
= = Children = =
= = = Only child families = = =
An only child ( single child ) is one without any biological or adopted brothers or sisters . Single children are stereotypically portrayed as spoiled , self @-@ centered , and selfish . Single children often excel more in school and in their careers than children with siblings .
= = = Childfree and Childlessness = = =
Childfree couples chose to not have children . These include young couples , who intend to have children later , as well as those who do not plan to have any children .
Involuntary childlessness may be caused by infertility , medical problems , death of a child , or other factors .
= = = Adopted children = = =
Adopted children are children that were given up at birth , abandoned or were unable to be cared for by their biological parents . They may have been put into foster care before finding their permanent residence . It is particularly hard for adopted children to get adopted from foster care : only 50 @,@ 000 children were adopted in 2001 . The average age of these children was 7 years old , which shows that fewer older children were adopted .
= = Modern family models = =
= = = Same @-@ sex marriage , adoption , and child rearing = = =
Same @-@ sex parents are gay or lesbian couples that choose to raise children . Nationally , 66 % of female same @-@ sex couples and 44 % of male same @-@ sex couples live with children under 18 years old . In the 2000 census , there were 594 @,@ 000 households that claimed to be headed by same @-@ sex couples , with 72 % of those having children . In July 2004 , the American Psychological Association concluded that " Overall results of research suggests that the development , adjustment , and well @-@ being of children with lesbian and gay parents do not differ markedly from that of children with heterosexual parents . "
= = = Single @-@ parent households = = =
Single @-@ parent homes in America are starting to become more common in today 's society . With more children being born to unmarried couples and to couples whose marriages subsequently dissolve , children increasingly live with only one parent . The proportion of children living with a never @-@ married parent has also grown , from 4 % in 1960 to 42 % in 2001 . Of all one parent families , 83 % are mother – child families .
= = = Adoption requirements = = =
The adoption requirements and policies for adopting children have made it harder for foster families and potential adoptive families to adopt kids . Before a family can adopt they must go through state , county , and agency criteria . Adoption agencies ' criteria express the importance of age of the adoptive parents , as well as the agency 's desire for married couples over single adopters . Adoptive parents also have to deal with criteria that are given by the birth parents of the adoptive child . The different criteria for adopting children makes it harder for couples to adopt children in need , but the strict requirements can help protect the foster children from unqualified couples .
Currently 1 @.@ 5 million ( 2 % ) of all U.S children are adopted . There are different types of adoption ; embryo adoption when a couple is having trouble conceiving a child and instead choose to have their sperm and egg conjoined outside the womb , international adoption where couples adopt children that come from foreign countries , and private adoption which is the most common form of adoption . In private adoption , families can adopt children via licensed agencies or with by directly contacting the child 's biological parents .
= = = Male / female role pressures = = =
The traditional " father " and " mother " roles of the nuclear family have become blurred over time . Because of the women 's movement 's push for women to engage in traditionally masculine pursuits in society , as women choose to sacrifice their child @-@ bearing years to establish their careers , and as fathers feel increasing pressure to be involved with tending to children , the traditional roles of fathers as the " breadwinners " and mothers as the " caretakers " have come into question .
= = African @-@ American family structure = =
The family structure of African @-@ Americans has long been a matter of national public policy interest . The 1965 report by Daniel Patrick Moynihan , known as The Moynihan Report , examined the link between black poverty and family structure . It hypothesized that the destruction of the black nuclear family structure would hinder further progress toward economic and political equality .
When Moynihan wrote in 1965 on the coming destruction of the black family , the out @-@ of @-@ wedlock birthrate was 25 percent among blacks . In 1991 , 68 percent of black children were born outside of marriage . In 2011 , 72 % of black babies were born to unwed mothers .
= = Television portrayals = =
The television industry initially helped create a stereotype of the American nuclear family . During the era of the baby boomers , families became a popular social topic , especially on television . Family shows such as Roseanne , All in the Family , Leave It to Beaver , The Cosby Show , Married ... with Children , The Jeffersons , and Good Times , Everybody Loves Raymond have portrayed different social classes of families growing up in America . Those " perfect " nuclear families have changed as the years passed and have become more inclusive , showing single @-@ parent and divorced families , as well as older singles . Television shows that show single @-@ parent families include Half & Half , One on One , Murphy Brown , and Gilmore Girls .
While it did not become a common occurrence the iconic image of the American family was started in the early 1930s . It was not until WWII that families generally had the economical income in which to successfully propagate this lifestyle .
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= Arabian horse =
The Arabian or Arab horse ( Arabic : الحصان العربي [ ħisˤaːn ʕarabiː ] , DMG ḥiṣān ʿarabī ) is a breed of horse that originated on the Arabian Peninsula . With a distinctive head shape and high tail carriage , the Arabian is one of the most easily recognizable horse breeds in the world . It is also one of the oldest breeds , with archaeological evidence of horses in the Middle East that resemble modern Arabians dating back 4 @,@ 500 years . Throughout history , Arabian horses have spread around the world by both war and trade , used to improve other breeds by adding speed , refinement , endurance , and strong bone . Today , Arabian bloodlines are found in almost every modern breed of riding horse .
The Arabian developed in a desert climate and was prized by the nomadic Bedouin people , often being brought inside the family tent for shelter and protection from theft . Selective breeding for traits including an ability to form a cooperative relationship with humans created a horse breed that is good @-@ natured , quick to learn , and willing to please . The Arabian also developed the high spirit and alertness needed in a horse used for raiding and war . This combination of willingness and sensitivity requires modern Arabian horse owners to handle their horses with competence and respect .
The Arabian is a versatile breed . Arabians dominate the discipline of endurance riding , and compete today in many other fields of equestrian sport . They are one of the top ten most popular horse breeds in the world . They are now found worldwide , including the United States and Canada , United Kingdom , Australia , continental Europe , South America ( especially Brazil ) , and their land of origin , the Middle East .
= = Breed characteristics = =
Arabian horses have refined , wedge @-@ shaped heads , a broad forehead , large eyes , large nostrils , and small muzzles . Most display a distinctive concave , or " dished " profile . Many Arabians also have a slight forehead bulge between their eyes , called the jibbah by the Bedouin , that adds additional sinus capacity , believed to have helped the Arabian horse in its native dry desert climate . Another breed characteristic is an arched neck with a large , well @-@ set windpipe set on a refined , clean throatlatch . This structure of the poll and throatlatch was called the mitbah or mitbeh by the Bedouin . In the ideal Arabian it is long , allowing flexibility in the bridle and room for the windpipe .
Other distinctive features are a relatively long , level croup , or top of the hindquarters , and naturally high tail carriage . The USEF breed standard requires Arabians have solid bone and standard correct equine conformation . Well @-@ bred Arabians have a deep , well @-@ angled hip and well laid @-@ back shoulder . Within the breed , there are variations . Some individuals have wider , more powerfully muscled hindquarters suitable for intense bursts of activity in events such as reining , while others have longer , leaner muscling better suited for long stretches of flat work such as endurance riding or horse racing . Most have a compact body with a short back . Arabians usually have dense , strong bone , and good hoof walls . They are especially noted for their endurance , and the superiority of the breed in Endurance riding competition demonstrates that well @-@ bred Arabians are strong , sound horses with superior stamina . At international FEI @-@ sponsored endurance events , Arabians and half @-@ Arabians are the dominant performers in distance competition .
= = = Skeletal analysis = = =
Some Arabians , though not all , have 5 lumbar vertebrae instead of the usual 6 , and 17 pairs of ribs rather than 18 . A quality Arabian has both a relatively horizontal croup and a properly angled pelvis as well as good croup length and depth to the hip ( determined by the length of the pelvis ) , that allows agility and impulsion . A misconception confuses the topline of the croup with the angle of the " hip " ( the pelvis or ilium ) , leading some to assert that Arabians have a flat pelvis angle and cannot use their hindquarters properly . However , the croup is formed by the sacral vertebrae . The hip angle is determined by the attachment of the ilium to the spine , the structure and length of the femur , and other aspects of hindquarter anatomy , which is not correlated to the topline of the sacrum . Thus , the Arabian has conformation typical of other horse breeds built for speed and distance , such as the Thoroughbred , where the angle of the ilium is more oblique than that of the croup . Thus , the hip angle is not necessarily correlated to the topline of the croup . Horses bred to gallop need a good length of croup and good length of hip for proper attachment of muscles , and so unlike angle , length of hip and croup do go together as a rule .
= = = Size = = =
The breed standard stated by the United States Equestrian Federation , describes Arabians as standing between 14 @.@ 1 to 15 @.@ 1 hands ( 57 to 61 inches , 145 to 155 cm ) tall , " with the occasional individual over or under . " Thus , all Arabians , regardless of height , are classified as " horses " , even though 14 @.@ 2 hands ( 58 inches , 147 cm ) is the traditional cutoff height between a horse and a pony . A common myth is that Arabians are not strong because they are relatively small and refined . However , the Arabian horse is noted for a greater density of bone than other breeds , short cannons , sound feet , and a broad , short back , all of which give the breed physical strength comparable to many taller animals . Thus , even a smaller Arabian can carry a heavy rider . For tasks where the sheer weight of the horse matters , such as farm work done by a draft horse , any lighter @-@ weight horse is at a disadvantage . However , for most purposes , the Arabian is a strong and hardy light horse breed able to carry any type of rider in most equestrian pursuits .
= = = Temperament = = =
For centuries , Arabian horses lived in the desert in close association with humans . For shelter and protection from theft , prized war mares were sometimes kept in their owner 's tent , close to children and everyday family life . Only horses with a naturally good disposition were allowed to reproduce , with the result that Arabians today have a good temperament that , among other examples , makes them one of the few breeds where the United States Equestrian Federation rules allow children to exhibit stallions in nearly all show ring classes , including those limited to riders under 18 .
On the other hand , the Arabian is also classified as a " hot @-@ blooded " breed , a category that includes other refined , spirited horses bred for speed , such as the Akhal @-@ Teke , the Barb and the Thoroughbred . Like other hot @-@ bloods , Arabians ' sensitivity and intelligence enable quick learning and greater communication with their riders ; however , their intelligence also allows them to learn bad habits as quickly as good ones , and they do not tolerate inept or abusive training practices . Some sources claim that it is more difficult to train a " hot @-@ blooded " horse . Though most Arabians have a natural tendency to cooperate with humans , when treated badly , like any horse , they can become excessively nervous or anxious , but seldom become vicious unless seriously spoiled or subjected to extreme abuse . At the other end of the spectrum , romantic myths are sometimes told about Arabian horses that give them near @-@ divine characteristics .
= = = Colors = = =
The Arabian Horse Association registers purebred horses with the coat colors bay , gray , chestnut , black , and roan . Bay , gray and chestnut are the most common ; black is less common . The classic roan gene does not appear to exist in Arabians ; rather , Arabians registered by breeders as " roan " are usually expressing rabicano or , sometimes , sabino patterns with roan features . All Arabians , no matter their coat color , have black skin , except under white markings . Black skin provided protection from the intense desert sun .
= = = = Gray and white = = = =
Although many Arabians appear to have a " white " hair coat , they are not genetically " white " . This color is usually created by the natural action of the gray gene , and virtually all white @-@ looking Arabians are actually grays . A specialized colorization seen in some older gray Arabians is the so @-@ called " bloody @-@ shoulder " , which is a particular type of " flea @-@ bitten " gray with localized aggregations of pigment on the shoulder .
There are a very few Arabians registered as " white " having a white coat , pink skin and dark eyes from birth . These animals are believed to manifest a new form of dominant white , a result of a nonsense mutation in DNA tracing to a single stallion foaled in 1996 . This horse was originally thought to be a sabino , but actually was found to have a new form of dominant white mutation , now labeled W3 . It is possible that white mutations have occurred in Arabians in the past or that mutations other than W3 exist but have not been verified by genetic testing .
= = = = Sabino = = = =
One spotting pattern , sabino , does exist in purebred Arabians . Sabino coloring is characterized by white markings such as " high white " above the knees and hocks , irregular spotting on the legs , belly and face , white markings that extend beyond the eyes or under the chin and jaw , and sometimes lacy or roaned edges .
The genetic mechanism that produces sabino patterning in Arabians is undetermined , and more than one gene may be involved . Studies at the University of California , Davis indicate that Arabians do not appear to carry the autosomal dominant gene " SB1 " or sabino 1 , that often produces bold spotting and some completely white horses in other breeds . The inheritance patterns observed in sabino @-@ like Arabians also do not follow the same mode of inheritance as sabino 1 .
= = = = Rabicano or roan ? = = = =
There are very few Arabians registered as roan , and according to researcher D. Phillip Sponenberg , roaning in purebred Arabians is actually the action of rabicano genetics . Unlike a genetic roan , rabicano is a partial roan @-@ like pattern ; the horse does not have intermingled white and solid hairs over the entire body , only on the midsection and flanks , the head and legs are solid @-@ colored . Some people also confuse a young gray horse with a roan because of the intermixed hair colors common to both . However , a roan does not consistently lighten with age , while a gray does .
= = = = Colors that do not exist in purebreds = = = =
Purebred Arabians never carry dilution genes . Therefore , purebreds cannot be colors such as dun , cremello , palomino or buckskin . However , there is pictorial evidence from pottery and tombs in Ancient Egypt suggesting that spotting patterns may have existed on ancestral Arabian @-@ type horses in antiquity . Nonetheless , purebred Arabians today do not carry genes for pinto or Leopard complex ( " Appaloosa " ) spotting patterns , except for sabino .
Spotting or excess white was believed by many breeders to be a mark of impurity until DNA testing for verification of parentage became standard . For a time , horses with belly spots and other white markings deemed excessive were discouraged from registration and excess white was sometimes penalized in the show ring .
To produce horses with some Arabian characteristics but coat colors not found in purebreds , they have to be crossbred with other breeds . Though the purebred Arabian produces a limited range of potential colors , they do not appear to carry any color @-@ based lethal disorders such as the frame overo gene ( " O " ) that can produce lethal white syndrome ( LWS ) . Because purebred Arabians cannot produce LWS foals , Arabian mares were used as a non @-@ affected population in some of the studies seeking the gene that caused the condition in other breeds . Nonetheless , partbred Arabian offspring can , in some cases , carry these genes if the non @-@ Arabian parent was a carrier .
= = = Genetic disorders = = =
There are six known genetic disorders in Arabian horses . Two are inevitably fatal , two are not inherently fatal but are disabling and usually result in euthanasia of the affected animal ; the remaining conditions can usually be treated . Three are thought to be autosomal recessive conditions , which means that the flawed gene is not sex @-@ linked and has to come from both parents for an affected foal to be born ; the others currently lack sufficient research data to determine the precise mode of inheritance . Arabians are not the only breed of horse to have problems with inherited diseases ; fatal or disabling genetic conditions also exist in many other breeds , including the American Quarter Horse , American Paint Horse , American Saddlebred , Appaloosa , Miniature horse , and Belgian .
Genetic diseases that can occur in purebred Arabians , or in partbreds with Arabian ancestry in both parents , are the following :
Severe Combined Immunodeficiency ( SCID ) . Recessive disorder , fatal when homozygous , carriers ( heterozygotes ) show no signs . Similar to the " bubble boy " condition in humans , an affected foal is born with a complete lack of an immune system , and thus generally dies of an opportunistic infection , usually before the age of three months . There is a DNA test that can detect healthy horses who are carriers of the gene causing SCID , thus testing and careful , planned matings can now eliminate the possibility of an affected foal ever being born .
Lavender Foal Syndrome ( LFS ) , also called Coat Color Dilution Lethal ( CCDL ) . Recessive disorder , fatal when homozygous , carriers show no signs . The condition has its name because most affected foals are born with a coat color dilution that lightens the tips of the coat hairs , or even the entire hair shaft . Foals with LFS are unable to stand at birth , often have seizures , and are usually euthanized within a few days of birth . In November 2009 , Cornell University announced that a DNA test has been developed to detect carriers of LFS . Simultaneously , the University of Pretoria also announced that they had also developed a DNA test .
Cerebellar abiotrophy ( CA or CCA ) . Recessive disorder , homozygous horses are affected , carriers show no signs . An affected foal is usually born without clinical signs , but at some stage , usually after six weeks of age , develops severe incoordination , a head tremor , wide @-@ legged stance and other symptoms related to the death of the purkinje cells in the cerebellum . Such foals are frequently diagnosed only after they have crashed into a fence or fallen over backwards , and often are misdiagnosed as suffering from a head injury caused by an accident . Severity varies , with some foals having fast onset of severe coordination problems , others showing milder signs . Mildly affected horses can live a full lifespan , but most are euthanized before adulthood because they are so accident @-@ prone as to be dangerous . As of 2008 , there is a genetic test that uses DNA markers associated with CA to detect both carriers and affected animals . Clinical signs are distinguishable from other neurological conditions , and a diagnosis of CA can be verified by examining the brain after euthanasia .
Occipital Atlanto @-@ Axial Malformation ( OAAM ) . This is a condition where the occiput , atlas and axis vertebrae in the neck and at the base of the skull are fused or malformed . Symptoms range from mild incoordination to the paralysis of both front and rear legs . Some affected foals cannot stand to nurse , in others the symptoms may not be seen for several weeks . This is the only cervical spinal cord disease seen in horses less than 1 month of age , and a radiograph can diagnose the condition . There is no genetic test for OAAM , and the hereditary component of this condition is not well researched at present .
Equine juvenile epilepsy , or Juvenile Idiopathic Epilepsy , sometimes referred to as " benign " epilepsy , is not usually fatal . Foals appear normal between epileptic seizures , and seizures usually stop occurring between 12 and 18 months . Affected foals may show signs of epilepsy anywhere from two days to six months from birth . Seizures can be treated with traditional anti @-@ seizure medications , which may reduce their severity . Though the condition has been studied since 1985 at the University of California , Davis , the genetic mode of inheritance is unclear , though the cases studied were all of one general bloodline group . Recent research updates suggest that a dominant mode of inheritance is involved in transmission of this trait . One researcher hypothesized that epilepsy may be linked in some fashion to Lavender Foal Syndrome due to the fact that it occurs in similar bloodlines and some horses have produced foals with both conditions .
Guttural Pouch Tympany ( GPT ) occurs in horses ranging from birth to 1 year of age and is more common in fillies than in colts . It is thought to be genetic in Arabians , possibly polygenic in inheritance , but more study is needed . Foals are born with a defect that causes the pharyngeal opening of the eustachian tube to act like a one @-@ way valve – air can get in , but it cannot get out . The affected guttural pouch is distended with air and forms a characteristic nonpainful swelling . Breathing is noisy in severely affected animals . Diagnosis is based on clinical signs and radiographic examination of the skull . Medical management with NSAID and antimicrobial therapy can treat upper respiratory tract inflammation . Surgical intervention is needed to correct the malformation of the guttural pouch opening , to provide a route for air in the abnormal guttural pouch to pass to the normal side and be expelled into the pharynx . Foals that are successfully treated may grow up to have fully useful lives .
The Arabian Horse Association in the United States has created a foundation that supports research efforts to uncover the roots of genetic diseases . The organization F.O.A.L. ( Fight Off Arabian Lethals ) is a clearinghouse for information on these conditions . Additional information is available from the World Arabian Horse Association ( WAHO ) .
= = Legends = =
Arabian horses are the topic of many myths and legends . One origin story tells how Muhammad chose his foundation mares by a test of their courage and loyalty . While there are several variants on the tale , a common version states that after a long journey through the desert , Muhammad turned his herd of horses loose to race to an oasis for a desperately needed drink of water . Before the herd reached the water , Muhammad called for the horses to return to him . Only five mares responded . Because they faithfully returned to their master , though desperate with thirst , these mares became his favorites and were called Al Khamsa , meaning , the five . These mares became the legendary founders of the five " strains " of the Arabian horse . Although the Al Khamsa are generally considered fictional horses of legend , some breeders today claim the modern Bedouin Arabian actually descended from these mares .
Another origin tale claims that King Solomon was given a pure Arabian @-@ type mare named Safanad ( " the pure " ) by the Queen of Sheba . A different version says that Solomon gave a stallion , Zad el @-@ Raheb or Zad @-@ el @-@ Rakib ( " Gift to the Rider " ) , to the Banu Azd people when they came to pay tribute to the king . This legendary stallion was said to be faster than the zebra and the gazelle , and every hunt with him was successful , thus when he was put to stud , he became a founding sire of legend .
Yet another creation myth puts the origin of the Arabian in the time of Ishmael , the son of Abraham . In this story , the Angel Jibril ( also known as Gabriel ) descended from Heaven and awakened Ishmael with a " wind @-@ spout " that whirled toward him . The Angel then commanded the thundercloud to stop scattering dust and rain , and so it gathered itself into a prancing , handsome creature - a horse - that seemed to swallow up the ground . Hence , the Bedouins bestowed the title " Drinker of the Wind " to the first Arabian horse .
Finally , a Bedouin story states that Allah created the Arabian horse from the south wind and exclaimed , " I create thee , Oh Arabian . To thy forelock , I bind Victory in battle . On thy back , I set a rich spoil and a Treasure in thy loins . I establish thee as one of the Glories of the Earth ... I give thee flight without wings . " Other versions of the story claim Allah said to the South Wind : " I want to make a creature out of you . Condense . " Then from the material condensed from the wind , he made a kamayt @-@ colored animal ( a bay or burnt chestnut ) and said : " I call you Horse ; I make you Arabian and I give you the chestnut color of the ant ; I have hung happiness from the forelock which hangs between your eyes ; you shall be the Lord of the other animals . Men shall follow you wherever you go ; you shall be as good for flight as for pursuit ; you shall fly without wings ; riches shall be on your back and fortune shall come through your meditation . "
= = Origins = =
Arabians are one of the oldest human @-@ developed horse breeds in the world . The progenitor stock , the Oriental subtype or " Proto @-@ Arabian " was a horse with oriental characteristics similar to the modern Arabian . Horses with these features appeared in rock paintings and inscriptions in the Arabian Peninsula dating back 3500 years . In ancient history throughout the Ancient Near East , horses with refined heads and high @-@ carried tails were depicted in artwork , particularly that of Ancient Egypt in the 16th century BC .
Some scholars of the Arabian horse once theorized that the Arabian came from a separate subspecies of horse , known as equus caballus pumpelli . Other scholars , including Gladys Brown Edwards , a noted Arabian researcher , believe that the " dry " oriental horses of the desert , from which the modern Arabian developed , were more likely Equus ferus caballus with specific landrace characteristics based on the environments in which they lived , rather than being a separate subspecies . Horses with similar , though not identical , physical characteristics include the Marwari horse of India , the Barb of North Africa , the Akhal @-@ Teke of western Asia and the now @-@ extinct Turkoman Horse .
= = = Desert roots = = =
There are different theories about where the ancestors of the Arabian originally lived . Most evidence suggests the proto @-@ Arabian came from the area along the northern edge of the Fertile Crescent . Another hypothesis suggests the southwestern corner of the Arabian peninsula , in modern @-@ day Yemen , where three now @-@ dry riverbeds indicate good natural pastures existed long ago , perhaps as far back as the Ice Age . This hypothesis has gained renewed attention following a 2010 discovery of artifacts dated between 6590 and 7250 BCE in Al @-@ Magar , in southwestern Saudi Arabia , that appeared to portray horses .
The proto @-@ Arabian horse may have been domesticated by the people of the Arabian peninsula known today as the Bedouin , some time after they learned to use the camel , approximately 4 @,@ 000 – 5 @,@ 000 years ago . One theory is that this development occurred in the Nejd plateau in central Arabia . Other scholars , noting that horses were common in the Fertile Crescent but rare in the Arabian peninsula prior to the rise of Islam , theorize that the breed as it is known today only developed in large numbers when the conversion of the Persians to Islam in the 7th century brought knowledge of horse breeding and horsemanship to the Bedouin . The oldest depictions in the Arabian Peninsula of horses that are clearly domesticated date no earlier than 1800 @-@ 2000 BCE .
Regardless of origin , climate and culture ultimately created the Arabian . The desert environment required a domesticated horse to cooperate with humans to survive ; humans were the only providers of food and water in certain areas , and even hardy Arabian horses needed far more water than camels in order to survive ( most horses can only live about 72 hours without water ) . Where there was no pasture or water , the Bedouin fed their horses dates and camel 's milk . The desert horse needed the ability to thrive on very little food , and to have anatomical traits to compensate for life in a dry climate with wide temperature extremes from day to night . Weak individuals were weeded out of the breeding pool , and the animals that remained were also honed by centuries of human warfare .
The Bedouin way of life depended on camels and horses : Arabians were bred to be war horses with speed , endurance , soundness , and intelligence . Because many raids required stealth , mares were preferred over stallions as they were quieter , and therefore would not give away the position of the fighters . A good disposition was also critical ; prized war mares were often brought inside family tents to prevent theft and for protection from weather and predators . Though appearance was not necessarily a survival factor , the Bedouin bred for refinement and beauty in their horses as well as for more practical features .
= = = Strains and pedigrees = = =
For centuries , the Bedouin tracked the ancestry of each horse through an oral tradition . Horses of the purest blood were known as Asil and crossbreeding with non @-@ Asil horses was forbidden . Mares were the most valued , both for riding and breeding , and pedigree families were traced through the female line . The Bedouin did not believe in gelding male horses , and considered stallions too intractable to be good war horses , thus they kept very few colts , selling most , and culling those of poor quality .
Over time , the Bedouin developed several sub @-@ types or strains of Arabian horse , each with unique characteristics , and traced through the maternal line only . According to the Arabian Horse Association , the five primary strains were known as the Keheilan , Seglawi , Abeyan , Hamdani and Hadban . Carl Raswan , a promoter and writer about Arabian horses from the middle of the 20th century , held the belief that there were only three strains , Kehilan , Seglawi and Muniqi . Raswan felt that these strains represented body " types " of the breed , with the Kehilan being " masculine " , the Seglawi being " feminine " and the Muniqi being " speedy " . There were also lesser strains , sub @-@ strains , and regional variations in strain names . Therefore , many Arabian horses were not only Asil , of pure blood , but also bred to be pure in strain , with crossbreeding between strains discouraged , though not forbidden , by some tribes . Purity of bloodline was very important to the Bedouin , and they also believed in telegony , believing if a mare was ever bred to a stallion of " impure " blood , the mare herself and all future offspring would be " contaminated " by the stallion and hence no longer Asil .
This complex web of bloodline and strain was an integral part of Bedouin culture ; they not only knew the pedigrees and history of their best war mares in detail , but also carefully tracked the breeding of their camels , Saluki dogs , and their own family or tribal history . Eventually , written records began to be kept ; the first written pedigrees in the Middle East that specifically used the term " Arabian " date to 1330 AD . As important as strain was to the Bedouin , modern studies of mitochondrial DNA suggest that Arabian horses alive today with records stating descent from a given strain may not actually share a common maternal ancestry .
= = Historic development = =
= = = Role in the ancient world = = =
Fiery war horses with dished faces and high @-@ carried tails were popular artistic subjects in Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia , often depicted pulling chariots in war or for hunting . Horses with oriental characteristics appear in later artwork as far north as that of Ancient Greece and the Roman Empire . While this type of horse was not called an " Arabian " in the Ancient Near East until later , ( the word " Arabia " or " Arabaya " first appeared in writing in Ancient Persia , c . 500 BC ) these proto @-@ Arabians shared many characteristics with the modern Arabian , including speed , endurance , and refinement . For example , a horse skeleton unearthed in the Sinai peninsula , dated to 1700 BC and probably brought by the Hyksos invaders , is considered the earliest physical evidence of the horse in Ancient Egypt . This horse had a wedge @-@ shaped head , large eye sockets and small muzzle , all characteristics of the Arabian horse .
= = = In Islamic history = = =
Following the Hijra in AD 622 ( also sometimes spelled Hegira ) , the Arabian horse spread across the known world of the time , and became recognized as a distinct , named breed . It played a significant role in the History of the Middle East and of Islam . By 630 , Muslim influence expanded across the Middle East and North Africa , by 711 Muslim warriors had reached Spain , and they controlled most of the Iberian Peninsula by 720 . Their war horses were of various oriental types , including both Arabians and the Barb horse of North Africa .
Arabian horses also spread to the rest of the world via the Ottoman Empire , which rose in 1299 . Though it never fully dominated the heart of the Arabian Peninsula , this Turkish empire obtained many Arabian horses through trade , diplomacy and war . The Ottomans encouraged formation of private stud farms in order to ensure a supply of cavalry horses , and Ottoman nobles , such as Muhammad Ali of Egypt also collected pure , desert @-@ bred Arabian horses .
El Naseri , or Al @-@ Nasir Muhammad , Sultan of Egypt ( 1290 – 1342 ) imported and bred numerous Arabians in Egypt . A stud farm record was made of his purchases describing many of the horses as well as their abilities , and was deposited in his library , becoming a source for later study . Through the Ottomans , Arabian horses were often sold , traded , or given as diplomatic gifts to Europeans and , later , to Americans .
= = = Egypt = = =
Historically , Egyptian breeders imported horses bred in the deserts of Palestine and the Arabian peninsula as the source of their foundation bloodstock . By the time that the Ottoman Empire dominated Egypt , the political elites of the region still recognized the need for quality bloodstock for both war and for horse racing , and some continued to return to the deserts to obtain pure @-@ blooded Arabians . One of the most famous was Muhammad Ali of Egypt , also known as Muhammad Ali Pasha , who established an extensive stud farm in the 19th century . After his death , some of his stock was bred on by Abbas I of Egypt , also known as Abbas Pasha . However , after Abbas Pasha was assassinated in 1854 , his heir , El Hami Pasha , sold most of his horses , often for crossbreeding , and gave away many others as diplomatic gifts . A remnant of the herd was obtained by Ali Pasha Sherif , who then went back to the desert to bring in new bloodstock . At its peak , the stud of Ali Pasha Sherif had over 400 purebred Arabians . Unfortunately , an epidemic of African horse sickness in the 1870s that killed thousands of horses throughout Egypt decimated much of his herd , wiping out several irreplaceable bloodlines . Late in his life , he sold several horses to Wilfred and Lady Anne Blunt , who exported them to Crabbet Park Stud in England . After his death , Lady Anne was also able to gather many remaining horses at her Sheykh Obeyd stud .
Meanwhile , the passion brought by the Blunts to saving the pure horse of the desert helped Egyptian horse breeders to convince their government of the need to preserve the best of their own remaining pure Arabian bloodstock that descended from the horses collected over the previous century by Muhammad Ali Pasha , Abbas Pasha and Ali Pasha Sherif . The government of Egypt formed the Royal Agricultural Society ( RAS ) in 1908 , which is known today as the Egyptian Agricultural Organization ( EAO ) . RAS representatives traveled to England during the 1920s and purchased eighteen descendants of the original Blunt exports from Lady Wentworth at Crabbet Park , and returned these bloodlines to Egypt in order to restore bloodlines had been lost . Other than several horses purchased by Henry Babson for importation to the United States in the 1930s , and one other small group exported to the USA in 1947 , relatively few Egyptian @-@ bred Arabian horses were exported until the overthrow of King Farouk I in 1952 . Many of the private stud farms of the princes were then confiscated and the animals taken over by the EAO . In the 1960s and 1970s , as oil development brought more foreign investors to Egypt , some of whom were horse fanciers , Arabians were exported to Germany and to the United States , as well as to the former Soviet Union . Today , the designation " Straight Egyptian " or " Egyptian Arabian " is popular with some Arabian breeders , and the modern Egyptian @-@ bred Arabian is an outcross used to add refinement in some breeding programs .
= = Arrival in Europe = =
Probably the earliest horses with Arabian bloodlines to enter Europe came indirectly , through Spain and France . Others would have arrived with returning Crusaders — beginning in 1095 , European armies invaded Palestine and many knights returned home with Arabian horses as spoils of war . Later , as knights and the heavy , armored war horses who carried them became obsolete , Arabian horses and their descendants were used to develop faster , agile light cavalry horses that were used in warfare into the 20th century .
Another major infusion of Arabian horses into Europe occurred when the Ottoman Turks sent 300 @,@ 000 horsemen into Hungary in 1522 , many of whom were mounted on pure @-@ blooded Arabians , captured during raids into Arabia . By 1529 , the Ottomans reached Vienna , where they were stopped by the Polish and Hungarian armies , who captured these horses from the defeated Ottoman cavalry . Some of these animals provided foundation bloodstock for the major studs of eastern Europe .
= = = Polish and Russian breeding programs = = =
With the rise of light cavalry , the stamina and agility of horses with Arabian blood gave an enormous military advantage to any army who possessed them . As a result , many European monarchs began to support large breeding establishments that crossed Arabians on local stock , one example being Knyszyna , the royal stud of Polish king Zygmunt II August , and another the Imperial Russian Stud of Peter the Great .
European horse breeders also obtained Arabian stock directly from the desert or via trade with the Ottomans . In Russia , Count Alexey Orlov obtained many Arabians , including Smetanka , an Arabian stallion who became a foundation sire of the Orlov trotter . Orlov then provided Arabian horses to Catherine the Great , who in 1772 owned 12 pure Arabian stallions and 10 mares . By 1889 two members of the Russian nobility , Count Stroganov and Prince Shcherbatov , established Arabian stud farms to meet the continued need to breed Arabians as a source of pure bloodstock .
In Poland , notable imports from Arabia included those of Prince Hieronymous Sanguszko ( 1743 – 1812 ) , who founded the Slawuta stud . Poland 's first state @-@ run Arabian stud farm , Janów Podlaski , was established by the decree of Alexander I of Russia in 1817 , and by 1850 , the great stud farms of Poland were well @-@ established , including Antoniny , owned by the Polish Count Potocki ( who had married into the Sanguszko family ) ; later notable as the farm that produced the stallion Skowronek .
= = = Central and western Europe = = =
The 18th century marked the establishment of most of the great Arabian studs of Europe , dedicated to preserving " pure " Arabian bloodstock . The Prussians set up a royal stud in 1732 , originally intended to provide horses for the royal stables , and other studs were established to breed animals for other uses , including mounts for the Prussian army . The foundation of these breeding programs was the crossing of Arabians on native horses ; by 1873 some English observers felt that the Prussian calvalry mounts were superior in endurance to those of the British , and credited Arabian bloodlines for this superiority .
Other state studs included the Babolna Stud of Hungary , set up in 1789 , and the Weil stud in Germany ( now Weil @-@ Marbach or the Marbach stud ) , founded in 1817 by King William I of Württemberg . King James I of England imported the first Arabian stallion , the Markham Arabian , to England in 1616 . Arabians were also introduced into European race horse breeding , especially in England via the Darley Arabian , Byerly Turk , and Godolphin Arabian , the three foundation stallions of the modern Thoroughbred breed , who were each brought to England during the 18th century . Other monarchs obtained Arabian horses , often as personal mounts . One of the most famous Arabian stallions in Europe was Marengo , the war horse ridden by Napoleon Bonaparte .
During the mid @-@ 19th century , the need for Arabian blood to improve the breeding stock for light cavalry horses in Europe resulted in more excursions to the Middle East . Queen Isabel II of Spain sent representatives to the desert to purchase Arabian horses and by 1847 had established a stud book ; her successor , King Alfonso XII imported additional bloodstock from other European nations . By 1893 , the state military stud farm , Yeguada Militar was established in Córdoba , Spain for breeding both Arabian and Iberian horses . The military remained heavily involved in the importation and breeding of Arabians in Spain well into the early 20th century , and the Yeguada Militar is still in existence today .
This period also marked a phase of considerable travel to the Middle East by European civilians and minor nobility , and in the process , some travelers noticed that the Arabian horse as a pure breed of horse was under threat due to modern forms of warfare , inbreeding and other problems that were reducing the horse population of the Bedouin tribes at a rapid rate . By the late 19th century , the most farsighted began in earnest to collect the finest Arabian horses they could find in order to preserve the blood of the pure desert horse for future generations . The most famous example was Lady Anne Blunt , the daughter of Ada Lovelace and granddaughter of Lord Byron .
= = = Rise of the Crabbet Park Stud = = =
Perhaps the most famous of all Arabian breeding operations founded in Europe was the Crabbet Park Stud of England , founded 1878 . Starting in 1877 , Wilfrid Scawen Blunt and Lady Anne Blunt made repeated journeys to the Middle East , including visits to the stud of Ali Pasha Sherif in Egypt and to Bedouin tribes in the Nejd , bringing the best Arabians they could find to England . Lady Anne also purchased and maintained the Sheykh Obeyd stud farm in Egypt , near Cairo . Upon Lady Anne 's death in 1917 , the Blunts ' daughter , Judith , Lady Wentworth , inherited the Wentworth title and Lady Anne 's portion of the estate , and obtained the remainder of the Crabbet Stud following a protracted legal battle with her father . Lady Wentworth expanded the stud , added new bloodstock , and exported Arabian horses worldwide . Upon her death in 1957 , the stud passed to her manager , Cecil Covey , who ran Crabbet until 1971 , when a motorway was cut through the property , forcing the sale of the land and dispersal of the horses . Along with Crabbet , the Hanstead Stud of Lady Yule also produced horses of worldwide significance .
= = = Early 20th @-@ century Europe = = =
In the early 20th century , the military was involved in the breeding of Arabian horses throughout Europe , particularly in Poland , Spain , Germany , and Russia ; private breeders also developed a number of breeding programs . Significant among the private breeders in continental Europe was Spain 's Cristóbal Colón de Aguilera , XV Duque de Veragua , a direct descendant of Christopher Columbus , who founded the Veragua Stud in the 1920s .
= = = Modern warfare and its impact on European studs = = =
Between World War I , the Russian Revolution , and the collapse of the Ottoman Empire , many historic European stud farms were lost ; in Poland , the Antoniny and Slawuta Studs were wiped out except for five mares . Notable among the survivors was the Janów Podlaski Stud . The Russian Revolution , combined with the effects of World War I , destroyed most of the breeding programs in Russia , but by 1921 , the Soviet government reestablished an Arabian program , the Tersk Stud , on the site of the former Stroganov estate , which included Polish bloodstock as well as some importations from the Crabbet Stud in England . The programs that survived the war re @-@ established their breeding operations and some added to their studs with new imports of desert @-@ bred Arabian horses from the Middle East . Not all European studs recovered . The Weil stud of Germany , founded by King Wilhelm I , went into considerable decline ; by the time the Weil herd was transferred to the Marbach State Stud in 1932 , only 17 purebred Arabians remained .
The Spanish Civil War and World War II also had a devastating impact on horse breeding throughout Europe . The Veragua stud was destroyed , and its records lost , with the only survivors being the broodmares and the younger horses , who were rescued by Francisco Franco . Crabbet Park , Tersk , and Janów Podlaski survived . Both the Soviet Union and the United States obtained valuable Arabian bloodlines as spoils of war , which they used to strengthen their breeding programs . The Soviets had taken steps to protect their breeding stock at Tersk Stud , and by utilizing horses captured in Poland they were able to re @-@ establish their breeding program soon after the end of World War II . The Americans brought Arabian horses captured in Europe to the United States , mostly to the Pomona U.S. Army Remount station , the former W.K. Kellogg Ranch in California .
In the postwar era , Poland , Spain , and Germany developed or re @-@ established many well @-@ respected Arabian stud farms . The studs of Poland in particular were decimated by both the Nazis and the Soviets , but were able to reclaim some of their breeding stock and became particularly world @-@ renowned for their quality Arabian horses , tested rigorously by racing and other performance standards . During the 1950s , the Russians also obtained additional horses from Egypt to augment their breeding programs .
= = = After the Cold War = = =
While only a few Arabians were exported from behind the Iron Curtain during the Cold War , those who did come to the west caught the eye of breeders worldwide . Improved international relations between eastern Europe and the west led to major imports of Polish and Russian @-@ bred Arabian horses to western Europe and the United States in the 1970s and 1980s . The collapse of the former Soviet Union in 1991 , greater political stability in Egypt , and the rise of the European Union all increased international trade in Arabian horses . Organizations such as the World Arabian Horse Association ( WAHO ) created consistent standards for transferring the registration of Arabian horses between different nations . Today , Arabian horses are traded all over the world .
= = In America = =
The first horses on the American mainland since the end of the Ice Age arrived with the Spanish Conquistadors . Hernán Cortés brought 16 horses of Andalusian , Barb , and Arabian ancestry to Mexico in 1519 . Others followed , such as Francisco Vásquez de Coronado , who brought 250 horses of similar breeding to America in 1540 . More horses followed with each new arrival of Conquistadors , missionaries , and settlers . Many horses escaped or were stolen , becoming the foundation stock of the American Mustang .
= = = Early imports = = =
Colonists from England also brought horses of Arabian breeding to the eastern seaboard . One example was Nathaniel Harrison , who imported a horse of Arabian , Barb and Turkish ancestry to America in 1747 .
One of George Washington 's primary mounts during the American Revolutionary War was a gray half @-@ Arabian horse named Blueskin , sired by the stallion " Ranger " , also known as " Lindsay 's Arabian " , said to have been obtained from the Sultan of Morocco . Other Presidents are linked to ownership of Arabian horses ; in 1840 , President Martin Van Buren received two Arabians from the Sultan of Oman , and in 1877 , President Ulysses S. Grant obtained an Arabian stallion , Leopard , and a Barb , Linden Tree , as gifts from Abdul Hamid II , the " Sultan of Turkey . "
A. Keene Richard was the first American known to have specifically bred Arabian horses . He traveled to the desert in 1853 and 1856 to obtain breeding stock , which he crossed on Thoroughbreds , and also bred purebred Arabians . Unfortunately , his horses were lost during the Civil War and have no known purebred Arabian descendants today . Another major U.S. political figure , William H. Seward purchased four Arabians in Beirut in 1859 , prior to becoming Secretary of State to Abraham Lincoln .
Leopard is the only stallion imported prior to 1888 who left known purebred descendants in America . In 1888 Randolph Huntington imported the desert @-@ bred Arabian mare * Naomi , and bred her to Leopard , producing Leopard 's only purebred Arabian son , Anazeh , who sired eight purebred Arabian foals , four of whom still appear in pedigrees today .
= = = Development of purebred breeding in America = = =
In 1908 , the Arabian Horse Registry of America was established , recording 71 animals , and by 1994 , the number had reached half a million . Today there are more Arabians registered in North America than in the rest of the world put together .
The origins of the registry date to 1893 , when the Hamidie Society sponsored an exhibit of Arabian horses from what today is Syria at the World Fair in Chicago . This exhibition raised considerable interest in Arabian horses . Records are unclear if 40 or 45 horses were imported for the exposition , but seven died in a fire shortly after arrival . The 28 horses that remained at the end of the exhibition stayed in America and were sold at auction when the Hamidie Society went bankrupt . These horses caught the interest of American breeders , including Peter Bradley of the Hingham Stock Farm , who purchased some Hamidie horses at the auction , and Homer Davenport , another admirer of the Hamidie imports .
Major Arabian importations to the United States included those of Davenport and Bradley , who teamed up to purchase several stallions and mares directly from the Bedouin in 1906 . Spencer Borden of the Interlachen Stud made several importations between 1898 and 1911 ; and W.R. Brown of the Maynesboro Stud , interested in the Arabian as a cavalry mount , imported many Arabians over a period of years , starting in 1918 . Another wave of imports came in the 1920s and 30s when breeders such as W.K. Kellogg , Henry Babson , Roger Selby , James Draper , and others imported Arabian bloodstock from Crabbet Park Stud in England , as well as from Poland , Spain and Egypt . The breeding of Arabians was fostered by the U. S. Army Remount Service , which stood purebred stallions at public stud for a reduced rate .
Several Arabians , mostly of Polish breeding , were captured from Nazi Germany and imported to the U.S.A. following World War II . In 1957 , two deaths in England led to more sales to the United States : first from Crabbet Stud on the demise of Lady Wentworth , and then from Hanstead with the passing of Gladys Yule . As the tensions of the Cold War eased , more Arabians were imported to America from Poland and Egypt , and in the late 1970s , as political issues surrounding import regulations and the recognition of stud books were resolved , many Arabian horses were imported from Spain and Russia .
= = = Modern trends = = =
In the 1980s , Arabians became a popular status symbol and were marketed similarly to fine art . Some individuals also used horses as a tax shelter . Prices skyrocketed , especially in the United States , with a record @-@ setting public auction price for a mare named NH Love Potion , who sold for $ 2 @.@ 55 million in 1984 , and the largest syndication in history for an Arabian stallion , Padron , at $ 11 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 . The potential for profit led to over @-@ breeding of the Arabian . When the Tax Reform Act of 1986 closed the tax @-@ sheltering " passive investment " loophole , limiting the use of horse farms as tax shelters , the Arabian market was particularly vulnerable due to over @-@ saturation and artificially inflated prices , and it collapsed , forcing many breeders into bankruptcy and sending many purebred Arabians to slaughter . Prices recovered slowly , with many breeders moving away from producing " living art " and towards a horse more suitable for amateur owners and many riding disciplines . By 2003 , a survey found that 67 % of purebred Arabian horses in America are owned for recreational riding purposes . As of 2013 , there are more than 660 @,@ 000 Arabians that have been registered in the United States , and the US has the largest number of Arabians of any nation in the world .
= = In Australia = =
= = = Early imports = = =
Arabian horses were introduced to Australia in the earliest days of European Settlement . Early imports included both purebred Arabians and light Spanish " jennets " from Andalusia , many Arabians also came from India . Based on records describing stallions " of Arabic and Persian blood " , the first Arabian horses were probably imported to Australia in several groups between 1788 and 1802 . About 1803 , a merchant named Robert Campbell imported a bay Arabian stallion , Hector , from India ; Hector was said to have been owned by Arthur Wellesley , who later became known as the Duke of Wellington . In 1804 two additional Arabians , also from India , arrived in Tasmania one of whom , White William , sired the first purebred Arabian foal born in Australia , a stallion named Derwent .
Throughout the 19th century , many more Arabians came to Australia , though most were used to produce crossbred horses and left no recorded purebred descendants . The first significant imports to be permanently recorded with offspring still appearing in modern purebred Arabian pedigrees were those of James Boucaut , who in 1891 imported several Arabians from Wilfred and Lady Anne Blunt 's Crabbet Arabian Stud in England . Purebred Arabians were used to improve racehorses and some of them became quite famous as such ; about 100 Arabian sires are included in the Australian Stud Book ( for Thoroughbred racehorses ) . The military was also involved in the promotion of breeding calvalry horses , especially around World War I. They were part of the foundation of several breeds considered uniquely Australian , including the Australian Pony , the Waler and the Australian Stock Horse .
= = = In the 20th and 21st centuries = = =
In the early 20th century , more Arabian horses , mostly of Crabbet bloodlines , arrived in Australia . The first Arabians of Polish breeding arrived in 1966 , and Egyptian lines were first imported in 1970 . Arabian horses from the rest of the world followed , and today the Australian Arabian horse registry is the second largest in the world , next to that of the United States .
= = Modern breeding = =
Arabian horses today are found all over the world . They are no longer classified by Bedouin strain , but are informally classified by the nation of origin of famed horses in a given pedigree . Popular types of Arabians are labeled " Polish " , " Spanish " , " Crabbet " , " Russian " , " Egyptian " , and " Domestic " ( describing horses whose ancestors were imported to the United States prior to 1944 , including those from programs such as Kellogg , Davenport , Maynesboro , Babson , Dickenson and Selby ) . In the USA , a specific mixture of Crabbet , Maynesboro and Kellogg bloodlines has acquired the copyrighted designation " CMK . "
Each set of bloodlines has its own devoted followers , with the virtues of each hotly debated . Most debates are between those who value the Arabian most for its refined beauty and those who value the horse for its stamina and athleticism ; there are also a number of breeders who specialize in preservation breeding of various bloodlines . Controversies exist over the relative " purity " of certain animals ; breeders argue about the genetic " purity " of various pedigrees , discussing whether some horses descend from " impure " animals that cannot be traced to the desert Bedouin . The major factions are as follows :
The Arabian Horse Association ( AHA ) states , " The origin of the purebred Arabian horse was the Arabian desert , and all Arabians ultimately trace their lineage to this source . " In essence , all horses accepted for registration in the United States are deemed to be " purebred " Arabians by AHA .
The World Arabian Horse Association ( WAHO ) has the broadest definition of a purebred Arabian . WAHO states , " A Purebred Arabian horse is one which appears in any purebred Arabian Stud Book or Register listed by WAHO as acceptable . " By this definition , over 95 % of the known purebred Arabian horses in the world are registered in stud books acceptable to WAHO . WAHO also researched the purity question in general , and its findings are on its web site , describing both the research and the political issues surrounding Arabian horse bloodlines , particularly in America .
At the other end of the spectrum , organizations focused on bloodlines that are the most meticulously documented to desert sources have the most restrictive definitions . For example , The Asil Club in Europe only accepts " a horse whose pedigree is exclusively based on Bedouin breeding of the Arabian peninsula , without any crossbreeding with non @-@ Arabian horses at any time . " Likewise , the Al Khamsa organization takes the position that " The horse ... which are called " Al Khamsa Arabian Horses , " are those horses in North America that can reasonably be assumed to descend entirely from bedouin Arabian horses bred by horse @-@ breeding bedouin tribes of the deserts of the Arabian Peninsula without admixture from sources unacceptable to Al Khamsa . " Most restrictive of all are horses identified as " straight Egyptian " by the Pyramid Society , which must trace in all lines to the desert and also to horses owned or bred by specific Egyptian breeding programs . By this definition , straight Egyptian Arabians constitute only 2 % of all Arabian horses in America .
Ironically , some pure @-@ blooded desert @-@ bred Arabians in Syria had enormous difficulties being accepted as registrable purebred Arabians because many of the Bedouin who owned them saw no need to obtain a piece of paper to verify the purity of their horses . However , eventually the Syrians developed a stud book for their animals that was accepted by the World Arabian Horse Association ( WAHO ) in 2007 .
= = Influence on other horse breeds = =
Because of the genetic strength of the desert @-@ bred Arabian horse , Arabian bloodlines have played a part in the development of nearly every modern light horse breed , including the Thoroughbred , Orlov Trotter , Morgan , American Saddlebred , American Quarter Horse , and Warmblood breeds such as the Trakehner . Arabian bloodlines have also influenced the development of the Welsh Pony , the Australian Stock Horse , Percheron draft horse , Appaloosa , and the Colorado Ranger Horse .
Today , people cross Arabians with other breeds to add refinement , endurance , agility and beauty . In the USA , Half @-@ Arabians have their own registry within the Arabian Horse Association , which includes a special section for Anglo @-@ Arabians ( Arabian @-@ Thoroughbred crosses ) . Some crosses originally registered only as Half @-@ Arabians became popular enough to have their own breed registry , including the National Show Horse ( an Arabian @-@ Saddlebred cross ) , the Quarab ( Arabian @-@ Quarter Horse ) , the Pintabian the Welara ( Arabian @-@ Welsh Pony ) , and the Morab ( Arabian @-@ Morgan ) . In addition , some Arabians and Half Arabians have been approved for breeding by some Warmblood registries , particularly the Trakehner registry .
There is intense debate over the role the Arabian played in the development of other light horse breeds . Before DNA @-@ based research developed , one hypothesis , based on body types and conformation , suggested the light , " dry " , oriental horse adapted to the desert climate had developed prior to domestication ; DNA studies of multiple horse breeds now suggest that while domesticated horses arose from multiple mare lines , there is very little variability in the Y @-@ chromosome between breeds . Following domestication of the horse , due to the location of the Middle East as a crossroads of the ancient world , and relatively near the earliest locations of domestication , oriental horses spread throughout Europe and Asia both in ancient and modern times . There is little doubt that humans crossed " oriental " blood on that of other types to create light riding horses ; the only actual questions are at what point the " oriental " prototype could be called an " Arabian " , how much Arabian blood was mixed with local animals , and at what point in history .
For some breeds , such as the Thoroughbred , Arabian influence of specific animals is documented in written stud books . For older breeds , dating the influx of Arabian ancestry is more difficult . For example , while outside cultures , and the horses they brought with them , influenced the predecessor to the Iberian horse in both the time of Ancient Rome and again with the Islamic invasions of the 8th century , it is difficult to trace precise details of the journeys taken by waves of conquerors and their horses as they traveled from the Middle East to North Africa and across Gibraltar to southern Europe . Mitochondrial DNA studies of modern Andalusian horses of the Iberian peninsula and Barb horses of North Africa present convincing evidence that both breeds crossed the Strait of Gibraltar and influenced one another . Though these studies did not compare Andalusian and Barb mtDNA to that of Arabian horses , there is evidence that horses resembling Arabians , whether before or after the breed was called an " Arabian " , were part of this genetic mix . Arabians and Barbs , though probably related to one another , are quite different in appearance , and horses of both Arabian and Barb type were present in the Muslim armies that occupied Europe . There is also historical documentation that Islamic invaders raised Arabian horses in Spain prior to the Reconquista ; the Spanish also documented imports of Arabian horses in 1847 , 1884 and 1885 that were used to improve existing Spanish stock and revive declining equine populations .
= = Uses = =
Arabians are versatile horses that compete in many equestrian fields , including horse racing , the horse show disciplines of saddle seat , Western pleasure , and hunt seat , as well as dressage , cutting , reining , endurance riding , show jumping , eventing , youth events such as equitation , and others . They are used as pleasure riding , trail riding , and working ranch horses for those who are not interested in competition .
= = = Competition = = =
Arabians dominate the sport of endurance riding because of their stamina . They are the leading breed in competitions such as the Tevis Cup that can cover up to 100 miles ( 160 km ) in a day , and they participate in FEI @-@ sanctioned endurance events worldwide , including the World Equestrian Games .
There is an extensive series of horse shows in the United States and Canada for Arabian , Half @-@ Arabian , and Anglo @-@ Arabian horses , sanctioned by the USEF in conjunction with the Arabian Horse Association . Classes offered include Western pleasure , reining , hunter type and saddle seat English pleasure , and halter , plus the very popular " Native " costume class . " Sport horse " events for Arabian horses have become popular in North America , particularly after the Arabian Horse Association began hosting a separate Arabian and Half Arabian Sport Horse National Championship in 2003 that by 2004 grew to draw 2000 entries . This competition draws Arabian and part @-@ Arabian horses that perform in hunter , jumper , sport horse under saddle , sport horse in hand , dressage , and combined driving competition .
Other nations also sponsor major shows strictly for purebred and partbred Arabians , including Great Britain France , Spain , Poland , and the United Arab Emirates .
Purebred Arabians have excelled in open events against other breeds . One of the most famous examples in the field of western riding competition was the Arabian mare Ronteza , who defeated 50 horses of all breeds to win the 1961 Reined Cow Horse championship at the Cow Palace in San Francisco , California . Another Arabian competitive against all breeds was the stallion Aaraf who won an all @-@ breed cutting horse competition at the Quarter Horse Congress in the 1950s . In show jumping and show hunter competition , a number of Arabians have competed successfully against other breeds in open competition , including the purebred gelding Russian Roulette , who has won multiple jumping classes against horses of all breeds on the open circuit , and in eventing , a purebred Arabian competed on the Brazilian team at the 2004 Athens Olympics .
Part @-@ Arabians have also appeared at open sport horse events and even Olympic level competition . The Anglo @-@ Arabian Linon was ridden to an Olympic silver medal for France in Dressage in 1928 and 1932 , as well as a team gold in 1932 , and another French Anglo @-@ Arabian , Harpagon , was ridden to a team gold medal and an individual silver in dressage at the 1948 Olympics . At the 1952 Olympics , the French rider Pierre d 'Oriola won the Gold individual medal in show jumping on the Anglo @-@ Arabian Ali Baba . Another Anglo @-@ Arabian , Tamarillo , ridden by William Fox @-@ Pitt , represents the United Kingdom in FEI and Olympic competition , winning many awards , including first place at the 2004 Badminton Horse Trials . More recently a gelding named Theodore O 'Connor , nicknamed " Teddy " , a 14 @.@ 1 ( or 14 @.@ 2 , sources vary ) hand pony of Thoroughbred , Arabian , and Shetland pony breeding , won two gold medals at the 2007 Pan American Games and was finished in the top six at the 2007 and 2008 Rolex Kentucky Three Day CCI competition .
= = = Other activities = = =
Arabians are involved in a wide variety of activities , including fairs , movies , parades , circuses and other places where horses are showcased . They have been popular in movies , dating back to the silent film era when Rudolph Valentino rode the Kellogg Arabian stallion Jadaan in 1926 's Son of the Sheik , and have been seen in many other films , including The Black Stallion featuring the stallion Cass Ole , The Young Black Stallion , which used over 40 Arabians during filming , as well as Hidalgo and the 1959 version of Ben @-@ Hur .
Arabians are mascots for football teams , performing crowd @-@ pleasing activities on the field and sidelines . One of the horses who serves as " Traveler " , the mascot for the University of Southern California Trojans , has been a purebred Arabian . " Thunder " , a stage name for the purebred Arabian stallion J B Kobask , was mascot for the Denver Broncos from 1993 until his retirement in 2004 , when the Arabian gelding Winter Solstyce took over as " Thunder II " . Cal Poly Pomona 's W.K. Kellogg Arabian Horse Center Equestrian Unit has made Arabian horses a regular sight at the annual Tournament of Roses Parade held each New Year 's Day in Pasadena , California .
Arabians also are used on search and rescue teams and occasionally for police work . Some Arabians are used in polo in the USA and Europe , in the Turkish equestrian sport of Cirit ( pronounced [ dʒiˈɾit ] ) , as well as in circuses , therapeutic horseback riding programs , and on guest ranches .
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= ' 03 Bonnie & Clyde =
" ' 03 Bonnie & Clyde " is a song recorded by American rapper Jay @-@ Z featuring American R & B singer Beyoncé . It was composed by Shawn Carter , Kanye West , Prince , Tupac Shakur , Darryl Harper , Ricky Rouse and Tyrone Wrice for Jay @-@ Z 's seventh studio album The Blueprint 2 : The Gift & The Curse ( 2002 ) . The song was released as the album 's lead single on October 10 , 2002 . A East Coast hip hop and R & B song , " ' 03 Bonnie & Clyde " sampled its beat from American rapper Tupac Shakur 's 1996 song " Me and My Girlfriend " , and was inspired by the crime film Bonnie and Clyde . The instrumentation is based on programmed drums , bass instruments , and a flamenco guitar .
" ' 03 Bonnie & Clyde " was generally received with favorable reviews by music critics , who complimented the combination of Jay @-@ Z 's and Beyoncé 's musical styles , their collaboration and the song 's production . The single reached number four on the Billboard Hot 100 , becoming Jay @-@ Z 's second top ten single and Beyoncé 's first as a solo artist . It charted at number two in the United Kingdom and peaked in the top twenty in other European territories . " ' 03 Bonnie & Clyde " was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) and platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) .
The accompanying music video was directed by Chris Robinson , and features Jay @-@ Z and Beyoncé playing a modern @-@ day version of the 1920s bank robbers Clyde Barrow and Bonnie Parker . It was nominated for Best Hip @-@ Hop Video at the 2003 MTV Video Music Awards . " ' 03 Bonnie & Clyde " spawned a feud with American recording artist Toni Braxton , who had also sampled " Me and My Girlfriend " in her 2002 song " Me & My Boyfriend " . She accused West and Jay @-@ Z of stealing the idea of using the song as a sample , which was later denied by both of them . " ' 03 Bonnie & Clyde " was performed by Jay @-@ Z and Beyoncé on several television shows and was later included on the set list of their concert performances and tours , most notably on their co @-@ headlining On the Run Tour ( 2014 ) .
= = Production and release = =
" ' 03 Bonnie & Clyde " marked the first collaboration between rapper Jay @-@ Z and R & B singer Beyoncé . While listening to Shakur 's The Don Killuminati : The 7 Day Theory , producer Kanye West suggested that American rapper Tupac Shakur 's song " Me and My Girlfriend " would make a good sample to use on Jay @-@ Z 's duet with Beyoncé . West told MTV News that Jay @-@ Z had asked him on the telephone for a duet for him and Beyoncé : " We got this joint , it has to be the best beat you ever made . " He continued :
So I went home and called my dog , E Base , who plays a lot of instruments up at Baseline [ studio ] for me and [ producer ] Just Blaze . [ E ] came through . I programmed the drums in 10 minutes , and then he played all the different parts . This version is all live bass , live guitars , [ live ] chords on it . I brought it to Hov that night , he heard it , he thought of the video treatment before he thought of the rap . He just knew it was gonna be the one .
Tensions arose during the conception of " ' 03 Bonnie & Clyde " over the sampling of " Me and My Girlfriend . Senior Vice President of A & R Tina Davis commented on the issue , " We only had one day to clear the [ Tupac Shakur ] sample [ from ' Me and my Girlfriend ' ] that was used on ' '03 Bonnie and Clyde ' last year with Jay @-@ Z and Beyoncé [ Beyoncé ] . We were back and forth with Afeni Shakur all day until we got the clearance . And then it 's a hit . "
" ' 03 Bonnie & Clyde " was released on October 10 , 2002 , as the lead single from Jay @-@ Z 's album The Blueprint ² : The Gift & the Curse . Beyoncé later included the song as a bonus track on international editions of her 2003 debut solo album Dangerously in Love . In 2003 , Now That 's What I Call Music ! included " ' 03 Bonnie & Clyde " as the opening track of the 12th volume of the US release and the fifteenth track of the 54th volume of the UK release . The song 's release was the first indication of Jay @-@ Z 's and Beyoncé 's romantic status , spawning rumors about a burgeoning relationship . Their relationship was not made public until Jay @-@ Z featured on Beyoncé 's songs " Crazy In Love " ( 2003 ) and " Déjà Vu " ( 2006 ) . It was later announced that they had been dating since recording " ' 03 Bonnie & Clyde " . The latter 's release also marked the debut of the solo career of Beyoncé , leaving Destiny 's Child on hiatus .
= = Composition = =
" ' 03 Bonnie & Clyde " features drums and live instrumentation such as bass instruments and guitar chords . It also consists of a beat sampled from " Me and My Girlfriend " . The song was inspired by the 1967 American crime film Bonnie and Clyde as Jay @-@ Z and Beyoncé proclaim themselves as the current version of the criminal duo . Ethan Brown of New York magazine noted that its patina of flamenco guitar was reminiscent of that in Jay @-@ Z 's 2001 collaboration with R. Kelly on " Fiesta . " Beyoncé mimics the hook of " Me and My Girlfriend " on the chorus as she sings , " Down to ride to the very end , me and my boyfriend " .
Some lyrics sung by Beyoncé were sampled from " If I Was Your Girlfriend " by American recording artist Prince . On the second verse , Jay @-@ Z references the relationship between Bobby Brown and Whitney Houston , and the American television comedy @-@ drama series Sex and the City as he raps : " She riiides wit ' me / The new Bobby and Whitney / Only time we don 't speak is during ' Sex and the City ' / Put us together , how they gon ' stop both of us ? / When I 'm off track , Mommy is keeping us focused " . The verse then continues : " Let 's lock this down like it 's supposed to be / The ' 03 Bonnie and Clyde , Hov and B " .
= = Critical reception = =
" ' 03 Bonnie & Clyde " was received favorably by critics , who commended the use of different samples , and commented on the relationship between Jay @-@ Z and Beyoncé . Chris Ryan of Spin magazine described " ' 03 Bonnie & Clyde " as a highlight on The Blueprint 2 : The Gift & the Curse , stating that it consists of " a house party in a crib as big as the Georgia Dome . " John Bush from Allmusic included the song as a highlight on the album , further describing it as " a slick R & B crossover with Beyoncé Knowles " . Marc L. Hill of PopMatters viewed it as the " obligatory radio song " of the album . Awarding the song a rating of eight out of ten possible points , Dele Fadele of NME complimented it as " a cool duet " between Jay @-@ Z and Beyoncé . John Robinson of the same publication wrote that as the couple describe their life , it 's not all " Lexus and sipping Cris " . He added , " A similarly relaxed production makes for a behind @-@ the @-@ diamante @-@ net @-@ curtains classic " .
Ethan Brown of New York magazine named " ' 03 Bonnie & Clyde " as a follow @-@ up to the previous " Bonnie & Clyde Part II " by Jay @-@ Z featuring rapper Foxy Brown . Erik Parker , music editor of Vibe magazine , was divided on the song 's sample , writing that it was " tasteless but well @-@ executed " , and complimented West 's production as " impeccable " . Margena A. Christian of Jet magazine praised Jay @-@ Z 's and Beyoncé 's collaboration , favoring the former 's " dropping lyrics " and the latter 's " cooing silky vocals " . Chuck Taylor of Billboard magazine wrote that though it was unclear at the time whether the couple were together or not , but they created good music together . Taylor praised the song 's ability to showcase what each artist does best : Jay @-@ Z " spitting " verses of praise , and Beyoncé 's sweets coos and hooks . Taylor noted that the sampled acoustic guitar " added spice to the track , setting it up for future success " . In a more negative review , Nathan Rabin of The A.V. Club described the song as " terrible " and different from the other songs on The Blueprint 2 : The Gift & The Curse .
Rap @-@ Up credited " ' 03 Bonnie & Clyde " for giving Beyoncé a " little street @-@ credit " . The staff members of Vibe magazine placed the song at number two on a list of the best Bonnie and Clyde inspired songs . On a list of the 10 Best Jay @-@ Z Songs , Dean Silfenv of AOL placed " ' 03 Bonnie & Clyde " at number six . Popjustice listed " ' 03 Bonnie & Clyde " at number 66 on its list of the best singles of 2003 . It was nominated for the Best Collaboration at the 2003 BET Awards , but lost to Snoop Dogg 's song " Beautiful " . In a 2013 list of Jay @-@ Z 's 20 Biggest Billboard Hits , " ' 03 Bonnie & Clyde " was ranked at number 6 . Elijah Watson and Erika Ramirez of Billboard magazine noted that the song proved the couple was " unstoppable from jump " .
= = Chart performance = =
" ' 03 Bonnie & Clyde " reached the top ten on music charts in six European countries . It peaked at number six on the Norway Singles Chart and on the Danish Singles Chart , number eight on the Italian Singles Chart , and topped the Swiss Singles Charts . In Canada , the song peaked at number four and became Jay @-@ Z 's highest charting single until it was surpassed by his 2009 Alicia Keys @-@ assisted song " Empire State of Mind " , which peaked at number three . In the United Kingdom , " ' 03 Bonnie & Clyde " peaked at number two on the UK Singles Chart . At the time , it became his highest charting single in Britain since " Hard Knock Life ( Ghetto Anthem ) " achieved the same feat in November 1998 . It peaked at number four on the New Zealand Singles Chart , becoming his highest charting single in that territory . The song also became Jay @-@ Z 's highest charting single in Australia , where it peaked at number two . " ' 03 Bonnie & Clyde " was certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) , denoting shipment of 70 @,@ 000 copies .
" ' 03 Bonnie & Clyde " broke into the top five of the Billboard Hot 100 at number four ; it became the highest @-@ charting single that references the famous bank robbers Bonnie and Clyde . The record was previously held by Georgie Fame 's 1986 single " The Ballad of Bonnie and Clyde . " Following the performance of " ' 03 Bonnie & Clyde " on Saturday Night Live ( SNL ) on November 2 , 2002 , its radio audience increased by 12 % , allowing the song to advance into the top ten of the US Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart , at number seven . This gave Jay @-@ Z his 12th top 10 single , tying him with rapper P. Diddy , who had the same number of top 10 singles on that chart . " ' 03 Bonnie & Clyde " was his first top 10 since his 2001 single " Girls , Girls , Girls " . It was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , denoting sales of 500 @,@ 000 copies.The song sold over 1 million copies in US .
= = Music video = =
Chris Robinson directed the song 's accompanying music video and filmed in Mexico , during November 2002 . June Ambrose was hired as the personal stylist , and Lance Reddick appears in the video as the main police officer on their tail . Jay @-@ Z and Beyoncé play a modern @-@ day version of the 1920s bank robbers Clyde Barrow and Bonnie Parker . The video is loosely based on the American 1993 romance crime film True Romance , which stars Christian Slater and Patricia Arquette as two lovers on the run from cocaine dealers . The choreography used in the clip suggests a relationship beyond screen , as Jay @-@ Z wraps his arm around Beyoncé while singing his part of the chorus . The video also marked a departure for the " clean @-@ cut Beyoncé " and created a symbiotic relationship between her and Jay @-@ Z , allowing them to exchange audiences .
The music video begins as police officers and Reddick discuss the criminal duo and ways to catch them . As the song begins , Jay @-@ Z is seen driving a gunmetal grey Aston Martin while Beyoncé sits in the passenger seat . As they drive through the sepia sands of Mexico , clips of the police from the beginning of the video are cut into the scene . As Jay @-@ Z and Beyoncé pull over to a hotel , they cover the car to avoid notice from the police . As Beyoncé and Jay @-@ Z count money in the bedroom , the police discover their hiding place and go upstairs only to find that the two have fled the scene in their car . Scenes of Beyoncé and Jay @-@ Z at a Mexican bar are inter @-@ cut with scenes of an intimate time in a phone @-@ booth ; behind the phone booth , spray @-@ painted onto a wall is a tribute to Tupac Shakur . The duo again elude the police who are following one step behind . After Beyoncé performs her verse in an empty pool , the police form a blockade on the highway in an attempt to catch her and Jay @-@ Z , only to be stumped again as two gas station attendant decoys are found driving the car . The video ends as Beyoncé and Jay @-@ Z light a bonfire on the beach and drive away in a different car .
Corey Moss of MTV News noted that the end of the video does not reveal how the " real " Bonnie and Clyde met their end . The story continues in the 2004 video for Jay @-@ Z 's song " 99 Problems " . The music video for " ' 03 Bonnie & Clyde " was nominated for Best Hip @-@ Hop Video at the 2003 MTV Video Music Awards . In the official top 20 countdown of Jay @-@ Z music videos , MTV UK listed the clip at number 10 .
= = Toni Braxton feud = =
On October 8 , 2003 , Toni Braxton and her team released a statement claiming that Jay @-@ Z 's song " ' 03 Bonnie & Clyde " had stolen Braxton 's idea to sample the 1996 Tupac Shakur song " Me and My Girlfriend " . Braxton sampled Shakur 's song on the track " Me & My Boyfriend " , included on Braxton 's album , More Than a Woman ( 2002 ) . In a call to a New York radio station , Braxton stated that " Jay @-@ Z and Beyoncé are messing with my money . They 're trying to steal my mojo " . Braxton said her song was recorded over the summer of 2002 , and alleged that Jay @-@ Z only decided to do " ' 03 Bonnie & Clyde " after she played her version of the song for Def Jam Recordings .
Kanye West responded to Braxton 's claim in an interview for MTV News , " I had no idea about Toni Braxton 's [ song ] . She can 't act like ain 't nobody ever heard ' Me and My Girlfriend ' before . People hear the song all the time . I can [ understand her complaint ] if it [ was ] an original song . " West defended the song 's sample , stating that the idea came to him after listening to a friend 's Makaveli album one night . Roc @-@ A @-@ Fella Records ' Co @-@ CEO responded to Braxton 's claims :
Jay is a talented dude . I don 't think he would steal anything intentionally . It 's an ill coincidence , and things happen for a reason . We 'll see what happens behind it ... I read it in the paper , and Jay and I were talking about it this morning and it was a little funny . I know he didn 't intentionally make the same record she made . I don 't think he even heard it . [ My ] reaction is , ' Sorry , it wasn 't intentional . ' Jay makes records and puts them out . This [ sh-- ] is music . It 's just music . We don 't sit around and have a blueprint to [ f--- ] anybody 's life up . The music business has been good to us . I 'm not getting into any beef or nothing over music .
Speaking for MTV News , Jay @-@ Z responded to Braxton 's claims : " I wouldn 't want to take it from her . I don 't even think like that . My first thought would be , ' Maybe I could call her up , maybe I could get on that record . ' The most obvious [ explanation ] is it 's neither one of our records . It 's not like you made an original idea . She 's not in hip @-@ hop , but it happens in hip @-@ hop often . We go to sample the same thing and my record came out first . I 'm sorry . What can I do ? " He went on saying that if he had known they were both planning to sample the same Tupac song , he would have arranged a duet with her .
= = Live performances = =
On November 2 , 2002 , Jay @-@ Z and Beyoncé performed the song together at Saturday Night Live ( SNL ) . Later , on November 21 , 2002 they appeared on MTV 's TRL for Spankin ' New Music Week where they also performed the song . In 2009 , Beyoncé performed an abbreviated version of " ' 03 Bonnie & Clyde " during her I Am ... Yours revue , held at the Encore Las Vegas Theatre in July and August . The song was later included on the 2009 live album I Am ... Yours : An Intimate Performance at Wynn Las Vegas which was chronicling the revue . In August 2011 , Beyoncé performed " ' 03 Bonnie & Clyde " again during her revue 4 Intimate Nights with Beyoncé and included the song on the DVD Live at Roseland : Elements of 4 released in November 2011 . During the concerts , Beyoncé announced the song by saying , " It 's 2002 … I started to feel a little lonely till one day … " . " ' 03 Bonnie & Clyde " was included on Jay @-@ Z 's live album Live in Brooklyn released on October 11 , 2012 after he performed the song during eight shows in Brooklyn . In 2013 , Jay @-@ Z included the song on the set list of his Legends of the Summer Stadium Tour .
" ' 03 Bonnie & Clyde " was part of the set list of Beyoncé and Jay @-@ Z 's co @-@ headlining On the Run Tour ( 2014 ) where the shows were opened with the performance of the song . A black @-@ and @-@ white video was shown on the screen accompanied by sirens as the duo appeared onstage surrounded by smoke . They started performing the song with Beyoncé wearing a see @-@ through fishnet mask and Jay @-@ Z wearing black sunglasses , a star @-@ speckled shirt , black jacket and gold chains . The song was in line with the show 's overall criminalistic theme .
= = Formats and track listings = =
Digital EP
" ' 03 Bonnie & Clyde " ( Radio Edit ) – 3 : 27
" ' 03 Bonnie & Clyde " ( Explicit ) – 3 : 26
" U Don 't Know ( Remix ) ( Jay @-@ Z & M.O.P. ) – 4 : 28
CD single
" ' 03 Bonnie & Clyde " ( Radio Edit ) – 3 : 28
" U Don 't Know ( Remix ) – 4 : 27
" ' 03 Bonnie & Clyde " ( Instrumental ) – 3 : 27
= = Credits and personnel = =
Adapted from the The Blueprint ² : The Gift & the Curse 's liner notes .
= = Charts and certifications = =
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= Tony King ( EastEnders ) =
Tony King is a fictional character from the BBC soap opera EastEnders , played by Chris Coghill . He was the partner of established character Bianca Jackson ( Patsy Palmer ) , and a father @-@ figure to her four children . Tony sexually abused Bianca 's stepdaughter , Whitney Dean ( Shona McGarty ) , and began grooming her school @-@ friend Lauren Branning ( Madeline Duggan ) , before his predatory nature was uncovered and he was arrested for his crimes . Tony appeared between 12 September and 12 December 2008 and returned in December 2009 to stand trial .
The child sexual abuse storyline marked the first time the subject matter had been broached in a UK soap opera , and was researched and developed with advice and approval from the National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children . The abusive nature of Tony and Whitney 's relationship resulted in over 200 complaints being made to the BBC and television regulatory body Ofcom by members of the public , with the storyline deemed " horrifying " by the Daily Mail 's Lizzie Smith , and " one of the darkest and most disturbing storylines EastEnders has ever attempted " by The Mirror 's Beth Neil . The NSPCC however praised the storyline for " helping to raise awareness of the hidden nature of sexual abuse " . The storyline also gained EastEnders a Royal Television Society Programme Award in March 2009 in the Soap and Continuing Drama category .
= = Storylines = =
After being released from prison for assaulting a teenage boy who propositioned Whitney Dean ( Shona McGarty ) , Tony joins his partner Bianca Butcher ( Patsy Palmer ) and her family in Walford , including her son Morgan Jackson @-@ King , whom he has adopted . It is revealed that he is a paedophile who has been grooming and sexually abusing Whitney , Bianca 's adopted daughter , since she was 12 . He immediately resumes his sexual relationship with Whitney , despite his displeasure at her more adult appearance , insisting she remove her make @-@ up and jewellery . When Whitney gets a role in the school play , Romeo and Julie , Tony is angry about having less time with her , becoming jealous of her co @-@ star Peter Beale ( Thomas Law ) . Tony deceives Whitney into believing they will run away and start a new life together when she turns sixteen . Whitney gives him money she has been keeping for his return , which he gives Bianca as a deposit for a flat . Tony assaults Peter as a result of his growing jealousy , and is nearly reported to the police by Peter 's sister Lucy Beale ( Melissa Suffield ) . Whitney convinces Lucy not to go to the police , but not before Lucy tells Bianca what happened . When Bianca angrily tells Tony that she is not a child anymore , he realizes he is no longer attracted to her .
Tony begins grooming fourteen @-@ year @-@ old Lauren Branning , supporting her when her mother Tanya Branning ( Jo Joyner ) is arrested for the attempted murder of her father . He plans to take her to a concert , but Lauren 's father Max Branning ( Jake Wood ) uncovers her hidden clothes and refuses her permission to attend . When Whitney 's sixteenth birthday arrives , she books flights so they can run away together . Attempting to foil her plan , Tony steals her passport but it is found and returned . On her birthday , Whitney tells Bianca about her relationship with Tony , believing that they are going to leave together . Horrified , Bianca calls the police , and Tony is arrested . He is later released on bail and visits their home in an attempt to convince Whitney not to give a statement to the police . He is attacked by Bianca 's ex @-@ husband Ricky ( Sid Owen ) and re @-@ arrested for breaking his bail conditions .
Before his trial , Tony attempts suicide . Whitney tries to visit but is refused , and Bianca sees it as a form of manipulation . Tony repeatedly attempts to contact Whitney by phone , but after the first day of the trial , he flushes the SIM card down the toilet in his cell . When Whitney 's brother Ryan Malloy ( Neil McDermott ) tries to attack Tony in court , Whitney says she will refuse to testify , claiming her witness statement was a lie and she was forced to say it . Bianca explains to Whitney that Tony will be set free and that he will target other children . Tony 's barrister , Mrs Taylor ( Jacqueline Defferary ) , cross @-@ examines Whitney , trying to imply that she pursued him for several years , saying she refused to take ' no ' for an answer and lied about the accusations . Tony shouts out that he is innocent but Whitney says she trusted him and he abused her , revealing the truth about the relationship . After leaving the courtroom , Whitney gives her barrister , Vivien Easley QC ( Geraldine Alexander ) , a mobile phone with messages from Tony on it . A week later Tony is found guilty of all charges and sentenced to 13 years in custody . He smirks as the verdict is being read out but is taken away with his head in his hands .
Over three years later , Whitney receives a note from Tony via one of his former prison friends , saying that he always loved her . Whitney attempts to visit Tony in prison , but she is told that he killed himself in his cell .
= = Creation = =
Tony was first mentioned in EastEnders in April 2008 , when Palmer returned as Bianca Jackson following a nine @-@ year absence from the show . It was established that although Tony was currently in prison , he and Bianca were in a relationship , and that he acted as a father @-@ figure to her children Whitney Dean , Liam Butcher ( James Forde ) and Tiffany Dean ( Maisie Smith ) . It was originally stated that Tony was the biological father of Bianca 's youngest son , mixed @-@ race Morgan Jackson @-@ King ( Devon Higgs ) , which raised confusion with viewers when it was later announced that Coghill , who is white , had been cast in the role . The show 's producers explained that Tony was not really Morgan 's father , and that the reason behind this deception would be revealed soon after his arrival .
Although Tony did not appear in the show until September 2008 , his arrival was anticipated from April of that year , when EastEnders executive producer Diederick Santer commented that the series was building a picture of his character , and that it would be interesting to see him on @-@ screen . It was reported on 2 July 2008 that Tony would be arriving in the serial as part of a child sexual abuse storyline involving Whitney . BBC News described the plot as an ongoing " predatory paedophile storyline " , noting that this was the first time this subject matter had been tackled by a UK soap opera .
An EastEnders spokesperson stated that programme @-@ makers were working in close conjunction with the NSPCC in order to portray the subject matter accurately and sensitively , commenting that the show aims to raise awareness of real @-@ life issues , and has in the past similarly drawn attention to issues such as domestic violence , rape and HIV . John Grounds , the NSPCC 's director of communications , praised the soap for raising awareness of the issue . Sara Nathan of The Sun reported that the story had been planned since the previous year , and would begin with Whitney worrying about Tony 's release from prison and the effect it would have on her family .
The storyline was first conceived when EastEnders series consultant Simon Ashdown viewed a documentary about homelessness , featuring a mother and child at a bus stop with nowhere to go . Ashdown questioned what might happen if a child sex offender were to befriend the mother in order to grow closer to the child , and related the scenario to Bianca 's return to the soap . BBC Head of Drama John Yorke explained that the idea when presented " drew a sharp intake of breath . Most EastEnders stories that have been good and successful have been the ones that caused the sharp intake of breath , so they 're always the kind of stories you look for . " Final approval for the storyline was sought from BBC Head of Fiction Jane Tranter on 2 June 2008 . Tranter explained that : " I thought it was a fantastically good idea . The big moments in EastEnders , those iconic pieces of television history , tend to be the things that are incredibly near the knuckle , and are actually quite difficult subjects to raise in the context of a family sitting room . [ ... ] Soaps are meant to hold up a mirror to our lives , and sometimes that mirror will show ugly bits , difficult bits , taboo bits . But if a soap doesn 't hold up that mirror , then actually , what is it ? It will have no depth . "
= = Development = =
Coghill was cast as Tony on 20 June 2008 . He deemed the role the most challenging he had ever played , but hoped that it would help to raise public awareness of child abuse . Of his off @-@ screen relationship with McGarty , Coghill explained that it helped that she does not look or act like a young child , deeming her " fantastic to work with " , as well as " very natural , very instinctive and a natural actress " , commenting : " There isn 't any uncomfortable feeling at all . " Having undergone a thorough characterisation session , Coghill began shooting on 30 June 2008 , and first appeared on @-@ screen on 12 September 2008 .
Coghill has explained that Tony began grooming Whitney as soon as he met Bianca , ingratiating himself so as to become the family 's " hero figure " and " saviour " . Coghill elucidated : " The lie that Tony has spun to Whitney is that as soon as she 's 16 they 'll run away together and start a new life . But Tony 's the type of paedophile who preys on younger children . Whitney is beginning to pass her sell @-@ by date with him . [ ... ] He feels like he 's losing his little girl but needs to keep Whitney under his control and not speak out . " As Tony began to lose interest in Whitney , he started grooming her 14 @-@ year @-@ old school @-@ friend Lauren Branning . A show @-@ insider commented that Tony had been getting away with abusing Whitney for years , but was escalating as one young girl was no longer enough to satisfy him .
Tony left the soap on 12 December 2008 , after his true nature was exposed . It was announced on 7 September 2009 that he would return to EastEnders to be put on trial . Coghill was pleased to return , believing it right that Tony 's story arc should conclude realistically , giving closure to the storyline and continuing to raise awareness of the issue . Santer commented : " One of the unique things about EastEnders is its ability to play stories over months and years . Chris agreeing to come back for these episodes will enable us to continue showing the long @-@ term consequences of Tony 's abuse of Whitney and – I hope – continue to do justice to the issue of child sex abuse . " Grounds praised Tony 's trial , stating that it demonstrated the importance for children of having their abusers brought to justice . Palmer felt that : " If one person out there who 's been abused saw that [ the legal system ] go out of their way to make it easier on the victim – Whitney 's evidence is given by video link – it will be worth it . "
= = Reception = =
The BBC and television regulatory body Ofcom received 70 complaints after Whitney 's first scenes with Tony aired . A BBC spokesman responded : " This is a difficult and challenging storyline , but one which keeps with the tradition of the show for tackling difficult social issues such as domestic abuse and mental health in the past . All the content on screen adheres to the BBC 's editorial guidelines . " The Guardian 's Aida Edemariam said of the beginning of the storyline : " what is most disturbing , watching [ Tony and Whitney 's ] first scenes together , is not the sexuality of the situation per se , though that is uncomfortable - it 's the subtle blackmail with which he keeps her in line . As it 's combined with the emotional manipulation native to soaps , the viewer starts to feel a bit bullied , too " . Numbers of viewer complaints rose within days to over 200 . New Statesman journalist Jeremy Sare commented on the public outrage and defended EastEnders decision to air the storyline , writing :
Sare quoted a BBC spokeswoman as saying : " we appreciate that for some viewers this storyline will have particular resonance and significance . In running it , it 's certainly not our intention to cause distress or upset , either to those who 've suffered from sexual abuse or their families . Our aim is instead to raise awareness of this very sensitive issue " , concluding his article with the summation : " The producers ’ dilemma is instructive to children ’ s charities and Ministers alike on how to confront the issue in a digestible manner which can stimulate an objective debate . "
The Mirror 's Beth Neil branded the plot strand " one of the darkest and most disturbing storylines EastEnders has ever attempted " , with critic Jim Shelley deeming it to be a " new low " for EastEnders . Shelley wrote of Whitney 's abuse : " You 've really got to hand it to EastEnders . Just when you thought the show couldn 't get any more miserable , the writers come up trumps and produce a new way of making us depressed - a paedophile storyline . Thanks for that ! I realise now this is what the family meal has been missing three nights a week : gathering the telly to watch a grubby , greasyhaired thug drooling over a 15 @-@ year @-@ old girl who ( as luck would have it ) spends her entire life in her school uniform even when she 's not at school . And they say family entertainment 's dead . " Shelley refuted the BBC 's claims that the storyline had educational value as " totally bogus " , observing that " At 7 @.@ 30 or 8pm , the " action " has to be so coded as to be pointless " . Deborah Orr , writing for The Independent , similarly disagreed with the BBC 's statement that the storyline was part of EastEnders ' " rich heritage of tackling difficult social issues " , writing that :
The Daily Mail 's Lizzie Smith deemed the storyline " horrifying " , while The Guardian 's Julie Raeside has questioned : " Is this latest sexual abuse storyline a good thing to position in a pre @-@ watershed soap opera , or should the EastEnders storyliners stick to a less controversial brand of misery ? " However , in contrast to public and media dissent , the NSPCC 's director of communications , John Grounds , has praised the storyline for " helping to raise awareness of the hidden nature of sexual abuse " , deeming it to be " vital in persuading people to take action to stop it and encouraging children to speak out . " Episodes from the storyline were submitted to the Royal Television Society Programme Awards 2008 for a panel to judge in the category Soap and Continuing Drama . EastEnders was presented with the award in March 2009 , beating Coronation Street and The Bill . Members of the judging panel described the submitted episodes as " the culmination of a particularly challenging and controversial storyline which the production team , writers and cast pulled off triumphantly . " In addition , the storyline was nominated for Best Storyline at the 2009 Inside Soap Awards and the character was nominated for the Villain of the Year award at the 2009 British Soap Awards .
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= The One Where Rachel Smokes =
" The One Where Rachel Smokes " is the eighteenth episode of the fifth season of Friends and 115th overall . It first aired on NBC in the United States on April 8 , 1999 . In the episode , Rachel ( Jennifer Aniston ) starts her new job at Ralph Lauren and soon feels left out because all the decision making takes place on smoking breaks and she does not smoke . Rachel attempts to solve the problem by taking up the habit , which proves difficult . Meanwhile , Ben auditions for a soup commercial and Joey ( Matt LeBlanc ) decides to come along to try for a part as well . When both are paired with different actors , the auditions become competitive . Elsewhere , Monica ( Courteney Cox ) and Phoebe ( Lisa Kudrow ) plan a surprise party for Rachel .
The episode was directed by Todd Holland and written by Michael Curtis . Although Aniston 's character Rachel was not a smoker , the actress at the time of filming was , who often said she planned to quit . In its original broadcast , " The One Where Rachel Smokes " acquired a Nielsen rating of 14 @.@ 8 , finishing the week ranked third .
= = Plot = =
Ross ( David Schwimmer ) and Carol ( Jane Sibbett ) inform the others that their son Ben ( Jack and Charlie Allen ) has an audition for a soup commercial , which Joey ( Matt LeBlanc ) finds hard to accept . When he learns that the TV commercial also has a part for the father , he volunteers himself for the audition . Both Joey and Ben are chosen for the callback but a lack of similarity in looks makes the director cast them with different individuals , therefore ensuring only one of them can be chosen for the commercial . Joey is paired up with a famous child actor . He talks to Ross about the callback in an attempt to make Ben back out of the audition which Ross finds unreasonable as it was Ben 's audition in the first place , and Joey just invited himself along . Both end up fighting over it , which drags on until the callback is held . Joey messes up his two @-@ word line : " mmm soup " , ultimately losing him the part . Ross consoles him , informing him later that Ben also didn 't get the part .
On her first day working at Ralph Lauren , Rachel ( Jennifer Aniston ) tries to get along with her new colleague and boss , Nancy and Kim . The latter two are smokers , and go on a cigarette break , which Rachel can 't join as she doesn 't smoke and she is angered to find that Nancy and Kim are busy making company decisions without her during the smoking break . Rachel fears for her position , as Kim and Nancy spend more time together during smoking breaks and have a better chance to bond , and thus Nancy is most probably going to get promotions . To make an effort and bond with her co @-@ workers , Rachel goes with them and smokes a cigarette . She 's not enthusiastic to fall into the bad habit and tries to talk Kim and Nancy into quitting which comes to no avail , later catching them smoking behind her back . Kim warns Rachel that she would fire her if she catches her with a cigarette as she doesn 't want to " drag her down with them " . She forces Rachel to leave ... just as she invites Nancy to go on a business trip to Paris with her .
Phoebe ( Lisa Kudrow ) and Monica ( Courteney Cox ) organize a surprise party for Rachel one month ahead of her birthday , but Monica 's insistence to take responsibility over everything leaves Phoebe with cup and ice duties . However Phoebe vows to get back at Monica . At the party , the apartment is overflowing with decorations and made of cups , and everyone is enjoying the snow cones Phoebe has made with the ice , meaning all of Monica 's food is ignored . Rachel arrives home and is very surprised to find the party , given that Chandler 's ( Matthew Perry ) birthday is before hers .
= = Production = =
" The One Where Rachel Smokes " was written by Michael Curtis , making it his third writing credit of the season . It was the only episode directed by Todd Holland . Holland worked previously as a director on Tales from the Crypt , Felicity and most notably The Larry Sanders Show , where he won a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Directing for a Comedy Series at the 50th Primetime Emmy Awards . Despite her character 's refusal to smoke , Jennifer Aniston at the time of filming was a frequent smoker . She publicly asserted her intention to quit in the past and even turned to hypnosis , with the help from co @-@ star Lisa Kudrow . Joanna Gleason made her first appearance as Rachel 's boss Kim Clozzi . She would later appear in the sixth season episode " The One With Ross 's Teeth " . " The One Where Rachel Smokes " marked the final appearance of Charlie and Jack Allen as Ben Geller @-@ Willick @-@ Bunch , who were replaced with Cole Sprouse .
= = Cultural references = =
The songs " Never There " by Cake and " Jamming " by Bob Marley can be heard playing at Rachel 's birthday party . At Ben 's audition , a copy of Variety magazine is seen being read by a child , whom Carol recognises .
= = Reception = =
In its original airing , " The One Where Rachel Smokes " finished third in ratings for the week of April 5 – 11 , 1999 , with a Nielsen rating of 14 @.@ 8 , equivalent to approximately 14 @.@ 4 million viewing households . It was the third highest @-@ rated show on NBC that week , after ER and Frasier . The episode premiered in the United Kingdom on Sky1 on May 6 , 1999 and attained 1 @.@ 76 million viewers , making it the most watched program on the network that week .
Entertainment Weekly rated the episode " C " , in its review of the fifth season . It cited Chandler 's line " You 've got to push past this , okay ? Because it 's about to get sooo good " as the best of the episode . The review criticized the manner in which an employee can feel pressured into smoking , adding it is " not exactly the stuff that laughs are made of " . Moreover , it argued the same over the competitive vibe between Joey and Ross . Colin Jacobson at DVD Movie Guide added in a review of the fifth season DVD : " Although I don 't like the cutesy kid who plays Ben , the audition bits become funny due to Joey ’ s screw @-@ ups . His inability to correctly read the line " mmm – soup ! " becomes very amusing and offers the show 's highlights . "
The episode was released as part of Friends : The Complete Fifth Season in Regions 1 , 2 and 4 . There are two extra scenes included in the DVD : one with Carol at the audition and Chandler at the party attempting to sneak a cigarette .
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= Boniface of Savoy ( bishop ) =
Boniface of Savoy ( c . 1217 – 18 July 1270 ) was a medieval Bishop of Belley in France and Archbishop of Canterbury in England . He was the son of Thomas , Count of Savoy , and owed his initial ecclesiastical posts to his father . Other members of his family were also clergymen , and a brother succeeded his father as count . One niece was married to King Henry III of England and another was married to King Louis IX of France . It was Henry who secured Boniface 's election as Archbishop , and throughout his tenure of that office he spent much time on the continent . He clashed with his bishops , with his nephew @-@ by @-@ marriage , and with the papacy , but managed to eliminate the archiepiscopal debt which he had inherited on taking office . During Simon de Montfort 's struggle with King Henry , Boniface initially helped Montfort 's cause , but later supported the king . After his death in Savoy , his tomb became the object of a cult , and he was eventually beatified in 1839 .
= = Early life = =
Boniface and his elder brother Amadeus IV , Count of Savoy , were sons of Thomas I , Count of Savoy , and Margaret of Geneva . He is thus not to be confused with his nephew , and fellow member of the House of Savoy , Count Boniface of Savoy , the son of Amadeus IV . The elder Boniface was born about 1207 in Savoy . He was the eleventh child of his parents . Some sources state that at a young age he joined the Carthusian Order . However , there is no evidence of this , and it would have been very unusual for a nobleman to enter that order with its very strict discipline . He also had a brother Peter of Savoy who was named Earl of Richmond in 1240 and yet another brother William of Savoy , who was Bishop of Valence and a candidate to be Bishop of Winchester in England .
= = Ecclesiastical career = =
Boniface was the Prior of Nantua in 1232 along with the bishopric of Belley in Burgundy . When his father died , he received the castle of Ugine as his inheritance , and he surrendered any entitlement to any other inheritance in 1238 . After the marriage of his niece , Eleanor of Provence to King Henry III of England , Henry attempted to have Boniface elected Bishop of Winchester , but was unable to get the cathedral chapter to elect Boniface . On 1 February 1241 he was nominated to the see of Canterbury . Pope Innocent IV confirmed the appointment on 16 September 1243 , as an attempt to placate Henry . Boniface did not , however , come to England until 1244 and was present , in the following year 1245 , at the First Council of Lyon . There , he was consecrated by Innocent IV on 15 January at Lyons , but it was only in 1249 that he returned to England and was enthroned at Canterbury Cathedral on 1 November 1249 . Before he returned in 1249 , he helped arrange the marriage another of his nieces , Beatrice of Provence , the sister of Queen Eleanor , to Charles of Anjou , the brother of King Louis IX of France .
The medieval chronicler Matthew Paris said that Boniface was " noted more for his birth than for his brains . " He showed little concern for the spiritual duties of his office . His exactions and his overbearing behaviour , combined with the fact that he was a foreigner , offended the English . He was heavily involved in advancing the fortunes of his family on the continent , and spent fourteen of the twenty @-@ nine years he was archbishop outside England . He made strenuous efforts to free his office from debt , as he had inherited a see that was in debt over 22 @,@ 000 marks , but managed to clear the debt before his death . He did this by securing the right to tax his clergy , for seven years , from the papacy . When a number of bishops refused to pay , they were suspended from office . He also worked for the canonisation of Edmund Rich while he was at the papal court @-@ in @-@ exile at Lyon from 1244 to 1249 .
In 1244 , Boniface rejected Robert Passelewe , who had been selected as Bishop of Chichester , on the grounds that Passelewe was illiterate . Boniface then nominated his own candidate , Richard of Chichester , and although the king objected , Pope Innocent IV confirmed Richard 's election . In 1258 , Boniface objected to the selection of Hugh de Balsham as Bishop of Ely , and tried to elevate Adam Marsh instead , but Hugh appealed to Rome , which upheld Hugh 's election . Boniface held church councils to reform the clergy , in 1257 at London , in 1258 at Merton , and in 1261 at Lambeth .
During his archiepiscopate , a provincial court was established in the archdiocese of Canterbury , with a presiding Officialis appointed by Boniface .
= = Controversies = =
Boniface was energetic in defending the liberties of his see , and clashed with King Henry over the election of Henry 's clerk Robert Passelewe to the see of Chichester . Robert Grosseteste , the Bishop of Lincoln , had examined Passelewe , and found him unfit for episcopal office , and Boniface then quashed the election in 1244 . He was also involved in disputes with the king 's half @-@ brothers , especially Aymer de Valence , who was Bishop of Winchester . He also quarrelled with his suffragan bishops , who resented his attempts to supervise their affairs closely . In 1250 Boniface attempted a visitation of his province , and this disturbed his suffragan bishops , who protested that Boniface was taking exorbitant amounts of money during his visits . They appealed to the pope , who reaffirmed the right of Boniface to conduct his visitation , but set a limit on the amount that could be taken from any monastery or church . After the visitation , Boniface left England again , and only returned in 1252 , after the pope had decided the bishops ' appeal in Boniface 's favour . After his return , he continued to assert his rights and settled a number of disputes with his bishops . He secured professions of obedience from all but three of the 37 bishops consecrated during his time as archbishop . He also set up a court at Canterbury that heard appeals from the ecclesiastical courts of his suffragan bishops .
Boniface clashed with Henry 's half @-@ brothers , the Lusignans , who arrived in England in 1247 and competed for lands and promotions with the queens ' Savoy relatives . Boniface 's quarrel with Aymer de Valence over the a hospital in Southwark led to the archbishop 's palace at Lambeth being plundered and one of Boniface 's functionaries being kidnapped . The dispute with Aymer was only settled in early 1253 . Boniface was once more absent from England from October 1254 to November 1256 , and spent most of that time in Savoy where he attempted to help his brothers rescue their eldest brother Thomas who was being held captive at Turin .
In 1258 and 1259 , Boniface was a member of the Council of Fifteen , which conducted business for Henry III under the Provisions of Oxford . This Council consisted of the earls of Leicester , Gloucester , Norfolk , Warwick , Hereford , the Count of Aumale , Peter of Savoy , John fitzGeoffrey , Peter de Montfort , Richard Grey , Roger Mortimer , James Audley , John Maunsell , Walter de Cantilupe , Bishop of Worcester as well as Boniface . One of the actions of this council was to send the Lusignans into exile . In April 1260 , Boniface worked with Richard of Cornwall to broker a peace between King Henry and Prince Edward .
He accompanied the queen and Prince Edward to Burgos for the marriage of Edward to Eleanor of Castile and Edward 's knighting . But in 1261 Boniface held a church council at Lambeth , where a series of ecclesiastical laws were published which denounced any royal limitations on ecclesiastical courts . These decrees were done without royal consent and thus was tantamount to an ecclesiastical revolt against royal authority similar to the baronial opposition movement that had begun in 1258 .
During the Second Barons ' War , Boniface seems to have sided first with the English bishops against King Henry , but later he sided with Henry . In 1262 , he went to France , where he excommunicated the barons opposing the king . He was not summoned to the Parliament at London in January 1265 because he was abroad . On the triumph of the king 's party in 1265 , he returned to England , arriving there in May 1266 .
= = Death and aftermath = =
The Early English Gothic chapel of Lambeth Palace dates from work carried out while Boniface was archbishop . Boniface left England in November 1268 , and never returned . He died 18 July 1270 , in Savoy . He was buried with his family in the Cistercian abbey of Hautecombe in Savoy . In his will , he left legacies to all the houses of the Franciscans and Dominicans in the diocese of Canterbury . His will had differing provisions for his burial depending on whether he died in England , France , or near the Alps . Oddly enough , his official seal included a head of the pagan god Jupiter Serapis along with the usual depiction of the archbishop in full vestments .
After his death , his tomb was the center of a cult , and when the tomb was opened in 1580 , his body was found to be perfectly preserved . The tomb and effigy was destroyed in the French Revolution , his remains were reburied and a new tomb built in 1839 . He was beatified by Pope Gregory XVI in 1839 , and his feast day is 14 July .
Although Matthew Paris disapproved of him , modern historians have seen him as a responsible archbishop . The historian D. A. Carpenter says that Boniface " became a respected and reforming archbishop " . His episcopal registers do not survive .
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= I Can Only Imagine ( MercyMe song ) =
" I Can Only Imagine " ( sometimes shortened to " Imagine " ) is a single recorded by Christian rock band MercyMe . Written and composed by Bart Millard , the song , based around a main piano track , was inspired by the death of Millard 's father and considers what it would be like in Heaven and to be standing before God . The song was first issued as a track on MercyMe 's 1999 album The Worship Project , which was released on an independent record label . The song was re @-@ recorded and included on their 2001 major @-@ label debut album Almost There as the fifth song on the album .
" I Can Only Imagine " was released in 2001 as the album 's lead single . It gained significant airplay on Christian radio formats before crossing over to mainstream radio formats such as adult contemporary and Top 40 in late 2003 and into 2004 ; to aid in promotion to these markets , a double A @-@ side physical single ( combined with " Word of God Speak " ) was released in 2003 . It charted on several formats , including the Billboard Adult Contemporary ( where it peaked at No. 5 ) and the Hot 100 ( where it peaked at No. 71 ) . In 2002 , " I Can Only Imagine " earned the Dove Awards for ' Pop / Contemporary Recorded Song of the Year ' and ' Song of the Year ' ; Millard earned the Dove Award ' Songwriter of the Year ' at the same ceremony . The song has been certified 2x platinum RIAA for sales of over two million digital downloads , and is the first ( and so far only ) Christian single to reach that milestone .
= = Background = =
" I Can Only Imagine " was the debut single for United States contemporary Christian and Christian rock band MercyMe . The father of Bart Millard , the band 's vocalist , died in 1991 . Millard was 18 at the time . Millard began writing the words " I can only imagine " on items when he was thinking about his father . During the recording of the band 's 1999 independent album The Worship Project , MercyMe needed one more song to fill out the album . Millard , alone on a bus in the middle of the night , finally wrote the lyrics to the song by drawing on his thoughts and personal faith about what one would experience standing before God in Heaven . Millard attests that " [ ' I Can Only Imagine ' ] is one of the only songs I have ever written where there wasn 't any mistakes , it was just written the way it is and left at that " , and estimated that it took him only ten minutes to write the lyrics .
In writing the music for the song , however , the band faced more difficulty ; Millard noted that " at first it was a fast song ... it was all these random ideas " . Keyboardist Jim Bryson noted that " we were literally tearing down the stuff ... [ Millard ] and I were talking about arranging it differently and doing a slower version , so we just tried out a piano intro ... it was literally the first thing I played . It wasn 't anything to do with me , I think it was just a God thing . [ Millard ] said ' here it is , this is what 's going to happen ' , and we laid the song down in about five minutes . " At that time , the other MercyMe members were Robby Shaffer on drums and percussion , Nathan Cochran on bass guitar and Michael Scheuchzer on guitar . This line @-@ up recorded the first version of the song for The Worship Project . In 2006 , it was included in the ' Platinum Edition ' of Almost There .
= = Composition = =
" I Can Only Imagine " is a ballad with a length of four minutes and eight seconds . The song is set in the key of E major and has a moderately slow tempo of 80 beats per minute with a vocal range from B3 – G ♯ 5 . The song opens up with only a piano , and builds up to include guitar and drums . Millard is credited with both the lyrics and music to the song . The song was produced by Pete Kipley , who had worked with MercyMe previously as well as with artists including Rebecca St. James , Phil Wickham and Lincoln Brewster .
The lyrics to the song are based around the narrator wondering what it will be like in Heaven and to be standing before God . Regarding this theme , Millard explained to Fox News that " I was always told that if he could choose , he would rather be in Heaven than here with me . As a Christian I believed that , but as an 18 @-@ year @-@ old it was a little hard to swallow . So the questions in the song came from me asking God what was so great about Him that my dad would rather be there . "
= = Release and promotion = =
" I Can Only Imagine " was re @-@ recorded for their major @-@ label debut record Almost There and released as its lead single in 2001 . The album was recorded in various locations : Ivy Park , The Indigo Room , Paradise Sound and IBC Studios . The single gained radio airplay on some contemporary Christian formats ; by November , it peaked at number @-@ one on the Radio & Records Christian AC format and in the top twenty of the Radio & Records Christian CHR chart .
In 2003 , a Dallas mainstream radio station , 100 @.@ 3 Wild @-@ FM , first played the song on its morning show , The Fitz Radio Program . They had responded to a caller 's repeated requests and the urgings of the program 's producer , Todd Sheppard . The song soon became the most requested and most played song on the station . After hearing the song played on the station , Millard called @-@ in and spoke with the crew ; MercyMe then came in and played the song live .
As other stations around the country caught on , MercyMe 's label , INO Records , partnered with Curb Records . They marketed the single to wider audiences , such as Top 40 radio . In September , INO and Curb also released a double A @-@ side physical single , " I Can Only Imagine / Word of God Speak " . The latter track was co @-@ written by Millard with the band 's producer , Kipley . Eventually , the song cracked into secular charts , including the Billboard Hot 100 and the Hot Adult Contemporary Tracks charts .
= = Impact = =
MercyMe did not expect " I Can Only Imagine " to gain mainstream success , in part due to its explicit references to Jesus and Heaven . Millard noted that the band joked around about " the top five songs never to cross over , and they had included " I Can Only Imagine " on that list . Millard also believed some radio stations were playing the song to prove it could not succeed on mainstream radio . The song had a significant effect on the band 's musical image ; in an interview , Millard commented that " We were a rock band when we started 11 years ago . But we kind of became the ' adult contemporary poster child ' when ' I Can Only Imagine ' took off " .
= = Music video = =
A music video was released for " I Can Only Imagine " . Millard recalled the video 's inspiration : " I just kept seeing all these people holding picture frames [ at MercyMe concerts ] that are empty because we all carry these people with us in some way . I 've had so many people after a show pull out a picture of someone they 've lost . These people embrace these photos and I just thought how can we tap into that " . The video features everyday people as well as several music artists including Michael Tait , Tammy Trent , Bob Herdman , and Jesse Katina , each holding an empty picture frame to signify their loss of a loved one ; as the video progresses , they are holding pictures of their loved ones including Millard with his father 's photograph .
The video opens with a shot of an empty room and a chair , shifting to show a young boy climbing up a flight of stairs . The camera then shifts to the band before returning to the boy , now in an attic which is filled with many empty picture frames . The video alternates between shots of the boy and the band before shifting to individual shots of other people , each holding an empty picture frame . As the other instruments join in , the camera comes back to the band , focusing on them before returning to shots of the people , whose picture frames now contain pictures of deceased relatives . At the end of the video , the camera returns to the boy , now running down a street with an empty frame , climaxing with him lying down in a field with the empty frame .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Critical reception for " I Can Only Imagine " was positive . Steve Losey of Allmusic commented that " [ the song ] is a passionate piano @-@ driven ballad . The song considers what it would be like to be in the presence of God . Delivered with conviction , the song is emotionally compelling " . Jesus Freak Hideout 's reviewer Kevin Chamberlin felt " The lyrics for the song are amazing . If you haven 't listened to the lyrics , because you 're afraid of hearing pop music , get over it and listen to it . " Kevin McNeese of NewReleaseTuesday commented that " The definite highlight on [ Almost There ] is the worship / ballad ' I Can Only Imagine ' ... The song starts out with just piano that instantly invokes chills and builds dynamically into a powerful display of drums and guitar . But what makes the song are the lyrics , penned by Bart Millard himself . The song speaks about that day that we all dream about when we finally meet Jesus ... It 's a song that can 't be listened to with eyes open " .
= = = Chart performance = = =
" I Can Only Imagine " debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 for the chart week of 11 October 2003 at No. 76 . The song peaked at No. 71 for two weeks and spent 16 non @-@ consecutive weeks on the Hot 100 . On the Adult Contemporary chart , " I Can Only Imagine " debuted at No. 29 for the chart week of 23 May 2003 , with an eventual peak of No. 5 for the chart week of 8 September 2003 ; in all , " I Can Only Imagine " spent 30 weeks on the chart .
On the Adult Top 40 chart , " I Can Only Imagine " debuted at No. 39 for the chart week of 9 August 2003 and reached a peak position of No. 27 , holding that spot for three consecutive weeks ; in all , the song spent 26 weeks on the chart . On the Mainstream Top 40 chart , the song debuted at No. 37 for the chart week of 12 July 2003 , reaching an eventual peak of No. 33 . On the Country Songs chart , the song debuted at No. 58 for the chart week of 27 December 2003 , reaching an eventual peak of No. 52 , which it held for two weeks . According to Mike Curb on the Curb Records website , " I Can Only Imagine " also peaked at No. 1 on the Billboard Hot 100 Singles Sales chart for 10 weeks , No. 1 on the Radio & Records Christian AC chart for two weeks , and No. 15 on the Christian CHR chart .
In April 2010 , " I Can Only Imagine " was certified platinum by the RIAA , signifying sales of over 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 digital downloads . It is the first single by any artist in the Christian music genre to go platinum . The song was certified 2x platinum in 2014 .
= = = Awards and accolades = = =
" I Can Only Imagine " earned two GMA Dove Awards in 2002 ; ' Pop / Contemporary Recorded Song of the Year ' and ' Song of the Year ' . Millard also won ' Songwriter of the Year ' at the same ceremony . In November 2009 , the song was played on board Space Shuttle Atlantis as a wake @-@ up call for Barry E. Wilmore during STS @-@ 129 .
= = Other versions = =
The original version of " I Can Only Imagine " was a track on MercyMe 's 1999 independent release The Worship Project . In August 2006 , both an acoustic and live form ( as well as the original 1999 version ) were included in the ' Platinum edition ' of Almost There . MercyMe recorded a version of the song for their iTunes Originals album . In 2009 , two further variants were included on their compilation album 10 ; a ' symphony version ' featuring the London Symphony Orchestra , and a live version .
" I Can Only Imagine " has also been covered by several artists . In 2002 Amy Grant released a reworked version of the song ( titled " Imagine " and paired with " Sing the Wondrous Love of Jesus " ) on her album , Legacy ... Hymns and Faith . In 2003 , Jeff Carson and Kathryn Scott each issued variants of the song ; Carson 's version peaked at No. 50 on the Country Songs chart . In 2005 Wynonna Judd issued her form of the song ; while in 2007 Emerson Drive provided theirs . The song was covered again in 2010 by Marie Osmond and in 2013 by gospel artist Tamela Mann .
The song was performed live by Garwin Dobbins , a man struggling with fibrodysplasia ossificans progressiva , a crippling disease referred to as Stone Man 's syndrome , in which the body 's repair mechanism replaces muscle with bone , causing many joints to become permanently frozen in place . Dobbins , who died in 2004 , sang the song on a broadcast of Austin Awakening , accompanied by pastor Randy Phillips of Phillips , Craig and Dean . Footage of the performance was featured in the finale of the Trevor Glass documentary " Suffer the Children . " There is also a German version " Ich kann nur davon träumen " .
= = Track listing = =
CD release
" I Can Only Imagine " – 4 : 08 ( Bart Millard )
" Word of God Speak " – 3 : 07 ( Peter Kipley , Millard )
= = Release history = =
= = Charts and certifications = =
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= Iravan =
Iravan ( Sanskrit : इरावान ् , Irāvān ) , also known as Iravat ( इरावत ् , Irāvat ) and Iravant , is a minor character from the Hindu epic of Mahabharata . The son of Pandava prince Arjuna ( one of the main heroes of the Mahabharata ) and the Naga princess Ulupi , Iravan is the central deity of the cult of Kuttantavar ( Tamil : கூத ் தாண ் டவர ் ) — which is also the name commonly given to him in that cult — and plays a major role in the cult of Draupadi . Both these cults are of South Indian origin , from a region of the country where he is worshipped as a village deity and is known as Aravan ( அரவான ் , Aravāṇ ) . He is also a patron god of well @-@ known transgender communities called Ali ( also Aravani in South India , and Hijra throughout South Asia ) .
The Mahabharata portrays Iravan as dying a heroic death in the 18 @-@ day Kurukshetra War ( Mahabharata war ) , the epic 's main subject . However , the South Indian cults have a supplementary tradition of honouring Aravan 's self @-@ sacrifice to the goddess Kali to ensure her favour and the victory of the Pandavas in the war . The Kuttantavar cult focuses on one of the three boons granted to Aravan by the god Krishna in honour of this self @-@ sacrifice . Aravan requested that he be married before his death . Krishna satisfied this boon in his female form , Mohini . In Koovagam ( கூவாகம ் ) , Tamil Nadu , this incident is re @-@ enacted in an 18 @-@ day festival , first by a ceremonial marriage of Aravan to Alis and male villagers ( who have taken vows to Aravan ) and then by their widowhood after ritual re @-@ enactment of Aravan 's sacrifice .
The Draupadi cult emphasizes another boon : Krishna allows Aravan to witness the entire duration of the Mahabharata war through the eyes of his severed head . In another 18 @-@ day festival , the ceremonial head of Aravan is hoisted on a post to witness the ritual re @-@ enactment of the Mahabharata war . The head of Aravan is a common motif in Draupadi temples . Often it is a portable wooden head ; sometimes it even has its own shrine in the temple complex or is placed on the corners of temple roofs as a guardian against spirits . Aravan is worshipped in the form of his severed head and is believed to cure disease and induce pregnancy in childless women .
Iravan is also known in Indonesia ( where his name is spelled Irawan ) . An independent set of traditions have developed around Irawan on the main island of Java where , for example , he loses his association with the Naga . Separate Javanese traditions present a dramatic marriage of Irawan to Titisari , daughter of Krishna , and a death resulting from a case of mistaken identity . These stories are told through the medium of traditional Javanese theatre ( Wayang ) , especially in shadow @-@ puppet plays known as Wayang Kulit .
= = Etymology and other names = =
According to the Monier Williams Sanskrit – English Dictionary ( 1899 ) , the name Iravan , also spelt Irawan , is formed from the root Iravat ( इरावत ् , Irāvat ) , also spelt Irawat . In turn , the root Iravat is derived from Irā ( इरा ) — closely linked with Iḍā ( इडा ) — meaning " possessing food " , " endowed with provisions " or , by extension , " comfortable " ( as used in the Mahabharata and the Rig and Atharva vedic scriptures ) . Alf Hiltebeitel , George Washington University professor of religion , suggests that the Sanskrit name Iravan or Iravant is derived from Iḍā @-@ vant , " one who possessed Iḍā " . The French Indologist Madeleine Biardeau describes religious use of the word Iḍā as reference to an " oblatory substance consumed by the participants from which comes all fecundity of the sacrifice " . Based on this definition , Biardeau concludes that Iravant means sacrificial victim in the Mahabharata . Iḍā is also used elsewhere to denote a substance that Devas ( demi @-@ gods ) and Asuras ( demons ) vie for .
Iravan is generally known as Aravan , also spelt as Aravaan in South India . He is revered as a deity in two southern Indian Hindu cults : the Kuttantavar cult ( dedicated solely to Aravan ) , and the cult of Draupadi ( Aravan 's stepmother and Arjuna 's wife ) . In his own cult , Aravan is also known as Kuttantavar ( கூத ் தாண ் டவர ் ) , originating from the legend of Kuttantavar killing the demon Kuttacuran . This name is sometimes spelled as Kuttandar , Khoothandavar or Koothandavar .
The South Indian , Tamil name , Aravan , is popularly believed to be derived from the word aravam ( அரவம ் ) ( snake ) . Aravan 's association with snakes is also apparent in his iconography .
= = Iconography = =
Aravan is always worshipped in temples in the form of his severed head . He is usually depicted with a moustache , pronounced eyes and large ears . Typically , he also wears a conical crown , a Vaishnava tilak mark on his forehead and earrings . Aravan is often depicted with a cobra hood over his crown , cobra heads sprouting through the crown , or a snake emerging from behind the crown . Even the chief Koovagam icon features a serpent on Aravan 's crown .
Another distinctive feature of Aravan 's iconography is the presence of demonic canine teeth . Although the central Koovagam icon does not feature such demonic teeth , they are a regular feature of most Draupadi cult images , where Aravan 's demonic features are emphasized .
Aravan @-@ head icons are either painted or unpainted portable ones for processions ; they are housed together in the temples of his shrines . Koovagam , Kothadai , Kothattai and Pillaiyarkuppam have icons painted with a red face and multi @-@ coloured ornamentation . Unpainted black stone images of the Aravan @-@ head are seen in Kothattai , Madhukarai and Pillaiyarkuppam .
Some paintings also depict the sacrifice of Aravan . In these scenes , he is often depicted bowing to Kali , while his head is about to be severed ; or , as in one Sowcarpet painting , a self @-@ decapitated Aravan holds both a sword and his own severed head , offering the latter to the goddess .
= = Historical development = =
Iravan first appears as a minor character in the Mahabharata as the son of Arjuna , the chief hero of the epic . The background to the Mahabharata infers a date that is " after the very early Vedic period " and before " the first Indian ' empire ' was to rise in the third century B.C. " , so " somewhere in the eighth or ninth century . " It is generally agreed , however , that " Unlike the Vedas , which have to be preserved letter @-@ perfect , the epic was a popular work whose reciters would inevitably conform to changes in language and style . " The earliest surviving components of this dynamic text are believed to be no older than the earliest external references to the epic , which may include an allusion in Panini 's 4th @-@ century grammar manual Ashtadhyayi ( 4 : 2 : 56 ) . It is estimated that the Sanskrit text probably reached something of a " final form " by the early Gupta period ( about the 4th century CE ) . The editor of the first great critical edition of the Mahabharata commented : " It is useless to think of reconstructing a fluid text in a literally original shape , on the basis of an archetype and a stemma codicum . What then is possible ? Our objective can only be to reconstruct the oldest form of the text which it is possible to reach on the basis of the manuscript material available . "
Iravan is also mentioned , as the son of Arjuna and Ulupi , in passing references in two Puranas ( " sacred texts " ) known as the Vishnu Purana ( 4 : 20 : 12 ) — also with a text history from the late Vedic through the Gupta periods — and the Bhagavata Purana ( 9 : 22 : 32 ) — traditionally dated to the Vedic period but dated by modern scholars to the 9th or 10th century CE .
Although the original Sanskrit version of the Mahabharata records Iravan 's ( Sanskrit name ) death during the 18 @-@ day Mahabharata war , the Tamil versions discuss Aravan 's ( Tamil name ) ritual self @-@ sacrifice to Kali before the war . Hiltebeitel relates this to the South Indian glorification of " heroic " self @-@ mutilation and self @-@ decapitation before a goddess . He takes particular note of a scene towards the end of a puranic text , Devi Mahatmyam , in interpreting old Tamil sculptures depicting a warrior king spilling his own blood , as in the Purana , in adoration of a goddess of victory . In the Tamil sculptures , the goddess is Korravai , who became associated with Durga and hence Kali . He also finds parallels in the Telugu legend of the sacrifice of Barbarika — another Mahabharata character — and its variants in Rajasthan ( see also : Khatushyamji ) , Himachal Pradesh , Garhwal , Kurukshetra , Bundelkhand and Orissa . Most notable among the similarities between Aravan and Barbarika is the boon to witness the entire duration of the Mahabharata war — through the eyes of the severed head , despite the sacrifice .
The first account of Aravan 's sacrifice is found in Parata Venpa — the earliest surviving Tamil version of the Mahabharata — by Peruntevanar ( 9th century ) . The tale is later retold by Villiputuralvar in his 14th @-@ century Makaparatam and by Nallapillai in the 18th century . The legend is also mentioned in the text Khoothanvar Sthala Purana , associated with the shrine of Kuttantavar .
Another source of Aravan traditions is the folk @-@ theatre of Tamil Nadu , called koothu . Aravan Kalappali ( or Aravan Kalabali ) , " Aravan 's Battlefield Sacrifice " , is a popular theme of the traditional Terukuttu ( " street theatre " ) . Aravan Kalappali tells the story of Aravan 's pre @-@ battle self @-@ sacrifice to the goddess Kali to win her support , guaranteeing victory for the Pandavas ( Arjuna and his brothers ) in the Mahabharata war . Aravan Kalappali is staged annually in the villages of Melattur , Kodukizhi and Yervadi , according to various forms of the koothu folk @-@ theatre . In Karambai , Aravan Kalappali is performed as part of the cult of Draupadi , on the 18th day of an annual festival ( April – May ) , to please the goddess .
In modern interpretations , Aravan 's head symbolizes not only self @-@ sacrifice but also regeneration and continuity , because of his ability to see the war after his sacrifice . For example , Iramacamippulavar 's Merkolvilakka Kkatai Akaravaricai ( 1963 ) — which narrates the tale of Aravan — ends with the conclusion that Aravan continues to live on as a folk hero in Tamil Nadu , because he embodies " the ideal of self @-@ sacrifice . " Aravan is considered to be a representation of the cost of war ; he evokes the " countless innocent " reluctantly sent by their mothers " to be consumed by the insatiable Goddess of War . " Indologist David Shulman , on the other hand , considers Aravan 's sacrifice to be a reworking of the serpent sacrifice in the Tamil epic tradition .
= = Mahabharata = =
While the marriage of Iravan 's parents is mentioned in the first book of the Mahabharata , Adi Parva ( the Book of Beginnings ) , both the birth and death of Iravan are mentioned later , in the sixth book , Bhishma Parva ( the Book of Bhishma ) . In this sixth book of the epic , Arjuna , the third Pandava brother , is exiled from Indraprastha ( the capital city of the Pandava kingdom ) to go on a one @-@ year pilgrimage as a penance for violating the terms of his marriage to Draupadi , the Pandava brothers ' common wife . Arjuna reaches the north @-@ east region of present @-@ day India and falls in love with Ulupi , a widowed Naga princess . The two get married and have a son named Iravan ; later , Arjuna proceeds with his pilgrimage , leaving Iravan and Ulupi behind in Nagaloka , the abode of the Nagas . Iravan is described as being born parakshetre , literally " in a region belonging to another person " , interpreted by Hiltebeitel as " upon the wife of another " . Iravan grew up in Nagaloka , protected by his mother , but was rejected by his maternal uncle because of the latter 's hatred of Arjuna . After reaching maturity , Iravan , hoping to be reunited with his father , departs for Indraloka , the abode of the god Indra , who is also Arjuna 's father . Upon meeting his adult son , Arjuna requests his assistance in the Kurukshetra War .
Thus Iravan finally reaches the battlefield of Kurukshetra to assist his father and Pandavas against their cousins and opponents , the Kauravas . On the first day of war , Iravan fights a duel with Srutayush , a Kshatriya king who had been a daitya ( demon ) called Krodhavasa in a prior incarnation . Srutayush is later killed by Arjuna . On the seventh day of war , Iravan also defeats Vinda and Anuvinda , the princes of Avanti , who are later killed by Arjuna .
On the eighth day of the war , Iravan combats the princes of Gandhara , sons of king Suvala , and the younger brothers of Shakuni , the treacherous maternal uncle of the Kauravas . The brothers Gaya , Gavaksha , Vrishava , Charmavat , Arjava , and Suka attack Iravan , supported by the whole Kaurava army , but Iravan 's army of Nagas slays all but one of their opponents . Iravan , the " chastiser of foes " — versed in maya ( illusion ) — slays five of the Gandhara princes in a sword fight ; Vrishava alone escapes death .
Agitated by this reversal , the eldest Kaurava , Duryodhana , orders the rakshasa ( giant ) Alamvusha ( or Alambusha ) , son of Rishyasringa , to kill Iravan . This time Alambusha , as well as Iravan , uses illusion in combat . Alambusha attacks Iravan with a bow , but Iravan counters , breaking Alambusha 's bow and slicing the giant into several pieces . Alambusha 's body , however , reconstitutes itself . Then Iravan assumes the form of the serpent Shesha ( Ananta ) , and his serpent army surrounds him to protect him . Alambusha counters this by assuming the form of Garuda ( the eagle @-@ man ) , the eternal foe of the serpents , and devours the serpent army . Ultimately , Alambusha kills Iravan by cutting off his head , though Iravan is later avenged when Ghatotkacha , his cousin , finally kills Alambusha .
= = Tamil traditions = =
= = = Selection as sacrificial victim = = =
The earliest source of Tamil traditions regarding Aravan is found in Peruntevanar 's Parata Venpa , a 9th @-@ century Tamil version of the Mahabharata . One of the features of this work is its reference to a rite it calls kalappali ( " sacrifice to the battlefield " ) , a term found only in Tamil versions of the Mahabharata . This is a ritual performed before battle to ensure victory . In Peruntevanar 's narrative , just before the Mahabharata war , Duryodhana — the leader of the Kauravas and opponent of the Pandavas — learns from the Pandava 's expert astrologer , Sahadeva , that the day of the new moon , indeed the very next day , would be the most auspicious time for a kalappali . Consequently , Duryodhana approaches and convinces Aravan to be the sacrificial victim for the kalappali .
The god Krishna , who is a close friend of and advisor to the Pandavas , hears of Duryodhana 's plan , and devises one of his own , to ensure that Aravan will give himself as a sacrifice on behalf of the Pandavas rather than the Kauravas . Krishna first discusses the issue with Yudhishthira ( Dharma or Dharmaraja ) , the eldest of the Pandavas , recommending the sacrifice to Kali as a part of an ayudha @-@ puja ( " worship of the weapons " ) . Krishna establishes that there are four candidates most suited to being offered as the victim : Shalya , who is on the side of Kauravas ; Arjuna , the commander of the Pandavas ; Aravan ; and Krishna himself . From this shortlist , Krishna finally narrows the best choice down to Aravan . Aravan agrees to undergo the kalappali on behalf of the Pandavas but mentions his prior commitment to Duryodhana .
Later Tamil sources provide variants to Peruntevanar 's version . In Villiputuralvar 's 14th @-@ century version , Krishna first offers himself as the sacrificial victim , but Aravan volunteers to replace him . There is no mention of Duryodhana in this version of the legend . In other accounts , Aravan is sacrificed in order to counteract the Kauravas ' sacrifice of a white elephant . In the traditions of the village of Neppattur , in the Thanjavur district , Aravan is described as being so strong that he could slay all the Duryodhanas at once , thus preventing any war from happening . So Krishna prescribes the human sacrifice of Aravan in order that " the greater sacrifice of the war can take place " .
In terukkuttu performances , at the time of Aravan 's sacrifice , he is often compared to Puru and Bhishma , characters in the Mahabharata who gave up their youth and sexual fulfilment for the sake of their respective fathers , Yayati and Santanu . In the drama , after acquiring Aravan 's approval , Krishna approaches Aravan 's mother , Ulupi — Nagakanni or Nakakanni ( " Serpent maiden " ) in Tamil , for her consent . At first she strongly opposes her son 's proposed sacrifice but finally relents when Aravan appeals to her , explaining that he belongs to Kali alone .
Finally , in all versions of the tale , Krishna tricks the gods Surya ( the Sun ) and Chandra ( the Moon ) to co @-@ ordinate their movements so that the day of the new moon will fall one day earlier — the current day . This allows Aravan to make the initial sacrifice of flesh on behalf of the Pandavas , only making the rest @-@ offering on behalf of Duryodhana the following day , yet fulfilling his promise to Duryodhana by doing so .
= = = Three boons = = =
In Parata Venpa , Aravan asks Krishna to grant him the boon of a heroic death on the battlefield at the hands of a great hero . Although Parata Venpa mentions only one boon , the overall Tamil tradition preserves a total of three distinct boons associated with Aravan . The single boon of Parata Venpa , according to Hiltebeitel , indicates an early ( 9th @-@ century ) effort to harmonize the Tamil tradition of Aravan 's pre @-@ battle sacrifice with the original Sanskrit account of his death during the battle at the hands of Alambusha ( Alampucan in Tamil ) .
In both the Kuttantavar and Draupadi cults , Aravan is believed to have been granted a second boon — to see the entire 18 @-@ day war . A second boon is indeed found in Villiputuralvar 's 14th @-@ century version of the Mahabharata . In this version , Aravan is granted boons of watching the battle for a " few days " and of dying gloriously after killing many enemies , though Villiputuralvar does not actually specify whether Aravan 's head survives to see the complete battle after his bodily death on the eighth day .
The third boon is found only in the folk rituals . This third boon provides for Aravan to be married before the sacrifice , entitling him to the right of cremation and funerary offerings ( bachelors were buried ) . However , no woman wanted to marry Aravan , fearing the inevitable doom of widowhood ( see also sati ) . In the Kuttantavar cult version , Krishna solves this dilemma by taking on his female form , Mohini the enchantress , marrying Aravan , and spending that night with him . The Koovagam version additionally relates Krishna 's mourning as a widow after Aravan 's sacrifice the next day , after which he returns to his original masculine form for the duration of the war . The terukuttu performance presents a stylised wedding ceremony followed by Mohini 's abrupt departure , which is taken to signify that the marriage is unconsummated . Another version , popular with transsexuals , cites the reason behind Aravan 's wish to be " coital bliss " and tells explicitly about consummation of the marriage . This third marriage boon is not , however , uniform across all the folk traditions . In other legends , Krishna arranges some other pre @-@ war marriages . In Thanjavur , the marriage of Aravan and Mohini is unknown ; instead it depicts Aravan as married to Paravanacciyal , the daughter of Krishna 's younger cousin @-@ brother Satyaki .
Hiltebeitel theorizes that both the first ( heroic @-@ death ) and third ( marriage ) boons originated with the Kuttantavar cult , while the second boon originated with the Draupadi cult . The Kuttantavar cult ritualizes both the heroic death and the marriage ceremony — enacted by ali ( officially , " eunuchs " in Tamil Nadu ) . Whereas , in the Draupadi cult it is the clay head of Aravan , fixed on a posta and witnessing the re @-@ enactment of the 18 @-@ day war , that is prominently ritualized . Additionally , Draupadi @-@ cult texts from Thajavur concentrate only on this second boon , omitting the other two .
The pre @-@ battle sacrifice is incompatible with the first and second boons , but the cults have their own explanations . The self @-@ sacrifice prior to the war is incompatible with dying a heroic death during the war and both are incompatible with living to see the full duration of the war . The Kuttantavar cult resolves the first dilemma , holding that Aravan 's body reconfigured itself after the sacrifice and that Aravan went on to die a heroic death on the eighth day of the war . The Kuttantavar cult are not overly concerned about the second boon of Aravan 's continued observation of the war . On the other hand , the Draupadi cult are not overly concerned about the first boon of the heroic death ; they resolve the second dilemma , regarding Aravan 's continued observation of the war , holding that Aravan was able to watch the entire war through the eyes of his severed head . A third view harmonizes all the boons , holding that Aravan 's body reconstituted after the sacrifice ; he then fought heroically until being decapitated on the eighth day , observing the remainder of the war through the eyes of his severed head .
In any case , the pre @-@ battle sacrifice is the common element in the Tamil traditions . After Aravan requested and was granted his boons , he was ready for the sacrifice . He proceeds to the Kurukshetra battlefield . While Yudhishthira is worshipping Kali in his " hall of weapons " , Aravan removes his epaulettes and chest plate . He then cuts his body into 32 pieces — one cut for each of his 32 bodily perfections — which are offered by Yudhishthira to Kali . In a terukuttu performance , this is depicted by covering the actor playing Aravan with a white cloth from the neck down . It is also believed that Aravan 's spirit may possess the actor at this point . Sometimes a chicken is sacrificed on stage in a terukuttu performance to signify the sacrifice . In Villiputuralvar 's retelling , an elephant is sacrificed to the goddess , complementing Aravan 's own self @-@ sacrifice .
Aravan , after being stripped of his flesh , has only his head and skeleton remaining . Krishna advises him to pray to the Naga , Adi @-@ Shesha , his grandfather , and father of Ulupi . Adi @-@ Shesha coils himself around Aravan , becomes his flesh and restores his body . To fulfil the second boon , Krishna orchestrates the heroic death by making one of the enemy strong enough to defeat the mighty Aravan . Krishna selects Alambusha . Then , depending on the version of the story , Krishna either advises Alambusha to assume the form of Garuda via a heavenly voice , or he sends the true Garuda to assist Alambusha . At the sight of Garuda — his perennial " eagle " adversary — Shesha uncoils in fear , leaving Aravan unprotected and leading ultimately to Alambusha beheading the weakened Aravan .
= = = Aravan to Kuttantavar = = =
A traditional story local to Koovagam describes how Aravan came to be known as Kuttantavar . After the war , while the Pandavas are boasting about vanquishing the Kauravas , Krishna asks Aravan — the sole witness of the entire war , " who was truly responsible for winning this war ? " Aravan replies that he saw two things : Krishna 's discus decapitating the enemy , and his conch shell collecting their blood . This reply is understood to give all the credit for the victory to Krishna .
Aravan 's opinion enrages the proud and quick @-@ tempered Bhima , whose influence in deciding the outcome of the battle is covered at great length in the Mahabharata . However , before Bhima can wound Aravan , Krishna orders Aravan 's head to be dropped in the river Caraparika , where he assumes the form of a child , and is eventually found by the king of Chandragiri , a city on the river bank . The child cries " Kuva Kuva " , when picked up by the king , who therefore names the location Kuvakkam ( Koovagam ) . The king also names the child Carapalan ( " reed @-@ child " ) .
The tradition goes on to relate that Carapalan grew up , going on to kill the demon Kuttacuran , who had wounded his adopted father in battle . Draupadi — identified in this tradition with the Supreme Goddess — blesses Carapalan with the new name Kuttantavar — the slayer of Kuttacuran — and grants him a temple in Koovagam .
There are variants within this tradition . Some versions give the credit for finding the child to Queen Kirupanci of Chandragiri . Others omit mention of the king of Chandragiri altogether , and omit reference to the Koovagam temple . Instead they focus on the demon Kuttacuran and an apparently impossible boon granted to him that he will be killed by a person having only a head and who was born from water . Vishnu , incarnated as Krishna , informs the gods that Aravan will kill this demon . With this in mind , the head of Aravan is consigned to the river and is transformed into a child called Kuttan ( " born from water " ) , who kills the demon .
= = Worship = =
= = = Following and temples = = =
Hiltebeitel argues that the Kuttantavar cult might represent the original Tamil tradition regarding Aravan , however it is no longer the only tradition that venerates Aravan . The Draupadi cult has developed traditions and rituals of its own .
Most Kuttantavar devotees reside in the Tamil Nadu districts of Cuddalore , Thiruvannamalai , Vellore and Villupuram . Draupadi 's devotees have also spread across these districts , as well as into the Kanchipuram ( former Chingleput ) district . Her temples can also be seen in the Thanjavur district and beyond , to the southern districts of the states of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka . The temples of Kuttantavar are fewer than the Draupadi temples and are restricted to a belt running from the Cuddalore and Villupuram districts through to Coimbatore . Thirty @-@ two of these temples are particularly prominent ; Koovagam is the foremost . The 32 temples are :
The severed head of Aravan is a common motif in Draupadi 's temples . Often it is a portable wooden head ; sometimes this even has its own shrine in the temple complex . Icons of Aravan 's head are also often placed on the corners and edges of Draupadi temple roofs . As a pey or bhuta ( spirit ) , Aravan acts as a guardian against other spirits , for the temple itself , and also for the Patukalam ceremony . Patukalam , in the Draupadi cult , is the symbolic ground on which the Mahabharata war is ritually re @-@ enacted . In the taluks of Thajavur , Kumbhakonam and Pattukkotai , Aravan 's head is enshrined permanently in a mandapa or within a temple niche . The largest known Aravan head is found at the Hajiyar Teru temple in Kumbhakonam .
= = = Kuttantavar cult rituals = = =
Aravan is known as Kuttantavar in the cult which bears his name , and in which he is the chief deity . His main temple is in Koovagam , Tamil Nadu . Here , the marriage of Aravan and Mohini , Krishna 's female form , and her widowhood and mourning , after Aravan 's sacrifice , forms the central theme of an 18 @-@ day annual festival either side of the night of the full moon in the Tamil month of Cittirai ( April – May ) . The day of the full moon is the central day of the festival , when Aravan 's sacrifice is ritually re @-@ enacted .
Alis , who call themselves Aravanis or Thirunangais ( திருநங ் கை ) in this geographic area , take part in the Koovagam festival by re @-@ enacting the marriage of Aravan and Mohini . The Alis participate in similar Kuttantavar festivals , of smaller scale , in other villages like Tevanampattanam , Tiruvetkalam , Adivarahanattum — 5 miles ( 8 km ) north @-@ west of Chidambaram — and Kotthatai ( all in Tamil Nadu ) and also in Pillaiyarkuppam , in Puducherry . Although local Alis have been part of this festival for many years , since the 1960s , a large number of Alis have come to the festival from further afield : from throughout Tamil Nadu , from the whole of India , and even from as far away as Singapore . About 25 @,@ 000 transvestites , including the Alis , visit the festival . Francis 's account of 1906 records men dressed as women , from Vanniyar and other Shudra castes , becoming part of the festival — a " popular feast of Shudras " , but there is no explicit mention of Alis . It also records that the ritual marriage of the men to Kuttantavar and their widowhood occurred on the last day of the festival , unlike the present form of the festival , which has the marriage ceremony on the 14th day , and the widowhood ceremony on the 16th day .
During the first six days of the Kuttantavar festival , Aravan 's head ( cami ) is " danced " around the streets of Kuvagam , with music and fireworks accompanying it . Each household offers a puja ( a kind of devotional ceremony ) to Aravan , with lamp @-@ waving , coconut @-@ offerings and other rituals . Traditionally , goats and chickens are sacrificed . On the 13th day , Aravan 's " soul " is ritually transferred from his head to a pot , and the head is repainted . On the evening of the 14th day , a 20 @-@ foot ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) high post is erected on a processional chariot . The post will support Aravan 's head and body later in the festival . After the post @-@ setting ceremony ( kampam niruttatal ) , young and middle @-@ aged men ( farmers and traders from Koovagam and surrounding villages ) who have vowed to marry Aravan purchase thalis — the traditional mark of a married woman , in this case a pendant with a piece of turmeric at its centre . The priest , representing Aravan , ties the thalis around their necks in the inner sanctum of the temple . Even married men and men afflicted with diseases , all dressed as women , are described as ritually " marrying " Aravan in the festival , to please the deity .
The Alis arrive in increasing numbers from the 14th through the 16th day . Late on the 15th night , they dance with the flower @-@ crown ( karakam ) of Aravan , which is believed to possess his power . After this dance , the priest marries the Alis to Aravan through the traditional thali @-@ tying ceremony . The Alis then conduct sex work , symbolic of consummating their ritual marriage . A " night of wild revelry and sexual promiscuity " follows for the Alis . However , the villagers who married Aravan are not described as having sex in any of the accounts . While Alis wear women 's clothes and jewellery , villagers marrying Aravan on account of wish @-@ fulfilment vows made to him retain their ordinary men 's clothes .
Early on the 16th day , the " soul " of Aravan is transferred back to his repainted head and the cuvami tirukkan tirattal ( " opening of the god 's holy eyes " ) ceremony is performed with painting of the pupils . The head is then paraded around the village on a portable platform called a ketayam . The ketayam is accompanied by two other platform @-@ chariots , one holding the chest plate and epaulettes of Aravan — without which the festival is considered incomplete ; the other carries his flower @-@ crown . The ceremony ends with a sacrificial offering of roosters . Aravan 's head is fixed on the post , with his large epaulettes and chest plate fixed to his body , which is made of straw and surrounded by a garland . The image is then paraded across the village in preparation for his kalappali and ritual re @-@ enactment of his death on the eighth day of the war . At noon his chariot turns north , a symbolic gesture representing his kalappali and then he is turned to face the ceremonial Kurukshetra battlefield , symbolizing his entry onto the battlefield to die at the hands of Alambusha . On arrival in Kurukshetra , the garlands are removed , indicating the removal of his flesh and his defeat on the eighth day of war .
Returning from the battlefield , the chariot turns towards the location prepared for the ceremonial mourning rituals , the " weeping ground " ( alukalam ) . The " widowed " Alis , with their hair dishevelled , lament the death of their " husband " as he performs the kalappali . The garlands from Aravan 's image are thrown at devotees one by one , symbolizing his gradual loss of vitality . At this " weeping ground " , the Alis mourn Aravan 's death by breaking their bangles , beating their breasts and discarding their bridal finery , like the legendary Mohini @-@ Krishna . They cut their thalis , which are flung at a post erected for the ceremony ( vellikkal ) . After bathing , they put on white saris as a mark of their widowhood . The Alis bear these signs of widowhood for a month before re @-@ adorning themselves with bangles and coloured saris again .
At mid @-@ afternoon , as the chariot reaches alukalam , Aravan is stripped to his skeletal straw body . Most Alis have left and men wedded to Aravan also break their thalis and bangles and perform all the rites of widowhood ( the vellikkal rites ) before the image of Aravan . Meanwhile , a paratiyar ( Mahabharata @-@ reciter ) tells the story of the culmination of the war , symbolic of Aravan fulfilling his wish of seeing the war . Hiltebeitel suggests that while the Alis weep for Aravan 's kalappali , the villagers weep for the death of an ancestor , as life leaves Aravan 's head at the end of the war .
Also at the alukalam , a symbolic sacrifice of cooked " blood rice " is distributed in honour of the deceased Aravan . This rice is believed to make childless women conceive . After the death rites at dusk , the chariot is now considered a " house of death " , and the lifeless head is removed from the frame of its skeletal body , then covered by a cloth , and finally paraded around the village as though at a funeral . The head is taken to the temple of Kali , where is it " revived " . In a ceremony called vitaiyatti ( " the return dance " ) , the head is once more danced around the village , right up until early morning on the 17th day . On the 18th and final day , the head is decorated and paraded around the village a final time . In the evening , the pujari ( " priest " ) as Yudhishthira ( Dharmaraja ) crowns Aravan 's head in a coronation ceremony held in the inner sanctum of his temple .
= = = Draupadi cult rituals = = =
Devotees of Draupadi commemorate the Mahabharata war by conducting an annual festival known as patukalam . This festival usually begins with a kuttu ( " drama " ) re @-@ enacting Draupadi 's wedding . During the festival , the actor playing the part of Draupadi ( and other women participating in the public ceremonies ) lament the death of Aravan and the other heroes of the war . There is some variation in the length of the patukalam festival and in the day allocated to performing the kuttu of " Aravan 's sacrifice " ( kalappali ) , but wherever the ritual kalappali is performed , that place is declared to be , symbolically , the battlefield of Kurukshetra .
In Irunkal , Tamil Nadu , this kuttu is usually performed 16 days before " patukalam day " , the last day of an 18 @-@ day festival . In Singapore , however , the kuttu is performed on the day of the new moon in the Tamil month of Purattaci ( September – October ) . In shorter 10 @-@ to @-@ 12 day festivals , the kuttu and ritualisation of Aravan 's kalappali are performed on the concluding night of the festival , as can be observed in Bangalore and in and around Chennai — at Sowcarpet , Alantur and Punamalli .
There is also variation in how Aravan is represented in the festivities . While permanent wooden Aravan heads are used in temples in Chennai and Puducherry , in rural areas the head and body of Aravan are made of clay ; both are destroyed at the end of the festival . At Tindivanam , a headless clay and bamboo body of Aravan is modelled , showing him in a heroic position , kneeling on his left knee and holding a bow . A clay head is then ceremoniously fixed , making the effigy about 7 feet ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) tall . The officiating priest first takes a sword , striking pieces from the head . Then , a pumpkin is sliced into 32 pieces , symbolizing 32 pieces of Aravan 's sacrificed body . Next , Aravan is fed his own " blood " , represented by the blood of goat , sacrificed to Aravan beforehand . Aravan 's body from the neck downwards is then covered with a bloodstained white cloth . Finally , blood @-@ soaked rice is sprinkled on Aravan 's face . Devotees , as in the Kuttantavar cult , believe eating this rice from Aravan 's face , recovered after the ceremony , can induce pregnancy .
In Cattiram Karuppur , near Kumbhakonam , a 25 @-@ foot ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) statue of Aravan is constructed horizontally and placed on the ground . Aravan 's story is then re @-@ enacted ; one of the actors , believed to be possessed by Kali , kills a rooster over the statue 's neck , symbolizing the sacrifice . Again , blood @-@ soaked rice is distributed to devotees , especially childless women . Similar rituals associated with a symbolic sacrifice and blood @-@ soaked rice are performed in Melaccari , Alantur , Punamalli and Villupuram . At Alantur and Punamalli , a goat is sacrificed , in Cuddalore , Patirikkuppam and Villupuram , a cock is sacrificed . In the districts of Cuddalore , Thanjavur and Villupuram , Aravan 's head is hoisted to an elevated position to watch over the patukalam and the symbolic re @-@ enactment of the Mahabharata war .
= = Javanese traditions = =
The Indonesian island of Java , run by the Srivijaya dynasty of Sumatra from the 7th century , partly practised Hinduism . This included transmission and adoption of the Mahabharata traditions . " The earliest evidence of the penetration of the Sanskrit epics into rural areas is found in the Sangsang copper plate inscription issued in the name of King Balitung in AD 907 . " A " rendering of the Mahābhārata ( IAST original ) into Javanese was undertaken under the patronage of King Dharmawangśa Tĕguh ( AD 990 – 1016 ) " , culminating in " a recital of the Wirāṭaparwa for ' one month minus one evening ' — commencing on 14 October and ending on 12 November 996 . " This first translation into Javanese was " abbreviated " and in " prose " . However , East Javanese poets later started producing native metered kakawin , expanding on themes from the parvas ( " books " or " chapters " ) of the Mahabharata , and freely importing these into Javanese settings . Petrus Josephus Zoetmulder commented : " These men and women with their Indian names are essentially Javanese , acting like Javanese , thinking like Javanese and living in a Javanese environment . "
The stories of Iravan , usually spelled Irawan in Java , along with others from the Javanese version of the Mahabharata , are told in traditional Javanese theatre ( wayang ) , as well as shadow @-@ puppet plays known as wayang kulit . As in India , Irawan is described as a son of Ardjuna ( Arjuna ) and Ulupi . While in India , Irawan 's mother Ulupi is a Naga ( serpent ) , in Javanese legends she is the daughter of the sage Kanwa ( Jayawilapa in puppetry ) of the Yasarata hermitage . Irawan is born and brought up in the hermitage under the care of his mother and grandfather , away from his father . Irawan and his stepbrother Abhimanju ( Abhimanyu ) or Angkawijaya are the protagonists of more than 40 lakons ( " scenes " , " dramas " or " plays " ) set in the Amarta Period , the era of the Pandawas ( Pandavas ) . In these lakons , Irawan is depicted as a lijepan character — " a small , extremely refined , controlled character , whose manner is modest " . In the wayang kulit , he is referred to as a bambang ( " refined knight " ) , depicted with a white face and dubbed with a light , floating voice . Irawan is also described as determined and calm .
Irawan Rabi
A popular lakon named Irawan Rabi ( " Irawan 's wedding " ) tells about the love of Irawan and Titisari , a daughter of Kresna ( Krishna ) . While Titisari is engaged to Irawan , Baladewa ( Baladeva ) , Kresna 's brother and an ally of the Kurawas ( Kauravas ) , wants her to marry Lesmana Mandrakumara , the son of Durjudana ( Duryodhana ) , initiating a dramatic conflict . The conflict that ensues ends up being three @-@ sided , among the Pandawas , Kurawas and the ogre @-@ kingdom , whose evil ogre @-@ king Barandjana plans to kidnap Titisari . The confusion that follows results in the outwitting and humiliation of the Kurawas . Siti Sendari , the eldest daughter of Kresna and the estranged wife of Abhimanju , takes advantage of the situation and schemes to bring Irawan and Titisari together , while also mending her relationships with her husband . Though officially Irawan and Titisari are the hero and heroine of the lakon , in reality they are mere spectators , not the movers , in the play . Brandon describes Irawan as a minor character . Irawan is also depicted as unassertive and manipulated by others , which is common in South Asian theatre . Another lakon called Serat Lampahan Pregiwa Pregiwati also relates a tale about the love of Irawan and Titisari .
Serat Gambiranom
In a lakon called Serat Gambiranom , written in macapat verse by Mangkunegara IV 's court poet R. M. Ng . Wiryakusuma in 1883 , and embellished by anonymous later poets , Irawan becomes the king of Ngrancang Kencana and earns the title Prabu Gambiranom . Yet another lakon , Irawan Maling , discusses a duel between Irawan and Angkawijaya .
Irawan ( an ) taka
The kakawin text Irawan ( an ) taka ( " Death of Irawan " ) , also known as Parthawijaya ( " Arjuna 's Victory " ) , describes Irawan 's death in the Bharatayuddha ( Mahabharata war ) . At the beginning of the Bharatayuddha , Irawan advances to the battlefield along with his brothers . Together , they kill many Kurawas . Later , the demon ( ditya ) Kalasrenggi encounters Irawan . Kalasrenggi , whose father was killed by Ardjuna , mistakes Irawan for Ardjuna because of the similarity of their appearance and kills him . Arjuna then kills Kalasrenggi to avenge Irawan 's death . The death of Irawan is placed at the very beginning of the war in the Javanese version of the Mahabharata . The puppetry version of the story places this encounter between Irawan and Kalasrenggi even before Irawan 's meeting with his father , ahead of the Bharatayuddha .
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= Shangani Patrol =
The Shangani Patrol ( or Wilson 's Patrol ) , comprising 34 soldiers in the service of the British South Africa Company , was ambushed and annihilated by more than 3 @,@ 000 Matabele warriors during the First Matabele War in 1893 . Headed by Major Allan Wilson , the patrol was attacked just north of the Shangani River in Matabeleland in Rhodesia ( today Zimbabwe ) . Its dramatic last stand , sometimes called " Wilson 's Last Stand " , achieved a prominent place in the British public imagination and , subsequently , in Rhodesian history , mirroring events such as the Battle of Shiroyama in Japan , the Alamo massacre in Texas and the ancient Greeks ' last stand at Thermopylae .
The patrol comprised elements of the Mashonaland Mounted Police and the Bechuanaland Border Police . Scouting ahead of Major Patrick Forbes 's column attempting the capture of the Matabele King Lobengula ( following his flight from his capital Bulawayo a month before ) , it crossed the Shangani late on 3 December 1893 . It moved on Lobengula the next morning , but was ambushed by a host of Matabele riflemen and warriors near the king 's wagon . Surrounded and outnumbered about a hundred @-@ fold , the patrol made a last stand as three of its number broke out and rode back to the river to muster reinforcements from Forbes . However , the Shangani had risen significantly in flood , and Forbes was himself involved in a skirmish near the southern bank ; Wilson and his men therefore remained isolated to the north . After fighting to the last cartridge , and killing over ten times their own number , they were annihilated .
The patrol 's members , particularly Wilson and Captain Henry Borrow , were elevated in death to the status of national heroes , representing endeavour in the face of insurmountable odds . The anniversary of the battle on 4 December 1893 became an annual public holiday in Rhodesia two years later , and was an official non @-@ work day until 1920 . A historical war film depicting the episode , Shangani Patrol , was produced and released in 1970 .
Controversy surrounds the breakout before the last stand — which various writers have posited might have actually been desertion — and a box of gold sovereigns , which a Matabele inDuna ( leader ) later claimed had been given to two unidentified men from Forbes 's rear guard on 2 December , along with a message that Lobengula admitted defeat and wanted the column to stop pursuing him . Two batmen were initially found guilty of accepting the gold , keeping it for themselves and not passing on the message , but the evidence against them was inconclusive and largely circumstantial ; the convictions were ultimately overturned .
= = Background = =
Amid the Scramble for Africa during the 1880s , the South African @-@ based businessman and politician Cecil Rhodes envisioned the annexation to the British Empire of a swathe of territory connecting the Cape of Good Hope and Cairo — respectively at the southern and northern tips of Africa — and the concurrent construction of a line of rail linking the two . On geopolitical maps , British territories were generally marked in red or pink , so this concept became known as the " Cape to Cairo red line " . In the immediate vicinity of the Cape , this ambition was challenged by the presence of independent states to the north @-@ east of Britain 's Cape Colony : the Boer republics , and to the north of these the Kingdom of Matabeleland under Lobengula . Having secured the Rudd Concession on mining rights from King Lobengula on 30 October 1888 , Rhodes and his British South Africa Company were granted a Royal Charter by Queen Victoria in October 1889 . The Company was empowered under this charter to trade with local rulers , form banks , own and manage land , and raise and run a police force : the British South Africa Company 's Police , renamed the Mashonaland Mounted Police in 1892 .
In return for these rights , the Company would govern and develop any territory it acquired , while respecting laws enacted by extant African rulers , and upholding free trade within its borders . The first settlers referred to their new home as " Rhodesia " , after Rhodes . Though the Company made good on most of its pledges , the assent of Lobengula and other native leaders , particularly regarding mining rights , was often evaded , misrepresented or simply ignored . It also offended Lobengula by demanding that he stop the customary Matabele raids on the Mashona people who inhabited the white @-@ governed areas . Angered by the Company 's attitude towards his authority , Lobengula made war on the new arrivals and the Mashonas in 1893 . Matabele warriors began the wholesale slaughter of Mashonas in the vicinity of Fort Victoria in July that year , and an indaba ( tribal conference ) organised by Company official Leander Starr Jameson to end the conflict ended with violence , and dispersion by force . The First Matabele War had started .
Company columns rode from Fort Salisbury and Fort Victoria , and combined at Iron Mine Hill , around the centre point of the country , on 16 October 1893 . Together the force totalled about 700 men , commanded by Major Patrick Forbes , and equipped with five Maxim machine guns . Forbes 's combined column moved on the Matabele king 's capital at Bulawayo , to the south @-@ west . The Matabele army mobilised to prevent Forbes from reaching the city , and twice engaged the column as it approached : on 25 October , 3 @,@ 500 warriors assaulted the column near the Shangani River . Lobengula 's troops were well @-@ drilled and formidable by pre @-@ colonial African standards , but the Company 's Maxim guns , which had never before been used in battle , far exceeded expectations , according to an eyewitness " mow [ ing ] them down literally like grass " . By the time the Matabele withdrew , they had suffered around 1 @,@ 500 fatalities ; the Company , on the other hand , had lost only four men . A week later , on 1 November , 2 @,@ 000 Matabele riflemen and 4 @,@ 000 warriors attacked Forbes at Bembezi , about 30 miles ( 48 km ) north @-@ east of Bulawayo , but again they were no match for the crushing firepower of the major 's Maxims : about 2 @,@ 500 more Matabele were killed .
Lobengula fled Bulawayo as soon as he heard the news from Bembezi . On 3 November 1893 , with the column on the outskirts of the city , he and his subjects left , torching the royal town as they went . In the resultant conflagration , the city 's large store of ivory , gold and other treasure was destroyed , as was its ammunition magazine , which exploded . The flames were still rising when the whites entered the settlement the next day ; basing themselves in the " White Man 's Camp " already present , they set about extinguishing the fire which engulfed the town . Using a tree to improvise a flagstaff , they hoisted first the Company flag , then the Union Jack . The reconstruction of Bulawayo began almost as soon as the blaze was out , with a new white @-@ run city rising atop the ruins of Lobengula 's former residence . Jameson , who now based himself in Bulawayo , wrote the following letter to the Matabele king on 7 November 1893 , in English , Dutch and Zulu :
This letter , carried by John Grootboom , a coloured man from the Cape , reached Lobengula near Shiloh Mission , about 30 miles ( 48 km ) north of Bulawayo . The king replied in English :
Jameson did not regard this ambiguity as a proper answer , and impatiently waited for further word from the king . After standing by for the specified two days and receiving nothing , he correctly concluded that Lobengula was stalling him , and using the extra time to distance himself from his former capital . Jameson therefore made good on his pledge , and called for volunteers ; he assembled a host of about 470 men , mixed together from the Mashonaland Mounted Police , the Bechuanaland Border Police , and Raaff 's Rangers , an independent unit led by the eponymous Commandant Piet Raaff . This force was placed under Forbes 's command , with three Maxim guns attached . Jameson told the major to scout the area between Shiloh and Inyati for spoor , with the ultimate objective of capturing Lobengula , and sent him out just before sunset on 14 November 1893 .
= = Prelude : Forbes 's pursuit of Lobengula = =
The column left Bulawayo heading north , and , in an attempt to expedite its progress , reorganised itself into a more compact 290 @-@ man force at Shiloh . Lobengula , meanwhile , rode north towards the Shangani in his wagon , which left obvious tracks in its wake . Following the wagon tracks , Forbes 's men were soon hot on the trail , routinely finding recently abandoned Matabele camps , provisions and stragglers . Heavy rain slowed both the king and his pursuers , and led Forbes to split his force again ; moving on with a flying column of 160 men , he sent the rest back with the wagons . He pushed on , and on 3 December 1893 reached the southern bank of the Shangani , from where he could clearly see Matabele hastily driving cattle behind an impi ( regiment ) of warriors . The presence of smouldering fires beside the native column betrayed the fact that they had just crossed . Wishing to know whether the king had crossed here or at another point on the river , Forbes sent Major Allan Wilson across to scout ahead with 12 men and eight officers , and told him to return by nightfall .
Meanwhile , Forbes formed a laager ( improvised fort ) about 200 yards ( 180 m ) from the southern bank . There , he interrogated a captive Matabele , the son of an inDuna ( tribal leader ) , who said that the king was indeed where Wilson had gone , and was ill ( the exact ailment was not known for sure , the prisoner said , but was suspected to be gout ) . The inDuna 's son said that Lobengula had with him a force of about 3 @,@ 000 warriors , about half of whom were armed with Martini @-@ Henry rifles . They were mixed together from various regiments of the previously routed Matabele army , and largely demoralised , but still fiercely determined to prevent Lobengula 's capture . Most prominent were the Imbezu , Ingubo and Insukameni Regiments ; the Imbezu , Lobengula 's favourite , was generally considered the strongest . After three weeks in pursuit of the king , Forbes 's rations were running perilously short . He therefore resolved to attack the next day ( 4 December ) , hoping to be able to turn back for Bulawayo with Lobengula in custody before nightfall .
Wilson 's men remained north of the river far longer than expected , and had still not returned when darkness fell . Forbes , meanwhile , received a report that most of Lobengula 's force , commanded by inDuna Mjaan , had separated from the king and was moving to attack the laager the same night ( this was actually an exaggeration ; only about 300 riflemen had split from the main Matabele force , though they were indeed south of the river , undetected by Forbes ) . Visibility was poor by now , and rain periodically fell . The laager received no word from Wilson until about 21 : 00 , when Sergeant @-@ Major Judge and Corporal Ebbage arrived from across the river to tell Forbes that Wilson had found Lobengula 's tracks , and followed him for 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) . Wilson regarded the chances of taking the king alive as so good that he was going to remain north of the river overnight . He asked Forbes to send more men and a Maxim gun in the morning , but did not explain what he planned to do with them .
The Shangani Patrol continued its approach during the late evening , and scouted close to the bush enclosure housing Lobengula . Captain William Napier repeatedly called to the king in the Matabele language , Sindebele , but received no reply from the Matabele leaders , who remained silent and hid themselves . The patrol 's actions confused the Matabele , who could not understand why there appeared to be so few Company soldiers , nor why they would reveal their position like this . They concluded that it must be a trap , and were only satisfied that it was not when Wilson 's men had stopped during their approach to call to Lobengula five times . Following the fifth call from Napier , Mjaan ordered his riflemen to gather around the patrol , intending to pocket it . Noticing this , Wilson ordered a retreat , and took up a well @-@ covered position in the bush where he could hide until daybreak . When Lieutenant Hofmeyer and Troopers Bradburn and Colquhoun were lost amid the increasingly stormy night , Wilson briefly backtracked to recover them .
On returning to his bush camp , Wilson sent a further message to the laager , which reached its destination at around 23 : 00 : Napier , Scout Bain and Trooper Robertson were the men acting as runners . Wilson repeated that he was going to stay north of the river overnight , close to the king , and asked Forbes to bring the whole column across by 04 : 00 in the morning . Forbes thought it unwise to attempt a full river crossing at night , which he reasoned might lead to his force being surrounded in the darkness and massacred , but also felt he could not recall Wilson , as to do so would be to lose Lobengula for sure .
As a compromise , Forbes sent Captain Henry Borrow across with 21 men at 01 : 00 on 4 December , and told Borrow to relay to Wilson that the laager was surrounded , and " expected to be attacked any moment " . Forbes apparently intended for Borrow 's reinforcements to secure Wilson 's position , but historian W D Gale writes that this was a serious tactical error on Forbes 's part : the addition of Borrow 's men made Wilson 's patrol too large to be a mere reconnoitring force , but still too small to overpower the Matabele and capture the king . Indeed , Wilson and his officers looked on gloomily when Borrow 's men arrived soon after dawn , fewer in number than expected and without the requested Maxim gun . Only 20 of the reinforcements ( including Borrow himself ) reached Wilson — Troopers Landsberg and Nesbitt became separated from the main group along the way , and eventually rejoined Forbes during the morning . Trooper Robertson returned to Wilson with Borrow , giving the patrol a total of 37 men , including its officers .
= = Engagement = =
= = = Matabele ambushes on both sides of the river = = =
Wilson conferred with his officers , none of whom was particularly optimistic about their prospects : " This is the end " said one . British soldier and historian Roger Marston postulates that the patrol might still have been safe had it not now pursued the king , but Wilson decided to proceed : " Let 's ride on Lobengula , " he said . Several analysts comment that this was perhaps excessively rash . Marston says that Wilson 's actions " had a flavour of doomed resignation about them " , and suggests that the major believed no other path was open , and was therefore going for broke . The Matabele hovered around the vicinity , waiting to see what Wilson would do next . On the southern side of the river , the 300 Matabele riflemen took up a well @-@ covered position near the riverbank , about 300 yards ( 270 m ) to the left of Forbes 's position . Hidden by a patch of scrub , they remained undetected by the Company troops .
Wilson , Borrow and the 35 others made for Lobengula 's enclosure . The king 's wagon was still there , but when Wilson called to him , there was no answer . The king had moved on during the night . At that moment , the troopers heard the sound of rifles being cocked in the wood surrounding them . A Matabele inDuna stepped out from behind a tree and announced that the enclosure was surrounded by thousands of Matabele who wanted to " see if the white men were afraid to die . " He then fired his rifle to signal the start of the attack to his men . A volley from the Matabele riflemen followed , but most of the shots went too high ; no Company trooper was hit . The only casualties of this opening volley were two of the patrol 's horses . Wilson immediately ordered his men to fall back , first to an antheap , then to a thick wood . Three of them were wounded during this retreat , but none fatally so .
Hearing the shots from the northern side of the river , Forbes uneasily moved towards the southern bank , intending to cross and help Wilson . However , Forbes 's fears of an ambush proved to be well @-@ founded ; at an opportune moment , the Matabele in the scrub opened fire , catching the column in the open . The ambushers ' shots were initially wild and inaccurate , but they soon began to focus their fire on the exposed Maxim guns and horses , forcing the troopers to retreat to cover . Five Company soldiers were injured . The resulting skirmish lasted about an hour , by which time the Shangani had been severely swollen by heavy rains upstream , causing it to flood .
Meanwhile , Wilson marched his officers and men back towards the river , hoping to reunite with Forbes . They moved on for about 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) , but soon noticed that a line of Matabele warriors was blocking their way to the river . Wilson refused to sacrifice his wounded by attempting to break through . In an act of desperation , he instead sent three of his men — American scouts Frederick Russell Burnham and Pearl " Pete " Ingram , and Australian Trooper William Gooding — to charge through the Matabele line , cross the river and bring reinforcements back to help , while he , Borrow and the rest made a last stand . Burnham , Ingram and Gooding broke through while the Matabele closed in on the pocketed patrol from a distance , and began to fire on it from cover , killing several of its men . After a while , Mjaan ordered his men to charge forward and finish them off , but the Matabele soon fell back , having taken about 40 fatalities .
Burnham , Ingram and Gooding reached the Shangani about 08 : 00 , but quickly saw that the water had risen far too high for Forbes to provide any assistance . Realising the futility of turning back to Wilson without help , they decided to rejoin Forbes anyway , and to that end traversed the swollen river with considerable difficulty . They then rode to where the battle on the southern side was still ongoing . On reaching the main column shaken and out of breath , Burnham leapt from his horse and ran to Forbes : " I think I may say that we are the sole survivors of that party , " he quietly confided , before loading his rifle and joining the skirmish .
= = = Matabele victory north of the river ; Wilson 's last stand = = =
What happened to the Shangani Patrol after this point is known only from Matabele sources . According to these accounts , the warriors offered the remaining whites their lives if they surrendered , but Wilson 's men refused to give up . They used their dead horses for cover , and killed more than ten times their own number ( about 500 , Mjaan estimated ) , but were steadily whittled down as the overwhelming Matabele force closed in from all sides . The Company soldiers continued fighting even when grievously wounded , to the astonishment of the Matabele , who thought the whites must be bewitched : " These are not men but magicians , " said one Matabele inDuna .
Late in the afternoon , after hours of fighting , Wilson 's men ran out of ammunition , and reacted to this by rising to their feet , shaking each other 's hands and singing a song , possibly " God Save the Queen " . The Matabele downed their own rifles and ended the battle charging with assegai spears ; some of the whites allegedly used their last bullets to commit suicide . According to an eyewitness , " the white inDuna " ( Wilson ) was the last to die , standing motionless before the Matabele with blood streaming from wounds all over his body . After a few moments of hesitation , a young warrior ran forward and killed him with his assegai . The Matabele usually mutilated the bodies of their foes after a victory , but on this occasion they did not : " The white men died so bravely we would not treat them as we do the cowardly Mashonas and others , " an inDuna explained . At Mjaan 's orders , the bodies of the patrol were left untouched , though the whites ' clothes and two of their facial skins were collected the next morning to serve as proof to Lobengula of the battle 's outcome . " I had two sons killed that day , " Ingubo warrior M 'Kotchwana later said , " and my brother was shot in the stomach . The amakiwa [ whites ] were brave men ; they were warriors . "
= = Men of the Shangani Patrol = =
Of the 43 men involved in Wilson 's patrol ( including the major himself ) , 37 were present when the battle began . This was reduced to 34 when Wilson ordered Burnham , Ingram and Gooding to break out . Those left behind were all killed in action . Though the men of the patrol came from several parts of the British Empire as well as other countries , most were born in Britain itself : Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Hugh Marshall Hole writes that of these " over a dozen were English Public School and University men " . Wilson himself was originally Scottish , while Borrow was born in Cornwall . Also represented in the patrol were South Africa ( several members , most prominently Captain William Judd ) , the United States ( Burnham and Ingram ) , India ( Troopers Dillon and Money ) , Canada ( Scout Robert Bain ) , Australia ( Gooding ) and New Zealand ( Trooper Frank Vogel ) . No member of the patrol was born in Rhodesia .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Forbes 's retreat , Lobengula 's death and the end of the war = = =
After the battle on the southern side of the Shangani was over , Forbes and his column conducted a cursory search for survivors from Wilson 's party , but , unable to cross the river , could see nothing to tell them what had happened . Guessing ( correctly ) that all Company men beyond the river had been killed , they turned and trekked back to Bulawayo in miserable fashion , their supplies all but gone and the Matabele impeding their progress at every turn .
Matabele raiding parties attacked the retreating column six times during its two @-@ week journey back to Bulawayo . In pouring rain , the dishevelled men were soon mostly on foot , existing off horse meat and wearing makeshift shoes made from ammunition wallets . Forbes felt so humiliated by the events that he retreated from command in all but name , surrendering de facto control to Commandant Raaff . In leading the column back to Bulawayo , Raaff repeatedly drew on his experience from the Anglo @-@ Zulu War to ensure the survival of the haggard men : he avoided several Matabele ambushes , and at one point set up a convincing decoy camp that the Matabele fired on for half a day , wasting much of their ammunition .
On the column 's inglorious return to Bulawayo on 18 December 1893 , Forbes was received in muted disgrace . The officers and men stood on parade for Cecil Rhodes , and the Company chief passed the major without a word . Raaff , on the other hand , was publicly commended by Rhodes , and thanked for ensuring the column 's safe return .
Meanwhile , Lobengula moved to the north @-@ east , now well out of the Company 's reach for the foreseeable future . However , his sickness , which turned out to be smallpox , sharply intensified and eventually killed him on 22 or 23 January 1894 . With the king dead , Mjaan , the most senior of the izinDuna , took command of the Matabele . Mjaan was an old man , and his only son had been killed in the war . He wished to make peace . In late February 1894 , he convened an indaba at which he and his contemporaries met with James Dawson , a trader known to them for many years , who offered the olive branch on behalf of the Company . The izinDuna unanimously accepted . They also told the trader what had happened to the Shangani Patrol , and led him to the battle site to survey it , as well as to examine and identify the largely skeletonised bodies of the soldiers , which still lay where they had fallen . Dawson was the first non @-@ Matabele to learn of the last stand .
= = = Cultural impact , burial and memorial = = =
News of the patrol 's fate was quickly relayed from Rhodesia to South Africa , and then on to the rest of the British Empire and the world . In England , a patriotic play overtly influenced by the incident , Cheer , Boys , Cheer ! , was written by Augustus Harris , Cecil Raleigh and Henry Hamilton , and staged at the Theatre Royal , Drury Lane , starting in September 1895 . The show tells the story of a young colonial army officer in South Africa and Rhodesia , culminating in the third act with a fictionalised account of the First Matabele War . This itself climaxes with a scene strongly reminiscent of Wilson 's last stand . The production ran for nearly six months in London , and then toured the British provinces for more than two years , reportedly drawing large crowds . According to historian Neil Parsons , it contributed to the patrol " fast gain [ ing ] mythological status " .
In historical terms , the Shangani Patrol subsequently became an integral part of Rhodesian identity , with Wilson and Borrow in particular woven into the national tapestry as heroic figures symbolising duty in the face of insuperable odds . Their last stand together became a kind of national myth , as Lewis Gann writes , " a glorious memory , [ Rhodesia 's ] own equivalent of the bloody Alamo massacre and Custer 's Last Stand in the American West " . In 1895 , 4 December was declared " Shangani Day " , an annual Rhodesian public holiday which endured until 1920 , when it was folded into Occupation Day , a national non @-@ work day which commemorated several early colonial events together . Shangani Day remained part of the national calendar , however , and was still marked each year .
The remains of the patrol 's members were buried on 14 August 1894 , in the ruined city of Great Zimbabwe . Rhodes later wrote into his will that he wished to have the patrol re @-@ interred alongside him at World 's View , in the Matopos Hills , when he died ; this was done in 1904 , two years after Rhodes 's death . Also according to Rhodes 's wishes , a memorial to the Shangani Patrol was erected at World 's View in July 1904 , and dedicated by Bishop Gaul of Mashonaland . The monument , called the Shangani Memorial , is an oblong , flat @-@ topped structure , about 33 feet ( 10 m ) tall and made from granite from a nearby kopje . It was designed by Herbert Baker , and based on the Pedestal of Agrippa at the Athens Acropolis . Each of the memorial 's four sides bears a bronze panel by John Tweed , depicting members of the patrol in relief . The main inscription reads , " To Brave Men " , with a smaller dedication given beneath : " Erected to the enduring memory of Allan Wilson and his Men who fell in fight against the Matabele on the Shangani River December 4th , 1893 . There was no survivor " .
= = Controversy = =
= = = Lobengula 's box of sovereigns = = =
Soon following the end of the war , one of Lobengula 's izinDuna told Dawson that just before Forbes 's column had reached the Shangani , two Matabele messengers , Petchan and Sehuloholu , had been given a box of gold sovereigns by Lobengula , and instructed to intercept the column before it reached the river . They were to tell the whites that the king admitted defeat and offered this tribute , totalling about £ 1 @,@ 000 , on the condition that the column immediately turn back and cease harassing him . " Gold is the only thing that will stop the white men , " Lobengula reportedly concluded . According to the inDuna , Petchan and Sehuloholu reached the column on 2 December 1893 , the day before it reached the Shangani , and hid in the bush as it went by . They then caught up with it and gave the money and the message to two men in the rear guard .
Dawson relayed this story to Bulawayo , where Company authorities made enquiries . No man who had been attached to the column corroborated the account . The Company thought it unlikely that a Matabele inDuna would simply invent a story such as this , however , and angrily speculated that if it were true , then negotiations with Lobengula might have been opened and the war ended before Wilson crossed the river , and the entire episode of the Shangani Patrol avoided ( though , as historian Robert Cary writes , this surmision ignores the fact that Forbes had been ordered to capture Lobengula , not end the war ) . Lawyers appointed by the Company launched a formal investigation early in 1894 .
Two officers ' batmen , William Charles Daniel and James Wilson ( no relation to Allan Wilson ) , soon became prime suspects , with Daniel arraigned as the senior instigator . They were accused of accepting the gold from Petchan and Sehuloholu , then keeping it for themselves and not passing on the message . Both men denied all charges . Neither Daniel nor Wilson had been members of the rear guard on 2 December , though either or both could have been there at some point during the day . No Matabele witness recognised either of them at the court in Bulawayo , where the case was heard by the Resident Magistrate and four assessors .
The evidence against the batmen was largely circumstantial : both had been seen to possess unusually large amounts of gold soon after the column 's return , and both had since bought farming rights , paying cash . Daniel said he had won the money in his possession playing cards , while Wilson claimed to have brought his with him when he came to Rhodesia . Witnesses confirmed that there had been heavy gambling at Inyati camp , in which Daniel and Wilson had actively taken part , both possessing noticeable reserves in gold sovereigns . Sehuloholu claimed in his statement that both of the men he had met in the rear guard had fluently and perfectly spoken to him in Sindebele , but neither of the accused men knew the language , and the only member of the column who did at a fluent level was a medical orderly who had never been near the rear guard . The prosecutor proposed that Sehuloholu could be exaggerating the standard of Sindebele spoken by the men he had met , pointing out that most of the phrases quoted were actually relatively basic , and did not imply a profound understanding of the language .
Unable to definitely prove to the court where their money had come from , Daniel and Wilson were eventually found guilty , and sentenced to 14 years ' hard labour . However , the maximum term the Magistrate could legally impose was three months , and in 1896 they were released at the order of the High Commissioner for Southern Africa , Sir Henry Brougham Loch . The High Commissioner 's legal team subsequently quashed the convictions altogether , saying that the evidence against Daniel and Wilson was not sufficiently conclusive . The existence of Lobengula 's box of sovereigns was never proven either way , and the incident never explained beyond doubt .
= = = Burnham , Ingram and Gooding = = =
The version of events recorded by history is based on the accounts of Burnham , Ingram and Gooding , the Matabele present at the battle ( particularly inDuna Mjaan ) , and the men of Forbes 's column . Burnham , Ingram and Gooding 's stories closely corroborate each other ; their version of events was accepted as true by the Court of Inquiry at Bulawayo in December 1893 . First @-@ hand Matabele accounts such as Mjaan 's , which were first recorded during 1894 , appear to confirm the character of the break @-@ out , saying that three of the white men they were fighting — including Burnham , whom several of them recognised — left during a lull in the battle , just after Wilson withdrew to his final position .
While all of the direct evidence given by eyewitnesses supports the findings of the Court of Inquiry , some historians and writers debate whether or not Burnham , Ingram and Gooding really were sent back by Wilson to fetch help , and suggest that they might have simply deserted when the battle got rough . Proponents of this desertion theory frequently portray Burnham as a man who embellished facts and coerced eyewitnesses into falsifying statements . The earliest recording of this claim of desertion is in a letter written in 1935 by John Coghlan , a cousin of Southern Rhodesia 's first Prime Minister , Charles Coghlan . John Coghlan wrote to a friend , John Carruthers , on 14 December that year that " a very reliable man informed me that Wools @-@ Sampson told him " that Gooding had confessed on his deathbed ( in 1899 ) that he and the two Americans had not actually been despatched by Wilson , and had simply left on their own accord . This double hearsay confession , coming from an anonymous source , is not mentioned in Gooding 's 1899 obituary , which instead recounts the events as generally recorded .
Peter Emmerson , a historian and supporter of the desertion theory , asks why Wilson would have sent three of his men away at such a precarious moment . J P Lott , another historian , comments that Wilson had sent runners to Forbes twice the previous night , when he was already at very close quarters with the Matabele and with far fewer men ; he surmises that it would not be out of the ordinary for the major to do so again . In his evaluation John O 'Reilly asks why Wilson sent Gooding back with the two Americans ; surely Burnham and Ingram , both seasoned scouts , were enough ? Gooding writes in his account that Wilson originally only asked Burnham to ride to Forbes , and that Captain Judd suggested to Wilson that Burnham should take two men with him . The Chief of Scouts requested Ingram , and Borrow asked Gooding to go too . Burnham also says that Borrow sent Gooding .
Burnham , Ingram and Gooding each received the British South Africa Company Medal for their service in the First Matabele War , and all three subsequently served in the Second Matabele War of 1896 – 97 . All of the officers and troopers of Forbes ' column reported high praise for Burnham 's actions and none reported any doubts about his conduct even decades later . One member of the column , Trooper M E Weale , told the Rhodesia Herald on 22 December 1944 that once Commandant Raaff took over command it was greatly due to Burnham 's good scouting that the column managed to get away : " I have always felt that the honours were equally divided between these two men , to whom we owed our lives on that occasion . " Burnham proceeded to become a key figure for a number of commanding officers , including Frederick Carrington , Robert Baden @-@ Powell , and Frederick Roberts . Carrington called him " the finest scout who ever scouted in Africa . He was my Chief of Scouts in ' 96 in Matabeleland and he was the eyes and ears of my force " . The US President Theodore Roosevelt described him in 1901 as " a scout and a hunter of courage and ability , a man totally without fear , a sure shot , and a fighter ... the ideal scout . " While fighting with the British Army in the Second Boer War , Burnham was adjudged to have shown exceptional heroism and was decorated with the Distinguished Service Order , then Britain 's second highest military honour .
= = Legacy = =
The last stand of the patrol was re @-@ enacted once more at the 1899 Greater Britain Exhibition in London , during which scenes from the Matabele wars were re @-@ created as part of a play called Savage South Africa : A Vivid , Realistic and Picturesque Representation of Life in the Wilds of Africa , culminating in " Major Wilson 's Last Stand " . The show featured Lobengula 's son , Peter Lobengula — described as " Prince Lobengula , the redoubtable warrior chieftain " . A short war film based the show 's version of the final engagement , Major Wilson 's Last Stand , was released by Levi , Jones & Company studios in 1899 . A song about the events , " Shangani Patrol " , was written by the Rhodesian singer @-@ songwriter John Edmond , and first recorded by the South African singer Nick Taylor in 1966 as the B @-@ side for another Edmond composition , " The UDI Song " , about Rhodesia 's 1965 Unilateral Declaration of Independence . The patriotic record topped the Rhodesian hit parade for four weeks . A historical war film , also called Shangani Patrol , was filmed on location and released in 1970 . The author Alexander Fullerton wrote a novel about the patrol 's last stand , entitled The White Men Sang ( 1958 ) .
Though much of the mythology surrounding the patrol and the site has dissipated in the national consciousness since the country 's reconstitution as Zimbabwe in 1980 , World 's View endures as a tourist attraction to this day . A campaign in the 1990s to dismantle the monument and remove the graves met with strong opposition from both local residents and the Department of National Museums and Monuments , partly because of the income it brings from visitors , and partly out of respect for the site and the history surrounding it .
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= 1975 – 76 Buffalo Braves season =
The 1975 – 76 Buffalo Braves season was the sixth season for the expansion Buffalo Braves franchise in the National Basketball Association and its Atlantic Division . It was the team 's fourth season under head coach Jack Ramsay . The team 's official home arena was Buffalo Memorial Auditorium .
Bob McAdoo led the league in scoring for the third consecutive year with 31 @.@ 1 points per game . It was the third year in a row that the Braves made the playoffs . The Braves had a record of 46 @-@ 36 . In the playoffs the Braves wound up against the Philadelphia 76ers . The series went the full three games but the Braves found themselves on the road for Game 3 . The Braves emerged victorious in overtime with a hard @-@ fought 124 – 123 victory . It was the first playoff series win for the franchise . In the second round of the playoffs , the Braves and Boston Celtics would once again battle . After four games , the series was even at two wins each . Once again the Celtics would take the series in six games .
The season was marked in controversy . Ernie DiGregorio was benched and McAdoo was suspended . Following the season the Braves allowed coach Jack Ramsay to depart for the head coaching job with the Portland Trail Blazers . The team did not resign its auditorium lease and went through the season without a contract . Subsequently the team was sold , the city sued and the sale was not consummated .
= = Offseason = =
= = = NBA Draft = = =
The Braves had no selections during the first two rounds of the 1975 NBA Draft and no players drafted by the team that year played for the 1975 – 76 Buffalo . 1974 NBA Draft pick Tom McMillen played for a year in Europe before joining the 1975 – 76 Buffalo Braves . McMillen played in the Italian League for a team in Bologna , Italy and completed the first year of his Rhodes Scholarship at Oxford University . However , he reached an agreement with Oxford to complete his second year during the summer in order to begin his National Basketball Association career . McMillen only played basketball in Italy on the weekends .
= = = Exhibition games = = =
On October 4 , 1975 , the Braves opened their preseason exhibition schedule against the Indiana Pacers of the American Basketball Association . Bob McAdoo had 29 points in the contest in Indianapolis but the Pacers won , 106 @-@ 105 . On October 11 , 15 @,@ 000 fans attended the Braves ' home game against the ABA 's New York Nets . The Braves held New York 's star Julius Erving to 16 points but the Nets prevailed 109 @-@ 83 . On October 14 the Braves traveled to Louisville , Kentucky to face the ABA 's Kentucky Colonels . The Colonels won , 120 @-@ 116 . Two nights later on October 16 , 1975 the Braves hit the road to face the ABA 's San Antonio Spurs . Bob McAdoo had 22 points and 16 rebounds but the Spurs won 101 @-@ 90 behind 22 points each for James Silas and George Gervin . The very next night the Braves again faced the New York Nets , this time at Seton Hall University in New Jersey . Bob McAdoo scored 31 points but the Nets won 117 @-@ 97 . The Braves closed out their preseason exhibition schedule with a record of 0 @-@ 5 against ABA teams .
= = Transactions = =
On October 14 , 1975 , the Braves lost Lee Winfield on waivers to the Kansas City Kings . Paul Ruffner did not return to play for the 1975 – 76 Buffalo Braves and never again played in the NBA . On November 20 , 1975 , Steve Kuberski was waived . On November 27 , 1975 , Jack Marin was traded to the Chicago Bulls for a 1977 NBA Draft 1st round pick . On February 1 , 1976 , Gar Heard was dealt with a 1976 NBA Draft 2nd round pick to the Phoenix Suns for John Shumate . After the season , the Braves sent Ken Charles and Dick Gibbs and cash to the Atlanta Hawks for Tom Van Arsdale . Van Arsdale never played for the Braves who traded him in August to the Phoenix Suns for a 1977 NBA Draft 2nd round pick .
= = Roster = =
= = Regular season = =
The Braves went the entire season without a winning streak or losing streak exceeding six games . The Braves attendance decreased by nearly 50 @,@ 000 to 418 @,@ 696 in their 41 home games , and the team fell to 11th of 18 teams .
Shumate , who played 43 games for Phoenix and 32 for Buffalo led the NBA in field goal percentage ( 56 @.@ 1 ) and earned first team All @-@ rookie honors . DiGregorio , who played 67 games posted a 91 @.@ 5 % ( 86 / 94 ) free throw percentage , which would have been second to Rick Barry 's 92 @.@ 3 if he had posted a qualifying number of attempts . Marin , who played 12 games for the Braves before being traded , finished 9th in the NBA in free throw percentage ( 85 @.@ 6 % ) . McMillian ranked 3rd in field goal percentage ( 53 @.@ 6 % ) and 8th in free throw percentage ( 85 @.@ 8 ) . Randy Smith , who played all 82 games for the fourth consecutive season , represented Buffalo in the 1976 NBA All @-@ Star Game and earned 2nd team All @-@ NBA honors . Smith ranked third in steals per game ( 2 @.@ 5 ) , fourth in assists per game ( 6 @.@ 5 ) , seventh in points per game ( 21 @.@ 8 ) and ninth in minutes per game ( 38 @.@ 6 ) . Smith 's speed was a difference maker on the Braves ' fast breaks . McAdoo appeared in the third of five consecutive NBA All @-@ Star games and placed second in the MVP voting despite not making the All @-@ NBA team that included centers Kareem Abdul @-@ Jabbar and Dave Cowens . McAdoo led the winning east team in scoring with 22 points in the All @-@ Star game , but Dave Bing was selected as MVP . Over the course of the season he made both the most field goals and most free throws in the NBA . He led the league in minutes played ( 42 @.@ 7 ) and points per game ( 31 @.@ 1 ) while ranking seventh in rebound average ( 12 @.@ 4 ) and sixth in blocks per game ( 2 @.@ 1 ) .
October – December
As the season began , the Braves refused to sign the lease terms for Memorial Auditorium because Braves owner Paul Snyder felt it was unfair for the Braves to be held to different terms than their co @-@ tenant , the Buffalo Sabres . Although the Buffalo Common Council had approved a lease in July , the Braves entered the season without an agreement .
During the November 14 game at Milwaukee a bench @-@ clearing brawl erupted as a result of an incident between Bucks Gary Brokaw and Bob Dandridge and Brave Dick Gibbs . The following week McAdoo broke the Cleveland Coliseum single @-@ game scoring record by posting 50 points in a 23 @-@ point deficit come @-@ from @-@ behind overtime victory . He surpassed his own 49 point performance the prior year at the Coliseum ; both games were against his friend Jim Chones . On December 2 , 1974 NBA Rookie of the Year DiGregorio was benched in favor of Charles for the sake of team defense . In Charles ' first start , he led the team in scoring with a career @-@ high 24 on the way to the franchise record 37 @-@ point December 5 victory over the Cleveland Cavaliers . In late December , McAdoo was suspended by the team for failing to make a doctor 's appointment as the Braves claimed his self @-@ diagnosed back injury was dubious .
January – February
The Braves began the new year by playing in three consecutive one @-@ point contests , first splitting with the New York Knicks on January 2 and January 3 , and then defeating the Los Angeles Lakers on January 6 . All games were won by the home team . The Braves established an all @-@ sport all @-@ time attendance record for Memorial Auditorium of 19 @,@ 226 on January 31 when they hosted the Boston Celtics . That night , John Havlicek became the NBAs fourth leading scorer , surpassing Elgin Baylor . The day before the game the Braves had reached an agreement on sharing playing dates with the Sabres and decided not to attempt to leave town . On February 1 during the All @-@ star break , the Braves dealt Heard for Shumate . At the time the Braves had a 30 – 20 record and they would go 16 – 16 for the rest of the season . During the February 3 , 1976 NBA All @-@ Star Game , Smith scored 8 points , while McAdoo had a game @-@ high 22 . McAdoo contributed to a key fourth quarter spurt that propelled the East to victory .
March – April
As the season wound down , the Braves were battling with the Philadelphia 76ers for home court advantage in the opening round series . The Braves defeated the Celtics twice in the final two weeks to even their season series at three games a piece while winning five of their last seven games . The Braves were scheduled to host the New York Knicks on April 6 , but when the Buffalo Sabres qualified for the 1976 Stanley Cup playoffs , the National Hockey League scheduled the Sabres to be the home team on the same date . When the Braves set a $ 25 @,@ 000 price tag on the date , the Sabres swapped home game dates with the St. Louis Blues and lost on St. Louis in a best of three series on that date .
= = = Season standings = = =
The following were the season standing in the Atlantic Division .
= = = Record vs. opponents = = =
= = = Season schedule = = =
Source : www.basketball @-@ reference.com
= = Playoffs = =
In the 1976 NBA Playoffs , McMillian boosted his 15 @.@ 8 points per game to 17 @.@ 2 , and Smith also boosted his production to 8 @.@ 6 assists per game , which led the league , while contributing 22 @.@ 6 points . For the second year in a row , McAdoo led the league in minutes per game in the playoffs ( 45 @.@ 1 ) , while posting 28 @.@ 0 points per game .
First round
The Braves concluded the regular season tied with the Philadelphia 76ers for fourth place in the Eastern Conference with a 46 – 36 record . The Braves lost the regular season series with the 76ers 4 games to 3 giving Philadelphia home court advantage for the three @-@ game Eastern Conference First Round series between the conference 's fourth and fifth place teams . During the series , the road team won each of the three games including the final game , which Buffalo won 124 – 123 in overtime .
In the first round , the Braves won the first game 95 – 89 on 36 points from McAdoo and 6 points from McMillian in the final 1 : 23 . Although the Braves led most of the way , it took a three @-@ point play by McAdoo with 4 : 37 left to give them the lead for good at 87 – 85 . George McGinnis posted 34 points as the 76ers evened the series with a 131 – 106 victory in game 2 . The Braved clinched game 3 in overtime as McAdoo scored two free throws to tie the game in regulation and two more with 17 seconds left in overtime as Buffalo won 124 – 123 . The game included clutch shots by Shumate and a strong shooting performance by Smith . Philadelphia took the lead in the first quarter and did not relinquish it until the McMillian gave the Braves a 95 – 94 lead with 8 : 11 remaining in regulation . McGinnis had fouled out with 8 : 50 remaining . The Braves held the lead until Doug Collins scored with 41 seconds left to tie the score at 109 and Fred Carter gave Philadelphia a 111 – 109 lead with 6 seconds remaining . After a couple of offensive rebounds on their final possession Clyde Lee fouled McAdoo who tied the score from the line . Shumate had 11 fourth quarter points and a pair of early overtime baskets . Smith gave the Braves the lead for good with 51 seconds left in overtime .
Second round
In the second round , the Braves opposed the Eastern Conference regular season champion Boston Celtics in the Eastern Conference Semifinals . The first five games of the series went to the home team and then Boston won game six in Buffalo to clinch the series .
Dave Cowens accumulated 30 points , 19 rebounds , 7 assists and 5 steals in leading the Celtics past the Braves by a 107 – 98 margin in game 1 . Although McAdoo scored 40 points in game 2 and the Celtics played without John Havlicek , his replacements Don Nelson and Steve Kuberski stepped up to enable the Celtics to take a 2 – 0 lead in the series on a with a 101 – 96 victory . In game 3 , the Braves won 98 – 93 , as Smith scored 29 and McAdoo added 24 , including 10 in the fourth quarter . Buffalo had fallen behind by 12 points after one quarter . Starter @-@ turned @-@ reserve DiGregorio entered the game in the second quarter with the Braves behind 32 – 22 , but he posted 8 points and 5 assists in the quarter to spark a 21 – 4 surge that gave the team a 43 – 36 lead . He finished with 10 assists . In game 4 , Smith made a 25 @-@ foot jump shot with three seconds remaining to give the Braves a 124 – 122 victory and tie the series 2 – 2 . Havlicek , who missed games 2 through 4 with a foot injury , returned to help the Celtics win game 5 as Paul Silas had 15 points and 22 rebounds and Cowens amassed 30 points and 16 rebounds . After a 32 – 32 tie , Cowens , who had 14 second quarter points , led the Celtics to a 46 – 36 halftime lead . The Braves closed to within 50 – 46 , but the Celtics pulled away and took a 76 – 65 lead after three quarters . Although Charlie Scott fouled out in the fourth quarter , so did McAdoo . In game 6 , the Celtics led 30 – 27 after one quarter , but trailed 55 – 50 at the half and 78 – 77 after three quarters . At one point , 9 third quarter points by McMillian helped push Buffalo to a 9 @-@ point lead . Scott scored 13 of his game @-@ high 31 points in the final quarter . Jo Jo White had 23 points and Cowens had 10 points and 16 rebounds in the final game as the Celtics clinched the series 4 – 2 with a 104 – 100 victory .
= = = Playoff schedule = = =
Source : www.basketball @-@ reference.com
= = = Postseason news = = =
Coach Ramsay had been hired in 1972 to a three @-@ year contract . He served the 1975 – 76 season on a one @-@ year extension . His contract was not renewed . Ramsay had guided the Braves to the playoffs three years in a row after enduring a 21 – 61 season , accumulating a 158 – 170 overall record . Local reports noted a personality conflict with owner Snyder . The Braves promoted assistant coach Tates Locke and signed him to a two @-@ year contract .
Snyder threatened to sell the Braves if they did not sell 5 @,@ 000 season tickets by June 12 , 1976 . However the season ticket drive by the Chamber of Commerce and other civic groups only resulted in 2 @,@ 552 sales by the deadline date . In June 1976 , Diplomat Hotel owner Irving Cowan obtained an option to purchase the Braves for $ 6 @.@ 1 million , and planned to bring them to South Florida and the Hollywood Sportatorium . Pledges of more than 8 @,@ 000 season tickets were received in Florida . On June 15 , Snyder announced the planned sale . The Wall Street Journal estimated the sale price to be in the $ 7 – 8 million range . However , the next day the city of Buffalo sued the Braves for breach of contract and sought a restraining order preventing the move . The suit was filed in New York Supreme Court for seeking $ 10 million from the Braves and the NBA for breaking a promise to sign a new 15 @-@ year lease . Another suit was filed as an anti @-@ trust case in United States district court against the rest of the NBA seeking $ 48 million in damages in the event of a move . The anti @-@ trust case alleged that the move was an attempt to eliminate competition against a future Toronto NBA franchise and to discourage expansion of the American Basketball Association to southern Florida . The damages arose as treble damages related to a March 1 promise to sign a lease . Although Cowan claimed the move would still take place , the effort collapsed under the weight of the lawsuit and the Braves ended up signing a new lease with the city of Buffalo . In July , the Braves signed a new lease with the city for the Memorial Auditorium with the understanding that there was an ongoing effort to sell the team to local interests . The signing of the lease settled the lawsuits .
= = Player stats = =
= = Awards and honors = =
Bob McAdoo , NBA Scoring Champion
Bob McAdoo , 1976 NBA All @-@ Star Game
Randy Smith , 1976 NBA All @-@ Star Game
Randy Smith , 1976 All @-@ NBA ( 2nd team )
John Shumate , NBA All @-@ Rookie Team ( Note : Shumate started the season with the Phoenix Suns but ended the season as a member of the Buffalo Braves )
John Shumate , NBA Field goal percentage champion
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= Germany women 's national football team =
The Germany women 's national football team ( German : Deutsche Fußballnationalmannschaft der Frauen ) represents Germany in international women 's association football and is governed by the German Football Association ( DFB ) .
The German national team is one of the most successful in women 's football . They are two @-@ time world champions , having won the 2003 and 2007 tournaments . They are also the only nation to have won both the men 's and women 's tournament . The team has won eight of the eleven UEFA European Championships , claiming the last six consecutive titles . Again , being the only nation to win both the men 's and women 's European tournament . Germany has won three bronze medals at the Women 's Olympic Football Tournament , finishing third in 2000 , 2004 and 2008 . Birgit Prinz holds the record for most appearances and is the team 's all @-@ time leading goalscorer . Prinz has also set international records ; she has received the FIFA World Player of the Year award three times and is the joint second overall top goalscorer at the Women 's World Cup .
Women 's football was long met with skepticism in Germany , and official matches were banned by the DFB until 1970 . However , the women 's national team has grown in popularity since winning the World Cup in 2003 , as it was chosen as Germany 's Sports Team of the Year . Silvia Neid has been the team 's head coach since 2005 , succeeding Tina Theune after nine years as her assistant . As of July 2015 , Germany is ranked No. 2 in the FIFA Women 's World Rankings .
= = History = =
= = = Early history = = =
In 1955 , the DFB decided to forbid women 's football in all its clubs in West Germany . In its explanation , the DFB cited that " this combative sport is fundamentally foreign to the nature of women " and that " body and soul would inevitably suffer damage " . Further , the " display of the body violates etiquette and decency " . In spite of this ban , more than 150 unofficial international matches were played in the 1950s and 1960s . On 30 October 1970 , the ban on women 's football was lifted at the DFB annual convention .
Other football associations had already formed official women 's national teams in the 1970s , the DFB long remained uninvolved in women 's football . In 1981 , DFB official Horst R. Schmidt was invited to send a team to the unofficial women 's football world championship . Schmidt accepted the invitation but hid the fact that West Germany had no women 's national team at the time . To avoid humiliation , the DFB sent the German club champions Bergisch Gladbach 09 , who went on to win the tournament . Seeing a need , the DFB established the women 's national team in 1982 . DFB president Hermann Neuberger appointed Gero Bisanz , an instructor at the Cologne Sports College , to set up the team .
= = = 1982 – 1994 : Difficult beginnings and first European titles = = =
In September 1982 , Bisanz organised two scouting training courses from which he selected a squad of 16 players . The team 's first international match took place on 10 November 1982 in Koblenz . Following the tradition of the men ’ s team , Switzerland was chosen as West Germany 's first opponent . Doris Kresimon scored the first international goal in the 25th minute . In the second half , 18 @-@ year @-@ old Silvia Neid contributed two goals to the 5 – 1 victory ; Neid later became the assistant coach in 1996 and the head coach in 2005 .
With five draws and one defeat , West Germany failed to qualify for the inaugural 1984 European Championship , finishing third in the qualifying group . In the beginning , Bisanz 's primary objective was to close the gap to the Scandinavian countries and Italy – then the strongest teams in Europe . He emphasized training in basic skills and the need for an effective youth programme . Starting in 1985 , Bisanz increasingly called @-@ up younger players , but at first had little success with this concept , as West Germany again failed to qualify for the 1987 European Championship finals .
Undefeated and without conceding a goal , the German team qualified for the European Championship for the first time in 1989 ; the tournament was played on home soil in West Germany . The semi @-@ final against Italy was the first international women 's football match shown live on German television . The game was decided by a penalty shootout , in which goalkeeper Marion Isbert saved three penalty kicks and scored the winning penalty herself . On 2 July 1989 in Osnabrück , West Germany played Norway in the final . Before a crowd of 22 @,@ 000 , they beat favourites Norway and won 4 – 1 with goals from Ursula Lohn , Heidi Mohr and Angelika Fehrmann . This victory marked the team 's first international title .
After the German reunification , the East German football association joined the DFB . The East German women 's national football team had played only one official international match , losing 0 – 3 to Czechoslovakia in a friendly match on 9 May 1990 . The unified German team defended their title successfully at the 1991 European Championship . After winning all games in the qualifying group , Germany again met Italy in the semi @-@ final , this time winning 3 – 0 . On 14 July 1991 , the German team once more faced Norway in the final . The game went to extra time , during which Heidi Mohr and Silvia Neid scored for Germany and secured the 3 – 1 victory .
In November 1991 , Germany participated in the first Women 's World Cup in China . Following victories over Nigeria , Taiwan and Italy , the German team reached the quarter @-@ final without conceding a single goal . Silvia Neid scored the first German World Cup goal on 17 November 1991 against Nigeria . Germany won the quarter @-@ final against Denmark 2 – 1 after extra time , but lost 2 – 5 in the semi @-@ final to the United States , who went on to win the tournament . Following a 0 – 4 defeat in the third @-@ place match against Sweden , Germany finished fourth in the tournament .
The German team failed to defend their title at the 1993 European Championship , suffering a semi @-@ final defeat to Italy in a penalty shootout , and later losing 1 – 3 against Denmark in the third @-@ place playoff . Despite the disappointing result , new talents such as Steffi Jones , Maren Meinert and Silke Rottenberg made their tournament debut and later became key players for the German team .
= = = 1995 – 2002 : Olympic and World Cup disappointments = = =
Birgit Prinz scored in a major tournament for the first time in 1995 . In 1995 , Germany won its third European Championship . After winning all qualification matches , scoring 55 goals , the German team defeated England 6 – 2 over two legs in the semi @-@ final . Germany met Sweden in the final , which was played at the Fritz Walter Stadion in Kaiserslautern , Germany , on 26 March 1995 . The Swedish team managed to score early , but Germany came back to win 3 – 2 with goals from Maren Meinert , Birgit Prinz and Bettina Wiegmann .
At the 1995 Women 's World Cup in Sweden , the German team lost against the Scandinavian hosts , but still succeeded in winning their group by beating Japan and Brazil . Germany won the quarter @-@ final against England 3 – 0 , and defeated China 1 – 0 with a late goal by Bettina Wiegmann in the semi @-@ final . On 18 June 1995 in Stockholm , the German team appeared in their first Women 's World Cup final . Facing Norway , they lost the match 0 – 2 , but as runners @-@ up achieved their best World Cup result until then .
Women ’ s football was first played as an Olympic sport at the 1996 Summer Olympics . Bettina Wiegmann scored the first Olympic goal in the opening match against Japan , which Germany won 3 – 2 . After losing their second group game against Norway 2 – 3 , and drawing with Brazil 1 – 1 , Germany was eliminated , finishing third in the group with four points from three matches . Head coach Gero Bisanz resigned after the tournament and his assistant since 1983 , Tina Theune , took over as the new national coach . Silvia Neid ended her playing career and was appointed the new assistant coach .
The 1997 European Championship was the first test for new coach Theune . Following a defeat against Norway , Germany finished second in the qualifying group and only secured qualification by beating Iceland in a relegation play @-@ off . After drawing with Italy and Norway , a victory over Denmark in the last group game saw the German team go through to the knockout stage . They beat Sweden 1 – 0 in the semi @-@ final , and on 12 July 1997 , claimed their fourth European championship with a 2 – 0 win over Italy , with goals from Sandra Minnert and Birgit Prinz .
At the 1999 Women 's World Cup in the United States , the German team also failed to qualify directly , but managed to beat the Ukraine in a qualifying play @-@ off . Germany started their World Cup campaign by drawing with Italy and winning 6 – 0 over Mexico . In the last group game , Germany drew 3 – 3 against Brazil ; by conceding a last minute equalizer , Germany failed to win the group and subsequently had to face the hosts in the quarter @-@ final . With 54 @,@ 642 people in attendance , among them U.S. President Bill Clinton , the crowd at the Jack Kent Cooke Stadium was the biggest the German team had ever played in front of . Despite leading twice , they lost 2 – 3 to the eventual World Cup winners .
Germany competed at the 2000 Summer Olympics , winning all three group games against Australia , Brazil and Sweden . The German team dominated the semi @-@ final against Norway , but lost the game 0 – 1 after an own goal by Tina Wunderlich in the 80th minute . They beat Brazil 2 – 0 in the third place match with goals from Birgit Prinz and Renate Lingor , and won the bronze medal . It was the first Olympic medal for the German Football Associations since 1988 when the men 's team also won bronze .
In 2001 , Germany hosted the European Championship . Following victories over Sweden , Russia and England in the group stage , the German team beat Norway 1 – 0 in the semi @-@ final courtesy of a diving header by Sandra Smisek . On 7 July 2001 in Ulm , they met Sweden in the final , which was played in heavy rain . The game was scoreless after 90 minutes and went to extra time , where Claudia Müller scored a golden goal and secured the fifth European title for Germany .
= = = 2003 – present : Two consecutive World Cup titles = = =
At the 2003 Women 's World Cup in the United States , Germany was drawn in a group with Canada , Japan and Argentina . After winning all three group games , the German team defeated Russia 7 – 1 in the quarter @-@ final , which set up another clash with the United States . Germany 's Kerstin Garefrekes scored after 15 minutes and goalkeeper Silke Rottenberg made several key saves . In the dying minutes of the semi @-@ final , Maren Meinert and Birgit Prinz sealed the 3 – 0 win . On 12 October 2003 , Germany met Sweden in the World Cup final in Los Angeles . The Scandinavians went ahead before half time , but Maren Meinert equalized shortly after the break . The game went to extra time , where Nia Künzer headed the winning golden goal in the 98th minute to claim Germany 's first Women 's World Cup title . Birgit Prinz was honoured as the tournament 's best player and top goalscorer .
With wins over China and Mexico , the German team finished first in their group at the 2004 Summer Olympics . They beat Nigeria 2 – 1 in the quarter @-@ final , but suffered a 1 – 2 semi @-@ final loss to the United States after extra time . In the third place match , Germany defeated Sweden 1 – 0 with a goal by Renate Lingor , winning the teams 's second Olympic bronze medal .
The 2005 European Championship was held in England . With wins over Norway , Italy and France in Round 1 , the German team advanced to the semi @-@ final , where they defeated Finland 4 – 1 . On 19 June 2005 , they met Norway for the third time in the European championship final . Germany won 3 – 1 with goals from Inka Grings , Renate Lingor and Birgit Prinz and added a sixth European title . Head coach Tina Theune stepped down after the tournament and her assistant Silvia Neid took over as national coach . In 2006 , Germany won the annual Algarve Cup for the first time .
As reigning world champion , Germany played the opening game at the 2007 Women 's World Cup in China , outclassing Argentina 11 – 0 . After a goalless draw against England and a 2 – 0 win over Japan , the German team defeated North Korea 3 – 0 in the quarter @-@ final . They beat Norway by the same result in the semi @-@ final , with goals from Kerstin Stegemann , Martina Müller and a Norwegian own goal . On 30 September 2007 , Germany faced Brazil in the World Cup final in Shanghai . Birgit Prinz put Germany in front after half time and goalkeeper Nadine Angerer saved a penalty by Brazilian Marta . Simone Laudehr scored a second goal after 86 minutes , which sealed the German 2 – 0 victory . Germany was the first team ( men 's and women 's game ) to win the World Cup without conceding a goal and the first to successfully defend the Women 's World Cup title . With 14 goals , Prinz became the tournament 's overall top goalscorer .
In a replay of the 2007 World Cup final , the German team drew 0 – 0 with Brazil in the opening game at the 2008 Summer Olympics . They then beat both Nigeria and North Korea to advance to the quarter @-@ final , where they defeated Sweden 2 – 0 after extra time . In the semi @-@ final , Germany again met Brazil . Birgit Prinz scored in the 10th minute , but the German team lost 1 – 4 after conceding three goals to Brazilian counter @-@ attacks in the second half . They beat Japan 2 – 0 for the bronze medal , with Fatmire Bajramaj scoring both goals . The third consecutive semi @-@ final loss at the Olympics was seen as a disappointment by both the players and the German press . The team 's overall performance and head coach Silvia Neid were harshly criticised in the media .
Germany qualified for the 2009 European Championship in Finland winning all eight games and scoring 34 goals . They beat Norway , France and Iceland in the group stage to advance to the quarter @-@ final , where they won 2 – 1 against Italy . After trailing Norway at half @-@ time in the semi @-@ final , the German team fought back to a 3 – 1 victory . On 10 September 2009 , they defeated England 6 – 2 for their seventh European trophy . Birgit Prinz and Inka Grings scored twice , with Melanie Behringer and Kim Kulig also scoring . Grings retained her award as the tournament 's top scorer from 2005 , while Germany extended their winning streak at the European Championship finals to a 19 @-@ match run dating back to 1997 .
In 2011 , Germany was host of the 2011 FIFA Women 's World Cup . The German team won the three games on the group stage , over Canada , France and Nigeria . On the quarterfinals , the team suffered an upset by Japan , who won on overtime with a goal by Karina Maruyama . The defeat broke the Germans ' streak of sixteen undefeated games at the World Cup . By failing to finish among the top two UEFA teams , Germany was unable to qualify for the 2012 Summer Olympics .
At the 2013 European Championship in Sweden , the Germans won their sixth straight continental title , with the decisive game being a 1 @-@ 0 victory over Norway . Goalkeeper Nadine Angerer , who stopped two penalties during the final , was chosen as the tournament 's best player . The 2015 FIFA Women 's World Cup had Germany again reaching the top four . In the semifinal against the United States , Celia Sasic , who wound up as the tournament 's top scorer , missed a penalty , and afterwards goals by Carli Lloyd and Kelley O 'Hara lead to an American victory . The third place match saw the Germans lose their first ever match to England after 21 contests , due to a penalty kick by Fara Williams during extra time .
= = Tournament record = =
= = = World Cup = = =
Germany is one of the most successful nations at the FIFA Women 's World Cup , having won the tournament twice and finishing runner @-@ up once . The German team won the World Cup in 2003 and 2007 . At the first World Cup in 1991 , they finished in fourth place . In 1995 , Germany reached the World Cup final , but were defeated by Norway . The team 's worst results were quarter @-@ final losses to the United States in 1999 , and Japan in 2011 . Overall , the German team has appeared in three Women 's World Cup finals , and is a five @-@ time semi @-@ finalist . They have participated in every Women 's World Cup and have a 26 – 5 – 8 win – draw – loss record .
* Denotes draws including knockout matches decided on penalty kicks .
* * Gold background colour indicates that the tournament was won .
* * * Red border color indicates tournament was held on home soil .
= = = Olympic Games = = =
The Olympic gold medal is the only major international title Germany has not won . Women 's football debuted at the 1996 Summer Olympics and Bettina Wiegmann scored the first Olympic goal in the opening game of the tournament . However , Germany failed to progress to the knockout stage and was eliminated after Round 1 . Four years later the German team won the bronze medal at the 2000 Summer Olympics . They again finished third at both the 2004 and the 2008 Summer Olympics .
The German team has qualified for all Women 's Olympic Football Tournaments until 2008 . However , they failed to qualify for the 2012 tournament as UEFA used the 2011 World Cup for qualification , and Germany ended below France and Sweden .
= = = European Championship = = =
Germany failed to qualify for the first two UEFA European Championships in 1984 and 1987 . Since 1989 , the German team has participated in every tournament and is the record European champion with eight titles . Germany has won the last six consecutive championships and has an overall 32 – 5 – 2 win – draw – loss record . The worst German result at the European championship finals was finishing fourth in 1993 .
* Denotes draws including knockout matches decided on penalty kicks .
* * Gold background colour indicates that the tournament was won .
* * * Red border color indicates tournament was held on home soil .
* * * * Missing flag indicates no host country ; tournament was played in two @-@ leg knockout rounds ( with the exception of the 1995 final ) .
= = Coaches = =
Former German international Silvia Neid is the current head coach of the German women 's national football team . As a player , she won 111 caps and scored 48 goals . The coach 's official title is DFB @-@ Trainer and he or she is employed by the German Football Association .
Gero Bisanz was the first coach of the women 's national team . He selected his first squad in September 1982 . At the same time , he also worked as the chief instructor for DFB coaching training from 1971 to 2000 . Bisanz led the German team to three European Championships in 1989 , 1991 and 1995 . Under Bisanz , Germany also was runner @-@ up at the 1995 Women 's World Cup . He resigned after the German team was eliminated in Round 1 at the 1996 Summer Olympics . With his assistant since 1983 , Tina Theune , he built a scouting system and was responsible for a new DFB youth programme .
Tina Theune took over as head coach after the 1996 Summer Olympics . She was the first woman to acquire the highest German football coaching license . Theune was responsible for three European Championship titles in 1997 , 2001 and 2005 . During her time as head coach , Germany won the bronze medal at the 2000 and 2004 Summer Olympics . Her biggest success was the 2003 Women 's World Cup title . Theune is the most successful national coach to date . She benefited from an effective youth programme and integrated several Under @-@ 19 players into the nation team . Theune stepped down after winning the European Championship in 2005 .
Silvia Neid was the team 's assistant coach from 1996 to 2005 and the head coach of the German Under @-@ 19 team , who won the 2004 U @-@ 19 Women 's World Championship . In July 2005 , she became the team 's head coach and the 2006 Algarve Cup marked her first tournament win . By winning the 2007 Women ’ s World Cup , Neid became the first German national coach ( men 's and women ’ s team ) to win the World Cup at the first attempt . At her first Summer Olympics as a coach in 2008 , Germany won the bronze medal for a third time . Neid was also responsible for Germany 's seventh European Championship in 2009 . She is signed until 2016 and her assistant is Ulrike Ballweg .
On 30 March 2015 it was announced that Steffi Jones would become the new German head coach in 2016 .
= = = Statistical summary = = =
* Key : P – games played , W – games won , D – games drawn ; L – games lost , % – win percentage . Statistics as of 22 July 2016 .
= = Venues = =
The German national football team has no national stadium . Like the men , the women 's team play their home matches in different stadiums throughout the country . As of June 2011 , they have played in 87 different German cities . Most home games have been held in Osnabrück with six matches , followed by Ulm ( five games ) , and Bochum , Kaiserslautern , Koblenz , Lüdenscheid , Rheine , Siegen and Weil am Rhein ( three games each ) . The first home match in former East Germany was played in Aue in May 1991 .
In the 1980s and 1990s , home matches were mostly played in smaller towns with no professional football clubs . As the team became more successful , especially after the World Cup win in 2003 , the number of spectators rose accordingly . Today , the team usually plays in stadiums with 10 @,@ 000 to 25 @,@ 000 seats . The ten largest German cities have only hosted five international matches . The team have played twice in Frankfurt and Berlin , and once Hamburg . Bremen , Dortmund , Düsseldorf , Essen , Cologne , Munich and Stuttgart have never hosted an international match of the women 's team .
Outside Germany , they have played the most games in Faro , Portugal ( 10 matches ) , and Guangzhou , China ( six matches ) , the host cities of the annual Algarve Cup and the Four Nations Tournament respectively . They have also played five games in Albufeira , Portugal ( also an Algarve Cup venue ) , and four times in Minneapolis in the United States .
The record attendance for Germany was 73 @,@ 680 in the 2011 Women 's World Cup opening game against Canada at the Olympic Stadium in Berlin . That game also set a new European record in women 's football . Away from home , the team 's crowd record was 54 @,@ 642 in the 1999 Women 's World Cup quarter @-@ final against the United States at the Jack Kent Cooke Stadium in Landover .
= = Colours = =
The German women 's national football team wears white shirts with black shorts and white socks , following the tradition of the German men 's team – black and white are the colours of Prussia . The current change kit is red and black , with black shorts and red socks . In the past , Germany also used green shirts with white shorts and green socks as the away kit .
The women 's national team originally played with the emblem of the German men 's team , a variation of the DFB logo with the Federal Eagle of Germany ( Bundesadler ) and three stars at the top for the men 's 1954 , 1974 and 1990 World Cup titles . Since their first Women 's World Cup win in 2003 , the team displays its own World Cup titles ; initially with one star , and since 2007 , with two stars at the top of the emblem . While being reigning world champions , Germany also displayed the newly created " FIFA Women 's World Champions Badge " on their shirts from 2009 until 2011 when they were succeeded by Japan .
In accordance with the rules of the International Olympic Committee , Germany does not wear its official uniform with the logo of the German Football Association while competing at the Summer Olympics . Instead , the DFB badge is replaced by the coat of arms of Germany . Like all DFB squads , the women 's national team is supplied by Adidas , which had provided a specifically designed female football jersey since 1999 . The team 's main sponsor is the German insurance company Allianz .
= = Acceptance and popularity = =
For most of the 20th century , women 's football was a niche sport in Germany and was frowned upon . When the DFB appointed Gero Bisanz to coach the newly founded women 's national team , he was initially very reluctant about his assignment and feared it would harm his reputation . Winning the 1989 European Championship was the team 's first international success , but it had little lasting effect on their popularity . As a gift for the first European trophy , every player received a tea set , which is often cited as an example of male chauvinism and general lack of interest in the women 's national team at that time . This attitude within the German Football Association has changed considerably in the last two decades , in particular during the term of Theo Zwanziger as DFB president , an outspoken supporter of women 's football . Each member of the 2003 Women 's World Cup squad received a prearranged bonus of 15 @,@ 000 euros for winning the tournament ; four years later the players received 50 @,@ 000 euros for their successful title defense . In 2009 , one million of the 6 @.@ 7 million DFB members were female .
The 2003 World Cup title marked the breakthrough for the women ’ s national football team in Germany . The final was watched by 10 @.@ 48 million viewers on German television ( a 33 @.@ 2 percent market share ) and the German team was welcomed home by almost 10 @,@ 000 fans at Frankfurt 's city hall . Later that year , they were honoured as the 2003 German Sports Team of the Year . Nia Künzer 's World Cup winning golden goal was voted Germany 's 2003 Goal of the Year , the first time the award was won by a female player . Since 2005 , almost all of the women ’ s national football team 's matches have been shown live on German television .
The final of the 2007 Women 's World Cup was seen by 9 @.@ 05 million television viewers ( a 50 @.@ 5 percent market share ) . After the team returned to Germany , they were celebrated by a crowd of 20 @,@ 000 in Frankfurt . In December 2007 , all players of the World Cup squad received the Silberne Lorbeerblatt ( Silver Laurel Leaf ) , the highest state decoration for athletes in Germany . National coach Silvia Neid was awarded the Federal Cross of Merit on ribbon by German president Horst Köhler .
In 2009 , the team 's six home matches had an average attendance of 22 @,@ 753 . In a survey of German football fans , 65 percent of the male and 62 percent of the female respondents said they were interested in women 's football . However , this popularity is mostly limited to international matches . Although the number of spectators in the women 's Bundesliga has more than doubled since 2003 , the average attendance in the 2007 – 08 season ( 887 ) was still less than three percent of that of the men 's Bundesliga ( 38 @,@ 612 ) .
Today , women 's football is socially accepted in Germany , although one of the main points of criticism remains the alleged lack of quality compared to the men ’ s game . The German women ’ s national team has played several exhibition matches against male teams , most notably losing 0 – 3 to the VfB Stuttgart Under @-@ 17 squad in preparation for the 2003 World Cup . Most German players dismiss comparisons between the quality of men 's and women 's football ; Renate Lingor has said they are " two entirely different sports " . Players such as Simone Laudehr , Ariane Hingst and Melanie Behringer have stated that men ’ s football is played at a much faster pace , but also has more interruptions and brutal tackling than the women 's game . Linda Bresonik has said she generally prefers to watch men 's football .
= = Results and fixtures = =
= = = UEFA Women 's Euro 2017 = = =
= = = Fixtures = = =
= = Current squad = =
The following 18 players were called up for the 2016 Summer Olympics .
Caps and goals as of 22 July 2016 .
Head coach : Silvia Neid
= = Records = =
Birgit Prinz , a former team captain who retired after the 2011 World Cup , holds the record for Germany appearances , having played 214 times from 1994 to 2011 . She is one of 16 German players to have reached 100 caps . Kerstin Stegemann is second , having played 191 times . Bettina Wiegmann , Germany 's team captain during the 2003 World Cup win , comes fourth with 154 games . Prinz exceeded Wiegmann ’ s record as the most capped player in November 2006 . Wiegmann is the only honorary captain of the German women ’ s national football team .
The title of Germany ’ s highest goalscorer is also held by Prinz . She scored her first goal in July 1994 against Canada and finished her career with 128 goals ( averaging 0 @.@ 60 goals per game ) . Heidi Mohr , as well as being the second @-@ highest scorer , is also the most prolific with 83 goals coming from 104 games ( averaging 0 @.@ 80 goals per game ) . Two players share the record for goals scored in one match : Conny Pohlers scored five goals in October 2001 against Portugal , and Inka Grings scored five times in February 2004 , again facing Portugal . Silvia Neid , the current German national coach , is the fifth highest goalscorer with 48 goals in 111 games .
The largest margin of victory achieved by Germany is 17 – 0 against Kazakhstan during a European Championship qualifying game in November 2011 . The record defeat , a 0 – 6 deficit against the United States , occurred during a friendly match in March 1996 .
Silke Rottenberg has the most appearances for a goalkeeper with 126 caps and 67 games without conceding a goal . Current goalkeeper Nadine Angerer is second , with 124 games ( 80 without conceding a goal ) . Bettina Wiegmann holds the record of 14 goals from penalty kicks ; Renate Lingor comes in second with 8 goals . Tina Wunderlich scored the team 's only own goal in the semi @-@ final of the 2000 Summer Olympics against Norway ; it was the game 's only goal .
The German team also holds several international records . In 2007 , they were the first to win two consecutive Women 's World Cup titles and they achieved the biggest win in tournament history by beating Argentina 11 – 0 . Germany is also the only team to win either the men 's or women 's World Cup without conceding a goal and the only country to win both World Cups . With 14 goals , Prinz became the overall top goalscorer at the Women 's World Cup in 2007 , and she and Brazilian Marta are the only women to have received the FIFA World Player of the Year award at least three times .
= = Titles = =
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= New Don Pedro Dam =
New Don Pedro Dam , often known simply as Don Pedro Dam , is an earthen embankment dam across the Tuolumne River , about 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) northeast of La Grange , in Tuolumne County , California . The dam was completed in 1971 , after four years of construction , to replace the 1924 concrete @-@ arch Don Pedro Dam .
The dam serves mainly for irrigation water storage , flood control and hydroelectricity production , and impounds Don Pedro Reservoir in the foothills of the Sierra Nevada .
The New Don Pedro Dam is owned and operated by the Modesto Irrigation District ( MID ) and Turlock Irrigation District ( TID ) . At 585 feet ( 178 m ) tall , the dam is the tenth highest in the U.S. and its reservoir is the sixth largest artificial lake in California .
The original dam was named for the old mining town of Don Pedros Bar on the Tuolumne River , which in turn takes its name from prospector Pierre " Don Pedro " Sainsevain .
= = Background = =
Shortly after their formation in 1887 , the MID and TID acquired water rights to the Tuolumne River to secure a water supply for their combined 1 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ mile ( 2 @,@ 600 km2 ) service area in the San Joaquin Valley . After selling revenue bonds totaling $ 4 @.@ 1 million , the two irrigation districts began construction of the Don Pedro Dam ( now known as Old Don Pedro Dam ) in 1921 , about one and a half miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) upriver of the present location of New Don Pedro Dam . Upon its completion in 1923 , this 284 @-@ foot ( 87 m ) concrete gravity arch dam was the highest dam in the world , forming a 289 @,@ 000 @-@ acre @-@ foot ( 0 @.@ 356 km3 ) reservoir with a surface area of 3 @,@ 086 acres ( 1 @,@ 249 ha ) . The dam 's 15 megawatt ( MW ) hydroelectric plant , later expanded to 37 @.@ 5 MW , delivered its first power in October 1923 .
Expanding Don Pedro or constructing a new dam altogether was first seriously considered in the 1940s because the existing dam could only store a year 's supply of water for valley farmers , with no guarantee that a multiyear drought could be weathered . An enlarged Don Pedro would provide a " bank " of water storage for prolonged droughts , capture more spring runoff , and provide increased flood control . Another proponent of a high dam was the city of San Francisco , which also sought a share of the Tuolumne 's water and decided to cooperate with the irrigation districts to construct the new dam . The U.S. Bureau of Reclamation made tentative studies for a high dam on the Tuolumne River as part of its Central Valley Project , though it later dropped the plans in favor of other sites .
= = Construction = =
In 1961 , an overwhelming majority of voters in the TID and MID service areas and San Francisco approved bond issues to finance the construction of a new dam . The irrigation districts hoped to complete the dam by 1966 , but concerns that the dam would further impact decreasing populations of king salmon in the Tuolumne put a temporary stop to the project . In fact , it was not until that year that the Federal Power Commission ( now Federal Energy Regulatory Commission ) licensed the irrigation districts to go ahead on New Don Pedro .
The $ 49 @.@ 7 million primary construction contract for the dam was awarded to Guy F. Atkinson Company on August 22 , 1967 . When he first saw the dam site , chief engineer John Goodier was reported to have said " [ it 'd be a ] tough nut to crack " . Clearing the dam site began immediately afterwards , in addition to the construction of access roads and a camp for construction workers . Construction of the dam 's service spillway began a week later on August 29 . On September 22 , 1967 , work began on the diversion tunnel that would allow the river to bypass the construction site . The 3 @,@ 415 @-@ foot ( 1 @,@ 041 m ) tunnel was fully excavated by March 13 of the following year and lined with reinforced concrete by August . On September 7 , a 40 @-@ foot ( 12 m ) cofferdam was constructed and the diversion tunnel began to carry the flow of the Tuolumne . As the dam site dried out , the foundations were excavated down to bedrock ; cracks in the rock were injected with so @-@ called " dental concrete " to stabilize the foundation .
Construction of the embankment began on September 16 , 1968 using the hydraulic fill method . The dam 's massive concrete emergency spillway was completed on January 19 , 1969 . However , severe flooding on January 26 destroyed the cofferdam and all of the construction site 's bridges , putting work a month behind schedule . Cleanup proceeded at a rapid pace and placing of impervious material for the dam 's core commenced on February 27 . For the next fifteen months , a fleet of massive 125 @-@ ton ( 113 t ) dump trucks delivered an almost constant stream of dirt and rock to the site , and the dam wall rose at an average rate of one and a half feet ( 0 @.@ 5 m ) per day . The workforce peaked at 500 men in mid @-@ 1969 and on December 10 , the service spillway was completed . On May 28 , 1970 , the embankment was finally topped out with the last of over 250 @,@ 000 truckloads of material .
After the clearing of over 7 @,@ 000 acres ( 2 @,@ 800 ha ) of the future reservoir site and the relocation of several roads that ran through it , the diversion tunnel was closed and water began to rise behind New Don Pedro . The rising lake submerged Old Don Pedro Dam on April 12 , 1970 and inundated the Gold Rush town of Jacksonville by June . The powerhouse and penstocks were completed by August 1970 , after lengthy delays and setbacks due to the sheer scale of the generators , pipes and gates used in their construction . Some of the individual components were so heavy that a truck delivering one of the penstock sections sank up to its trailer bed in the road , and another was crushed when the driver braked , inadvertently snapping the chains that held the load in place .
The total cost of the New Don Pedro Dam project , including site preparations , reservoir clearing and road relocations , was $ 115 @,@ 679 @,@ 000 . The dam was formally dedicated on May 22 , 1971 to a crowd of over 3 @,@ 000 people . Among the dedication ceremonies were a speech by San Francisco mayor Joseph Alioto and a beef barbecue hosted by TID .
= = Design and usage = =
Rising 585 feet ( 178 m ) above its foundations and 560 feet ( 170 m ) above the Tuolumne River , New Don Pedro is a massive earth and rock fill structure containing 16 @,@ 750 @,@ 000 cubic yards ( 12 @,@ 810 @,@ 000 m3 ) of material . The 1 @,@ 900 @-@ foot ( 580 m ) long dam is 40 feet ( 12 m ) wide at the crest and over 2 @,@ 800 feet ( 850 m ) wide at the base . High water releases are controlled by four sets of gates . A set of internal gates in the diversion tunnel can release up to 7 @,@ 370 cubic feet per second ( 209 m3 / s ) , while a hollow jet valve at the base of the dam can discharge 3 @,@ 100 cubic feet per second ( 88 m3 / s ) . The service spillway , controlled by three 45 @-@ by @-@ 30 @-@ foot ( 13 @.@ 7 m × 9 @.@ 1 m ) radial gates , has a capacity of 172 @,@ 000 cubic feet per second ( 4 @,@ 900 m3 / s ) , and finally the emergency spillway , a 995 @-@ foot ( 303 m ) long concrete overflow structure , can discharge more than 300 @,@ 000 cubic feet per second ( 8 @,@ 500 m3 / s ) .
The hydroelectric plant at the base of the dam has four generators capable of producing 203 MW combined . The TID 's share is 139 MW or 68 @.@ 47 % , while MID receives 64 MW or 31 @.@ 53 % . Three generators , each with a capacity of 55 MW , were included in the original design of the dam while an additional 38 MW generator was incorporated in 1989 . The plant generates an average of 618 @.@ 4 million kilowatt hours ( KWh ) of electricity each year , equal to an average output of 70 @.@ 6 MW . The cities of Modesto and Turlock receive a large share of their power supplies from New Don Pedro Dam .
Don Pedro Reservoir has a capacity of 2 @,@ 030 @,@ 000 acre feet ( 2 @.@ 50 km3 ) , of which 340 @,@ 000 acre feet ( 0 @.@ 42 km3 ) is reserved for flood control and 1 @,@ 381 @,@ 000 acre feet ( 1 @.@ 703 km3 ) is available for irrigation , municipal water supply , and hydroelectric generation . The flood control reservation is one of the smallest among major California reservoirs because it allows for more water to be stored for power generation , but this has often resulted in inadequate flood protection such as in 1997 when the dam released more than 50 @,@ 000 cubic feet per second ( 1 @,@ 400 m3 / s ) – almost six times the capacity of downstream levees . The bottom 309 @,@ 000 acre feet ( 0 @.@ 381 km3 ) is considered dead storage , or the lowest point at which water can be released to generate power . At an elevation of 804 feet ( 245 m ) ( service spillway crest ) , the reservoir is 25 miles ( 40 km ) long , and has an area of 12 @,@ 960 acres ( 5 @,@ 240 ha ) with 160 miles ( 260 km ) of shoreline . The maximum elevation of the reservoir at the crest of the emergency spillway is 830 feet ( 250 m ) above sea level .
During construction of the dam , it was anticipated that the large size and scenic location of the reservoir , coupled with its proximity to urban centers , would make it a large tourist draw . A $ 40 @,@ 000 plan was put forth to develop the reservoir for recreational activities . This entailed the construction of campsites , picnic areas , boat ramps , a landing strip , and hiking trails , including on 14 of the 33 islands in the lake . Don Pedro has become a popular summer destination in Central California , attracting 360 @,@ 000 – 400 @,@ 000 visitors each year .
= = Future development = =
In 1923 , the same year that Old Don Pedro was completed , the City of San Francisco finished construction of O 'Shaughnessy Dam , which forms a reservoir in the upper Tuolumne River 's Hetch Hetchy Valley and is the focus of one of the most longstanding environmental controversies in United States history . Proponents of the dam 's removal , including former Sierra Club president David Brower , suggest raising New Don Pedro Dam to replace the storage that would be lost with the draining of Hetch Hetchy . Increasing the height of New Don Pedro by just 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) would add about 360 @,@ 000 acre feet ( 0 @.@ 44 km3 ) to the reservoir 's storage capacity , replacing most of the storage in Hetch Hetchy , though new tunnels would have to be built to deliver water from Don Pedro Reservoir to the Hetch Hetchy Aqueduct and there would be a net loss of hydroelectric generation from O 'Shaughnessy . Of note is that San Francisco is already entitled to 453 @,@ 000 acre feet ( 0 @.@ 559 km3 ) of the water stored in Don Pedro , although this allocation is overruled by the senior water rights of the irrigation districts during dry years .
TID is currently investigating the feasibility of constructing a large pumped @-@ storage hydroelectric plant on Lake Don Pedro in order to better meet peaking power demands without releasing extra water at New Don Pedro Dam . The proposed Red Mountain Bar Project would involve building a 465 @-@ foot ( 142 m ) high dam across a canyon adjacent to Lake Don Pedro , creating a reservoir with a capacity of 25 @,@ 000 to 42 @,@ 000 acre feet ( 0 @.@ 031 to 0 @.@ 052 km3 ) . Water would be pumped into this new reservoir using power generated at New Don Pedro Dam during periods of low electricity demand , while during high demand water would be released through a penstock to an 880 MW generating facility . As of September 2011 , poor economic conditions had put the project " on hold indefinitely " .
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= Walt Whitman =
Walter " Walt " Whitman ( / ˈhwɪtmən / ; May 31 , 1819 – March 26 , 1892 ) was an American poet , essayist , and journalist . A humanist , he was a part of the transition between transcendentalism and realism , incorporating both views in his works . Whitman is among the most influential poets in the American canon , often called the father of free verse . His work was very controversial in its time , particularly his poetry collection Leaves of Grass , which was described as obscene for its overt sexuality .
Born in Huntington on Long Island , Whitman worked as a journalist , a teacher , a government clerk , and — in addition to publishing his poetry — was a volunteer nurse during the American Civil War . Early in his career , he also produced a temperance novel , Franklin Evans ( 1842 ) . Whitman 's major work , Leaves of Grass , was first published in 1855 with his own money . The work was an attempt at reaching out to the common person with an American epic . He continued expanding and revising it until his death in 1892 . After a stroke towards the end of his life , he moved to Camden , New Jersey , where his health further declined . When he died at age 72 , his funeral became a public spectacle .
= = Life and work = =
= = = Early life = = =
Walter Whitman was born on May 31 , 1819 , in West Hills , Town of Huntington , Long Island , to parents with interests in Quaker thought , Walter and Louisa Van Velsor Whitman . The second of nine children , he was immediately nicknamed " Walt " to distinguish him from his father . Walter Whitman , Sr. named three of his seven sons after American leaders : Andrew Jackson , George Washington , and Thomas Jefferson . The oldest was named Jesse and another boy died unnamed at the age of six months . The couple 's sixth son , the youngest , was named Edward . At age four , Whitman moved with his family from West Hills to Brooklyn , living in a series of homes , in part due to bad investments . Whitman looked back on his childhood as generally restless and unhappy , given his family 's difficult economic status . One happy moment that he later recalled was when he was lifted in the air and kissed on the cheek by the Marquis de Lafayette during a celebration in Brooklyn on July 4 , 1825 .
At age eleven Whitman concluded formal schooling . He then sought employment for further income for his family ; he was an office boy for two lawyers and later was an apprentice and printer 's devil for the weekly Long Island newspaper the Patriot , edited by Samuel E. Clements . There , Whitman learned about the printing press and typesetting . He may have written " sentimental bits " of filler material for occasional issues . Clements aroused controversy when he and two friends attempted to dig up the corpse of Elias Hicks to create a plaster mold of his head . Clements left the Patriot shortly afterward , possibly as a result of the controversy .
= = = Early career = = =
The following summer Whitman worked for another printer , Erastus Worthington , in Brooklyn . His family moved back to West Hills in the spring , but Whitman remained and took a job at the shop of Alden Spooner , editor of the leading Whig weekly newspaper the Long @-@ Island Star . While at the Star , Whitman became a regular patron of the local library , joined a town debating society , began attending theater performances , and anonymously published some of his earliest poetry in the New York Mirror . At age 16 in May 1835 , Whitman left the Star and Brooklyn . He moved to New York City to work as a compositor though , in later years , Whitman could not remember where . He attempted to find further work but had difficulty , in part due to a severe fire in the printing and publishing district , and in part due to a general collapse in the economy leading up to the Panic of 1837 . In May 1836 , he rejoined his family , now living in Hempstead , Long Island . Whitman taught intermittently at various schools until the spring of 1838 , though he was not satisfied as a teacher .
After his teaching attempts , Whitman went back to Huntington , New York to found his own newspaper , the Long Islander . Whitman served as publisher , editor , pressman , and distributor and even provided home delivery . After ten months , he sold the publication to E. O. Crowell , whose first issue appeared on July 12 , 1839 . There are no known surviving copies of the Long @-@ Islander published under Whitman . By the summer of 1839 , he found a job as a typesetter in Jamaica , Queens with the Long Island Democrat , edited by James J. Brenton . He left shortly thereafter , and made another attempt at teaching from the winter of 1840 to the spring of 1841 . One story , possibly apocryphal , tells of Whitman 's being chased away from a teaching job in Southold , New York in 1840 . After a local preacher called him a " Sodomite " , Whitman was allegedly tarred and feathered . Biographer Justin Kaplan notes that the story is likely untrue , because Whitman regularly vacationed in the town thereafter . Biographer Jerome Loving calls the incident a " myth " . During this time , Whitman published a series of ten editorials , called " Sun @-@ Down Papers — From the Desk of a Schoolmaster " , in three newspapers between the winter of 1840 and July 1841 . In these essays , he adopted a constructed persona , a technique he would employ throughout his career .
Whitman moved to New York City in May , initially working a low @-@ level job at the New World , working under Park Benjamin , Sr. and Rufus Wilmot Griswold . He continued working for short periods of time for various newspapers ; in 1842 he was editor of the Aurora and from 1846 to 1848 he was editor of the Brooklyn Eagle .
He also contributed freelance fiction and poetry throughout the 1840s . Whitman lost his position at the Brooklyn Eagle in 1848 after siding with the free @-@ soil " Barnburner " wing of the Democratic party against the newspaper 's owner , Isaac Van Anden , who belonged to the conservative , or " Hunker " , wing of the party . Whitman was a delegate to the 1848 founding convention of the Free Soil Party .
In 1858 , Whitman published a 47 @,@ 000 word series called Manly Health and Training under the pen name Mose Velsor . Apparently he drew the name Velsor from Van Velsor , his mother 's family name . This self @-@ help guide recommends beards , nude sunbathing , comfortable shoes , bathing daily in cold water , eating meat almost exclusively , plenty of fresh air , and getting up early each morning . Present @-@ day writers have called Manly Health and Training " quirky " , " so over the top " , " a pseudoscientific tract " , and " wacky " .
= = = Leaves of Grass = = =
Whitman claimed that after years of competing for " the usual rewards " , he determined to become a poet . He first experimented with a variety of popular literary genres which appealed to the cultural tastes of the period . As early as 1850 , he began writing what would become Leaves of Grass , a collection of poetry which he would continue editing and revising until his death . Whitman intended to write a distinctly American epic and used free verse with a cadence based on the Bible . At the end of June 1855 , Whitman surprised his brothers with the already @-@ printed first edition of Leaves of Grass . George " didn 't think it worth reading " .
Whitman paid for the publication of the first edition of Leaves of Grass himself and had it printed at a local print shop during their breaks from commercial jobs . A total of 795 copies were printed . No name is given as author ; instead , facing the title page was an engraved portrait done by Samuel Hollyer , but 500 lines into the body of the text he calls himself " Walt Whitman , an American , one of the roughs , a kosmos , disorderly , fleshly , and sensual , no sentimentalist , no stander above men or women or apart from them , no more modest than immodest " . The inaugural volume of poetry was preceded by a prose preface of 827 lines . The succeeding untitled twelve poems totaled 2315 lines — 1336 lines belonging to the first untitled poem , later called " Song of Myself " . The book received its strongest praise from Ralph Waldo Emerson , who wrote a flattering five @-@ page letter to Whitman and spoke highly of the book to friends . The first edition of Leaves of Grass was widely distributed and stirred up significant interest , in part due to Emerson 's approval , but was occasionally criticized for the seemingly " obscene " nature of the poetry . Geologist John Peter Lesley wrote to Emerson , calling the book " trashy , profane & obscene " and the author " a pretentious ass " . On July 11 , 1855 , a few days after Leaves of Grass was published , Whitman 's father died at the age of 65 .
In the months following the first edition of Leaves of Grass , critical responses began focusing more on the potentially offensive sexual themes . Though the second edition was already printed and bound , the publisher almost did not release it . In the end , the edition went to retail , with 20 additional poems , in August 1856 . Leaves of Grass was revised and re @-@ released in 1860 again in 1867 , and several more times throughout the remainder of Whitman 's life . Several well @-@ known writers admired the work enough to visit Whitman , including Bronson Alcott and Henry David Thoreau .
During the first publications of Leaves of Grass , Whitman had financial difficulties and was forced to work as a journalist again , specifically with Brooklyn 's Daily Times starting in May 1857 . As an editor , he oversaw the paper 's contents , contributed book reviews , and wrote editorials . He left the job in 1859 , though it is unclear if he was fired or chose to leave . Whitman , who typically kept detailed notebooks and journals , left very little information about himself in the late 1850s .
= = = Civil War years = = =
As the American Civil War was beginning , Whitman published his poem " Beat ! Beat ! Drums ! " as a patriotic rally call for the North . Whitman 's brother George had joined the Union army and began sending Whitman several vividly detailed letters of the battle front . On December 16 , 1862 , a listing of fallen and wounded soldiers in the New York Tribune included " First Lieutenant G. W. Whitmore " , which Whitman worried was a reference to his brother George . He made his way south immediately to find him , though his wallet was stolen on the way . " Walking all day and night , unable to ride , trying to get information , trying to get access to big people " , Whitman later wrote , he eventually found George alive , with only a superficial wound on his cheek . Whitman , profoundly affected by seeing the wounded soldiers and the heaps of their amputated limbs , left for Washington on December 28 , 1862 with the intention of never returning to New York .
In Washington , D.C. , Whitman 's friend Charley Eldridge helped him obtain part @-@ time work in the army paymaster 's office , leaving time for Whitman to volunteer as a nurse in the army hospitals . He would write of this experience in " The Great Army of the Sick " , published in a New York newspaper in 1863 and , 12 years later , in a book called Memoranda During the War . He then contacted Emerson , this time to ask for help in obtaining a government post . Another friend , John Trowbridge , passed on a letter of recommendation from Emerson to Salmon P. Chase , Secretary of the Treasury , hoping he would grant Whitman a position in that department . Chase , however , did not want to hire the author of such a disreputable book as Leaves of Grass .
The Whitman family had a difficult end to 1864 . On September 30 , 1864 , Whitman 's brother George was captured by Confederates in Virginia , and another brother , Andrew Jackson , died of tuberculosis compounded by alcoholism on December 3 . That month , Whitman committed his brother Jesse to the Kings County Lunatic Asylum . Whitman 's spirits were raised , however , when he finally got a better @-@ paying government post as a low @-@ grade clerk in the Bureau of Indian Affairs in the Department of the Interior , thanks to his friend William Douglas O 'Connor . O 'Connor , a poet , daguerreotypist and an editor at the Saturday Evening Post , had written to William Tod Otto , Assistant Secretary of the Interior , on Whitman 's behalf . Whitman began the new appointment on January 24 , 1865 , with a yearly salary of $ 1 @,@ 200 . A month later , on February 24 , 1865 , George was released from capture and granted a furlough because of his poor health . By May 1 , Whitman received a promotion to a slightly higher clerkship and published Drum @-@ Taps .
Effective June 30 , 1865 , however , Whitman was fired from his job . His dismissal came from the new Secretary of the Interior , former Iowa Senator James Harlan . Though Harlan dismissed several clerks who " were seldom at their respective desks " , he may have fired Whitman on moral grounds after finding an 1860 edition of Leaves of Grass . O 'Connor protested until J. Hubley Ashton had Whitman transferred to the Attorney General 's office on July 1 . O 'Connor , though , was still upset and vindicated Whitman by publishing a biased and exaggerated biographical study , The Good Gray Poet , in January 1866 . The fifty @-@ cent pamphlet defended Whitman as a wholesome patriot , established the poet 's nickname and increased his popularity . Also aiding in his popularity was the publication of " O Captain ! My Captain ! " , a relatively conventional poem on the death of Abraham Lincoln , the only poem to appear in anthologies during Whitman 's lifetime .
Part of Whitman 's role at the Attorney General 's office was interviewing former Confederate soldiers for Presidential pardons . " There are real characters among them " , he later wrote , " and you know I have a fancy for anything out of the ordinary . " In August 1866 , he took a month off in order to prepare a new edition of Leaves of Grass which would not be published until 1867 after difficulty in finding a publisher . He hoped it would be its last edition . In February 1868 , Poems of Walt Whitman was published in England thanks to the influence of William Michael Rossetti , with minor changes that Whitman reluctantly approved . The edition became popular in England , especially with endorsements from the highly respected writer Anne Gilchrist . Another edition of Leaves of Grass was issued in 1871 , the same year it was mistakenly reported that its author died in a railroad accident . As Whitman 's international fame increased , he remained at the attorney general 's office until January 1872 . He spent much of 1872 caring for his mother who was now nearly eighty and struggling with arthritis . He also traveled and was invited to Dartmouth College to give the commencement address on June 26 , 1872 .
= = = Health decline and death = = =
After suffering a paralytic stroke in early 1873 , Whitman was induced to move from Washington to the home of his brother — George Washington Whitman , an engineer — at 431 Stevens Street in Camden , New Jersey . His mother , having fallen ill , was also there and died that same year in May . Both events were difficult for Whitman and left him depressed . He remained at his brother 's home until buying his own in 1884 . However , before purchasing his home , he spent the greatest period of his residence in Camden at his brother 's home in Stevens Street . While in residence there he was very productive , publishing three versions of Leaves of Grass among other works . He was also last fully physically active in this house , receiving both Oscar Wilde and Thomas Eakins . His other brother , Edward , an " invalid " since birth , lived in the house .
When his brother and sister @-@ in @-@ law were forced to move for business reasons , he bought his own house at 328 Mickle Street ( now 330 Dr. Martin Luther King Jr . Boulevard ) . First taken care of by tenants , he was completely bedridden for most of his time in Mickle Street . During this time , he began socializing with Mary Oakes Davis — the widow of a sea captain . She was a neighbor , boarding with a family in Bridge Avenue just a few blocks from Mickle Street . She moved in with Whitman on February 24 , 1885 , to serve as his housekeeper in exchange for free rent . She brought with her a cat , a dog , two turtledoves , a canary , and other assorted animals . During this time , Whitman produced further editions of Leaves of Grass in 1876 , 1881 , and 1889 .
While in Southern New Jersey Whitman spent a good portion of his time in the then quite pastoral community of Laurel Springs between 1876 and 1884 , converting one of the Stafford Farm buildings to his summer home . The restored summer home has been preserved as museum by the local historical society . Part of his Leaves of Grass was written here , and in his Specimen Days he wrote of the spring , creek and lake . To him , Laurel Lake was " the prettiest lake in : either America or Europe . "
As the end of 1891 approached , he prepared a final edition of Leaves of Grass , a version that has been nicknamed the " Deathbed Edition . " He wrote , " L. of G. at last complete — after 33 y 'rs of hackling at it , all times & moods of my life , fair weather & foul , all parts of the land , and peace & war , young & old . " Preparing for death , Whitman commissioned a granite mausoleum shaped like a house for $ 4 @,@ 000 and visited it often during construction . In the last week of his life , he was too weak to lift a knife or fork and wrote : " I suffer all the time : I have no relief , no escape : it is monotony — monotony — monotony — in pain . "
Whitman died on March 26 , 1892 . An autopsy revealed his lungs had diminished to one @-@ eighth their normal breathing capacity , a result of bronchial pneumonia , and that an egg @-@ sized abscess on his chest had eroded one of his ribs . The cause of death was officially listed as " pleurisy of the left side , consumption of the right lung , general miliary tuberculosis and parenchymatous nephritis . " A public viewing of his body was held at his Camden home ; over one thousand people visited in three hours . Whitman 's oak coffin was barely visible because of all the flowers and wreaths left for him . Four days after his death , he was buried in his tomb at Harleigh Cemetery in Camden . Another public ceremony was held at the cemetery , with friends giving speeches , live music , and refreshments . Whitman 's friend , the orator Robert Ingersoll , delivered the eulogy . Later , the remains of Whitman 's parents and two of his brothers and their families were moved to the mausoleum .
= = Writing = =
Whitman 's work breaks the boundaries of poetic form and is generally prose @-@ like . He also used unusual images and symbols in his poetry , including rotting leaves , tufts of straw , and debris . He also openly wrote about death and sexuality , including prostitution . He is often labeled as the father of free verse , though he did not invent it .
= = = Poetic theory = = =
Whitman wrote in the preface to the 1855 edition of Leaves of Grass , " The proof of a poet is that his country absorbs him as affectionately as he has absorbed it . " He believed there was a vital , symbiotic relationship between the poet and society . This connection was emphasized especially in " Song of Myself " by using an all @-@ powerful first @-@ person narration . As an American epic , it deviated from the historic use of an elevated hero and instead assumed the identity of the common people . Leaves of Grass also responded to the impact that recent urbanization in the United States had on the masses .
= = Lifestyle and beliefs = =
= = = Alcohol = = =
Whitman was a vocal proponent of temperance and in his youth rarely drank alcohol . He once stated he did not taste " strong liquor " until he was thirty and occasionally argued for prohibition . One of his earliest long fiction works , the novel Franklin Evans ; or , The Inebriate , first published November 23 , 1842 , is a temperance novel . Whitman wrote the novel at the height of popularity of the Washingtonian movement though the movement itself was plagued with contradictions , as was Franklin Evans . Years later Whitman claimed he was embarrassed by the book and called it a " damned rot " . He dismissed it by saying he wrote the novel in three days solely for money while he was under the influence of alcohol himself . Even so , he wrote other pieces recommending temperance , including The Madman and a short story " Reuben 's Last Wish " . Later in life he was more liberal with alcohol , enjoying local wines and champagne .
= = = Religion = = =
Whitman was deeply influenced by deism . He denied any one faith was more important than another , and embraced all religions equally . In " Song of Myself " , he gave an inventory of major religions and indicated he respected and accepted all of them — a sentiment he further emphasized in his poem " With Antecedents " , affirming : " I adopt each theory , myth , god , and demi @-@ god , / I see that the old accounts , bibles , genealogies , are true , without exception " . In 1874 , he was invited to write a poem about the Spiritualism movement , to which he responded , " It seems to me nearly altogether a poor , cheap , crude humbug . " Whitman was a religious skeptic : though he accepted all churches , he believed in none . God , to Whitman , was both immanent and transcendent and the human soul was immortal and in a state of progressive development . American Philosophy : An Encyclopedia classes him as one of several figures who " took a more pantheist or pandeist approach by rejecting views of God as separate from the world . "
= = = Sexuality = = =
Though biographers continue to debate his sexuality , he is usually described as either homosexual or bisexual in his feelings and attractions . However , there is disagreement among biographers as to whether Whitman had actual sexual experiences with men . Whitman 's sexual orientation is generally assumed on the basis of his poetry , though this assumption has been disputed . His poetry depicts love and sexuality in a more earthy , individualistic way common in American culture before the medicalization of sexuality in the late 19th century . Though Leaves of Grass was often labeled pornographic or obscene , only one critic remarked on its author 's presumed sexual activity : in a November 1855 review , Rufus Wilmot Griswold suggested Whitman was guilty of " that horrible sin not to be mentioned among Christians . " Whitman had intense friendships with many men and boys throughout his life . Some biographers have suggested that he may not have actually engaged in sexual relationships with males , while others cite letters , journal entries , and other sources that they claim as proof of the sexual nature of some of his relationships . English poet and critic John Addington Symonds spent twenty years in correspondence trying to pry the answer from him . In 1890 he wrote to Whitman , " In your conception of Comradeship , do you contemplate the possible intrusion of those semi @-@ sexual emotions and actions which no doubt do occur between men ? " In reply , Whitman denied that his work had any such implication , asserting " [ T ] hat the calamus part has even allow 'd the possibility of such construction as mention 'd is terrible — I am fain to hope the pages themselves are not to be even mention 'd for such gratuitous and quite at this time entirely undream 'd & unreck 'd possibility of morbid inferences — wh ' are disavow 'd by me and seem damnable , " and insisting that he had fathered six illegitimate children . Some contemporary scholars are skeptical of the veracity of Whitman 's denial or the existence of the children he claimed .
Peter Doyle may be the most likely candidate for the love of Whitman 's life . Doyle was a bus conductor whom Whitman met around 1866 , and the two were inseparable for several years . Interviewed in 1895 , Doyle said : " We were familiar at once — I put my hand on his knee — we understood . He did not get out at the end of the trip — in fact went all the way back with me . " In his notebooks , Whitman disguised Doyle 's initials using the code " 16 @.@ 4 " ( P.D. being the 16th and 4th letters of the alphabet ) . Oscar Wilde met Whitman in America in 1882 and told the homosexual @-@ rights activist George Cecil Ives that Whitman 's sexual orientation was beyond question — " I have the kiss of Walt Whitman still on my lips . " The only explicit description of Whitman 's sexual activities is secondhand . In 1924 , Edward Carpenter told Gavin Arthur of a sexual encounter in his youth with Whitman , the details of which Arthur recorded in his journal . Late in his life , when Whitman was asked outright whether his " Calamus " poems were homosexual , he chose not to respond . The manuscript of his love poem " Once I Pass 'd Through A Populous City " , written when was Whitman was 29 , indicates it was originally about a man .
Another possible lover was Bill Duckett . As a teenager , he lived on the same street in Camden and moved in with Whitman , living with him a number of years and serving him in various roles . Duckett was fifteen when Whitman bought his house at 328 Mickle Street . From at least 1880 , Duckett and his grandmother , Lydia Watson , were boarders , subletting space from another family at 334 Mickle Street . Because of this proximity , it is obvious that Duckett and Whitman met as neighbors . Their relationship was close , with the youth sharing Whitman 's money when he had it . Whitman described their friendship as " thick " . Though some biographers describe him as a boarder , others identify him as a lover . Their photograph [ pictured ] is described as " modeled on the conventions of a marriage portrait " , part of a series of portraits of the poet with his young male friends , and encrypting male – male desire . Yet another intense relationship of Whitman with a young man was the one with Harry Stafford , with whose family Whitman stayed when at Timber Creek , and whom he first met when Stafford was 18 , in 1876 . Whitman gave Stafford a ring , which was returned and re @-@ given over the course of a stormy relationship lasting several years . Of that ring , Stafford wrote to Whitman , " You know when you put it on there was but one thing to part it from me , and that was death . "
There is also some evidence that Whitman may have had sexual relationships with women . He had a romantic friendship with a New York actress , Ellen Grey , in the spring of 1862 , but it is not known if it was also sexual . He still had a photograph of her decades later , when he moved to Camden , and he called her " an old sweetheart of mine " . In a letter , dated August 21 , 1890 , he claimed , " I have had six children — two are dead " . This claim has never been corroborated . Toward the end of his life , he often told stories of previous girlfriends and sweethearts and denied an allegation from the New York Herald that he had " never had a love affair " . As Whitman biographer Jerome Loving wrote , " the discussion of Whitman 's sexual orientation will probably continue in spite of whatever evidence emerges . "
= = = Sunbathing and swimming = = =
Whitman reportedly enjoyed bathing naked and sunbathing nude . In his work Manly Health and Training written under the pseudonym Mose Velsor , he advises men to swim naked . In A Sun @-@ bathed Nakedness , he wrote ,
Never before did I get so close to Nature ; never before did she come so close to me … Nature was naked , and I was also … Sweet , sane , still Nakedness in Nature ! – ah if poor , sick , prurient humanity in cities might really know you once more ! Is not nakedness indecent ? No , not inherently . It is your thought , your sophistication , your fear , your respectability , that is indecent . There come moods when these clothes of ours are not only too irksome to wear , but are themselves indecent .
= = = Shakespeare authorship = = =
Whitman was an adherent of the Shakespeare authorship question , refusing to believe in the historic attribution of the works to William Shakespeare of Stratford @-@ upon @-@ Avon . Whitman comments in his November Boughs ( 1888 ) regarding Shakespeare 's historical plays :
Conceiv 'd out of the fullest heat and pulse of European feudalism — personifying in unparalleled ways the medieval aristocracy , its towering spirit of ruthless and gigantic caste , with its own peculiar air and arrogance ( no mere imitation ) — only one of the " wolfish earls " so plenteous in the plays themselves , or some born descendant and knower , might seem to be the true author of those amazing works — works in some respects greater than anything else in recorded literature .
= = = Slavery = = =
Whitman opposed the extension of slavery in the United States and supported the Wilmot Proviso . At first he was opposed to abolitionism , believing the movement did more harm than good . In 1846 , he wrote that the abolitionists had , in fact , slowed the advancement of their cause by their " ultraism and officiousness " . His main concern was that their methods disrupted the democratic process , as did the refusal of the Southern states to put the interests of the nation as a whole above their own . In 1856 , in his unpublished The Eighteenth Presidency , addressing the men of the South , he wrote " you are either to abolish slavery or it will abolish you " . Whitman also subscribed to the widespread opinion that even free African @-@ Americans should not vote and was concerned at the increasing number of African @-@ Americans in the legislature .
= = Legacy and influence = =
Walt Whitman has been claimed as America 's first " poet of democracy " , a title meant to reflect his ability to write in a singularly American character . A British friend of Walt Whitman , Mary Smith Whitall Costelloe , wrote : " You cannot really understand America without Walt Whitman , without Leaves of Grass ... He has expressed that civilization , ' up to date , ' as he would say , and no student of the philosophy of history can do without him . " Modernist poet Ezra Pound called Whitman " America 's poet ... He is America . " Andrew Carnegie called him " the great poet of America so far " . Whitman considered himself a messiah @-@ like figure in poetry . Others agreed : one of his admirers , William Sloane Kennedy , speculated that " people will be celebrating the birth of Walt Whitman as they are now the birth of Christ " .
The literary critic , Harold Bloom wrote , as the introduction for the 150th anniversary of Leaves of Grass :
If you are American , then Walt Whitman is your imaginative father and mother , even if , like myself , you have never composed a line of verse . You can nominate a fair number of literary works as candidates for the secular Scripture of the United States . They might include Melville 's Moby @-@ Dick , Twain 's Adventures of Huckleberry Finn , and Emerson 's two series of Essays and The Conduct of Life . None of those , not even Emerson 's , are as central as the first edition of Leaves of Grass .
In his own time , Whitman attracted an influential coterie of disciples and admirers . Some , like Oscar Wilde and Edward Carpenter , viewed Whitman both as a prophet of a utopian future and of same @-@ sex desire – the passion of comrades . This aligned with their own desires for a future of brotherly socialism .
Whitman 's vagabond lifestyle was adopted by the Beat movement and its leaders such as Allen Ginsberg and Jack Kerouac in the 1950s and 1960s as well as anti @-@ war poets like Adrienne Rich and Gary Snyder . Lawrence Ferlinghetti numbered himself among Whitman 's " wild children " , and the title of his 1961 collection Starting from San Francisco is a deliberate reference to Whitman 's Starting from Paumanok . Whitman also influenced Bram Stoker , author of Dracula , and was the model for the character of Dracula . Stoker said in his notes that Dracula represented the quintessential male which , to Stoker , was Whitman , with whom he corresponded until Whitman 's death . Other admirers included the Eagle Street College , an informal group established in 1885 at the home of James William Wallace in Eagle Street , Bolton , to read and discuss the poetry of Whitman . The group subsequently became known as the Bolton Whitman Fellowship or Whitmanites . Its members held an annual ' Whitman Day ' celebration around the poet 's birthday .
Whitman 's poetry has been set to music by a large number of composers ; indeed it has been suggested his poetry has been set to music more than any other American poet except for Emily Dickinson and Henry Wadsworth Longfellow . Those who have set his poems to music have included John Adams , Ernst Bacon , Leonard Bernstein , Benjamin Britten , Rhoda Coghill , Ronald Corp , George Crumb , Frederick Delius , Howard Hanson , Karl Amadeus Hartmann , Hans Werner Henze , Paul Hindemith , Ned Rorem , Ralph Vaughan Williams , Kurt Weill , and Roger Sessions . " Crossing , " an opera composed by Matthew Aucoin and inspired by Whitman 's Civil War diaries , premiered in 2015 .
On May 16 , 1957 , the Walt Whitman Bridge , which crosses the Delaware River near his home in Camden , was opened .
In 1997 , the Walt Whitman Community School opened , becoming the first private high school catering to LGBT youth .
In 2009 , Whitman was inducted into the New Jersey Hall of Fame .
In 2013 , Whitman was inducted into the Legacy Walk , an outdoor public display that celebrates LGBT history and people .
Based on Kai Grehn 's German translation of the cycle in 2005 , a radio feature and bilingual " Kinder Adams / Children of Adam " double @-@ CD audio book , including a complete reading by Iggy Pop was released by Hörbuch Hamburg , Germany in 2014 , also featuring Marianne Sägebrecht , Martin Wuttke , Birgit Minichmayr , Alexander Fehling , Lars Rudolph , Volker Bruch , Paula Beer , Josef Osterndorf , Ronald Lippok , Jule Böwe and Robert Gwisdek .
In 2014 composer John Zorn released On Leaves of Grass , an album inspired by and dedicated to Whitman .
= = Works = =
Franklin Evans ( 1842 )
Leaves of Grass ( 1855 , the first of seven editions through 1891 )
Manly Health and Training ( 1858 )
Drum @-@ Taps ( 1865 )
Democratic Vistas ( 1871 )
Memoranda During the War ( 1876 )
Specimen Days ( 1882 )
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= Dog Gone =
" Dog Gone " is the eighth episode of the eighth season of the animated comedy series Family Guy . It originally aired on Fox in the United States on November 29 , 2009 . The episode features Brian , the family pet , attempting to prove that a dog 's life is just as important as that of a human 's , after he accidentally kills another dog with no consequences . Meanwhile , the Griffin family hires Consuela , a stereotypical Hispanic woman , as the household maid , which they each end up regretting once she takes advantage of the family 's home .
First announced at the 2009 San Diego Comic @-@ Con International , the episode was written by series showrunner Steve Callaghan and directed by Julius Wu . It received high praise from critics for its storyline and many cultural references , in addition to receiving some criticism from PETA . According to Nielsen ratings , it was viewed in 8 @.@ 48 million homes in its original airing . The episode featured guest performances by Chris Matthews , Nathan Gunn , Eddie Sotelo , Fred Tatasciore and Kel MacFarlane , along with several recurring guest voice actors for the series . " Dog Gone " was released on DVD along with seven other episodes from the season on June 15 , 2010 .
= = Plot = =
After much anticipation , Brian receives an invitation to an award ceremony celebrating his novel , Faster Than the Speed of Love , by the Rhode Island Society for Special Literary Excellence . Convinced he is a great writer , Brian attempts to gain the family 's interest but fails to do so . Once he arrives at the " award ceremony " however , he discovers that he has misunderstood the meaning of the word " special " , prompting him to drown his sorrows at the local bar and realize that he 's not a writer at all , but a big fat joke . He drives home drunk that night and accidentally runs over and kills a dog . He secretly buries the dead dog 's body outside the Griffins ' home and tries to keep quiet about it . Stewie , having witnessed his deed , begins to toy with Brian 's guilt , eventually driving him to a state where he decides to confess to " murder " . However , when he confesses to Joe and the Griffin family , they all laugh , saying that no one cares if a dog or any other animal is killed , especially by another animal .
Outraged , Brian starts a support group , and decides to call it " The Quahog Animal Equal Rights League , " to convince the town that the lives of animals should be of equal value to humans ' . As the town citizens learn more about it , however , none of them are keen on changing their lifestyles if it means no processed meats and medical research on animals , and even become interested in how dogs taste after Brian mentions they are eaten in some cultures . Refusing to listen any further , they chase after Brian in an attempt to eat him .
Brian realizes that if no one cares about the lives of animals , then he is worthless to the Griffin family and everyone else . Stewie finds Brian crying in the bathtub , and , seeing how upset Brian is and feeling sorry for him , Stewie successfully fakes his death by putting his collar ( which Brian hadn 't been wearing ) on a stray and killing it in a liquor store fire . The Griffins are devastated upon learning about Brian 's supposed death , and realize how close a friend he was to them . Seeing this , Stewie rushes upstairs to show Brian how much the Griffins still care about him , regardless of his species . Brian then realizes his life does have a purpose and thanks Stewie for helping him , and decides to remain hidden to let the Griffins grieve a little longer .
Meanwhile , Quagmire accidentally knocks over a carton of Kool @-@ Aid mix on the kitchen floor of the Griffin 's house and leaves Peter to take the blame . Frustrated with having to clean Peter 's messes , Lois hires a Hispanic maid named Consuela to clean their house . But Consuela quickly proves to be very stubborn , refusing to leave after her work hours and sleeping at the Griffins ' house overnight , much to Peter and Lois ' annoyance . They try to fire her and even bribe her to leave , but she still refuses ( though she takes the money they offer her anyway ) . In a last @-@ ditch attempt , Peter finally gets rid of her by tricking her into inhaling chloroform on a handkerchief , and leaves her in a basket on Joe 's front porch .
At the end , Peter lets us know that everyone at Family Guy respects all living beings and assures the viewers that no animals were harmed in the making of the episode , but they did hurt the feelings of an Italian opera singer by prematurely dropping the curtain on his performance .
= = Production and development = =
First announced at the 2009 San Diego Comic @-@ Con International in San Diego , California on July 25 , 2009 , by future showrunner Steve Callaghan , the episode was directed by series regular , and former King of the Hill and The Oblongs director , Julius Wu , and written by Callaghan before the conclusion of the eighth production season . The episode saw the reintroduction of the recurring character Consuela , a Hispanic maid whose first appearance was in the sixth season episode " Believe It or Not , Joe 's Walking on Air " . The character is voiced by main cast member Mike Henry .
" Dog Gone " , along with seven other episodes from Family Guy 's eighth season , was released on a three @-@ disc DVD set in the United States on June 15 , 2010 . The sets included brief audio commentaries by Seth MacFarlane and various crew and cast members for several episodes , a collection of deleted scenes , a special mini @-@ feature which discussed the process behind animating " Road to the Multiverse " , and a mini @-@ feature entitled Family Guy Karaoke .
In addition to the regular cast , anchor and political commentator Chris Matthews , voice actor Fred Tatasciore , opera singer Nathan Gunn , radio personality Eddie Sotelo and Kel MacFarlane , webmaster of the Seth MacFarlane fan site , guest starred in the episode . Recurring guest voice actors Ralph Garman , writer John Viener , writer Mark Hentemann , actress Alex Breckenridge , writer Alec Sulkin and writer Danny Smith also made minor appearances .
= = Cultural references = =
In the opening scene of the episode , Stewie is seen going through Brian 's internet history , which includes searches about himself on the internet search engine Google . Later , after going to the bar to drink , Brian talks to Bill , the father from The Family Circus syndicated comic strip . After Bill tells him he should have tried harder on writing his book , Brian responds by yelling that all Bill does is " judge " other people , and demands for him to go home and " fuck [ his ] wife in the face " , to which Bill agrees . This is also later recognized by Peter the next day , when he is seen reading the funnies , and murmurs to himself , " this is a very shocking Family Circus . "
News anchor and political commentator Chris Matthews ' show entitled Hardball with Chris Matthews is referenced by Stewie when he suggests Brian is getting a big head , with the guest , United States Senator Harry Reid , then appearing on Matthews ' forehead , suggesting Matthews is self @-@ centered . After Reid continues to interrupt him , however , Matthews cuts to actor Kurtwood Smith , in which Matthews appears on Smith 's forehead instead .
Once Consuela is hired as the family maid , she first begins to annoy Peter by listening to stereotypical Latin music played loudly on a portable radio , in which the singer repeats the Spanish phrase " ¡ Muchos horn @-@ os ! " which literally translates to " many ovens " but within the context of the show is actually meant to be Spanglish for " many horns . " In Consuela 's final appearance in the episode , she is seen watching a commercial , which parodies local commercials urging viewers to hire a lawyer if they are in a car accident .
In an attempt to try to prove that an animal has the same rights as humans , Brian starts an advocacy group , and is suggested by Lois to join PETA , but she is unable to enunciate the word differently from how she pronounces " Peter , " leading her husband to become confused . The end of the gag has Chris stating his belief that Betty White is a member of the organization , with his wording prompting Peter to yell , " That doesn 't even make sense ! " Brian goes on to create a public service announcement regarding animal rights , one of which involves a dog being " tortured " by having to listen to the radio show All Things Considered on National Public Radio , which the dog 's owner leaves on for him before leaving the house .
= = Reception = =
In an improvement over the previous four episodes , the episode was viewed in 8 @.@ 48 million homes in its original airing , according to Nielsen ratings , despite airing simultaneously with Sunday Night Football , the television movie A Dog Named Christmas on CBS and Desperate Housewives on ABC . The episode also acquired a 4 @.@ 4 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , beating The Simpsons , The Cleveland Show and American Dad ! , but was ultimately edged out slightly by The Simpsons in total viewership .
Reviews of the episode were highly positive , citing the Brian and Stewie storyline as a " solid attempt to tell a good story , " and the Consuela scenes as " terrific . " Ahsan Haque of IGN also noted that " the writers deserved some credit " for the episode , saying that , in comparison to past episodes the episode did not " come across as a haphazardly assembled string of [ random ] jokes . " Jason Hughes of TV Squad also found the Consuela scenes to be " hilarious , " but found the final scene to be " strangely [ ... ] uncomfortable , " expecting Meg to be pushed out of the family hug . Todd VanDerWerff of the The A.V. Club praised the handling of Brian 's character in the episode , and called the Peter and PETA gag " pretty cheap , but quite funny , " giving the episode a B rating overall .
In February 2010 , for " rais [ ing ] public awareness of animal issues " , " Dog Gone " won a Genesis Award for television comedy , winning over South Park episode ' Whale Whores " and Monk episode " Mr. Monk and the Dog " . In a post on PETA 's official blog , Amanda Schinke , however , was highly critical of the episode for its " myriad of violent deaths of cartoon dogs . " In addition , she called for the show to " hire [ writers ] who can generate material that doesn 't make us roll our eyes . "
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= Dwain Chambers =
Dwain Anthony Chambers ( born 5 April 1978 ) is a British track sprinter . He has won international medals at World and European level and is one of the fastest European sprinters in the history of athletics . His primary event is the 100 metres , in which he has the fourth fastest time by a British sprinter . He is the European record holder for the 60 metres and 4 × 100 metres relay events with 6 @.@ 42 seconds and 37 @.@ 73 s respectively . He received a two @-@ year athletics ban in 2003 after testing positive for THG , a banned performance @-@ enhancing drug .
Chambers ran a 100 m world junior record of 10 @.@ 06 s in 1997 and became the youngest ever world medallist in the event at the 1999 World Championships , taking the bronze . On his Olympic debut at the 2000 Sydney Olympics he was the best European performer in fourth place . He broke the 10 @-@ second barrier twice at the 2001 World Championships . He began using performance @-@ enhancing drugs in 2002 and he was later stripped of the 100 m European title and record he achieved that year .
Chambers returned to competition in June 2006 , and won gold with his teammates in the 4 × 100 m at the 2006 European Championships . He tried other sports , including a spell with the Hamburg Sea Devils of the NFL Europa league and a rugby league trial with Castleford . Sprinting success came over 60 m when he won silver at the 2008 World Indoor Championships , gold at the 2009 European Indoors , and became world champion at the 2010 World Indoor Championships .
Due to his doping ban , he was barred from the Olympics , Commonwealth Games , and much of the European racing circuit , from 2006 to 2012 . The Court of Arbitration for Sport overturned his lifetime Olympic ban , deeming it non @-@ compliant with the World Anti @-@ Doping Code , and he competed in the 2012 London Olympics . He produced a ghost @-@ written autobiography with writer Ken Scott , Race Against Me , in 2009 . He is of Afro @-@ Caribbean- Jamaican descent and has two sons with his partner Leonie Daley .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life and career = = =
Chambers was born in Islington and raised in Finsbury , London . Running was a part of his family life : his older sister Christine won the senior 100 metres finals at the English Schools Championships in 1986 and 1987 and competed in the European Athletics Junior Championships . As a schoolboy he was coached by Selwyn Philbert who devoted himself to the young sprinter . Chambers first athletic success came at the 1994 English Schools ' Athletic Association Championships , where he won the boys ' intermediate 100 m race with a time of 10 @.@ 64 seconds . International medals followed at the 1995 European Junior Championships , at which he won the 100 m and the 4 × 100 metres relay . He defended these titles at the 1997 European Junior Championships and set a then world junior record in the 100 m with a time of 10 @.@ 06 s .
Chambers transitioned into the senior ranks soon after , taking the 100 m silver medal behind his British team mate Darren Campbell at the 1998 European Championships . He achieved a new personal best in September at the 1998 IAAF World Cup with a run of 10 @.@ 03 s for third place and won a relay gold medal . At the 1998 Commonwealth Games he was a 100 m semi finalist and set a games record as part of the 4 × 100 m relay team . His ability attracted the attention of former sprinter and Commonwealth Games gold medallist Mike McFarlane , who became his coach . He came first in the 100 m in the 1999 European Cup , then at a meet in Nuremberg he became only the second European sprinter ( after Linford Christie ) to break the ten second barrier with a time of 9 @.@ 99 s . Fellow British sprinter Jason Gardener scored a time of 9 @.@ 98 s in Lausanne soon after , becoming the third Briton to break the barrier . In spite of this , Chambers remained some distance behind his North American counterparts .
= = = Seville World Championships to Sydney Olympics = = =
In his first major outing on the world stage , Chambers attained a new personal best at the 1999 World Championships in Seville , registering a time of 9 @.@ 97 s for third place in the 100 m final . This made the 21 @-@ year @-@ old the youngest ever World Championships 100 m medallist . North Americans dominated the event as Maurice Greene and Bruny Surin took first and second place respectively , with record runs of 9 @.@ 80 s and 9 @.@ 84 s , respectively . The British sprint team Chambers , Gardener , Campbell and Marlon Devonish performed well in the 4 × 100 metres relay event as runners @-@ up in a time of 37 @.@ 73 s behind the US team led by Greene . World record holder Maurice Greene was hitting his peak , winning three gold medals in Seville . However , at 21 years old , Chambers had achieved more than Greene had at that age : Greene 's best was 10 @.@ 08 s in 1996 and he had never reached a major final .
With the 2000 Sydney Olympics approaching , Chambers studied the technique of other sprinters . In an interview with BBC journalist Tom Fordyce , Chambers commented on the stamina Greene and Surin had gained from running in the 200 metres event and Jason Gardener 's improved acceleration through running the 60 metres event . He experimented with distances at the beginning of 2000 , sprinting over 50 , 60 and 200 m in various competitions . He set a personal best of 6 @.@ 55 s in the 60 m event in Ghent in February . A hamstring injury caused him to miss six weeks of training and when he returned his 100 m performances were lacklustre . He finished ninth at the Golden Gala in Rome with a slow time of 10 @.@ 41 s and was seventh in a tame 10 @.@ 30 s at the London Grand Prix , results that led him to consider quitting the season altogether . A late rejuvenation at the British Olympic trials guaranteed his selection as he snatched first place with 10 @.@ 11 s ( just one hundredth of a second ahead of Darren Campbell ) . Victory against in @-@ form world record holder Maurice Greene in Gateshead raised Chambers ' confidence and he stated his aim to take home a medal from the Games .
The 2000 Sydney Olympics saw Chambers come close to the podium . He easily qualified through the heat stages and achieved a season 's best of 10 @.@ 08 s in the 100 m final finishing fourth behind Greene , Ato Boldon and Obadele Thompson . Chambers was the best European 100 m performer , but after disqualification in the relay he left the games without a medal .
= = = Edmonton World championships = = =
He made his fastest opening to a season in 2001 by winning the 100 m for his club Belgrave Harriers at the European Clubs Cup with a meet record time of 10 @.@ 12 s . At the Amateur Athletics Association ( AAA ) trials in Birmingham his run of 10 @.@ 01 s was the fastest ever wind @-@ legal time recorded in Britain by a British sprinter . Chambers ran with consistency in the summer of 2001 : he won at the Seville Grand Prix in 10 @.@ 01 s and finished third in ten seconds flat at the Athletissima meet . In the run up to the 2001 IAAF Edmonton World Championships Chambers compared his own performances to the British record holder : " I am very consistent in the 10.00s this year , and that bodes well for the Worlds . If you are running as fast as Linford Christie in his prime , it gives you a lot of confidence . "
Chambers also competed over 200 m and a personal best run of 20 @.@ 31 s earned him selection in both sprints for the World Championships . In an interview with Tom Fordyce , Chambers stated that Maurice Greene 's strong presence and mind games undermined the competition both physically and mentally . " You have to get out in front of him and hold on for dear life " he said of the world record holder .
Chambers broke the ten second barrier twice in the 2001 World Championships with a personal best of 9 @.@ 97 s in the quarter finals and a run of 9 @.@ 99 s in the final . This was not enough for a medal in a strong race which featured five sprinters running under ten seconds and saw Greene defend his title . Chambers was later upgraded to fourth place after silver medallist Tim Montgomery tested positive for banned substances . A hamstring injury in the final ruled him out of the 200 m event . Chambers ended his season at the 2001 Goodwill Games in Brisbane and finished in first place in the absence of an injured Greene , who commentated on his European rival 's victory .
= = = 2002 European champion = = =
Chambers ' coach Mike McFarlane struggled with the workload of full @-@ time training . Frustrated by the distance between himself and the top sprinters , Chambers decided to relocate to California to work with Ukrainian coach Remi Korchemny and nutritionist Victor Conte . After parting ways with American sprinter Tim Montgomery , Conte looked to Chambers to fill the athlete 's berth . In the run up to the year 's major events , Chambers was in fine form and recorded a 200 m personal best of 20 @.@ 27 s in Athens on 10 June 2002 . Montgomery , impressed by Chambers ' training regime , tipped the Briton to win the gold at the forthcoming 2002 Commonwealth Games in Manchester , England .
He won the 100 m at the Commonwealth Games trials in a season 's best of 10 @.@ 03 s , then equalled Linford Christie 's record of 10 @.@ 04 s at European Cup , where he led the British team to victory as team captain . Victories over Maurice Greene followed at Oslo 's IAAF Golden League meeting and in Sheffield with a wind @-@ assisted 9 @.@ 95 s . He was the favourite for the 2002 Commonwealth Games , but Chambers faced stiff competition from British newcomer Mark Lewis @-@ Francis who was finishing fractions of a second behind him . Chambers won all his preliminary races and reached the final , along with Lewis @-@ Francis and Jason Gardener , but he suffered a cramp mid @-@ race and ended up in last place . He later revealed that he had feigned injury as the brief hamstring cramp was caused by drug abuse . The English sprinters had the three slowest times in the final , with Lewis @-@ Francis also beset by injury .
After Commonwealth disappointment on home turf , Chambers won gold medals in the 100 m and 4 × 100 m relay at the 2002 European Championships in Munich , setting a championship record of 9 @.@ 96 s . Chambers recorded a time of 9 @.@ 94 s at the Weltklasse Zürich meeting , again beating world record holder Greene . He finished the season by equalling Linford Christie 's European record at the 2002 IAAF Grand Prix Final . His run of 9 @.@ 87 s with a maximum allowable wind of + 2 @.@ 0 m / s left him second to Tim Montgomery , who set a world record of 9 @.@ 78 s . Chambers received the 2002 European Athlete of the Year Trophy for his achievements on the track that year .
= = = 2003 World championships = = =
Chambers began the 2003 season with a grandiose statement – namely that he would lower the 100 m record to 9 @.@ 65 s . After recovering from a minor injury he suffered in January , Despite claims he could also beat the 60 m indoor record , his form was poor and he failed to pass the heats at the 2003 British Grand Prix , finishing fourth in a time of 6 @.@ 68 s . He was beaten by Mark Lewis @-@ Francis by a hundredth of a second at the trials for the IAAF World Indoor Championships , narrowly missing out on selection with a time of 6 @.@ 59 s .
Chambers announced that he was to part with trainer Mike McFarlane in favour of a permanent relationship with Ukrainian coach Remi Korchemny . The sprinter started the 100 m season modestly , finishing third and fourth in Modesto and Eugene , respectively . Chambers beat Montgomery in Glasgow in June , running a stadium record of 10 @.@ 15 s into a headwind , and qualified for the World Championships by winning the AAA trials .
His season 's best came under unusual circumstances at the British Grand Prix – due to a system malfunction he was initially timed by hand at dead on ten seconds , which was amended to 9 @.@ 96 s after video evidence was consulted . He could not match that form at the World 100 m final : Kim Collins , Darrel Brown , Darren Campbell , and Chambers all finished within a split second of each other and Chambers was adjudged to have finished fourth . Chambers squandered his anchoring lead in the 4 × 100 m relay , allowing Joshua J. Johnson of the United States team to beat him to the finish line . In spite of his close fourth and a relay silver medal , there was a sense of disappointment in the press that Chambers ' record breaking claims and gold medals had not materialised .
= = = Drug ban = = =
A sample for an out @-@ of @-@ competition drugs test that Chambers had provided in Germany on 1 August 2003 was re @-@ examined in October and subsequently tested positive for banned substances . The United States Anti @-@ Doping Agency ( USADA ) were investigating the Bay Area Laboratory Co @-@ operative ( BALCO ) ; the workplace of both Chambers ' coach Remi Korchemny and nutritionist Victor Conte . Both men faced charges of distributing illegal drugs to athletes in the United States . The BALCO Scandal uncovered drug use in a wide range of sportsmen and women , including sprinters Marion Jones and Tim Montgomery .
Chambers claimed that his new coach had introduced him to Conte as a way of providing him with specialised ' nutritional supplements ' - which he took by putting a few drops of liquid under his tongue . Conte had helped develop a type of anabolic steroid called THG , or tetrahydrogestrinone , at BALCO . After Chambers discovered that he had tested positive for drugs he sent his lawyer to meet Conte and make inquires about the supplement he had been ingesting . Conte assured him that all the substances were IAAF compliant .
After further investigation , it was revealed on 22 October 2003 that Chambers had tested positive for the banned steroid THG . Analysis of his backup sample also tested positive and the outcome was confirmed on 7 November 2003 , making Chambers the first person to test positive for the new drug . Chambers was suspended the same day with an independent UK Athletics tribunal pending . The disciplinary hearing on 24 February 2004 resulted in a two @-@ year ban from athletics , backdated to begin on 7 November 2003 . He was also banned for life from the Olympics and stripped of the medals he had won since mid @-@ 2002 , after admitting that he had taken THG from that date . Chambers ' 2002 relay gold medal performance was erased , costing team @-@ mates Darren Campbell , Marlon Devonish and Christian Malcolm their medals in the process . Chambers was also ordered by the IAAF to pay back his earnings from the period of his athletics career that was affected by his drug abuse .
Conte claimed that rival coach Trevor Graham had revealed the drug to US testers , acting " purely out of competitive jealousy " as Chambers was challenging Graham 's trainees ; Montgomery and Greene . Chambers denied that he had any knowledge that the substance he was taking was banned and claimed he was deceived by Conte over its true use . However , he contradicted his statement in a later interview , saying that he had major suspicions that he was using banned substances but was too naïve and lacking in self @-@ respect to act otherwise . By Chambers ' own admission in 2008 , in a letter by his supplier Conte to British anti @-@ doping chief John Scott , THG was not the only substance he had used during his career . In his confession he admitted to the use of epitestosterone cream , EPO , HGH , insulin lispro , modafinil and liothyronine .
Banned from competition , Chambers sought alternative commercial outlets for his athletic prowess . He had an unsuccessful American football try @-@ out with the San Francisco 49ers , hoping to emulate Renaldo Nehemiah . He drifted on to the celebrity circuit , appearing on British reality television series Hell 's Kitchen in May 2004 . However , Chambers had little interest in the show and soon chose to leave . He appeared in neither sporting events nor television programs for 18 months .
= = = Return to athletics = = =
Chambers began training in Jamaica in late 2005 in preparation for the athletics season . He faced new challengers in the 100 m as Maurice Greene was no longer a dominant force and Jamaican Asafa Powell was the new world record holder . Chambers began working with Glen Mills , coach of Caribbean sprinters Kim Collins and Usain Bolt . The drug suspension had expired in November but he needed to pass four mandatory drugs tests in order to gain clearance to compete with the IAAF . His comeback was further delayed as he gave an interview with the BBC revealing he began using drugs at the beginning of 2002 , not since August 2003 , as he had claimed to the IAAF . After further disclosure ( that took away his European 100 m gold medal and invalidated his European record of 9 @.@ 87 s ) ,
Chambers was cleared to compete on 10 June 2006 , although his return was dependent on an agreement to repay prize money he won while using banned substances . He returned to competition on 11 June 2006 at the British Grand Prix and took third in 10 @.@ 07 s , behind Asafa Powell who equalled his own world record . Chambers stated that his training regime with Bolt had helped him make a strong opening performance despite a long absence from competition . The result placed Chambers at the top of the British rankings and was the second fastest time by a European sprinter in 2006 .
Chambers lamented the effects of his drug use and noted the irony that the drugs did not do much to improve the consistency of his performances . On his return to international competition his times were significantly worse than he achieved prior to drug use : in the 100 m final at the 2006 European Championships , Chambers ran a sub @-@ par 10 @.@ 24 s and finished in fifth place . He was part of the gold medal @-@ winning British 4 × 100 m team , but Darren Campbell , who was angry about losing his 2002 and 2003 relay medals due to Chambers ' ban , refused to join the team in a celebratory lap . After the competition , Chambers again expressed an interest in switching to American football and completed a week @-@ long NFL Europa training camp in Cologne that November .
= = = NFL Europa = = =
After attending a series of NFL Europa training camps , he gained a professional contract with German NFL Europa side Hamburg Sea Devils in March 2007 . Following news that Chambers was receiving new , legal nutritional supplements from Victor Conte , the Hamburg Sea Devils confirmed that Chambers would undergo a vigorous drug testing regime .
Chambers reflected on drug use in athletics in an interview with Olympic gold medallist Sir Matthew Pinsent for the BBC 's Inside Sport programme . Chambers claimed there would always be athletes using performance @-@ enhancing drugs because drug testers did not keep pace with advances in science and that athletes who took drugs had an immense advantage over those who remained clean . Chambers was roundly condemned for his comments in the interview by both the press and his former colleagues in the athletics world , including Sir Steve Redgrave , Mo Farah , and Sebastian Coe , although former 100 m world record holder Asafa Powell supported Chambers ' claims .
Chambers ' American football career was brought to a standstill when a stress fracture injury on his right foot ruled him out for the season . The situation worsened further when the NFL closed the European league on 29 June 2007 leaving Chambers jobless . He returned as a TV personality on reality television show Cirque de Celebrité in October but was unpopular with the public and subsequently voted off .
= = = Athletics again and rugby league = = =
Following the collapse of the NFL Europa franchise , Chambers made a second return to athletics in early 2008 . Competing in the 60 m indoor final at the Birmingham Games in February 2008 , he finished with a time of 6 @.@ 60 s , setting a new meeting record . UK Athletics chief executive Niels de Vos initially banned Chambers from competing in the trials for the 2008 IAAF World Indoor Championships but , after the IAAF overruled the decision , Chambers won the event and selection . UK Athletics stated that committee was " unanimous in its desire not to select Dwain " but were forced to by the selection criteria , saying they would have preferred to send younger athletes eligible for the Olympics .
At the World Indoor Championships 60 metres final , Chambers won a silver medal and recorded a new personal best of 6 @.@ 54 s to take second behind Olusoji Fasuba . The performance did not sway opinion : Chambers continued to encounter extensive criticism within athletics . Promoters did not invite him to key athletics events , Eddie Kulukundis – who had supported Chambers earlier in his career – refused to sponsor the sprinter , and the British Olympic Association ( BOA ) , prevented him from competing in the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing . To return to the track Chambers had to rely on the money he received from his partner , Leonie Daley , a civil servant whom he met at the Miss Jamaica UK competition . The couple now had a child , a boy named Skye who was born in September 2005 , and Chambers desperately needed to earn a living to support his family and pay off debts incurred through the drug ban . He amassed a selection of cuttings about his fall from grace and the BALCO Scandal in order to show his son the risks of drug abuse .
Chambers tried to fashion himself as a living example of the dangers of drugs , sporting a T @-@ shirt in Valencia with an anti @-@ drugs slogan of " Just Say No ! " . He also expressed regret about previous comments suggesting that drug use was necessary to reach the upper echelons of athletics and set about presenting himself as a changed , clean athlete – devoid of the bravado that had marked his earlier career . Chambers ' reinvention was met with a mixed reaction and the acceptance of a proven drug user on the track was not palatable to some . Dame Kelly Holmes and parts of the British press called for Chambers to retire from the Great Britain athletics team .
Chambers ' return to athletics took an unusual turn when he confirmed in March 2008 that he had joined English rugby league team Castleford Tigers on trial ; a move which surprised and angered in equal measure given the fact he had never played the sport before . The Rugby Football League did not object to the move , in spite of his drug @-@ damaged reputation , but stated much improvement was needed prior to any appearance for Castleford in the Super League competition . At a rugby press conference , Chambers expressed a desire to compete in the Beijing Olympics , casting doubt on his dedication to his new career . Chambers officially registered as a player with the Rugby Football League , and Martin Offiah declared that he was prepared to mentor Chambers . He completed training with the Castleford Tigers first @-@ team squad and made his debut in a reserve game against York City Knights , but Castleford announced that they would not be offering him a contract .
= = = High Court challenge = = =
In May 2008 Chambers announced that he was challenging his Olympic ban at the High Court of Justice . Chambers returned to sprinting in June and , in his first 100 m race since August 2006 , he won the Papaflessia meet with a time of 10 @.@ 26 s . He achieved the " A " Standard for the 2008 Beijing Olympics in June and won the British Olympic trials in ten seconds flat in July . Public opinion on an Olympic appearance remained split .
His performance at the Olympic trials was in vain as Mr. Justice Mackay upheld the BOA ban in the High Court of Justice and stated that a right to work was not sufficient reason to remove it . The BOA chairman , Lord Moynihan , was satisfied with the outcome , stating that those abusing drugs did not deserve to represent Great Britain at the Olympics . However , he lamented that a sprinter of Chambers ' calibre had in effect excluded himself from the competition .
The effort of the High Court challenge and the Olympic ban took its toll on Chambers , but he had no intention to retire and set an appearance in the 2012 London Olympics as his main goal , aiming to prove he could perform without the use of drugs . Lord Moynihan objected to this , saying it would sully the reputation of both the Great Britain athletics team and the London Olympics . In late 2008 Chambers signed a book deal , covering his athletics career and drug usage , and stated his desire to become a sprint coach when his track career was finished . He had his second child , a boy named Rocco , that November .
Charles van Commenee 's appointment as head coach of UK Athletics brought a change of approach towards Chambers as both the new coach and Niels De Vos welcomed him back to compete internationally . The pair judged that he had served his sentence – van Commenee was especially complimentary , stating : " He is a likeable guy and a damned fine athlete " . That month Chambers appeared at a " Tackling Doping in Sport " conference and told of the damage drugs had caused to his career , health , and finances . The Olympic ban remained in place , however , and London 2012 chairman Sebastian Coe said : " I am clear cut on the Chambers case – I don 't think there is room for drugs cheats in sport " .
= = = Race Against Me = = =
Chambers ceased legal action to overturn his Olympic ban and instead aimed to finish his career on a high . He intensively studied the technique of Usain Bolt to improve his own times , seeing Bolt as the new generation 's Maurice Greene . Though he was still banned from Euromeetings @-@ organised events , he set a new personal best of 6 @.@ 52 s in the 60 m at the Birmingham Indoor Grand Prix , then became the UK Indoor Champion , equalling Mike Rodgers ' world leading time of 6 @.@ 51 s . At the 2009 European Indoor Championships he broke Ronald Pognon 's European 60 m record with a 6 @.@ 42 s run in the semi @-@ finals , then won the gold medal with a time of 6 @.@ 46 s in the final . British head coach van Commenee stated that Chambers had undergone vigorous testing and that his performance sent " a message that you can win and break European records in the proper way . "
The record @-@ breaking performance brought him an invite from the Berlin IAAF Golden League meet , although organising group Euromeetings condemned the move . Revelations in Chambers ' autobiography Race Against Me brought further controversy as the book had in @-@ depth accounts of his past drug abuse and claimed drug use remained rife in athletics , estimating that half the American Olympic athletes in Beijing had used illegal substances . Chambers signed a statement with UK Sport , verifying that he believed the information to be true , which brought a close to the organisation 's inquiries into his drug use . An IAAF investigation concluded that the book demanded no further action on their part . Olympic gold medallist and anti @-@ drugs campaigner Ed Moses gave his support , saying that Chambers admissions provided a useful insight , but that athletes and administrators remained in denial about the high levels of doping in athletics .
Invites to Golden League meets never materialised , but he continued to run at smaller events . He ran a European leading time of 10 @.@ 06 seconds at Papaflessia in Greece , and won the 100 m and 200 m races at the 2009 European Team Championships . He was the fastest entrant at the national championships but 2008 runner @-@ up Simeon Williamson won the final by some distance . The result took Chambers by surprise and he said that limited opportunities to race had made him complacent . He later withdrew from the 200 m race citing exhaustion .
At the World Championships Chambers finished sixth in 100 m final with a season 's best of 10 @.@ 00 seconds . He was the only sprinter from outside the Americas in the final and was some distance behind Bolt who ran a world record of 9 @.@ 58 seconds . However , he was very pleased with his performance and said he was happy just to be involved in the fastest 100 m race ever . He pulled out of the 200 m with a calf injury and called an end to his season .
= = = World indoor champion = = =
The following year he began by focusing on the 2010 IAAF World Indoor Championships , and he won the 60 m at the UK trials in 6 @.@ 50 seconds ( a time only he had bettered in the previous two seasons ) . His closest competitor , Ivory Williams , received a ban for marijuana usage , leaving Chambers as a strong favourite . He was the fastest in all rounds of World 60 m competition and surged ahead of Mike Rodgers in the final to win his first world title with a time of 6 @.@ 48 seconds . Banned from the 2010 Commonwealth Games , he set his sights on making the team for the 2010 European Athletics Championships .
At the start of the outdoor season he had wins in Maringá in Brazil and at the Cezmi Or Memorial . He beat Christophe Lemaitre to win the 100 m at the 2010 European Team Championships , helping Great Britain to second place in the tournament and recording 9 @.@ 99 seconds – the first sub @-@ 10 time by a European athlete in almost four years . Lemaitre and Chambers were seen as the only gold medal contenders for the 100 m final at the European Athletics Championships , but the event defied expectations in terms of times and placings . The Frenchman won in 10 @.@ 11 seconds into a headwind while a tight finish between the four following athletes ( all 10 @.@ 18 ) saw Chambers finish fifth .
= = = 2011 – 2012 : World and Olympic semi @-@ finalist = = =
The start of his 2011 season saw him take a fourth consecutive national title over 60 m with a European @-@ leading time . At the 2011 European Athletics Indoor Championships the following month he was beaten to the line by Obikwelu , although he was pleased with the silver medal as he had changed his training to focus towards the 100 m for that season . Four straight wins on the Brazilian Athletics Tour came at the beginning of his outdoor season in May , including a season 's best of 10 @.@ 01 seconds , and he took his fifth national title at the British trials . At the 2011 World Championships he reached the 100 m semi @-@ finals but fell foul of the IAAF 's new false start rule : he twitched in his blocks and was immediately disqualified .
He won his fifth national title in the 60 m in 2012 with a season 's best of 6 @.@ 58 m . A third consecutive podium finish came at the 2012 IAAF World Indoor Championships , where he pipped Trell Kimmons to the bronze medal . Chambers was given the chance to return to the Olympic stage after the Court of Arbitration for Sport ( CAS ) decided in favour of the World Anti @-@ Doping Agency over the validity of British Olympic Association 's ( BOA ) Olympic ban by @-@ law . CAS agreed that the law was non @-@ compliant with the World Anti @-@ Doping Code , to which the BOA was signatory due to its connection with the International Olympic Committee . Chambers ran a 150 m @-@ straight best of 15 @.@ 27 seconds at the Great City Games in May then won the 100 m Olympic trial race , holding off emerging teenager Adam Gemili . His absence from the major track circuit came to an end with a run at the Diamond League London Grand Prix , although he did not achieve the Olympic " A " standard time there .
Chambers was named in the British squad for the 2012 London Olympics after the selectors took into account his trials win and his times from the previous year . Given the abrupt turnaround in his fortunes , he said : " For me representing my country in an Olympics is a privilege that should never be taken for granted . To be given the opportunity to do so in my home town has been a dream that at times has seemed very distant and is now a reality . " He returned to the British relay team at the 2012 European Athletics Championships after a six @-@ year absence but a botched baton change saw the team disqualified . At the Olympics he won his 100 metres heat in a season 's best of 10 @.@ 02 seconds , with a legal 2 @.@ 0 m / s following wind , in his first Olympic race in twelve years . He was drawn in the same semi @-@ final as Usain Bolt but Chambers ' run of 10 @.@ 05 seconds for fourth meant he did not make the final . His Olympics came to an end in the 4 × 100 metres relay heats as the British team made an illegal baton exchange .
= = = 2013 – present = = =
Chambers began his 2013 season with a 60 m win in Glasgow with a run of 6 @.@ 58 seconds . A back injury affected his preparations for the 2013 European Indoor Championships , where he was eliminated in the heats . Outdoors , he won his fourth consecutive British Championship title , running 10 @.@ 04 . A month later at the World Championships in Moscow , he ran 10 @.@ 14 in his heat to reach the semi @-@ finals , where he was eliminated running 10 @.@ 15 .
Chambers began 2014 by finishing second in the 60 m at the British Indoor Championships , before going on to finish sixth in the 60 m final at the World Indoor Championships in a time of 6.52s. This was the fastest time he had run the 60m in since 2010 . In his first three 100 m races of the outdoor season he failed to break 10 @.@ 20 , before hitting form during the British Championships . Going into the event , he was only ranked 10th in the UK , but he won the 100 m final , defeating Chijindu Ujah , who had broken 10 seconds three weeks earlier . Chambers ' victory guaranteed him selection for the European Championships as his winning time was 10 @.@ 12 secs , inside the European qualifying mark of 10 @.@ 20 . This was his fifth consecutive win at the British Championships .
= = Statistics = =
Chambers ' performances at tournaments in the 100 metres event make him one of the fastest European sprinters in the history of recorded athletics . His personal best of 9 @.@ 97 s set at the 1999 Seville World Championships places him as the seventh fastest European in the 100 m and the fourth fastest Briton behind Linford Christie ( 9 @.@ 87 s ) , James Dasaolu ( 9 @.@ 91 s ) and Chijindu Ujah ( 9 @.@ 96 s ) . Chambers ' annulled 9 @.@ 87 s finish at the Paris Grand Prix in 2002 would have made him the joint fastest British 100 m sprinter with Christie and the joint second fastest European in the event .
Amongst his British contemporaries Chambers ranks top with two 9 @.@ 97 s finishes ; the first in 1999 in Seville , Spain and the second in 2001 in Edmonton , Canada . Compatriot Mark Lewis Francis also scored a personal best of 9 @.@ 97 s at the Edmonton World Championships . Great Britain team @-@ mate Jason Gardener 's personal best of 9 @.@ 98 s falls just short of Chambers ' . None of his British contemporaries have broken the ten second barrier on more than one occasion ; Chambers has done so five times .
Chambers is the current European record holder in the 60 m with 6 @.@ 42 s and is the third fastest sprinter in the history of the event after Andre Cason and Maurice Greene . Chambers shares the British and European records for the 4 × 100 metres relay with Gardener , Darren Campbell and Marlon Devonish with their 37 @.@ 73 s finish at the 1999 Seville World Championships . It is also the fastest time recorded by a team outside of the IAAF 's North , Central American and Caribbean region .
= = = Personal bests = = =
Excludes times nullified due to Chambers ' positive drugs tests and subsequent ban – All information taken from IAAF profile .
= = = International competition record = = =
† Amended from fifth after Tim Montgomery tested positive for banned substances
Excludes results nullified due to Chambers ' positive drugs tests and subsequent ban .
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= Liliaceae =
The lily family , Liliaceae ( US English / ˌlɪliˈeɪsiˌi / ) , consists of fifteen genera and about 705 known species ( Christenhusz & Byng 2016 ) of flowering plants within the order Liliales . They are monocotyledonous , perennial , herbaceous , often bulbous geophytes . Plants in this family have evolved with a fair amount of morphological diversity despite genetic similarity . Common characteristics include large flowers with parts arranged in threes : with six colored or patterned petaloid tepals ( undifferentiated petals and sepals ) arranged in two whorls , six stamens and a superior ovary . The leaves are linear in shape , with their veins usually arranged parallel to the edges , single and arranged alternating on the stem , or in a rosette at the base . Most species are grown from bulbs , although some have rhizomes . First described in 1789 , the lily family became a paraphyletic " catch @-@ all " group of petaloid monocots that did not fit into other families and included a great number of genera now included in other families and in some cases in other orders . Consequently , many sources and descriptions labelled " Liliaceae " deal with the broader sense of the family .
The family evolved approximately 52 million years ago during the Late Cretaceous to Early Paleogene eras . Liliaceae are widely distributed , mainly in temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere and the flowers are insect pollinated . Many Liliaceae are important ornamental plants , widely grown for their attractive flowers and involved in a major floriculture of cut flowers and dry bulbs . Some species are poisonous if eaten and can have adverse health effects in humans and household pets .
A number of Liliaceae genera are popular cultivated plants in private and public spaces . Lilies and tulips in particular have had considerable symbolic and decorative value , and appear frequently in paintings and the decorative arts . They are also an economically important product .
= = Description = =
The diversity of characteristics complicates any description of the Liliaceae morphology , and confused taxonomic classification for centuries . The diversity is also of considerable evolutionary significance , as some members emerged from shaded areas and adapted to a more open environment ( see Evolution ) .
= = = General = = =
The Liliaceae family are characterised as monocotyledonous , perennial , herbaceous , bulbous ( or rhizomatous in the case of Medeoleae ) flowering plants with simple trichomes ( root hairs ) and contractile roots . The flowers may be arranged ( inflorescence ) along the stem , developing from the base , or as a single flower at the tip of the stem , or as a cluster of flowers . They contain both male ( androecium ) and female ( gynoecium ) characteristics and are symmetric radially , but sometimes as a mirror image . Most flowers are large and colourful , except for Medeoleae . Both the petals and sepals are usually similar and appear as two concentric groups ( whorls ) of ' petals ' , that are often striped or multi @-@ coloured , and produce nectar at their bases . The stamens are usually in two groups of three ( trimerous ) and the pollen has a single groove ( monosulcate ) . The ovary is placed above the attachment of the other parts ( superior ) . There are three fused carpels ( syncarpus ) with one to three chambers ( locules ) , a single style and a three @-@ lobed stigma . The embryo sac is of the Fritillaria type . The fruit is generally a wind dispersed capsule , but occasionally a berry ( Medeoleae ) which is dispersed by animals . The leaves are generally simple and elongated with veins parallel to the edges , arranged singly and alternating on the stem , but may form a rosette at the base of the stem .
= = = Specific = = =
Inflorescence
Usually indeterminate ( lacking terminal flower ) as a raceme ( Lilium ) ; sometimes reduced to a single terminal flower ( Tulipa ) . When pluriflor ( multiple blooms ) , the flowers are arranged in a cluster or rarely are subumbellate ( Gagea ) or a thyrse ( spike ) .
Flowers
Hermaphroditic , actinomorphic ( radially symmetric ) or slightly zygomorphic ( bilaterally symmetric ) , pedicellate ( on a short secondary stem ) , generally large and showy but may be inconspicuous : ( Medeoleae ) . Bracts may ( bracteate ) or may not ( ebracteate ) be present . The perianth is undifferentiated ( perigonium ) and biseriate ( two whorled ) , formed from six tepals arranged into two separate whorls of three parts ( trimerous ) each , although Scoliopus has only three petals , free from the other parts , but overlapping . The tepals are usually petaloid ( apotepalous ) with lines ( striate ) or marks in other colors or shades . The perianth is either homochlamydeous ( all tepals equal , e.g. Fritillaria ) or dichlamydeous ( two separate and different whorls , e.g. Calochortus ) and may be united into a tube . Nectar is produced in perigonal nectaries at the base of the tepals .
Androecium
Six stamens in two trimerous whorls , with free filaments , usually epiphyllous ( fused to tepals ) and diplostemonous ( outer whorl of stamens opposite outer tepals and the inner whorl opposite inner tepals ) , although Scoliopus has three stamens opposite the outer tepals . The attachment of the anthers to the filaments may be either peltate ( to the surface ) or pseudo @-@ basifixed ( surrounding the filament tip , but not adnate , that is not fused ) and dehisce longitudinally and are extrorse ( dehiscing away from center ) . The pollen is usually monosulcate ( single groove ) , but may be inaperturate ( lacking aperture : Clintonia , some Tulipa spp . ) or operculate ( lidded : Fritillaria , some Tulipa spp . ) , and reticulate ( net patterned : Erythronium , Fritillaria , Gagea , Lilium , Tulipa ) .
Gynoecium
Superior ovary ( hypogynous ) , syncarpous ( with fused carpels ) , with three connate ( fused ) carpels and is trilocular ( three locules , or chambers ) or unilocular ( single locule , as in Scoliopus and Medeola ) . There is a single style and a three lobed stigma or three stigmata more or less elongated along the style . There are numerous anatropous ( curved ) ovules which display axile placentation ( parietal in Scoliopus and Medeola ) , usually with an integument and thinner megasporangium . The embryo sac ( megagametophyte ) varies by genera , but is mainly tetrasporic ( e.g. Fritillaria ) . Embryo sacs in which three of the four megaspores fuse to form a triploid nucleus , are referred to as Fritillaria @-@ type , a characteristic shared by all the core Liliales .
Fruit
A capsule that is usually loculicidal ( splitting along the locules ) as in the Lilioideae , but occasionally septicidal ( splitting between them , along the separating septa ) in the Calachortoideae and wind dispersed , although the Medeoleae form berries ( baccate ) . The seeds may be flat , oblong , angular , discoid , ellipsoid or globose ( spherical ) , or compressed with a well developed epidermis . The exterior may be smooth or roughened , with a wing or raphe ( ridge ) , aril or one to two tails , rarely hairy , but may be dull or shiny and the lack of a black integument distinguishes them from related taxa such as Allioideae that were previously included in this family , and striate ( parallel longitudinally ridged ) in the Steptopoideae . The hilum ( scar ) is generally inconspicuous . The bitegmic ( separate testa and tegmen ) seed coat itself may be thin , suberose ( like cork ) , or crustaceous ( hard or brittle ) . The endosperm is abundant , cartilaginous ( fleshy ) or horny and contains oils and aleurone but not starch ( non @-@ farinaceous ) . Its cells are polyploid ( triploid or pentaploid , depending on the embryo sac type ) . The embryo is small ( usually less than one quarter of seed volume ) , axile ( radially sectioned ) , linear ( longer than broad ) or rarely rudimentary ( tiny relative to endosperm ) depending on placentation type , and straight , bent , curved or curled at the upper end .
Leaves
Simple , entire ( smooth and even ) , linear , oval to filiform ( thread @-@ like ) , mostly with parallel veins , but occasionally net @-@ veined . They are alternate ( single and alternating direction ) and spiral , but may be whorled ( three or more attached at one node , e.g. Lilium , Fritillaria ) , cauline ( arranged along the aerial stem ) or sheathed in a basal rosette . They are rarely petiolate ( stem attached before apex ) , and lack stipules . The aerial stem is unbranched .
Genome
The Liliaceae include the species with the largest genome size within the angiosperms , Fritillaria assyriaca ( 1C = 127 @.@ 4 pg ) , while Tricyrtis macropoda is as small as 4 @.@ 25 pg . Chromosome numbers vary by genus . Some genera like Calochortus ( x = 6 @-@ 10 ) , Prosartes ( 6 @,@ 8 @,@ 9 @,@ 11 ) , Scoliopus ( 7 @,@ 8 ) , Streptopus ( 8 , 27 ) and Tricyrtis ( 12 @-@ 13 ) have a small and variable number of chromosomes while subfamily Lilioideae have a larger and more stable chromosome number ( 12 ) as have the Medeoleae ( 7 ) .
Phytochemistry
The seeds contain saponins but no calcium oxalate raphide crystals , chelidonic acid ( unlike Asparagales ) or cysteine derived sulphur compounds ( allyl sulphides ) , another distinguishing feature from the characteristic alliaceous odour of the Allioideae . Fritillaria in particular contains steroidal alkaloids of the cevanine and solanum type . Solanidine and solanthrene alkaloids have been isolated from some Fritillaria species . Tulipa contains Tulipanin , an anthrocyanin . ( see also : Toxicology )
Characteristics often vary by habitat , between shade @-@ dwelling genera ( such as Prosartes , Tricyrtis , Cardiocrinum , Clintonia , Medeola , Prosartes , and Scoliopus ) and sun loving genera . Shade @-@ dwelling genera usually have broader leaves with smooth edges and net venation , and fleshy fruits ( berries ) with animal @-@ dispersed seeds , rhizomes , and small , inconspicuous flowers while genera native to sunny habitats usually have narrow , parallel @-@ veined leaves , capsular fruits with wind @-@ dispersed seeds , bulbs , and large , visually conspicuous flowers . ( See also Evolution ) .
= = Taxonomy = =
The taxonomy of the Liliaceae has a very complex history . The family was first described in the eighteenth century , and over time many other genera were added until it became one of the largest of the monocotyledon families , and also extremely diverse . Modern taxonomic systems , such as the APG which is based on phylogenetic principles using molecular biology , have redistributed many of these genera resulting in the relatively small family that is currently recognised . Consequently , there are many different accounts of the Liliaceae in the literature and older uses of the term occur commonly . To distinguish between them , the Latin terms sensu lato and sensu stricto are frequently used ( together with their abbreviations , s.l. and s.s. ) to denote the broader or stricter sense of the circumscription respectively , e.g. Liliaceae s.s ..
= = = History = = =
The Liliaceae family was described by Michel Adanson in 1763 and formally named by Antoine Laurent de Jussieu in 1789 . Jussieu defined this grouping as having a calyx of six equal colored parts , six stamens , a superior ovary , single style , and a trilocular ( three @-@ chambered ) capsule . By 1845 , John Lindley , the first English systematist unhappily acknowledged the great diversity in the circumscription of the family , and that it had expanded vastly , with many subdivisions . As he saw it , the Liliaceae were already paraphyletic ( " catch @-@ all " ) , being all Liliales not included in the other orders , but hoped that the future would reveal some characteristic that would group them better . He recognized 133 genera and 1200 species . By the time of the next major British classification – that of Bentham and Hooker in 1883 ( published in Latin ) – several of Lindley 's other families had already been absorbed into the Liliaceae . Over time the Liliaceae became increasingly broadly , and somewhat arbitrarily defined as all species of plants with six tepals and a superior ovary , eventually coming to encompass about 300 genera and 4 @,@ 500 species , within the order Liliales in the Cronquist system ( 1981 ) . Cronquist merged the Liliaceae with the Amaryllidaceae , making this one of the largest monocotyledon families .
Many other botanists echoed Lindley 's earlier concerns about the phylogeny of the Liliaceae , but various schemes to divide the family gained little traction . Dahlgren ( 1985 ) suggested there were in fact forty – not one – families distributed over three orders ( predominantly Liliales and Asparagales ) . In the context of a general review of the classification of angiosperms , the Liliaceae were subjected to more intense scrutiny . Considerable progress in plant phylogeny and phylogenetic theory enabled a phylogenetic tree to be constructed for all of the flowering plants , as elaborated by the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group ( 1998 ) .
= = = Modern APG classification and phylogeny = = =
The Angiosperm Phylogeny Group ( APG ) made rapid progress in establishing a modern monophyletic classification of the flowering plants by 2009 . Despite establishing this relative degree of monophyly ( genetic homogeneity ) for the Liliaceae family , their morphology remains diverse and there exists within the Liliaceae clade or grouping , a number of subclades ( subgroups ) . Particularly enigmatic were Clintonia , Medeola , Scoliopus , and Tricyrtis .
Of the fifteen genera within the Liliaceae , the ten genera of the Lilioideae subfamily form one morphological group that is characterised by contractile bulbs and roots , and a Fritillaria @-@ type embryo @-@ sac ( megagametophyte with four megaspores ) . Within the Lilioideae , Clintonia and the closely related Medeola form a subclade , and are now considered a separate tribe ( Medeoleae ) . The other major grouping consists of the five genera constituting the Streptopoideae ( including Scoliopus ) and Calochortoideae ( including Tricyrtis ) subfamilies characterised by creeping rhizomes , styles which are divided at their apices , and by megagametophyte development of the Polygonum @-@ type ( a simple megaspore and triploid endosperm ) embryo @-@ sac .
= = = Evolution and biogeography = = =
The development of a phylogenetic approach to taxonomy suggested the Liliales formed some of the earliest monocots . Molecular analysis indicates that divergence amongst the Liliales probably occurred around 82 million years ago . The closest sister family to the Liliaceae are the Smilacaceae with the Liliaceae separating 52 million years ago . Liliaceae thus arose during the late ( Maastrichtian ) Cretaceous to early ( Paleocene ) Paleogene periods . Major evolutionary clades include the Lilieae ( Lilium , Fritillaria , Nomocharis , Cardiocrinum , Notholirion ) from the Himalayas about 12 mya and the Tulipeae ( Erythronium , Tulipa , Gagea ) from East Asia at about the same time . The Medeoleae ( Clintonia and Medeola ) may have appeared in North America but were subsequently dispersed , as may have the Streptopoideae and Calochortoideae . Liliaceae fossils have been dated to the Paleogene and Cretaceous eras in the Antarctic .
The Liliaceae probably arose as shade plants , with subsequent evolution to open areas including deciduous forest in the more open autumnal period , but then a return of some species ( e.g. Cardiocrinum ) . This was accompanied by a shift from rhizomes to bulbs , to more showy flowers , the production of capsular fruit and narrower parallel @-@ veined leaves . Again , some reversal to the broader reticulate @-@ veined leaves occurred ( e.g. Cardiocrinum )
= = = Subdivisions and genera = = =
= = = = Suprageneric subdivisions = = = =
Due to the diversity of the originally broadly defined Liliaceae s.l. , many attempts have been made to form suprageneric classifications , e.g. subfamilies and tribes . Classifications published since the use of molecular methods in phylogenetics have taken a narrower view of the Liliaceae ( Liliaceae s.s. ) . The Angiosperm Phylogeny Website ( APweb ) recognizes three subfamilies , one of which is divided into two tribes .
= = = = Genera = = = =
Various authorities ( e.g. ITIS 16 , GRIN 27 , WCSP , NCBI , DELTA ) differ on the exact number of genera included in Liliaceae s.s. , but generally there are about fifteen to sixteen genera , depending on whether or not Amana is included in Tulipa and Lloydia in Gagea . For instance Amana is still listed separately in WCSP .
Currently the APWeb lists fifteen genera , arranged as shown in this table :
The largest genera are Gagea ( 200 ) , Fritillaria ( 130 ) , Lilium ( 110 ) , and Tulipa ( 75 species ) , all within the Lilieae tribe .
= = = Etymology = = =
The family is named after Lilium , the type genus , which is Latin for ‘ lily ’ and which in turn came from the Greek leírion ( λείριον ) .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The Liliaceae are widely distributed , but mainly in the temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere . The centre of diversity is from southwest Asia to China . Their distribution is diverse , mainly in plains , steppes , and alpine meadows , but also in deciduous forests , Mediterranean scrub and arctic tundra . Tulipa and Gagea provide examples of ornamental geophyte biomorphological types representing continental thermoperiodic zones ( Irano @-@ Turanian region ) , characterised by cessation of underground growth at high temperatures in early summer and requiring low winter temperatures for spring flowering . While some genera are shade @-@ dwelling , such as the Medeoleae , and Streptopoideae , Tricyrtis , and Cardiocrinum , others prefer a more open habitat .
= = Ecology = =
The Liliaceae are ecologically diverse . Species of Liliaceae bloom at various times from spring to late summer . The colorful flowers produce large amounts of nectar and pollen that attract insects which pollinate them ( entomophily ) , particularly bees and wasps ( hymenopterophily ) , butterflies ( psychophily ) and moths ( phalaenophily ) . The seeds are dispersed by wind and water . Some species ( e.g. Scoliopus , Erythronium and Gagea ) have seeds with an aril structure that are dispersed by ants ( myrmecochory ) .
= = = Pests and predators = = =
Liliaceae are subject to a wide variety of diseases and pests , including insects , such as thrips , aphids , beetles and flies . Also fungi , viruses and vertebrate animals such as mice and deer . An important horticultural and garden pest is the scarlet lily beetle ( Japanese red lily beetle , Lilioceris lilii ) and other Lilioceris species which attack Fritillaria and Lilium . Lilium species may be food plants for the Cosmia trapezina moth . A major pest of Tulips is the fungus , Botrytis tulipae .
Both Lilium and Tulipa are susceptible to a group of five viruses of the Potyviridae family , specifically the potyvirus ( named for Potato virus Y ) group , which includes the Tulip @-@ breaking Virus TBV and the Lily streak virus ( Lily mottle virus , LMoV ) resulting in ' breaking ' of the color of the flowers . The viruses are transmitted by aphids . This breaking effect was of economic importance during the tulip mania of the seventeenth century , because it appeared to be producing new varieties . In modern times tulip breeders have produced varieties that mimic the effect of the virus , without being infected . One of these varieties is known as ' Rembrandt ' , after the Dutch artist of that name . Contemporary tulip owners commonly had Rembrandt and other artists paint their flowers to preserve them for posterity , hence the ' broken ' tulips were known as Rembrandt tulips at that time . Another modern variety is ' Princess Irene ' . One of the tulip breaking viruses is also named the Rembrandt tulip @-@ breaking virus ( ReTBV ) .
= = Cultivation = =
= = = Floriculture = = =
Many species of Lilieae ( in genera Tulipa , Fritillaria , Lilium , and Erythronium ) and Calochortoideae ( Calochortus and Tricyrtis ) are grown as ornamental plants worldwide . Within these genera a wide range of cultivars have been developed by breeding and hybridisation . They are generally used in outdoor gardens and other displays , although in common with many bulbous flowering plants they are often induced to bloom indoors , particularly during the winter months . They also form a significant part of the cut flower market , in particular Tulipa and Lilium .
= = = = Tulips = = = =
Tulips have been cultivated since at least the tenth century in Persia . Tulip production has two main markets : cut flowers and bulb . The latter are used , in turn , to meet the demand for bulbs for parks , gardens and home use and , secondly , to provide the necessary bulbs for cut flower production . International trade in cut flowers has an approximate total value of 11 billion euros , which provides an indication of the economic importance of this activity . The main producer of tulip bulbs is the Netherlands , a country that accounts for 87 % of the global cultivated area , with approximately 12 @,@ 000 hectares . Other leading producers include Japan , France and Poland . Approximately ten other countries produce commercial tulips , largely for the domestic market . By contrast , the Netherlands is the leading international producer , to the extent of 4 billion bulbs per annum . Of these , 53 % are used for the cut flower market and the remainder for the dry bulb market . Of the cut flowers , 57 % are used for the domestic market in the Netherlands and the remainder exported .
Original Tulipa species can be obtained for ornamental purposes , such as Tulipa tarda and Tulipa turkestanica . These are referred to as species , or botanical , tulips , and tend to be smaller plants but better at naturalising than the cultivated forms . Breeding programs have produced a wide range of tulip types , enabling blooming through a much longer season by creating early , mid- and late spring varieties . Fourteen distinct types are available in addition to botanical tulips , including Lily @-@ flowered , Fringed , Viridiflora and Rembrandt . In addition to blooming season , tulip varieties differ in shape , and height , and exhibit a wide range of colours , both pure and in combination .
= = = = Lilies = = = =
The largest area of production is also the Netherland , with 76 % of the global cultivated area , followed by France , Chile , Japan , the United States , New Zealand and Australia . Approximately ten countries produce lilies commercially altogether . About half of the commercial production is for cut flowers . Many of these countries export bulbs as well as supplying the domestic market . The Netherland produces about 2 @,@ 200 million lily bulbs annually , of which 96 % is used domestically and the remainder exported , principally within the European Union . One particularly important crop is the production of Lilium longiflorum , whose white flowers are associated with purity and Easter .
Although many Lilium species such as Lilium martagon and Lilium candidum can be obtained commercially , the majority of commercially available lilies represent the products of a very diverse hybridisation program , which has resulted in a separate horticultural classification , including such groupings as Asian , Oriental and Orienpet . In addition to a very wide variety of heights , lilies can be obtained in many colours and combinations of colours , and if properly selected can produce an extensive blooming season from early summer to autumn . Because of the history of Liliaceae , many species such as Watsonia ( bugle lily ) that were previously classified in this family bear the name ' lily ' but are neither part of the genus Lilium , or the Liliaceae family .
= = = = Other = = = =
A variety of Fritillaria species are used as early spring ornamental flowers . These vary from the large Fritillaria imperialis ( crown imperial ) available in a number of colours such as yellow or orange , to the relatively tiny species such as Fritillaria meleagris or Fritillaria uva @-@ vulpis with their chequered patterns . Erythronium is less common but a popular cultivar is ' Pagoda ' with its sulphur yellow flowers . Calochortus ( mariposa lily ) may be sold as a mixture or as cultivars .
= = = Propagation = = =
Methods of propagation include both sexual and asexual reproduction . Commercial cultivars are usually sterile .
= = = = Sexual reproduction = = = =
Seeds can be used for propagation of the plant or to create hybrids and can take five to eight years to produce flowering plants . Since interspecific cross @-@ pollination occurs , overlapping wild populations can create natural hybrids .
= = = = Asexual reproduction = = = =
Bulb offsets : Daughter bulbs that form on the mother bulb and can be detached .
Micropropagation techniques including tissue culture .
Bulbils , which are adventitious bulbs formed on the parent plant 's stem .
Scaling and twin @-@ scaling , used to increase production in slower @-@ growing varieties , in which multiple whole scales are detached from a single bulb .
Bulb offsets and tissue culture produce genetic clones of the parent plant and thus maintaining genetic integrity of the cultivars . Bulb offsets usually require at least a year before flowering . Commercially , plants may be propagated in vitro and then planted out to grow into plants large enough to sell .
= = Toxicology = =
While members of the Liliaceae s.s. have been used as food sources in humans , the bulbs of some species are poisonous to household pets ( bulb toxicosis ) if eaten and may cause serious complications , such as renal failure in cats from Lilies , particularly Lilium longiflorum ( Easter Lily ) . Dogs may develop less serious effects such as gastrointestinal problems and central nervous system depression . Most Fritillaria ( e.g. Fritillaria imperialis , Fritillaria meleagris ) bulbs contain poisonous neurotoxic alkaloids such as imperialin ( peiminine ) , which may be deadly if ingested in quantity , while other species such as Fritillaria camschatcensis and Fritillaria affinis are edible . Tulips can cause skin irritation due to the presence of tuliposides and tulipalins , which are also found in the flowers , leaves and stems of Fritillaria . These are also toxic to a variety of animals .
= = Uses = =
Fritillaria extracts are used in traditional Chinese medicine under the name chuan bei mu , and in Latin , bulbus fritillariae cirrhosae . The bulbs of Fritillaria roylei have been used as antipyretics and expectorants . Lilium bulbs , particularly Lanzhou lily ( Lilium davidii ) are used as food in China and other parts of Asia . During World War II , starvation conditions in the Netherlands ( Hongerwinter , hunger winter 1944 ) led to using Tulipa bulbs as food . Calochortus bulbs were eaten by Native Americans and by the Mormon settlers in Utah during starvation . Other members of the family used for food include Clintonia ( leaves ) , Medeola ( roots ) , Erythronium ( corms ) , and Fritillaria ( bulbs ) .
= = Culture = =
= = = Lilies = = =
The type genus , Lily ( Lilium ) , has a long history in literature and art , and a tradition of symbolism as well as becoming a popular female name , and a floral emblem , particularly of France ( fleur @-@ de @-@ lis ) . The cultivation of lilies has been described since at least the ninth century , when Charlemagne ordered it to be grown at his imperial palaces . However , the name ' lily ' has historically been applied to a wide variety of plants other than the Lilium genus .
The lily appears in ancient literature associated with both sovereignty and virginal innocence , and is mentioned on a number of occasions in the Bible , such as the description in Solomon 's Song of Songs ( 2 , 1 – 2 ) " I am a rose of Sharon , a lily of the valleys . Like a lily among thorns is my darling among the young women " or the Gospel of Mathew ( 6 , 28 ) " Consider the lilies of the field , how they grow ; they toil not , neither do they spin " to represent beauty . Artistic representations can be found as far back as frescos from the second century BC , at Amnisos and Knossos . Early Christian churches , such as that of the Basilica of Sant ' Apollinare in Classe were sometimes decorated with lilies . While predominantly depicted as white , those seen at Akrotiri are red lilies . The white lily has long been seen as a symbol of purity , coming to be associated with the Virgin Mary in the Middle Ages , from which came the name ‘ Madonna lily ’ ( Lilium candidum ) . A well @-@ known example is Leonardo da Vinci 's Annunciation ( 1472 – 1475 ) in which the archangel Gabriel bears a Madonna lily . Other symbolic meanings include glory , love and birth .
= = = = Fleur @-@ de @-@ lis = = = =
The stylised lily , or fleur @-@ de @-@ lis ( lily flower ) has long been associated with royalty , although it may originally have been derived from the form of an iris . It has also been associated with the head of a spear . Its three parts have been associated with the three classes of mediaeval society , or alternatively faith , wisdom and chivalry . Whatever its exact derivation , it has come to be associated with France and the French monarchy since the earliest Frankish kings . Consequently , it became incorporated into not only French heraldry but also that of many heraldic devices in jurisdictions where there had been historic French influence , such as Quebec and New Orleans . In modern times it appears in many forms , symbolic and decorative , and can be used on compasses to indicate the direction north , as well as the Scouting movement .
= = = Tulips = = =
Tulips ( Tulipa ) also have a long cultural tradition , particularly in the Islamic world . The Persian word for tulips , lâleh ( لاله ) , was borrowed into Turkish and Arabic as lale . In Arabic letters , lale is written with the same letters as Allah , and is used to denote God symbolically . Tulips became widely used in decorative motifs on tiles , fabrics , and ceramics in Islamic art and the Ottoman Empire in particular , and were revered in poetry , such as that of Omar Khayan in the twelfth century .
Tulips were an essential part of the gardens of Persia , having been cultivated from the Steppes . As the Seljuks – Oghuz @-@ Turkic leaders originated from the steppes – moved to Persia , and then west , they took tulips with them to Turkey , where many escaped cultivation and became naturalised . Today there are a number of places in Turkey called Laleli ( ‘ with tulips ’ ) . Tulips first appeared in the decorative arts in Turkey in the thirteenth century and flourished under the Ottomans , in particular in the royal palaces , and was adopted by the Osmans as their symbol . Further species were collected from Persia and the spreading Ottoman Empire saw to it that tulip culture also spread . By the sixteenth century it was a national symbol , hence the designation " Tulip era " , by which time they were becoming of economic importance .
By 1562 the tulip trade had reached Europe with the first shipment to Antwerp , where they were mistaken for vegetables , although they had been cultivated in Portugal since 1530 , and first appeared in illustration in 1559 , and the first tulip flowers were seen in the Netherlands in 1625 . Tulips spread rapidly across Europe in the seventeenth century , and became an important trading item , initially in France before concentrating in the Netherlands . Eventually speculative trading in tulips became so intense as to cause a financial bubble which eventually collapsed , a period known as tulip mania ( tulipomania ) , from 1634 to 1637 , similar to the Ottoman Empire 's Tulip era .
Nevertheless , since then the tulip has become indelibly associated with the Netherlands and all things Dutch. it was during this period that the tulipiere , a ceramic vase for growing tulips indoors was devised , and the Golden Age of Dutch Painting was replete with images of tulips . Although tulip festivals are held around the world in the spring , the most famous of these is the display at Keukenhof . One of the better @-@ known novels on tulips is The Black Tulip by Alexandre Dumas , père in 1850 , dealing with a contest to grow a black tulip in late seventeenth @-@ century Haarlem .
= = = Other = = =
Fritillaria are also often used as floral emblems , for instance as the county flower of Oxfordshire , UK . Calochortus nuttallii , the sego lily , is the official state flower of Utah .
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= M @-@ 77 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 77 is a state trunkline highway in the Upper Peninsula ( UP ) of the US state of Michigan . It starts in US 2 near Blaney Park north of Lake Michigan . The highway borders the eastern edge of the Seney National Wildlife Refuge and passes through the community of Germfask . At Seney , it overlaps M @-@ 28 to cross the Fox River before returning northward . The northern half has been designated as a Scenic Spur of the Lake Superior Circle Tour . M @-@ 77 runs along the eastern end of the Pictured Rocks National Lakeshore and terminates in Grand Marais north of H @-@ 58 near Lake Superior . Originally designated by 1919 , the highway has not been changed much in its history . By the late 1950s , the highway was paved , completing the modern M @-@ 77 highway .
= = Route description = =
From US 2 near Blaney Park going north , M @-@ 77 runs past the former Blaney Park Resort and out of town by a small private airport next to Lake Ann Louise . The highway continues through rural woodlands past Chip Lake . The road crosses the Manistique River as it runs through Germfask . From just south of Germfask to just south of Seney , the road forms the eastern boundary of the Seney National Wildlife Refuge .
The refuge is a managed wetland in Schoolcraft County in Michigan . Established in 1935 , it has an area of 95 @,@ 212 acres ( 38 @,@ 531 ha ) bordered by M @-@ 28 and M @-@ 77 that is the remains of the Great Manistique Swamp , a perched sand wetland located in the central UP . The refuge contains the Strangmoor Bog National Natural Landmark within its boundaries . During the 1930s , work crews employed by the Civilian Conservation Corps ( CCC ) rebuilt , restored , and expanded the wetland drains , this time for active wetlands management purposes . These CCC ponds and drains are still used by the wetlands managers that staff the current National Wildlife Refuge .
At Seney , M @-@ 77 crosses a line of the Canadian National Railway and turns east along M @-@ 28 . Both run concurrently for less than half a mile ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) over a crossing of the Fox River before M @-@ 77 turns back northward . About 11 miles ( 18 km ) north of Seney , the road turns sharply to the west , near Snyder Lake . The trunkline continues along several other lakes before turning northeasterly and then northward . The road marks the easternmost extent of the Pictured Rocks National Lakeshore around 2 @.@ 5 miles ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) south of Grand Marais . Within Grand Marais , the highway follows Lake Avenue through downtown . M @-@ 77 intersects H @-@ 58 in town and the two designations run concurrently for two blocks . The trunkline continues one block farther north and ends at an intersection with Braziel Street by the Grand Marais harbor ; the roadway continues northward as Lake Avenue at that point .
Grand Marais is situated on the shores of Lake Superior some 25 miles ( 40 km ) north of the mainline of the Lake Superior Circle Tour . Since the Tour runs only along state trunklines in Michigan , a Scenic Spur of the tour was created to route traffic north from Seney to Grand Marais . The scenic spur also terminates in Grand Marais with M @-@ 77 north of the junction with H @-@ 58 .
M @-@ 77 is maintained by the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) like other state highways in Michigan . As a part of these maintenance responsibilities , the department tracks the volume of traffic that uses the roadways under its jurisdiction . These volumes are expressed using a metric called annual average daily traffic , which is a statistical calculation of the average daily number of vehicles on a segment of roadway . MDOT 's surveys in 2009 showed that the highest traffic levels along M @-@ 77 were the 1 @,@ 924 vehicles daily between Floodwood and Ten Curves roads in Schoolcraft county ; the lowest counts were the 799 vehicles per day north of M @-@ 28 in Seney . No section of M @-@ 77 has been listed on the National Highway System , a network of roads important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility .
= = History = =
The route was first designated by July 1 , 1919 , with a route very close to its present course . A pair of sharp turns were straightened 11 miles ( 18 km ) north of Seney at Lavender Corner around 1950 . The last segments of gravel road were paved in 1958 – 59 .
= = Major intersections = =
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= Emanuelle Goes to Dinosaur Land =
" Emanuelle Goes to Dinosaur Land " is the twenty @-@ first episode of the fourth season of the American television comedy series 30 Rock , and the 79th overall episode of the series . It was written by supervising producer Matt Hubbard and directed by Beth McCarthy @-@ Miller . The episode originally aired on the National Broadcasting Company ( NBC ) network in the United States on May 13 , 2010 . Guest stars in this episode include John Anderson , Elizabeth Banks , Jon Hamm , Kristin McGee , Julianne Moore , Michael Sheen , Jason Sudeikis , and Dean Winters .
In the episode , Jack Donaghy ( Alec Baldwin ) becomes even more entangled in his love triangle between Avery Jessup ( Banks ) and Nancy Donovan ( Moore ) , and he turns for advice to Liz Lemon ( Tina Fey ) , who is focusing on her own romantic problems . When Liz cannot find a date to her ex @-@ boyfriend 's ( Sudeikis ) wedding , she revisits her old boyfriends ( Hamm and Winters ) in hope that a spark will reignite . Meanwhile , Tracy Jordan ( Tracy Morgan ) continues his journey to earn his EGOT .
" Emanuelle Goes to Dinosaur Land " received generally positive reviews from television critics . According to the Nielsen Media Research , the episode was watched by 4 @.@ 996 million households during its original broadcast , and received a 2 @.@ 5 rating / 7 share among viewers in the 18 – 49 demographic . For his performance in this episode , Jon Hamm received a Primetime Emmy Award nomination in the category for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Comedy Series .
= = Plot = =
Liz Lemon ( Tina Fey ) is dateless for ex @-@ boyfriend Floyd DeBarber 's ( Jason Sudeikis ) wedding , and does not want to be alone . She revisits her old boyfriends — Drew Baird ( Jon Hamm ) and Dennis Duffy ( Dean Winters ) — but the visits do not go well . Later , at a party , Liz learns from Cerie Xerox ( Katrina Bowden ) , her office assistant , that she will be seated next to Wesley Snipes ( Michael Sheen ) — a man whom Liz despises — at Cerie 's wedding . As a result of this , Liz invites Wesley as her date to Floyd 's wedding . At the wedding , Wesley reveals that he has lost his job , and needs Liz to get him U.S. residency , and proposes marriage to her . After an unsuccessful conversation with Mike ( John Anderson ) , a friend of Floyd 's , Liz agrees to marry Wesley .
Meanwhile , Jack Donaghy ( Alec Baldwin ) is still in a dilemma in who to choose from between CNBC host Avery Jessup ( Elizabeth Banks ) and his high school sweetheart Nancy Donovan ( Julianne Moore ) . Avery decides not to be Jack 's date to Cerie 's wedding , and that while she is gone , Jack should think about whether or not he wants to be with her . As soon as Avery leaves , Nancy shows up at the 30 Rock building unannounced , and decides to spend the weekend with Jack . Liz tries to talk him out of going on a date with Nancy , after he asked her for advice . He decides to keep things platonic with Nancy , so that no problem ensues in his decision to choose between them , but Jack ends up sleeping with Nancy . The next morning , Nancy admits that the two spending the night together was a big deal , as Jack was the first man she slept with after her divorce . At Floyd 's wedding , Jack tells Nancy about Avery , and as a result , Nancy threatens to leave him forever once the ceremony is over . While Liz gives a reading , Jack texts her to stall , resulting in Liz reading inappropriate scripture recitations at the wedding .
Finally , Tracy Jordan ( Tracy Morgan ) informs " Dot Com " Slattery ( Kevin Brown ) and NBC page Kenneth Parcell ( Jack McBrayer ) that he wishes to be part of the film Garfield 3 : Feline Groovy . Dot Com and Kenneth tell Tracy that he should instead focus on his chances of getting an Oscar , as part of his EGOT quest . The two encourage him to audition for Hard To Watch , a story of an inner @-@ city boy living in the ghetto , something that Tracy can directly relate to . Tracy decides to audition for Hard To Watch , but realizes that playing the role may bring up too many repressed memories . Dot Com and Kenneth , along with Tracy , visit all the places from Tracy 's childhood in order to prepare him for the role , but this backfires when Tracy is brought to tears because of his past .
= = Production = =
" Emanuelle Goes to Dinosaur Land " was written by series supervising producer Matt Hubbard , making it his tenth writing credit after " The Rural Juror " , " Hard Ball " , " The Collection " , " MILF Island " , " Reunion " , " Larry King " , " Cutbacks " , " Audition Day " , and " Anna Howard Shaw Day " . The episode was directed by Beth McCarthy @-@ Miller , making it her twelfth for the series . " Emanuelle Goes to Dinosaur Land " originally aired in the United States on May 13 , 2010 , on NBC as the twenty @-@ first episode of the show 's fourth season and the 79th overall episode of the series .
This episode was filmed on March 10 , 2010 . Saint Cecilia 's Catholic Church in Greenpoint , Brooklyn served as the church for Floyd and Kaitlin 's ( Kristin McGee ) wedding . This episode of 30 Rock was actress Julianne Moore 's fourth appearance as Nancy Donovan on the show , and was actress Elizabeth Banks ' sixth guest spot . Comedian actor Jason Sudeikis , who played Floyd DeBarber in this episode , has appeared in the main cast of Saturday Night Live ( SNL ) , a weekly sketch comedy series which airs on NBC in the United States . Tina Fey , the series creator of 30 Rock , was the head writer on SNL from 1999 until 2006 . This was Sudeikis 's eleventh appearance on the show . Actor Michael Sheen made his third appearance as Wesley Snipes . In addition , actors Jon Hamm and Dean Winters reprised their roles as Drew Baird and Dennis Duffy , respectively , as former boyfriends of Liz Lemon .
This was the third time the show referenced Tracy Jordan trying to get his EGOT . This plot first began in the December 3 , 2009 , episode " Dealbreakers Talk Show " in which Tracy finds a diamond encrusted " EGOT " necklace and sets a new life goal to achieve EGOT status by winning four major awards : an Emmy , a Grammy , an Oscar , and a Tony . In " Emanuelle Goes to Dinosaur Land " , Tracy decides to do the movie Hard To Watch , in hopes that he can get an Oscar for his performance .
= = Cultural references = =
Tracy decides to play the Garfield character — an orange tabby cat — in an upcoming film Garfield 3 : Feline Groovy . When Liz visits Drew , in hopes that he can be her date to Floyd 's wedding , Drew is surprised to see Liz , but tells her that he was thinking about her when he saw " this gorgeous woman ... putting glasses on her daughter 's Mr. Potato Head . " Later , at a park , Liz visits Dennis , in which she sees that he is building a strange contraption . Dennis tells her that he is trying to recreate and improve on the Balloon boy incident , a reference to the October 2009 hoax in which two parents claimed their son was on board a helium balloon that had floated away , but later turned out to be a publicity stunt . At Floyd 's wedding , Wesley , who is English , tells Liz that he does not want to go back to England , as he does not want to witness the 2012 Summer Olympics , which is scheduled to take place in London , explaining " Did you see the Beijing opening ceremonies ? We don 't have control over our people like that . " The episode 's title is a reference to the Emmanuelle series of erotic films .
= = Reception = =
According to the Nielsen Media Research , " Emanuelle Goes to Dinosaur Land " was watched by 4 @.@ 996 million households in its original American broadcast . It earned a 2 @.@ 5 rating / 7 share in the 18 – 49 demographic . This means that it was seen by 2 @.@ 5 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 7 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . This was a decrease from the previous episode , " The Moms " , which was watched by 5 @.@ 420 million American viewers . During its original broadcast , " Emanuelle Goes to Dinosaur Land " ranked fourth in its 9 : 30 p.m. slot , behind ABC 's Grey 's Anatomy , CBS ' CSI : Crime Scene Investigation , and Fox 's Fringe . Jon Hamm received a Primetime Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Guest Actor in a Comedy Series at the 62nd Primetime Emmy Awards for his work in this episode , but lost it to actor Neil Patrick Harris for his guest appearance on Glee . " Emanuelle Goes to Dinosaur Land " received generally positive reviews from television critics .
Bob Sassone of AOL 's TV Squad liked the episode because of its " non @-@ stop one liners and great guest cameos . " Sassone 's only complaint was that the Jack , Nancy , and Avery love triangle be over , pointing out that he was sick of seeing Jack running around trying to keep Avery and Nancy from seeing each other . IGN contributor Robert Canning said that " we got one of the best episode titles of any show this year " , and was favorable to the guest spots from Jon Hamm , Dean Winters , and Michael Sheen , observing " [ t ] he episode joyfully gave us three great pairings for Liz to deal with , each presenting their own unique set of laughs . " In conclusion , Canning gave the episode a 9 out of 10 rating . Linda Holmes for National Public Radio said that " Emanuelle Goes to Dinosaur Land " was " very funny " , and commented that her favorite scene was when Liz visited Drew in hopes that the two can get back together .
The A.V. Club 's Nathan Rabin commented that this episode might have been the " best Tracy [ Jordan ] episode of the season " explaining that Tracy Morgan " delivered one genius non sequitur after another describing the comically over @-@ the @-@ top horrors of his childhood . [ ... ] The insane , eminently quotable one @-@ liners were flying so fast and so furious that I could barely keep up with them . " In regards to Jack 's love triangle , Rabin opined that this arc " could easily have worn out its welcome long ago " but that Alec Baldwin , Julianne Moore , and Elizabeth Banks " have kept lively and vibrant . " In conclusion , he gave it an A − grade rating . Meredith Blake , writing for the Los Angeles Times , was positive about Liz getting engaged , noting that she has become a woman , and concluded that " it will no doubt be one of television 's most memorable weddings " if Liz and Wesley get married . Nick Catucci of New York magazine said that " Emanuelle Goes to Dinosaur Land " was good , " [ m ] aybe the best episode ever . " TV Guide 's Adam Mersel said that Banks played her role " perfectly " , but that he was still not convinced that Sheen 's Wesley is the right man for Liz .
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= Bill Ponsford =
William Harold " Bill " Ponsford MBE ( 19 October 1900 – 6 April 1991 ) was an Australian cricketer . Usually playing as an opening batsman , he formed a successful and long @-@ lived partnership opening the batting for Victoria and Australia with Bill Woodfull , his friend and state and national captain . Ponsford is the only player to twice break the world record for the highest individual score in first @-@ class cricket ; Ponsford and Brian Lara are the only cricketers to twice score 400 runs in an innings . Ponsford holds the Australian record for a partnership in Test cricket , set in 1934 in combination with Donald Bradman — the man who broke many of Ponsford 's other individual records .
Despite being heavily built , Ponsford was quick on his feet and renowned as one of the finest ever players of spin bowling . His bat , much heavier than the norm and nicknamed " Big Bertha " , allowed him to drive powerfully and he possessed a strong cut shot . However , critics questioned his ability against fast bowling , and the hostile short @-@ pitched English bowling in the Bodyline series of 1932 – 33 was a contributing factor in his early retirement from cricket a year and a half later . Ponsford also represented his state and country in baseball , and credited the sport with improving his cricketing skills .
Ponsford was a shy and taciturn man . After retiring from cricket , he went to some lengths to avoid interaction with the public . He spent over three decades working for the Melbourne Cricket Club , where he had some responsibility for the operations of the Melbourne Cricket Ground ( MCG ) , the scene of many of his great performances with the bat . In 1981 the Western Stand at the MCG was renamed the WH Ponsford Stand in his honour . This stand was demolished in 2003 as part of the redevelopment of the ground for the 2006 Commonwealth Games , but its replacement was also named the WH Ponsford Stand . At the completion of the stadium redevelopment in 2005 , a statue of Ponsford was installed outside the pavilion gates . In recognition of his contributions as a player , Ponsford was one of the ten initial inductees into the Australian Cricket Hall of Fame .
= = Early life = =
The son of William and Elizabeth ( née Best ) Ponsford , Bill Ponsford was born in the Melbourne suburb of Fitzroy North on 19 October 1900 . His father was a postman whose family had emigrated from Devon to Bendigo , Victoria , to work in the mines during the 1850s gold rush . His mother was also born in the goldfields , at Guildford , before moving to Melbourne with her father , a Crown Lands bailiff . Ponsford grew up on Newry St in Fitzroy North , and attended the nearby Alfred Crescent School , which stood beside the Edinburgh Gardens .
Ponsford learnt the rudiments of cricket from his uncle Cuthbert Best — a former club player for Fitzroy . He had the best batting and bowling averages for his school team in 1913 , 1914 and 1915 and eventually rose to the captaincy . His local grade club , Fitzroy , awarded Ponsford a medallion — presented by the local mayor — for being his school 's outstanding cricketer in the 1913 – 14 and 1914 – 15 seasons . The medallion was awarded along with an honorary membership of the club , and Ponsford trained enthusiastically , running from school to the nearby Brunswick Street Oval in the Edinburgh Gardens to practise in the nets . Les Cody , the general secretary of Fitzroy Cricket Club and a first @-@ class cricketer with New South Wales and Victoria , was Ponsford 's first cricketing role model .
In December 1914 , Ponsford completed his schooling and earned a qualifying certificate , which allowed him to continue his education at a high school should he wish . He instead chose to attend a private training college , Hassett 's , to study for the Bank Clerk 's exam . Ponsford passed the exam and commenced employment with the State Savings Bank at the Elizabeth Street head office in early 1916 . In May 1916 , the Ponsford family moved to Orrong Rd in Elsternwick , a wealthier part of Melbourne . Ponsford played with Fitzroy in a minor league for the remainder of the 1915 – 16 season , but under the geographical " zoning " rules in place for club cricket , he was required to transfer to St Kilda Cricket Club in the following season .
= = Cricket career = =
= = = Early record breaking = = =
The First World War and the creation of the First Australian Imperial Force led to a significant shortage of players available for cricket . As a result , Ponsford was called up to make his first @-@ grade debut for St Kilda during the 1916 – 17 season , just one week before his sixteenth birthday . This match was against his old club Fitzroy , and was played at the familiar Brunswick Street Oval . The young Ponsford 's shot @-@ making lacked power , and after making twelve singles , he was bowled . He played ten matches in his first season with the St Kilda First XI and averaged 9 @.@ 30 runs per innings . By the 1918 – 19 season , Ponsford topped the club batting averages with an average of 33 . He also topped the bowling averages , taking 10 wickets at an average of 16 @.@ 50 runs per wicket with his leg spin .
Despite failing to score a century for his club side ( something he did not rectify until the 1923 – 24 season ) , Ponsford was called up to represent Victoria against the visiting England team in February 1921 — his first @-@ class cricket debut . His selection was controversial ; the leading personality in Victorian cricket and national captain , " The Big Ship " Warwick Armstrong , had been dropped . Armstrong 's omission sparked a series of angry public meetings protesting against the perceived persecution of Armstrong by administrators . While making his way to the Melbourne Cricket Ground ( MCG ) for the match , Ponsford had to walk through demonstrators carrying placards that denounced his selection at the expense of Armstrong . Without Armstrong , the Victorians were comfortably beaten by Johnny Douglas 's English team by seven wickets . Batting down the order , Ponsford made six in the first innings and 19 in the second innings . Later that month , Ponsford made his maiden first @-@ class century , scoring 162 against Tasmania at the NTCA Ground in Launceston , despite batting low in the order , at number eight .
Ponsford was named captain of a Victorian side made of up of promising youngsters , to play against Tasmania at the MCG on 2 – 5 February 1923 . In this , only his third first @-@ class match , Ponsford broke the world record for the highest individual innings score at that level on the final day of the match , scoring 429 runs and batting for nearly eight hours . Along the way , he broke Armstrong 's record for the highest score for Victoria ( 250 ) , before surpassing former England captain Archie MacLaren 's world record individual score of 424 . The team score of 1 @,@ 059 was also a new record for a first @-@ class innings — an impromptu paint job was needed to show the score on a board that was not designed to display a four @-@ figure total .
The Governor General of Australia , Lord Forster , visited the dressing rooms after the day 's play to congratulate Ponsford personally . Cables from around the world applauded the new record @-@ holder , including one from Frank Woolley , whose 305 * was the previous highest score against Tasmania . The former world record holder MacLaren was not so forthcoming . MacLaren thought that the two teams were both short of first @-@ class standard and therefore the record should not be recognised . However , an agreement made in 1908 confirmed that matches against Tasmania should be categorised as first @-@ class matches . An exchange of letters between MacLaren and the Victorian Cricket Association , and speculation over possible political motives followed in the popular press , but the famous Wisden Cricketers ' Almanack recognised and published Ponsford 's score as the record .
Selected for his first Sheffield Shield match , against South Australia three weeks after his record breaking innings , Ponsford — still batting down the order , at number five — made 108 . The South Australian ( and former Australian ) captain Clem Hill watched Ponsford bat and commented , " [ Ponsford ] is young and full of promise ; in fact , since Jim Mackay , the brilliant New South Welshman , I think he is the best . " In 1923 – 24 Ponsford continued to score at a heavy rate . Against Queensland in December , he made 248 and shared in a partnership of 456 runs with Edgar Mayne — the highest first wicket partnership by an Australian pair to this day . Later that season , he scored a pair of centuries against arch @-@ rivals New South Wales , accumulating 110 in each innings .
= = = Test debut and more records = = =
Ponsford broke into international cricket in the 1924 – 25 season . After scoring 166 for Victoria against South Australia , and 81 for an Australian XI against the touring English team , he was selected for the first Test against England at the Sydney Cricket Ground ( SCG ) . Batting at number three , Ponsford joined his captain Herbie Collins at the wicket after the dismissal of opening batsman Warren Bardsley . Although Ponsford initially struggled against the " baffling " swing bowling of Maurice Tate , the experienced Collins was confident enough to farm the strike during Tate 's initial spell and Ponsford went on to make a century ( 110 ) on his Test debut . Ponsford later said " I was most grateful for Herbie taking [ Tate 's bowling ] until I was settled in . I doubt I would have scored a century but for his selfless approach . " He scored 128 in the second Test at Melbourne ; thereby becoming the first batsman to score centuries in his first two Tests . Ponsford played in all five Tests of the series , scoring 468 runs at an average of 46 @.@ 80 .
There were no international visitors to Australia in the 1925 – 26 season , so Ponsford was able to play a full season for Victoria . He scored 701 runs at an average of 63 @.@ 72 , including three centuries , making him the fourth highest runscorer for the season . At the end of the season , Ponsford was chosen for the Australian team to tour England in 1926 . He was one of the younger players in the squad ; 9 of the 15 players were over the age of 36 . He made a good start to the tour , scoring a century ( 110 * ) in his first innings at Lord 's against the Marylebone Cricket Club in May . Unfortunately for Ponsford , tonsillitis caused him to miss three weeks of cricket in June and he was not chosen for the first three Tests of the English summer . He returned for the fourth and fifth Tests . The fifth Test was the only match that saw a result — an English victory — which meant that the hosts won the series and the Ashes one Test to nil . For the tour , Ponsford made 901 runs at an average of 40 @.@ 95 , including three centuries . Wisden described Ponsford 's performances for the season as " something of a disappointment " but noted that " he batted well enough on occasion to demonstrate his undoubted abilities " .
In the season following his return to Australia , Ponsford continued to make large scores . He started the season by hitting 214 runs ( out of a Victoria team total of 315 ) against South Australia at the Adelaide Oval and followed this with 151 at the MCG against Queensland . In his next match , against New South Wales , Ponsford again rewrote the record books . Ponsford scored 352 runs , 334 of them in a single day , and helped Victoria to an innings total of 1 @,@ 107 , which remains the highest team total in first @-@ class cricket , breaking Victoria 's own record set four years earlier . After Ponsford played the ball back on to his stumps to be dismissed bowled , he then turned to look at his broken wicket and famously said , " Cripes , I am unlucky . " For the season , Ponsford went on to score 1 @,@ 229 runs at an average of 122 @.@ 90 , including six centuries and two half @-@ centuries from only ten innings .
In the 1927 – 28 season , Ponsford continued where he had left off at the end of the previous summer . Ponsford topped the aggregate and the averages for the season , scoring 1 @,@ 217 runs at an average of 152 @.@ 12 . In December 1927 , he improved on his own first @-@ class world record score , hitting 437 against Queensland ; later that month he scored 202 and 38 against New South Wales and he then added another 336 against South Australia over the New Year . He had scored 1 @,@ 013 runs in the space of four innings . This feat was part of a sequence in which he scored a century in a record ten consecutive first @-@ class matches from December 1926 to December 1927 . In January 1928 the Daily News in London described Ponsford as " the most remarkable and the most heart @-@ breaking scoring @-@ machine ever invented " . Ponsford toured New Zealand with an Australian squad in 1928 . In the six first @-@ class matches scheduled , he scored 452 at an average of 56 @.@ 50 , second only to his opening partner Bill Woodfull in both average and aggregate . In the 1929 – 30 domestic season , Ponsford scored 729 runs at an average of 45 @.@ 56 , including three centuries , to finish fourth in the season aggregates .
= = = Struggles and success = = =
A strong England team — captained by Percy Chapman and including Jack Hobbs , Herbert Sutcliffe , Wally Hammond and Harold Larwood — toured Australia in 1928 – 29 . Ponsford 's form was good in the lead up to the Tests ; he scored 60 not out for Victoria against the tourists , and added 275 * against South Australia . Before the Test series started , Ponsford had declared in a column in the Herald that Harold Larwood 's " pace through the air is not all that fast for a fast bowler " , with the qualification that " he makes great pace off the pitch " . Larwood dismissed him for scores of two and six in the first Test , and fractured a bone in Ponsford 's hand in the second . The injury sidelined Ponsford for the remainder of the Test series .
Ponsford travelled to England for a second time , with the 1930 Australian team . In a wet summer , Australia won the series two Tests to one , recovering The Ashes . For the second time in as many trips to England , Ponsford fell ill — gastritis caused him to miss the third Test at Headingley Stadium . Despite this setback , Ponsford scored 330 runs in the Tests at an average of 55 @.@ 00 . Wisden wrote , " Ponsford had a much better season — especially in the Test matches — than four years previously . ... In helping his captain to wear down England 's bowling he accomplished great work and , even if he was seldom really attractive to watch , there could be no question about his skill and how difficult he was to get out . " The outstanding performer of the tour was the young Don Bradman , who scored 974 runs in the Test matches — this remains a world record for the most runs scored in a Test series . Ponsford played a part in Bradman 's success ; Wisden stated that " it is only fair to say that on more than one occasion [ Bradman 's ] task was rendered the easier by the skilful manner in which Woodfull and Ponsford , by batting of different description , had taken the sting out of the England bowling . "
In 1930 – 31 , the West Indies sent their first @-@ ever touring team to Australia for a five Test series . Ponsford was paired with a new partner , Archie Jackson ; Woodfull chose to bat down the order to allow the young New South Welshman to open the batting . The change had little effect on Ponsford , who scored 467 runs at an average of 77 @.@ 83 against the Caribbean tourists . Ponsford and Jackson started the Test series well , their 172 run partnership in the second innings taking Australia to a 10 @-@ wicket victory in the first Test . Ponsford finished just short of his century , unbeaten on 92 . Before walking out to bat , Jackson had said to Ponsford , " I see the skipper padded up . We won 't give him a hit ! " Jackson failed in the second Test at the SCG , but Ponsford went on to score his highest Test score to date , 183 , before being bowled by Tommy Scott . Another century ( 109 ) in the third Test was part of a 229 run partnership with Bradman , who went on to score 223 . Ponsford was reunited with Woodfull as his opening partner for the remaining Tests after Jackson , ill and struggling for form , was omitted . The West Indies had a famous victory in the fifth Test , but lost the series 4 – 1 .
Ponsford had less success against the South Africans during their tour of Australia in 1931 – 32 . While the Australians took a clean sweep of the Test 5 – 0 , Ponsford 's highest score in the four Tests he played was 34 ; he totalled 97 runs at an average of 19 @.@ 40 . It was Bradman who dominated with the bat for Australia , scoring four centuries and 806 runs overall .
= = = Bodyline = = =
In a response to the record @-@ breaking feats of Don Bradman , the English team that toured Australia in 1932 – 33 — led by Douglas Jardine — adopted a tactic of fast , short pitched bowling directed at the body , later known as Bodyline . While Bodyline sought to curb Bradman , it was used against all the Australian batsmen , including Ponsford . After being bowled twice behind his legs — by Larwood for 32 in the first innings and for two in the second innings by Bill Voce — in the first Test at Sydney , Ponsford was omitted from the team for the second Test at Melbourne . Ponsford returned for the third Test in Adelaide , batting down the order . The Test was controversial and highly acrimonious ; several Australian batsmen — including Woodfull and Bert Oldfield — were hit on the body and head from the English fast bowling . Ponsford was hit on several occasions during his innings of 85 ; he chose to turn his torso and take the rising balls on his body — especially on his left shoulder blade and backside — rather than risk a catch to the leg side fielders . When Ponsford returned to the dressing room after his dismissal , his team mates were amazed by the mass of bruises that covered his back and shoulders . Ponsford remarked to Bill O 'Reilly , " I wouldn 't mind having a couple more if I could get a hundred . "
After failing in the fourth Test , Ponsford was again dropped . The hostile barrage of short @-@ pitched bowling had a major impact on Ponsford 's technique and career . In the three Tests that Ponsford played during the Bodyline series , he estimated he was hit around fifty times . During the series Ponsford developed a habit of turning his back on the rising ball and , if hit , glowering at the affected bowler . While the manager of the England team , Pelham Warner , thought that Ponsford " met the fast @-@ leg theory in plucky and able style " , this behaviour was criticised by the British cricket writer , R. C. Robertson @-@ Glasgow . Bradman thought that the Bodyline tactics hastened Ponsford 's eventual retirement .
= = = Triumph and retirement = = =
After the disappointments of the Bodyline series , Ponsford returned to domestic cricket in 1933 – 34 , scoring 606 runs at an average of 50 @.@ 50 . At the end of the domestic season , he was selected for his third tour of England with the Australian team in 1934 . Illness again interrupted Ponsford 's English summer , causing him to miss the second Test at Lord 's . In the final two Tests of the series , the two record breakers — Ponsford and Bradman — combined in two remarkable partnerships .
In the fourth Test at Headingley , Bradman joined Ponsford at the fall of the third wicket when the Australians had scored only 39 runs ( 39 / 3 ) . By the time Ponsford was dismissed hit wicket for 181 , Australia were 427 / 4 ; the partnership had yielded 388 runs . Bradman went on to make 304 . The partnership was the highest ever in Test cricket at the time and as of 2009 is still the highest fourth wicket partnership for Australia . Wisden said of Ponsford 's innings " ... he hit the ball hard and placed it well when scoring in front of the wicket . Moreover , his defence was rock @-@ like in its steadiness and accuracy . "
With the series locked at 1 – 1 , the fifth and deciding Test at The Oval saw an even larger partnership between Bradman and Ponsford . The pair added 451 runs for the second wicket in an Australian total of 701 runs . Bradman scored 244 and Ponsford — again dismissed hit wicket — his highest Test score , 266 . This partnership remained the highest in Tests until 1991 and the highest for the second wicket until 1997 . As of 2009 , it remains the highest ever in Australian Test history . Again Wisden was complimentary , saying " It would be hard to speak in too high terms of praise of the magnificent displays of batting given by Ponsford and Bradman " but noted that " Before Bradman joined him Ponsford had shown an inclination to draw away from the bowling of Bowes . "
In the four Tests that Ponsford for the English summer , he made 569 runs at an average of 94 @.@ 83 . His performance saw him named as one of the five Wisden Cricketers of the Year in 1935 .
It is , perhaps , scarcely too much to say that English bowlers last summer thought he was every bit as difficult to get rid of as Bradman . Never a graceful or elegant batsman , Ponsford could with greater emphasis be called sound and workmanlike . He seemed in 1934 to hit the ball much harder than when he was here in 1926 and 1930 , while his placing improved out of all knowledge . A delivery overpitched to any degree , he almost invariably punished to the full , while he could cut and turn the ball to leg with great certainty .
Upon their return to Australia , a testimonial match was arranged on behalf of the two Victorian opening batsmen , Woodfull and Ponsford . Woodfull — the senior member of the partnership — had announced his retirement from first @-@ class cricket before returning from England and the press had speculated that Ponsford would succeed him as captain of Victoria . Walking out to bat in the match , the pair were cheered by the crowd to the strains of " For He 's a Jolly Good Fellow " . Together , the two Bills made another century partnership , before Ponsford was dismissed for 83 ; Woodfull went on to make a century .
During the match , to the surprise of the public , the press and his team mates , Ponsford announced his retirement from first @-@ class cricket at the relatively young age of 34 . His announcement remarked upon the changing atmosphere in high level cricket and touched on the effects of Bodyline .
I am feeling the strain of the last tour . I am thirty four and when you get to that age you start to lose your keenness . ... Test cricket has become too serious . It is not a game anymore but a battle ... I can remember when it was all quite different to what it is now . I do not want to refer to that " bodyline " business — I am out of all that . Cricket was a different game before bodyline . Naturally I have a tinge of regret ... but it is better to go out of cricket before being dropped .
Woodfull remarked that Ponsford 's retirement was premature , while team mate and journalist Jack Fingleton believed that the task of maintaining such high standards had affected Ponsford 's nervous energy : " At the age of 34 he felt that he never wanted to see a bat or a cricket game again . " Arthur Mailey suspected that Ponsford 's sensitivity to criticism , especially from the media , was a key factor behind the early retirement . The memory of being omitted from the Australian side twice during the Bodyline series also stung Ponsford sorely . Ponsford continued playing for the Melbourne Cricket Club until 1939 , but never represented his state or country again .
= = Off the field = =
= = = Personal life = = =
Ponsford began his working life at the State Savings Bank . On his return from England in 1926 , the bank advised him that they might not tolerate so much leave for cricket in the future . Ponsford received a lucrative offer to play for Blackpool Cricket Club , which he was inclined to accept . This news was received with dismay by Australian fans , who had earlier seen players such as Ted McDonald leave Australia and accept contracts in the professional English leagues . To keep Ponsford in Melbourne , The Herald — a local newspaper — employed him on the basis that he would remain available for all representative cricket . The new role included writing articles for the paper .
In 1932 , at the end of his five @-@ year contract with the newspaper , Ponsford successfully applied for a position on the staff of the Melbourne Cricket Club . He was appointed to an unspecified office job working for the club secretary Hugh Trumble , which required him to transfer his cricket and baseball allegiances from St Kilda to Melbourne . The Herald unsuccessfully tried to retain his services , and Keith Murdoch — the Editor @-@ in @-@ Chief of the Herald , and later , the father of Rupert Murdoch — visited the Ponsford home to lobby against the move . Ponsford 's new role included managing the staffing arrangements and crowd control at the Melbourne Cricket Ground for Australian rules football and cricket matches . In 1956 , following the retirement of Vernon Ransford , Ponsford unsuccessfully applied for the position of club secretary , effectively its chief executive officer and one of the most prestigious positions in Australian cricket . However , in the event recently retired Test cricketer Ian Johnson was appointed to the position . Ponsford remained with the club until his retirement in June 1969 .
Ponsford met Vera Neill at his local Methodist church ; the pair married in 1924 and settled in the Melbourne suburb of Caulfield South . They had two sons , Bill Jr. and Geoff . Ponsford became a Freemason in 1922 and continued in the movement until 1985 , retiring with the rank of Master Mason . During the Second World War , Ponsford attempted to volunteer with the Royal Australian Air Force , but was rejected on account of his colour blindness . In 1978 , four years after the death of his wife , Ponsford moved in with his son , Geoff , at Woodend in rural Victoria , and was an active lawn bowler . An infection after an operation in 1988 saw Ponsford admitted to a nursing home in nearby Kyneton . He died there on 6 April 1991 ; at the time he was Australia 's oldest living Test cricketer .
= = = Baseball = = =
Baseball was a reasonably popular sport in Australia in the early 20th century and Ponsford alternated between cricket and baseball throughout his sporting life . At the time , baseball was generally played in Australia during the winter months , as many of the leading players were enthusiastic cricketers who viewed the sport as a means of improving their fielding skills . As with cricket , Ponsford started his baseball career at Alfred Crescent School , where his coach was the former Victorian player Charles Landsdown . As a junior Ponsford played shortstop , later as a senior for the Fitzroy Baseball Club he converted to catching .
Ponsford improved rapidly and by 1913 he was included in the Victorian schoolboys side for a tournament in Adelaide . He was again selected in the following year — now as a catcher — representing his state at the first national schoolboys championship in Sydney . The tournament coincided with a visit to Australia by two professional major league teams from the United States — the Chicago White Sox and the New York Giants . The manager of the Giants , John " Mugsy " McGraw , watched part of the tournament ; the Ponsford family claim that McGraw was so impressed with Ponsford 's skills that he later spoke to Ponsford 's parents about the possibility of Bill playing in the United States .
In 1919 , Ponsford was selected for Victoria 's baseball team , alongside future Test cricket team mate Jack Ryder . In 1923 , The Sporting Globe claimed that Ponsford was " ... the best batter of the season . ... Indeed , as an all @-@ round man , it is doubtful if he has a superior in the state . " In 1925 , Ponsford captained the Victorian team and was selected as centre fielder in an Australian representative team that played three matches against an outfit from the United States Pacific Fleet , which had docked in Melbourne . Over the three matches , won by the Australians , Ponsford made five safe hits , gained eight bases and his batting average was .357 . Ponsford 's next match against American opposition was against a team from Stanford University that visited Australia in 1927 . Ponsford 's Victorian team defeated Stanford 5 – 3 ; it was the visitors ' only loss on the tour .
Ponsford simultaneously retired from baseball and cricket in 1934 . In his newspaper column , he said that he liked both sports equally . He felt that baseball gave a player more opportunities to perform : " In cricket you may have the bad luck to get out early ; which often means a blank afternoon . It is not so with baseball ; you are in the game all the time . " Joe Clark , the author of History of Australian Baseball , said " Ponsford is considered by many to be the best baseballer of his time in Australia . " The official program for the 1952 Claxton Shield — held in Perth — made a similar claim .
One name in Australian baseball stands pre @-@ eminent above all others and that is the name of Bill Ponsford ... During his long career he was a star outfielder , perhaps the finest third baseman to represent his state and certainly as a catcher the equal of anybody . ... But it was as a batter that Bill outshone anyone ... Ponsford could , and did , hit to any part of a baseball field at will , and would nominate innings by innings , where he would hit the ball ... Ponsford will always remain amongst the greatest sportsmen of all time .
= = Context = =
= = = Legacy and statistical analysis = = =
In first @-@ class cricket , Ponsford scored 13 @,@ 819 runs at an average of 65 @.@ 18 , as of 2009 the fifth highest complete career average of any player , worldwide . Ponsford was not satisfied with merely making centuries ; he strove to score 200 and more . Arriving in big cricket a few years before Bradman , for a time Ponsford was considered the heaviest scorer in cricket history . Jack Fingleton claimed that " The true perspective of Ponsford 's deeds had barely dawned on the game when Bradman ruthlessly thrust him from public thought ... "
Apart from Brian Lara , Ponsford is the only man to twice score 400 runs in a first @-@ class innings and along with Bradman and Wally Hammond , he remains one of only three men to have scored four triple @-@ centuries . His 437 against Queensland is , as at 2009 , still the fifth highest score in first @-@ class cricket .
Ponsford was known for batting in partnerships , sharing in five that amassed over 375 runs each . Ponsford and his long @-@ time partner , Woodfull , were known as " the two Bills " , " Willy Wo and Willy Po " and " Mutt and Jeff " amongst other names . Together , the pair made 23 century partnerships ; 12 of these exceeded 150 runs . Ponsford 's other prolific partnership was with Bradman . In two Tests in 1934 , the pair set records that still stand today :
The highest partnership for Australia in Test cricket and the highest for the second wicket : 451
The third highest partnership for Australia in Test cricket and the highest for Australia for the fourth wicket : 388
Cricket writer Ray Robinson said of the pair batting together , " [ Ponsford ] was the only one who could play in Bradman 's company and make it a duet . "
For services to cricket , Ponsford was made a Member of the Order of the British Empire ( MBE ) in the 1982 New Year Honours announced on 31 December 1981 . Ponsford was one of the ten inaugural inductees when the Australian Cricket Hall of Fame was launched in 1996 . In 2000 , Ponsford and Arthur Morris were chosen to open the batting for the Australian Cricket Board 's Team of the Century , a theoretical selection of the best team of Australian cricketers of the 20th century . In 2001 , Ponsford was selected in the Melbourne Cricket Club Team of the Century .
In 1986 the Western Stand of the Melbourne Cricket Ground was renamed the " Ponsford Stand " . Ponsford was described by his son as being " tickled pink " by the honour , but that he would only agree to the renaming if he was not required to participate in any public appearance or media interview . As part of the ongoing modernisation of the MCG the Ponsford Stand was torn down ; the new stand was completed in 2004 and again named in his honour . A statue of the cricketer was installed outside the Ponsford Stand in 1995 — one of a series in place around the stadium commemorating Australia 's sporting heroes .
= = = Style and personality = = =
Answering to the nickname of " Puddin ' " , Ponsford was a thickset man , weighing in at around 13 stone ( 83 kg ) during his playing career . Despite this , he was known for his quick footwork , and was regarded as an excellent player of spin bowling . Ponsford was noted for his ability to maintain intense levels of concentration for extended periods . He possessed a strong cut shot and he drove through mid off powerfully , although critics noted that his backlift was not completely straight . He had a tendency to shuffle too far to the off ; this exposed his leg stump and he was bowled behind his legs on six occasions in Tests against England . However , Ray Robinson felt that " no bowler could have got a marble , much less a [ cricket ] ball between his bat and his left leg . "
Fingleton wrote , " He crouched a little at the crease ... he tapped the ground impatiently with his bat while awaiting the ball , and his feet were so eager to be on the move that they began an impulsive move forward just before the ball was bowled . This was the shuffle that sometimes took him across the pitch against a fast bowler ; but , that aside , his footwork was perfection . I never saw a better forcer of the ball to the on @-@ side , and for this stroke his body moved beautifully into position . " However , Ponsford was not a stylish batsman . Bradman said " There were more beautiful players , but for absolute efficiency and results where can one turn to equal [ Ponsford ] ? " Robinson described Ponsford as the " founder of total batting , the first to make a habit of regarding 100 as merely the opening battle in a campaign for a larger triumph . " The New South Wales and Australian bowler Arthur Mailey later said that " I don 't think it was the rungetting Ponny enjoyed so much as the bowlers ' discomfort , especially when those bowlers came from New South Wales . "
Ponsford used a heavy bat — 2 pounds 10 ounces ( 1 @.@ 2 kg ) — nicknamed " Big Bertha " . Opposition players sometimes joked that Ponsford 's bat was larger than allowed under the laws of cricket and indeed in one match in Sydney , it was found to be slightly larger than permitted — the result of the bat spreading from his powerful hitting . Throughout his innings , Ponsford would pull his cap further to the left . Robinson claimed that " if you saw the peak at a rakish angle towards his left ear you could tell he was heading for his second hundred " . When volunteering for service with the Royal Australian Air Force , Ponsford discovered he possessed abnormal colour vision , unable to distinguish red from green . The examining doctor was astonished and asked Ponsford , " What colour did [ the ball ] look to you after it was worn ? " Ponsford replied , " I never noticed its colour , only its size . " A later study identified Ponsford 's specific colour vision as protanopia , a form of dichromacy in which red appears dark . Ponsford did not enjoy batting on rain @-@ affected wickets . When on tour his team mates did not ask if it had rained last night , merely " Did Ponny wake during the night ? " — legend had it that even the slightest trickle would wake him and have him anguishing over having to bat on the " sticky " in the morning .
Ponsford was a shy person , on the field and off . Robinson wrote that Ponsford " was so reserved that you had to know him for three years or the duration of a Test tour before his reticence relaxed . " Similarly , when photographed Ponsford would hang his head so his cap would cover most of his face . This shyness intensified after his retirement . He would often walk along laneways to his work at the MCC , rather than be recognised on the way to the train station . While on the train , he would cover his face with the newspaper . At work , he disliked interaction with the public and would direct staff to advise visitors that he was not in , despite often being clearly in view . Bill O 'Reilly said of Ponsford , " He spoke rarely and even then only if he could improve on silence . " Nonetheless he was popular with his team mates and was said to have a droll sense of humour .
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= Military history of Asian Americans =
Asian Americans , who are Americans of Asian descent , have fought and served on behalf of the United States since the War of 1812 . During the American Civil War Asian Americans fought for both the Union and the Confederacy . Afterwards Asian Americans served primarily in the U.S. Navy until the Philippine – American War .
At the beginning of the 20th century , Asian Americans began to attend U.S. military academies , and the first Asian Americans were awarded the Medal of Honor . World War I saw Asian Americans serving as " non @-@ whites " in the National Army . After World War I , Asian American service fell into obscurity until World War II when significant contributions by Japanese , Chinese , Filipino , and Korean Americans were documented .
With the desegregation of the U.S. military in 1948 , segregated Asian American units ceased to exist , and Asian Americans served in integrated armed forces . Asian American combatants in the Korean and Vietnam conflicts were awarded the Medal of Honor , and Asian Americans have continued to serve into the present day .
= = History = =
= = = 19th century = = =
There are anecdotal accounts of Filipino American sailors serving as early as the Revolutionary War . However , the first official recorded history of Asian Americans fighting on behalf of the U.S. occurred in 1815 during the War of 1812 . General Andrew Jackson recorded that " Manilamen " had fought under his general command in defense of New Orleans , under the direct command of Jean Baptiste Lafitte . Following the war , at least one Filipino American , Augustin Feliciano , continued to serve in the U.S. Navy . After this Asian Americans were not recorded in the annals of U.S. military history until the American Civil War when , in 1861 , a Chinese American by the name of John Tomney joined the New York Infantry , eventually dying of wounds received at the Battle of Gettysburg .
Joseph Pierce ( his chosen name ) was brought to the U.S. from China by his adoptive father , Connecticut ship Captain Amos Peck . Pierce enlisted on 26 July 1862 and was mustered into the Fourteenth Regiment , Company F of the Connecticut Volunteer Infantry that became part of the Second Brigade of the Third Division , Second Army Corps of the Army of the Potomac . From 1862 to 1865 , Pierce fought in pivotal battles of the war , fighting in major campaigns from Antietam to Gettysburg to Lee 's surrender at Appomattox Court House . Pierce achieved the highest rank of any Chinese American to serve in the Union Army , reaching the rank of corporal . Pierce 's picture hangs in the Gettysburg Museum . In 2007 , the U.S. House of Representatives passed a resolution honoring the actions of Pierce and other Asian @-@ Pacific Islander soldiers of the Civil War .
William Ah Hang , a Chinese American , became one of the first Asian Americans to enlist in the U.S. Navy in 1863 . In total more than 50 Chinese Americans fought , on both sides , in the Civil War . Of those who served , only a handful received recognition of their service in the form of pension , benefits , or citizenship . An exception was Ching Lee , who took the alias Thomas Sylvanus and served in the 81st Pennsylvania Regiment .
There are accounts of Filipino Americans serving in Louisiana for the Confederacy during the Civil War ; one served aboard the C.S.S. Alabama , and some served in the Louisiana Zouaves . Another Filipino American , Felix Cornelius Balderry , served in the Union 's Michigan 11th Infantry .
During the Civil War the Bunker family , were supporters of the Confederacy . Christopher Wren Bunker and Stephen Bunker , the eldest sons of Chang and Eng Bunker , the original " Siamese Twins " , joined different Confederate cavalry units . In 1864 , Christopher Wren Bunker was captured , and was sent to Camp Chase .
Another lull in recordings of Asian American service followed the end of the Civil War until the Spanish American War . When the U.S.S. Maine sank in Havana Harbor , seven of the casualties were Japanese Americans and one was a Chinese American . Later in the war it was recorded that Japanese Americans served aboard U.S. warships in the Battle of Manila Bay ; the Philippine – American War , previously known as the Philippine Insurrection , followed .
= = = 20th century = = =
= = = = Philippine – American War = = = =
In 1901 the Philippine Constabulary and Philippine Scouts were initially founded to assist the U.S. against the forces of the First Philippine Republic and the insurgency that followed after its collapse . That same year President William McKinley signed an executive order to allow 500 Filipinos to enlist in the U.S. Navy . From these routes of enlistment came the first Asian American recipients of the Medal of Honor . Private Jose Nisperos , a Philippine Scout , protected his party from Moros ; for this action , he received the Medal of Honor in 1911 . In 1915 , Fireman Second Class Telesforo Trinidad , along with Ensign Robert Webster Cary , was awarded the Medal of Honor for saving fellow crewmembers when the boiler of the U.S.S. San Diego exploded . As of 2011 , Trinidad has been the only Asian American recipient of the naval version of the Medal of Honor .
= = = = Early Asian American military academy graduates = = = =
In the late 1860s Asians were accepted into the United States Naval Academy at Annapolis . Matsumura Junzo was the first to graduate , doing so as part of the class 1873 . Matsumura was a foreign national , though , and like the other Asian graduates who attended around this time who went on to serve their own nations ' militaries , upon graduation he served in the Imperial Japanese Navy , eventually reaching the rank of captain . Nearly forty years passed before the first Asian American U.S. nationals followed in the footsteps of these foreign nationals and were accepted into the various U.S. military academies . Vicente Lim , was one of the first to graduate . A U.S. national from the Philippines , Lim graduated from West Point in the class of 1914 and was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the Philippine Scouts . He was the first of a handful of Filipinos accepted into West Point under a quota system that required one Filipino to be appointed in each class , with no more than four being enrolled at any one time . Beginning in 1916 , Filipinos Americans were also accepted into Annapolis ; the first batch would enroll in 1919 . These graduates lost their status as U.S. nationals in 1935 , and many went on to serve in the fledgling Armed Forces of the Philippines .
= = = = Mexican Expedition = = = =
In the early 20th century , while the rest of the world was engulfed in the depths of World War I , the U.S. was looking to its south . Mexico had been embroiled in a civil war since 1910 , and in 1916 the violence spilt north over the border when Pancho Villa raided Columbus , New Mexico , killing 16 Americans . This culminated with a U.S. response , officially known as the Mexican Expedition , led by Major General John Pershing . A large number Chinese Mexicans assisted U.S. forces in Mexico during the expedition and upon its completion in early 1917 , they were threatened with hanging by Villa . Despite the provisions of the Chinese Exclusion Act , Pershing sought permission for these people to be allowed to resettle in the U.S. A total of 527 eventually entered the country , settling mostly in San Antonio , and they later became known as " Pershing 's Chinese " .
= = = = World War I = = = =
In April 1917 , the U.S. entered World War I on the side of the Allies . The Philippine Islands created its own national guard units to join the effort , but did not see combat . The units were demobilized at Camp Thomas Claudio in 1918 . Within the United States , a draft was started , and alongside Hispanic and Native Americans , Asian Americans were drafted as " non @-@ whites " filling out the " white quota " in the National Army . Although , the majority of these did not see combat , several did , including : Private Tomas Mateo Claudio , who had studied at the University of Nevada and became the first , and only , Filipino American to die during the war , being killed at Château @-@ Thierry in 1918 ; Private Henry Chinn who was killed in action in the Argonne Forest while serving in the " Lost Battalion " ; Sergeant Sing Kee , another member of the Lost Battalion , who was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross ; and Sergeant Major Tokutaro Nishimura Slocum who served in the 328th Infantry Regiment , 82d Infantry Division . In the Navy , the number of enlisted Filipinos peaked at more than 5 @,@ 700 by the end of the war . Several thousand Chinese , Japanese , Korean , Vietnamese , and Filipinos eventually served in the U.S. military during World War I ; they were later allowed to become naturalized citizens , overcoming numerous legal obstacles .
= = = = Interwar period = = = =
During the interwar period U.S. forces were involved in several minor actions , including the Russian Civil War and multiple events in the Caribbean that have since become known as the Banana Wars ; also , the Yangtze Patrol was directly and indirectly affected by the Second Sino @-@ Japanese War and other events . Between 1918 and 1933 , at least 3 @,@ 900 Filipino Americans served in the U.S. Navy at any given time as mess stewards , having largely replaced African Americans in that rating . Up to World War I , Filipino sailors were able to serve in a range of occupations ; however , after World War I , a rule restricted Filipinos to the ratings of officer 's steward and mess attendant .
In 1934 , Gordon Pai 'ea Chung @-@ Hoon became the first Asian American U.S. citizen to graduate from the Naval Academy , and the first Asian American West Point graduate , Wing Fook Jung , graduated in 1940 . In 1940 , Japanese Americans were the largest ethnicity of Asian Americans , followed by ( in order of population ) Chinese Americans , Filipino Americans , Hindu Americans , and Korean Americans .
In 1937 , the Second Sino @-@ Japanese War began . A Chinese American , Arthur Chin , had gone to China in 1934 and joined the Republic of China Air Force , and flew as a fighter pilot . During the war Chin becoming the first American flying ace of World War II , with eight victories . He was later awarded the Distinguished Service Cross and the Air Medal .
In September 1939 , war broke out in Europe following the German invasion of Poland . The U.S. officially remained neutral , but Americans became involved in combat while serving in other countries ' militaries in units such as the Flying Tigers in China and the Eagle Squadrons that served with the Royal Air Force shortly after the Battle of Britain ; U.S. forces also provided logistic support through the cash and carry program , and by undertaking convoy escort duties in the Atlantic . Following the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941 , the U.S. officially declared war , and from that point on Asian Americans were on the front lines as U.S. civilians . Asian Americans from Oahu , including Japanese Americans , assisted with aid efforts following the attack . On the other side of the Pacific Ocean , Philippine Commonwealth forces , under U.S. command since July 1941 , prepared for an attack that would come nine hours later .
= = = = World War II = = = =
= = = = = Japanese Americans = = = = =
Following the attack on Pearl Harbor , Japanese Americans in the Hawaii National Guard activated and began to guard the beaches , clear rubble , donate blood and aid the wounded but three days later , they were disarmed because of their ancestry . The next day , however , they were authorized to rearm , but an uneasy tension lasted until 5 June 1942 . At the same time , Japanese Americans who had been undertaking the ROTC program at the University of Hawaii , and who had been activated in the Hawaii Territorial Guard , were discharged on 19 January 1942 . Many of these discharged soldiers formed a Corps of Engineers auxiliary , known as the " Varsity Victory Volunteers " , in February 1942 . On 5 June 1942 , 1 @,@ 400 Nisei of the Hawaii National Guard shipped out from Hawaii bound for Oakland and on 12 June , after docking , they were formed into the 100th Infantry Battalion . Afterwards , all Japanese American men , not already in the military , were classified as enemy aliens ; this policy was reversed in 1943 .
Eight months later the decision was made to raise an all @-@ Nisei regiment , known as the 442nd Regimental Combat Team . Progress was slow at first , and another four months passed before the 442nd began training ; two months after that , though , the 100th shipped out to Europe . Initially , the notion of employing Japanese American soldiers was rejected by General Dwight D. Eisenhower 's staff at the Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force , but they were eventually accepted by Lieutenant General Mark Clark 's Fifth Army . While the 442nd was training in the U.S. , the 100th sustained heavy losses , eventually earning the title the " Purple Heart Battalion . " On 26 June 1944 , two weeks after the 442nd arrived in Europe , the two Nisei units combined to form one single unit , but those who had been a part of the 100th wanted to keep their numerical designation , so they replaced the regiment 's 1st Battalion . Keeping with the policy at the time , the unit was segregated , and large number of the other members of the 442nd RCT were previously interned Japanese Americans from the continental United States , commanded by mostly white officers . The combat chronicle of the regiment became a highly storied one , resulting in it becoming one of the most decorated units in the European Theater , taking part in numerous actions in Italy , France and Germany , including the liberation of Dachau concentration camp .
The 442nd Regiment was the most decorated unit for its size and length of service in the history of American warfare . The 4 @,@ 000 men who initially made up the unit in April 1943 had to be replaced nearly 2 @.@ 5 times . In total , about 14 @,@ 000 men served , earning 9 @,@ 486 Purple Hearts . The unit was awarded eight Presidential Unit Citations ( five earned in one month ) .
Additionally , Japanese Americans also contributed to the war effort in the Pacific Front serving in the Military Intelligence Service , helping with the decoding of Japanese intelligence and the rebuilding of occupied Japan ; the first Asian American women to enter the U.S. military served within this unit through the Women 's Army Corps . More than a dozen volunteers from the 442nd were selected to join the Office of Strategic Services and were selected for service in India and Burma , where they conducted covert operations , translation , interrogation , and signal intelligence . Over 33 @,@ 000 Japanese Americans served in the military during World War II . Upon returning home , Japanese American service members found old prejudices remained .
In 1946 , one of the 442nd 's soldiers , PFC Sadao Munemori , was posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor for his actions during the regiment 's service in Italy . His award was one of two made to Asian Americans during , or in the immediate aftermath of , the war , and the only one made to a Japanese American . However , in 2000 , after a review of other medals awarded to the 442nd , 21 were elevated to Medals of Honor . One of those 21 was presented to Hawaiʻi Senator , and former Captain , Daniel K. Inouye . On 5 October 2010 , Congress created the Congressional Gold Medal recognizing the 442nd Regimental Combat Team and the 100th Infantry Battalion , as well as the 6 @,@ 000 Japanese Americans who served in the Military Intelligence Service during the war .
= = = = = Chinese Americans = = = = =
It has been estimated that between 12 @,@ 000 and 20 @,@ 000 Chinese American men , representing up to 22 percent of the men in their portion of the U.S. population , served during World War II . Of those serving about 40 percent were not citizens , and unlike Japanese and Filipino Americans , 75 percent served in non @-@ segregated units . Chinese Americans distinguished themselves from Japanese Americans , and suffered less discrimination . A quarter of those would serve in the U.S. Army Air Forces , some of were sent to the Chinese @-@ Burma @-@ India theater for service with the 14th Air Service Group and the Chinese @-@ American Composite Wing . Another 70 percent would go on to serve in the U.S. Army in various units , including the 3rd , 4th , 6th , 32nd and 77th Infantry Divisions . Prior to the war , the U.S. Navy had recruited Chinese Americans but they had been restricted to serve only as stewards ; this continued until May 1942 , when restrictions ceased and they were allowed to serve in other ratings . In 1943 , Chinese American women were accepted into the Women 's Army Corps in the Military Intelligence Service . They were also recruited for service in the Army Air Force , with a few later becoming civilian Women Airforce Service Pilots .
Captain Francis Wai of the 34th Infantry was posthumously awarded the Distinguished Service Cross for actions on the island of Leyte in late 1944 ; this awarding was later elevated to a Medal of Honor in the 2000 review . Wilbur Carl Sze became the first Chinese American officer commissioned in the Marine Corps .
= = = = = Filipino Americans = = = = =
From the beginning , the Philippines was on the front lines of the new war , as it was attacked shortly after Pearl Harbor . Under the command of General Douglas MacArthur , initially plans were made to defend all of the islands , but following the Japanese landings on Luzon , the US reinstated War Plan Orange and a hasty withdrawal to the Bataan Peninsula followed , denying Japan the use of Manila Bay . In March 1942 , under orders from President Franklin D. Roosevelt , MacArthur departed the Philippines . In April 1942 , Major General Edward P. King surrendered his force as they could no longer keep up a sustainable defense . Of the 75 @,@ 000 that surrendered , about 63 @,@ 000 were Filipinos , and a thousand were Chinese Filipinos . Forced to march to San Fernando , Pampanga , in what later came to be called the Bataan Death March , between 5 @,@ 000 and 10 @,@ 000 Filipinos died along the way . A smaller force held out at Fort Mills ; however , after an assault , Lieutenant General Jonathan Wainwright surrendered the USAFFE forces that remained in the Philippines in May 1942 . Of those who surrendered , 23 were Filipino officers who had graduated from West Point ; Japanese forces executed six of these Filipino prisoners of war , including Vicente Lim , who had by then reached the rank of brigadier general .
In the U.S. , Filipinos were initially blocked from enlisting , until the laws were revised a day before Japan had begun its invasion back in the Philippines . Of the Filipinos who lived in California , two @-@ fifths , or sixteen thousand Filipinos , attempted to enlist into the U.S. Army . Some would serve in non @-@ segregated units , yet a segregated infantry battalion was established , which continued to grow and at its peak was split into two units known as the 1st and 2nd Filipino Infantry Regiments . These soldiers were subjected to discrimination during their time training at Camp Beale and Fort Ord , sometimes being mistaken for Japanese Americans when off base . Nevertheless , these units would serve with distinction similar to that of the 442d Infantry Regiment , although their deeds were not as well documented or widely known . By the end of the war , a total of 50 @,@ 000 decorations , awards , medals , ribbons , certificates , commendations and citations had been awarded to personnel assigned to these two regiments for their service in the New Guinea and Philippines campaigns .
Back in the Philippines , some individual service members and units refused to heed orders to surrender . They began a guerilla campaign to resist the Japanese occupation and were later joined by paroled Filipino USAFFE soldiers , as well as Filipino civilians , and other Allied forces that had been inserted into the islands . Allied forces returned to the Philippines in significant numbers during the Battle of Leyte . These included the Filipino infantry units which had been reduced in size from their peak . Later that year the Philippine Division was reconstituted , and in 1945 those members who elected to remain in the Philippines at the end of the war were transferred to the PCAUS . In all approximately 142 @,@ 000 Filipinos served during World War II . When recognized guerrillas are taken into account , the number of Filipinos who served increases to over 250 @,@ 000 , and possibly up to over 400 @,@ 000 . This number though is smaller than that recognized for serving in World War II by the Philippines .
Sergeant Jose Calugas became the third Asian American ever and first Asian American during World War II , to receive the Medal of Honor ; he would not receive the medal until after the occupation had ended . Later , in the 2000 review of medals awarded to Asian Americans , First Lieutenant Rudolph Davila 's Distinguished Service Cross was elevated to a Medal of Honor . While in New Guinea , Lieutenant Colonel Leon Punsalang became the first Asian American to command white troops in combat . For their actions in aiding Allied prisoners of war during the Japanese Occupation of the Philippines , Josefina Guerrero and Florence Finch were both awarded the Medal of Freedom ; Finch later enlisted in the Coast Guard Women 's Reserve after being liberated from the Philippines and taken to New York .
= = = = = Korean Americans = = = = =
After a treaty was signed in 1882 , Koreans had begun migrating to the U.S. This came to an end when Japan annexed Korea in 1910 . When the war began , Korean Americans were treated as enemy aliens , although this changed in 1943 , when they were exempted from enemy alien status . About 100 enlisted in the U.S. Army over the course of the war , some of whom served as translators . Over a hundred joined the California National Guard in Los Angeles alone and formed a unit that became known as the " Tiger Brigade " . Young @-@ Oak Kim , who had initially been rejected by the Army before being drafted , served as an enlisted soldier in the engineers until he was selected for commissioning in 1943 . He went on to serve in the mainly Japanese American 442nd Infantry Regiment , and he was subsequently awarded the Distinguished Service Cross for his actions at the Battle of Anzio . The only Korean American to be awarded that medal during the war , he also received a Silver Star and Purple Heart for actions earlier in the campaign . Fred Ohr , who initially enlisted as a trooper in the 116th Cavalry in 1938 , became the only Korean American fighter ace of World War II , shooting down a total of six enemy aircraft and eventually rising to command the 52nd Fighter Group 's 2d Fighter Squadron in the Mediterranean Theater of Operations . As of 8 March 2012 , he is the only Korean American to achieve the status of ace , and for his actions , Ohr received several medals including the Silver Star with one bronze oak leaf cluster .
= = = = Cold War = = = =
= = = = = Post World War II = = = = =
After the surrender of Japan , World War II came to an end , and the U.S. military began to demobilize . Millions of service @-@ members were transported home , including the 442nd Regimental Combat Team . In 1946 , the regiment was reviewed by President Truman who awarded them their seventh Distinguished Unit Citation . They were subsequently deactivated , but they were reorganized a year later as part of the U.S. Army Reserve . That same year , Truman signed the Rescission Act of 1946 , which denied Filipinos who served during World War II in the Commonwealth military and guerrillas , benefits that were afforded to other veterans . With the consent of the Philippine government , 50 @,@ 000 Philippine Scouts were authorized by Congress , retained , and recruited . As part of the Philippine Division , this force undertook occupation duty on Okinawa until 1947 , when the Philippine Scouts were disbanded by presidential order after Truman came to view them as a mercenary organization . In 1947 , the signing of the U.S.-Philippine Military Bases Agreement formalized Filipino enlistment in the U.S. Navy without immigrant credentials . In 1948 , Truman ordered the desegregation of the U.S. military .
= = = = = Korean War = = = = =
Following Truman 's order for the integration of the U.S. military , the majority of segregated Asian American units were disbanded by 1951 . Many individuals continued to serve in integrated units following desegregation , although the exact number of Asian Americans who served during the Korean War has not been determined . Despite the official acceptance of the desegregation policy , some units , including the 100th Battalion , 442nd Infantry Regiment , and the 5th Regimental Combat Team , retained strong racial ties , with a predominant number of Asian Americans serving in these units . Of the 36 @,@ 572 who died during the Korean War , 241 were Asian Americans .
One Asian American received the Medal of Honor for actions during the Korean War . This went to Japanese American Corporal Hiroshi Miyamura of the 7th Infantry Regiment ; the awarding of the medal was initially made in secret , as at the time Miyamura was being held by North Koreans as a prisoner of war . Three brothers , Kurt Chew @-@ Een Lee ( the first Chinese American Marine officer ) , Chew @-@ Mon Lee ( an army infantry officer ) , and Chew @-@ Fan Lee ( an army medical service officer ) , all served in different units during the conflict and were awarded the Navy Cross , Distinguished Service Cross , and Bronze Star Medal respectively . Young @-@ Oak Kim , having reenlisted and promoted to major , became the first ethnic minority to command a regular combat battalion , the 1st of the 31st Infantry . Walter Tsukamoto , who was first commissioned in 1927 and entered active duty in 1943 , was sent from occupation duty in Japan to Korea in 1950 and was promoted to lieutenant colonel , the first Asian American to achieve that rank in the Army Judge Advocate General 's Corps , served as the senior ranking judge advocate for X Corps and was awarded two Bronze Star Medals for his service in Korea .
= = = = = Vietnam War = = = = =
During the Vietnam War 35 @,@ 000 Asian Americans served as part of the more than eight million U.S. service personnel that were deployed to South Vietnam , in fully integrated units . Three of them were posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor , including Corporal Terry Kawamura who was , as of March 2014 , the last Asian American to receive that medal . During the conflict , in addition to the Asian American personnel that served in conventional units , the Army also formed a special forces team of Chinese , Filipino , Japanese , and Native American Rangers called Team Hawaii , as they could pass for Vietnamese and conduct long range reconnaissance . Discrimination and racism continued to be experience by Asian Americans who served during the conflict . Their loyalty was questioned , and during basic training they were sometimes described as being similar to the Viet Cong . In country , some were fired upon when mistaken for the Viet Cong , and some had medical care delayed after being mistaken for North Vietnamese . Additionally , the Viet Cong especially targeted Asian American service members , sometimes putting a price on their heads . Proportionally , Asian Americans suffered less casualties compared to other ethnic groups in Vietnam , with a total of 139 Asian American servicemen dying during the conflict .
Many other then @-@ future Asian Americans serve the military out of its normal ranks during the conflict . These included groups such as the Hmong and Laotians who fought alongside American service members in the Laotian Civil War , Vietnamese Americans who fought as members of the South Vietnam 's armed forces , and Montagnard ( also known as Degar ) who assisted American forces .
Throughout the war , Filipino American sailors remained restricted to the rating of steward , with 80 % of the almost seventeen thousand Filipino American sailors being stewards . In 1970 , there were more Filipinos serving in the U.S. Navy than there were in the Philippine Navy . The restriction ended in 1973 , after the U.S. Senate investigated civil rights issues in the U.S. Navy and opened all ratings to Filipino Americans . In the White House , Filipinos Navy stewards , continued to serve as valets after the restriction was lifted , as late as into the 1990s . By 1989 , Asian Americans made up approximately 2 @.@ 3 percent of the total armed services , slightly greater than their proportion of the total U.S. population at that time ( 1 @.@ 6 percent ) .
= = = = Gulf War = = = =
During the Gulf War many Asian Americans served in the U.S. military , with some filling senior officer positions , including Major General John Fugh who was promoted to the position of Army Judge Advocate General during the conflict . One Asian American service member died during the conflict .
In 1992 , the U.S. Navy stopped recruiting Filipino nationals due to the end of the 1947 Military Bases Agreement .
= = = 21st century = = =
Recent trends show that Asian Americans , particularly those from California , are enlisting at rates greater than their proportion of population ; they are more likely to take up non @-@ combat jobs . In 2009 , the Army had Asian Americans serving as 4 @.@ 4 percent of its commissioned officers , and 3 @.@ 5 percent of its enlisted personnel . In 2010 , Asian Americans made up 3 @.@ 7 percent of active duty service members , mostly in the Army and Navy , and 3 @.@ 9 percent of the officers . In 2012 , there were about 65 @,@ 000 immigrants serving in the U.S. armed forces ; of those , about 23 percent were from the Philippines .
= = = = War on Terrorism = = = =
As of 24 January 2013 , out of the 2 @,@ 165 deaths that have occurred in Operation Enduring Freedom , 58 have been Asian Americans ( 44 Soldiers , 8 Marines , and 6 Sailors ) . An additional 352 Asian American service @-@ members have been wounded ( 274 Soldiers , 56 Marines , 17 Sailors , and 5 Airmen ) .
= = = = = Afghanistan = = = = =
Asian American Marines were part of the first conventional units to enter into Afghanistan in late 2001 ; including Pakistani American marine Lieutenant Colonel Asad A. Khan . Khan would return to Afghanistan in command of 1st Battalion 6th Marines in 2004 ; only to be later relieved of command . During Operation Red Wings in 2005 , Petty Officer 2nd Class James Suh , a Navy SEAL , was killed in action when the MH @-@ 47 he was on crashed after being hit by a rocket propelled grenade . In 2011 , Private Danny Chen and Lance Corporal Harry Lew both committed suicide in Afghanistan following hazing ; prosecution of several of their unit members followed . Also in 2011 , Petty Officer , third class Jonathan Kong , as a corpsman risked his life to save Corporal Michael Dawers who had been shot in a battle near the village of Kotozay ; in 2014 , Kong was awarded a Silver Star for his actions in 2011
= = = = Iraq War = = = =
Hundreds of Asian Americans have deployed to Iraq out of the 59 @,@ 000 plus that are serving in active duty as of May 2009 , with one study stating that 2 @.@ 6 percent have been Asian American . The 100th Infantry Battalion ( USAR ) was activated in 2004 for its first deployment in Iraq , their first activation since the Vietnam War . At the end of that deployment the unit was authorized to wear the 442nd 's shoulder sleeve insignia as a combat patch , the first time this had occurred since World War II . The 100th Infantry Battalion was activated , and deployed to Iraq , for second time from 2008 to 2009 . With Operation Iraqi Freedom and Operation New Dawn having ended , 78 Asian American service members died during the conflict .
= = Leadership = =
The first Asian American general was Brigadier General Albert Lyman , who was part Chinese and Hawaiian American . He was followed by Rear Admiral Gordon Chung @-@ Hoon , the first Asian American flag officer . The highest ranked is former Secretary of Veteran Affairs Eric Shinseki , who was a four @-@ star general , and Army Chief of Staff .
In recent years , Asian Americans have been significantly overrepresented at the military academies compared to their share of the national population . Although Asian / Pacific Islander Americans are 3 @.@ 49 % of the national population aged 18 – 24 , they are about 9 – 10 % of the classes of 2014 at West Point , the Naval Academy , and the Air Force Academy .
= = In popular culture = =
The following television shows , movies , and songs have depicted events that relate to this article :
American Pastime
Apocalypse Meow
Bataan
Captain America : The First Avenger
Go for Broke !
Only The Brave
The Great Raid
The Karate Kid
The Lost Battalion
The Next Karate Kid
The War
We Were Soldiers
= = = Minority military history = = =
Military history of African Americans
Military history of Hispanic and Latino Americans
Military history of Jewish Americans
Military history of Pakistani Americans
Military history of Sikh Americans
Native Americans in the American Civil War
Native Americans and World War II
= = = Asian American military units = = =
U.S.S. Lanikai
U.S.S. Rizal
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= Great Moments in Aviation =
Great Moments in Aviation is a 1994 British romantic drama film set on a 1950s passenger liner . The film follows Gabriel Angel ( Rakie Ayola ) , a young Caribbean aviator who falls in love with the forger Duncan Stewart ( Jonathan Pryce ) on her journey to England . Stewart is pursued by his nemesis Rex Goodyear ( John Hurt ) , and the group are supported by Dr Angela Bead ( Vanessa Redgrave ) and Miss Gwendolyn Quim ( Dorothy Tutin ) , retired missionaries who become lovers during the voyage .
The film was written by Jeanette Winterson , directed by Beeban Kidron and produced by Phillippa Gregory , the same creative team that collaborated on Winterson 's Oranges Are Not the Only Fruit in 1990 . Winterson intended the screenplay to be reminiscent of a fairytale , and was unhappy at being asked to write a new ending for its American release .
The film was shown at the 1994 Cannes Film Festival and broadcast on British television in 1995 . Although originally intended for theatrical release , it failed to find a theatrical distributor , and was released straight to video in the United States in 1997 under the title Shades of Fear . The film received mixed to negative reviews from critics , and while the lesbian sub @-@ plot in particular was generally well received , Winterson 's scripting was a focal point of criticism .
= = Plot = =
Set in 1957 , Great Moments in Aviation follows Gabriel Angel ( Rakie Ayola ) , a young Caribbean woman from Grenada who embarks on a cruise to England with the intention of becoming an aviator . Upon boarding the ship , Gabriel finds herself assigned shared sleeping quarters with fellow passenger Duncan Stewart ( Jonathan Pryce ) . The rest of the ship 's passengers , including missionaries Angela Bead ( Vanessa Redgrave ) and Gwendolyne Quim ( Dorothy Tutin ) assume the two are married , and when Professor Rex Goodyear ( John Hurt ) appears to recognise Duncan as his old acquaintance Alasdair Birch , Duncan fosters the assumption to maintain his cover . It transpires that Duncan is a forger , who many years ago stole a Titian painting from Goodyear and had an affair with his wife . Goodyear believes that his painting is on board the ship , and leads Gabriel to believe that Duncan was responsible for his wife 's death . She is furious with Duncan for lying to her , but the two go on to reconcile and later make love . Their romance is complicated by the fact Gabriel professes to have a husband waiting for her in England . She explains that he has been there for two years working , and she is joining him so that she can fulfil her lifelong dream of becoming a pilot — inspired by her grandfather Thomas ( Oliver Samuels ) who flew off into a storm and never came home . They begin a relationship nonetheless , supported by Angela and Gwendolyne , who also come to realise that they have feelings for one another . They each confess to having secretly been in love with the other for years , and become lovers , vowing to live together in their retirement . It comes to light that the death of Goodyear 's wife was an accident , caused as he and Duncan fought over her . Duncan returns his painting , and goes on to burn all his forged documents and papers in front of Gabriel . She confesses that her marriage to Michael is over , and she and Duncan resolve to begin a life together . The film ends with Gabriel 's grandmother Vesuvia ( Carmen Munroe ) reading her family a letter from England , informing them that Gabriel and Duncan are happy together , and are expecting a child . As the family express their delight , Gabriel flies overhead , having finally attained her pilot licence and become an aviator .
= = Cast = =
Rakie Ayola as Gabriel Angel
Jonathan Pryce as Duncan Stewart
John Hurt as Professor Rex Goodyear
Vanessa Redgrave as Doctor Angela Bead
Dorothy Tutin as Miss Gwendolyne Quim
Carmen Munroe as Vesuvia
Oliver Samuels as Thomas
David Harewood as Steward
= = Production = =
Great Moments in Aviation was written by Jeanette Winterson , directed by Beeban Kidron and produced by Phillippa Giles , the same creative team who , in 1990 , adapted Winterson 's novel Oranges Are Not the Only Fruit for television . Giles , for whom Great Moments was her first feature film , believes that it was the success of Oranges which lead the British Broadcasting Corporation ( BBC ) to approve the film so easily . The screenplay is inspired by the emigration story of the mother of actress Vicky Licorish , a close friend of Winterson . It is adapted from a short story Winterson wrote entitled " Atlantic Crossing " , published in 1999 in her anthology The World and Other Places . The central themes of the story are " race , Hemingway , colonialism , love , lust , the [ and the ] ' 50s " , adapted into the screenplay in a manner Winterson intended to be reminiscent of a fairytale . She ascribes the roles of hero and heroine to Duncan and Gabriel , fairy godmothers to Miss Quim and Dr Bead , and non @-@ archetypal villain to Rex Goodyear . Setting the film on a passenger liner , with brief scenes in Gabriel 's native Grenada were intended to contribute towards this fairytale atmosphere , with Winterson explaining that the opening sequence in the Caribbean is " designed to draw the audience out of the world of their own concerns and into a world whose customs are strange . In the new world , objects are unfamiliar and events do not follow the usual rules . The coincidence of colour and language , each more vivid than normal , pull the viewer forward with fairytale immediacy . " Of the passenger liner aspect , she explains that it provides the film with : " a sealed and contained world with its own identity and rituals , at once both recognisable and odd . Fairytale never leaves the reader in a familiar spot , we are whisked away to a wood or a lake or a castle or an island , each a law unto itself made all the more uncomfortable because it isn 't as weird as , say , planet Mars . We think we will be able to cope just by using out usual tool kit , how disconcerting it is when we can 't . "
The film originally had a different ending to the one later released in America under the title Shades of Fear . Miramax co @-@ founder Harvey Weinstein requested that the ending be reworked prior to distribution , and Winterson was highly unhappy at being asked to write an additional conclusionary scene . Winterson 's preferred ending sees Rex Goodyear burn the painting he believes to be fraudulent , only to discover he actually had the genuine item in his possession all along , and has now destroyed it . This ties in with the major theme of the film in Winterson 's eyes , whereby " Duncan , Gabriel , Miss Bead and Miss Quim all find something valuable where they least expected it , Rex Goodyear finds that the things we value are very often worthless . " Winterson has called Weinstein " a bully who knows the gentle touch " , referring to the new ending as " the most expensive words I will ever write " . While she believes that the new ending is satisfying , she feels the film has lost some dimensions which were important to her and concludes : " It is a good movie but it is not the movie I thought we could make . [ ... ] I do like Great Moments but there is another film in there somewhere that has got lost . "
Of the starring cast , Pryce , Hurt , Redgrave and Tutin were already established screen actors , while Ayola had previously only acted theatrically . She appraised of her screen debut : " it was a wonderful experience for me to be appearing alongside so many established names . It was very exciting although I must admit at first I was a bit daunted by the prospect . " The film featured several minor black characters , either as members of Gabriel 's family , or as workers aboard the ship . When these roles were cast , complaints were made by black members of the British actors ' union to the BBC and the Department of Employment at having been " passed over " in favour of overseas artists . The film was shot from 23 September to 6 November 1992 . It was funded in the most part by the BBC , though a quarter of the budget came from the American Miramax . While Kidron had previously come to dislike directing for major studios when filming My Cousin Vinny for Fox , she found the low budget of Great Moments in Aviation " just as horrendous a compromise " . Though originally intended for theatrical release , the film failed to find theatrical distribution . It was first screened at the Cannes Film Festival in 1994 , then broadcast in Britain on BBC Two on 11 November 1995 . It was released on video in the United States under the alternate title Shades of Fear two years later , on 11 November 1997 .
= = Reception = =
The film received mixed to negative reviews from critics . Thomas Sutcliffe for The Independent writes that : " while flight is the sustaining theme , the film never soars . The characterisation is Cluedo with pretensions , and the dialogue suspends the actors in that ungainly , undignified dangle which you associate with stage flying , the wires robbing them of all powers of independent movement . " While he describes the scene which culminates the lesbian storyline as " radiant " and " beautifully acted by Vanessa Redgrave and Dorothy Tutin " , he opines of the acting in general that " for the most part , these people are simply Winterson 's puppets , jerked around by the symbolic demands of the plot . " He deems Kidron 's directing " a kind of surrender , dutifully supplying visual equivalents for Winterson 's sterile symmetries but despairing of any greater vivacity " , and is particularly critical of Winterson 's screenplay , noting that : " everything unrolls at the same stately pace , a religious procession bearing the reliquaries of Winterson 's prose . It 's as though the author thinks every word is infinitely precious . She 's right , though perhaps not in the way she imagines . " Variety ′ s David Rooney agrees the film 's coming @-@ out scene is a " potential jewel " and " captivatingly played " , however , in line with Sutcliffe 's criticisms , opines that the film 's pacing means that " the scene is lobbed in and robbed of its impact " . He summarises the film as " a willfully theatrical , sporadically magical romantic comedy embracing three barely compatible narrative strands , not one of which ever gets full flight clearance " . Rooney deems the film " Damaged beyond repair by a mannered scripting style and evident recutting " , and opines that " Jeanette Winterson 's preposterous dialogue and comic mistiming serves up more misses than hits " . Of the film 's major themes , he writes that : " Questions about the line between truth and falsehood , genuine and fake , are too flimsily voiced to mean much . Likewise , the intro of race issues in the closing voiceover only makes the haphazard mix even more lumpy " .
More positively , Rooney praise Remi Adefarasin 's cinematography and Rachel Portman 's soundtrack , as well as Ayola 's acting , writing : " In the film 's most naturalistic turn , Ayola is a constant pleasure to watch . Unforced and appealing , she often succeeds in pulling the fanciful fireworks momentarily back down to Earth . " The Boston Herald 's Paul Sherman agrees that Ayola gives " a winning performance " , and deems the film " generally charming " , though is critical of Miramax 's decision to hold the film 's release back until 1997 , change its title , and market it as a mystery rather than a romantic comedy @-@ drama . Lorien Haynes , writing for the Radio Times , also praises the acting in the film , however is critical of the cross @-@ genre approach , opining : " Unfortunately , the mixture of romance and mystery doesn 't work and even the combined acting talents of Vanessa Redgrave , Jonathan Pryce , John Hurt and Dorothy Tutin can 't save it . " She deems the film " disappointing " , and writes that it fails to match the success of Oranges Are Not the Only Fruit . Gilbert Gerard for The Independent selected the film as recommended viewing upon its BBC Two television debut , giving the mixed review : " So much acting talent , so little substance to play with - but the 1950s are authentically enough evoked . "
David Bleiler is more positive about the film , writing in his TLA Video & DVD Guide that it " isn 't some third @-@ rate , quick @-@ paycheck hack job mystery which the advertising suggests . " He calls it " an unusual , rewarding drama [ ... ] Well @-@ written by Jeanette Winterson and directed with just the right amount of sensitivity and humor by Kidron " . Bleiler states that the cast are " stellar " , Ayola is " radiant " , and the revelatory scene between Angela and Gwendolyne is " wonderful " , asserting : " Although slight , this is a perfect film for a nice , quiet evening at home " . Alison Darren in her Lesbian Film Guide is also positive , asserting that : " Great Moments in Aviation is a little gem of a British film " . She describes the resolution of the lesbian storyline as " a golden scene , beautifully photographed and exceptionally well paced " , and asserts that " For women of a certain age , this may be the most heart @-@ rending ( not to say , inspirational ) depiction of a coming @-@ out moment ever seen on screen . Whimsical , comic , dramatic and gentle . "
= = Soundtrack = =
While the soundtrack to Great Moments in Aviation was not released independently , nine tracks from the film appear on the album " A Pyromaniac 's Love Story " , which also features music from the film of the same name and Ethan Frome . Variety magazine 's David Rooney praised Rachel Portman 's composition as " stirring " .
All music composed by Rachel Portman .
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= Anti @-@ nuclear movement in Australia =
Nuclear weapons testing , uranium mining and export , and nuclear power have often been the subject of public debate in Australia , and the anti @-@ nuclear movement in Australia has a long history . Its origins date back to the 1972 – 73 debate over French nuclear testing in the Pacific and the 1976 – 77 debate about uranium mining in Australia .
Several groups specifically concerned with nuclear issues were established in the mid @-@ 1970s , including the Movement Against Uranium Mining and Campaign Against Nuclear Energy ( CANE ) , cooperating with other environmental groups such as Friends of the Earth and the Australian Conservation Foundation . The movement suffered a setback in 1983 when the newly elected Labor Government failed to implement its stated policy of stopping uranium mining . But by the late 1980s , the price of uranium had fallen , the costs of nuclear power had risen , and the anti @-@ nuclear movement seemed to have won its case ; CANE was disbanded in 1988 .
About 2003 , proponents of nuclear power advocated it as a solution to global warming and the Australian government began taking an interest . Anti @-@ nuclear campaigners and some scientists in Australia argued that nuclear power could not significantly substitute for other power sources , and that uranium mining itself could become a significant source of greenhouse gas emissions .
As of 2014 , Australia has no nuclear power stations but Ex @-@ Prime Minister Tony Abbott supports nuclear power for Australia . As of 2015 , Australia has five uranium mines , four of which are located in South Australia . Olympic Dam ( Roxby Downs ) is a large underground mine , Beverley , Four Mile and Honeymoon are in @-@ situ leach mines and Ranger in an open pit mine in the Northern Territory . Uranium mined in Australia is mainly for export . Australia has no nuclear weapons or nuclear @-@ powered vessels .
= = History = =
= = = 1950s and 1960s = = =
In 1952 the Australian Government established the Rum Jungle Uranium Mine 85 kilometres south of Darwin . Local aboriginal communities were not consulted and the mine site became an environmental disaster .
Also in 1952 , the Liberal Government passed legislation , the Defence ( Special Undertakings ) Act 1952 , which allowed the British Government access to remote parts of Australia to undertake atmospheric nuclear weapons tests . The general public were largely unaware of the risks from the testing program , stemming from official secrecy about the testing program and the remote locations of the test sites . But as the " Ban the Bomb " movement gathered momentum in Western societies throughout the 1950s , so too did opposition to the British tests in Australia . An opinion poll taken in 1957 showed 49 per cent of the Australian public were opposed to the tests and only 39 per cent in favour . In 1964 , Peace Marches which featured " Ban the bomb " placards , were held in several Australian capital cities .
In 1969 , a 500 MW nuclear power plant was proposed for the Jervis Bay Territory , 200 km south of Sydney . A local opposition campaign began , and the South Coast Trades and Labour Council ( covering workers in the region ) announced that it would refuse to build the reactor . Some environmental studies and site works were completed , and two rounds of tenders were called and evaluated , but in 1971 the Australian government decided not to proceed with the project , citing economic reasons .
= = = 1970s = = =
The 1972 – 73 debate over French nuclear testing in the Pacific mobilised several groups , including some trade unions . In 1972 the International Court of Justice in a case launched by Australia and New Zealand , and advocated by Dr Helen Caldicott , ordered that the French cease atmospheric nuclear testing at Mururoa atoll . In 1974 and 1975 this concern came to focus on uranium mining in Australia and several Friends of the Earth groups were formed . The Australian Conservation Foundation also began voicing concern about uranium mining and supporting the activities of the grass @-@ roots organisations . Concern about the environmental effects of uranium mining was a significant factor and poor management of waste at an early uranium mine , Rum Jungle , led it to become a significant pollution problem in the 1970s . The Australian anti @-@ nuclear movement also acquired initial impetus from notable individuals who publicly voiced nuclear concerns , such as nuclear scientists Richard Temple and Rob Robotham , and poets Dorothy Green and Judith Wright .
In 1975 , Moss Cass , Minister for the Environment and Conservation , led parliamentarians and ALP branch members in expressing concerns about the effects of uranium mining . A key concern was the adverse effect that uranium mining would have on the northern Aboriginal people . Cass said : " nuclear energy creates the most dangerous , insidious and persistent waste products , ever experienced on the planet " .
The years 1976 and 1977 saw uranium mining become a major political issue , with the Ranger Inquiry ( Fox ) report opening up a public debate about uranium mining . Several groups specifically concerned with nuclear issues were established , including the Movement Against Uranium Mining ( founded in 1976 ) and Campaign Against Nuclear Energy ( formed in South Australia in 1976 ) , cooperating with other environmental groups such as Friends of the Earth ( which came to Australia in 1975 ) and the Australian Conservation Foundation ( formed in 1975 ) .
In November and December 1976 , 7 @,@ 000 people marched through the streets of Australian cities , protesting against uranium mining . The Uranium Moratorium group was formed and it called for a five @-@ year moritorium on uranium mining . In April 1977 the first national demonstration co @-@ ordinated by the Uranium Moratorium brought around 15 @,@ 000 demonstrators into the streets of Melbourne , 5 @,@ 000 in Sydney , and smaller numbers elsewhere . A National signature campaign attracted over 250 @,@ 000 signatures calling for a five @-@ year moratorium . In August , another demonstration brought 50 @,@ 000 people out nationally and the opposition to uranium mining looked like a potential political force .
In 1977 , the National Conference of the Australian Labor Party ( ALP ) passed a motion in favour of an indefinite moratorium on uranium mining , and the anti @-@ nuclear movement acted to support the Labor Party and help it regain office . However , a setback for the movement occurred in 1982 when another ALP conference overturned its anti @-@ uranium policy in favour of a " one mine policy " . After the ALP won power in 1983 , its 1984 National Conference voted in favour of a " Three mine policy " . This referred to the then three existing uranium mines in Australia , Nabarlek , Ranger and Roxby Downs / Olympic Dam , and articulated ALP support for pre @-@ existing mines and contracts , but opposition to any new mining .
In 1977 @-@ 78 , the West Australian Government , under the leadership of Charles Court , announced plans for a nuclear power reactor near Perth . 1977 was seen as the year of mass mobilization in WA , with 300 at the first anti @-@ nuclear demonstration to 9 @,@ 000 at the third protest in the inner city of Perth . Despite public protest , the WA Government selected a first site for a nuclear reactor in 1979 at Wilbinga , 70 kilometres north of Perth . Court predicted that at least another 20 nuclear power plants would be needed by the end of the century to meet rapidly growing power demand , but all of this never eventuated .
= = = 1980s and 1990s = = =
Between 1979 and 1984 , the majority of what is now Kakadu National Park was created , surrounding but not including the Ranger uranium mine . Tension between mining and conservation values led to long running controversy around mining in the Park region .
The two themes for the 1980 Hiroshima Day march and rally in Sydney , sponsored by the Movement Against Uranium Mining ( MAUM ) , were : " Keep uranium in the ground " and " No to nuclear war . " Later that year , the Sydney city council officially proclaimed Sydney nuclear @-@ free , in an action similar to that taken by many other local councils throughout Australia .
In the 1980s , academic critics ( such as Jim Falk ) discussed the " deadly connection " between uranium mining , nuclear reactors and nuclear weapons , linking Australia 's nuclear policy to nuclear proliferation and the " plutonium economy " .
In the 1980s , Australia experienced a significant growth of nuclear disarmament activism :
On Palm Sunday 1982 , an estimated 100 @,@ 000 Australians participated in anti @-@ nuclear rallies in the nation 's biggest cities . Growing year by year , the rallies drew 350 @,@ 000 participants in 1985 . The movement focused on halting Australia 's uranium mining and exports , abolishing nuclear weapons , removing foreign military bases from Australia 's soil , and creating a nuclear @-@ free Pacific . Public opinion surveys found that about half of Australians opposed uranium mining and export , as well as the visits of U.S. nuclear warships , that 72 percent thought the use of nuclear weapons could never be justified , and that 80 percent favoured building a nuclear @-@ free world .
The Nuclear Disarmament Party won a Senate seat in 1984 , but soon faded from the political scene . The years of the Hawke @-@ Keating ALP governments ( 1983 – 1996 ) were characterised by an " uneasy standoff in the uranium debate " . The ALP acknowledged community feeling against uranium mining but was reluctant to move against the industry .
The 1986 Palm Sunday anti @-@ nuclear rallies drew 250 @,@ 000 people . In Melbourne , the seamen 's union boycotted the arrival of foreign nuclear warships .
Australia 's only nuclear energy education facility , the former School of Nuclear Engineering at the University of New South Wales , closed in 1986 .
By the late 1980s , the price of uranium had fallen , and the costs of nuclear power had risen , and the anti @-@ nuclear movement seemed to have won its case . The Campaign Against Nuclear Energy disbanded itself in 1988 , two years after the Chernobyl Disaster .
The government policy preventing new uranium mines continued into the 1990s , despite occasional reviews and debate . Following protest marches in Sydney , Melbourne and Brisbane during 1998 , a proposed mine at Jabiluka was blocked .
Also in 1998 , there was a proposal from an international consortium , Pangea Resources , to establish a nuclear waste dump in Western Australia . The plan , to store 20 per cent of the world 's spent nuclear fuel and weapons material , was " publicly condemned and abandoned " .
= = = 2000s = = =
In 2000 , the Ranger Uranium Mine in the Northern Territory and the Roxby Downs / Olympic Dam mine in South Australia continued to operate , but Nabarlek Uranium Mine had closed . A third uranium mine , Beverley Uranium Mine in SA , was also operating . Several advanced projects , such as Honeymoon in SA , Jabiluka in the Northern Territory and Yeelirrie in WA were on hold because of political and indigenous opposition .
In May 2000 there was an anti @-@ nuclear demonstration at the Beverley Uranium Mine , which involved about 100 protesters . Ten of the protesters were mistreated by police and were later awarded more than $ 700 @,@ 000 in damages from the South Australian government .
Following the McClelland Royal Commission , a large clean @-@ up was completed in outback South Australia in 2000 , after nuclear testing at Maralinga during the 1950s contaminated the region . The cleanup lasted three years , and cost over A $ 100 million , but there was controversy over the methods used and success of the operation .
As uranium prices began rising from about 2003 , proponents of nuclear power advocated it as a solution to global warming and the Australian government began taking an interest . However , in June 2005 , the Senate passed a motion opposing nuclear power for Australia . Then , in November 2006 , the House of Representatives Standing Committee on Industry and Resources released a pro @-@ nuclear report into Australia 's uranium . In late 2006 and early 2007 , then Prime Minister John Howard made widely reported statements in favour of nuclear power , on environmental grounds .
Faced with these proposals to examine nuclear power as a possible response to climate change , anti @-@ nuclear campaigners and scientists in Australia emphasised claims that nuclear power could not significantly substitute for other power sources , and that uranium mining itself could become a significant source of greenhouse gas emissions . Anti @-@ nuclear campaigns were given added impetus by public concern about the sites for possible reactors : fears exploited by anti @-@ nuclear power political parties in the lead @-@ up to a national election in 2007 .
The Rudd Labor government elected in 2007 opposed nuclear power for Australia . The anti @-@ nuclear movement continues to be active in Australia , opposing expansion of existing uranium mines , lobbying against the development of nuclear power in Australia , and criticising proposals for nuclear waste disposal sites , the main candidate being Muckaty station in the Northern Territory .
By April 2009 , construction had begun on South Australia 's third uranium mine — the Honeymoon Uranium Mine . In October 2009 , the Australian government was continuing to plan for a nuclear waste dump in the Northern Territory . However , there was opposition from indigenous people , the NT government , and wider NT community . In November 2009 , about 100 anti @-@ nuclear protesters assembled outside the Alice Springs parliamentary sittings , urging the Northern Territory Government not to approve a nearby uranium mine site .
= = = 2010s = = =
.
As of 2010 , Australia has no nuclear power stations and the Gillard Labor government was opposed to nuclear power for Australia . Australia has three operating uranium mines at Olympic Dam ( Roxby ) and Beverley – both in South Australia 's north – and at Ranger in the Northern Territory . Australia has no nuclear weapons . Australia operates a research reactor which produces medical radioisotopes at OPAL .
As of early April 2010 , more than 200 environmentalists and indigenous people gathered in Tennant Creek to oppose a radioactive waste dump being built on Muckaty Station in the Northern Territory .
Western Australia has a significant share of the Australia 's uranium reserves , but between 2002 and 2008 , a statewide ban on uranium mining was in force . The ban was lifted when the Liberal Party was voted into power in the state and , as of 2010 , many companies are exploring for uranium in Western Australia . One of the industry 's major players , the mining company BHP Billiton , planned to develop the Yeelirrie uranium project in a 17 billion dollar project . Two other projects in Western Australia are further advanced then BHP 's Yeelirrie , these being the Lake Way uranium project , which is pursued by Toro Energy , and the Lake Maitland uranium project , pursued by Mega Uranium . But it is unlikely that any new projects will enter active development until the market improves . As of 2013 uranium prices are very low .
As of late 2010 , there are calls for Australians to debate whether the nation should adopt nuclear power as part of its energy mix . Nuclear power is seen to be " a divisive issue that can arouse deep passions among those for and against " .
Following the March 2011 Fukushima nuclear emergency in Japan , where three nuclear reactors were damaged by explosions , Ian Lowe sees the nuclear power option as being risky and unworkable for Australia . Lowe says nuclear power is too expensive , with insurmountable problems associated with waste disposal and weapons proliferation . It is also not a fast enough response to address climate change . Lowe advocates renewable energy which is " quicker , less expensive and less dangerous than nuclear " .
Nuclear reactors are banned in Queensland and Tasmania . Uranium mining was previously prohibited in New South Wales under the Uranium Prohibition Act of 1986 , however in 2012 Premier Barry O 'Farrell amended the legislation to allow prospecting and mining of uranium in that State .
In December 2011 , the sale of uranium to India was a contentious issue . MPs clashed over the issue and protesters were marched from Sydney 's convention centre before Prime Minister Julia Gillard 's motion to remove a party ban on uranium sales to India was narrowly supported 206 votes to 185 . Long @-@ time anti @-@ nuclear campaigner Peter Garrett MP spoke against the motion .
In March 2012 , hundreds of anti @-@ nuclear demonstrators converged on the Australian headquarters of global mining giants BHP Billiton and Rio Tinto . The 500 @-@ strong march through southern Melbourne called for an end to uranium mining in Australia , and included speeches and performances by representatives of the expatriate Japanese community as well as Australia 's Indigenous communities , who are concerned about the effects of uranium mining near tribal lands . There were also events in Sydney .
A site within Muckaty Station is being considered for Australia 's low @-@ level and intermediate @-@ level radioactive waste storage and disposal facility . However , the plan is subject to a Federal Court challenge due to be heard early in 2013 .
More than 400 people joined a " Lizard 's Revenge march " to the Olympic Dam site in July 2012 . The anti @-@ nuclear activists , including Elder Kevin Buzzacott , protested against the mine expansion and the uranium industry . They say the company and the government have put short @-@ term economic gain ahead of environmental and health concerns . Organiser Nectaria Calan said police harassed protesters , demanding identification and controlling access to and from their campsite . In August 2012 , BHP Billiton announced that the expansion was being postponed indefinitely pending investigation of a " new and cheaper design " .
Historically , many prospective Australian uranium mines have been constrained by active antinuclear opposition , but state governments have now approved mine development in Western Australia and Queensland . But it is unlikely that any new projects will enter active development until the market improves . As of 2013 uranium prices are very low . Cameco placed the Kintyre project on hold until market prices improve and Paladin has stated that its project proposals ( Bigrlyi , Angela / Pamela , Manyingee , Oobagooma , and Valhalla / Skal ) need higher uranium market prices before they can proceed . Toro wants to take the Wiluna proposal to the development phase , but has not been successful in attracting equity investors . When market prices go up again , so that mine development is justified , most projects would need at least five years to proceed to production .
As of 2013 , Prime Minister Abbott is a supporter of nuclear power , saying : " nuclear power is the only proven way of generating the base load power Australia needed without producing carbon pollution " . Abbott 's Coalition ’ s Resources and Energy policy says " the Coalition will formalise the agreement to sell uranium to India " .
In 2015 , South Australian Premier Jay Weatherill announced that a Royal Commission would be held to investigate the state 's role in the nuclear fuel cycle . South Australia is currently home to four of Australia 's five uranium mines , and the possibility of the state developing nuclear power generation , enrichment and waste storage facilities have previously proven to be contentious issues . The Royal Commission comes at a time of economic contraction for South Australia , which is suffering from job losses in mining and manufacturing sectors . Immediately following the announcement of the Royal Commission , emeritus Prof. Ian Lowe suggested that the current inquiry risks retreading old ground already covered by several previous public inquiries and proposals for nuclear industrialisation . Lowe referred to the 2006 UMPNER review 's finding that substantial government subsidies would be required to support nuclear industrial development in Australia , and the 1976 @-@ 78 Ranger Uranium Environmental Inquiry ( Fox Report ) , which drew attention to the problems of nuclear weapons proliferation and nuclear waste . On 17 April 2015 , Lowe was selected as one of five members of the Nuclear Fuel Cycle Royal Commission Expert Advisory Committee .
= = Issues = =
The case against nuclear power and uranium mining in Australia has been concerned with the environmental , political , economic , social and cultural impacts of nuclear energy ; with the shortcomings of nuclear power as an energy source ; and with presenting a sustainable energy strategy . The most prominent adverse impact of nuclear power is seen to be its potential contribution towards proliferation of nuclear weapons . For example , the 1976 Ranger Inquiry report stated that " The nuclear power industry is unintentionally contributing to an increased risk of nuclear war . This is the most serious hazard associated with the industry " .
The health risks associated with nuclear materials have also featured prominently in Australian anti @-@ nuclear campaigns . This has been the case worldwide because of accidents like the Chernobyl disaster , but Australian concerns have also involved specific local factors such as controversy over the health effects of nuclear testing in Australia and the South Pacific , and the emergence of prominent anti @-@ nuclear campaigners Helen Caldicott and Tilman Ruff , who are medical practitioners .
The economics of nuclear power has been a factor in anti @-@ nuclear campaigns , with critics arguing that such power is uneconomical in Australia , particularly given the country 's abundance of coal resources .
According to the anti @-@ nuclear movement , most of the problems with nuclear power today are much the same as in the 1970s . Nuclear reactor accidents still occur and there is no convincing solution to the problem of long @-@ lived radioactive waste . Nuclear weapons proliferation continues to occur , notably in Pakistan and North Korea , building on facilities and expertise from civilian nuclear operations . The alternatives to nuclear power , efficient energy use and renewable energy ( especially wind power ) , have been further developed and commercialised .
= = Public opinion = =
A 2009 poll conducted by the Uranium Information Centre found that Australians in the 40 to 55 years age group are the " most trenchantly opposed to nuclear power " . This generation was raised during the Cold War , experienced the anti @-@ nuclear movement of the 1970s , witnessed the 1979 partial meltdown of the Three Mile Island reactor in the USA , and the 1986 Chernobyl disaster . It was the generation which was also subject to cultural influences including feature films such as the " nuclear industry conspiracies " The China Syndrome and Silkwood and the apocalyptic Dr Strangelove . Younger people are " less resistant " to the idea of nuclear power in Australia . Analysis of opinion polls from 2012 shows a " significant decrease in favourable views of nuclear power " following the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster .
Indigenous land owners have consistently opposed uranium mining and have spoken out about the adverse impact it has on their communities . The British nuclear tests at Maralinga were found to have left significant radiation hazards in land given back to the Maralinga Tjarutja people , and the issue continues to cause indigenous opposition .
= = Active groups = =
= = Individuals = =
There are several prominent Australians who have publicly expressed anti @-@ nuclear views :
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= Bye Bye Baby ( Madonna song ) =
" Bye Bye Baby " is a song recorded by American singer and songwriter Madonna , for her fifth studio album Erotica ( 1992 ) . It was released on November 15 , 1993 , as the sixth and final single from the album . " Bye Bye Baby " was written by Madonna , Shep Pettibone , and Anthony Shimkin and was produced by Madonna and Pettibone . The song is inspired by Madonna 's emotions of that time and her S & M thoughts . Musically , it is a hip hop song , sampling a hook from LL Cool J 's track " Jingling Baby " , released in 1990 . Madonna 's vocals were filtered to make them appear as sound coming out from an antique radio . " Bye Bye Baby " features instrumentation from keyboard and lyrically finds Madonna asking questions to a lover she is about to abandon .
" Bye Bye Baby " received mixed reviews from music critics , who complimented the composition and lyrics , but were disappointed with Madonna 's vocal delivery . The song received limited release worldwide , peaking at number seven in Italy , and also charting in Australia , New Zealand and Switzerland . Madonna performed " Bye Bye Baby " on the 1993 MTV Video Music Awards and on her Girlie Show World Tour the same year . For both performances , she was dressed as a Victorian gentleman in tailcoat and top hat . She and her backup singers danced with three scantily clad women in a brothel @-@ style setting , while singing the song . Critics and authors noted the gender bending and role play in the performance , and found it to be a response to misogyny .
= = Background and remixes = =
After the completion of filming A League of Their Own , Madonna began working on her fifth studio album Erotica with Shep Pettibone . The singer was feeling miserable after a string of failed relationships , and she vented out the frustration and depression in her music . According to Lucy O 'Brien , author of Madonna : Like an Icon , there were no " sugar @-@ coated " songs on the album , most of which dealt with Madonna 's emotions . She appropriated a dominatrix persona called Dita , and the songwriting for the album , as well as the imagery in the coffee table book Sex , reflected her S & M thoughts . " Bye Bye Baby " was one such song written , dealing with strong emotions .
The release of " Bye Bye Baby " in Australia on November 15 , 1993 , coincided with Madonna 's Australian leg of her Girlie Show World Tour . The single release of the song was accompanied by remixes , which did not vary much from the album version . Some of them have additional beats and horn sounds thrown into the original mix . In his review of the single , Jose F. Promis from AllMusic expressed that the album version was the best , and the " Madonna 's Night on the Club " remix featured " swirling organs and guitar effects " set against an early @-@ 1990s house beat , making it the most interesting of the bunch .
= = Recording and composition = =
" Bye Bye Baby " was written by Madonna , Shep Pettibone and Anthony Shimkin and was produced by Madonna and Pettibone . The song was recorded at Sound Works Studios in Astoria , New York , and samples a hook from LL Cool J 's single , " Jingling Baby " ( 1990 ) . Pettibone also did the sequencing , the keyboard arrangement and the programming for the track with Shimkin . Dennis Mitchell and Robin Hancock were the recording engineers for the track while George Karras was the mixing engineer . Ted Jensen did the mastering for the song with Mark Goodman as assistant engineer . Background vocals were provided by Niki Haris and Donna DeLory . For " Bye Bye Baby " , Madonna and Pettibone wanted a 1940s theme , which would make the vocals sound as if they were coming out of an antique radio . In order to achieve that , they used a Pultec HLF filter . Shimkin recalled that the vocals for " Bye Bye Baby " were from the first take . He added that the filtered vocal effect were applied during recording and played with while Madonna was in front of the microphone singing .
" Bye Bye Baby " is a hip hop and dance song which begins with the declaration , " This is not a love song " . A low bass is heard against a high @-@ pitched 1960s keyboard sound . Madonna 's vocals were attenuated to sound much thinner with more treble . Guitar sounds are spread throughout occasionally with shouting voices being heard in the background . The song ends with the sound of an explosion . Madonna 's filtered voice sounds like an answering machine ; the final line , " You fucked it up " , is bleeped out like the machine 's end @-@ of @-@ message tone . According to the sheet music published by Alfred Publishing Inc . , the song is set in the time signature of common time with a fast tempo of 120 beats per minute . It is composed in the key of F minor , with Madonna 's voice in a high register , spanning between F3 to A4 . The song has a basic sequence of G – B ♭ – G – D – G – Dm as its chord progression .
In the song , lyrically Madonna asks questions for a lover she is about to abandon : " Does it make you feel good to see me cry ? I think it does " , she affirms . The lyric " I 'd like to hurt you " was compared to that of Madonna 's previous single " Erotica " , where she said : " I only hurt the ones I love " . Richard Harrington from The Washington Post noted that Madonna used a " sonically filtered , detached and slightly taunting voice to talk about taking control rather than exacting revenge on a domineering , mind @-@ game @-@ playing partner " in the song . Regarding the lyrics , Chris Willman from Los Angeles Times called " Bye Bye Baby " a " brushoff song " .
= = Critical response = =
" Bye Bye Baby " received mostly mixed reviews from critics . Stephen Holden of The New York Times described it as " sly , spunky " . J. D. Considine from The Baltimore Sun praised " Bye Bye Baby " by saying : " It 's when [ Madonna ] and her co @-@ producers push beyond the expected – as with the dense , gimmicky groove of " Bye Bye Baby " [ ... ] the album really heats up , providing a sound that is body @-@ conscious in the best sense of the term . " David Browne from Entertainment Weekly wrote that Madonna was " honest " in the song . Louis Virtel of The Backlot included the song on his list of " The 100 Greatest Madonna Songs " , describing its composition as " a hip @-@ hop kiss @-@ off with cabaret flair . " Michael R. Smith from The Daily Vault found the track to be " defiant " and " in @-@ your @-@ face " . He realized that Madonna directed the lyrics to her past relationships with actor Warren Beatty and comedian Sandra Bernhard .
Arion Berger from Rolling Stone noticed the story line of Madonna " dumping " her lover in the song , but felt that her vocals were " infantile " and her delivery was " flat " . He added that her singing did not sound " assertive " and that " [ Madonna ] could be a drag queen toying with a pop hit of the past . " Rikky Rooksby , author of The Complete Guide to the Music of Madonna , felt that the " aggressive " lyrics and the profanity at the end of the song , did not suit the erotic vibe of the album , " and strengthens the air of narcissism and calculation " . O 'Brien noticed Madonna 's vocals as cool and minimal , but sounding " flat " . She criticized the dance beat of the song for being " barely discernible " adding that Madonna sounds " like she is either not fully concentrating , or doesn 't have many resources to draw on – what alternative healers would call ' scattered chi ' , a depleted life force . "
= = Chart performance = =
" Bye Bye Baby " received limited release , being officially released in Australasia , Germany and Japan . However , it peaked at number seven on the Italian Singles Chart despite not being officially released as a single in that country . It became the fifth single from the Erotica album to place within the top 10 there . On November 25 , 1993 , " Bye Bye Baby " debuted at number 39 on the Swiss Hitparade chart , and after three weeks it rose to its peak of number 28 , before dropping off the chart . On December 5 , 1993 , the song debuted on the Australian Singles Chart at number 31 . The next week it peaked at number 15 on the chart . On February 6 , 1994 , after eight weeks , it fell off the chart . " Bye Bye Baby " entered the New Zealand charts at number 49 the chart week of November 25 , 1993 , but fell off the chart the following week . It re @-@ entered the chart week of January 23 , 1994 , ultimately peaking at number 43 .
= = Live performances = =
On September 2 , 1993 , Madonna opened the 1993 MTV Video Music Awards performing " Bye Bye Baby " . She cavorted on stage with three scantily clad women in a brothel @-@ style setting , dressed in tuxedos and top hats , in a choreographed , highly sexual routine . According to choreographer Alex Magno , he wanted to do " Justify My Love " or " The Beast Within " on MTV , but Madonna decided that they might be too controversial for live television and abandoned the idea . Nevertheless , " Bye Bye Baby " was chosen and performed with the choreography they had been practicing for The Girlie Show World Tour , since it represented the whole idea behind the tour . Louis Virtel from The Backlot ranked the performance at number eight on a list for " Madonna 's 11 Greatest VMA Moments " . He praised Madonna 's rendition of the song at the Video Music Awards , calling it " a hell of a VMA performance " and a " killer cinematic throwback " .
The performance of the song on the Girlie Show tour featured Madonna and her backup singers , DeLory and Haris , dressed as Victorian gentlemen in masculine outfits , including top hats and tailcoat . The whole ensemble was an homage to actress Marlene Dietrich in the 1930 American romance drama film Morocco , with the singer carrying a cane in her hands . The main inspiration behind this segment was 1900s showgirls and Japanese all @-@ female cross dressing dance company , Takarazuka Revue . Madonna transformed her voice into that of a circus ringmaster , introducing the arrival of three female strip @-@ club dancers . A voice @-@ alteration similar to the single was used in the performance . The dance routine revolved around three chairs . The female strippers seduced Madonna and the backup singers , by rubbing against them , holding sexual poses and dominated them , before they took control again . The performance on the November 19 , 1993 show at Sydney Cricket Ground was recorded and released on VHS and Laserdisc on April 26 , 1994 , as The Girlie Show : Live Down Under .
Brett Beemyn noted in his book Queer Studies that Madonna was expanding on the characteristic butch and femme portrayal with the performance . He added that on a mere glance the performance might appear to be a " typical provoking one " from the singer , but underlying it was a " more complex queer perspective " . The butch roles are played by white and African @-@ American women , while the strippers were played by Asian @-@ American women . There are simulations of masturbation and sexual penetration in the performance , while the butch females control the femmes . Beemyn concluded by saying that " the fact that Madonna chose Asian @-@ American women as the femmes reinforces stereotypes of Asian women as the passive , exotic , and feminine ' other ' . It also mocks the fact Asian women have been exploited as ' comfort girls ' for American servicemen , therefore , Madonna made a statement against male chauvinism , in her queer way . " For Gerry Bloustien , author of Girl Making , the performances of both " Bye Bye Baby " and " Like a Virgin " on the tour emphasized the " blurring of gender and representation " .
= = Track listings and formats = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Management
Recorded at Sound Works Studios , Astoria , New York , New York City
Warner Bros. Music Corporation / Bleu Disque Music Company , Webo Girl Publishing , Inc . ( ASCAP ) , Administration by Warner Bros. Music Corporation , Shep Songs by MCA Music Publishing ( ASCAP )
Personnel
Madonna – lead vocals , songwriter , producer
Shep Pettibone – songwriter , producer , sequencing , keyboards , programming
Anthony Shimkin – songwriter , sequencing , keyboards , programming
Dennis Mitchell – recording engineer
Robin Hancock – recording engineer
George Karras – mixing engineer
Ted Jensen – mastering at Sterling Sound Studios , New York
Mark Goodman – assistant engineer
Donna DeLory – background vocals
Niki Haris – background vocals
Credits adapted from Erotica album liner notes .
= = Charts = =
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= Megalodon =
Megalodon ( / ˈmɛɡələˌdɒn , -loʊ- / MEG @-@ ə @-@ lə @-@ don or / ˈmeɪɡələˌdɒn , -loʊ- / MAY @-@ ghə @-@ lə @-@ don , meaning " big tooth " , from Ancient Greek : μέγας ( megas ) " big , mighty " and ὀδoύς ( odoús ) , " tooth " — whose stem is odont- , as seen in the genitive case form ὀδόντος , odóntos ) is an extinct species of shark that lived approximately 23 to 2 @.@ 6 million years ago , during the Cenozoic Era ( early Miocene to end of Pliocene ) .
The taxonomic assignment of C. megalodon has been debated for nearly a century , and is still under dispute . The two major interpretations are Carcharodon megalodon ( under family Lamnidae ) or Carcharocles megalodon ( under the family Otodontidae ) . Consequently , the scientific name of this species is commonly abbreviated C. megalodon in the literature .
Regarded as one of the largest and most powerful predators in vertebrate history , C. megalodon probably had a profound impact on the structure of marine communities . Fossil remains suggest that this giant shark reached a length of 18 metres ( 59 ft ) , and also indicate that it had a cosmopolitan distribution . Scientists suggest that C. megalodon looked like a stockier version of the great white shark , Carcharodon carcharias .
The tooth of C. megalodon is the state fossil of North Carolina .
= = Discovery = =
= = = Glossopetrae = = =
According to Renaissance accounts , gigantic , triangular fossil teeth often found embedded in rocky formations were once believed to be the petrified tongues , or glossopetrae , of dragons and snakes . This interpretation was corrected in 1667 by Danish naturalist Nicolaus Steno , who recognized them as shark teeth , and famously produced a depiction of a shark 's head bearing such teeth . He described his findings in the book The Head of a Shark Dissected , which also contained an illustration of a C. megalodon tooth .
= = = Identification = = =
Swiss naturalist Louis Agassiz gave the shark its initial scientific name , Carcharodon megalodon , in 1835 , in his research work Recherches sur les poissons fossiles ( Research on fossil fish ) , which he completed in 1843 . C. megalodon teeth are morphologically similar to the teeth of the great white shark , and on the basis of this observation , Agassiz assigned C. megalodon to the genus Carcharodon . While the scientific name is C. megalodon , it is often informally dubbed the " megatooth shark " , " giant white shark " or " monster shark " .
= = Fossils = =
C. megalodon is represented in the fossil record primarily by teeth and vertebral centra . As with all sharks , C. megalodon 's skeleton was formed of cartilage rather than bone ; this means that most fossil specimens are poorly preserved . While the earliest C. megalodon remains were reported from late Oligocene strata , around 28 million years old , a more reliable date for the origin of the species is the early Miocene , about 23 million years ago . Although fossils are mostly absent in strata extending beyond the Tertiary boundary , they have been reported from subsequent Pleistocene strata . It is believed that C. megalodon became extinct around the end of the Pliocene , probably about 2 @.@ 6 million years ago ; reported post @-@ Pliocene C. megalodon teeth are thought to be reworked fossils . C. megalodon had a cosmopolitan distribution ; its fossils have been excavated from many parts of the world , including Europe , Africa and both North and South America , as well as Puerto Rico , Cuba , Jamaica , the Canary Islands , Australia , New Zealand , Japan , Malta , the Grenadines and India . C. megalodon teeth have been excavated from regions far away from continental lands , such as the Mariana Trench in the Pacific Ocean .
The most common fossils of C. megalodon are its teeth . Diagnostic characteristics include : triangular shape , robust structure , large size , fine serrations , and visible V @-@ shaped neck . C. megalodon teeth can measure over 180 millimetres ( 7 @.@ 1 in ) in slant height or diagonal length , and are the largest of any known shark species .
Some fossil vertebrae have been found . The most notable example is a partially preserved vertebral column of a single specimen , excavated in the Antwerp basin , Belgium by M. Leriche in 1926 . It comprises 150 vertebral centra , with the centra ranging from 55 millimetres ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) to 155 millimetres ( 6 @.@ 1 in ) in diameter . However , scientists have claimed that considerably larger vertebral centra can be expected . A partially preserved vertebral column of another C. megalodon specimen was excavated from Gram clay in Denmark by Bendix @-@ Almgeen in 1983 . This specimen comprises 20 vertebral centra , with the centra ranging from 100 millimetres ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) to 230 millimetres ( 9 @.@ 1 in ) in diameter .
= = Taxonomy and evolution = =
Even after decades of research and scrutiny , controversy over C. megalodon phylogeny persists . Several shark researchers ( e.g. J. E. Randall , A. P. Klimley , D. G. Ainley , M. D. Gottfried , L. J. V. Compagno , S. C. Bowman , and R. W. Purdy ) insist that C. megalodon is a close relative of the great white shark . However , others ( e.g. D. S. Jordan , H. Hannibal , E. Casier , C. DeMuizon , T. J. DeVries , D. Ward , and H. Cappetta ) cite convergent evolution as the reason for the dental similarity . Such Carcharocles advocates have gained noticeable support . However , the original taxonomic assignment still has wide acceptance .
= = = C. megalodon within Carcharodon = = =
The traditional view is that C. megalodon should be classified within the genus Carcharodon along with the great white shark . The main reasons cited for this phylogeny are : ( 1 ) an ontogenetic gradation , whereby the teeth shift from coarse serrations as a juvenile to fine serrations as an adult , the latter resembling C. megalodon 's ; ( 2 ) morphological similarity of teeth of young C. megalodon to those of C. carcharias ; ( 3 ) a symmetrical second anterior tooth ; ( 4 ) a large intermediate tooth that is inclined mesially ; and ( 5 ) upper anterior teeth that have a chevron @-@ shaped neck area on the lingual surface . Carcharodon supporters suggest that C. megalodon and C. carcharias share a common ancestor , Palaeocarcharodon orientalis .
= = = C. megalodon within Carcharocles = = =
Around 1923 , the genus Carcharocles was proposed by D. S. Jordan and H. Hannibal , to classify the shark C. auriculatus . Later on , Carcharocles proponents assigned C. megalodon to Carcharocles . Carcharocles proponents also suggest that the direct ancestor of the sharks belonging to Carcharocles is an ancient giant shark called Otodus obliquus , which lived during the Paleocene and Eocene epochs . According to Carcharocles supporters , Otodus obliquus evolved into Otodus aksuaticus , which evolved into Carcharocles auriculatus , and then into Carcharocles angustidens , and then into Carcharocles chubutensis , and then into C. megalodon . Hence , the immediate ancestor of C. megalodon is C. chubutensis , because it serves as the missing link between C. augustidens and C. megalodon and it bridges the loss of the " lateral cusps " that characterize C. megalodon .
= = = = Reconsideration of megatooth lineage from Carcharocles to Otodus = = = =
Shark researchers are apparently reconsidering the genus of the entire Carcharocles lineage back to Otodus .
= = = = Megalodon as a chronospecies = = = =
Shark researcher David Ward elaborated on the evolution of Carcharocles by implying that this lineage , stretching from the Paleocene to the Pliocene , is of a single giant shark which gradually changed through time , suggesting a case of chronospecies . This assessment may be credible .
= = = = Mako sharks as closest relatives of great white sharks = = = =
Carcharocles proponents point out that the great white shark is closely related to the ancient shark Isurus hastalis , the " broad tooth mako " , rather than to C. megalodon . One reason cited by paleontologist Chuck Ciampaglio is that the dental morphometrics ( variations and changes in the physical form of objects ) of I. hastalis and C. carcharias are remarkably similar . Another reason cited is that C. megalodon teeth have much finer serrations than C. carcharias teeth . Further evidence linking the great white shark more closely to ancient mako sharks , rather than to C. megalodon , was provided in 2009 – the fossilized remains of a form of the great white shark about 4 million years old were excavated from southwestern Peru in 1988 . These remains demonstrate a likely shared ancestor of modern mako and great white sharks .
= = = Considerations = = =
Ciampaglio asserted that dental similarities between C. megalodon and the great white are superficial with noticeable morphometric differences between them , and that these findings are sufficient to warrant a separate genus . However , some Carcharodon proponents ( i.e. , M. D. Gottfried , and R. E. Fordyce ) provided more arguments for a close relationship between the megatooth and the great white . With respect to the recent controversy regarding fossil lamnid shark relationships , overall morphology – particularly the internal calcification patterns – of the great white shark vertebral centra have been compared to well @-@ preserved fossil centra from the megatooth , including C. megalodon and C. angustidens . The morphological similarity of these comparisons supports a close relationship of the giant fossil megatooth species to extant whites .
Gottfried and Fordyce pointed out that some great white shark fossils are about 16 million years old and predate the transitional Pliocene fossils . In addition , the Oligocene C. megalodon records contradict the suggestion that C. chubutensis is the immediate ancestor of C. megalodon . These records also indicate that C. megalodon co @-@ existed with C. angustidens .
Some paleontologists argue that the genus Otodus should be used for sharks within the Carcharocles lineage and that the genus Carcharocles should be discarded .
Several Carcharocles proponents ( i.e. C. Pimiento , D. J. Ehret , B. J. MacFadden , and G. Hubbell ) claim that both species belong to the order Lamniformes , and in the absence of living members of the family Otodontidae , the great white shark is the species most ecologically analogous to C. megalodon .
= = Anatomy = =
Among extant species , the great white shark is regarded as the best analogue to C. megalodon . The lack of well @-@ preserved fossil C. megalodon skeletons led scientists to rely on the great white shark as the basis of its reconstruction and size estimation .
= = = Size estimation = = =
Due to fragmentary remains , estimating the size of C. megalodon has been challenging . However , the scientific community has concluded that C. megalodon was larger than the whale shark , Rhincodon typus . Scientists focused on two aspects of size : total length and body mass .
= = = = Length = = = =
The first attempt to reconstruct the jaw of C. megalodon was made by Bashford Dean in 1909 . From the dimensions of this jaw reconstruction , it was hypothesized that C. megalodon could have approached 30 metres ( 98 ft ) . Better knowledge of dentition and more accurate muscle structures , led to a rectified version of Dean 's jaw model about 70 percent of its original size and to a size consistent with modern findings . To resolve such errors , scientists , aided by new fossil discoveries of C. megalodon and improved knowledge of its closest living analogue 's anatomy , introduced more quantitative methods for estimating its size based on the statistical relationships between the tooth sizes and body lengths . Some methods are mentioned below .
= = = = = Enamel height = = = = =
In 1973 , Hawaiian ichthyologist John E. Randall used a plotted graph to demonstrate a relationship between the enamel height ( the vertical distance of the blade from the base of the enamel portion of the tooth to its tip ) of the largest tooth in the upper jaw of the great white shark and the shark 's total length . Randall extrapolated this method to estimate C. megalodon 's total length . Randall cited two C. megalodon teeth in his work , specimen number 10356 at the American Museum of Natural History and specimen number 25730 at the United States National Museum , which had enamel heights of 115 millimetres ( 4 @.@ 5 in ) and 117 @.@ 5 millimetres ( 4 @.@ 63 in ) , respectively . These teeth yielded a corresponding total length of about 13 metres ( 43 ft ) . In 1991 , Richard Ellis and John E. McCosker claimed that tooth enamel height does not necessarily increase in proportion to the animal 's total length .
= = = = = Largest anterior tooth height = = = = =
In 1996 , after scrutinizing 73 great white shark specimens , Michael D. Gottfried , Leonard Compagno and S. Curtis Bowman proposed a linear relationship between the shark 's total length and the height of the largest upper anterior tooth . The proposed relationship is : total length in metres = − ( 0 @.@ 096 ) × [ UA maximum height ( mm ) ] - ( 0 @.@ 22 ) . Gottfried and colleagues then extrapolated their technique to C. megalodon . The biggest C. megalodon tooth in the possession of this team , one discovered by Compagno in 1993 , was an upper second anterior specimen , the maximum height of which was 168 millimetres ( 6 @.@ 6 in ) . It yielded an estimated total length for C. megalodon of 15 @.@ 9 metres ( 52 ft ) . Rumors of larger C. megalodon teeth persisted at the time . The maximum tooth height for this method is measured as a vertical line from the tip of the crown to the bottom of the lobes of the root , parallel to the long axis of the tooth . In layman 's terms , the maximum height of the tooth is its slant height .
= = = = = Root width = = = = =
In 2002 , shark researcher Clifford Jeremiah proposed that total length was proportional to the root width of an upper anterior tooth . He claimed that for every 1 centimetre ( 0 @.@ 39 in ) of root width , there are approximately 1 @.@ 4 metres ( 4 @.@ 6 ft ) of shark length . Jeremiah pointed out that the jaw perimeter of a shark is directly proportional to its total length , with the width of the roots of the largest teeth being a tool for estimating jaw perimeter . The largest tooth in Jeremiah 's possession had a root width of about 12 centimetres ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) , which yielded 16 @.@ 5 metres ( 54 ft ) in total length . Ward asserted that this method is based on a sound principle that works well with most large sharks .
= = = = = Crown height = = = = =
In 2002 , paleontologist Kenshu Shimada of DePaul University proposed a linear relationship between tooth crown height and total length in great white sharks after conducting anatomical analysis of several specimens . This relationship is expressed as : total length in centimetres = a + bx , where a is a constant , b is the slope of the line and x is the crown height of tooth in millimetres . This relationship allowed any tooth to be used for the estimate . The crown height was measured as maximum vertical enameloid height on the labial side . Shimada pointed out that previously proposed methods were based on weaker evaluation of dental homology , and that the growth rate between the crown and root is not isometric , which he considered in his model . Furthermore , this relationship could be used to predict the total length of sharks that are morphologically similar to the great white shark , such as C. megalodon . Using this model , the upper anterior tooth ( with maximum height of 168 millimetres ( 6 @.@ 6 in ) ) possessed by Gottfried and colleagues corresponded to a total length of 15 @.@ 1 metres ( 50 ft ) . In 2010 , shark researchers Catalina Pimiento , Dana J. Ehret , Bruce J. MacFadden and Gordon Hubbell estimated the total length of C. megalodon on the basis of Shimada 's method . Among the specimens found in the Gatun Formation of Panama , specimen number 237956 yielded a total length of 16 @.@ 8 metres ( 55 ft ) . Later on , shark researchers ( including Pimiento , Ehret and MacFadden ) revisited the Gatun Formation and recovered additional specimens . Specimen number 257579 yielded a total length of 17 @.@ 9 metres ( 59 ft ) on the basis of Shimada 's method .
= = = = = Consensus = = = = =
In the 1990s , marine biologists such as Patrick J. Schembri and Staphon Papson opined that C. megalodon may have approached a maximum of around 24 to 25 metres ( 79 to 82 ft ) in total length ; however , Gottfried and colleagues asserted that C. megalodon could have reached a maximum of 20 @.@ 3 metres ( 67 ft ) in total length . However , a commonly acknowledged maximum total length of C. megalodon is 18 metres ( 59 ft ) .
= = = = = Largest known specimens = = = = =
Gordon Hubbell from Gainesville , Florida , possesses an upper anterior C. megalodon tooth whose maximum height is 184 @.@ 1 millimetres ( 7 @.@ 25 in ) . In addition , a C. megalodon jaw reconstruction contains a tooth whose maximum height is reportedly 193 @.@ 67 millimetres ( 7 @.@ 625 in ) . This jaw reconstruction was developed by fossil hunter Vito Bertucci , who was known as " Megalodon Man " .
= = = = Body mass estimates = = = =
Gottfried and colleagues introduced a method to determine the mass of the great white after studying the length – mass relationship data of 175 specimens at various growth stages and extrapolated it to estimate C. megalodon 's mass . According to their model , a 15 @.@ 9 metres ( 52 ft ) long C. megalodon would have a mass of about 48 metric tons ( 53 short tons ) , a 17 metres ( 56 ft ) long C. megalodon would have a mass of about 59 metric tons ( 65 short tons ) , and a 20 @.@ 3 metres ( 67 ft ) long C. megalodon would have a mass of 103 metric tons ( 114 short tons ) .
= = = Dentition and jaw mechanics = = =
A team of Japanese scientists , T. Uyeno , O. Sakamoto , and H. Sekine , discovered and excavated partial remains of a C. megalodon , with its nearly complete associated set of teeth , from Saitama , Japan , in 1989 . Another nearly complete associated C. megalodon dentition was excavated from the Yorktown Formations of Lee Creek , Aurora , North Carolina , in the United States and served as the basis of a jaw reconstruction of C. megalodon at the American Museum of Natural History in New York City . These associated tooth sets solved the mystery of how many teeth would be in each row of the jaws of C. megalodon . As a result , highly accurate jaw reconstructions became possible . More associated C. megalodon dentitions were found in later years . Based on these discoveries , scientists S. Applegate and L. Espinosa published an artificial dental formula ( representation of dentition of an animal with respect to types of teeth and their arrangement within the animal 's jaw ) for C. megalodon in 1996 . Most accurate modern C. megalodon jaw reconstructions are based on this dental formula .
The dental formula of C. megalodon is : 2 @.@ 1 @.@ 7 @.@ 43 @.@ 0 @.@ 8 @.@ 4 .
As evident from the formula , C. megalodon had four kinds of teeth in its jaws .
Anterior - A
Intermediate - I ( C. megalodon 's tooth technically appears to be an upper anterior and is termed as " A3 " because it is fairly symmetrical and does not point mesially ( side of the tooth toward the midline of the jaws where the left and right jaws meet ) , but this tooth is still designated as an intermediate tooth . However , the great white shark 's intermediate tooth does point mesially . This point was raised in the Carcharodon vs. Carcharocles debate regarding the megalodon and favors the case of Carcharocles proponents . )
Lateral - L
Posterior - P
C. megalodon had a very robust dentition , and had a total of about 276 teeth in its jaws , spanning 5 rows . Paleontologists suggest that a very large C. megalodon had jaws over 2 metres ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) across .
= = = = Bite force = = = =
In 2008 , a team of scientists led by S. Wroe conducted an experiment to determine the bite force of the great white shark , using a 2 @.@ 5 metres ( 8 @.@ 2 ft ) long specimen , and then isometrically scaling the results for its maximum confirmed size and the conservative minimum and maximum body mass of C. megalodon , placing the bite force of the latter between 108 @,@ 514 N ( 24 @,@ 400 lbf ) and 182 @,@ 201 N ( 41 @,@ 000 lbf ) in a posterior bite . Compared to 18 @,@ 216 N ( 4 @,@ 095 lbf ) for the largest confirmed great white shark , and 5 @,@ 300 N ( 1 @,@ 200 lbf ) for the placoderm fish Dunkleosteus .
In addition , Wroe and colleagues pointed out that sharks shake sideways while feeding , amplifying the post @-@ cranial generated forces . Therefore , the total force experienced by prey is probably higher than the estimate . The extraordinary bite forces in C. megalodon must be considered in the context of its great size and of paleontological evidence suggesting that C. megalodon was an active predator of large whales .
= = = = Functional parameters of teeth = = = =
The teeth of C. megalodon were exceptionally robust and serrated , which would have improved efficiency in slicing its prey 's flesh . Paleontologist B. K. Kent suggested that these teeth are comparatively thicker for their size with much lower slenderness and bending strength ratios . Their roots are substantially larger relative to total tooth heights , and so have a greater mechanical advantage . Teeth with these traits are good cutting tools and are well suited for grasping powerful prey and would seldom crack even when slicing through bones .
= = = Skeletal anatomy = = =
Gottfried and colleagues further estimated the schematics of C. megalodon 's entire skeleton . To support the beast 's dentition , its jaws would have been massive , stouter , and more strongly developed than those of the great white , which possesses a comparatively gracile dentition . The jaws would have given it a " pig @-@ eyed " profile . Its chondrocranium would have had a blockier and more robust appearance than that of the great white . Its fins were proportional to its larger size . Scrutiny of the partially preserved vertebral C. megalodon specimen from Belgium revealed that C. megalodon had a higher vertebral count than specimens of any known shark . Only the great white approached it .
Using the above characteristics , Gottfried and colleagues reconstructed the entire skeleton of C. megalodon , which was later put on display at the Calvert Marine Museum at Solomon 's Island , Maryland , in the United States . This reconstruction is 11 @.@ 5 metres ( 38 ft ) long and represents a young individual . The team stresses that relative and proportional changes in the skeletal features of C. megalodon are ontogenetic in nature in comparison to those of the great white , as they occur in great white sharks while growing . Fossil remains of C. megalodon confirm that it had a heavily calcified skeleton while alive .
= = Paleobiological and paleoecological considerations = =
= = = Range and habitat = = =
Sharks , especially large species , are highly mobile and experience a complex life history amid wide distribution . Fossil records indicate that C. megalodon was cosmopolitan , and commonly occurred in subtropical to temperate latitudes . It has been found at latitudes up to 55 ° N ; its inferred tolerated temperature range goes down to an annual mean of 12 ° C ( an annual range of 1 – 24 ° C ) . It arguably had the capacity to endure such low temperatures by virtue of mesothermy , the physiological capability of large sharks to conserve metabolic heat by maintaining a higher body temperature than the surrounding water .
C. megalodon had enough adaptability to inhabit a wide range of marine environments ( i.e. , shallow coastal waters , areas of coastal upwelling , swampy coastal lagoons , sandy littorals , and offshore deep water environments ) , and exhibited a transient lifestyle . Adult C. megalodon were not abundant in shallow water environments , and mostly lurked offshore . C. megalodon may have moved between coastal and oceanic waters , particularly in different stages of its life cycle .
Fossil remains show a trend for specimens to be larger in the southern hemisphere than in the northern ( mean lengths of 11 @.@ 6 vs 9 @.@ 6 m , respectively ) and in the Pacific relative to the Atlantic ( 10 @.@ 9 vs. 9 @.@ 5 m ) . They do not , however , suggest any trend of changing body size with absolute latitude , or of change in size over time ( although the megatooth lineage in general is thought to display a trend of increasing size over time ) . The overall modal length has been estimated at 10 @.@ 5 m , with the length distribution skewed towards larger individuals , suggesting an ecological or competitive advantage for larger body size .
= = = Prey relationships = = =
Sharks generally are opportunistic predators , but scientists propose that C. megalodon was " arguably the most formidable carnivore ever to have existed " . Its great size , high @-@ speed swimming capability , and powerful jaws , coupled with a formidable killing apparatus , made it a super @-@ predator capable of consuming a broad spectrum of fauna . A study about calcium isotopes of extinct and extant elasmobranchs revealed that C. megalodon fed at a higher trophic level than the contemporaneous great white shark .
Fossil evidence indicates that C. megalodon preyed upon cetaceans ( i.e. , dolphins ) , small whales , ( including cetotheriids , squalodontids , and Odobenocetops ) , and large whales , ( including sperm whales , bowhead whales , and rorquals ) , pinnipeds , porpoises , sirenians , and giant sea turtles . Marine mammals were regular prey targets for C. megalodon . Many whale bones have been found with clear signs of large bite marks ( deep gashes ) made by teeth that match the teeth of C. megalodon . Various excavations have revealed C. megalodon teeth lying close to the chewed remains of whales , and sometimes in direct association with them . Fossil evidence of interactions between C. megalodon and pinnipeds also exist . In one interesting observation , a 127 millimetres ( 5 @.@ 0 in ) C. megalodon tooth was found lying very close to a bitten earbone of a sea lion .
= = = Competition and impact on marine communities = = =
C. megalodon faced a highly competitive environment . However , its position at the top of the food chain probably had a profound impact on the structuring of marine communities . Fossil evidence indicates a correlation between C. megalodon emergence and extensive diversification of cetaceans . Juvenile C. megalodon preferred habitats where small cetaceans were abundant , and adult C. megalodon preferred habitats where large cetaceans were abundant . Such preferences may have developed shortly after they appeared in the Oligocene .
C. megalodon were contemporaneous with macro @-@ predatory odontocetes ( particularly raptorial sperm whales and squalodontids ) , which were also probably among the era 's apex predators , and provided competition . In response to competition from giant macro @-@ predatory sharks , macro @-@ predatory odontocetes may have evolved defensive adaptations ; some species became pack predators , and some attained gigantic sizes , such as Livyatan melvillei . By late Miocene , raptorial sperm whales experienced a significant decline in abundance and diversity . However , raptorial delphinids began to emerge during the Pliocene , to fill this ecological void .
Like other sharks , C. megalodon also would have been piscivorous . Fossil evidence indicates that other notable species of macro @-@ predatory sharks ( e.g. , great white sharks ) responded to competitive pressure from C. megalodon by avoiding regions it inhabited . C. megalodon probably also had a tendency for cannibalism .
= = = Feeding strategies = = =
Sharks often employ complex hunting strategies to engage large prey animals . Some paleontologists suggest that great white shark hunting strategies may offer clues as to how C. megalodon hunted its unusually large prey . However , fossil evidence suggests that C. megalodon employed even more effective hunting strategies against large prey than the great white shark .
Paleontologists surveyed fossils to determine attacking patterns . One particular specimen – the remains of a 9 metres ( 30 ft ) long prehistoric baleen whale ( of an unknown Miocene taxon ) – provided the first opportunity to quantitatively analyze its attack behavior . The predator primarily focused on the tough bony portions ( i.e. , shoulders , flippers , rib cage , and upper spine ) of the prey , which great white sharks generally avoid . Dr. B. Kent elaborated that C. megalodon attempted to crush the bones and damage delicate organs ( i.e. , heart and lungs ) harbored within the rib cage . Such an attack would have immobilized the prey , which would have died quickly from injuries to these vital organs . These findings also clarify why the ancient shark needed more robust dentition than that of the great white shark . Furthermore , attack patterns could differ for prey of different sizes . Fossil remains of some small cetaceans ( e.g. cetotheriids ) suggest that they were rammed with great force from below before being killed and eaten .
During the Pliocene , larger and more advanced cetaceans appeared . C. megalodon apparently further refined its hunting strategies to cope with these large whales . Numerous fossilized flipper bones ( i.e. , segments of the pectoral fins ) and caudal vertebrae of large whales from the Pliocene have been found with C. megalodon bite marks . This paleontological evidence suggests that C. megalodon would immobilize a large whale by ripping apart or biting off its locomotive structures before killing and feeding on it .
= = = Nursery areas = = =
Fossil evidence suggests that the preferred nursery sites of C. megalodon were warm water coastal environments , where threats were minor and food plentiful . Nursery sites were identified in the Gatun Formation of Panama , the Calvert Formation of Maryland , Banco de Concepción in the Canary Islands , and the Bone Valley Formation of Florida . As is the case with most sharks , C. megalodon gave birth to live young . The size of neonate C. megalodon teeth indicate that pups were around 2 to 4 metres ( 6 @.@ 6 to 13 @.@ 1 ft ) in total length at birth . Their dietary preferences display an ontogenetic shift . Young C. megalodon commonly preyed on fish , giant sea turtles , dugongs and small cetaceans ; mature C. megalodon moved to off @-@ shore cetacean high @-@ use areas and consumed large cetaceans .
However , an exceptional case in the fossil record suggests that juvenile C. megalodon may occasionally have attacked much larger balaenopterid whales . Three tooth marks apparently from a 4 – 7 @-@ metre ( 13 @.@ 1 – 23 @.@ 0 ft ) long Pliocene macro @-@ predatory shark were found on a rib from an ancestral great blue or humpback whale that showed evidence of subsequent healing . Scientists suspect that this shark was a juvenile C. megalodon .
= = Extinction = =
The subject of C. megalodon ’ s extinction remains under investigation . Several possible causes for its decline and eventual disappearance have been proposed .
= = = Environmental factors = = =
= = = = Oceanic cooling and sea level drops = = = =
The Earth has been in a long term cooling trend since the Miocene Climactic Optimum , 15 – 17 Ma ago . This trend may have been accelerated by changes in global ocean circulation caused by the closure of the Central American Seaway and / or other factors ( see Pliocene climate ) , setting the stage for glaciation in the northern hemisphere . Consequently , during the late Pliocene and Pleistocene , there were ice ages , which cooled the oceans significantly . Expansion of glaciation during the Pliocene tied up huge volumes of water in continental ice sheets , resulting in significant sea level drops . It has been argued that this cooling trend adversely impacted C. megalodon , as it preferred warmer waters , causing it to decline in abundance until its ultimate extinction at the end of the Pliocene . Fossil evidence confirms the absence of C. megalodon in regions around the world where water temperatures had significantly declined during the Pliocene . Furthermore , these oceanographic changes may have restricted many of the suitable warm water nursery sites for C. megalodon , hindering reproduction . Nursery areas are pivotal for the survival of many shark species , in part because they protect juveniles from predation .
= = = Biotic factors = = =
= = = = Decline in food supply = = = =
Baleen whales attained their greatest diversity during the Miocene , with over 20 recognized genera in comparison to only six extant genera . Such diversity presented an ideal setting to support a gigantic macropredator such as C. megalodon . However , by the end of the Miocene many species of mysticetes had gone extinct ; surviving species may have been faster swimmers and thus more elusive prey . Furthermore , after the closure of the Central American Seaway , additional extinctions occurred in the marine environment , and faunal redistribution took place ; tropical great whales decreased in diversity and abundance . Whale migratory patterns during the Pliocene have been reconstructed from the fossil record , suggesting that most surviving species of whales showed a trend towards polar regions . The cooling of the oceans during the Pliocene might have restricted the access of C. megalodon to polar regions , depriving it of its main food source of large whales . As a result of these developments , the food supply for C. megalodon in regions it inhabited during the Pliocene , primarily in low @-@ to @-@ mid latitudes , was no longer sufficient to sustain it worldwide . C. megalodon was adapted to a specialized lifestyle , and this lifestyle was disturbed by these developments . Paleontologist Albert Sanders suggests that C. megalodon was too large to sustain itself on the declining tropical food supply . The resulting shortage of food sources in the tropics during Plio @-@ Pleistocene times may have fueled cannibalism by C. megalodon . Juveniles were at increased risk from attacks by adults during times of starvation .
= = = = Competitive pressures = = = =
Large raptorial delphinids ( members of genus Orcinus ) evolved during the Pliocene , and probably filled the ecological void left by the disappearance of raptorial sperm whales at the end of the Miocene . A minority view is that competition from ancestral killer whales may have contributed to the shark 's decline ( another source suggests more generally that " competition with large odontocetes " may have been a factor ) . Fossil records indicate that these delphinids commonly occurred at high latitudes during the Pliocene , indicating that they could cope with the increasingly prevalent cold water temperatures . They also occurred in the tropics ( e.g. , Orcinus sp. in South Africa ) .
= = = Multiple causes = = =
Expert consensus has pointed to factors such as a cooling trend in the oceans and a shortage of food sources during Plio @-@ Pleistocene times having played a significant role in the demise of C. megalodon .
However , a recent analysis of the distribution , abundance and climatic range of C. megalodon over geologic time suggests that biotic factors , i.e. dwindling numbers of prey species combined with competition from new macro @-@ predators ( raptorial sperm whales , great white sharks and killer whales ) , were the primary drivers of its extinction . The distribution of C. megalodon during the Miocene and Pliocene did not correlate with warming and cooling trends ; while the abundance and distribution of C. megalodon declined during the Pliocene , C. megalodon did show a capacity to inhabit anti @-@ tropical latitudes . C. megalodon was found in locations with a mean temperature ranging from 12 to 27 ° C ( with a total range of from 1 to 33 ° C ) , indicating that the global extent of suitable habitat for C. megalodon should not have been greatly affected by the temperature changes that occurred .
The extinction of C. megalodon set the stage for further changes in marine communities . Average body size of baleen whales increased significantly after its disappearance . Other apex predators gained from the loss of this formidable species , in some cases spreading to regions where C. megalodon became absent .
= = In fiction = =
C. megalodon has been portrayed in several works of fiction , including films and novels , and continues to hold its place among the most popular subjects for fiction involving sea monsters . Many of these works posit that at least a relict population of C. megalodon survived extinction and lurk in the vast depths of the ocean , and that individuals may manage to surface , either by human intervention or by natural means . Jim Shepard 's story " Tedford and the Megalodon " is an example of this . Such beliefs are usually inspired by the discovery of a C. megalodon tooth by members of HMS Challenger in 1872 , which some believed to be only 10 @,@ 000 years old .
Some works of fiction ( such as Shark Attack 3 : Megalodon and Steve Alten 's Meg series ) incorrectly depict C. megalodon as being a species over 70 million years old , and to have lived during the time of the dinosaurs . The writers of the movie Shark Attack 3 : Megalodon depicted this assumption by including an altered copy of Great White Shark by shark researcher Richard Ellis . The copy shown in the film had several pages that do not exist in the book . The author sued the film 's distributor , Lions Gate Entertainment , asking for a halt to the film 's distribution along with $ 150 @,@ 000 in damages . Steve Alten 's Meg : A Novel of Deep Terror is probably best known for portraying this inaccuracy with its prologue and cover artwork depicting C. megalodon killing a tyrannosaur in the sea .
The Animal Planet fictional documentary , Mermaids : The Body Found , included an encounter 1 @.@ 6 million years ago between a pod of mermaids and a C. megalodon . Later , in August 2013 , the Discovery Channel opened its annual Shark Week series with another film for television Megalodon : The Monster Shark Lives , a controversial docufiction about the creature that presented alleged evidence in order to suggest that C. megalodon was still alive . This program received criticism for being completely fictional ; for example , all of the supposed " scientists " depicted were paid actors . In 2014 Discovery re @-@ aired " The Monster Shark Lives " , along with a new one @-@ hour program , " Megalodon : The New Evidence " , and an additional fictionalized program entitled " Shark of Darkness : Wrath of Submarine " , resulting in further backlash from media sources and the scientific community .
= = = Paleontological videos = = =
Note : Flash Player is required to view the content below .
Megalodon Giant Shark – National Geographic ( full documentary )
Video Gallery containing video clips featuring megalodon from Discovery Channel
Paleontologist Mark Renz shows a huge megalodon tooth ( one of the largest ever discovered ) on YouTube
A video clip on YouTube depicting aggressive interspecific interactions between megalodon and a pod of killer odontoceti ( Brygmophyseter shigensis ) from History Channel
Animated size comparison of megalodon with great white shark , human , and school bus from North Carolina Museum of Natural Sciences on YouTube .
Prehistoric Washington DC : Mega Shark from Discovery Channel ( depicts megalodon 's prey attacking strategies )
Shark Week Special on megalodon with Pat McCarthy and John Babiarz on YouTube with comments on its extinction .
Megalodon fossil teeth show evidence of 10 @-@ million @-@ year @-@ old shark nursery on YouTube
Expert view : information about megalodon on YouTube ( featuring expert Dana Ehret )
Lamniform sharks : 110 million years of ocean supremacy on YouTube ( featuring expert Mikael Siverson )
The Rise and Fall of the Neogene Giant Sharks on YouTube ( featuring expert Bretton Kent )
Clash of the Americas on YouTube ( Megalodon 's extinction discussed )
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= 1979 Tampa Bay Buccaneers season =
The 1979 Tampa Bay Buccaneers season was the team 's fourth in the National Football League . After having won just seven games in the previous three seasons combined , the 1979 Buccaneers won ten games making this their first winning season . They finished as NFC Central division champions , and won the first playoff game in franchise history .
The Buccaneers added offensive threats to complement their solid defense ; a healthy Doug Williams played his first full season and Ricky Bell became the team 's first 1 @,@ 000 @-@ yard back , rushing for a career @-@ high 1 @,@ 263 yards .
The 1979 team not only posted their first winning record , but earned a playoff spot by winning the NFC Central division title . The playoff spot was secured in the final week in a rain @-@ sodden game against the Kansas City Chiefs , with the only score being a 19 @-@ yard field goal by Neil O 'Donoghue . They then recorded their first @-@ ever playoff win by defeating the Philadelphia Eagles behind Bell 's 142 yards rushing . Tampa Bay hosted the 1979 NFC Championship Game the following week , but lost 9 – 0 to the Los Angeles Rams .
= = Offseason = =
= = = NFL Draft = = =
= = = = Draft @-@ Pick trades = = = =
The Buccaneers had no selection in the first round , that pick having been traded to the Chicago Bears for defensive end Wally Chambers ( the Bears used the pick to select Dan Hampton ) . The Buccaneers had extra picks in the second and third rounds in return for trading nose tackle Dave Pear to the Oakland Raiders . They also had extra third and fifth round picks from the Houston Oilers , as part of the 1978 trade for the Buccaneers ' first overall pick . They received a third @-@ round pick from the Baltimore Colts in return for running back Dan Hardeman . The Buccaneers ' own third @-@ round pick went to the Miami Dolphins as NFL @-@ ordered compensation for signing Randy Crowder . Defensive end Council Rudolph was traded to the Dolphins in return for an eighth @-@ round pick . Other picks were traded as follows : round 4 to the Detroit Lions for Rockne Freitas , round 5 to the Seattle Seahawks , round six to Oakland for Rik Bonness , round seven to the Washington Redskins for Frank Grant , round eight to the New York Jets for Darrell Austin , and round ten to the San Francisco 49ers for Jim Obradovich .
= = = = Draft selections = = = =
The Buccaneers doubled the size of their scouting staff from two to four , hoping to get more mileage out of the later rounds of the draft . Greg Roberts was the 1978 Outland Trophy winner , and blocked for 1978 Heisman Trophy winner Billy Sims . The Buccaneers had him rated as the best lineman in the draft , and expected him to have been selected long before the second round , where the Buccaneers had their highest selection . He is believed to have fallen to the second round due to an inability to pass @-@ block , having played at the run @-@ heavy University of Oklahoma . This resulted in a poor performance at the Senior Bowl . Gordon Jones , with a 4 @.@ 59 time in the 40 @-@ yard dash , drew pre @-@ draft comparisons to Lynn Swann , but dropped to the second round due to concerns over his speed . He was the third receiver selected overall . Roberts and Jones both left the Buccaneers after four seasons . Jerry Eckwood and Rick Berns were selected to address injury problems at running back . Eckwood had been second in the nation in rushing ( behind Ricky Bell ) before being injured in 1975 . Berns was at the time the leading rusher in Nebraska history . Eckwood and Berns impressed McKay enough in mini @-@ camp that he traded Louis Carter away . Gene Sanders played for several seasons , after successfully converting to offensive tackle . Twelfth @-@ round selection Dave Logan , the lowest @-@ round draft selection to stick with the team , went on to become one of the Buccaneers ' best and most popular players .
= = = Preseason = = =
= = = = Offseason personnel changes = = = =
Dave Pear , the Buccaneers ' first Pro Bowl selection and most popular player , was traded to the Oakland Raiders for two draft picks . This was partly to get extra help in what was expected to be a strong offensive draft , but also because Pear had requested that he be traded if his contract could not be renegotiated . Dave Green , the punter and kicker through the first three seasons , had to be replaced when he tore his achilles tendon stepping over a tackling dummy in training camp .
= = = = Cancellation of Dolphins scrimmage = = = =
Miami Dolphins owner Joe Robbie canceled the yearly preseason matchup in Tampa , claiming that the Buccaneers approached the matchup with excessive intensity , resulting in Dolphin injuries . A dispute with Buccaneers owner Hugh Culverhouse was also a factor , as Culverhouse was promoting a proposed rule to ban NFL owners and their families from holding controlling interest in other sports teams . Robbie 's wife Elizabeth was the owner of the NASL Ft . Lauderdale Strikers .
= = 1979 Roster = =
= = Coaching staff = =
= = Regular season = =
The Buccaneers surprised the NFL by reeling off wins in their first five games , an accomplishment that left them as the season 's last undefeated team and landed them on the cover of Sports Illustrated . It also put them in first place for good in the NFC Central . The team 's youth became an issue later on , as they went into a late @-@ season losing streak on the verge of earning their first playoff spot . It was felt that more veteran leadership would have helped the team during the stretch run . Linebacker Dave Lewis publicly stated that the team was " choking " , while Selmon compared the difficulty of getting the playoff @-@ clinching win to the difficulty of getting the expansion team 's first win . After dropping three games in a row , of which winning any of the three would have clinched the division , McKay launched into an obscenity @-@ laced tirade against reporters who called the team a " laughingstock " and " Chokeneers " . Even against a schedule that featured only two opponents with winning records it took until the final game of the season for the Buccaneers to win their tenth game . A better conference record gave the Buccaneers the division win over the also @-@ 10 @-@ 6 Chicago Bears . Of all NFC Central teams other than the Vikings , the Buccaneers became only the second to win the division since 1970 , and the only one to advance in the playoffs . The Buccaneers were considered by many to be an unworthy division champion , even called " cheesecake champions " by opponents , until they advanced to the NFC Championship with a 24 – 17 victory over the Philadelphia Eagles . There , with several key players injured , they held the Los Angeles Rams to nine points , but were held scoreless on offense to end their season one game short of the Super Bowl .
= = = Schedule = = =
Tan indicates game was on Saturday
= = = = Game 1 : vs. Detroit Lions = = = =
September 1 , 1979 at Tampa Stadium , Tampa , Florida
Rookie running back Jerry Eckwood rushed for a team record 121 yards , and the overall total of 229 yards rushing also set a team record . Lions quarterback Joe Reed was knocked out of the game in the third quarter with a groin injury . When Wally Chambers forced the Lions ' Horace King to fumble in the first quarter , Lee Roy Selmon returned the ball 29 yards for a touchdown . A 62 @-@ yard drive led to a touchdown by Ricky Bell , followed by a 66 @-@ yard touchdown pass from Doug Williams to Jimmie Giles . The Buccaneers then ate up 8 ½ minutes of the third quarter , finishing off with a touchdown pass to Jim Obradovich .
= = = = Game 2 : at Baltimore Colts = = = =
September 9 , 1979 at Memorial Stadium , Baltimore , Maryland
The Buccaneers overcame a shaky start in which they were penalized for 80 yards in the first quarter . Then , later , they had to overcome a fourth @-@ quarter collapse in which they allowed the Colts to score 9 points that sent the Buccaneers into their first overtime game . Doug Williams ' first pass of the day was intercepted by Norman Thompson , but it took the Colts , hampered by the loss of quarterback Bert Jones and running back Joe Washington , 9 plays to get to the end zone from the Buccaneers ' 23 @-@ yard line . Lee Roy Selmon blocked an extra @-@ point attempt in the fourth quarter that preserved the tie and led to the overtime period . The Buccaneers ' ten sacks of Colts quarterback Greg Landry set a new team record . After Randy Crowder stripped the ball from Landry 1 : 31 into the overtime period , Neil O 'Donoghue was immediately sent in to kick the game @-@ winning 31 @-@ yard field goal . McKay pointed to the now @-@ stable lineup as a factor in the team 's improvement , saying that previously , you couldn 't call an audible because " one of the guys just got here Tuesday " .
= = = = Game 3 : at Green Bay = = = =
September 16 , 1979 at Lambeau Field , Green Bay , Wisconsin
After spending the first quarter making futile attempts at running through the middle of the Packer defense , the Buccaneers sent Jerry Eckwood around the left end for a 40 @-@ yard touchdown run . Eckwood ran for 99 yards , while Ricky Bell added another 97 on the way to a team @-@ record 235 rushing yards .
= = = = Game 4 : vs. Los Angeles Rams = = = =
September 23 , 1979 at Tampa Stadium , Tampa , Florida
Jim Youngblood , who had been in on the sack that broke Doug Williams ' jaw the previous season , returned an early interception for a touchdown and a 6 – 0 lead . Shortly thereafter , Bill Kollar recovered a Lawrence McCutcheon fumble at the Rams 27 @-@ yard line , leading to a 15 @-@ yard touchdown reception by Larry Mucker . Neil O 'Donoghue 's extra point gave the Buccaneers the lead for good . The Buccaneers further added a 5 @-@ yard touchdown run by Ricky Bell and a 29 @-@ yard scoring pass to Jimmie Giles , all before the end of the second quarter . The Rams failed to cross midfield at all in the second half , and were held to only 97 yards passing on 35 attempts . McKay , familiar with Rams quarterback Pat Haden from having coached him at USC , tailored the defensive gameplan towards him .
= = = = Game 5 : at Chicago Bears = = = =
September 30 , 1979 at Soldier Field , Chicago , Illinois
A 65 @-@ yard screen pass from Vince Evans to Walter Payton gave the Bears a 13 – 10 lead . The Buccaneers answered that with a drive that ended with an eight @-@ yard touchdown reception by Isaac Hagins . This score , with 5 : 08 left in the game , put the Buccaneers ahead of the Bears and left them as the only remaining undefeated team in the league . It was the third consecutive loss for the Bears . Jerry Eckwood also contributed a 61 @-@ yard touchdown run , the longest running play in Buccaneers history to that point . A broken wrist suffered in this game would contribute to Eckwood 's diminished performance later in the season .
= = = = Game 6 : at New York Giants = = = =
October 7 , 1979 at Giants Stadium , East Rutherford , New Jersey
The undefeated Buccaneers lost on the road to the winless New York Giants . Giants quarterback Phil Simms , in his first NFL start , went 6 – 12 for 37 yards . Billy Taylor , also making his first start , became the first Giant to rush for over 100 yards in a game this season , running for 148 yards and two touchdowns on 33 carries . Doug Williams threw touchdown passes to Larry Mucker and Jimmie Giles , but also threw three interceptions and numerous incompletions .
= = = = Game 7 : vs. New Orleans Saints = = = =
October 14 , 1979 at Tampa Stadium , Tampa , Florida
Archie Manning , who entered the game leading the NFL in passing yardage , went 11 of 14 with a touchdown each rushing and passing . Mike Strachan rushed for two touchdowns .
= = = = Game 8 : vs. Green Bay Packers = = = =
October 21 , 1979 at Tampa Stadium , Tampa , Florida
The Buccaneers broke their two @-@ game losing streak as Ricky Bell set a club record with 167 rushing yards , while Doug Williams threw for two touchdowns and rushed for a third . The total of 228 rushing yards was 7 yards shy of the team record set in the previous game against the Packers , and left the Buccaneers as the only team with two rushers on pace to break the 1 @,@ 000 @-@ yard mark . Packers quarterback David Whitehurst threw for a career @-@ best 261 yards , although the Packers never entered the end zone . Jeris White intercepted a potential touchdown pass that slipped out of James Lofton 's hands . The win left the Buccaneers at midseason having already achieved their highest win total ever .
= = = = Game 9 : at Minnesota Vikings = = = =
October 28 , 1979 at Metropolitan Stadium , Bloomington , Minnesota
A strong game by Doug Williams carried the Buccaneers despite an anemic rushing attack . Both teams later complained about officiating errors and the malfunctioning game clock . The Metropolitan Stadium 30 @-@ second clock failed for the second week in a row , as did both regulation clocks . The Buccaneers survived a last @-@ minute drive by the Vikings in which quarterback Tommy Kramer was penalized for throwing a pass from beyond the line of scrimmage , which helped to keep the Vikings out of field goal range . Curtis Jordan sealed the victory by deflecting Kramer 's last @-@ second Hail Mary pass . Kramer later admitted to being aware of having crossed the line of scrimmage , but had hoped that the officials would miss it as they had missed so many other penalties in the game .
= = = = Game 10 : at Atlanta Falcons = = = =
November 4 , 1979 at Atlanta @-@ Fulton County Stadium , Atlanta , Georgia
The Falcons controlled the ball for 41 of 60 minutes . An inability to complete long passes , combined with fumbles , prevented the Buccaneers from taking what could have been a large early lead . Isaac Hagins ' fumble to Atlanta 's Tom Pridemore set up a 31 @-@ yard field goal . The Buccaneers maintained a halftime lead , despite having held the ball for only six minutes and 18 seconds in the first half . Falcon blitzing disrupted Doug Williams ' passing , and Ricky Bell and Jerry Eckwood were held to 72 yards rushing . Eckwood 's fumble led to Atlanta 's go @-@ ahead touchdown with 11 : 10 remaining . Bubba Bean 's 60 @-@ yard run with 1 : 22 remaining clinched the game for the Falcons . A 69 @-@ yard Williams @-@ led drive brought the Buccaneers to within three points with 28 seconds left , but the Buccaneers failed to recover the ensuing onside kick .
= = = = Game 11 : at Detroit Lions = = = =
November 11 , 1979 at Pontiac Silverdome , Pontiac , Michigan
The Buccaneers scored 10 points and recovered two fumbles , all in the last four minutes , to pass the Lions and maintain their two @-@ game division lead over the Chicago Bears . This was the Buccaneers ' sixth come @-@ from @-@ behind win of the season and they finished with a 4 @-@ 0 road record against division opponents . After Neil O 'Donoghue 's fourth @-@ quarter field goal , Dewey Selmon forced a Detroit fumble that was recovered by Dana Nafziger at the Lions ' 23 @-@ yard line . Doug Williams followed this with a 23 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Larry Mucker . Mucker , who earlier had been fined for missing the team bus to the stadium , beat close coverage from Walt Williams to make the catch . The Buccaneers ' error @-@ prone play , of which McKay said " we didn 't play with very much intelligence " , required a late comeback to defeat the 1 – 10 Lions .
= = = = Game 12 : vs. New York Giants = = = =
November 18 , 1979 at Tampa Stadium , Tampa , Florida
The Buccaneers routed a Giants team that came in having won 5 of their past 6 games . Giants quarterback Phil Simms was sacked 5 times for 75 yards , intercepted twice , and gave up two fumbles . One Cecil Johnson @-@ caused fumble was picked up by Dave Lewis and returned 39 yards for a touchdown . Both sides denied running up the score during either of the season 's matchups , though the Tampa players were said to have approached this game as a grudge match . The game was mostly devoid of the trash @-@ talking that had characterized the previous meeting , the Giants having little room for words . The Giants ' 3 points was the lowest score allowed by the Buccaneers , and the Buccaneers had their second @-@ highest point total with 31 . The Buccaneers used a two @-@ tight end set , providing additional blocking that helped spring Ricky Bell for 152 yards in three quarters of play . Bell spent the fourth quarter holding an ice pack " ... to keep Ricky from getting a swollen head " , joked coach McKay . The win left the Buccaneers with an NFC @-@ best 9 – 3 record .
= = = = Game 13 : vs. Minnesota Vikings = = = =
November 25 , 1979 at Tampa Stadium , Tampa , Florida
In a game that would have clinched the Buccaneers ' first playoff berth , coach McKay instead wound up being booed after a one @-@ point loss in which three kick attempts were blocked . A touchdown drive by Doug Williams in which he ran the ball into the end zone with 19 seconds remaining turned out to be futile , as Wally Hilgenberg 's blocked extra point left the Buccaneers one point short of tying the game . Various special teams miscues erased a good offensive day , in which Williams went 19 of 38 for 252 yards ( including 5 of 7 for 52 yards and 25 yards rushing on the final drive ) , and Ricky Bell 's 101 yards rushing put him over 1 @,@ 000 for the season . The Buccaneers ' 182 yards team rushing moved them into first place overall in the NFC . McKay had to issue a public apology after shouting an obscenity at the end zone stands , saying later that he was angry over racist statements being made from that direction . This was the first game that Pat Summerall and John Madden announced together .
= = = = Game 14 : vs. Chicago Bears = = = =
December 2 , 1979 at Tampa Stadium , Tampa , Florida
Doug Williams completed only 5 of 19 passes for 60 yards with four interceptions before being pulled in favor of Mike Rae . Bears quarterback Mike Phipps completed six passes , all to Dave Williams . The Bears scored on one of those receptions , and on a Walter Payton run . The Buccaneers ' Williams was nearly ejected from the game after throwing Bears lineman Mike Hartenstine to the ground by his face mask after a Gary Fencik interception . The Bears ' five interceptions were their most against the Buccaneers . The Buccaneers ' play was later described as " flat " by Bears players . Wally Chambers dismissed talk of the team 's inexperience , noting the intensity with which the team had played against the Giants two weeks prior . The last time the Buccaneers had been shut out previous to this game was the last game of their 0 – 26 losing streak in 1977 , also against the Bears .
= = = = Game 15 : at San Francisco 49ers = = = =
December 9 , 1979 at Candlestick Park , San Francisco , California
Still needing only one victory to clinch the division , the Buccaneers lost to the San Francisco 49ers in O.J. Simpson 's final home game . It was the second year in a row that the Buccaneers lost to a 49ers team that entered the game with a 1 – 13 record . The 49ers scored first , as Jeris White slipped while covering receiver Mike Shumann , leaving Shumann open for a 19 @-@ yard touchdown reception . The offense 's single touchdown , a 19 @-@ yard pass from Doug Williams to Jimmie Giles , was a season low , while injuries to Mike Washington and Cedric Brown left the Buccaneers ' secondary vulnerable . Mike Rae again saw duty at quarterback in the fourth quarter , with the game out of hand . Williams , who tearfully accepted blame for the loss , threw five interceptions that left McKay considering either benching him or avoiding pass plays . McKay also criticized the offensive line 's blocking , saying that he " saw ( Ricky ) Bell make some long runs , maybe two or three inches " . Under pressure of needing to win one game , the Buccaneers ' tension ( " state of shock " , according to McKay ) was noticeable to 49ers players . The loss dropped the Buccaneers into a 1st @-@ place tie with the surging Chicago Bears in the NFC Central .
= = = = Game 16 : vs. Kansas City Chiefs = = = =
December 16 , 1979 at Tampa Stadium , Tampa , Florida
The Rain Bowl
Playing in a torrential downpour , the Buccaneers scored the first shutout in franchise history to clinch their first playoff berth and the NFC Central title . The Chiefs were held to a franchise @-@ low 80 yards of total offense . Despite the rain , Ricky Bell claimed that the field had better traction than the dry field they had played on the week previously in San Francisco . Bell carried the ball 39 times for 137 yards in such bad weather that the game had to be played under lights . The Buccaneers lost four previous scoring opportunities to a fumble , two interceptions , and a fumbled snap on a field goal attempt . Shut out of the end zone on three tries with first @-@ and @-@ goal from the 9 @-@ yard line , the Buccaneers brought Neil O 'Donoghue in to kick what would be the winning field goal with 8 : 50 remaining . Tampa Bay would hold the ball for all but four plays for the rest of the game . The Chiefs players gave the Buccaneers little credit after the victory , saying that the AFC was superior to the NFC and that the Buccaneers would never have won the AFC West .
= = = Standings = = =
= = Playoffs = =
= = = NFC Divisional Playoff : vs. Philadelphia Eagles = = =
Tampa Bay Buccaneers 24 , Philadelphia Eagles 17
at Tampa Stadium , Tampa , Florida
TV : CBS
The Buccaneers won their first playoff game in team history by holding the Eagles to 48 rushing yards , while running back Ricky Bell recorded 142 rushing yards and 2 touchdowns . Bell 's 38 rushing attempts set a playoff record , tied later by John Riggins in Super Bowl XVII , while the Eagles ' Wilbert Montgomery was held to 35 yards on 12 attempts . The Buccaneers ' opening drive resulted in a Bell touchdown , and a Neil O 'Donoghue field goal gave the Buccaneers an early 10 – 0 lead . Wally Chambers forced a Montgomery fumble that was recovered by Randy Crowder on the 4 @-@ yard line and led to Bell 's second touchdown run , giving the Buccaneers a 17 – 0 second @-@ quarter lead . Trying to extend that lead before halftime , Doug Williams hurried a pass that wound up in the hands of Eagles linebacker Jerry Robinson at the Tampa Bay 11 @-@ yard line . This set up Ron Jaworski 's touchdown pass to Charles Smith . After the Eagles narrowed the gap to 17 – 10 on a Tony Franklin field goal , a series of Lee Roy Selmon sacks of Jaworski killed the Eagles ' rally . A 9 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Jimmie Giles completed the Buccaneers ' scoring . It was only in the final minutes of the game that the Eagles were able to put together a long drive , ending in a touchdown pass to Harold Carmichael . The Buccaneers held the ball for over 36 minutes of the game . The Buccaneers ' defensive strategy revolved around stopping Carmichael and Montgomery . At one point , when Leroy Harris was gang @-@ tackled following a short reception , the entire Buccaneer defense was penalized for unnecessary roughing . The Buccaneers ' hard @-@ hitting play intimidated the Eagles ' receivers into dropping 10 passes . Going into the matchup , the Eagles were expected to have edges in playoff and quarterback experience . Jaworski was the third @-@ rated quarterback in the NFC , while Williams had the lowest rating of all NFC starting quarterbacks . The game represented a rematch of old coaching rivals , McKay of USC and Dick Vermeil of UCLA . The game was the Buccaneers ' first on national television . Word of the upset spread as far as Iran , where the hostages were surprised to learn of the Buccaneers ' contention for the Super Bowl .
= = = NFC Championship Game : vs. Los Angeles Rams = = =
Los Angeles Rams 9 , Tampa Bay Buccaneers 0
at Tampa Stadium , Tampa , Florida
TV announcers ( CBS ) : Pat Summerall and Tom Brookshier
Referee : Pat Haggerty
The Los Angeles Rams , who had been hobbled by injuries much of the season , entered the playoffs with the worst record ( 9 – 7 ) of the six division winners . Rams defensive end Jack Youngblood played the game with a hairline fracture of his left leg , and Vince Ferragamo continued to start in place of the injured Pat Haden . On the other side of the ball , the Buccaneers lost Lee Roy Selmon and Cecil Johnson with ankle injuries , Doug Williams with a torn bicep , and Wally Chambers with a knee injury . Mike Washington and Dave Lewis also missed part of the game with injuries . The game was the Rams ' second consecutive playoff win against a team that had beaten them decisively during the regular season . Each team had a touchdown called back due to a penalty . The Rams also had a touchdown called back when it was ruled that receiver Preston Dennard did not maintain possession of the ball . The Rams offensive line was intact , unlike in the regular @-@ season matchup . This provided for 216 yards rushing and gave Ferragamo much time to complete passes . Another change from the earlier game was that Wendell Tyler had become the starting halfback for the Rams . With Tyler 's speed enabling the Rams to run outside , the Buccaneers were no longer able to clog the inside lanes with defenders and put the linebackers into coverage on passing downs . The Buc defense 's focus on Tyler freed Cullen Bryant to run for 106 yards on 18 carries . Meanwhile , Buc quarterbacks Williams and Mike Rae were 4 – 26 on pass attempts . It took until the third quarter for the Buccaneers to even pass midfield , on a halfback option pass from Jerry Eckwood to Larry Mucker .
= = Awards and honors = =
Lee Roy Selmon , National Football League Defensive Player of the Year Award
Lee Roy Selmon , NFL Defensive Lineman of the Year
Lee Roy Selmon , Pro Bowl selection
Lee Roy Selmon , Associated Press , Pro Football Weekly , Newspaper Enterprise Association , Pro Football Writers Association All @-@ Pro First Team selection
Lee Roy Selmon , Pro Football Weekly , The Sporting News , UPI First Team All @-@ NFC
Dave Lewis , UPI First Team All @-@ NFC , Second Team All @-@ NFL
Dewey Selmon , Associated Press Second Team All @-@ NFL
Greg Roberts , NFL All @-@ Rookie team
Ricky Bell , team MVP
John McKay , Football News Coach of the Year
The entire offensive line was honored by the National Football League Players Association as a symbol of unity in strength , for leading the NFL in fewest sacks allowed ( 12 )
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= Mr. Monk Gets a New Shrink =
" Mr. Monk Gets a New Shrink " is the seventh episode of the fifth season of the American comedy @-@ drama detective television series Monk , and the show 's 68th episode overall . The series follows Adrian Monk ( Tony Shalhoub ) , a private detective with obsessive – compulsive disorder and multiple phobias , and his assistant Natalie Teeger ( Traylor Howard ) . In this episode , Dr. Charles Kroger ( Stanley Kamel ) , Monk 's psychiatrist , retires after blaming himself for the murder of his cleaning lady and Monk has to prove the culprit was not one of Kroger 's patients .
Written by Hy Conrad and directed by Andrei Belgrader , " Mr. Monk Gets a New Shrink " was created following a long @-@ time desire of the staff to center an episode on Kamel and make a vacuum bag pivotal in a mystery . When the episode first aired in the United States on USA Network on August 18 , 2006 , it was watched by 5 @.@ 2 million viewers . The episode was generally well received by critics , with most of the praise regarding Kamel 's major role . It also led Shalhoub to be nominated for an Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series .
= = Plot = =
Dr. Charles Kroger ( Stanley Kamel ) arrives at his office and finds Adrian Monk ( Tony Shalhoub ) and Harold Krenshaw ( Tim Bagley ) arguing over who should get the following session . They enter the office and find Teresa Mueller ( Lisa Dempsey ) , the building 's cleaning lady , dead , and some of the patient files scattered . Captain Stottlemeyer ( Ted Levine ) and Lieutenant Disher ( Jason Gray @-@ Stanford ) suspect that one of Dr. Kroger 's patients was responsible . Dr. Kroger says it can be Joseph Wheeler ( Kevin Fry ) , who threatened him in the past . Dr. Kroger blames himself for not predicting the murder , and decides to retire . Wheeler , however , is dismissed as a suspect as he has a confirmed alibi .
When Monk returns with Natalie ( Traylor Howard ) to Dr. Kroger 's office , they meet Francis Merrigan ( Gordon Clapp ) , who owns an importing and exporting business based in the same building . Merrigan is carrying a milk carton , which he says he is utilizing for a coffeemaker . That night , someone throws a rock through the window of Dr. Kroger 's house . Stottlemeyer and Disher keep the suspicion on one of Dr. Kroger 's patients . As they interview the Kroger family , they learn Kroger suspects his rebellious son Troy ( Cody McMains ) did it . Monk , however , believes that whoever killed Teresa might have thrown the rock to make everyone believe that one of Dr. Kroger 's patients is involved . Monk recognizes the rock , though he does not know where he saw it .
Dr. Kroger tells Monk he has found a therapist , Dr. Jonah Sorenson ( Rick Curry ) ; in session , he remembers where the rock came from . Monk goes to Dr. Kroger 's office and shows Dr. Kroger the rock came from the courtyard , to which only Dr. Kroger and Merrigan have access to . In Merrigan 's office , they find powdered milk but not a coffeemaker and , as powdered milk is made from lactose and drug dealers use it to cut heroin , Monk deduces Merrigan is trafficking drugs , and he probably also killed Teresa . Suddenly , Merrigan appears , ties them to chairs , and loads them into the back of his truck .
Inside the truck Monk sees a broken Turkish figurines and remembers the vacuum bag was empty . He deduces that Teresa , while cleaning Merrigan 's office , broke a figurine , which contained heroin . When Merrigan saw the broken figurine he realized that the vacuum bag was filled with heroin . When he found the drug on the vacuum bag , he killed Teresa . He spread the patient files and later he threw a rock at Dr. Kroger 's house to make it look like the killer was one of Dr. Kroger 's patients .
Unbeknownst to them , Harold is following Merrigan 's truck and calls the police . At a warehouse , Harold grabs a gun from a shelf and Dr. Kroger gestures for Harold to shoot Merrigan and his accomplice , who are emptying the vacuum bag to destroy the evidence . However , Harold makes some noise . As Merrigan prepares to shoot Harold , the police arrive to arrest Merrigan , but just then , he shoots at Dr. Kroger . Harold intercepts the bullet in his chest and Merrigan is taken away .
= = Production = =
" Mr. Monk Gets a New Shrink " was written by Hy Conrad and directed by Andrei Belgrader . The idea of hiding the crucial piece of evidence in a vacuum bag had been on the writing table for years at the time that this episode was written . The writers ' problem was that they could not get a realistic idea on how to use it . One idea had actually been to have a killer hack up his victim , place the dismembered limbs into a self @-@ cleaning oven , then vacuum out the remains and have the bag filled with the victim . The writers saw this possibility as too gruesome for the show . Other ideas had included hiding something valuable in the bag and having the killer stalk Monk while trying to recover it .
After some time , they decided that the best method of featuring a vacuum bag was to have a cleaning lady vacuuming up the evidence . Whereas cleaning ladies had already been the murder victims of several previous episodes , here it seemed absolutely necessary if they wanted an episode to have a realistic plot . However , the writers believed that having a maid as the victim required a main character to work with in order to give some personal involvement . Monk was not considered mostly because he does not have a cleaning lady , and if he did , she would never be good enough for him because of his germophobia and meticulousness . It was eventually decided that the maid would be Dr. Kroger 's employee . The idea of having her work for Dr. Kroger was successful , because the writers had been looking to have an episode where Kamel would be the focus .
This led to further complications in the writing process . For a few days , it was thought that Monk and Dr. Kroger would work to solve the case , but upon realizing that Monk would not be able to go back to a clinical detachment with Dr. Kroger , they eliminated this idea . So instead , Dr. Kroger does appear in more scenes than he normally does , but he stays out of the investigation scenes . As a result , Monk and Dr. Kroger do not break into Francis Merrigan 's office to snoop around , though that would have been the typical thing to do if someone else were there . Rather , they simply peer through the sliding glass door that opens from Merrigan 's office into the courtyard .
Another major challenge that came up in production was who Monk 's new psychiatrist would be . Several ideas included a woman , someone too strict or too nice , someone driven crazy by Monk 's compulsions , and even someone who would give Monk scream therapy . The eventual decision came from writer Jonathan Collier , who suggested a one @-@ armed psychiatrist . Shalhoub liked the idea , but required that they recruit an actual one @-@ armed actor to play Dr. Sorenson . The Screen Actors Guild actually had several actors waiting to audition , and the part was given to Rick Curry .
= = Reception = =
" Mr. Monk Gets a New Shrink " was first broadcast in the United States on the USA Network at 9 pm EST on August 18 , 2006 . According to Nielsen Media Research , the episode was viewed by an estimated number of 5 @.@ 21 million viewers . It was the sixth most watched program on cable television that week with a 3 @.@ 4 percent household rating and a household audience of 3 @.@ 7 million .
The episode was well @-@ received ; Kamel elected it one of his three favorite episodes of the series , Jeffrey Robinson of DVD Talk dubbed it a " strong episode " , while Adam Finley from AOL TV said it was " great " . IGN 's Colin Moriarty said one can " have a hardy laugh at the high level of dysfunctionality " with the episode while highlighted the one @-@ armed therapist and mainly the interactions between Monk and Harold as the responsible for its humor . On his blog Cultural Leanings , critic Myles McNutt affirmed Shalhoub did a " tour de force comic performance " and that " It features most of Monk 's best qualities : his feud with fellow patient Harold , his insecurity about his mental health , his reaction to a new therapist with only one arm , and his broad comedy . " Although disliked the scene in which Harold tooks a shoot as it was made in a cliched way , Finley enjoyed seem Dr. Kroger getting more attention . Similarly , Raven Snook , a TV Guide contributor , appreciated the fact that the doctor 's home life was explored in the episode . Jon Weisman , writing for Variety , selected the scene in which Monk manifests the five stages of grief the best scene of the episode . The scene was also highlighted by Robert Licuria of the Los Angeles Times , who nevertheless said the episode felt " a bit ' same old same old . ' " Chris Beachum , writing for the same newspaper , stated it was " the weakest episode " of the series to ever being submitted for the Primetime Emmy Awards , and , unlike other reviewers , considered the grief scene " just too forced and ' showy . ' "
Shalhoub was nominated for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series for this episode . However , he lost at the 59th Primetime Emmy Awards to Ricky Gervais for the Extras episode " Sir Ian McKellen " .
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= Ipswich Road , Colchester =
Ipswich Road , formally the A1232 , is a road in Colchester , Essex , England . It was the historic coaching route and main road to Ipswich from the Middle Ages onwards , and was part of the A12 , a main road in East Anglia , until the A12 was rerouted in 1974 .
Rovers Tye Farm , a pub since 1983 , was established by 1353 , and a causeway at this location had been built by 1429 , by which point Ipswich Road ran on its current route . The road once contained the County Gaol and County Police Station . The Grade II listed St. John 's Church was built in 1864 by Arthur Blomfield in the High Victorian Early Gothic style . The toothpaste tube manufacturer Betts opened a factory at No. 505 Ipswich Road in 1953 . More recently there have been the development of housing and industrial estates along the road , particularly automobile dealers , at the northern end where it meets the A12 .
= = Route = =
The road runs northeast from East Street , crossing the Great Eastern Main Line , to Ardleigh Wick where it meets the A12 , a major road from London to Ipswich and the Port of Felixstowe and the A120 to Harwich ( and hence by ferry to Hook of Holland ) .
The majority of the road is within the Borough of Colchester aside from a small portion at the northern end , which is in the Borough of Tendring . The main bus routes from Colchester to Ipswich , 93 and 94 , run along the road . It also serves a portion of the Colchester half marathon route .
= = History = =
= = = Pre 20th century = = =
Colchester has been inhabited since pre @-@ Roman Britain , but the ancient route to Ipswich followed a different path , leaving Duncan 's Gate and heading east of Castle Park and crossing the River Colne , thereby heading northeast to meet the current road . An excavation in 1930 found evidence of road ditches on this alignment . In 991 Byrhtnoth , Ealdorman of the East @-@ Saxons , decided to check the Danes . They had plundered Ipswich and were sailing south to plunder Maldon . Brihtnoth entered the well @-@ defended town of Colchester by the Ipswich road on his way south , later dying at the Battle of Maldon . The London – Ipswich road passing through Colchester provided a vital economic connection to the capital , 51 miles ( 82 km ) away , during the Tudor period . The royalist defenders of Colchester during the English Civil War ( 1642 – 51 ) built Fort Suffolk to the north of Ipswich Road , one of eleven earthern fieldworks with timber palisades .
At the edge of the Greenstead Parish boundary is Rovers Tye Farm , which has been documented as being established by 1353 . A new causeway at this location had been built by 1429 , by which point Ipswich Road ran on its current route . This road was turnpiked in 1725 , when the road was predominantly rural in nature . In 1841 , a prison , known as the House of Correction or County Gaol , was built on the road to alleviate pressure on Colchester Castle , but it only held about 25 or 30 prisoners , both male and female , at any one time . When the War Office re @-@ authorized the militia in 1845 the 14th East Essex Regiment of Militia , which later became the Essex Rifles Militia , was given the old County Gaol as its headquarters . In 1875 the County Police Station was located on the Ipswich Road .
= = = 20th – 21st century = = =
The road was bisected by the first Colchester Bypass in 1933 , an unemployment relief project . The railway bridge was also built in the Great Depression of the 1930s , using government funding . 7 @-@ ton locomotives were used to bring sand via a light railway from a pit on the Harwich Road to form the embankment for the railway bridge . The sand was topped with clay . The bridge crossing the Great Eastern Main Line underwent major reconstruction in 1957 .
On 12 November 1940 Colchester was bombed by German air raids , causing damage in the vicinity of Ipswich Road . In the early hours of 30 April 1944 , a crew of seven on board a Lancaster UM @-@ K2 were returning from a bombing raid on Karlsruhe , Germany , when the engines caught fire , causing a fatal crash landing at what is now Space Makers Safestore on Ipswich Road . In 2015 , a memorial service was held at the site of the crash . In December 2014 , 24 World War II bombs weighing approximately 600 lbs in total were discovered at a recycling centre on the road . After the war , there were small private developments off Mersea Road , " west of Lexden Park , north of Colchester North railway station , between Ipswich Road and the railway , and north of East Hill " . St. John 's housing estate was built in the 1960s , and in 1979 , the Kier Group began developing the 730 acre High Woods site to the west of the road . Around 4000 houses and a shopping centre were subsequently built in the vicinity .
The toothpaste tube manufacturer Betts opened a factory at No. 505 Ipswich road in 1953 . In 2008 , the firm decided to close the factory and moved to smaller premises elsewhere in town . In 2014 , Bellway Homes announced they would convert the former Ipswich Road factory into a housing estate named Avellana Place . Locals protested against the name , which is Spanish for hazelnut , saying a more appropriate name would be after the 1944 Lancaster Bomber crash .
The road was part of the A12 when road numbers were first classified in 1922 , and remained the main route to Ipswich for motor traffic until the Northern Colchester Bypass opened in 1974 , which was extended towards Harwich in 1982 .
= = Landmarks = =
The Rose And Crown is at the southern end of Ipswich Road . It was established as a coaching inn in the 14th century and used as a stopping point for prisoners being transported from Europe and Suffolk to London . The building still contains two cells , retaining their original doors . The venue 's fireplace dates from the Tudor period . To the north is Colchester 's Magic Roundabout .
Beyond the railway bridge is the St Johns Post Office and Milton Lodge at No. 290 Ipswich Road , almost opposite it . Milton Lodge is a residential care home for elderly dementia sufferers and was converted into a care home in 2001 . Further north , at the roundabout with Highwoods Approach and St. John 's Road , is The Rovers Tye – Flaming Grill restaurant . The Rovers Tye is set in a Grade II listed farmhouse dated to the 17th century , with additional extensions in the mid @-@ 18th , although an earlier building dated to 1353 . In 1983 , the building became a pub . Timber framed , it is a two storey building with five windows and a panelled door . Just to the north is St. John 's Primary School , and St. John 's Church beyond this . The church was built in 1864 by Arthur Blomfield in the High Victorian Early Gothic style . It is built from " red and gault brick with stone dressings and peg tile gabled roofs " and features a " circular bell turret with conical roof " . It became a Grade II listed building in 1986 .
The northern part of the road is characterised by industrial estates . There is retail centre selling cars , including Porsche Centre Colchester and Underwoods Mazda and Autoway Colchester . Colchester Business Park is at the northern end of the road , next to the A12 and A120 . It contains 250 @,@ 000 square feet ( 23 @,@ 000 m2 ) of office space . It contains the Premier Inn and further car retailers such as Cooper BMW and Glyn Hopkin Honda .
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= Kirsten Dunst =
Kirsten Caroline Dunst ( / ˈkɪrstɛn / ; born April 30 , 1982 ) is an American actress , singer and model . She made her film debut in Woody Allen 's short film Oedipus Wrecks for the anthology film New York Stories ( 1989 ) . At the age of twelve , Dunst gained widespread recognition as vampire Claudia in Interview with the Vampire ( 1994 ) , a role for which she was nominated for a Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actress . She appeared in Little Women the same year and in Jumanji the following year . After a recurring role in the NBC medical drama ER ( 1996 – 97 ) as Charlie Chemingo and starring in films such as Wag the Dog ( 1997 ) , Small Soldiers ( 1998 ) , the English dub of Kiki 's Delivery Service ( 1998 ) and The Virgin Suicides ( 1999 ) , Dunst transitioned into romantic comedies and comedy @-@ dramas , starring in Drop Dead Gorgeous ( 1999 ) , Bring It On ( 2000 ) , Get Over It and Crazy / Beautiful ( both released in 2001 ) .
Dunst achieved international fame for her portrayal of Mary Jane Watson in Sam Raimi 's Spider @-@ Man trilogy ( 2002 – 07 ) . Since then , her films have included the romantic comedy Wimbledon ( 2004 ) , the science fiction romantic comedy @-@ drama Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind ( 2004 ) and Cameron Crowe 's romantic tragicomedy Elizabethtown ( 2005 ) . She played the title role in Sofia Coppola 's biographical film Marie Antoinette ( 2006 ) and starred in the comedy film How to Lose Friends & Alienate People ( 2008 ) . She won the Best Actress Award at the Cannes Film Festival and the Saturn Award for Best Actress for her performance in Lars von Trier 's Melancholia ( 2011 ) .
In 2001 , Dunst made her singing debut in the film Get Over It , in which she performed two songs . She also sang the jazz song " After You 've Gone " for the end credits of the film The Cat 's Meow ( 2001 ) . She starred in the second season of the television series Fargo in 2015 , playing the role of Peggy Blomquist , a slightly delusional and neurotic hairdresser . Her performance garnered widespread critical acclaim , leading to her winning the Critics ' Choice Television Award for Best Actress and being nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Actress .
= = Early life = =
Dunst was born in Point Pleasant , New Jersey , to Inez and Klaus Dunst . She has a younger brother , Christian . Her father worked as a medical services executive , and her mother worked for Lufthansa as a flight attendant and was an artist and one @-@ time gallery owner . Dunst 's father is German , originally from Hamburg , and Dunst 's mother was born in New Jersey .
Until the age of eleven , Dunst lived in Brick Township , New Jersey , where she attended Ranney School . In 1993 , her parents separated , and she subsequently moved with her mother and brother to Los Angeles , California , where she attended Laurel Hall School in North Hollywood . In 1995 , her mother filed for divorce . The following year Dunst began attending Notre Dame High School , a private Roman Catholic high school in Los Angeles .
After graduating from Notre Dame High School in 2000 , Dunst continued the acting career that she had begun . As a teenager , she found it difficult to deal with her rising fame , and for a period she blamed her mother for pushing her into acting as a child . However , she later expressed that her mother " always had the best intentions " . When asked if she had any regrets about the way she spent her childhood , Dunst said : " Well , it 's not a natural way to grow up , but it 's the way I grew up and I wouldn 't change it . I have my stuff to work out ... I don 't think anybody can sit around and say , ' My life is more screwed up than yours . ' Everybody has their issues . "
= = Career = =
= = = 1988 – 1993 : Early work = = =
Dunst began her career when she was three years old as a child fashion model in television commercials . She was signed with Ford Models and Elite Model Management . At the age of six , she made her feature film debut in a minor role in Woody Allen 's short film Oedipus Wrecks that was released as one @-@ third of the anthology film New York Stories ( 1989 ) . Soon after , she co @-@ starred with Tom Hanks in the comedy @-@ drama The Bonfire of the Vanities ( 1990 ) , based on Tom Wolfe 's novel of the same name , where she played the daughter of Hanks ' character . In 1993 , Dunst guest @-@ starred on the science fiction drama Star Trek : The Next Generation in the season seven episode titled " Dark Page " as Hedril .
= = = 1994 – 2001 : Breakthrough and critical success = = =
The breakthrough role in Dunst 's career came in 1994 in the romantic horror film Interview with the Vampire with Tom Cruise and Brad Pitt , based on Anne Rice 's novel , in which she played Claudia , the child vampire who is a surrogate daughter to Cruise and Pitt 's characters . The film received ambivalent reviews , but many film critics complimented Dunst 's performance . Roger Ebert commented that Dunst 's creation of the child vampire Claudia was one of the " creepier " aspects of the film , and mentioned her ability to convey the impression of great age inside apparent youth . Todd McCarthy in Variety noted that Dunst was " just right " for the family . The film featured a scene in which Dunst shared her first on @-@ screen kiss with Pitt , who was nineteen years older than her . In an interview with Interview magazine , she revealed , while questioned about her kissing scene with Pitt , that kissing him had made her feel uncomfortable : " I thought it was gross , that Brad had cooties . I mean , I was 10 . " Her performance earned her the MTV Movie Award for Best Breakthrough Performance , the Saturn Award for Best Young Actress , and her first Golden Globe Award nomination .
Later in 1994 , Dunst co @-@ starred in the drama film Little Women opposite Winona Ryder and Claire Danes . The film received favorable reviews . Critic Janet Maslin of The New York Times wrote that the film was the greatest adaptation of the novel and remarked on Dunst 's performance , " The perfect contrast to take @-@ charge Jo comes from Kirsten Dunst 's scene @-@ stealing Amy , whose vanity and twinkling mischief make so much more sense coming from an 11 @-@ year @-@ old vixen than they did from grown @-@ up Joan Bennett in 1933 . Ms. Dunst , also scarily effective as the baby bloodsucker of Interview With the Vampire , is a little vamp with a big future . "
In 1995 , Dunst co @-@ starred in the fantasy adventure film Jumanji , loosely based on Chris Van Allsburg 's 1981 book of the same name . The story is about a supernatural and ominous board game which makes animals and other jungle hazards appear upon each roll of the dice . She was part of an ensemble cast that included Robin Williams , Bonnie Hunt and David Alan Grier . The movie grossed $ 262 million worldwide . That year , and again in 2002 , she was named one of People magazine 's 50 Most Beautiful People . From 1996 to 1997 , Dunst had a recurring role in the third season of the NBC medical drama ER . She played Charlie Chiemingo , a child prostitute taken under the guidance of the pediatrician Dr. Doug Ross , played by George Clooney . In 1997 , she voiced Young Anastasia in the animated musical film Anastasia . Also in 1997 , Dunst co @-@ starred in the black comedy film Wag the Dog , opposite Robert De Niro and Dustin Hoffman . The following year she voiced the title character , Kiki , a thirteen @-@ year @-@ old apprentice witch who leaves her home village to spend a year on her own , in the anime movie Kiki 's Delivery Service ( 1998 ) .
Dunst was offered the role of Angela in the 1999 drama film American Beauty , but turned it down because she did not want to appear in the film 's suggestive sexual scenes or kiss the film 's star Kevin Spacey . She later explained : " When I read it , I was 15 and I don 't think I was mature enough to understand the script 's material . " That same year , she co @-@ starred in the comedy film Dick , opposite Michelle Williams . The film is a parody retelling the events of the Watergate scandal which led to the resignation of U.S. president Richard Nixon .
Dunst co @-@ starred in Sofia Coppola 's drama film The Virgin Suicides ( 1999 ) where she played Lux Lisbon , a troubled teenager . The film was screened as a special presentation at the 43rd San Francisco International Film Festival in 2000 . The movie received generally favorable reviews , and San Francisco Chronicle critic Peter Stack noted in his review that Dunst " beautifully balances innocence and wantonness . "
In 2000 , Dunst starred in the comedy Bring It On as Torrance Shipman , the captain of a cheerleading squad . The film generated mostly positive reviews , with many critics reserving praise for her performance . In his review , A. O. Scott called her " a terrific comic actress , largely because of her great expressive range , and the nimbleness with which she can shift from anxiety to aggression to genuine hurt . " Charles Taylor of Salon noted that " among contemporary teenage actresses , Dunst has become the sunniest imaginable parodist " , even though he thought the film had failed to provide her with as good a role as she had either in Dick or in The Virgin Suicides . Jessica Winter from The Village Voice complimented Dunst , stating that her performance was " as sprightly and knowingly daft as her turn in Dick " and commenting that " [ Dunst ] provides the only major element of Bring It On that plays as tweaking parody rather than slick , strident , body @-@ slam churlishness . " Peter Stack of the San Francisco Chronicle , despite giving the film an unfavorable review , commended Dunst for her willingness " to be as silly and cloyingly agreeable as it takes to get through a slapdash film . "
The following year , Dunst starred in the comedy film Get Over It ( 2001 ) . She later explained that one of the reasons for accepting the role was that it gave her the opportunity to sing . Also in 2001 , she starred in the historical drama The Cat 's Meow , directed by Peter Bogdanovich , as the American actress Marion Davies . Derek Elley of Variety described the film as " playful and sporty , " saying that this was Dunst 's best performance to date : " Believable as both a spoiled ingenue and a lover to two very different men , Dunst endows a potentially lightweight character with considerable depth and sympathy . " In the Esquire review , Tom Carson called her performance " terrific . " For her work , she won the Best Actress Silver Ombú category award at the 2002 Mar del Plata Film Festival .
= = = 2002 – 2009 : Spider @-@ Man and mainstream success = = =
In 2002 , Dunst co @-@ starred opposite Tobey Maguire in the superhero film Spider @-@ Man , the most financially successful film of her career to date . She played Mary Jane Watson , the best friend and love interest of Peter Parker ( Maguire ) . The film was directed by Sam Raimi . Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly remarked on Dunst 's ability to " lend even the smallest line a tickle of flirtatious music . " In the Los Angeles Times review , critic Kenneth Turan noted that Dunst and Maguire made a real connection on screen , concluding that their relationship " involved audiences to an extent rarely seen in films . " Spider @-@ Man was a commercial and critical success . The movie grossed $ 114 million during its opening weekend in North America and went on to earn $ 822 million worldwide .
Following the success of Spider @-@ Man , Dunst co @-@ starred in Ed Solomon 's drama film Levity ( 2003 ) . That same year she co @-@ starred opposite Julia Roberts , Maggie Gyllenhaal , and Julia Stiles in the drama film Mona Lisa Smile ( 2003 ) . The film generated mostly negative reviews , with Manohla Dargis of the Los Angeles Times describing it as " smug and reductive . " She co @-@ starred opposite Jim Carrey , Kate Winslet , and Tom Wilkinson in Michel Gondry 's science fiction romantic drama Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind ( 2004 ) as Mary Svevo . The latter film received very positive reviews , with Entertainment Weekly describing Dunst 's subplot as " nifty and clever . " The movie grossed $ 72 million worldwide .
The success of the first Spider @-@ Man film led Dunst to reprise her role as Mary Jane Watson in 2004 in Spider @-@ Man 2 . The movie was well received by critics and a financial success , setting a new opening weekend box office record for North America . With revenue of $ 783 million worldwide , it was the second highest grossing film in 2004 . Also in 2004 , Dunst co @-@ starred opposite Paul Bettany in the romantic comedy Wimbledon where she portrayed a rising tennis player in the Wimbledon Championships , while Bettany portrayed a fading former tennis star . Reception for the film was mixed , but many critics enjoyed Dunst 's performance . Claudia Puig of USA Today reported that the chemistry between Dunst and Bettany was potent , with Dunst doing a fine job as a sassy and self @-@ assured player .
In 2005 , she co @-@ starred opposite Orlando Bloom in Cameron Crowe 's romantic tragicomedy Elizabethtown as Claire Colburn , a flight attendant . The film premiered at the 2005 Toronto International Film Festival . Dunst revealed that working with Crowe was enjoyable , but more demanding than she had expected . The movie garnered mixed reviews , with the Chicago Tribune rating it one out of four stars and describing Dunst 's portrayal of a flight attendant as " cloying . " It was a box office disappointment .
In 2006 , Dunst collaborated with Sofia Coppola again and starred as the title character in Coppola 's biographical film Marie Antoinette , adapted from Antonia Fraser 's book Marie Antoinette : The Journey . The movie was screened at a special presentation at the 2006 Cannes Film Festival , and was reviewed favourably . International revenues were $ 45 million out of $ 60 million overall .
In 2007 , Dunst reprised her role as Mary Jane Watson in Spider @-@ Man 3 . In contrast to the previous two films ' positive reviews , Spider @-@ Man 3 was met with a mixed reception by critics . Nonetheless , with a total worldwide gross of $ 891 million , it stands as the most commercially successful film in the series and Dunst 's highest grossing film to the end of 2008 . Having initially signed on for three Spider @-@ Man films , she revealed that she would do a fourth , but only if Raimi and Maguire also returned . In January 2010 , it was announced that the fourth film was cancelled and that the Spider @-@ Man film series would be restarted , and therefore dropping Dunst , Maguire , and Raimi from the franchise .
In 2008 , Dunst co @-@ starred opposite Simon Pegg in the comedy film How to Lose Friends & Alienate People , an adaptation of the memoir of the same name by former Vanity Fair contributing editor Toby Young .
= = = 2010 – present : Independent films , Fargo and directorial debut = = =
Dunst made her screenwriting and directorial debut with the short film Bastard which premiered at the Tribeca Film Festival in 2010 , and was later featured at the 2010 Cannes Film Festival . Dunst co @-@ starred opposite Ryan Gosling in the mystery drama All Good Things ( 2010 ) , based on a true story as the wife of Gosling 's character from a run @-@ down neighborhood who goes missing . The feature received reasonable reviews , and earned $ 640 @,@ 000 worldwide . Dunst co @-@ starred with Brian Geraghty in Carlos Cuarón 's short film The Second Bakery Attack , an adaptation of Haruki Murakami 's short story of the same name .
In 2011 , Dunst co @-@ starred opposite Charlotte Gainsbourg , Kiefer Sutherland and Charlotte Rampling in Lars von Trier 's drama film Melancholia as a depressed woman at the end of the world . The film premiered at the 2011 Cannes Film Festival and received positive reviews and Dunst was singled out for praise . Steven Loeb of Southampton Patch wrote , " This film has brought the best out of von Trier , as well as his star . Dunst is so good in this film , playing a character unlike any other she has ever attempted ... Even if the film itself were not the incredible work of art that it is , Dunst 's performance alone would be incentive enough to recommend it . " Sukhdev Sandhu wrote from Cannes in The Daily Telegraph that " Dunst is exceptional , so utterly convincing in the lead role – trouble , serene , a fierce savant – that it feels like a career breakthrough . Dunst won several awards for her performance , including the Best Actress Award at the Cannes Film Festival and the Best Actress Award from the U.S. National Society of Film Critics
Dunst has signed to star in Sweet Relief as Marla Ruzicka , a peace activist and U.S. relief worker killed by a suicide bomb in Baghdad . She has expressed interest in playing the role of Blondie frontwoman Debbie Harry in Michel Gondry 's upcoming biographical film about the band .
In 2012 , Dunst co @-@ starred in Juan Diego Solanas ' science fiction romantic drama Upside Down opposite Jim Sturgess . She starred in Leslye Headland 's comedy Bachelorette , produced by Will Ferrell and Adam McKay . In 2012 , she co @-@ starred in the drama film On the Road as Camille Moriarty , based on Jack Kerouac 's novel of the same name . She made a cameo appearance in the short feature Fight For Your Right Revisited . It premiered at the 2011 Sundance Film Festival . In 2016 , Dunst starred in Jeff Nichols ' science fiction drama Midnight Special , with Michael Shannon and Joel Edgerton . In May 2015 , it was announced that Dunst would star in the Rodarte label founders ' feature directorial debut , Woodshock . The film follows a woman who falls deeper into paranoia after taking a deadly drug .
In 2015 , Dunst played Peggy Blumquist in the second season of the critically acclaimed drama , Fargo , for which she received a Golden Globe nomination .
In October 2015 , Dunst said that she is co @-@ writing and set to direct a film adaptation of a novel .
In March 2016 , Dunst was cast alongside Nicole Kidman and Elle Fanning in the Sofia Coppola @-@ directed remake of Clint Eastwood 's The Beguiled . The original 1971 film tells the story of a wounded Union soldier who seeks shelter at an all @-@ girls school deep in Confederate country . In May 2016 , she was a member of the main competition jury of the 2016 Cannes Film Festival .
In July 2016 , it was announced that Dunst would be making her directorial debut with an adaptation of The Bell Jar with Dakota Fanning in the lead role .
= = Music = =
Dunst made her singing debut in the comedy film Get Over It , performing two songs written by Marc Shaiman . She recorded Henry Creamer and Turner Layton 's jazz standard " After You 've Gone " that was used in the end credits of The Cat 's Meow . In Spider @-@ Man 3 , she sang two songs as Mary Jane Watson , one during a Broadway performance , and one as a singing waitress in a jazz club . Dunst revealed that she recorded the songs earlier and later lip @-@ sync to it when filming began . She also appeared in the music videos for Savage Garden 's " I Knew I Loved You " , Beastie Boys ' " Make Some Noise " and R.E.M. ' s " We All Go Back to Where We Belong " and she sang two tracks which were " This Old Machine " and " Summer Day " on Jason Schwartzman 's 2007 solo album Nighttiming . In 2007 , Dunst stated that she had no plans to follow the steps of other actors who release albums , saying : " Definitely not . No way . It worked when Barbra Streisand was doing it , but now it 's a little cheesy , I think . It works better when singers are in movies . "
Dunst starred as the magical princess Majokko in the Takashi Murakami and McG directed short Akihabara Majokko Princess singing a cover of " Turning Japanese " . This was shown at the " Pop Life " exhibition in London 's Tate Modern museum from October 1 , 2009 , to January 17 , 2010 . It shows Dunst prancing around Akihabara , a crowded shopping district in Tokyo , Japan .
= = Personal life = =
Dunst was treated for depression in early 2008 at the Cirque Lodge treatment center in Utah .
She explained that she had been feeling low in the six months before her admission . In late March 2008 , she checked out of the treatment center and began filming All Good Things . In May 2008 , she went public with this information in order to highlight the struggle faced by so many other successful women and to dispel rumors that had been very painful for her family and friends .
Dunst dated actor Jake Gyllenhaal from 2002 to 2004 . She dated Razorlight frontman Johnny Borrell in 2007 . She dated her On the Road co @-@ star Garrett Hedlund from 2012 to 2016 . In 2016 , she began dating her Fargo co @-@ star Jesse Plemons .
= = = Citizenship = = =
She gained German citizenship in 2011 and now holds dual citizenship of Germany and the United States .
= = = Political activism = = =
Dunst supported Democratic candidate John Kerry for the 2004 U.S. presidential election . Four years later , she supported Democrat Barack Obama for the 2008 presidential election . Dunst revealed that she supported Obama " from the beginning " of the presidential campaign . In support of this , she directed and narrated a documentary entitled Why Tuesday , explaining the United States tradition of voting on Tuesdays . Dunst explained that Tuesday is " not a holiday , and the United States is one of the lowest democratic countries in voter turnout . " She felt it important to " influence people in a positive way " to vote on November 4 , 2008 .
= = = Charity work = = =
She works with the Elizabeth Glaser Pediatric AIDS Foundation , for which she helped design and promote a necklace whose sales proceeds went to the Foundation . She worked in breast cancer awareness , participating in the Stand Up to Cancer telethon in September 2008 to raise funds for cancer research . On December 5 , 2009 , she participated in the Teletón in Mexico , to raise funds for cancer treatment and children 's rehabilitation .
= = = Nude photo scandal = = =
In August 2014 , a hacker claimed to have compromised the Apple iCloud accounts of Dunst and dozens of other female celebrities . Nude photographs purporting to be of Dunst were shared online . In response , Dunst posted an ironic message of " Thank you iCloud " to her Twitter page soon after .
= = Filmography = =
= = = Film = = =
= = = Television = = =
= = Discography = =
1994 : " For the Beauty of the Earth " featuring Trini Alvarado and Claire Danes – Little Women ( Original Motion Picture Soundtrack )
1999 : " Spit It Out " featuring Allison Janney – Drop Dead Gorgeous : Motion Picture Soundtrack
2001 : " Dream Of Me " and " The Girl Inside " – Get Over It : Music From Miramax Motion Picture
2002 : " After You 've Gone " – The Cat 's Meow Original Motion Picture Soundtrack
2007 : " This Old Machine " and " Summer Day " – Nighttiming by Coconut Records
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= Iron Maiden =
Iron Maiden are an English heavy metal band formed in Leyton , East London , in 1975 by bassist and primary songwriter Steve Harris . The band 's discography has grown to thirty @-@ eight albums , including sixteen studio albums , eleven live albums , four EPs , and seven compilations .
Pioneers of the new wave of British heavy metal , Iron Maiden achieved initial success during the early 1980s . After several line @-@ up changes , the band went on to release a series of UK and US platinum and gold albums , including 1982 's The Number of the Beast , 1983 's Piece of Mind , 1984 's Powerslave , 1985 's live release Live After Death , 1986 's Somewhere in Time and 1988 's Seventh Son of a Seventh Son . Since the return of lead vocalist Bruce Dickinson and guitarist Adrian Smith in 1999 , the band have undergone a resurgence in popularity , with their 2010 studio offering , The Final Frontier , peaking at No. 1 in 28 countries and receiving widespread critical acclaim . Their sixteenth studio album , The Book of Souls , was released on 4 September 2015 .
Despite little radio or television support , Iron Maiden are considered one of the most successful heavy metal bands in history , with The Observer reporting in 2015 that the band have sold over 90 million copies of their albums worldwide . The band won the Ivor Novello Award for international achievement in 2002 . As of October 2013 , the band have played over 2000 live shows throughout their career . For the past 35 years , the band have been supported by their famous mascot , " Eddie " , who has appeared on almost all of their album and single covers , as well as in their live shows .
= = History = =
= = = Early years ( 1975 – 78 ) = = =
Iron Maiden were formed on Christmas Day 1975 by bassist Steve Harris shortly after he left his previous group , Smiler . Harris attributes the band 's name to a film adaptation of The Man in the Iron Mask from the novel by Alexandre Dumas , the title of which reminded him of the iron maiden torture device . After months of rehearsal , Iron Maiden made their debut at St. Nicks Hall in Poplar on 1 May 1976 , before taking up a semi @-@ residency at the Cart and Horses Pub in Maryland Point , Stratford .
The original line @-@ up did not last very long , however , with vocalist Paul Day being the first casualty as , according to Harris , he lacked " energy or charisma on stage " . He was replaced by Dennis Wilcock , a Kiss fan who used make @-@ up and fake blood during live performances . Wilcock 's friend Dave Murray was invited to join , to the dismay of the band 's guitarists Dave Sullivan and Terry Rance . Their frustration led Harris to temporarily disband Iron Maiden in 1976 , though the group reformed soon after with Murray as the sole guitarist . Steve Harris and Dave Murray remain the band 's longest @-@ standing members and have performed on all of their releases .
Iron Maiden recruited yet another guitarist in 1977 , Bob Sawyer , who was sacked for embarrassing the band on stage by pretending to play guitar with his teeth . Tension ensued again , causing a rift between Murray and Wilcock , who convinced Harris to fire Murray , as well as original drummer Ron Matthews . A new line @-@ up was put together , including future Cutting Crew member Tony Moore on keyboards , Terry Wapram on guitar , and drummer Barry Purkis . A bad performance at the Bridgehouse , a pub located in Canning Town , in November 1977 was the line @-@ up 's first and only concert and led to Purkis being replaced by Doug Sampson . At the same time , Moore was asked to leave as Harris decided that keyboards did not suit the band 's sound . A few months later , Dennis Wilcock decided that he had had enough with the group and left to form his own band , V1 , and Dave Murray was immediately reinstated . As he preferred to be the band 's sole guitarist , Wapram disapproved of Murray 's return and was also dismissed .
Steve Harris , Dave Murray and Doug Sampson spent the summer and autumn of 1978 rehearsing while they searched for a singer to complete the band 's new line @-@ up . A chance meeting at the Red Lion pub in Leytonstone in November 1978 evolved into a successful audition for vocalist Paul Di 'Anno . Steve Harris has stated , " There 's sort of a quality in Paul 's voice , a raspiness in his voice , or whatever you want to call it , that just gave it this great edge . " At this time , Murray would typically act as their sole guitarist , with Harris commenting , " Davey was so good he could do a lot of it on his own . The plan was always to get a second guitarist in , but finding one that could match Davey was really difficult . "
= = = Record contract and early releases ( 1978 – 81 ) = = =
On New Year 's Eve 1978 , Iron Maiden recorded a demo , consisting of four songs , at Spaceward Studios in Cambridge . Hoping the recording would help them secure more gigs , the band presented a copy to Neal Kay , then managing a heavy metal club called " Bandwagon Heavy Metal Soundhouse " , located in Kingsbury Circle , northwest London . Upon hearing the tape , Kay began playing the demo regularly at the Bandwagon , and one of the songs , " Prowler " , eventually went to No. 1 in the Soundhouse charts , which were published weekly in Sounds magazine . A copy was also acquired by Rod Smallwood , who soon became the band 's manager , and , as Iron Maiden 's popularity increased , they released the demo on their own record label as The Soundhouse Tapes , named after the club . Featuring only three tracks ( one song , " Strange World " , was excluded as the band were unsatisfied with its production ) all five thousand copies were sold out within weeks .
In December 1979 , the band secured a major record deal with EMI and asked Dave Murray 's childhood friend Adrian Smith to join the group as their second guitarist . Smith declined as he was busy with his own band , Urchin , so Iron Maiden hired guitarist Dennis Stratton instead . Shortly afterwards , Doug Sampson left due to health issues and was replaced by ex @-@ Samson drummer Clive Burr at Stratton 's suggestion on 26 December . Iron Maiden 's first appearance on an album was on the Metal for Muthas compilation ( released on 15 February 1980 ) with two early versions of " Sanctuary " and " Wrathchild " . The release led to an ensuing tour which featured several other bands linked with the new wave of British heavy metal .
Iron Maiden 's eponymous 1980 release , Iron Maiden , debuted at No. 4 in the UK Albums Chart . In addition to the title track ( a live version of which would be one of the first music videos aired on MTV ) , the album includes other early favourites such as " Running Free " , " Transylvania " , " Phantom of the Opera " , and " Sanctuary " – which was not on the original UK release but appeared on the US version and subsequent remasters . The band set out on a headline tour of the UK , before opening for Kiss on their 1980 Unmasked Tour 's European leg as well as supporting Judas Priest on select dates . After the Kiss tour , Dennis Stratton was dismissed from the band as a result of creative and personal differences , and was replaced by Adrian Smith in October 1980 .
In 1981 , Iron Maiden released their second album , entitled Killers . Containing many tracks that had been written prior to their debut release , only two new songs were written for the record : " Prodigal Son " and " Murders in the Rue Morgue " ( the latter 's title was taken from the short story by Edgar Allan Poe ) . Unsatisfied with the production on their debut album , the band hired veteran producer Martin Birch , who would go on to work for Iron Maiden until his retirement in 1992 . The record was followed by the band 's first world tour , which included their debut performance in the United States , opening for Judas Priest at The Aladdin Casino , Las Vegas .
= = = Success ( 1981 – 85 ) = = =
By 1981 , Paul Di 'Anno was demonstrating increasingly self @-@ destructive behaviour , particularly through his drug usage , about which Di 'Anno comments , " it wasn 't just that I was snorting a bit of coke , though ; I was just going for it non @-@ stop , 24 hours a day , every day ... the band had commitments piling up that went on for months , years , and I just couldn 't see my way to the end of it . I knew I 'd never last the whole tour . It was too much . " With his performances suffering , Di 'Anno was immediately dismissed following the Killer World Tour , at which point the band had already selected his replacement .
After a meeting with Rod Smallwood at the Reading Festival , Bruce Dickinson , previously of Samson , auditioned for Iron Maiden in September 1981 and was immediately hired . The following month , Dickinson went out on the road with the band on a small headlining tour in Italy , as well as a one @-@ off show at the Rainbow Theatre in the UK . For the last show , and in anticipation of their forthcoming album , the band played " Children of the Damned " and " 22 Acacia Avenue " , introducing fans to the sound towards which they were progressing .
In 1982 , Iron Maiden released The Number of the Beast , an album which gave the band their first ever UK Albums Chart No. 1 record and additionally became a Top Ten hit in many other countries . At the time , Dickinson was in the midst of legal difficulties with Samson 's management and was not permitted to add his name to any of the songwriting credits , although he still made what he described as a " moral contribution " to " Children of the Damned " , " The Prisoner " and " Run to the Hills " . For the second time the band embarked on a world tour , dubbed The Beast on the Road , during which they visited North America , Japan , Australia and Europe , including a headline appearance at the Reading Festival . A new and hugely successful chapter in Iron Maiden 's future was cemented ; in 2010 The New York Times reported that the album had sold over 14 million copies worldwide .
The Beast on the Road 's US leg proved controversial when an American conservative political lobbying group claimed Iron Maiden were Satanic because of the new album 's title track , to the point where a group of Christian activists destroyed Iron Maiden records as a protest against the band . In recent years , Dickinson has stated that the band treated this as " silliness " , and that the demonstrations in fact gave them " loads of publicity " .
In December 1982 , drummer Clive Burr was fired from the band and replaced by Nicko McBrain , previously of French band Trust . Although Harris states that his dismissal took place because his live performances were affected by offstage activities , Burr objected to this and claimed that he was unfairly ousted from the band . Soon afterwards , the band journeyed for the first time to The Bahamas to record the first of three consecutive albums at Compass Point Studios . In 1983 , they released Piece of Mind , which reached the No. 3 spot in the UK , and was the band 's debut in the North American charts , reaching No. 70 on the Billboard 200 . Piece of Mind includes the successful singles " The Trooper " and " Flight of Icarus " , the latter of which being particularly notable as one of the band 's few songs to gain substantial airplay in the US .
Soon after the success of Piece of Mind and its supporting tour , the band released Powerslave on 9 September 1984 . The album featured fan favourites " 2 Minutes to Midnight " , " Aces High " , and " Rime of The Ancient Mariner " , the latter based on Samuel Taylor Coleridge 's poem of the same name and running over 13 minutes long .
The tour following the album , dubbed the World Slavery Tour , was the band 's largest to date and consisted of 193 shows in 28 countries over 13 months , playing to an estimated 3 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 people . Many shows were played back @-@ to @-@ back in the same city , such as in Long Beach , California , where the band played four consecutive concerts . It was here where the majority of their subsequent live release , Live After Death , was recorded , which became a critical and commercial success , peaking at No. 4 in the UK . Iron Maiden also made their debut appearance in South America , where they co @-@ headlined ( with Queen ) the Rock in Rio festival to an estimated crowd of 300 @,@ 000 . The tour was physically gruelling for the band , who demanded six months off when it ended ( although this was later reduced to four months ) . This was the first substantial break in the group 's history , including the cancellation of a proposed supporting tour for the new live album , with Bruce Dickinson threatening to quit unless the tour ended .
= = = Experimentation ( 1986 – 89 ) = = =
Returning from their time off , the band adopted a different style for their 1986 studio album , entitled Somewhere in Time , featuring , for the first time in the band 's history , synthesised bass and guitars to add textures and layers to the sound . The release charted well across the world , particularly with the single " Wasted Years " , but notably included no writing credits from lead singer Bruce Dickinson , whose material was rejected by the rest of the band . While Dickinson was focused on his own music , guitarist Adrian Smith , who typically collaborated with the vocalist , was " left to [ his ] own devices " and began writing songs on his own , coming up with " Wasted Years " , " Sea of Madness " , and " Stranger in a Strange Land " , the last of which would be the album 's second single .
The experimentation evident on Somewhere in Time continued on their next album , entitled Seventh Son of a Seventh Son , which was released in 1988 . A concept album , based on the 1987 novel Seventh Son by Orson Scott Card , this would be the band 's first record to include keyboards , performed by Harris and Smith , as opposed to guitar synthesisers on the previous release . After his contributions were not used for Somewhere in Time , Dickinson 's enthusiasm was renewed as his ideas were accepted for this album . Another popular release , it became Iron Maiden 's second album to hit No. 1 in the UK charts , although it only achieved a Gold certification in the US , in contrast to its four predecessors .
During the following tour , the band headlined the Monsters of Rock festival at Donington Park for the first time on 20 August 1988 , playing to the largest crowd in the festival 's history ( 107 @,@ 000 ) . Also included on the bill were Kiss , David Lee Roth , Megadeth , Guns N ' Roses and Helloween . The festival was marred , however , by the deaths of two fans in a crowd @-@ surge during the aforementioned Guns N ' Roses performance ; the following year 's festival was cancelled as a result . The tour concluded with several headline shows in the UK in November and December 1988 , with the concerts at the NEC Arena , Birmingham recorded for a live video , entitled Maiden England . Throughout the tour , Harris ' bass technician , Michael Kenney , provided live keyboards . Kenney has acted as the band 's live keyboard player ever since , also performing on the band 's four following albums before Harris took over as the group 's sole studio keyboardist from 2000 's Brave New World .
= = = Upheaval ( 1989 – 94 ) = = =
During another break in 1989 , guitarist Adrian Smith released a solo album with his band ASAP , entitled Silver and Gold , and vocalist Bruce Dickinson began work on a solo album with former Gillan guitarist Janick Gers , releasing Tattooed Millionaire in 1990 , followed by a tour . At the same time , to mark the band 's ten @-@ year recording anniversary , Iron Maiden released The First Ten Years , a series of ten CDs and double 12 @-@ inch singles . Between 24 February and 28 April 1990 , the individual parts were released one @-@ by @-@ one , each containing two of Iron Maiden 's singles , including the original B @-@ sides .
Soon afterwards , Iron Maiden regrouped to work on a new studio record . During the pre @-@ production stages , Adrian Smith left the band due to differences with Steve Harris regarding the direction the band should be taking , disagreeing with the " stripped down " style that they were leaning towards . Janick Gers , having worked on Dickinson 's solo project , was chosen to replace Smith and became the band 's first new member in seven years . The album , No Prayer for the Dying , was released in October 1990 and contained " Bring Your Daughter ... to the Slaughter " , the band 's first ( and to date , only ) UK Singles Chart No. 1 , originally recorded by Dickinson 's solo outfit for the soundtrack to A Nightmare on Elm Street 5 : The Dream Child .
After another tour and some more time off , the band recorded their next studio release , Fear of the Dark , which was released in 1992 and included the stand @-@ out title track , which is now a regular fixture in the band 's concert setlists . Achieving their third No. 1 in the UK albums chart , the disc also featured the No. 2 single " Be Quick or Be Dead " and the No. 21 single " From Here to Eternity " . The album featured the first songwriting by Gers , and no collaboration at all between Harris and Dickinson on songs . The extensive worldwide tour that followed included their first ever Latin American leg ( after a single concert during the World Slavery Tour ) , and headlining the Monsters of Rock festivals in seven European countries . Iron Maiden 's second performance at Donington Park , to an audience of 68 @,@ 500 ( the attendance was capped after the incident in 1988 ) , was filmed for the audio and video release , Live at Donington , and featured a guest appearance by Adrian Smith , who joined the band to perform " Running Free " .
In 1993 , Bruce Dickinson left the band to further pursue his solo career , but agreed to remain for a farewell tour and two live albums ( later re @-@ released in one package ) . The first , A Real Live One , featured songs from 1986 to 1992 , and was released in March 1993 . The second , A Real Dead One , featured songs from 1980 to 1984 , and was released after Dickinson had left the band . The tour did not go well , however , with Steve Harris claiming that Dickinson would only perform properly for high @-@ profile shows and that at several concerts he would only mumble into the microphone . Dickinson denies the charge that he was under @-@ performing , stating that it was impossible to " make like Mr Happy Face if the vibe wasn 't right " , saying that news of his exit from the band had prevented any chance of a good atmosphere during the tour . He played his farewell show with Iron Maiden on 28 August 1993 , which was filmed , broadcast by the BBC and released on video under the name Raising Hell .
= = = Blaze Bayley era , The X Factor and Virtual XI ( 1994 – 99 ) = = =
In 1994 , the band listened to hundreds of tapes sent in by vocalists before convincing Blaze Bayley , formerly of the band Wolfsbane who had supported Iron Maiden in 1990 , to audition for them . Harris ' preferred choice from the outset , Bayley had a different vocal style from his predecessor , which ultimately received a mixed reception among fans .
After a two @-@ year hiatus ( as well as a three @-@ year hiatus from studio releases – a record for the band at the time ) Iron Maiden returned in 1995 . Releasing The X Factor , the band had their lowest chart position since 1981 for an album in the UK ( debuting at No. 8 ) , although it would go on to win Album of the Year awards in France and Germany . The record included the 11 @-@ minute epic " Sign of the Cross " , the band 's longest song since " Rime of the Ancient Mariner " , as well as the singles , " Man on the Edge " , based on the film Falling Down , and " Lord of the Flies " , based on the novel of the same name . The release is notable for its " dark " tone , inspired by Steve Harris ' divorce . The band toured for the rest of 1995 and 1996 , playing for the first time in Israel and South Africa , before stopping to release Best of the Beast . The band 's first compilation , it included a new single , " Virus " , whose lyrics attack the critics who had recently written off the band .
Iron Maiden returned to the studio to record Virtual XI , released in 1998 . The album 's chart scores were the band 's lowest to date , including the UK where it peaked at No. 16 failing to score one million worldwide sales for the first time in Iron Maiden 's history . At the same time , Steve Harris assisted in remastering the band 's entire discography , up to and including Live at Donington ( which was given a mainstream release for the first time ) .
Bayley 's tenure in Iron Maiden ended in January 1999 when he was asked to leave during a band meeting . The dismissal took place due to issues Bayley had experienced with his voice during the Virtual XI World Tour , although Janick Gers has since stated that this was partly the band 's fault for forcing him to perform songs which were beyond his natural register .
= = = Return of Dickinson and Smith , Brave New World ( 1999 – 2002 ) = = =
While the group were considering a replacement for Bayley , Rod Smallwood convinced Steve Harris to invite Bruce Dickinson back into the band . Although Harris admits that he " wasn 't really into it " at first , he then thought , " ' Well , if the change happens , who should we get ? ' The thing is , we know Bruce and we know what he 's capable of , and you think , ' Well , better the devil you know . ' I mean , we got on well professionally for , like , eleven years , and so ... after I thought about it , I didn 't really have a problem with it . "
The band entered into talks with Dickinson , who agreed to rejoin during a meeting in Brighton in January 1999 , along with guitarist Adrian Smith , who was telephoned a few hours later . With Gers , Smith 's replacement , remaining , Iron Maiden now had a three @-@ guitar line @-@ up and embarked on a hugely successful reunion tour . Dubbed The Ed Hunter Tour , it tied in with the band 's newly released greatest hits collection , Ed Hunter , whose track listing was decided by a poll on the group 's website , and also contained a computer game of the same name starring the band 's mascot .
One of Dickinson 's primary concerns on rejoining the group " was whether we would in fact be making a real state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art record and not just a comeback album , " which eventually took the form of 2000 's Brave New World . Having disliked the results from Harris ' personal studio , Barnyard Studios located on his property in Essex , which had been used for the last four Iron Maiden studio albums , the band recorded the new release at Guillaume Tell Studios , Paris in November 1999 with producer Kevin Shirley . Thematic influences continued with " The Wicker Man " – based on the 1973 British cult film of the same name – and " Brave New World " – title taken from the Aldous Huxley novel of the same name . The album furthered the more progressive and melodic sound present in some earlier recordings , with elaborate song structures and keyboard orchestration .
The world tour that followed consisted of well over 100 dates and culminated on 19 January 2001 in a show at the Rock in Rio festival in Brazil , where Iron Maiden played to an audience of around 250 @,@ 000 . While the performance was being produced for a CD and DVD release in March 2002 , under the name Rock in Rio , the band took a year out from touring , during which they played three consecutive shows at Brixton Academy in aid of former drummer Clive Burr , who had recently announced that he had been diagnosed with multiple sclerosis . The band performed two further concerts for Burr 's MS Trust Fund charity in 2005 , and 2007 , before his death in 2013 .
= = = Dance of Death and A Matter of Life and Death ( 2003 – 07 ) = = =
Following their Give Me Ed ... ' Til I 'm Dead Tour in the summer of 2003 , Iron Maiden released Dance of Death , their thirteenth studio album , which was met by worldwide critical and commercial success . Produced by Kevin Shirley , now the band 's regular producer , many critics also felt that this release matched up to their earlier efforts , such as Killers , Piece of Mind and The Number of the Beast . As usual , historical and literary references were present , with " Montségur " in particular being about the Cathar stronghold conquered in 1244 , and " Paschendale " relating to the significant battle which took place during The First World War . During the following tour , the band 's performance at Westfalenhalle , in Dortmund , Germany , was recorded and released in August 2005 as a live album and DVD , entitled Death on the Road .
In 2005 , the band announced the Eddie Rips Up the World Tour which , tying in with their 2004 DVD entitled The History of Iron Maiden – Part 1 : The Early Days , only featured material from their first four albums . As part of this celebration of their earlier years , " The Number of the Beast " single was re @-@ released and went straight to No. 3 in the UK Chart . The tour included many headlining stadium and festival dates , including a performance at Ullevi Stadium in Sweden to an audience of almost 60 @,@ 000 . This concert was also broadcast live on satellite television all over Europe to approximately 60 million viewers . Following this run of European shows , the band co @-@ headlined the US festival tour , Ozzfest , with Black Sabbath , their final performance at which earned international press coverage after their show was sabotaged by singer Ozzy Osbourne 's family , who took offence to Dickinson 's remarks against reality @-@ TV . The band completed the tour by headlining the Reading and Leeds Festivals on the 26 – 28 August , and the RDS Stadium in Ireland on 31 August . For the second time , the band played a charity show for The Clive Burr MS Trust Fund , this time taking place at the Hammersmith Apollo . The same year , the band were inducted into the Hollywood RockWalk in Sunset Boulevard , Los Angeles .
At the end of 2005 , Iron Maiden began work on A Matter of Life and Death , their fourteenth studio effort , released in autumn 2006 . While not a concept album , war and religion are recurring themes in the lyrics , as well as in the cover artwork . The release was a critical and commercial success , earning the band their first top ten in the Billboard 200 and receiving the Album of the Year award at the 2006 Classic Rock Roll of Honour Awards . A supporting tour followed , during which they played the album in its entirety ; response to this was mixed .
The second part of the " A Matter of Life and Death " tour , which took place in 2007 , was dubbed " A Matter of the Beast " to celebrate the 25th anniversary of The Number of the Beast album , and included appearances at several major festivals worldwide . The tour opened in the Middle East with the band 's first performance in Dubai at the Dubai Desert Rock Festival , after which they played to over 30 @,@ 000 people at the Bangalore Palace Grounds , marking the first concert by any major heavy metal band in the Indian sub @-@ continent . The band went on to play a string of European dates , including an appearance at Download Festival , their fourth headline performance at Donington Park , to approximately 80 @,@ 000 people . On 24 June they ended the tour with a performance at London 's Brixton Academy in aid of The Clive Burr MS Trust fund .
= = = Somewhere Back in Time World Tour and Flight 666 ( 2007 – 09 ) = = =
On 5 September 2007 , the band announced their Somewhere Back in Time World Tour , which tied in with the DVD release of their Live After Death album . The setlist for the tour consisted of successes from the 1980s , with a specific emphasis on the Powerslave era for set design . The first part of the tour , commencing in Mumbai , India on 1 February 2008 , consisted of 24 concerts in 21 cities , travelling nearly 50 @,@ 000 miles in the band 's own chartered aeroplane , named " Ed Force One " . They played their first ever concerts in Costa Rica and Colombia and their first shows in Australia and Puerto Rico since 1992 .
The tour led to the release of a new compilation album , entitled Somewhere Back in Time , which included a selection of tracks from their 1980 eponymous debut to 1988 's Seventh Son of a Seventh Son , as well as several live versions from Live After Death .
The Somewhere Back in Time World Tour continued with two further legs in the US and Europe in the summer of 2008 , during which the band used a more expansive stage @-@ set , including further elements of the original Live After Death show . With the sole UK concert taking place at Twickenham Stadium , this would be the first time the band would headline a stadium in their own country . The three 2008 legs of the tour were remarkably successful ; it was the second highest grossing tour of the year for a British artist .
The last part of the tour took place in February and March 2009 , with the band , once again , using " Ed Force One " . The final leg included the band 's first ever appearances in Peru and Ecuador , as well as their return to Venezuela and New Zealand after 17 years . The band also played another show in India ( their third in the country within a span of 2 years ) at the Rock in India festival to a crowd of 20 @,@ 000 . At their concert in São Paulo on 15 March , Dickinson announced on stage that it was the largest non @-@ festival show of their career , with an overall attendance of 63 @,@ 000 people . The final leg ended in Florida on 2 April after which the band took a break . Overall , the tour reportedly had an attendance of over two million people worldwide over both years .
At the 2009 BRIT Awards , Iron Maiden won the award for best British live act . Voted for by the public , the band reportedly won by a landslide .
On 20 January 2009 , the band announced that they were to release a full @-@ length documentary film in select cinemas on 21 April 2009 . Entitled Iron Maiden : Flight 666 , it was filmed during the first part of the Somewhere Back in Time World Tour between February and March 2008 . Flight 666 was co @-@ produced by Banger Productions and was distributed in cinemas by Arts Alliance Media and EMI , with D & E Entertainment sub @-@ distributing in the US . The film went on to have a Blu @-@ ray , DVD and CD release in May and June , topping the music DVD charts in 22 countries .
= = = The Final Frontier and Maiden England World Tour ( 2010 – 14 ) = = =
Following announcements that the band had begun composition of new material and booked studio time in early 2010 with Kevin Shirley producing , The Final Frontier was announced on 4 March . The album , the band 's fifteenth , was released on 16 August , garnering critical acclaim and the band 's greatest commercial success in their history , reaching No. 1 in twenty @-@ eight countries worldwide . Although Steve Harris had been quoted in the past as claiming that the band would only produce fifteen studio releases , band members have since confirmed that there will be at least one further record .
The album 's supporting tour saw the band perform 98 shows across the globe to an estimated audience of over 2 million , including their first visits to Singapore , Indonesia and South Korea , before concluding in London on 6 August 2011 . As the tour 's 2010 leg preceded The Final Frontier 's release , the band made " El Dorado " available as a free download on 8 June , which would go on to win the award for Best Metal Performance at the 2011 Grammy Awards on 13 February 2011 . It is the band 's first win following two previous Grammy nominations ( " Fear of the Dark " in 1994 and " The Wicker Man " in 2001 ) .
On 15 March , a new compilation to accompany 2009 's Somewhere Back in Time was announced . Entitled From Fear to Eternity , the original release date was set at 23 May but was later pushed back to 6 June . The double disc set covers the period 1990 – 2010 ( the band 's most recent eight studio albums ) , and , as on Somewhere Back in Time , live versions with Bruce Dickinson were included in place of original recordings which featured other vocalists , in this case Blaze Bayley .
In a press release regarding From Fear to Eternity , band manager Rod Smallwood revealed that Iron Maiden will release a new concert video to DVD in 2011 , filmed in Santiago , Chile and Buenos Aires , Argentina during The Final Frontier World Tour . On 17 January 2012 , the band announced that the new release , entitled En Vivo ! , based on footage from the Chile concert , will be made available worldwide on CD , LP , DVD and Blu @-@ ray on 26 March , except the United States and Canada ( where it was released on 27 March ) . In addition to the concert footage , the video release includes an 88 @-@ minute tour documentary , entitled Behind The Beast , containing interviews with the band and their crew . In December 2012 , one song from the release ( " Blood Brothers " ) was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Hard Rock / Metal Performance at the 2013 Grammy Awards .
On 15 February 2012 , the band announced the Maiden England World Tour 2012 – 14 , which was based around the video of the same name . The tour commenced in North America in the summer of 2012 and was followed by further dates in 2013 and 2014 , which included the band 's record @-@ breaking fifth headline performance at Donington Park , their first show at the newly built national stadium in Stockholm , a return to the Rock in Rio festival in Brazil , and their debut appearance in Paraguay . In August 2012 , Steve Harris stated that the Maiden England video would be re @-@ issued in 2013 , with a release date later set for 25 March 2013 in DVD , CD and LP formats under the title Maiden England ' 88 .
= = = The Book of Souls ( 2015 – present ) = = =
Following confirmation from the group that 2010 's The Final Frontier would not be their last album , Bruce Dickinson revealed plans for a sixteenth studio record in July 2013 , with a potential release date in 2015 . In February 2015 , drummer Nicko McBrain revealed that a new album had been completed , although the release has been put on hold while Dickinson recovers from treatment for a cancerous tumour found on his tongue . On 15 May , after Dickinson had been given the all @-@ clear , manager Rod Smallwood confirmed that the album would be released in 2015 , although the band will not tour until 2016 to allow Dickinson to recuperate . On 18 June 2015 , the band 's website announced its title , The Book of Souls , and confirmed a release date of 4 September 2015 . A critical and commercial success , it received positive reviews and became the band 's fifth UK No. 1 album .
The new record was recorded at Guillaume Tell Studios , Paris , which they had previously used for 2000 's Brave New World , with regular producer Kevin Shirley in late summer 2014 . With a total time of 92 minutes , it is the group 's first double studio album . In addition , the release 's closing song , " Empire of the Clouds " , penned by Dickinson , replaces " Rime of the Ancient Mariner " ( from 1984 's Powerslave ) as Iron Maiden 's longest song , at 18 minutes in length . A music video for the song " Speed of Light " was issued on 14 August .
In February 2016 , the band embarked on The Book of Souls World Tour , which will see them play concerts in 35 countries in North and South America , Asia , Australasia , Africa and Europe , including their first ever performances in China , El Salvador and Lithuania . As with 2008 @-@ 09 's Somewhere Back in Time World Tour and 2010 @-@ 11 's The Final Frontier World Tour , the group will be travelling in a customised aeroplane , flown by Dickinson and nicknamed " Ed Force One " , although this time they will be using a Boeing 747 @-@ 400 jumbo jet .
= = Image and legacy = =
Iron Maiden were ranked No. 24 in VH1 's " 100 Greatest Artists of Hard Rock " , No. 4 in MTV 's " Top 10 Greatest Heavy Metal Bands of All Time " and No. 3 in VH1 Classic 's " Top 20 Metal Bands " . The band also won the Ivor Novello Award for international achievement in 2002 and were inducted into the Hollywood RockWalk whilst touring in the US in 2005 .
Iron Maiden frequently use the slogan " Up the Irons " in their disc liner notes , and the phrase can also be seen on several T @-@ shirts officially licensed by the band . It is a paraphrase of " Up the Hammers " , the phrase which refers to the London football club , West Ham United , of which founder Steve Harris is a fan .
Iron Maiden 's mascot , Eddie , is a perennial fixture in the band 's science fiction and horror @-@ influenced album cover art , as well as in live shows . Originally a papier @-@ mâché mask incorporated in their backdrop which would squirt fake blood during their live shows , the name would be transferred to the character featured in the band 's debut album cover , created by Derek Riggs . Eddie was painted exclusively by Riggs until 1992 , at which point the band began using artwork from numerous other artists as well , including Melvyn Grant . Eddie is also featured in the band 's first @-@ person shooter video game , Ed Hunter , as well as their mobile role @-@ playing game , Iron Maiden : Legacy of the Beast , in addition to numerous T @-@ shirts , posters and other band @-@ related merchandise . In 2008 , he was awarded the " Icon Award " at the Metal Hammer Golden Gods , while Gibson.com describes him as " the most recognisable metal icon in the world and one of the most versatile too " .
Iron Maiden 's distinct logo has adorned all of the band 's releases since their debut , 1979 's The Soundhouse Tapes EP . The typeface originates with Vic Fair 's poster design for the 1976 science fiction film , The Man Who Fell to Earth , also used by Gordon Giltrap , although Steve Harris claims that he designed it himself , utilising his abilities as an architectural draughtsman .
= = = Influence on other artists = = =
According to Guitar World , Iron Maiden 's music has " influenced generations of newer metal acts , from legends like Metallica to current stars like Avenged Sevenfold , " with Metallica drummer Lars Ulrich commenting that he has " always had an incredible amount of respect and admiration for them . " Kerry King of Slayer has stated that " they meant so much to me in their early days " and Scott Ian of Anthrax said , " they had a major impact on my life . "
M. Shadows of Avenged Sevenfold states that Iron Maiden " are by far the best live band in the world and their music is timeless " , while Trivium singer Matt Heafy comments that " without Iron Maiden , Trivium surely wouldn 't exist " . Slipknot frontman Corey Taylor says that " Steve Harris does more with four fingers than I 've ever seen anybody do . And Bruce Dickinson ? Dude ! To me , he was the quintessential old @-@ school heavy metal singer . He could hit notes that were just sick , and he was a great showman . Everything made me a fan . And there wasn 't a dude that I hung out with that wasn 't trying to draw Eddie on their schoolbooks " , while their music also helped Jesper Strömblad of In Flames to pioneer the melodic death metal genre , stating that he had wanted to combine death metal with Iron Maiden 's melodic guitar sounds .
Other heavy metal artists who cite the band as an influence include Chris Jericho , lead singer of Fozzy , Cam Pipes , lead vocalist of 3 Inches of Blood , Vitaly Dubinin , bassist of Aria , and Mikael Åkerfeldt , guitarist and lead vocalist of Opeth . Both current and former Dream Theater members John Petrucci , John Myung and Mike Portnoy have stated that Iron Maiden were one of their biggest influences when their band first formed .
= = = Appearance in media = = =
The band 's name has been mentioned prominently in several songs , such as the singles " Teenage Dirtbag " by Wheatus , " Back to the 80 's " by Danish dance @-@ pop band Aqua. and " Fat Lip " by Sum 41 . Iron Maiden have also been referenced in Weezer 's " Heart Songs " ( from their 2008 self @-@ titled " Red " album ) , Blues Traveler 's " Psycho Joe " ( from 1997 's Straight on till Morning ) , and NOFX 's " Eddie , Bruce and Paul " ( from their 2009 album Coaster ) , which Sputnikmusic describes as " a humorous retelling of Paul DiAnno 's departure " . Also , Swedish power metal band Sabaton have made references to the band in their songs " Metal Machine " , " Metal Crue " , and " Metal Ripper " , with the former mentioning various Iron Maiden songs ( namely " Fear of the Dark " and " Afraid to Shoot Strangers " ) , and the latter including lyrics from " The Number of the Beast " .
In 2008 , Kerrang ! released an album , entitled Maiden Heaven : A Tribute to Iron Maiden , composed of Iron Maiden cover songs played by artists such as Metallica , Machine Head , Dream Theater , Trivium , Coheed and Cambria , Avenged Sevenfold , and others who were influenced by Iron Maiden throughout their careers . In 2010 , Maiden uniteD , an acoustic tribute band consisting of members of Ayreon , Threshold and Within Temptation , released Mind the Acoustic Pieces , a re @-@ interpretation of the entire Piece of Mind album . Many other Iron Maiden cover albums exist ( each featuring various artists ) , including piano , electro , string quartet and hip @-@ hop tributes .
Iron Maiden songs have been featured in the soundtracks of several video games , including Carmageddon 2 , Grand Theft Auto : Vice City , Grand Theft Auto : Episodes From Liberty City , Grand Theft Auto IV : The Lost and Damned , Tony Hawk 's Pro Skater 4 , SSX on Tour and Madden NFL 10 . Their music also appears in the Guitar Hero and Rock Band series of rhythmic video games . Iron Maiden songs have also appeared in films , such as Phenomena ( entitled Creepers in the US ) , and Murder by Numbers ; while MTV 's animated duo Beavis and Butt @-@ head have commented favourably on the band several times .
Transformers author Bill Forster is an avowed Iron Maiden fan and made several Iron Maiden references , including song lyrics and the phrase " Up the Irons " in his books , including The Ark series and The AllSpark Almanac series .
= = = Claims of Satanic references = = =
In 1982 , the band released one of their most popular , controversial and acclaimed albums , The Number of the Beast . The artwork and title track led to Christian groups in the United States branding the band as Satanists , encouraging people to destroy copies of the release . The band 's manager , Rod Smallwood , later commented that Christians initially burnt the records , but later decided to destroy them with hammers through fear of breathing in the melting vinyl 's fumes . The claims were not restricted to the US , however , with Christian organisations managing to prevent Iron Maiden from performing in Chile in 1992 .
Contrary to the accusations , the band have always denied the notion that they are Satanists , with lead vocalist , Bruce Dickinson , doing so on @-@ stage in the Live After Death concert video . Steve Harris has since commented that , " It was mad . They completely got the wrong end of the stick . They obviously hadn 't read the lyrics . They just wanted to believe all that rubbish about us being Satanists . " Harris has also stated that " The Number of the Beast " song was inspired by a nightmare he had after watching Damien : Omen II , and also influenced by Robert Burns ' Tam o ' Shanter . Furthermore , the band 's drummer , Nicko McBrain , has been a born again Christian since 1999 .
= = = Ed Force One = = =
For their Somewhere Back in Time World Tour in 2008 and 2009 , Iron Maiden commissioned an Astraeus Airlines Boeing 757 as transport . The aeroplane was converted into a combi configuration , which enabled it to carry the band , their crew and stage production , thereby allowing the group to perform in countries which were previously deemed unreachable logistically . It was also repainted with a special Iron Maiden livery , which the airline decided to retain after receiving positive feedback from customers .
The aircraft , named " Ed Force One " after a competition on the band 's website , was flown by Dickinson , as he was also a commercial airline pilot for Astraeus , and plays a major role in the award @-@ winning documentary , Iron Maiden : Flight 666 , which was released in cinemas in 42 countries in April 2009 . A different aeroplane ( registered G @-@ STRX ) was used for The Final Frontier World Tour in 2011 with altered livery , adopting the artwork of The Final Frontier album , and features heavily in the 2012 documentary " Behind the Beast " . For the The Book of Souls World Tour in 2016 , the band upgraded to an ex @-@ Air France Boeing 747 @-@ 400 jumbo jet , supplied by Air Atlanta Icelandic ( registered TF @-@ AAK ) and customised by Volga @-@ Dnepr Gulf , which allows for more space without the aircraft having to undergo a significant conversion to carry their equipment .
= = Musical style and influences = =
Steve Harris , Iron Maiden 's bassist and primary songwriter , has stated that his influences include Black Sabbath , Deep Purple , Led Zeppelin , Uriah Heep , Pink Floyd , Genesis , Yes , Jethro Tull , Thin Lizzy , UFO and Wishbone Ash . In 2010 Harris stated , " I think if anyone wants to understand Maiden 's early thing , in particular the harmony guitars , all they have to do is listen to Wishbone Ash 's Argus album . Thin Lizzy too , but not as much . And then we wanted to have a bit of a prog thing thrown in as well , because I was really into bands like Genesis and Jethro Tull . So you combine all that with the heavy riffs and the speed , and you 've got it . " In 2004 , Harris explained that the band 's " heaviness " was inspired by " Black Sabbath and Deep Purple with a bit of Zeppelin thrown in . " On top of this , Harris developed his own playing style , which guitarist Janick Gers describes as " more like a rhythm guitar , " cited as responsible for the band 's galloping style , heard in such songs as " The Trooper " and " Run to the Hills . "
The band 's guitarists , Dave Murray , Adrian Smith and Janick Gers , each have their own individual influences and playing style . Dave Murray is known for his legato technique which , he claims , " evolved naturally . I 'd heard Jimi Hendrix using legato when I was growing up , and I liked that style of playing . " Stating that he " was inspired by blues rock rather than metal , " Adrian Smith was influenced by Johnny Winter and Pat Travers , leading to him becoming a " melodic player . " Janick Gers , on the other hand , prefers a more improvised style , largely inspired by Ritchie Blackmore , which he claims is in contrast to Smith 's " rhythmic " sound .
Singer Bruce Dickinson , who typically works in collaboration with guitarist Adrian Smith , has an operatic vocal style , inspired by Arthur Brown , Peter Hammill , Ian Anderson and Ian Gillan , and is often considered to be one of the best heavy metal vocalists of all time . Although Nicko McBrain has only received one writing credit , on the Dance of Death album , Harris often relies on him while developing songs . Adrian Smith commented , " Steve loves playing with him . [ They ] used to work for hours going over these bass and drum patterns . "
Throughout their career , the band 's style has remained largely unchanged , in spite of the addition of guitar synthesisers on 1986 's Somewhere in Time , keyboards on 1988 's Seventh Son of a Seventh Son , and an attempt to return to the " stripped down " production of their earlier material on 1990 's No Prayer for the Dying . In recent years , however , the band have begun using more progressive elements in their songs , which Steve Harris describes as not progressive " in the modern sense , but like Dream Theater , more in a 70s way " . According to Harris , Seventh Son of a Seventh Son was the band 's first album which was " more progressive " , while they would only return to this style from 1995 's The X Factor , which he states is " like an extension of Seventh Son ... , in the sense of the progressive element to it " . The development contrasts with the band 's raw sounding earlier material , which AllMusic states was " clearly drawing from elements of punk rock " , although Harris firmly denies this .
= = Awards = =
= = Band members = =
= = Discography = =
Studio albums
Iron Maiden ( 1980 )
Killers ( 1981 )
The Number of the Beast ( 1982 )
Piece of Mind ( 1983 )
Powerslave ( 1984 )
Somewhere in Time ( 1986 )
Seventh Son of a Seventh Son ( 1988 )
No Prayer for the Dying ( 1990 )
Fear of the Dark ( 1992 )
The X Factor ( 1995 )
Virtual XI ( 1998 )
Brave New World ( 2000 )
Dance of Death ( 2003 )
A Matter of Life and Death ( 2006 )
The Final Frontier ( 2010 )
The Book of Souls ( 2015 )
= = Concert tours = =
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= Battle of Gloucester ( 1775 ) =
The Battle of Gloucester was a skirmish fought early in the American Revolutionary War at Gloucester , Massachusetts on August 8 or 9 , 1775 . Royal Navy Captain John Linzee , commanding the sloop @-@ of @-@ war HMS Falcon , spotted two schooners that were returning from the West Indies . After capturing one schooner , Linzee chased the second one into Gloucester Harbor , where it was grounded . The townspeople called out their militia , captured British seamen sent to seize the grounded schooner , and recovered the captured ship as well .
The skirmish was one of a series of actions that prompted a retaliatory expedition by Royal Navy Captain Henry Mowat in October 1775 . The major event of his cruise , the Burning of Falmouth , was cited by the Second Continental Congress when it established the Continental Navy .
= = Background = =
In April 1775 , tensions between British colonists in the Province of Massachusetts Bay and the royal governor , General Thomas Gage , boiled over into war . When General Gage dispatched troops to Concord to search for military supplies the colonists had stored there , alarms were raised , and colonists and soldiers clashed in Lexington and Concord on April 19 . Militia companies continued to arrive in the days following , and the British troops were besieged in Boston .
The siege , which only blockaded land access to the city , made the army dependent on the ability of the navy to supply it with fresh provisions . In many communities near the city , livestock and hay were removed from islands in Boston Harbor and the immediate coastal areas , while General Gage and Vice Admiral Samuel Graves sent out expeditions to raid coastal communities for livestock and hay , and to interdict colonial shipping . When these expeditions landed troops or sailors to round up livestock , they were sometimes met with resistance . Not long after the siege began , colonists and army troops clashed on May 27 near Boston over supplies on a nearby island .
On August 5 , the HMS Falcon , commanded by John Linzee , appeared off Ipswich Bay . Captain Linzee sent a barge of men to the shore in search of livestock , hove to , and sent a barge containing about 50 men ashore to secure a supply of mutton from , the flock of sheep grazing on the Coffin farm at West Gloucester . Major Coffin observed their movements and anticipated their design . He hastily gathered some half dozen men , armed them with rifles and , concealed behind sand mounds , kept up such a brisk firing that the sailors in the barge , supposing that a large company were ready to receive them , thought it prudent to desist from their sheep foraging intentions and returned to the " Falcon " . When the barge returned to the Falcon , Linzee sent it to investigate a schooner in the harbor ; this ship turned out to only contain ballast . Linzee continued to cruise off Cape Ann for the next few days , and impressed some men from local ports and ships .
= = Battle = =
On August 8 or 9 ( sources disagree on the exact date ) , Captain Linzee spotted two American schooners making sail for Salem around 8 in the morning . Quickly capturing one of the schooners without incident , he put a crew aboard the prize before giving chase to the other . The captain of the second schooner , apparently familiar with the area , brought his ship deep into Gloucester Harbor and grounded it near Five Pound Island shortly after noon . Linzee forced a local fisherman to pilot the Falcon and the prize schooner to an anchorage in the harbor . He then sent 36 men on three small boats under the command of his lieutenant to take the ship . Among the crews sent were 10 impressed Americans , including four from Gloucester . The arrival of the British ship had caused the townspeople to raise the alarm , and militia companies began to muster , led by their captains , Joseph Foster and Bradbury Sanders . Armed with muskets and two aging swivel guns , they opened fire from the shore at the small boats as they neared the schooner . The British rowed faster , and boarded the grounded schooner , where they were effectively trapped by constant fire from the shore . Linzee , attempting to distract the townspeople , fired the Falcon 's guns on the town , and eventually sent a landing party to try to burn the town . However , this attempt was unsuccessful , and the party on the grounded schooner continued to be harassed by from the shore . The lieutenant was wounded in the action , and he and a few men managed to escape the action in a skiff around 4 pm , leaving the Falcon 's master in charge . The remaining men left on the grounded ship were eventually taken prisoner , including the impressed Americans . By 7 pm , the small boats had all been taken . Linzee then decided to send the prize schooner in to recover his men . Linzee reported his suspicion that the crew of the captured ship took the opportunity to overpower the prize crew , and recovered the vessel . According to Linzee , " After the master was landed I found I could not do him any good , or distress the rebels by firing , therefore I left off . "
= = Aftermath = =
Linzee 's attempt to burn the town as a punishment for resisting his actions was echoed in later naval actions . In October 1775 , Admiral Graves ordered Captain Henry Mowat on an expedition of reprisal against New England 's coastal communities , specifically including Gloucester as a target , and citing among other justifications Captain Linzee 's defeat at Gloucester . Mowat chose not to attack Gloucester , since he felt its buildings were too widely spaced for cannonades to have any significant effect . Reports of Mowat 's only major action , the Burning of Falmouth ( present @-@ day Portland , Maine ) , were instrumental in motivating the Second Continental Congress to establish the Continental Navy .
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= Karen McDougal =
Karen McDougal ( born March 23 , 1971 ) is an American model and actress . She is known for her appearances in Playboy magazine as Playmate of the Month for December 1997 and Playmate of the Year of 1998 . In 2001 , the readers of Playboy voted McDougal " The second sexiest Playmate of the 1990s " .
McDougal taught pre @-@ kindergarten before winning a swimwear competition that launched her career as a glamour , promotional , and swimsuit model . Since her appearances in Playboy , she has extended her career into a wide variety of appearances in mainstream media , including other magazine modeling , television commercials , and minor acting , with mixed success . She has been a successful fitness model , with multiple magazine appearances including being the first woman to appear on the cover of Men 's Fitness magazine . She starred in The Arena , a direct @-@ to @-@ video film , and inspired the creation of a fantasy art statuette and a doll .
McDougal is a fitness enthusiast , since childhood ballet study and high school sports . She is an avid motorcycle and car collector . Since her Playmate days , she has maintained a largely private social life .
= = Early life = =
Although her Playmate datasheet stated she was born in Gary , Indiana , McDougal was actually born in Merrillville , Indiana , near Gary . She is of Cherokee Indian , Scottish and Irish descent . McDougal is the first daughter in the family with 3 older brothers , Bob , Dave and Jeff , and a younger sister , Tina . Her mother , Carol , remarried when McDougal was 9 years old and the family moved to Sawyer , Michigan where she remained until college .
McDougal studied tap dance and ballet as a child . Her childhood dream , prior to teaching and modeling , was to become a ballerina . She attended River Valley High School and became a cheerleader , band member , color guard , volleyball and softball player , as well as Michigan state champion clarinet player for 4 years in a row in high school . Her high school nickname was " Barbie " due to her wholesome sweetness . After graduating high school in 1989 , she attended Ferris State University at Big Rapids , Michigan , majoring in Elementary Education .
After 2 years of college , McDougal moved to a Detroit suburb where she taught pre @-@ kindergarten , before being persuaded to try out for a swimsuit competition . One of her professional goals has always been to open a learning center for children , but she has put those plans on hold to focus on pursuing roles in acting and modelling .
= = Modeling = =
= = = Playboy = = =
In 1997 , McDougal tried out and won her local Venus Swimwear swimsuit competition in Michigan , earning her place at the international final in Florida . Her victory caught the eye of Playboy photographer David Mecey . Soon after that she was approached by Playboy for a test shoot at Playboy Studio West which she accepted . Upon completing her test shoot , she was promptly selected to return for a complete photo and video shoot and chosen as Miss December 1997 . Her pictorial , which was shot by photographers Richard Fegley and Stephen Wayda , has a winter theme and its outdoor portion was shot in the snowy fields near Park City , Utah . Her video , the " Playmate Profile " , was featured on Playboy TV soon after her magazine debut .
In May 1998 , she was announced to have been chosen by Hugh Hefner and fans as Playmate of the Year ( PMOY ) of 1998 at a luncheon at the Playboy Mansion . As her reward , she was awarded $ 100 @,@ 000 and a special edition silver Shelby Series 1 convertible with a customized Michigan license plate " PMOY 98 " . McDougal 's PMOY pictorial was featured in the July 1998 issue of Playboy where she also appeared on its cover . In contrast to her Playmate pictorial , her PMOY pictorial has a tropical theme and its outdoor portion was shot at Saint Lucia . According to her interview in her Playmate of the Year " Video Centerfold " which was released soon after her PMOY issue debuted , she believes her physical imperfections are her " funny " smile , her crooked pinkies which she inherited from her grandfather and her " ugly feet " which she wishes others would not look at . Because of the popularity of the VH1 television series " Pop @-@ up Video " at the time , one of the segments in her PMOY video was done as a Pop @-@ up Video parody filled with factoids about her and Playboy . During her appearance on The Magic Hour to promote her PMOY issue , McDougal demonstrated her signature pose , straddle split on TV in front of a live studio audience .
Many regard her as a favorite Playmate because of her combination of beauty , " Girl next door " appeal and curvaceous figure , according to a November 2001 Playboy poll in the special edition Sexiest Playmates . In that issue , she was voted " Readers ' Choice No.2 Sexiest Playmate of the 1990s " , with Pamela Anderson taking the No.1 spot . In an online chat in 2002 , McDougal expressed interest in posing nude for Playboy again if offered .
= = = Fitness modeling = = =
In March 1999 , McDougal became the first woman to appear on the cover of Men 's Fitness magazine . Since then she expanded her career into fitness modeling by appearing in fitness and body building magazines such as Muscle & Fitness ( January 2000 ) , Physical ( June 2004 ) and Iron Man ( October 2005 , January 2006 , June 2007 and November 2009 ) . She appeared in a 10 @-@ page pictorial in the January 2006 issue of Iron Man as " Hardbody " of the month , and on the cover of its October 2005 and June 2007 issues . McDougal returned as " Hardbody " of the month in the November 2009 issue in a pictorial together with fellow Playmate Katie Lohmann . In interviews , she stated that her transition to fitness modeling was unintentional .
= = = Other appearances = = =
Playboy released a limited edition doll in 2002 based on the likeness of McDougal and emphasized that it was an accurate model of her statuesque physique . Her collectors ' figure was originally slated to be the first in the series to be released , however it was delayed due to redesigns . McDougal collaborated with fantasy sculptor Bill Toma in creating a limited edition bronze statuette titled Warrior Princess in 2003 . McDougal posed for Toma in the creative process and the pedestal of each statuette bears her signature .
In early 2004 , McDougal appeared in a photo spread in the Italian edition of Vogue with fellow Playmates , Pamela Anderson , Audra Lynn and Tishara Cousino . It was a tennis themed men 's fashion spread shot in Las Vegas by photographer David LaChapelle . The spread contained her first published nudes since her contract with Playboy expired years earlier . She traveled to Japan to be one of the eye candies for Scott Hall and Kevin Nash ( The Outsiders ) when they wrestled at Yokohama , Japan in May 2004 . McDougal also participated in the 50th Anniversary celebrations of Playboy throughout the year at Las Vegas , New York and Moscow with other Playmates past and present .
McDougal appeared in the 2005 Playmates at Play at the Playboy Mansion swimsuit calendar as the calendar girl of July . The calendar was the inaugural Playmates at Play calendar and it was shot on the grounds of Playboy Mansion in 2004 . It was Playboy 's first attempt at creating a non @-@ nude swimsuit calendar featuring Playmates similar in style with those from Sports Illustrated Swimsuit Issue . While all Playmates appeared in bikinis in the calendar , McDougal and Hiromi Oshima were the only two Playmates actually wearing only painted on bikinis .
In November 2006 , she was part of a trio of Playmates ( along with Tina Marie Jordan and Katie Lohmann ) that appeared in the " Celebrity Playmate Gift Guide " pictorial of Splat magazine , a paintball enthusiasts magazine . The pictorial showcased new paintball products for the 2006 holiday season . McDougal has also appeared in various pin @-@ up posters , calendars , magazine covers , advertising campaigns , promotional events , clothing , swimwear and lingerie catalogs following her success as Playmate of the Year .
= = Television and film = =
McDougal appeared in a series of sexy television commercials for XFL football league on NBC and UPN with the theme of " Cheerleaders " . These edgy XFL commercials with implied nudity backfired and caused a controversy as they were deemed too risqué by the media , they were quietly withdrawn before the launch of 2001 XFL inaugural ( and final ) season .
In 2001 , she co @-@ starred with Lisa Dergan in The Arena , a Roger Corman @-@ produced , direct @-@ to @-@ video movie directed by Timur Bekmambetov . The entire production was shot in Russia . In her feature film debut , McDougal 's character , Jessemina , is a slave girl who is forced into fighting as a female gladiator in an Ancient Roman colony by its corrupt governor . The role offered McDougal her first opportunity to act in a dramatic role and to demonstrate her physical abilities with the movie 's sword fighting sequences . The movie , initially titled Gladiatrix was deemed to be a knockoff of Gladiator . Although the movie was not well received , it has turned into a lesser known cult film .
McDougal was one of twelve contestants in the search for the new host succeeding Brooke Burke for Wild On ! in 2002 ( known as Wild Off ! ) . The contest took place at The Palms in Las Vegas . Each contestant was given a " wild " challenge to complete and McDougal 's challenge was to dress up as Cleopatra and roam the casino at Caesars Palace in the arms of an actor dressed up as Julius Caesar for a day . She completed her challenge and was considered an early favorite by fellow contestants , but did not advance to the final round of 5 contestants . Cindy Taylor was the eventual winner of Wild Off ! .
After winning the local try out in Los Angeles , McDougal advanced to the 2004 WWE Diva Search special held at the Beacon Theatre in New York as one of 28 finalists . The special was televised live on Spike TV with a live audience on July 15 , 2004 . McDougal , clad in a black bikini , survived 2 rounds of elimination during the 2 hour special , only to be eliminated by the judges in the last round at the end , just prior to the selection of the final 10 contestants eligible for online voting .
McDougal appeared as one of the interviewees in E ! True Hollywood Story of Hugh Hefner first broadcast on April 9 , 2006 . She briefly described her experience at the Playboy Mansion when she was Miss December 1997 . In summer of 2006 , McDougal appeared as a fitness model demonstrating all the exercises in a fitness training DVD with Hollywood celebrity fitness trainer Valerie Waters .
McDougal is interested in pursuing hosting duties of TV or sports shows . She has guest hosted TV programs ( Wild On ! on E ! , VIP Access on Showtime ) , appeared in other TV programs ( such as : Lovespring International , Anger Management , The O 'Reilly Factor , Playmate edition of Russian Roulette , etc . ) , movies ( cameos in Joe Dirt , Charlie 's Angels , Grind , The Girl Next Door and Raising Helen ) and music videos with singer David Lee Roth .
= = Business venture = =
In 2010 , McDougal became one of the owners of Pharmore Alternatives , a company selling various health and wellness supplements . She attended the 2011 AVN Adult Entertainment Expo in January 2011 to promote its products .
= = Personal life = =
McDougal as she is an avid motorcycle rider and car collector . Her first modelling assignment was being a promotional model at a Harley @-@ Davidson bike show in Detroit . In 2004 , she bought a pink custom @-@ built motorcycle , and entered an Easyriders sponsored motorcycle competition in Pomona , where her motorcycle won the Best Radical Custom award . She also professes to be a chocoholic and junk food junkie even when she considers herself a " health nut " . In her spare time , she works out 5 days a week to stay in shape . When she was Playmate of the Year of 1998 , she had a healthy BMI of 19 . Although she is a swimsuit model , she is not a proficient swimmer because of her aquaphobia . She is an animal lover and owned two cats : Brittany and Brandy . McDougal has two tattoos , one is a tattoo of a cat on the second toe of her right foot to honor her cats , the other is that of a cross behind her right ear as a reminder of her spirituality .
McDougal 's family members initially did not support her decision to pose for Playboy . Eventually , they embraced the fact and her mother appeared in interview segments of her Playmate of the Year " Video Centerfold " as a sign of support . Her family has a history of breast cancer , and McDougal , who acknowledges having breast implants , is an advocate of breast cancer awareness . As of 2007 , McDougal is residing in Los Angeles and Phoenix , Arizona . In March 2008 , McDougal appeared in a topless pictorial and interview in Spanish magazine Interviu in which she discussed her relationship with Bruce Willis at the time .
= = Quotes = =
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= Kalki Koechlin =
Kalki Koechlin ( / ˌkʌlkiˈkeɪklɑː / ; born 10 January 1984 ) is an Indian actress and screenwriter of French ethnicity , who predominantly works in Bollywood . Apart from acting in films , she is also a regular presence in theatre productions in India . Koechlin is the recipient of a National Film Award , a Filmfare Award and two Screen Awards .
Drawn to theatre at a young age , Koechlin studied drama and theatre at University of London , and worked simultaneously with a local theatre company . After returning to India , she made her screen debut in the romantic drama Dev.D in 2009 , and her performance as Chandramukhi earned her the Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actress . She then starred in the comedy @-@ dramas Zindagi Na Milegi Dobara ( 2011 ) and Yeh Jawaani Hai Deewani ( 2013 ) . These were top @-@ grossing Bollywood productions , and both earned her Best Supporting Actress nominations at the Filmfare Awards . Koechlin co @-@ wrote the screenplay for the crime thriller That Girl in Yellow Boots ( 2011 ) , in which she also played the lead role . She won the National Film Award – Special Jury Award , among other accolades , for her role as a young , disabled girl in Shonali Bose 's coming @-@ of @-@ age drama Margarita with a Straw ( 2014 ) .
Koechlin has also garnered critical acclaim for her performances in the crime thriller Shaitan ( 2011 ) , the political drama Shanghai ( 2012 ) , and the comedy @-@ drama Waiting ( 2015 ) . She appeared in Freedom Matters ( 2016 ) , a documentary aimed at spreading awareness on human trafficking , alongside Kailash Satyarthi . Koechlin has also used YouTube as a platform or forum for issues that she advocates for , appearing in videos including , AIB 's It 's Your Fault , Culture Machine 's Printing Machine and Y @-@ Films 's web @-@ series entitled Man 's World .
Along with her film career , Koechlin has written , produced , and acted in several stage plays in India . In 2009 she won The MetroPlus Playwright Award for the play Skeleton Woman . She co @-@ wrote Colour Blind ( 2014 ) , which was presented at the Sir Mutha Venkata Subba Rao Hall in Chennai , and made her directorial debut on stage with the tragicomedy Living Room ( 2015 ) . Koechlin is also an activist and promotes various causes ranging from health and education to women 's empowerment and gender equality . Koechlin was married to filmmaker Anurag Kashyap from 2011 to 2015 .
= = Early life and background = =
Kalki Koechlin was born in Pondicherry , India , on 10 January 1984 to French parents , Joel Koechlin and Françoise Armandie , who came to India from Angers , France . She is a descendant of Maurice Koechlin , a French structural engineer , who played an important role in the design and construction of the Eiffel Tower . Koechlin 's parents are devotees of Sri Aurobindo . The family later settled in Kallatty , a village near Ooty in Tamil Nadu , where Koechlin 's father established a business designing hang @-@ gliders and ultralight aircraft .
Koechlin was brought up in a strict environment in Ooty where she spoke English , Tamil , and French . Her parents divorced when she was fifteen ; her father moved to Bangalore and remarried , while Koechlin continued living with her mother . She has described the time that she spent at Kalatty , between the ages of 5 and 8 , before her parent 's divorce as her " happiest " . Koechlin has a maternal half @-@ brother from her mother 's preceding marriage , and a paternal half @-@ brother from her father 's subsequent marriage .
Koechlin studied at Hebron School , a boarding school in Ooty , where she was involved in acting and writing . She has admitted to being shy and quiet as a child . Koechlin aspired to study psychiatry and become a criminal psychologist . After completing her schooling at the age of 18 , she moved to London and studied drama and theatre at Goldsmiths , University of London . There , she worked for two years with the theatre company Theatre of Relativity , writing The Rise of the Wild Hunt and performing in plays such as David Hare 's The Blue Room and Marivaux 's The Dispute . She worked as a waitress on weekends .
After completing her studies , Koechlin moved back to India and lived with her maternal half @-@ brother in Bangalore . Unable to find work there , she moved to Mumbai , where she worked with theatre directors and with Atul Kumar and Ajay Krishnan , the founders of a Mumbai @-@ based theatre company called " The Company Theatre " . They were looking for actors for a theatrical festival , Contacting the World , to be held in Liverpool .
= = Film career = =
= = = Debut and further roles ( 2009 – 12 ) = = =
After moving to Mumbai , Koechlin auditioned for Anurag Kashyap 's Dev.D ( 2009 ) , a modern take on Sarat Chandra Chattopadhyay 's 1917 Bengali novel Devdas . In the film , Koechlin plays the role of Leni , a young girl who turns to prostitution after a leaked sex tape scandal . Her character was based on Chandramukhi , a pivotal character in the novel , a prostitute who fell in love with the titular character . Kashyap initially rejected Koechlin as she was not Indian , and did not match his visualisation of the character . But he changed his mind , and offered her the role after seeing her audition tape . The film met with generally positive reviews and was a box office success . Raja Sen of Rediff.com called it a " fantastic visual ride " , placing it second on his list of the best movies of 2009 . Koechlin garnered praise for her performance . Shubhra Gupta of The Indian Express described her as " astonishingly apt " and called her journey in the film " riveting " . Koechlin went on to win the Filmfare Award for Best Supporting Actress .
In 2010 , Koechlin played a supporting role in the black comedy The Film Emotional Atyachar , co @-@ starring Ranvir Shorey , Mohit Ahlawat , Abhimanyu Singh , Vinay Pathak , and Ravi Kishan . Her performance in the film as Sophie , a manipulative woman who is abducted by two corrupt policemen , garnered mixed reviews from critics . Komal Nahta of Koimoi thought Koechlin 's performance in the film " average " , while Blessy Chettiar of Daily News and Analysis felt that she was " underused " .
Koechlin had four releases in 2011 . The first was Bejoy Nambiar 's Shaitan , a crime @-@ thriller with an ensemble cast that included Koechlin , Rajeev Khandelwal , Gulshan Devaiya , Shiv Pandit , Neil Bhoopalam , and Kirti Kulhari . The film received positive reviews from critics and Koechlin was nominated for the Best Actress Award at the Star Screen Awards . She then starred in Zoya Akhtar 's coming @-@ of @-@ age comedy Zindagi Na Milegi Dobara . In an interview with NDTV , Akhtar expressed her wish to work with Koechlin after seeing her in Dev.D and the then @-@ unreleased That Girl in Yellow Boots . Koechlin played the supporting role of Natasha , a South Bombay girl who works as an interior designer . In an interview with Hindustan Times Koechlin revealed that she was keen to do the film , because after working in films like Dev.D and Shaitan , she feared being typecast in dark roles such as prostitutes , troubled teenagers , and misfits . Koechlin took diction classes to improve her Hindi for the film . The film was a box @-@ office success and grossed ₹ 1 @.@ 53 billion ( US $ 23 million ) worldwide , becoming , at the time , the ninth highest @-@ grossing Bollywood film in history . Koechlin 's performance was well received by critics . Gaurav Malani of The Times of India deemed her " excellent " , and Raja Sen in his review for Rediff.com highlighted her and Roshan and called them " histrionically strong enough to manage varied roles " . She received her second Filmfare Award nomination for Best Supporting Actress for her role .
Later in 2011 , Koechlin made her debut as a screenwriter with Anurag Kashyap 's thriller That Girl in Yellow Boots , which she co @-@ wrote with Kashyap . Koechlin said that Kashyap was looking for a woman 's perspective for the story , and so he asked her to write the script . Co @-@ starring with Naseeruddin Shah , Koechlin played Ruth , a British woman , a role partially based on her own experience in India . Shot in thirteen days , the film was screened at the 2010 Toronto International Film Festival and the 67th Venice International Film Festival . It opened to critical acclaim , and Koechlin was widely praised for her performance . Giving the film three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of four , Roger Ebert wrote that Koechlin " creates a memorable woman who is sad and old beyond her years " . Sukanya Verma of Rediff.com described Koechlin as " unrestrained and uncorrupted " . Saibal Chatterjee of NDTV also lauded the film and deemed her performance as " absolute perfection " . Koechlin 's final release of the year was the Sanjay Leela Bhansali @-@ produced comedy My Friend Pinto . She played the role of a naïve , aspiring dancer in the film . Mrigank Dhaniwala of Koimoi criticised the film 's " scattered screenplay " , but praised Koechlin for her performance .
In 2012 , Koechlin was cast opposite Emraan Hashmi and Abhay Deol ( her second collaboration with Deol ) for the political @-@ thriller Shanghai . The film , directed by Dibakar Banerjee , was based on the Greek writer Vassilis Vassilikos 's 1967 novel Z , and was premiered at the 2012 Toronto Film Festival . Koechlin played a political activist . The film received positive reviews from critics , and had an average run at the box office . Koechlin garnered a mixed response for her performance in the film . While Russell Edwards noted the " biting edge " she brought to the role , Aniruddha Guha thought of her as the " weakest link " in the film .
= = = Critical acclaim ( 2013 – present ) = = =
In 2013 , Koechlin starred in the supernatural thriller Ek Thi Daayan . The film was based on Mobius Trips , a short story written by Mukul Sharma , the father of Konkona Sen Sharma , who also starred in the film . Koechlin 's role was that of Lisa Dutt , a Canada @-@ based music teacher who is suspected of practising witchcraft . For her role in the film , Koechlin learned to play the guitar , and lip synced the track " Yaaram " , a first . On its release , the film received mixed to positive reviews from critics and had average box @-@ office earnings . Koechlin received positive reviews for her performance in the film . In her review , Anupama Chopra remarked that Koechlin was , " an interesting actor but the film doesn 't know what to do with her " .
Koechlin then went on to star in Yeh Jawaani Hai Deewani , a romantic comedy co @-@ starring Deepika Padukone and Ranbir Kapoor . She played the role of tomboy , Aditi Mehra . Koechlin described her time on the film sets as " fun " , and developed a close friendship with Padukone . The film emerged as one of the highest @-@ grossing Bollywood films with earnings of ₹ 3 @.@ 02 billion ( US $ 45 million ) . Koechlin was lauded for her performance and comic timing . Rajeev Masand , writing for CNN @-@ News18 , deemed the cast terrific , saying that : " Koechlin invests heart and spunkiness to the part " . She earned her third Filmfare Best Supporting Actress nomination .
Later in 2013 , Koechlin appeared in a video entitled It 's Your Fault , along with VJ Juhi Pandey . Dealing with the issue of sexual assaults on women , the video mocks the mindset that blames women for provoking rapes . The video was created by All India Bakchod , and was released on their YouTube channel . The video went viral , with over 150 @,@ 000 views in two days . Koechlin 's sole release in 2014 was Saif Ali Khan 's Happy Ending , where she plays a comic role of a girl obsessed with Khan 's character . She credited her performance in Yeh Jawani Hai Deewani for landing her the role . She said that people noticed her comic timing in the film , and that worked in her favour . The film opened to mixed reviews and was a box @-@ office failure . Despite the film 's mixed reception Koechlin garnered praise for her performance . Saurabh Dwivedi of India Today wrote that " Koechlin steals the show with her perfect portrayal of a nagging girlfriend " , and Rohit Vats of Hindustan Times noted that , although her character in the film felt a bit forced , she delivered a " charming " performance .
Koechlin then starred in Shonali Bose 's drama Margarita with a Straw , playing Laila , a young woman with cerebral palsy who leaves her home in India to study in New York , unexpectedly falls in love , and embarks on a journey of self @-@ discovery . Her character was inspired by Malini Chib , Bose 's cousin . In an interview with the Times of India , Koechlin acknowledged that the role was the most challenging of her film career , and she took six months off her filming schedule to prepare for it . She underwent a six @-@ week training workshop with actor Adil Hussain . The workshop aimed at making her " body language seem natural " , while also focusing on the speech pattern of patients with cerebral palsy . She spent considerable time with Chib and her physiotherapist and speech therapist . She also attended a month @-@ long workshop in Delhi , where she worked on the movement of each body part separately . Although the film covers aspects of physical disability , Koechlin dubbed it " a romcom with some hurdles " . The film premiered at the 2014 Toronto International Film Festival , and was also screened at Tallinn Black Nights Film Festival , BFI London Film Festival , 19th Busan International Film Festival , and the Santa Barbara International Film Festival . Margarita with a Straw received generally positive reviews . Koechlin garnered universal acclaim for her portrayal of a disabled person , with Saibal Chatterjee of NDTV calling her " absolutely brilliant " and her performance " virtuoso " , and Leslie Felperin of The Hollywood Reporter wrote that Koechlin gave : " a bravura performance in both physical and emotional terms " . Deepanjana Pal , in her review for Firstpost , wrote : " [ Koechlin ] has done a good job of miming the physicality ... but what is truly remarkable is the lack of artifice in her expressions " . John Beifuss , writing for the The Commercial Appeal , gave Koechlin the highest praise and said that she : " delivers the type of performance that in a major movie garners Oscar notice like Eddie Redmayne as Stephen Hawking in The Theory of Everything but she 's never a showoff " . Koechlin won The Best Actress Award at The Tallinn Black Nights Film Festival , Screen Award for Best Actress ( Jury ) , and garnered a nomination for the Best Actress Award at the Asian Film Awards . She then went on to win the Jury Award at the 63rd National Film Awards .
In 2015 , Koechlin appeared alongside Parineeti Chopra , Richa Chadda , and Bhumi Pednekar in Y @-@ Films 's mini web @-@ series Man 's World , a satire on gender roles . The series was released on YouTube . She then starred in Anu Menon 's Waiting , an independent film about the relationship between two people who befriend each other in a hospital , while nursing their respective comatose spouses . The film had its world premiere at the Dubai International Film Festival ( DIFF ) in December 2015 , and had its theatrical release in India on 27 May 2016 . The film and her performance received positive critical reviews . Sukanya Verma of Rediff.com called the film " absolutely riveting " , and also lauded Koechlin saying , " There ’ s something stunningly unhindered about Kalki and her aura . She uses this quality in the most mesmeric fashion to create a woman we sympathise with and wish well for " . Kunal Guha in his review for the Mumbai Mirror remarked " this film belongs to Kalki , who impresses by managing to wordlessly convey her character 's state of mind in every scene " .
In January 2016 , Koechlin appeared in a video called Printing Machine that talked about the approach of media and society towards crimes against women . The five @-@ minute video was released on YouTube and features a poem penned and recited by Koechlin . The video was well received by critics and viewers . She also received a letter of appreciation from Melinda Gates , co @-@ founder of Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation , for her contribution to bringing the attention to women issues .
= = = Upcoming projects = = =
As of March 2016 , Koechlin has several upcoming projects . She will feature , alongside Ali Fazal and Gulshan Devaiah , in Soni Razdan 's Love Affair , a fictionalised version of the 1959 Nanavati murder case . Koechlin also signed up for Konkona Sen Sharma 's directorial debut , A Death in the Gunj , in which she will play a Kolkata @-@ based Anglo @-@ Indian woman . She attended an acting workshop conducted by the casting director , Atul Mongia , and also learnt an Anglo @-@ Indian accent for her role . Filming for the production completed in March 2016 after a six @-@ week shoot . Koechlin will also feature in director Howard Rosemeyer 's Jia aur Jia , alongside Richa Chadda . Koechlin and Chadda play strangers of the name same who embark on a road trip together Koechlin is also filming for Pakistani director Sabiha Sumar on a documentary entitled Azmaish – Trials of Life , for which she visited Karachi , Lahore and Skardu to observe the Pakistani culture of the provinces Sindh , Punjab and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa . She has also committed to star in the Shahnawaz NK 's bilingual film CandyFlip opposite Prakash Raj and Gulshan Devaiah .
= = Stage career = =
Koechlin has been associated with theatre from a young age . As a child , she attended theatre workshops in Pondicherry . Her mother was adamant that she complete her studies before venturing into an acting career , sending her to London to study drama and theatre . During her years in the film industry , Koechlin has continued to participate in theatrical productions . She has written , produced , and acted in several stage plays in India . In her interview she said , " Theater is really an actor 's playground " , and continued : " There 's nothing like performing for a live audience " . Koechlin opened her own theater company , Little Productions in June 2015 .
Koechlin won The Hindu 's 2009 The MetroPlus Playwright Award along with Prashant Prakash for the play Skeleton Woman which they co @-@ wrote , directed by Nayantara Kotian . The play is a modern adaptation of an Inuit folk tale about a writer ; Koechlin played the protagonist 's wife . It premiered at the Prithvi Theatre , Mumbai . Asmit Pathare of Mumbai Theatre Guide in his review wrote : " The actors being the playwrights themselves , seemed to know what they were doing " . She also co @-@ wrote Colour Blind , a play that attempts to rediscover different aspects of the personality of Indian poet Rabindranath Tagore through his life and writings . In dual roles , Koechlin plays the Argentine writer and intellectual Victoria Ocampo ( a close associate of Tagore ) , and a young woman who is writing a research paper on him . Aditi Sharma of Mumbai Theatre Guide calling Koechlin the " star or the play " noted that she " really put in an effort to build her character and it shows " .
Koechlin also worked in Rajat Kapoor 's What 's Done , Is Done , an adaptation of Shakespeare 's tragedy Macbeth . She played Lady Macbeth and doubled up as one of the witches for the play . The first show of the play was staged on 5 June 2016 in Mumbai . Koechlin 's other stage appearances include Atul Kumar 's Trivial Disasters , The Real Inspector Hound , Ajay Krishnan 's Hair , where she plays Rapunzel , and Kapoor 's Hamlet , The Clown Prince . In 2015 , she made her directorial debut on stage with a play entitled Living Room . Development of the play began in 2014 , when Koechlin wrote a four page conversation between Death and an old woman who is in a strange surreal space , about to die but unwilling to exit the world . She further worked on the script of the play in 2015 . In a 2016 interview with Mumbai Mirror she said , " Last year , when I was unemployed for six months , I started fleshing out the story . It turned into a comedy on life and death " . The play was staged at the Ranga Shankara Hall , Bangalore , on 24 July 2015 .
= = Personal life and off @-@ screen work = =
Koechlin married film @-@ maker Anurag Kashyap in April 2011 , at her maternal home in Ooty . The two met while filming her debut film Dev.D. On 13 November 2013 , both Koechlin and Kashyap issued a joint statement addressing their separation . On 19 May 2015 , Kashyap and Koechlin filed for divorce at a Mumbai family court . Amidst all the news and speculation surrounding the separation , Koechlin revealed that she regretted being so transparent about her personal life , stating in 2012 that : " It just takes centre stage instead of your work " . Since her divorce , Koechlin has rarely mentioned her personal life in interviews .
After the separation Koechlin said in an interview with Daily News and Analysis : " [ But ] everyone has doubts , we 're all human . Even as an actor , you have days when you haven 't slept enough , you don 't feel like you 're good enough or pretty enough ... But ultimately , it 's all about attitude . You must live with a little abandon and not be self @-@ conscious . You ought to stop staring at yourself in the mirror , and just smile a little ! "
Koechlin identifies herself as a feminist and is also involved with several humanitarian causes . She is vociferous on a variety of issues , including education for children in rural areas , women 's rights , gender equality , and gender pay inequality . She has also used YouTube as a platform or forum for issues that she advocates for . Koechlin actively participates in the P & G Shiksha campaign for educating children living in rural parts of India . Koechlin participated in the 2015 Mumbai Marathon , a charitable event that aimed to spread awareness about issues such as : education , health issues like cancer and AIDS , and senior citizen welfare . Koechlin was accompanied by Shonali Bose 's cousin Malini Chib . Koechlin spoke at a conference on child sexual abuse organised by actor Rahul Bose 's non @-@ governmental organisation HEAL . Koechlin also opened up about going through sexual abuse at the age of nine .
Koechlin wrote an article on gender pay inequality for the 22 August 2014 issue of Forbes India . She is vocal in her support for gender pay @-@ gap issue : " Equal pay won 't happen because there is a hero @-@ based industry . So we need to strive for scripts that empower women , make women our heroes , too . " She recited a monologue entitled An Intense Piece about the Truths of Womanhood on International Women 's Day at the India Today Conclave . Koechlin was appointed by Vogue India as the ambassador for their Vogue Empower initiative to spread awareness of women 's safety and empowerment .
= = Media image = =
Koechlin has been acknowledged in the media for her unconventional roles in films and her straightforward personality . Reviewing her work in Printing Machine , film critic and journalist Subhash K. Jha deemed her the : " free @-@ thinking actress this industry [ Bollywood ] needs " . Megha Shah of the GQ called her " someone who can speak her mind , sound intelligent and also look stunning in a bikini " . Members of the media have subsequently labelled her as a role model for women across the country . Bhavya Sadhwani , describing her as " a real life heroine " , lauded her for : " voicing her opinions without an iota of inhibition " . The Week stated that with her powerful performances , and by voicing her opinions , she : " has always stayed ahead of her contemporaries in the industry " .
Following her portrayal of such characters as those in Dev.D , Zindagi Na Milegi Dobara , Shaitan , and Margarita With a Straw , Koechlin gained wider recognition and earned the tag of a " nonconformist " . Clarisse Loughrey of The Independent described her as : " a Bollywood pioneer thanks to her unconventional roles and outspoken public presence " . Don Groves of Forbes wrote that she has : " managed to subvert stereotypes by playing characters who are nothing like each other " . The columnist and film critic Vinayak Chakravorty cites Koechlin as one of the " new ' new wave ' actors " who has proved her easy screen presence in her short time in the film industry .
Koechlin is described as a style icon by the Indian media and has been dubbed as the " queen of experimental fashion " . Raedita Tandan of Filmfare deemed Koechlin 's fashion appeal as " effortless " and " un @-@ diva esque " . The slow @-@ process multimedia artist Riyas Komu felt that Koechlin 's persona was " inspiring " , and that she represented " a sense of eclecticism " . Koechlin has been a part of numerous fashion shows , including the Lakme Fashion Week , India International Jewellery Week , and Mijwan Fashion Show ( Shabana Azmi 's annual fund raiser ) . She also made a guest appearance at the Milan Fashion Week , one of the global " Big Four Fashion Weeks " .
Koechlin is particularly known in the Indian media and film industry for her dedication to her work . Atul Kumar , founder of The Company Theatre , and her co @-@ star in Hamlet , noted that : " [ h ] er commitment as an actor is relentless " . The director Shonali Bose , while filming Margarita With a Straw , said Koechlin was able to give perfect long takes for the film because of the : " intense hard work that she put into the preparation of her role " . Her former husband , Anurag Kashyap — who directed her in three films — believes that she : " has grown as an actor since Dev D. " . Rajat Kapoor , in whose Hamlet Koechlin performed as Ophelia , believes she is an actress who has the " sensitivity and understanding of filmmaking and theatre " .
Koechlin is a celebrity endorser and has been associated with several brands and services , including : Coca @-@ Cola , Olay , Vogue , Micromax , Titan , Grey Goose 's Style du jour , and AOC International . In an interview for Asian News International , Koechlin said that she : " believes that everyone , whether an actor or a model , should endorse a brand which matches their ideologies " . She was also the brand ambassador of the " Cinema For Care " section , aimed at creating awareness about disability issues at the All Lights India International Film Festival ( ALIIFF ) held in Thiruvananthapuram , Kerala in November 2015 .
= = Filmography = =
= = Awards and nominations = =
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= Matthew , Mark , Luke and John =
" Matthew , Mark , Luke and John " , also known as the " Black Paternoster " , is an English language prayer and nursery rhyme traditionally said by children as they go to bed . It has a Roud Folk Song Index number of 1704 . It may have origins in ancient Babylonian prayers and was being used in a Christian version in late Medieval Germany . The earliest extant version in English can be traced to the mid @-@ sixteenth century . It was mentioned by English Protestant writers as a " popish " or magical charm . It is related to other prayers , including a " Green " and " White Paternoster " , which can be traced to late Medieval England and with which it is often confused . It has been the inspiration for a number of literary works by figures including Henry Wadsworth Longfellow and musical works by figures such as Gustav Holst . It has been the subject of alternative versions and satires .
= = Lyrics = =
The most common modern version of the verse is as follows :
Matthew , Mark , Luke and John ,
Bless the bed that I lie on .
Four corners to my bed ,
Four angels round my head ;
One to watch and one to pray
And two to bear my soul away .
The Roud Folk Song Index , which catalogues folk songs and their variations by number , classifies the song as 1704 .
= = Origins = =
The verse may be one of few English nursery rhymes to have ancient origins . The Babylonian prayer " Shamash before me , behind me Sin , Nergal at my right , Ninib at my left " , is echoed by the medieval Jewish prayer : " In the name of the Lord , the God of Israel , may Michael be at my right hand ; Gabriel at my left ; Uriel before me ; Raphael behind me and the Shekhinah of God be above my head " which is used as a prayer before sleep . A Christian version has been found for Germany at the end of the Medieval period . However , the first known record of the lyrics in English is from Thomas Ady 's witchcraft treatise A Candle in the Dark , or , a treatise concerning the nature of witches and witchcraft ( 1656 ) , which tells of a woman in Essex who claimed to have lived in the reign of Mary I ( r . 1553 @-@ 8 ) and who was alive in his time and blessed herself every night with the " popish charm " :
Matthew , Mark , Luke and John ,
The Bed be blest that I lye on .
George Sinclair , writing of Scotland in his Satan 's Invisible World Discovered in 1685 , repeated Ady 's story and told of a witch who used a " Black Paternoster " , at night , which seems very similar to Ady 's rhyme :
Four newks in this house , for haly Angels ,
A post in the midst , that 's Christ Jesus ,
Lucas , Marcus , Matthew , Joannes ,
God be into this house , and all that belangs us .
A year later it was quoted again by John Aubrey , but in the form :
Matthew , Mark , Luke , and John ,
Bless the bed that I lye on .
And blessed Guardian @-@ Angel keep
Me safe from danger whilst I sleep .
A version similar to that quoted at the beginning of this article was first recorded by Sabine Baring @-@ Gould in 1891 , and it survived as a popular children 's prayer in England into the twentieth century .
= = " White Paternoster " = =
Robert Grosseteste ( c . 1175 – 1253 ) , Bishop of Lincoln , condemned the use of a " Green Paternoster " by old women in a treatise on blasphemy , which contained reference to " Green Pater Noster , Peter 's dear sister " . In Chaucer 's " Miller 's Tale " ( c . 1387 ) he refers to a prayer known as the " White Paternoster " , elements of which , particularly the blessing of four parts of a house , can be seen in the later " Black Paternoster " :
Therwith the nyght @-@ spel seyde he anon @-@ rightes
On four halves of the hous aboute
And on the thresshfold of the dore withoute :
'Jesus Crist and Seint Benedight ,
Bless this hous from every wickked wight ,
For the nyghts nerye the white pater @-@ noster !
Where wentestow , Seinte Petres suster ? '
The reference to St. Peter 's sister may be a substitution for St. Peter 's daughter , St. Petronilla , known in England as St. Parnell . It has been suggested that the differing colours associated with these verses may have been determined by the colour of prayer beads , with different coloured beads used to prompt the recitation of aves and paternosters .
After the Reformation this " White Paternoster " was among a number of prayers and devotions that were converted into magical rhymes , becoming widely known charms . Lancashire minister John White ( 1570 – 1615 ) in his The Way to the True Church ( 1608 ) recorded among many " superstitions " of the inhabitants of Lancashire , a " White Paternoster " :
White Pater @-@ noster , St Peter ’ s brother ,
What hast i ’ th ' t ’ one hand ? White booke leaves .
What hast i ’ th ' t ’ other hand ? heaven yate keys .
Open heaven Yates , and steike shut hells Yates :
And let every chrisome child creep to its own mother .
White Pater @-@ noster , Amen .
Sinclair in 1685 contrasted the " Black Paternoster " to be used at night with a " White Paternoster " to be used in the day .
White paternoster ,
God was my Foster .
He fostered me Under the Book of Palm @-@ Tree ,
St Michael was my Dame ,
He was born at Bethelem .
He was made of flesh and blood .
God send me my right food ;
My right food , and dyne two ,
That I may to yon Kirk go
To read upon yon sweet Book ,
Which the mighty God of heaven shoop .
Open , open Heaven 's Yaits ,
Steik , Steik , Hell 's Yaits .
All the saints be better ,
That hear the white prayer Pater Noster .
Anthropologist Margaret Murray suggested in her controversial 1933 book The God of the Witches that the names of the two companion verses could be interpreted as " a confused version of a Christian prayer or hymn " :
= = Literary and musical references = =
The " White Paternoster " was used by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow ( 1807 – 82 ) as a mockery of the mass by Lucifer , described as the " Black Paternoster " in his narrative poem The Golden Legend ( 1851 ) . It was also the title of a short story by Theodore Francis Powys ( 1875 – 1953 ) published in 1930 . A four @-@ part choir setting of the Black Paternoster text was produced by Gustav Holst ( 1874 – 1934 ) in early 20th @-@ Century Britain , while contemporary countryman Henry Walford Davies ( 1869 – 1941 ) composed an equivalent setting of the White Paternoster .
= = Satires = =
The rhyme has often been the source of satire . One of the most common was recorded in Scotland in the 1840s as a hobby horse game among boys , with the lyrics :
Matthew , Mark , Luke and John ,
Hold the horse till I get on ;
When I got on I could not ride ,
I fell off and broke my side .
A version from the United States recorded in 1900 began :
Matthew , Mark , Luke and John ,
Saddle the horse till I get on ...
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= M @-@ 205 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 205 was a state trunkline highway in the US state of Michigan . The route was turned back to local control in October 2002 by the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) after the completion of M @-@ 217 ( Michiana Parkway ) . MDOT swapped roadways with the Cass County Road Commission ending the 67 @-@ year history of M @-@ 205 .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 205 ran through an agricultural landscape from a connection with State Road 19 ( SR 19 ) at the state line north of Elkhart , Indiana , northward for about one @-@ half mile ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) along Cassopolis Road before turning easterly through a sweeping curve . The roadway is bordered by houses in the area as it continues to an intersection with US Highway 12 ( US 12 , the former US 112 ) between Union and Adamsville . The highway went through no towns within Michigan , but did connect with some short local roads .
= = History = =
When the state highway system was initially signposted in 1919 , a highway numbered M @-@ 23 ran north from the state line near Union and turned east , eventually connecting all the way to Ypsilanti in Washtenaw County , east of Detroit . On the original approved US Highway plan , M @-@ 23 was replaced by US 112 , running over the border into Indiana . Michigan diverted that higwhay along a route entirely within Michigan , and the very short , but locally important segment of cut @-@ off highway became M @-@ 205 . The curve between Cassopolis and Redfield roads was realigned to give M @-@ 205 a more sweeping curve in 1950 . As part of the swap between MDOT and Cass County , M @-@ 217 was designated several miles to the east as a new connector to the toll road , and M @-@ 205 was transferred to local control on October 10 , 2002 , decommissioning the trunkline .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire highway was in Mason Township , Cass County .
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= American Samoa at the 2008 Summer Olympics =
American Samoa sent a team to the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing , China . The U.S. territory selected four athletes to compete in three sports : swimming , athletics and judo . The dependency 's participation in Beijing marked its seventh participation in any Olympic game since its debut at the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul , and its sixth participation at any Summer Olympic games . Of the four American Samoan athletes who participated in Beijing , all four were first @-@ time Olympians and born outside of American Samoa and none of the four advanced past the qualification or preliminary rounds of their events . More women participated in the 2008 American Samoan Olympic delegation than in any one delegation in its Olympic history . Judoka Silulu A 'etonu was the territory 's flagbearer at the ceremonies .
= = Background = =
American Samoa is a territory of the United States that lies in the South Pacific Ocean to the far east of Australia . The dependency 's debut at the Olympics was at the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul . Between 1988 and 2008 , American Samoa sent a delegation to participate at seven Olympic games ( six Summer Olympics and one Winter Olympics ) , not missing a single Summer Olympics since its first time in the competition . In 2008 , American Samoa 's delegation was composed of four athletes , including two women , which is the greatest number of women to have competed for American Samoa at any one games .
Silulu A 'etonu , a first @-@ time Olympian and a judoka , was American Samoa 's flagbearer at the ceremonies .
= = Athletics = =
Nineteen @-@ year @-@ old Los Angeles area @-@ born athlete Shanahan Sanitoa participated on American Samoa 's behalf at the Beijing Olympics . He was the only American Samoan Olympian involved in any track and field event . Also , his appearance in Beijing marked the first time he appeared in an Olympic games . He participated in the fifth heat during the August 14 qualification round , completing the event in 12 @.@ 60 seconds and placing last in his heat of eight athletes . Danny D 'Souza of the Seychelles ranked just ahead of Sanitoa ( 11 @.@ 00 seconds ) . The leaders of Sanitoa 's heat included the United States ' Tyson Gay ( 10 @.@ 22 seconds ) and Nigeria 's Olusoji Fasuba ( 10 @.@ 29 seconds ) . Overall , the American Samoan runner ranked last out of the 80 athletes who participated in the qualification round . He did not progress to later rounds .
Key
Note – Ranks given for track events are within the athlete 's heat only
Q
= Qualified for the next round
q =
Qualified for the next round as a fastest loser or , in field events , by position without achieving the qualifying target
NR
= National record
N / A =
Round not applicable for the event
Bye = Athlete not required to compete in round
Men
= = Judo = =
Guam @-@ born then 24 @-@ year @-@ old judoka Silulu A 'etonu was the only American Samoan participating in a judo event at the Beijing Olympics . She had not previously participated in any Olympic games . The judoka represented American Samoa in the women 's half @-@ middleweight weight class ( which includes competitors under 63 kilograms in weight ) . During the August 12 Round of 32 ( the first round ) , Aetonu faced Germany 's Anna von Harnier. von Harnier defeated A`etonu by a kuchiki taoshi , scoring ippon . She did not advance to later rounds .
Women
= = Swimming = =
Then 19 year @-@ old West Point student Stewart Glenister , who was born in Fort Knox , Kentucky , competed on American Samoa 's behalf at the Beijing Olympics in the men 's 50 meters freestyle . He was the only American Samoan in the event , and did not previously compete at any Olympic games . During the August 14 preliminary round , Glenister competed in the fourth heat , and finished the race in 25 @.@ 45 seconds . He placed first in his heat of eight people , displacing Palestine 's Hamza Abdo ( 25 @.@ 60 seconds ) . Overall , he ranked 71 out of the 97 participating athletes , and did not advance .
Also , then 32 year @-@ old San Luis Obispo @-@ born swimmer Virginia Farmer represented American Samoa at the Beijing Olympics . Farmer was the only American Samoan in her event . Additionally , prior to Beijing , she had not participated in any Olympic games or event . The preliminary round for the event took place on August 15 , and Virginia Farmer participated in the fourth heat . She finished the race in 28 @.@ 82 seconds , ranking third behind Swaziland 's Senele Dlamini ( 28 @.@ 70 seconds ) and ahead of Bolivia 's Katerine Moreno ( 29 @.@ 05 seconds ) . The leader of Virginia 's heat was Mozambique 's Ximene Gomes ( 28 @.@ 15 seconds ) . Out of the 92 participating athletes , Farmer ranked 62nd . She also did not progress to later rounds .
Men
Women
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= Pennatomys =
Pennatomys nivalis is an extinct oryzomyine rodent from the islands of Sint Eustatius , Saint Kitts , and Nevis in the Lesser Antilles . The only species in the genus Pennatomys , it is known from skeletal remains found in Amerindian archeological sites on all three islands , with dates ranging from 790 – 520 BCE to 900 – 1200 CE . No live specimens are known , but there are several historical records of rodents from Saint Kitts and Nevis that could conceivably refer to Pennatomys . The animal apparently belongs to a group within the tribe Oryzomyini that includes many other island @-@ dwelling species .
Pennatomys nivalis was a medium @-@ sized species without many distinctive adaptations . The nasal bones were short and blunt @-@ ended . The zygomatic plate , a bony plate at the side of the skull , was broad . The bony palate was long and flat . The root of the lower incisor was housed in a bony protuberance , the capsular process . The molars were low @-@ crowned and possess accessory crests such as mesolophs . The upper molars all had three roots .
= = Taxonomy = =
Oryzomyini , also known as rice rats , is a diverse grouping of North , Central , and South American rodents within the family Cricetidae . Remains of extinct rice rats are known throughout the Lesser Antilles , but the systematic relationships among those animals are poorly understood , and many species remain unnamed . Rice rat fossils were first recorded from Saint Kitts in 1907 by archeologist C.W. Branch and were later found in abundance in Amerindian archeological sites on nearby Nevis and Sint Eustatius . The rice rat of these islands was formally described and named as Pennatomys nivalis in a 2010 article by zoologist Samuel Turvey and coworkers . The generic name , Pennatomys , combines the Latin pennatus " winged " with -mys " mouse " , a standard element in the names of rodent genera , and honors archeologist Elizabeth Wing . The specific name , nivalis , is Latin for " snowy " and refers to Nevis . This island 's name derives from the Spanish Nuestra Señora de las Nieves " Our Lady of the Snows " , a reference to the clouds ( mistaken for snow ) that surround the island 's central peak .
Cladistic analysis of morphological characters suggest that Pennatomys is most closely related to a clade , the Nectomys subclade , that includes members of Aegialomys , Amphinectomys , Nectomys , Sigmodontomys , Melanomys , Megalomys ( another Antillean rice rat ) , and possibly Nesoryzomys . However , the exact position of Pennatomys was poorly resolved because of missing data . Turvey and colleagues placed P. nivalis as the only member of its own genus because of its distinctive characters and the absence of evidence for close relationships with any other oryzomyine genus . Pennatomys probably belongs to a subgroup of Oryzomyini known as " clade D " . This clade contains a number of species only occurring on islands — including members of Aegialomys , Megalomys , Nesoryzomys , Noronhomys , Oryzomys , and Pennatomys . Turvey and colleagues suggested that this is related to the high proportion of semiaquatic species in clade D — most other oryzomyines are forest dwellers . As a whole , Oryzomyini includes over a hundred species in about thirty genera . It is one of several tribes within the subfamily Sigmodontinae of the family Cricetidae , which encompasses hundreds of other species of mainly small rodents , distributed chiefly in Eurasia and the Americas . However DNA analysis demonstrated a sister @-@ taxa relationship with Megalomys as an endemic Lesser Antillean radiation within clade D , and also showed that the different island populations showed a high degree of genetic differentiation from each other .
= = Description = =
A medium @-@ sized oryzomyine , Pennatomys is known from a number of skeletal remains , many of which are fragmentary . Both skull and postcranial bones are represented . Although there are no unusual adaptations in the known material , the animal possesses a combination of characteristics that distinguish it from all other known oryzomyines . The skull is known only from fragments . The nasal bones extend back to a point before or slightly behind the point where the maxillary , frontal , and lacrimal bones meet , and have a blunt back margin . The nasals extend slightly further back than the premaxillaries . The lacrimals articulate with both the frontals and the maxillaries , a trait that distinguishes Pennatomys from its closest relatives ( which have lacrimals articulating mainly with the frontals ) . The interorbital region of the skull bears weak crests at its sides . The zygomatic plate , a bony plate at the side of the skull , is broad and its back margin is located in front of the first upper molar ( M1 ) . The incisive foramina , openings in the bony palate , extend back to a point next to the front root of M1 . The palate itself is long and flat , extending beyond the third upper molars ( M3 ) . In the mandible ( lower jaw ) , there is a capsular process — a protuberance at the back of the jawbone that houses the root of the lower incisor . Below the molars , the upper and lower masseteric ridges ( crests which support some of the chewing muscles ) are sometimes conjoined towards the front , and they extend forward to a point below the first lower molar ( m1 ) . The conjoined crests are one of the synapomorphic ( shared @-@ derived ) characters of the Nectomys subclade .
The maxillary toothrows are parallel to each other . The molars are bunodont ( with the cusps higher than the connecting crests ) and brachyodont ( low @-@ crowned ) and have the inter @-@ cusp valleys on the labial ( outer ) sides closed by a cingulum ( shelf ) . The valleys on the labial and lingual ( inner ) sides of the molars meet at the midlines . Each of the upper molars has three roots — unlike in most of the closest relatives of Pennatomys , there is no additional labial root on M1 . The m1 has four roots — two large roots at the front and back and two smaller ones in the middle . There are three roots under m2 , two at the front and one at the back , and two under m3 , at the front and back . Upper toothrow length ranges from 5 @.@ 6 to 6 @.@ 7 mm and lower toothrow length is 5 @.@ 9 to 7 @.@ 4 mm .
On M1 , the anterocone ( the cusp at the front of the tooth ) is not divided into smaller cuspules . The connection between the protocone and the paracone , the major cusps immediately after the anterocone , is located relatively far toward the front . Behind the paracone , the mesoloph accessory crest is present . On M2 , there is no protoflexus ( an indentation in front of the protocone , which on this tooth is the frontmost cusp ) and the valley between the paracone and the mesoloph , the mesoflexus , is not divided into two pieces by a paracone – mesoloph connection . These traits are both characteristic of the Nectomys subclade . The mesoloph is present on M3 , but the posteroloph , a crest at the back of the tooth , is absent or vestigial , as is the hypoflexus ( the valley between the protocone and the cusp behind it , the hypocone ) . The absence or near @-@ absence of the posteroloph is a distinctive trait that differentiates Pennatomys from related oryzomyines .
The anteroconid on m1 ( the frontmost cusp , corresponding to the anterocone ) contains an internal hollow , an anteromedian fossettid . There is an ectolophid , an accessory crest in the valley between the protoconid ( the cusp on the labial side , behind the anteroconid ) and the hypoconid ( the cusp behind the protoconid , at the back labial corner of the tooth ) . On the other side of the tooth , the mesolophid ( another accessory crest ) is also present . On each of the lower molars , an anterolabial cingulum ( a shelf on the front labial corner ) is present . On m2 and m3 , an anterolophid is present — a crest in front of the metaconid ( the cusp on the front lingual corner of the tooth ) .
= = Range and history = =
Remains of Pennatomys nivalis come from several Amerindian archeological sites on each of the three islands where it has been found ; it was eaten by the native Amerindian population . The oldest site is Hichmans ' Shell Heap on Nevis , which is from the Archaic age and is dated to 790 to 520 BCE . The youngest , Sulphur Ghaut ( 900 – 1200 CE ) , is also on Nevis , and is from the post @-@ Saladoid period . Other sites on Nevis include Hichmans ( Saladoid , 100 BCE – 600 CE ) , Indian Castle ( post @-@ Saladoid , 650 – 880 CE ) , and Coconut Walk ( post @-@ Saladoid , no absolute dates known ) . The only site on Sint Eustatius is the Saladoid and post @-@ Saladoid site Golden Rock ( 80 BCE – 980 CE ) . Each of the three sites yielding Pennatomys on Saint Kitts is from the post @-@ Saladoid period : Sugar Factory ( 700 – 1000 CE ) , Bloody Point ( 660 – 1115 CE ) , and Cayon ( undated ) .
Unambiguous historical records of Pennatomys are lacking , but there are some references to Saint Kitts and Nevis rodents that may relate to it . George Percy reported on the presence of " great store of Conies " on Nevis around 1606 , probably a reference to the agoutis ( Dasyprocta ) that have been introduced throughout the Lesser Antilles . There are references from 1631 and 1720 to people eating rats on Saint Kitts and Nevis , respectively , but these may well have been introduced black rats ( Rattus rattus ) , not Pennatomys . There are anecdotal records of unusual rats on Nevis up to recent times ; these were reportedly eaten by the islanders until the 1930s . Surveys on Nevis in 2009 found no evidence for the survival of Pennatomys . The extinction of the Antillean rice rats , including Pennatomys , may have resulted from the introduction of exotic animals such as the black rat and the small Asian mongoose ( Herpestes auropunctatus ) to the Lesser Antilles .
There are no known morphological differences between the three island populations , but Turvey and colleagues found that animals from Nevis were slightly smaller than those from the two other islands . Such a difference in size might be related to the fact that Saint Kitts is larger than Nevis , in accordance with the trend that animals become larger on larger islands . However , Turvey and colleagues also observed that their Saint Kitts material consisted of older individuals than those from Nevis ; thus , the size difference may result from differences in the mode of exploitation by Amerindians .
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= Hitachi Magic Wand =
The Hitachi Magic Wand ( renamed as Magic Wand Original and Original Magic Wand and referred to simply as Magic Wand ) is an electrical , mains @-@ powered vibrating massager , manufactured for relieving tension and relaxing sore muscles . Japanese company Hitachi listed the device for business in the United States in 1968 . Sex educator Betty Dodson popularized its use as a vibrator and masturbation aid for women during the sex @-@ positive movement in the late 1960s . It functions effectively as a clitoral vibrator and is able to bring women to orgasm . The wand is 12 inches ( 30 cm ) long and weighs 1 @.@ 2 pounds ( 540 g ) with stimulation provided by its rubberized 2 @.@ 5 inches ( 64 mm ) head .
Hitachi executives assisted financing the production of chocolates in the shape of the massager in 1992 , in honor of the 15 @-@ year anniversary of the sex shop Good Vibrations . Subsequently the company asserted in 1999 its sole intended use was for health care purposes . Hitachi had a conflict with its U.S. distributor in 2000 and briefly stopped selling the device until it reached a new deal with distributor Vibratex . The Magic Wand sold out after being featured in a 2002 episode of Sex and the City . Hitachi decided to cease production of the device in 2013 because of concerns about having the company name attached to a sex toy . Vibratex persuaded the company to continue manufacturing it under the name " Original Magic Wand " , omitting the Hitachi name . In 2014 , the company used the name " Magic Wand Original " .
Academics have researched its use for treatment of female sexual arousal disorder and chronic anorgasmia — a sexual dysfunction in which a person cannot achieve orgasm . The Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology published a 1979 study which found self @-@ administered treatment and use of the Magic Wand to be the best method to achieve orgasm . In 2008 , The Scientific World Journal published research finding over 93 % of a group of 500 chronic anorgasmic women could reach orgasm using the Magic Wand and the Betty Dodson Method . The device was used in studies in many applications , including articles published in Dermatology Online Journal , Journal of Applied Physiology , Experimental Brain Research , Neuroscience Letters , and Journal of Perinatal & Neonatal Nursing .
The Magic Wand has alternatively been referred to as the Cadillac of vibrators , the Rolls @-@ Royce of vibrators , and the mother of all vibrators . Counselors Bettina Arndt , Laura Berman , Gloria Brame , and Ruth Westheimer recommended the device to women , and Cosmopolitan magazine reported the Magic Wand was the vibrator most often suggested by sex therapists . Mobile Magazine readers in 2005 voted the Magic Wand " the No. 1 greatest gadget of all time " . Tanya Wexler 's film Hysteria featured the device while showing the evolution of the vibrator . Engadget called the Magic Wand " the most recognizable sex toy on Earth " .
= = Design and features = =
The device is 30 cm ( 12 in ) long and it weighs 540 g ( 1 @.@ 19 lb ) . Muscle and nerve stimulation is provided by the device 's rubberised , 6 @.@ 4 cm ( 2 @.@ 5 in ) head , which is attached to the main body of the massager via a flexible neck . A 1 @.@ 8 m ( 6 ft ) cord is attached to the device to provide power from mains electricity with alternating current , and requires 110 Volts . It does not take batteries . The massager provides two vibration rates — 5 @,@ 000 and 6 @,@ 000 rpm , which are equivalent to 83 Hz and 100 Hz — that are controlled by a switch on its body . Specifically , research published in the journal Sexual and Relationship Therapy determined that the Magic Wand operated on its low setting at a frequency of 89 Hz and at 101 Hz on its high setting . Its displacement was measured as 452 @.@ 9 µm ( 0 @.@ 01783 in ) , with an acceleration of 185 @.@ 7 µg ( 0 @.@ 002866 gr ) . Because the device was not originally designed as a vibrator , it exhibits some deficiencies when used for this purpose . Apart from its size , bulk , and its reliance on a mains power supply that limits its portability , it is not waterproof or water @-@ resistant , and it overheats when used for more than 25 minutes . It does not work well in electrical outlets in all countries internationally .
Because of the Magic Wand 's popularity , various aftermarket attachments with differences in colour , pattern of studs , and material , became available to purchase . Such attachments have been produced by many companies without ties to Hitachi . Without attachments , the device functions effectively as a clitoral vibrator , able to bring women to orgasm . Add @-@ ons that are fitted over the top of the device and are used to excite the clitoris are available . An attachment called the " Wonder Wand " allows women to feel vibrations deep into the vagina . According to an article in the Dermatology Online Journal , " The Wonder Wand " is created from a plastic material which is even in consistency and may be simply cleansed after use . Attachments made of silicone designed to aid with penetrative sensations or to modify texture of the device are available . An add @-@ on called the " G @-@ Spotter " fits over the device in the same fashion and turns the device into a G @-@ spot vibrator . The " Gee @-@ Whiz " ( also referred to as " G @-@ Whiz " ) is a similar type of attachment used to stimulate the G @-@ spot . The " Fluffer Tip Wand Attachment " may be placed over the device and can be used to mimic the sensation of cunnilingus . " Liberator Axis " is a booster pillow that stabilizes the Magic Wand so the user does not have to hold it with her hands during use . Attachments have been sold by Betty Dodson on her website , which provides pictorial instructions on their use with the Magic Wand . The massager may be used without attachments for men or with the " G @-@ Whiz " attachment ; when held on the penis it can stimulate pleasurable sensations to the prostate . An attachment made by an unaffiliated company provides a cap that fits over the top of the device so it can function as a male masturbation sleeve .
= = History = =
= = = Debut as massager = = =
Hitachi listed the Magic Wand for business use with the United States Patent and Trademark Office on 25 April 1968 . Kabushiki Kaisha Hitachi Seisakusho registered the trademark to the Magic Wand . It became available to the mass market in the U.S. during the 1970s and was advertised as a device to aid with massage techniques . It is effective at relieving pain associated with back aches , and is registered with the Food and Drug Administration as a physical medicine device under the classification therapeutic electric massager . The stated use of the Magic Wand is the soothing and relaxing of sore muscles and nerves , relieving tension , and rehabilitation after sports injuries .
= = = Women 's masturbation education = = =
The Magic Wand has found great commercial success as a vibrator , a masturbation aid for women . Its popularity for this purpose is associated with the American artist and sex educator Betty Dodson , who used it in demonstrations and instructional classes to instruct females regarding self @-@ pleasure techniques . Dodson became active in the sex @-@ positive movement in the late 1960s . She recommended women put a small towel over their sex organs in order to dull the sensation of the vibrator and prolong the pleasurable experience . Her technique became known as the Betty Dodson Method . Her sessions were known as Bodysex workshops and featured 15 naked women in supine position , each using a Magic Wand simultaneously to aid in masturbation . She provided a Magic Wand to each woman for these two @-@ hour masturbation sessions . Dodson taught thousands of women to achieve orgasm using this technique .
Dell Williams , founder of the first feminist sex toy business in the United States , Eve 's Garden , was inspired to launch her store after using a Magic Wand as a student in Dodson 's course in the early 1970s . Williams said the Magic Wand was her favorite sex toy because of its dependability and its power at delivering pleasure to the clitoris . In 1974 , Dodson recommended the device in her book Liberating Masturbation . In 1975 in her demonstrations , she replaced the Panasonic Panabrator with the Magic Wand . In 1977 , Dodson recommended the device to Dian Hanson , former editor of men 's magazines Leg Show and Juggs . Hanson recalled her initial experience after receiving the recommendation from Dodson . Hanson said she was instructed to purchase the Magic Wand but was advised to be cautious regarding its emotional and physical influence because it could have properties which could cause habit @-@ forming dependency . She observed that in comparison to her prior vibrator operated by two D batteries , the Magic Wand was significantly more effective .
The Magic Wand has been a bestseller at the sex shop Good Vibrations since it opened in 1977 . The shop marketed the magic wand to women as an effective means of stimulating the clitoris . The device became an enduring bestseller in adult sex toy shops in the United States . It has become known colloquially among women as " Big Buzzy " , and is also simply referred to as " The Hitachi " . During the 1980s , the device was advertised in the back pages of Mother Jones magazine . It became popular with women and was featured on the cover of the book Good Vibrations : The New Complete Guide to Vibrators ( 1976 ) by Joani Blank . The Magic Wand features on the covers of the 1989 and 1998 editions of the book . In 1992 for the 15th anniversary of the opening of Good Vibrations , the sex store managers arranged to have chocolates manufactured in the shape of the Magic Wand . Sales staff from the corporate headquarters of Hitachi company contributed finances towards the creation of the chocolates in the shape of their massager . The Hitachi executives additionally purchased 500 of the massager @-@ shaped chocolates which were given out at the company 's sales conference that year .
Good Vibes Gazette surveyed sex toy store customers in 1995 and asked them to rank their opinions of sex toys . The Magic Wand was identified as outstanding . The 1995 book about censorship Forbidden Passages : Writings Banned in Canada , which included works confiscated by Canadian authorities for being " obscene " , featured a contribution involving a woman who used a Magic Wand for pain relief . In 1997 , the Magic Wand was the most popular holiday gift item sold at the Good Vibrations store in Berkeley , California . According to Out magazine , the Magic Wand was the best @-@ selling sex toy of 1998 . Chatelaine received criticism from the Alberta Report in 1999 for reporting on the increasing popularity of the Magic Wand and other sex toys among women . In 1999 the Magic Wand was promoted to consumers as a " personal massager " device . The Village Voice reported in 1999 that the device was marketed by the company as the " Hitachi Magic Wand Household Electric Massager " . According to the The Village Voice article , the device had outlived competition from subsequent inventions by other companies and remained a bestseller . When contacted in 1999 by The Village Voice the public relations director of Hitachi , Gerry Corbett , emphasized the original intent of their product : " Clearly , [ the Magic Wand ] is a straightforward product . There are no implications of anything beyond standard health @-@ care use . "
= = = Vibratex distribution = = =
In 2000 , the Hitachi company had a conflict with Appliance Corporation of America , the American distributor of its products including the Magic Wand . The device ceased being sold briefly in the United States . In June 2000 , Hitachi reached a deal with the sex toy distributor company Vibratex located in California to sell the device in the U.S. Vibratex has continued to sell the device in the U.S. through 2014 . Urologist and specialist in sexual dysfunction Jed Kaminetsky told The New York Observer in 2000 that the Magic Wand had a renowned reputation . He stated he recommended the device to female patients with difficulty achieving orgasm to use in masturbation . Kaminetsky observed that the Magic Wand was an extremely successful manner in which to masturbate and was among the preeminent vibrators available .
The concept of using a neck massager for other than its stated purpose was popularized in 2002 in the fifth @-@ season episode of the television series Sex and the City , " Critical Condition " . The character Samantha Jones goes to Sharper Image to buy a vibrator , but the staff at the store tell her it is a neck massager . Shortly after being featured on Sex and the City , the Magic Wand sold out of stores . Journalist Naomi Wolf wrote in The Sunday Times that while researching for an article on the female @-@ oriented sex toys catalogue Good Vibrations , she was informed that the Magic Wand had sold out from their stock because of its appearance on Sex and the City . The Rabbit vibrator had previously seen an increase in sales , after it was similarly popularized on the program in 1998 . According to a contribution to Best Sex Writing 2013 by Andy Isaacson , these appearances of sex toys on Sex and the City revolutionized the way they were perceived culturally in the United States . The Times noted the Magic Wand was relatively new to the market in the United Kingdom , where it became available in 2004 . The Magic Wand was number seven of the top ten hand @-@ held massagers sold on Amazon.com. Faye Flam writing for Knight Ridder Newspapers reported in 2006 that the Magic Wand was exempt from anti @-@ vibrator laws in Alabama , Georgia , and Texas because it did not appear to be a phallic object . In 2006 the device was among the top @-@ selling masturbation aids in the market .
The closing credits of director Tanya Wexler 's 2011 film Hysteria featured the Magic Wand in a montage showing the evolution of the vibrator . In August 2012 , American filmmaker Clayton Cubitt used the Magic Wand in a video @-@ art exhibit titled Hysterical Literature . The film project featured women sitting on a chair narrating a piece of literature while being stimulated by the Magic Wand . Each video ends with the woman 's orgasm . Writing for The McClatchy Company , Chuck Shepherd called it " Great Art ! " .
= = = Rebranding = = =
Because of its concerns about having its name attached to a popular sex toy , Hitachi decided to cease production of the Magic Wand in 2013 . Vibratex director of operations Eddie Romero told Engadget that Hitachi is an extremely staid company and was uncomfortable being associated with the best @-@ selling masturbation aid . Vibratex persuaded Hitachi to continue manufacturing the device , to rename it the " Original Magic Wand " , to use lighter , more durable materials , and to omit any reference to Hitachi . The newly named device returned to the market on 25 June 2013 , with improved engineering and modified graphic design on its accompanying box . It was sold as the " Original Magic Wand Vibrator " by Good Vibrations .
In January 2014 the device 's name was " Magic Wand Original " according to Shape Magazine , with information provided at the associated website magicwandoriginal.com. Hitachi does not market the device for sexual purposes . Betty Dodson told Engadget in 2014 that the device was still her preferred vibrator . On 5 May 2014 , the device was featured in a comedy segment of the television program Louie on FX . In 2014 , 250 @,@ 000 Magic Wands were sold in the U.S. by Vibratex . In November 2014 , Stanford School of Medicine assistant professor of obstetrics and gynecology Leah Millheiser recommended the Magic Wand . She commented to Yahoo ! Health that it was effective for helping women with orgasm after menopause , and improving sexual ability and self @-@ esteem .
= = Academic research = =
= = = Sexual uses = = =
Many academics have discussed use of the Magic Wand to treat chronic anorgasmia — a type of sexual dysfunction in which a person cannot achieve orgasm — and other sexual problems including female sexual arousal disorder . A study published in 1979 in the Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology analyzed the training of women in self @-@ masturbation techniques in a sample of individuals who previously had difficulty experiencing orgasm . The researchers gave women the Magic Wand to help excite the clitoris and increase the likelihood they would experience an orgasm . They found self @-@ administered treatment using the Magic Wand to be the most efficient option to address prior problems achieving orgasm .
In 2008 The Scientific World Journal published research in which women with long @-@ term problems achieving orgasm were instructed using documentation from Betty Dodson . They said the Magic Wand 's large head effectively created a vibrating sensation in the area of the clitoris and vulva without superficial discomfort . Their research showed that more than 93 % of a group of 500 chronically anorgasmic women could reach orgasm using Magic Wand and the Betty Dodson Method . The Scientific World Journal research was subsequently discussed in a literature review published in 2010 by The Journal of Sexual Medicine . Bat Sheva Marcus published a 2011 article in The Journal of Sexual Medicine after introducing women to the Magic Wand as a way to increase her subjects ' levels of sexual experience and assess changes in their sexual expectations .
In their work Pleasure Able : Sexual Device Manual for Persons with Disabilities , authors Kate Naphtali and Edith MacHattie of the Disabilities Health Research Network under the supervision of doctors Andrei Krassioukov and Stacy L Elliott recommended use of the Magic Wand in sexual activity for people with disabilities . The authors said the person holding the device would need to be capable of maintaining an active wide grasp throughout the process . They wrote that the Magic Wand was helpful for disabled people with either limited strength in their upper extremities or limited use of their hands . They also said it was well @-@ suited for individuals with decreased movement in their upper extremities .
In a 2011 paper for the Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems , authors Anna Eaglin and Shaowen Bardzell discussed the Magic Wand within the context of devices used in sexual behavior that were not originally created for that purpose . A 2012 study published in the journal Sexual and Relationship Therapy evaluated seven vibrators for use with clinical therapy for sexual stimulation . They found that the Magic Wand displayed a high degree of movement and oscillation . The researchers suggested that their data could be used by therapists to select the optimum vibrator which could deliver both effectiveness and sensitivity for their clients .
= = = Vibration analgesia = = =
In their 2002 book Myofascial Pain and Fibromyalgia : Trigger Point Management authors orthopedic surgeon Edward S. Rachlin and physical therapist Isabel Rachlin recommended use of the Magic Wand for self @-@ treatment by patients with myalgia . They wrote that continued use of the Magic Wand on myofascial trigger points or tense areas of muscle could result in decreasing the amount of discomfort felt by patients . Rachlin and Rachlin suggested that such treatment could be done in one 's residence outside of a clinical setting .
In a 2004 article published in Dermatology Online Journal , authors reported on use of the Magic Wand to help alleviate pain before cosmetic and dermatologic techniques performed by clinicians . The authors described use of the device to decrease discomfort before procedures including supplementing anesthesia with the injection of triamcinolone acetonide into the proximal nail fold for psoriasis , decreasing discomfort during a Restylane injection of the nasolabial fold , making an Intense Pulsed Light ( IPL ) facial treatment easier by reducing pain during the procedure , and throughout axillary hyperhidrosis treatment with botulinum toxin . They recommended use of the device with the " Wonder Wand " attachment to provide vibration to a decreased surface area on the patient . Lead researcher Kevin C. Smith explained to Skin & Allergy News that the vibrations when delivered to the area of the patient 's mandible can give relief from discomfort by negating feelings of pain from being sent through the sensory system . Smith and Francisco Perez @-@ Atamoros further elaborated on use of the Magic Wand in Chapter 7 " Other Dermatologic Uses of Botulinum Toxin " of the 2006 compilation book Botulinum Toxin in Clinical Dermatology . They emphasized the beneficial uses of the Magic Wand with the " Wonder Wand " attachment and showed how its vibrations can reduce pain if given just before an injection of Restylane within 1 to 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 39 to 0 @.@ 79 in ) from the injection site .
Authors Lisa R. Baba , Jacqueline M. McGrath , and Jiexin Liu examined use of vibration delivery to infants to mitigate pain while doing heel stick procedures in a 2010 article for the Journal of Perinatal & Neonatal Nursing . Their sample size included 20 babies of age 35 weeks or more , and they tracked their subjects ' levels of pain on the Neonatal Infant Pain Scale while giving mechanical vibration to alleviate discomfort for a heel stick procedure . Vibration was delivered using the Magic Wand , which they bought through Vibratex . They set the Magic Wand to the highest setting and placed it on the heel of the infant for five seconds before administering the heel stick procedure . Their results found that oscillation sensations delivered to newborns who had previously had discomfort from neonatal heel pricks were able to deliver some relief . They wrote that additional research was indicated in the form of a randomized clinical trial with a greater sample size of newborns .
= = = Proprioception and vertigo = = =
Ely Rabin and Andrew M. Gordon reported in 2004 in the Journal of Applied Physiology on their use of the Magic Wand to create vibrations in the left biceps brachia to study proprioception signals in humans related to fingertip contact on surfaces . Rabin and Gordon followed up their research in 2006 with a subsequent paper published in the journal Experimental Brain Research . They wrote that extension of muscles and sensory clues worked together to provide regional perception of the patient 's upper extremity in a localized area . Rabin and Gordon later co @-@ wrote a 2010 paper with additional authors in Neuroscience Letters and expanded on research incorporating use of the Magic Wand to stimulate the biceps brachia . They measured people suffering Parkinson 's disease ( PD ) for proprioceptive ability while their subjects ' biceps muscles were stimulated with the vibrator . In 2007 , researchers published a paper in the journal Gait & Posture about use of the Magic Wand to help measure balance and postural sway . While testing their subjects ' balance while having to deal with simultaneous vibration , the researchers attached one Magic Wand to each leg .
In a 2011 article for the International Journal of Otolaryngology , Jeremy Hornibrook discussed the inner ear disorder Benign paroxysmal positional vertigo ( BPPV ) . BPPV is the most common cause of vertigo , a problem attributed to a detached otoconia in one of the semicircular canals . Hornibrook recommended a repositioning treatment for patients with BPPV from the posterior canal location . He wrote that the procedure most often performed for this purpose was a slightly transformed version of the Epley maneuver , and afterwards recommended carrying out a Dix – Hallpike test to assess the status of BPPV . If such a test was positive , Hornibrook recommended using a Magic Wand to deliver vibrations to the area of the mastoid process .
= = Reception = =
= = = Commentary = = =
The Magic Wand received the nickname " the Cadillac of vibrators " from the sex shop Good Vibrations . Boutique erotica store Babeland founders Rachel Venning and Claire Cavanah called the massager the Rolls @-@ Royce of vibrators in their 2003 book Sex Toys 101 ; this characterization was echoed by authors Anne Hooper and Philip Hodson , and physician Michael L. Krychman . Venning and Cavanah observed that the device alleviated discomfort from menstrual cramps . They recommended the Magic Wand to new users of vibrators who asked for a suggestion for a starter device . Cavanah observed that the Magic Wand was unique among vibrators for its success through word @-@ of @-@ mouth marketing .
Sex @-@ positive feminist writer Susie Bright called the Magic Wand one of her two favorite vibrators , and called it a miracle that the device was able to bring about a orgasm in under sixty seconds . Bright wrote about her experience using the Magic Wand to relieve discomfort during childbirth . Author Kathy Shaidle wrote that the massager is able to give females multiple orgasms . Shaidle wrote that its effectiveness was not hampered by its appearance which brought to mind objects featured in the Mütter Museum . Sociologist , sexologist and sex @-@ positive feminist Carol Queen critiqued the carbon footprint of the Magic Wand because it was imported from Japan , and praised its environmentally friendly qualities including its lack of batteries , and durability compared to other vibrators .
Sex therapist Ruth Westheimer said the device was most favored by those selecting from vibrators of the corded electrical variety . Therapist and sex educator Laura Berman recommended the device in many articles for the Chicago Sun @-@ Times , both for women who had never experienced an orgasm and those who had difficulty becoming aroused . Sexologist Gloria Brame wrote in her book The Truth about Sex , a Sex Primer for the 21st Century that the Magic Wand was one of the more successful masturbation aids marketed , and stated it was popular due to its non @-@ penetrative nature . Australian clinical psychologist and sex therapist Bettina Arndt reported that a couple she corresponded with had success using the Magic Wand while simultaneously engaging in sexual intercourse . Physician and sex columnist Hilda Hutcherson recommended the Magic Wand in her book Pleasure , and suggested women could place a soft cloth over their vulva if they felt it was needed to decrease delivered intensity from the device . Cosmopolitan magazine reported that the Magic Wand was the vibrator most often suggested by sex therapists .
Paula Kamen , author of Her Way : Young Women Remake the Sexual Revolution , placed the increasing popularity of the Magic Wand as an influential factor in the sexual revolution which took place towards the end of the 20th century . Cathy Winks and Anne Semans , coauthors of The Good Vibrations Guide to Sex , recommended the Magic Wand for use both during foreplay and intercourse and noted couples could feel pleasure through the device together at the same time . Wendy Caster wrote in the 2003 edition of The Lesbian Sex Book that lesbians have enjoyed using the Magic Wand due to its ability to concentrate powerful vibration on the clitoris .
Mobile Magazine announced in its July 2005 issue that readers had voted the Magic Wand " the No. 1 greatest gadget of all time " . The Magic Wand won despite being included in the category that included the iPod , the telephone , and the toothbrush . In 2006 , Melinda Gallagher and Emily Kramer , founders of women 's entertainment company CAKE , awarded the device the Best Vibrator Award in their book A Piece of Cake . Many publications have called the Magic Wand the mother of all vibrators including : The Hot Woman 's Handbook , Clean Sheets , the Valley Advocate , and Cosmopolitan Magazine . Gallagher and Kramer wrote that the device was effective at giving the clitoris and vulva intense oscillation sensations .
Writing for the Star Tribune , Alexis McKinnis recommended the device for a woman having difficulty achieving orgasm . She wrote that for thirty @-@ years a multitude of females had found it to be an assured way to reach orgasm . McKinnis recommended the Magic Wand again in a subsequent column as a Valentine 's Day gift , and wrote that it faced little competition due to its basic construction , efficiency , intensity , and reliability . Author Robert J. Rubel wrote that the device was among the highest @-@ demanded vibrators in the United States . Rubel stated that approximately ninety @-@ percent of females are able to achieve orgasm with the Magic Wand . A panel of users arranged by Good Housekeeping tried the Magic Wand for relief of lumbar discomfort and were unimpressed with the results . Self Magazine observed in 2010 that the device 's appreciation had become a cultural phenomenon .
Rachel Kramer Bussel praised the device in a 2011 article for SexIs Magazine titled : " 10 Reasons The Hitachi Magic Wand is My Favorite Vibrator " . She composed her article in the form of an ode to her favorite toy . Her rationale for selecting the device as her favorite included its power , speed it takes her to a state of increased arousal , its lack of need for batteries , its delivery of intense clitoral sensations , and its affordability . Yana Tallon @-@ Hicks described the device in a 2011 piece for the Valley Advocate , and wrote that it was quite effective at bringing women to orgasm . She compared its intensity to a Mack Truck . Valley Advocate recommended the Magic Wand in a 2012 article for overweight partners to use during sex because of its longer handle . Ashleigh Corbeil wrote in her book about achieving a simultaneous orgasm for two partners that due to its length the Magic Wand could be used during doggy style intercourse ; and Hilda Hutcherson similarly advised use of the massager in this sexual position .
Comic book artist Erika Moen devoted the first piece of her new comic strip series Oh Joy , Sex Toy to " The Hitachi Magic Wand " in April 2013 . Her work was syndicated by Bitch Media , and received praise in a review by The Daily Beast . In a 2013 article for Express Milwaukee , Laura Anne Stuart said it may be the only device for some women to help them reach orgasm , while additional women may choose to use it to find a simple and quick path to pleasure . She praised its well @-@ built construction and durability . The Magic Wand from Vibratex won the award for " Favorite Sex Toy for Women " in October 2013 at The Sex Awards in California . Valued by users for its durability and long @-@ lasting dependability , the device has garnered attributes such as " the most recognizable sex toy on Earth " from Engadget . In 2014 , the magazine Women 's Health featured the device in an article titled " The Ultimate Guide to Sex Toys " , where it was recommended for use with two partners .
= = = Awards = = =
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= USS Jacob Jones ( DD @-@ 61 ) =
USS Jacob Jones ( Destroyer No. 61 / DD @-@ 61 ) was a Tucker @-@ class destroyer built for the United States Navy prior to the American entry into World War I. The ship was the first U.S. Navy vessel named in honor of Jacob Jones .
Jacob Jones was laid down by the New York Shipbuilding of Camden , New Jersey , in August 1914 and launched in May of the following year . The ship was a little more than 315 feet ( 96 m ) in length , just over 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) abeam , and had a standard displacement of 1 @,@ 090 long tons ( 1 @,@ 110 t ) . She was armed with four 4 @-@ inch ( 10 cm ) guns and had eight 21 @-@ inch ( 530 mm ) torpedo tubes . Jacob Jones was powered by a pair of steam turbines that propelled her at up to 30 knots ( 56 km / h ) .
After her February 1916 commissioning , Jacob Jones conducted patrols off the New England coast . After the United States entered World War I in April 1917 , Jacob Jones was sent overseas . Patrolling the Irish Sea out of Queenstown , Ireland , Jacob Jones rescued the survivors of several ships , notably picking up over 300 from the sunken Armed merchant cruiser Orama .
On 6 December , Jacob Jones was steaming independently from Brest , France , for Queenstown , when she was torpedoed and damaged by German submarine U @-@ 53 and was scuttled with the loss of 66 officers and men , becoming the first ever United States destroyer sunk by enemy action . Jacob Jones sank in eight minutes without issuing a distress call ; the German submarine commander , Kapitänleutnant Hans Rose , after taking two badly injured Jacob Jones crewmen aboard his submarine , radioed the American base at Queenstown with the coordinates for the survivors . The Veterans of Foreign Wars post in Dedham , Massachusetts is named for the ship .
= = Design and construction = =
Jacob Jones was authorized in 1913 as the fifth ship of the Tucker class which , like the related O 'Brien class , was an improved version of the Cassin @-@ class destroyers authorized in 1911 . Construction of the vessel was awarded to New York Shipbuilding of Camden , New Jersey , which laid down her keel on 3 August 1914 . Ten months later , on 29 May 1915 , Jacob Jones was launched by sponsor Mrs. Jerome Parker Crittenden ( née Paulina Cazenove Jones ) , a great @-@ granddaughter of the ship 's namesake , Commodore Jacob Jones ( 1768 – 1850 ) , a U.S. Navy officer during the War of 1812 . As built , Jacob Jones was 315 feet 3 inches ( 96 @.@ 09 m ) in length and 30 feet 6 inches ( 9 @.@ 30 m ) abeam and drew 9 feet 8 inches ( 2 @.@ 95 m ) . The ship had a standard displacement of 1 @,@ 060 long tons ( 1 @,@ 080 t ) and displaced 1 @,@ 205 long tons ( 1 @,@ 224 t ) when fully loaded .
Jacob Jones had two Curtis steam turbines that drove her two screw propellers , and an additional steam turbine geared to one of the propeller shafts for cruising purposes . The power plant could generate 17 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 13 @,@ 000 kW ) and move the ship at speeds up to 30 knots ( 56 km / h ) .
Jacob Jones ' main battery consisted of four 4 @-@ inch ( 102 mm ) / 50 Mark 9 guns , with each gun weighing in excess of 6 @,@ 100 pounds ( 2 @,@ 800 kg ) . The guns fired 33 @-@ pound ( 15 kg ) armor @-@ piercing projectiles at 2 @,@ 900 feet per second ( 880 m / s ) . At an elevation of 20 ° , the guns had a range of 15 @,@ 920 yards ( 14 @,@ 560 m ) .
Jacob Jones was also equipped with eight 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedo tubes . The General Board of the United States Navy had called for two anti @-@ aircraft guns for the Tucker @-@ class ships , as well as provisions for laying up to 36 floating mines . From sources , it is unclear if these recommendations were followed for Jacob Jones or any of the other ships of the class .
= = United States Navy career = =
USS Jacob Jones was commissioned into the United States Navy on 10 February 1916 under the command of Lieutenant Commander William S. Pye . Following her commissioning , Jacob Jones conducted training exercises off the New England coast , and then entered the Philadelphia Navy Yard for repairs . Upon the United States ' entry into World War I on 6 April 1917 , Jacob Jones patrolled off the coast of Virginia . She sailed from Boston for Europe on 7 May with a group of destroyers that included Cassin , and arrived at Queenstown , Ireland , on 17 May .
Jacob Jones ' duties at Queenstown involved patrolling and escorting convoys in the Irish Sea and making occasional rescues of survivors of sunken ships . On 8 July , Valetta was torpedoed by German submarine U @-@ 87 some 120 nautical miles ( 220 km ) west of Fastnet Rock ; Jacob Jones arrived on the scene and picked up 44 survivors of the British steamship . While escorting British steamship Dafila two weeks later , lookouts on Jacob Jones sighted a periscope , but before the destroyer could make an attack on the submarine , U @-@ 45 torpedoed and sank the steamship . Jacob Jones was able to take on 26 of Dafila 's 28 @-@ member crew after the ship went down .
On 19 October , the British Armed merchant cruiser Orama and ten destroyers , including Jacob Jones , were escorting an eastbound convoy of twenty steamers , when German submarine U @-@ 62 surfaced in the midst of the group . The submarine launched its only remaining torpedo at Orama , sinking that vessel . While sister ship Conyngham saw and depth charged U @-@ 62 ( to no avail ) , Jacob Jones turned her attentions to rescuing Orama 's survivors , gathering 309 .
= = Sinking = =
In early December , Jacob Jones helped escort a convoy to Brest , France , with five other Queenstown @-@ based destroyers . The last to depart from Brest on the return to Ireland , Jacob Jones was steaming alone in a zig @-@ zag pattern when she was spotted by Kapitänleutnant Hans Rose on the German submarine U @-@ 53 . At 16 : 20 on 6 December 1917 , near position 49 ° 23 ′ N 6 ° 13 ′ W , lookouts on Jacob Jones spotted a torpedo 800 yards ( 730 m ) distant headed for the ship 's starboard side . Despite having her rudder put hard left and emergency speed rung up , Jacob Jones was unable to move out of the way , and the torpedo struck her rudder . Even though the depth charges did not explode , Jacob Jones was adrift . The jolt had knocked out power , so the destroyer was unable to send a distress signal ; since she was steaming alone , no other ship was present to know of Jacob Jones ' predicament .
Commander David W. Bagley , the destroyer 's commander , ordered all life rafts and boats launched . He then ordered Jacob Jones to be scuttled , knowing that the ship 's cargo of depth charges , set on " ready " , the ship began to sink by the stern after the scuttling charges were activated , the ship would probably detonate at any moment . As the ship continued to sink , her bow raised in the air almost vertically before she began to slip beneath the waves . At this point the depth charges began exploding , killing a number of men who had been unable to escape the destroyer , and stunning many others in the water . The destroyer , the first United States destroyer ever lost to enemy action , sank eight minutes after the torpedo struck the rudder , taking with her two officers and 64 men .
In the water , several of the crew — most notably Lieutenant , junior grade , Stanton F. Kalk , the officer @-@ of @-@ the @-@ deck when the torpedo struck — began to get men out of the water and into the life rafts . Kalk worked in the cold Atlantic water to equalize the load among the various rafts , but died of exhaustion and exposure .
Bagley noted in his official account that about 30 minutes after Jacob Jones sank , the German submarine surfaced about two to three miles from the collection of rafts and took one of the American sailors on board . According to Uboat.net , what Rose of U @-@ 53 had done was surface and take aboard two badly injured American sailors . Rose had also radioed the American base at Queenstown with the approximate coordinates of the sinking before departing the area .
Bagley , unaware of Rose 's humanitarian gesture , left most of the food , water , and medical supplies with Lieutenant Commander John K. Richards , whom he left in charge of the assembled rafts . Bagley , Lieutenant Commander Norman Scott ( Jacob Jones ' executive officer ) and four crewmen ( brought along to row ) , set out for aid in the nearby Isles of Scilly . At 13 : 00 on 7 December , Bagley 's group was sighted by a British patrol vessel just six nautical miles ( 11 km ) from their destination . The group was relieved to find that the British sloop HMS Camellia had found and taken aboard most of the survivors earlier that morning ; a small group had been rescued on the night of the sinking by the American steamer Catalina .
Several men were recognized for their actions in the aftermath of the torpedo attack . Kalk ( posthumously ) and Bagley received the Navy Distinguished Service Medal . Others honored included Chief Boatswain 's Mate Harry Gibson ( posthumously ) and Chief Electrician 's Mate L. J. Kelly , who both received the Navy Cross ; and Richards , Scott , and Chief Boatswain 's Mate Charles Charlesworth all received letters of commendation .
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= Supermarine Spitfire =
The Supermarine Spitfire is a British single @-@ seat fighter aircraft that was used by the Royal Air Force and many other Allied countries before , during and after the Second World War . The Spitfire was built in many variants , using several wing configurations , and was produced in greater numbers than any other British aircraft . It was also the only British fighter to be in continuous production throughout the war . The Spitfire continues to be popular among enthusiasts , with approximately 54 Spitfires being airworthy , while many more are static exhibits in aviation museums throughout the world .
The Spitfire was designed as a short @-@ range , high @-@ performance interceptor aircraft by R. J. Mitchell , chief designer at Supermarine Aviation Works , which operated as a subsidiary of Vickers @-@ Armstrong from 1928 . In accordance with its role as an interceptor , Mitchell supported the development of the Spitfire 's distinctive elliptical wing ( designed by B. Shenstone ) to have the thinnest possible cross @-@ section ; this enabled the Spitfire to have a higher top speed than several contemporary fighters , including the Hawker Hurricane . Mitchell continued to refine the design until his death in 1937 , whereupon his colleague Joseph Smith took over as chief designer , overseeing the development of the Spitfire through its multitude of variants .
During the Battle of Britain , from July to October 1940 , the Spitfire was perceived by the public to be the RAF fighter , though the more numerous Hawker Hurricane shouldered a greater proportion of the burden against the Nazi German air force , the Luftwaffe . Spitfire units , however , had a lower attrition rate and a higher victory @-@ to @-@ loss ratio than those flying Hurricanes because of its higher performance . Spitfires in general were tasked with engaging the Luftwaffe fighters ( mainly Messerschmitt Bf 109E series aircraft which were a close match for the Spitfire ) during the Battle .
After the Battle of Britain , the Spitfire superseded the Hurricane to become the backbone of RAF Fighter Command , and saw action in the European , Mediterranean , Pacific and the South @-@ East Asian theatres . Much loved by its pilots , the Spitfire served in several roles , including interceptor , photo @-@ reconnaissance , fighter @-@ bomber and trainer , and it continued to serve in these roles until the 1950s . The Seafire was a carrier @-@ based adaptation of the Spitfire which served in the Fleet Air Arm from 1942 through to the mid @-@ 1950s . Although the original airframe was designed to be powered by a Rolls @-@ Royce Merlin engine producing 1 @,@ 030 hp ( 768 kW ) , it was strong enough and adaptable enough to use increasingly powerful Merlins and , in later marks , Rolls @-@ Royce Griffon engines producing up to 2 @,@ 340 hp ( 1 @,@ 745 kW ) ; as a consequence of this the Spitfire 's performance and capabilities improved over the course of its life .
= = Development and production = =
= = = Origins = = =
R. J. Mitchell 's 1931 design to meet Air Ministry specification F7 / 30 for a new and modern fighter capable of 250 mph ( 400 km / h ) , the Supermarine Type 224 , was an open @-@ cockpit monoplane with bulky gull @-@ wings and a large fixed , spatted undercarriage powered by the 600 horsepower ( 450 kW ) evaporatively cooled Rolls @-@ Royce Goshawk engine . This made its first flight in February 1934 . Of the seven designs tendered to F7 / 30 , the Gloster Gladiator biplane was accepted for service .
The Type 224 was a big disappointment to Mitchell and his design team , who immediately embarked on a series of " cleaned @-@ up " designs , using their experience with the Schneider Trophy seaplanes as a starting point . This led to the Type 300 , with retractable undercarriage and the wingspan reduced by 6 ft ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) . This was submitted to the Air Ministry in July 1934 , but was not accepted . The design then went through a series of changes , including the incorporation of a faired , enclosed cockpit , oxygen @-@ breathing apparatus , smaller and thinner wings , and the newly developed , more powerful Rolls @-@ Royce PV @-@ XII V @-@ 12 engine , later named the " Merlin " . In November 1934 Mitchell , with the backing of Supermarine 's owner , Vickers @-@ Armstrong , started detailed design work on this refined version of the Type 300
On 1 December 1934 , the Air Ministry issued contract AM 361140 / 34 , providing £ 10 @,@ 000 for the construction of Mitchell 's improved F7 / 30 design . On 3 January 1935 , they formalised the contract with a new specification , F10 / 35 , written around the aircraft . In April 1935 , the armament was changed from two .303 in ( 7 @.@ 7 mm ) Vickers machine guns in each wing to four .303 in ( 7 @.@ 7 mm ) Brownings , following a recommendation by Squadron Leader Ralph Sorley of the Operational Requirements section at the Air Ministry .
On 5 March 1936 , the prototype ( K5054 ) took off on its first flight from Eastleigh Aerodrome ( later Southampton Airport ) . At the controls was Captain Joseph " Mutt " Summers , chief test pilot for Vickers , who is quoted as saying " Don 't touch anything " on landing . This eight @-@ minute flight came four months after the maiden flight of the contemporary Hurricane .
K5054 was fitted with a new propeller , and Summers flew the aircraft on 10 March 1936 ; during this flight the undercarriage was retracted for the first time . After the fourth flight , a new engine was fitted , and Summers left the test @-@ flying to his assistants , Jeffrey Quill and George Pickering . They soon discovered that the Spitfire was a very good aircraft , but not perfect . The rudder was over @-@ sensitive and the top speed was just 330 mph ( 528 km / h ) , little faster than Sydney Camm 's new Merlin @-@ powered Hurricane . A new and better @-@ shaped wooden propeller allowed the Spitfire to reach 348 mph ( 557 km / h ) in level flight in mid @-@ May , when Summers flew K5054 to RAF Martlesham Heath and handed the aircraft over to Squadron Leader Anderson of the Aeroplane & Armament Experimental Establishment ( A & AEE ) . Here , Flight Lieutenant Humphrey Edwardes @-@ Jones took over the prototype for the RAF . He had been given orders to fly the aircraft and then to make his report to the Air Ministry on landing . Edwardes @-@ Jones 's report was positive ; his only request was that the Spitfire be equipped with an undercarriage position indicator . A week later , on 3 June 1936 , the Air Ministry placed an order for 310 Spitfires , before any formal report had been issued by the A & AEE ; interim reports were later issued on a piecemeal basis .
= = = Initial production = = =
The British public first saw the Spitfire at the RAF Hendon air @-@ display on Saturday 27 June 1936 . Although full @-@ scale production was supposed to begin immediately , there were numerous problems that could not be overcome for some time and the first production Spitfire , K9787 , did not roll off the Woolston , Southampton assembly line until mid @-@ 1938 . The first and most immediate problem was that the main Supermarine factory at Woolston was already working at full capacity fulfilling orders for Walrus and Stranraer flying boats . Although outside contractors were supposed to be involved in manufacturing many important Spitfire components , especially the wings , Vickers @-@ Armstrong ( the parent company ) was reluctant to see the Spitfire being manufactured by outside concerns and was slow to release the necessary blueprints and subcomponents . As a result of the delays in getting the Spitfire into full production , the Air Ministry put forward a plan that production of the Spitfire be stopped after the initial order for 310 , after which Supermarine would build Bristol Beaufighters . The managements of Supermarine and Vickers were able to convince the Air Ministry that the problems could be overcome and further orders were placed for 200 Spitfires on 24 March 1938 , the two orders covering the K , L and N prefix serial numbers .
In February 1936 the director of Vickers @-@ Armstrongs , Sir Robert MacLean , guaranteed production of five aircraft a week , beginning 15 months after an order was placed . On 3 June 1936 , the Air Ministry placed an order for 310 aircraft , for a price of £ 1 @,@ 395 @,@ 000 . Full @-@ scale production of the Spitfire began at Supermarine 's facility in Woolston , Southampton , but it quickly became clear that the order could not be completed in the 15 months promised . Supermarine was a small company , already busy building Walrus and Stranraer flying boats , and Vickers was busy building the Wellingtons . The initial solution was to subcontract the work . The first production Spitfire rolled off the assembly line in mid @-@ 1938 , and was flown by Jeffrey Quill on 15 May 1938 , almost 24 months after the initial order .
The final cost of the first 310 aircraft , after delays and increased programme costs , came to £ 1 @,@ 870 @,@ 242 or £ 1 @,@ 533 more per aircraft than originally estimated . Production aircraft cost about £ 9 @,@ 500 . The most expensive components were the hand @-@ fabricated and finished fuselage at approximately £ 2 @,@ 500 , then the Rolls @-@ Royce Merlin engine at £ 2 @,@ 000 , followed by the wings at £ 1 @,@ 800 a pair , guns and undercarriage , both at £ 800 each , and the propeller at £ 350 .
= = = Manufacturing at Castle Bromwich , Birmingham = = =
In 1935 , the Air Ministry approached Morris Motors Limited to ask how quickly their Cowley plant could be turned to aircraft production . In 1936 this informal request for major manufacturing facilities was turned into a formal scheme to boost British aircraft production capacity under the leadership of Herbert Austin , known as the Shadow factory plan . Austin was given the task of building nine new factories , and to supplement the existing British car manufacturing industry by either adding to overall capacity or increasing the potential for reorganisation to produce aircraft and their engines .
Under the plan , on 12 July 1938 , the Air Ministry bought a site consisting of farm fields and a sewage works next to Castle Bromwich Aerodrome in Birmingham . This shadow factory would supplement Supermarine 's original factories in Southampton in building the Spitfire . The Castle Bromwich Aircraft Factory ordered the most modern machine tools then available , which were being installed two months after work started on the site . Although Morris Motors under Lord Nuffield ( an expert in mass motor @-@ vehicle construction ) at first managed and equipped the factory , it was funded by government money . When the project was first mooted it was estimated that the factory would be built for £ 2 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 , however , by the beginning of 1939 this cost had doubled to over £ 4 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 . The Spitfire 's stressed @-@ skin construction required precision engineering skills and techniques outside the experience of the local labour force , which took some time to train . However , even as the first Spitfires were being built in June 1940 the factory was still incomplete , and there were numerous problems with the factory management , which ignored tooling and drawings provided by Supermarine in favour of tools and drawings of its own designs , and with the workforce which , while not completely stopping production , continually threatened strikes or " slow downs " until their demands for higher than average pay rates were met .
By May 1940 , Castle Bromwich had not yet built its first Spitfire , in spite of promises that the factory would be producing 60 per week starting in April . On 17 May Lord Beaverbrook , Minister of Aircraft Production , telephoned Lord Nuffield and manoeuvred him into handing over control of the Castle Bromwich plant to Beaverbook 's Ministry . Beaverbrook immediately sent in experienced management staff and experienced workers from Supermarine and gave over control of the factory to Vickers @-@ Armstrong . Although it would take some time to resolve the problems , in June 1940 , 10 Mk IIs were built ; 23 rolled out in July , 37 in August , and 56 in September . By the time production ended at Castle Bromwich in June 1945 , a total of 12 @,@ 129 Spitfires ( 921 Mk IIs , 4 @,@ 489 Mk Vs , 5 @,@ 665 Mk IXs , and 1 @,@ 054 Mk XVIs ) had been built . CBAF went on to become the largest and most successful plant of its type during the 1939 – 45 conflict . As the largest Spitfire factory in the UK , by producing a maximum of 320 aircraft per month , it built over half of the approximately 20 @,@ 000 aircraft of this type .
= = = Production dispersal = = =
During the Battle of Britain , concerted efforts were made by the Luftwaffe to destroy the main manufacturing plants at Woolston and Itchen , near Southampton . The first bombing raid , which missed the factories , came on 23 August 1940 . Over the next month , other raids were mounted until , on 26 September 1940 , both factories were completely wrecked , with 92 people being killed and a large number injured ; most of the casualties were experienced aircraft production workers .
Fortunately for the future of the Spitfire , many of the production jigs and machine tools had already been relocated by 20 September , and steps were being taken to disperse production to small facilities throughout the Southampton area . To this end , the British government requisitioned the likes of Vincent 's Garage in Station Square Reading , which later specialised in manufacturing Spitfire fuselages , and Anna Valley Motors , Salisbury , which was to become the sole producer of the wing leading @-@ edge fuel tanks for photo @-@ reconnaissance Spitfires , as well as producing other components . A purpose @-@ built works , specialising in manufacturing fuselages and installing engines , was built at Star Road , Caversham in Reading . The drawing office in which all Spitfire designs were drafted was relocated to Hursley Park , near Southampton . This site also had an aircraft assembly hangar where many prototype and experimental Spitfires were assembled , but since it had no associated aerodrome no Spitfires ever flew from Hursley .
Four towns and their satellite airfields were chosen to be the focal points for these workshops :
Southampton and Eastleigh Airport
Salisbury with High Post and Chattis Hill aerodromes
Trowbridge with Keevil aerodrome
Reading with Henley and Aldermaston aerodromes .
An experimental factory at Newbury was the subject of a Luftwaffe daylight raid but all missed their target and bombed a nearby school .
Completed Spitfires were delivered to the airfields on large Commer " Queen Mary " low @-@ loader articulated trucks , there to be fully assembled , tested , then passed on to the RAF .
= = = Flight testing = = =
All production Spitfires were flight tested before delivery . During the Second World War , Jeffrey Quill was Vickers Supermarine 's chief test pilot , in charge of flight @-@ testing all aircraft types built by Vickers Supermarine ; he also oversaw a group of 10 to 12 pilots responsible for testing all developmental and production Spitfires built by the company in the Southampton area . Quill had also devised the standard testing procedures which , with variations for specific aircraft designs , operated from 1938 . Alex Henshaw , chief test pilot at Castle Bromwich from 1940 , was placed in charge of testing all Spitfires built at that factory , co @-@ ordinating a team of 25 pilots ; he also assessed all Spitfire developments . Between 1940 and 1946 , Henshaw flew a total of 2 @,@ 360 Spitfires and Seafires , more than 10 % of total production .
Henshaw wrote about flight testing Spitfires :
After a thorough pre @-@ flight check I would take off and , once at circuit height , I would trim the aircraft and try to get her to fly straight and level with hands off the stick ... Once the trim was satisfactory I would take the Spitfire up in a full @-@ throttle climb at 2 @,@ 850 rpm to the rated altitude of one or both supercharger blowers . Then I would make a careful check of the power output from the engine , calibrated for height and temperature ... If all appeared satisfactory I would then put her into a dive at full power and 3 @,@ 000 rpm , and trim her to fly hands and feet off at 460 mph ( 740 km / h ) IAS ( Indicated Air Speed ) . Personally , I never cleared a Spitfire unless I had carried out a few aerobatic tests to determine how good or bad she was .
The production test was usually quite a brisk affair : the initial circuit lasted less than ten minutes and the main flight took between twenty and thirty minutes . Then the aircraft received a final once @-@ over by our ground mechanics , any faults were rectified and the Spitfire was ready for collection .
I loved the Spitfire in all of her many versions . But I have to admit that the later marks , although they were faster than the earlier ones , were also much heavier and so did not handle so well . You did not have such positive control over them . One test of manoeuvrability was to throw her into a flick @-@ roll and see how many times she rolled . With the Mark II or the Mark V one got two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half flick @-@ rolls but the Mark IX was heavier and you got only one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half . With the later and still heavier versions , one got even less . The essence of aircraft design is compromise , and an improvement at one end of the performance envelope is rarely achieved without a deterioration somewhere else .
When the last Spitfire rolled out in February 1948 , a total of 20 @,@ 351 examples of all variants had been built , including two @-@ seat trainers , with some Spitfires remaining in service well into the 1950s . The Spitfire was the only British fighter aircraft to be in continuous production before , during and after the Second World War .
= = Design = =
= = = Airframe = = =
In the mid @-@ 1930s , aviation design teams worldwide started developing a new generation of all @-@ metal , low @-@ wing fighter aircraft . The French Dewoitine D.520 and Germany 's Messerschmitt Bf 109 , for example , were designed to take advantage of new techniques of monocoque construction and the availability of new high @-@ powered , liquid @-@ cooled , in @-@ line aero engines . They also featured refinements such as retractable undercarriages , fully enclosed cockpits and low drag , all @-@ metal wings ( all introduced on civil airliners years before but slow to be adopted by the military , who favoured the biplane 's simplicity and manoeuvrability ) .
Mitchell 's design aims were to create a well @-@ balanced , high @-@ performance bomber interceptor and fighter aircraft capable of fully exploiting the power of the Merlin engine , while being relatively easy to fly . At the time , with France as an ally , and Germany thought to be the most likely future opponent , no enemy fighters were expected to appear over Great Britain , enemy bombers would be required to fly to the UK over the North Sea and no single engined fighter at the time had the range to accompany the bombers and successfully return to its own friendly airfields ; to carry out the mission of home defence , the design was intended to climb quickly to meet enemy bombers .
The Spitfire 's airframe was complex : the streamlined , semi @-@ monocoque duralumin fuselage featured a large number of compound curves built up from a skeleton of 19 formers , also known as frames , starting from frame number one , immediately behind the propeller unit , to the tail unit attachment frame . The first four frames supported the glycol header tank and engine cowlings . Frame 5 , to which the engine bearers were secured , supported the weight of the engine and accessories , and the loads imposed by the engine : this was a strengthened double frame which also incorporated the fireproof bulkhead and , in later versions of the Spitfire , the oil tank . This frame also tied the four main fuselage longerons to the rest of the airframe . Behind the bulkhead were five ' U ' shaped half @-@ frames which accommodated the fuel tanks and cockpit . The rear fuselage started at the eleventh frame , to which the pilot 's seat and ( later ) armour plating was attached , and ended at the nineteenth , which was mounted at a slight forward angle just forward of the fin . Each of these nine frames were oval , reducing in size towards the tail , and incorporated several lightening holes to reduce their weight as much as possible without weakening them . The U @-@ shaped frame 20 was the last frame of the fuselage proper and the frame to which the tail unit was attached . Frames 21 , 22 and 23 formed the fin ; frame 22 incorporated the tailwheel opening and frame 23 was the rudder post . Before being attached to the main fuselage , the tail unit frames were held in a jig and the eight horizontal tail formers were riveted to them .
A combination of 14 longitudinal stringers and four main longerons attached to the frames helped form a light but rigid structure to which sheets of alclad stressed skinning were attached . The fuselage plating was 24 , 20 and 18 gauge in order of thickness towards the tail , while the fin structure was completed using short longerons from frames 20 to 23 , before being covered in 22 gauge plating .
The skins of the fuselage , wings and tailplane were secured by rivets and in critical areas such as the wing forward of the main spar where an uninterrupted airflow was required , with flush rivets ; the fuselage used standard dome @-@ headed riveting . From February 1943 flush riveting was used on the fuselage , affecting all Spitfire variants . In some areas , such as at the rear of the wing , and the lower tailplane skins the top was riveted and the bottom fixed by brass screws which tapped into strips of spruce bolted to the lower ribs . The removable wing tips were made up of duralumin skinned spruce formers . At first the ailerons , elevators and rudder were fabric @-@ covered . When combat experience showed that fabric @-@ covered ailerons were impossible to use at high speeds , a light alloy replaced the fabric , enhancing control throughout the speed range .
= = = Elliptical wing design = = =
In 1934 , Mitchell and the design staff decided to use a semi @-@ elliptical wing shape to solve two conflicting requirements ; the wing needed to be thin , to avoid creating too much drag , while still able to house a retractable undercarriage , plus armament and ammunition . An elliptical planform is the most efficient aerodynamic shape for an untwisted wing , leading to the lowest amount of induced drag . The ellipse was skewed so that the centre of pressure , which occurs at the quarter @-@ chord position , aligned with the main spar , thus preventing the wings from twisting . Mitchell has sometimes been accused of copying the wing shape of the Heinkel He 70 , which first flew in 1932 ; but as Beverley Shenstone , the aerodynamicist on Mitchell 's team , explained " Our wing was much thinner and had quite a different section to that of the Heinkel . In any case it would have been simply asking for trouble to have copied a wing shape from an aircraft designed for an entirely different purpose . "
The wing section used was from the NACA 2200 series , which had been adapted to create a thickness @-@ to @-@ chord ratio of 13 % at the root , reducing to 9 @.@ 4 % at the tip . A dihedral of six degrees was adopted to give increased lateral stability .
A feature of the wing which contributed greatly to its success was an innovative spar boom design , made up of five square tubes that fitted into each other . As the wing thinned out along its span the tubes were progressively cut away in a similar fashion to a leaf spring ; two of these booms were linked together by an alloy web , creating a lightweight and very strong main spar . The undercarriage legs were attached to pivot points built into the inner , rear section of the main spar and retracted outwards and slightly backwards into wells in the non @-@ load @-@ carrying wing structure . The resultant narrow undercarriage track was considered to be an acceptable compromise as this reduced the bending loads on the main @-@ spar during landing .
Ahead of the spar , the thick @-@ skinned leading edge of the wing formed a strong and rigid D @-@ shaped box , which took most of the wing loads . At the time the wing was designed , this D @-@ shaped leading edge was intended to house steam condensers for the evaporative cooling system intended for the PV @-@ XII . Constant problems with the evaporative system in the Goshawk led to the adoption of a cooling system which used 100 % glycol . The radiators were housed in a new radiator @-@ duct designed by Fredrick Meredith of the RAE at Farnborough ; this used the cooling air to generate thrust , greatly reducing the net drag produced by the radiators . In turn , the leading @-@ edge structure lost its function as a condenser , but it was later adapted to house integral fuel tanks of various sizes , a feature patented by Vickers @-@ Supermarine in 1938 .
Another feature of the wing was its washout . The trailing edge of the wing twisted slightly upward along its span , the angle of incidence decreasing from + 2 ° at its root to - ½ ° at its tip . This caused the wing roots to stall before the tips , reducing tip @-@ stall that could otherwise have resulted in a wing drop , often leading to a spin . As the wing roots started to stall , the separating air stream started to buffet ( vibrate ) the aircraft , warning the pilot , and hence allowing even relatively inexperienced pilots to fly the aircraft to the limits of its performance . This washout was first featured in the wing of the Type 224 and became a consistent feature in subsequent designs leading to the Spitfire . The complexity of the wing design , especially the precision required to manufacture the vital spar and leading @-@ edge structures , at first caused some major hold @-@ ups in the production of the Spitfire . The problems increased when the work was put out to subcontractors , most of whom had never dealt with metal @-@ structured , high @-@ speed aircraft . By June 1939 , most of these problems had been resolved , and production was no longer held up by a lack of wings .
All of the main flight controls were originally metal structures with fabric covering.Designers and pilots felt that having ailerons which were too heavy to move ( in terms of effort , not mass ) at high speed would avoid possible aileron reversal , stopping pilots throwing the aircraft around and pulling the wings off . It was also felt that air combat would take place at relatively low speed and that high @-@ speed manoeuvring would be physically impossible . During the Battle of Britain , pilots found the ailerons of the Spitfire were far too heavy at high speeds , severely restricting lateral manoeuvres such as rolls and high @-@ speed turns , which were still a feature of air @-@ to @-@ air combat . Flight tests showed the fabric covering of the ailerons " ballooned " at high speeds , adversely affecting the aerodynamics . Replacing the fabric covering with light alloy dramatically improved the ailerons at high speed .
The Spitfire had detachable wing tips which were secured by two mounting points at the end of each main wing assembly : when the Spitfire took on a role as a high @-@ altitude fighter ( Marks VI and VII and some early Mk VIIIs ) the standard wing tips were replaced by extended , " pointed " tips which increased the wingspan from 36 ft 10 in ( 11 @.@ 23 m ) to 40 ft 2 in ( 12 @.@ 3 m ) . The other wing tip variation , used by several Spitfire variants , was the " clipped " wing ; the standard wing tips were replaced by wooden fairings which reduced the span to 32 ft 6 in ( 9 @.@ 9 m ) The wing tips used spruce formers for most of the internal structure with a light alloy skin attached using brass screws .
The airflow through the main radiator was controlled by pneumatic exit flaps . In early marks of Spitfire ( Mk I to Mk VI ) the single flap was operated manually using a lever to the left of the pilot 's seat . When the two @-@ stage Merlin was introduced in the Spitfire Mk IX the radiators were split to make room for an intercooler radiator ; the radiator under the starboard wing was halved in size and the intercooler radiator housed alongside . Under the port wing a new radiator fairing housed a square oil cooler alongside of the other half @-@ radiator unit . The two radiator flaps were now operated automatically via a thermostat .
The light alloy split flaps at the trailing edge of the wing were also pneumatically operated via a finger lever on the instrument panel . Only two positions were available ; fully up or fully down ( 85 ° ) . The flaps were normally lowered only during the final approach and for landing , and the pilot was to retract them before taxiing .
The ellipse also served as the design basis for the Spitfire 's fin and tailplane assembly , once again exploiting the shape 's favourable aerodynamic characteristics . Both the elevators and rudder were shaped so that their centre of mass was shifted forward , thus reducing control @-@ surface flutter . The longer noses and greater propeller @-@ wash resulting from larger engines in later models necessitated increasingly larger vertical and , later , horizontal tail surfaces to compensate for the altered aerodynamics , culminating in those of the Mk 22 / 24 series which were 25 % larger in area than those of the Mk I.
= = = Improved late wing designs = = =
As the Spitfire gained more power and was able to manoeuvre at higher speeds , the possibility that pilots would encounter aileron reversal increased , and the Supermarine design team set about redesigning the wings to counter this . The original wing design had a theoretical aileron reversal speed of 580 mph ( 930 km / h ) , which was somewhat lower than that of some contemporary fighters . The Royal Aircraft Establishment noted that , at 400 mph ( 640 km / h ) IAS , roughly 65 % of aileron effectiveness was lost , due to wing twist .
The new wing of the Spitfire F Mk 21 and its successors was designed to help alleviate this problem ; the wing 's stiffness was increased by 47 % , and a new design of aileron using piano hinges and geared trim tabs meant that the theoretical aileron reversal speed was increased to 825 mph ( 1 @,@ 328 km / h ) . Alongside the redesigned wing Supermarine also experimented with the original wing , raising the leading edge by one inch ( 2 @.@ 54 cm ) , with the hope of improving pilot view and reducing drag . This wing was tested on a modified F Mk 21 , also called the F Mk 23 , ( sometimes referred to as " Valiant " rather than " Spitfire " ) . The increase in performance was minimal and this experiment was abandoned .
Supermarine developed a new laminar flow wing based on new aerofoil profiles developed by NACA in the United States , with the objective of reducing drag and improving performance . These laminar flow airfoils were the Supermarine 371 @-@ I used at the root and the 371 @-@ II used at the tip . Supermarine estimated that the new wing could give an increase in speed of 55 mph ( 89 km / h ) over the Spitfire Mk 21 . The new wing was initially fitted to a Spitfire Mk XIV ; later a new fuselage was designed , with the new fighter becoming the Supermarine Spiteful . Somewhat surprisingly , the new trapezoid wing had lower critical Mach number than the old elliptic one , bringing one of the test pilots who flew the " jet Spiteful " ( the Supermarine Attacker ) to remark that the original wing should have been retained on the jet .
= = = Carburetion versus fuel injection = = =
Early in its development , the Merlin engine 's lack of fuel injection meant that Spitfires and Hurricanes , unlike the Bf 109E , were unable to simply nose down into a steep dive . This meant a Luftwaffe fighter could simply " bunt " into a high @-@ power dive to escape an attack , leaving the Spitfire behind , as its fuel was forced out of the carburettor by negative " g " . RAF fighter pilots soon learned to " half @-@ roll " their aircraft before diving to pursue their opponents . Carburettors were adopted because , as Sir Stanley Hooker explained , the carburettor " increased the performance of the supercharger and thereby increased the power of the engine . "
In March 1941 , a metal disc with a hole was fitted in the fuel line , restricting fuel flow to the maximum the engine could consume . While it did not cure the problem of the initial fuel starvation in a dive , it did reduce the more serious problem of the carburettor being flooded with fuel by the fuel pumps under negative " g " . It became known as " Miss Shilling 's orifice " as it was invented by Beatrice " Tilly " Shilling . Further improvements were introduced throughout the Merlin series , with Bendix @-@ manufactured pressure carburettors , which were designed to allow fuel to flow during all flight attitudes , introduced in 1942 .
= = = Armament = = =
Due to a shortage of Brownings , which had been selected as the new standard rifle calibre machine gun for the RAF in 1934 , early Spitfires were fitted with only four guns , with the other four fitted later . Early tests showed that while the guns worked perfectly on the ground and at low altitudes , they tended to freeze at high altitude , especially the outer wing guns . This was because the RAF 's Brownings had been modified to fire from an open bolt ; while this prevented overheating of the cordite used in British ammunition , it allowed cold air to flow through the barrel unhindered . Supermarine did not fix the problem until October 1938 , when they added hot air ducts from the rear of the wing mounted radiators to the guns , and bulkheads around the gunbays to trap the hot air in the wing . Red fabric patches were doped over the gun ports to protect the guns from cold , dirt and moisture until they were fired . Even if the eight Brownings worked perfectly , pilots soon discovered that they were not sufficient to destroy larger aircraft . Combat reports showed that an average of 4 @,@ 500 rounds were needed to shoot down an enemy aircraft . In November 1938 , tests against armoured and unarmoured targets had already indicated that the introduction of a weapon of at least 20 mm calibre was urgently needed . A variant on the Spitfire design with four 20 mm Oerlikon cannon had been tendered to specification F37 / 35 but the order for prototypes had gone to the Westland Whirlwind in January 1939 .
In June 1939 , a Spitfire was fitted with a drum @-@ fed Hispano in each wing , an installation that required large blisters on the wing to cover the 60 @-@ round drum . The cannon suffered frequent stoppages , mostly because the guns were mounted on their sides to fit as much of the magazine as possible within the wing . In January 1940 , P / O George Proudman flew this prototype in combat , but the starboard gun stopped after firing a single round , while the port gun fired 30 rounds before seizing . If one cannon seized , the recoil of the other threw the aircraft off aim . Nevertheless , 30 more cannon @-@ armed Spitfires were ordered for operational trials , and they were soon known as the Mk IB , to distinguish them from the Browning @-@ armed Mk IA , and were delivered to No. 19 Squadron beginning in June 1940 . The Hispanos were found to be so unreliable that the squadron requested an exchange of its aircraft with the older Browning @-@ armed aircraft of an operational training unit . By August , Supermarine had perfected a more reliable installation with an improved feed mechanism and four .303s in the outer wing panels . The modified fighters were then delivered to 19 Squadron .
= = Operational history = =
= = = Service operations = = =
The operational history of the Spitfire with the RAF started with the first Mk Is K9789 , which entered service with 19 Squadron at RAF Duxford on 4 August 1938 . The Spitfire achieved legendary status during the Battle of Britain , a reputation aided by the famous " Spitfire Fund " organised and run by Lord Beaverbrook , the Minister of Aircraft Production . In fact the Hurricane outnumbered the Spitfire throughout the battle , and shouldered the burden of the defence against the Luftwaffe ; however , because of its higher performance the overall attrition rate of the Spitfire squadrons was lower than that of the Hurricane units , and the Spitfire units had a higher victory @-@ to @-@ loss ratio . The key aim of Fighter Command was to stop the Luftwaffe 's bombers ; in practice the tactic , whenever possible , was to use Spitfires to counter German escort fighters , by then based in northern France , particularly the Bf 109s , while the Hurricane squadrons attacked the bombers .
Well @-@ known Spitfire pilots included " Johnnie " Johnson ( 34 enemy aircraft shot down ) , who flew the Spitfire right through his operational career from late 1940 to 1945 . Douglas Bader ( 20 e / a ) and " Bob " Tuck ( 27 e / a ) flew Spitfires and Hurricanes during the major air battles of 1940 , and both were shot down and became prisoners of war while flying Spitfires over France in 1941 and 1942 . Paddy Finucane ( 28 – 32 e / a ) scored all his successes in the fighter before disappearing over the English Channel in July 1942 . Some notable Commonwealth pilots were George Beurling ( 311 ⁄ 3 e / a ) from Canada , " Sailor " Malan ( 27 e / a ) from South Africa , New Zealanders Alan Deere ( 17 e / a ) and C F Gray ( 27 e / a ) and the Australian Hugo Armstrong ( 12 e / a ) .
The Spitfire continued to play increasingly diverse roles throughout the Second World War and beyond , often in air forces other than the RAF . The Spitfire , for example , became the first high @-@ speed photo @-@ reconnaissance aircraft to be operated by the RAF . Sometimes unarmed , they flew at high , medium and low altitudes , often ranging far into enemy territory to closely observe the Axis powers and provide an almost continual flow of valuable intelligence information throughout the war . In 1941 and 1942 , PRU Spitfires provided the first photographs of the Freya and Würzburg radar systems and , in 1943 , helped confirm that the Germans were building the V1 and V2 Vergeltungswaffe ( " vengeance weapons " ) by photographing Peenemünde , on the Baltic Sea coast of Germany .
In the Mediterranean the Spitfire blunted the heavy attacks on Malta by the Regia Aeronautica and Luftwaffe and , from early 1943 , helped pave the way for the Allied invasions of Sicily and Italy . On 7 March 1942 , 15 Mk Vs carrying 90 @-@ gallon fuel tanks under their bellies took off from HMS Eagle off the coast of Algeria on a 600 @-@ mile flight to Malta . Those Spitfires V were the first to see service outside Britain .
The Spitfire also served on the Eastern Front : approximately a thousand were supplied to the Soviet Air Force . Though some were used at the frontline in 1943 , most of them saw service with the Protivo @-@ Vozdushnaya Oborona ( English : " Anti @-@ air Defence Branch " ) .
The Spitfire also served in the Pacific Theater . During the Malaya campaign in defense of Singapore , the Spitfire met its match in the Japanese Mitsubishi A6M Zero . " The RAF pilots were trained in methods that were excellent against German and Italian equipment but suicide against the acrobatic Japs . " as Lt.Gen. Claire Lee Chennault had to notice . Although not as fast as the Spitfire , the Zero could out @-@ turn the Spitfire with ease , could sustain a climb at a very steep angle , and could stay in the air for three times as long . To counter the Zero , Spitfire pilots had to adopt a " slash and run " policy and use their superior speed and diving superiority to fight while avoiding classic dogfights . It also did not help that Southeast Asia was a lower @-@ priority area which was allocated few Spitfires and other modern fighters compared to Europe , which allowed the Japanese to easily achieve air superiority by 1942 . Over the Northern Territory of Australia , RAAF and RAF Spitfires helped defend the port town of Darwin against air attack by the Japanese Naval Air Force . Spitfire MKVIII 's took part in the last battle of WWII involving the Western allies , in Burma as a ground attack role , helping to defeat a Japanese break @-@ out attempt .
During the Second World War , Spitfires were used by the USAAF in the 4th Fighter Group until replaced by Republic P @-@ 47 Thunderbolts in March 1943 .
The Spitfire is listed in the appendix to the novel KG 200 as " known to have been regularly flown by " the German secret operations unit KG 200 , which tested , evaluated and sometimes clandestinely operated captured enemy aircraft during the Second World War .
= = = Speed and altitude records = = =
Beginning in late 1943 , high @-@ speed diving trials were undertaken at Farnborough to investigate the handling characteristics of aircraft travelling at speeds near the sound barrier ( i.e. , the onset of compressibility effects ) . Because it had the highest limiting Mach number of any aircraft at that time , a Spitfire XI was chosen to take part in these trials . Due to the high altitudes necessary for these dives , a fully feathering Rotol propeller was fitted to prevent overspeeding . It was during these trials that EN409 , flown by Squadron Leader J. R. Tobin , reached 606 mph ( 975 km / h , Mach 0 @.@ 891 ) in a 45 ° dive . In April 1944 , the same aircraft suffered engine failure in another dive while being flown by Squadron Leader Anthony F. Martindale , RAFVR , when the propeller and reduction gear broke off . The dive put the aircraft to Mach 0 @.@ 92 , the fastest ever recorded in a piston @-@ engined aircraft , but when the propeller came off the Spitfire , now tail @-@ heavy , zoom @-@ climbed back to altitude . Martindale blacked out under the 11g loading , but when he resumed consciousness he found the aircraft at about 40 @,@ 000 feet with its ( originally straight ) wings now slightly swept back . Martindale successfully glided the Spitfire 20 mi ( 32 km ) back to the airfield and landed safely . Martindale was awarded the Air Force Cross for his exploits .
A Spitfire was modified by the RAE for high @-@ speed testing of the stabilator ( then known as the " flying tail " ) of the Miles M.52 supersonic research aircraft . RAE test pilot Eric Brown stated that he tested this successfully during October and November 1944 , attaining Mach 0 @.@ 86 in a dive .
On 5 February 1952 , a Spitfire 19 of 81 Squadron based at Kai Tak in Hong Kong reached probably the highest altitude ever achieved by a Spitfire . The pilot , Flight Lieutenant Ted Powles , was on a routine flight to survey outside @-@ air temperature and report on other meteorological conditions at various altitudes in preparation for a proposed new air service through the area . He climbed to 50 @,@ 000 ft ( 15 @,@ 240 m ) indicated altitude , with a true altitude of 51 @,@ 550 ft ( 15 @,@ 712 m ) . The cabin pressure fell below a safe level and , in trying to reduce altitude , he entered an uncontrollable dive which shook the aircraft violently . He eventually regained control somewhere below 3 @,@ 000 ft ( 900 m ) and landed safely with no discernible damage to his aircraft . Evaluation of the recorded flight data suggested that , in the dive , he achieved a speed of 690 mph ( 1 @,@ 110 km / h , Mach 0 @.@ 96 ) , which would have been the highest speed ever reached by a propeller @-@ driven aircraft , but it has been speculated this figure resulted from inherent instrument errors .
The critical Mach number of the Spitfire 's original elliptical wing was higher than the subsequently used laminar @-@ flow @-@ section , straight @-@ tapering @-@ planform wing of the follow @-@ on Supermarine Spiteful , Seafang and Attacker , illustrating that Reginald Mitchell 's practical engineering approach to the problems of high @-@ speed flight had paid off .
= = Variants = =
= = = Overview = = =
Although R. J. Mitchell is justifiably known as the engineer who designed the Spitfire , his premature death in 1937 meant that all development after that date was undertaken by a team led by his chief draughtsman , Joe Smith , who became Supermarine 's chief designer on Mitchell 's death . As Jeffrey Quill noted : " If Mitchell was born to design the Spitfire , Joe Smith was born to defend and develop it . "
There were 24 marks of Spitfire and many sub @-@ variants . These covered the Spitfire in development from the Merlin to Griffon engines , the high @-@ speed photo @-@ reconnaissance variants and the different wing configurations . More Spitfire Mk Vs were built than any other type , with 6 @,@ 487 built , followed by the 5 @,@ 656 Mk IXs . Different wings , featuring a variety of weapons , were fitted to most marks ; the A wing used eight .303 in ( 7 @.@ 7 mm ) machine guns , the B wing had four .303 in ( 7 @.@ 7 mm ) machine guns and two 20 mm ( .79 in ) Hispano cannon , and the C , or universal , wing could mount either four 20 mm ( .79 in ) cannon or two 20 mm ( .79 in ) and four .303 in ( 7 @.@ 7 mm ) machine guns . As the war progressed , the C wing became more common . Another armament variation was the E wing which housed two 20 mm ( .79 in ) cannon and two .50 in ( 12 @.@ 7 mm ) Browning machine guns . Although the Spitfire continued to improve in speed and armament , because of its limited fuel capacity its range and endurance were also limited : it remained " short @-@ legged " throughout its life except in the dedicated photo @-@ reconnaissance role , when its guns were replaced by extra fuel tanks .
Supermarine developed a two @-@ seat variant known as the T Mk VIII to be used for training , but none were ordered , and only one example was ever constructed ( identified as N32 / G @-@ AIDN by Supermarine ) . In the absence of an official two @-@ seater variant , a number of airframes were crudely converted in the field . These included a 4 Squadron SAAF Mk VB in North Africa , where a second seat was fitted instead of the upper fuel tank in front of the cockpit , although it was not a dual @-@ control aircraft and is thought to have been used as the squadron " run @-@ about " . The only unofficial two @-@ seat conversions that were fitted with dual @-@ controls were a small number of Russian lend / lease Mk IX aircraft . These were referred to as Mk IX UTI and differed from the Supermarine proposals by using an inline " greenhouse " style double canopy rather than the raised " bubble " type of the T Mk VIII .
In the postwar era , the idea was revived by Supermarine and a number of two @-@ seat Spitfires were built by converting old Mk IX airframes with a second " raised " cockpit featuring a bubble canopy . Ten of these TR9 variants were then sold to the Indian Air Force along with six to the Irish Air Corps , three to the Royal Netherlands Air Force and one for the Royal Egyptian Air Force . Currently several of the trainers are known to exist , including both the T Mk VIII , a T Mk IX based in the US , and the " Grace Spitfire " ML407 , a veteran flown operationally by 485 ( NZ ) Squadron in 1944 .
= = = Seafire = = =
The Seafire , a name derived from sea , and Spitfire , was a naval version of the Spitfire specially adapted for operation from aircraft carriers . Although the Spitfire was not designed for the rough @-@ and @-@ tumble of carrier @-@ deck operations , it was considered to be the best available fighter at the time . The basic Spitfire design did impose some limitations on the use of the aircraft as a carrier @-@ based fighter ; poor visibility over the nose , for example , meant that pilots had to be trained to land with their heads out of the cockpit and looking alongside the port cowling of their Seafire ; also , like the Spitfire , the Seafire had a relatively narrow undercarriage track , which meant that it was not ideally suited to deck operations . Early marks of Seafire had relatively few modifications to the standard Spitfire airframe ; however cumulative front line experience meant that most of the later versions of the Seafire had strengthened airframes , folding wings , arrestor hooks and other modifications , culminating in the purpose @-@ built Seafire F / FR Mk 47 .
The Seafire II was able to outperform the A6M5 Zero at low altitudes when the two types were tested against each other during wartime mock combat exercises . However , contemporary Allied carrier fighters such as the F6F Hellcat and F4U Corsair were considerably more robust and so more practical for carrier operations . Performance was greatly increased when later versions of the Seafire were fitted with the Griffon engines . These were too late to see service in the Second World War .
= = = Griffon @-@ engined variants = = =
The first Rolls Royce Griffon @-@ engined Mk XII flew on August 1942 , and first flew operationally with 41 Squadron in April 1943 . This mark could nudge 400 mph ( 640 km / h ) in level flight and climb to an altitude of 33 @,@ 000 ft ( 10 @,@ 000 m ) in under nine minutes .
As American fighters took over the long @-@ range escorting of USAAF daylight bombing raids , the Griffon @-@ engined Spitfires progressively took up the tactical air superiority role , and played a major role in intercepting V @-@ 1 flying bombs , while the Merlin @-@ engined variants ( mainly the Mk IX and the Packard @-@ engined Mk XVI ) were adapted to the fighter @-@ bomber role . Although the later Griffon @-@ engined marks lost some of the favourable handling characteristics of their Merlin @-@ powered predecessors , they could still outmanoeuvre their main German foes and other , later American and British @-@ designed fighters .
The final version of the Spitfire , the Mk 24 , first flew at South Marston on 13 April 1946 . On 20 February 1948 , almost twelve years from the prototype 's first flight , the last production Spitfire , VN496 , left the production line . Spitfire Mk 24s were used by only one regular RAF unit , with 80 Squadron replacing their Hawker Tempests with F Mk 24s in 1947 . With these planes , 80 Squadron continued its patrol and reconnaissance duties from Wunstorf in Germany as part of the occupation forces , until it relocated to Kai Tak Airport , Hong Kong in July 1949 . During the Chinese Civil War , 80 Squadron 's main duty was to defend Hong Kong from perceived Communist threats .
Operation Firedog during the Malayan Emergency saw the Spitfire fly over 1 @,@ 800 operational sorties against the Malaysian Communists . The last operational sortie of an RAF Spitfire was flown on 1 April 1954 , by PR Mk 19 Spitfire PS888 flying from RAF Seletar , in Singapore .
The last non @-@ operational flight of a Spitfire in RAF service , which took place on 9 June 1957 , was by a PR Mk 19 , PS583 , from RAF Woodvale of the Temperature and Humidity Flight . This was also the last known flight of a piston @-@ engined fighter in the RAF . The last nation in the Middle East to operate Spitfires was Syria , which kept its F 22s until 1953 .
In late 1962 , Air Marshal Sir John Nicholls instigated a trial when he flew Spitfire PM631 , a PR Mk 19 in the custody of the Battle of Britain Memorial Flight , against an English Electric Lightning F 3 ( a supersonic jet @-@ engined interceptor ) in mock combat at RAF Binbrook . At the time British Commonwealth forces were involved in possible action against Indonesia over Malaya and Nicholls decided to develop tactics to fight the Indonesian Air Force P @-@ 51 Mustang , a fighter that had a similar performance to the PR Mk 19 . The first airframe ( PM631 ) developed mechanical issues which removed it from the trial . Another PR Mk 19 , PS853 which is now owned by Rolls @-@ Royce , was on gate @-@ guard duties at Binbrook , having been retired from the BBMF one year before . It had been maintained in running condition by ground crews at Binbrook , and after a short time was participating in the trials . At the end of the trials , RAF pilots found that Firestreak infra @-@ red guided missiles had trouble acquiring the Spitfire due to a low exhaust temperature , and decided that the twin ADEN 30 mm ( 1 in ) cannons were the only weapons suited to the task , which was complicated by the tight turning circle of the Spitfire and the Lightning 's proclivity for over @-@ running the Spitfire . It was concluded that the most effective and safest way for a modern jet @-@ engined fighter to attack a piston @-@ engined fighter was to engage full afterburner at an altitude lower than the Spitfire , and behind it to perform a hit @-@ and @-@ run attack , contrary to all established fighter @-@ on @-@ fighter doctrine at that time .
= = Operators = =
= = Surviving aircraft = =
There are approximately 55 Spitfires and a few Seafires in airworthy condition worldwide , although many air museums have examples on static display , for example , Chicago 's Museum of Science and Industry has paired a static Spitfire with a static Ju 87 R @-@ 2 / Trop . Stuka dive bomber .
The oldest surviving Spitfire is a Mark 1 , serial number K9942 ; it is preserved at the Royal Air Force Museum Cosford in Shropshire . This aircraft was the 155th built and first flew in April 1939 . It flew operationally with No. 72 Squadron RAF until June 1940 , when it was damaged in a wheels @-@ up landing . After repair , it was used for training until August 1944 , when it became one of several Battle of Britain aircraft veterans that were allocated to the Air Historical Branch for future museum preservation .
What may be the most originally restored Spitfire in the world is maintained in airworthy condition at Fantasy of Flight in Polk City , Florida . Over a six @-@ year period in the 1990s , this aircraft was slowly restored by Personal Plane Services in England using almost 90 % of its original aircraft skins . Owner Kermit Weeks insisted that the aircraft be restored to original condition as closely as possible . Machine guns , cannon , gun sight and original working radios are all installed .
Two MK 1 Supermarine Spitfires originally restored remain in a flying condition at the Imperial War Museum Duxford , in Cambridgeshire , England . Both restored by American billionaire Thomas Kaplan , one has been donated to the Imperial War Museum and the second was auctioned in July 2015 at Christie 's , London . Being only one of four flying MK 1 Spitfires in the world , the aircraft fetched a record £ 3 @.@ 1 million at auction on 9 July , beating the previous record for a Spitfire of £ 1 @.@ 7 million set in 2009 .
= = = Surviving Spitfires in Burma = = =
After hostilities ceased in Asia in 1945 , a number of Spitfire Mk.XIVs were reportedly buried , after being greased , tarred and prepared for long @-@ term storage , in crates in Burma .
Excavations carried out in early 2013 failed to locate any of the rumoured aircraft .
It is widely reported from numerous sources that aircraft from RAF bases in Burma were actually crated up and shipped out for reuse in elsewhere .
= = Memorials = =
A fibreglass replica of the Mk.1 Spitfire Mk1 YT @-@ J ( R6675 ) , flown by Supermarine test pilot Jeffrey Quill during his brief period of active service with 65 Squadron is on display at the Battle of Britain memorial at Capel @-@ le @-@ Ferne near Folkestone , along with a replica Mk.1 Hurricane representing US @-@ X , in which Pilot Officer Geoffrey Page was shot down on 12 August 1940 .
Sentinel is a sculpture depicting three Spitfires in flight by Tim Tolkien at the roundabout junction ( popularly known as Spitfire Island ) of the A47 and A452 in Castle Bromwich , Birmingham England , commemorating the main Spitfire factory . The island sits at the adjoining southern corners of the former Castle Bromwich Aircraft Factory and Aerodrome ( now Castle Vale housing estate ) . There is also both a Spitfire and a Hurricane in the nearby Thinktank Science Museum .
A sculpture of the prototype Spitfire , K5054 , stands on the roundabout at the entrance to Southampton International Airport , which , as Eastleigh Aerodrome , saw the first flight of the aircraft in March 1936 .
Jeffrey Quill , the former Supermarine test pilot , initiated a project to build an exact replica of K5054 , the prototype Spitfire to be put on permanent public display as a memorial to R.J. Mitchell . A team of original Supermarine designers worked with Aerofab Restorations of Andover for 10 years to create the facsimile . It was unveiled to the public in April 1993 by Quill at the RAF Museum , Hendon , and is currently on loan to the Tangmere Military Aviation Museum .
A fibreglass replica in the colours of a Polish Squadron Leader based at the station during the Second World War is on display at RAF Northolt , the last Battle of Britain Sector Station still in RAF operational service .
A replica Spitfire is on display on the Thornaby Road roundabout near the school named after Sir Douglas Bader who flew a Spitfire in the Second World War . This memorial is in memory of the old RAF base in Thornaby which is now a residential estate .
A fibreglass replica of a Spitfire has been mounted on a pylon in Memorial Park , Hamilton , New Zealand as a tribute to all New Zealand fighter pilots who flew Spitfires during the Second World War .
At Bentley Priory , the Second World War command centre for Fighter Command , fibreglass replicas of a Spitfire Mk 1 and a Hurricane Mk 1 can be seen fixed in a position of attack . This was built as a memorial to everyone who worked at Bentley Priory during the war .
A fibreglass replica in the colours of 603 ( City of Edinburgh ) Squadron Royal Auxiliary Air Force Spitfire Memorial next to the Edinburgh Airport control tower . This model replaced the original gate guardian from the former RAF Turnhouse . It is painted to represent serial number L1067 ( code XT @-@ D ) " Blue Peter " , the personal aircraft of the Squadron Commander , Squadron Leader George Denholm DFC .
A fibreglass replica of a Spitfire Mk IX has been mounted on a pylon in Jackson Park , Windsor , Ontario alongside a Hurricane as a memorial to Royal Canadian Air Force pilots . This display replaces an Avro Lancaster bomber that had previously been on display and is currently undergoing restoration .
One of the few remaining Supermarine Spitfires with a wartime record is on display ( alongside a Hawker Hurricane ) at the RAF Manston Spitfire and Hurricane Memorial Museum , near Kent International Airport .
Lodge Hill Garage , Abingdon , Oxfordshire has a full @-@ size replica Spitfire as its own rooftop monument . Owner Peter Jewson bought the replica in a campaign to build the first ever national memorial to honour the 166 women from the Air Transport Auxiliary ( ATA ) who flew Spitfires and other aircraft from factories to their operational airbases ; 14 died during these ferry flights .
A fibreglass replica of a Spitfire Mk IX is mounted to the roof of the speciality shop , Spitfire Emporium , in Kitchener , Ontario .
There is a replica of a Spitfire ( and of a Hurricane ) at the entrance to the Eden Camp Modern History Museum as a memorial to pilots who served in the Battle of Britain .
Montrose Air Station Heritage Centre has a full size replica Spitfire MkVb LO @-@ D ( EP121 ) on display as a memorial to the men and women who served at RFC / RAF Montrose .
= = Replicas = =
Several small manufacturers have produced replica Spitfires , either as complete aircraft , or as kits for self @-@ building . These range in scale from ¾ full scale to full @-@ size , although most use wooden construction , rather than the original all @-@ metal monocoque design .
The British Historic Flying Company has either restored or built from scratch a significant proportion of the Spitfires that are now air @-@ worthy . Other examples include the Jurca Spit from France , and those manufactured by Tally Ho Enterprises in Canada , SAC in California , USA , and even the microlight Silence Twister from Germany . Supermarine Aircraft originally from Brisbane , Australia , and now based in Cisco Texas , manufacture the 80 % scale Spitfire Mk 26 and the 90 % scale Mk 26B replicas . The Supermarine Spitfire Mk 26 and 26B are supplied in kit form and are the only all @-@ aluminium reproduction Spitfires in production . The Isaacs Spitfire is a homebuilt 60 % scale replica .
= = Notable appearances in media = =
During and after the Battle of Britain the Spitfire became a symbol of British resistance : for example , Lord Beaverbrook 's " Spitfire Fund " of 1940 was one campaign which drew widespread public attention to the Spitfire . The Spitfire continues to be highly popular at airshows , on airfields and in museums worldwide , and continues to hold an important place in the memories of many people , especially the few still living who flew the Spitfire in combat . Numerous films and documentaries featuring the Spitfire are still being produced , some of which are listed in this section .
The First of the Few ( also known as Spitfire in the US and Canada ) ( 1942 ) was a British film produced and directed by Leslie Howard , with Howard in the starring role of R.J. Mitchell , and David Niven playing a composite character based on the Schneider Trophy pilots of 1927 , 1929 and 1931 , and the Supermarine test pilot Jeffrey Quill . Some of the footage includes film shot in 1941 of operational Spitfires and pilots of 501 Squadron ( code letters SD ) . Howard spent a long time researching the history of the Spitfire 's development for the film ; Mrs. Mitchell and her son Gordon were on the set during much of the production . The aerobatic flying sequences featured in the last 15 minutes of the film were made by Jeffrey Quill in early November 1941 , flying a Spitfire Mk II mocked up to represent the prototype .
Malta Story ( 1953 ) , starring Alec Guinness , Jack Hawkins , Anthony Steel and Muriel Pavlow , is a black and white war film telling the story of the defence of Malta in 1942 when Spitfires were the island 's main defence from air attacks .
Reach for the Sky ( 1956 ) starring Kenneth More tells the story of Douglas Bader , using contemporary Spitfire aircraft in the production .
Battle of Britain ( 1969 ) directed by Guy Hamilton and starring Laurence Olivier , Michael Caine , Christopher Plummer , Ralph Richardson , Michael Redgrave , Susannah York and many others . Set in 1940 , this film features several sequences involving a total of 12 flying Spitfires ( mostly Mk IX versions ) , as well as a number of other flying examples of Second World War @-@ era British and German aircraft .
Eagles Over London ( 1969 ) , a wholly fictional Italian film , features Spitfires in a recreation of the Battle of Britain .
Piece of Cake ( 1987 ) starring Tom Burlinson . Aired on the ITV network in 1987 . Based on the novel by Derek Robinson , the six @-@ part miniseries covered the prewar era to " Battle of Britain Day , " 15 September 1940 . The series depicted air combat over the skies of France and Britain during the early stages of the Second World War , though using five flying examples of late model Spitfires in place of the novel 's early model Hurricanes . There were shots of Spitfires taking off and landing together from grass airstrips .
Dark Blue World ( 2001 ) , starring Ondřej Vetchý was a tale of two Czech pilots who escape Nazi @-@ occupied Europe to fly Spitfires during the Battle of Britain . Jan Svěrák filmed some new aerial scenes and reused aerial footage from Hamilton 's film .
James May 's Toy Stories ( 2009 ) , starring James May was a BBC TV series which featured an episode in which children constructed a 1 : 1 scale model of the Spitfire in the style of the Airfix 1 / 72 scale model first released in 1953 .
Doctor Who – " Victory of the Daleks " ( 2010 ) , was an episode of a popular BBC TV series in which three Spitfires modified for spaceflight aid in defending London from alien Daleks during the Blitz .
Inform @-@ Educate @-@ Entertain ( 2013 ) , the debut album by alternative British band Public Service Broadcasting ( band ) features the single ' Spitfire ' in which the design and construction of the plane are described through various samples to the backing of the song itself .
Guy Martin 's Spitfire ( 2014 ) was a Channel 4 documentary covering the two @-@ year restoration of a Mark 1 Spitfire , N3200 , coded ' QV ' , that had been buried beneath the sand for 46 years after crash landing on a French beach during the Dunkirk evacuation in 1940 . Guy Martin tells the Boy 's Own @-@ style story of its pilot , Squadron Leader Geoffrey Stephenson and helps in the restoration of the aircraft .
= = Specifications ( Spitfire Mk VB ) = =
The Spitfire 's performance improved greatly as WWII progressed , for more information see Supermarine Spitfire variants : specifications , performance and armament .
Data from Spitfire : The History and Jane 's Fighting Aircraft of World War II
General characteristics
Crew : one pilot
Length : 29 ft 11 in ( 9 @.@ 12 m )
Wingspan : 36 ft 10 in ( 11 @.@ 23 m )
Height : 11 ft 5 in ( 3 @.@ 86 m )
Wing area : 242 @.@ 1 ft2 ( 22 @.@ 48 m2 )
Airfoil : NACA 2213 ( root )
NACA 2209 @.@ 4 ( tip )
Empty weight : 5 @,@ 065 lb ( 2 @,@ 297 kg )
Loaded weight : 6 @,@ 622 lb ( 3 @,@ 000 kg )
Max. takeoff weight : 6 @,@ 700 lb ( 3 @,@ 039 kg )
Powerplant : 1 × Rolls @-@ Royce Merlin 45 supercharged V12 engine , 1 @,@ 470 hp ( 1 @,@ 096 kW ) at 9 @,@ 250 ft ( 2 @,@ 819 m )
Performance
Maximum speed : 370 mph ( 595 km / h ) ( 322 kn , 595 km / h )
Combat radius : 410 nmi ( 470 mi ( 756 km ) )
Ferry range : 991 nmi ( 1 @,@ 135 mi ( 1 @,@ 827 km ) )
Service ceiling : 36 @,@ 500 ft ( 11 @,@ 125 m )
Rate of climb : 2 @,@ 600 ft / min ( 13 @.@ 2 m / s )
Wing loading : 27 @.@ 35 lb / ft2 ( 133 @.@ 5 kg / m2 )
Power / mass : 0 @.@ 22 hp / lb ( 0 @.@ 36 kW / kg )
Armament
Guns :
A wing
8 × .303 in Browning Mk II * machine guns ( 350 rounds per gun )
B wing
2 × 20mm Hispano Mk II ( 60 rounds per gun )
4 × .303 in Browning Mk II * machine guns ( 350 rounds per gun )
C wing
4 × 20mm Hispano Mk II cannon ( 120 rounds per gun )
C wing ( Alt . )
2 × 20mm Hispano Mk II ( 120 rounds per gun )
4 × .303 in Browning Mk II * machine guns ( 350 rounds per gun )
E wing
2 × 20mm Hispano Mk II cannon ( 120 rounds per gun )
2 × .50 in M2 Browning machine guns ( 250 rounds per gun )
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= Second Partition of Poland =
The 1793 Second Partition of the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth was the second of three partitions ( or partial annexations ) that ended the existence of the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth by 1795 . The second partition occurred in the aftermath of the War in Defense of the Constitution and the Targowica Confederation of 1792 , and was approved by its territorial beneficiaries , the Russian Empire and the Kingdom of Prussia . The division was ratified by the coerced Polish parliament ( Sejm ) in 1793 ( see the Grodno Sejm ) in a short @-@ lived attempt to prevent the inevitable complete annexation of Poland , the Third Partition .
= = Background = =
By 1790 , on the political front , the Commonwealth had deteriorated into such a helpless condition that it was successfully forced into an unnatural and ultimately deadly alliance with its enemy , Prussia . The Polish @-@ Prussian Pact of 1790 was signed , giving false hope that the Commonwealth might have at last found an ally that would shield it while it reformed itself . The May Constitution of 1791 enfranchised the bourgeoisie , established the separation of the three branches of government , and eliminated the abuses of Repnin Sejm . Those reforms prompted aggressive actions on the part of its neighbours , wary of the potential renaissance of the Commonwealth . Once again Poland dared to reform and improve itself without Russia 's permission , and once again the Empress Catherine II was angered ; arguing that Poland had fallen prey to the radical Jacobinism then at high tide in France , Russian forces invaded the Commonwealth in 1792 .
In the War in Defense of the Constitution , the army of the Russian Empire , invited by the pro @-@ Russian , conservative , Polish magnates ' alliance , the Confederation of Targowica , fought against the Polish forces supporting the Constitution . The conservative nobility ( szlachta ) believed that the Russians would help them restore their Golden Liberty . Abandoned by their Prussian allies , the badly outnumbered Polish pro @-@ Constitution forces fought under Prince Józef Poniatowski a defensive war with some measure of success , but were ultimately ordered to abandon their efforts by their supreme commander , King Stanisław August Poniatowski . The King decided to join the Targowica Confederation , as demanded by the Russians .
Russia invaded Poland to ensure the defeat of the Polish reforms , with no overt goal of another partition ( it viewed Poland as its protectorate , and saw little need in giving up chunks of Poland to other countries ) . Frederick William II of Prussia , however , saw those events as an opportunity to strengthen his country . Frederick demanded from Catherine that for his country 's abandoning Poland as a close ally , and for Prussian participation in the War of the First Coalition against revolutionary France ( a participation that Russia encouraged , and in which Prussia recently suffered a major defeat at the Battle of Valmy ) , Prussia should be compensated – preferably with parts of the Polish territory . Russia soon decided to accept the Prussian offer .
= = Partition = =
On 23 January 1793 Prussia signed a treaty with Russia , agreeing that Polish reforms would be revoked and both countries would receive chunks of Commonwealth territory . Russian and Prussian military took control of the territories they claimed soon afterward , with Russian troops already present , and Prussian troops meeting only nominal resistance . In 1793 , deputies to the Grodno Sejm , the last Sejm of the Commonwealth , in the presence of Russian forces , agreed to the Russian and Prussian territorial demands . The Grodno Sejm became infamous not only as the last sejm of the Commonwealth , but because its deputies had been bribed and coerced by the Russians ( Russia and Prussia wanted official , legal sanction from Poland for their demands ) .
Russia took 250 @,@ 000 square kilometres ( 97 @,@ 000 sq mi ) , while Prussia took 58 @,@ 000 square kilometres ( 22 @,@ 000 sq mi ) . The Commonwealth lost about 307 000 km ² , being reduced to 215 000 km ² .
Russia received the Kiev Voivodeship , Bracław Voivodeship , Podole Voivodeship and Minsk Voivodeship , and parts of the Vilnius Voivodeship , Nowogródek Voivodeship , Brest Litovsk Voivodeship and the Volhynian Voivodeship . This was accepted by the Grodno Sejm on 22 July . Russia reorganized its newly acquired territories into Minsk Viceroyalty and Izyaslav Viceroyalty ( which in 1795 was split into Podolian and Volhynian Viceroyalties ) .
Prussia received the cities of Gdańsk ( Danzig ) and Toruń ( Thorn ) , and Gniezno Voivodeship , Poznań Voivodeship , Sieradz Voivodeship , Kalisz Voivodeship , Płock Voivodeship , Brześć Kujawski Voivodeship , Inowrocław Voivodeship , Dobrzyń Land , and parts of the Kraków Voivodeship , Rawa Voivodeship and Masovian Voivodeship . This was accepted by the Grodno Sejm on 23 September or 25 September ( sources vary ) . Prussia organized its newly acquired territories into South Prussia .
The Commonwealth lost about 5 million people ; only about 4 million people remained in the Polish – Lithuanian lands .
What was left of the Commonwealth was merely a small buffer state with a puppet king , and Russian garrisons keeping an eye on the reduced Polish army .
= = Aftermath = =
Targowica confederates , who did not expect another partition , and the king , Stanisław August Poniatowski , who joined them near the end , both lost much prestige and support . The reformers , on the other hand , were attracting increasing support . In March 1794 the Kościuszko Uprising begun . The defeat of the Uprising in November that year resulted in the final Third Partition of Poland , ending the existence of the Commonwealth .
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= Terry @-@ Thomas =
Terry @-@ Thomas ( born Thomas Terry Hoar Stevens ; 10 July 1911 – 8 January 1990 ) was an English comedian and character actor who became known to a worldwide audience through his many films during the 1950s and 1960s . He often portrayed disreputable members of the upper classes , especially cads , toffs and bounders , using his distinctive voice ; his costume and props tended to include a monocle , waistcoat and cigarette holder . His striking dress sense was set off by a 1 ⁄ 3 @-@ inch ( 8 @.@ 5 mm ) gap between his two upper front teeth .
Born in London , Terry @-@ Thomas made his film debut , uncredited , in The Private Life of Henry VIII ( 1933 ) . He spent several years appearing in smaller roles , before wartime service with Entertainments National Service Association ( ENSA ) and Stars in Battledress . The experience helped sharpen his cabaret and revue act , increased his public profile and proved instrumental in the development of his successful comic stage routine . Upon his demobilisation , he starred in Piccadilly Hayride on the London stage and was the star of the first comedy series on British television , How Do You View ? ( 1949 ) . He appeared on various BBC radio shows , and made a successful transition into British films . His most creative period was the 1950s when he appeared in Private 's Progress ( 1956 ) , The Green Man ( 1956 ) , Blue Murder at St Trinian 's ( 1957 ) , I 'm All Right Jack ( 1959 ) and Carlton @-@ Browne of the F.O. ( 1959 ) .
From the early 1960s Terry @-@ Thomas began appearing in American films , coarsening his already unsubtle screen character in films such as Bachelor Flat , It 's a Mad , Mad , Mad , Mad World and How to Murder Your Wife . From the mid @-@ 1960s he frequently starred in European films , in roles such as Sir Reginald in the successful French film La Grande Vadrouille . In 1971 Terry @-@ Thomas was diagnosed with Parkinson 's disease , which slowly brought his career to a conclusion : his last film role was in 1980 . He spent much of his fortune on medical treatment and , shortly before his death , was living in poverty , existing on charity from the Actors ' Benevolent Fund . A charity gala was held in his honour , which raised sufficient funds for him to live his remaining time in a nursing home .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life : 1911 – 33 = = =
Terry @-@ Thomas was born Thomas Terry Hoar Stevens at 53 Lichfield Grove , Finchley , North London . He was the third of four children born to Ernest Frederick Stevens , managing director of a butcher 's business at Smithfield Market and part @-@ time amateur actor , and his wife Ellen Elizabeth Stevens ( née Hoar ) . As a child , Terry @-@ Thomas was often referred to as Tom , the diminutive used by his family . He led a generally happy childhood , but believed that his parents secretly desired a daughter in his place . By the time he reached adolescence , his parents ' marriage had failed and both became alcoholics . In an attempt to bring them together , Terry @-@ Thomas often entertained them by performing impromptu slapstick routines , reciting jokes , and singing and dancing around the family home . The performances seldom worked , and his father became increasingly removed from his family . His parents had divorced by the 1920s .
In 1921 Terry @-@ Thomas began to nurture his distinctive , well @-@ spoken voice , reasoning that " using good speech automatically suggested that you were well @-@ educated and made people look up to you " . He used the speech of the actor Owen Nares as a basis for his own delivery . Terry @-@ Thomas became fascinated by the stage , and regularly attended the Golders Green Hippodrome to see the latest shows . It was there that he developed an interest in fashion , and adopted the debonair dress @-@ sense of his hero Douglas Fairbanks . Terry @-@ Thomas attended Fernbank School in Hendon Lane , Finchley , which was a welcome escape from the stresses of his parents ' break @-@ up . When he was 13 , he transferred to Ardingly College , a public school in West Sussex . He excelled in Latin and Geography and briefly took up drama . The latter subject later led to his expulsion from the school , after his frequent and inappropriate use of ad lib during lessons . He also took up a position in the school jazz band , first playing the ukulele and then percussion and additionally he often performed comedy dancing routines to the band 's music .
Terry @-@ Thomas enjoyed his time at Ardingly , and relished his association with upper middle class school friends . His academic abilities were modest , and he only came to the notice of staff through his frequent tomfoolery . Although he initially felt intimidated by his school surroundings , his confidence grew as he put on " a bold , undiluted and sustained show of chutzpah " , according to his biographer , Graham McCann . On his return home to Finchley to start a break in 1927 , his more mature manner impressed the family 's housekeeper Kate Dixon , who seduced the young student at the family home . He stayed at Ardingly for one more term and returned home to London , but made no plans to further his education or start long @-@ term work . Instead , he accepted a temporary position at Smithfield Market , where he earned 15 shillings a week as a junior transport clerk for the Union Cold Storage Company . By his own admission he never stopped " farting around " and often kept his colleagues entertained with impersonations of the Hunchback of Notre @-@ Dame and Erich von Stroheim . He also invented various characters including Colonel Featherstonehaugh @-@ Bumleigh and Cora Chessington @-@ Crabbe , and frequently recited comic stories involving them to his colleagues . His characterisations soon came to the notice of the company 's management who prompted him to enrol in the company 's amateur drama club . He made his début with the drama company in the role of Lord Trench in The Dover Road which was staged at the Fortune Theatre , London . The production was popular with audiences , and he subsequently became a regular performer in many amateur productions .
Terry @-@ Thomas made his professional stage début on 11 April 1930 at a social evening organised by the Union of Electric Railwayman 's Dining Club in South Kensington . He was billed as Thos Stevens , but only appeared as a minor turn . His performance brought heckles from the drunken audience , but earned him a commission of 30 shillings . After this he played a few minor roles in Gilbert and Sullivan productions by the Edgware Operatic Society at the Scala Theatre . In 1933 he left Smithfield Market to work briefly with a friend at an electrical shop before he became travelling salesman of electrical equipment . He enjoyed the job and relished being able to dress up in elaborate clothing in order to make his pitch . In his spare time he began playing the ukulele with a local jazz band called the Rhythm Maniacs . He took up dancing and formed a partnership with a sister of Jessie Matthews . The act starred in local exhibitions and at minor venues , and they earned well from it . News soon travelled of the couple 's talent , and they were engaged as ballroom dancers at a hall in Cricklewood . He found the dance @-@ style too restrictive and he left the act to try other aspects of entertainment .
= = = Early performances : 1933 – 39 = = =
By 1933 Terry @-@ Thomas had moved out of Finchley and into a friend 's flat ; the friend was a film extra who introduced him to the idea of working in the industry . Terry @-@ Thomas made his uncredited film debut in the 1933 film , The Private Life of Henry VIII , which starred Charles Laughton in the title role . Between 1933 and 1941 Terry @-@ Thomas appeared in 16 films , as an uncredited extra in all but one ; he later said that " this work suited me down to the ground . It wasn 't really like work to me . I got an enormous kick out of it " . His first speaking role came in the 1935 Buddy Rogers comedy Once in a Million where he shouted " A thousand ! " during an auction . During the 1936 musical comedy This 'll Make You Whistle , starring Jack Buchanan , he permanently damaged his hearing as a result of jumping into a water tank . In between his film work he developed his cabaret act and was employed as a dance teacher at the Aida Foster School of Dancing in Golders Green .
During this period he billed himself as Thomas ( or Thos ) Stevens , but reorganised the name to its backward spelling of Mot Snevets ; the name did not last long and he changed it to Thomas Terry . He soon realised that people were mistaking him as a relative of Dame Ellen Terry , so inverted the name to Terry Thomas . He did not add the hyphen until 1947 , and later explained that it was " not for snob reasons but to tie the two names together . They didn 't mean much apart ; together they made a trade name " : the hyphen was also " to match the gap in his front teeth " . By now he was developing a unique sense of style both on and off stage . In order to avoid staining his fingers with smoke , he used a cigarette holder and later purchased " the most irresistible holder in Dunhill 's . It was slightly outré because it was made of lacquered , black whangee ... with a gold band twisting neatly round it " . Adding to his look were a " monocle , raffish waistcoat and red carnation " . He later wrote that " sartorially I was an eccentric . But I knew that underneath the clothes I was very much a conservative Englishman who would have loved to have been a genuine eccentric " .
In 1937 , Terry @-@ Thomas met the South African dancer and choreographer Ida Florence Patlansky , who went by the stage @-@ name Pat Patlanski , while she was auditioning in London for a partner for her flamenco dancing act . Patlanski was keen to employ Terry @-@ Thomas as a comedian rather than a dancer , and they established a cabaret double @-@ act billed as " Terri and Patlanski " , which was immediately popular with audiences . The couple became romantically involved and married on 3 February 1938 at Marylebone register office , afterwards moving to 29 Bronwen Court in St John 's Wood . Despite the success of Terri and Patlanski , the act only lasted three months and they took on small engagements on the cabaret circuit . On 6 June 1938 Terry @-@ Thomas made his first radio broadcast on the BBC London Regional dance programme Friends to Tea . He later recounted that " I didn 't give a very good performance ... I was a dismal failure " . At the end of the summer of 1938 they were hired by the bandleader Don Rico , who incorporated them into his orchestra , with Patlanski playing the piano and Terry @-@ Thomas acting as the compère .
= = = Second World War = = =
The Entertainments National Service Association ( ENSA ) was formed in 1938 in order to provide entertainment to the British Armed Forces ; Terry @-@ Thomas and Patlanski signed up in 1939 and during the Phoney War were posted to France , where they appeared in a variety show . From early in their marriage , Patlanski had started having affairs , a move which prompted Terry @-@ Thomas to reciprocate ; he made sure that he was sent on tour to France where a girlfriend was due to perform , although Patlanski accompanied him on the trip . During the tour , Terry @-@ Thomas ensured Patlanski was sent back to the UK to enable him to continue his affair . On his return to Britain , he continued with his solo variety act , while also acting as the head of the cabaret section of ENSA at the Theatre Royal , Drury Lane , where he clashed regularly with his counterparts running the drama sections , Sir Seymour Hicks and Lilian Braithwaite . Terry @-@ Thomas aimed to produce " good shows , sophisticated , impeccable and highly polished " , which included the violinist Eugene Pini playing light classical music , and the Gainsborough Girls chorus line .
In April 1942 Terry @-@ Thomas received his call @-@ up papers ; he later wrote that " it would have seemed rather rude and ungrateful to refuse " ; as a result , he left ENSA and reported to the Royal Corps of Signals training depot in Ossett , West Yorkshire . Within two weeks of his arrival he hired Ossett Town Hall and staged a concert , which included a freshly @-@ written sketch about his feet , which had been suffering in his army boots . After basic training he was promoted to the rank of corporal and he applied for a commission . He was turned down because training had caused a duodenal ulcer , and his hearing was still problematic ; as a result he was downgraded from A1 to B1 fitness at the start of 1943 .
Terry @-@ Thomas continued to appear in cabaret and variety shows while in the army , including at the Astoria cinema in York , where he was seen by George Black . Black established the entertainment troupe , Stars in Battledress , which was composed of entertainers who were serving in the forces , and he invited Terry @-@ Thomas to join . In February 1943 he appeared in his first Stars in Battledress show at London 's Olympia , where he introduced the sketch " Technical Hitch " . This involved him portraying a harassed BBC announcer introducing records that are missing . In order to cover up for the absent records he would use his vocal range of four and a half octaves to mimic the singers ; he included " impersonations of Britain 's clipped crooner Noël Coward , the African @-@ American bass @-@ baritone Paul Robeson , the Peruvian songbird Yma Sumac , the Austrian tenor Richard Tauber and ... the entire Luton Girls Choir " . The show went on a national tour , with the stand @-@ up comedian Charlie Chester as compere , during which Terry @-@ Thomas refined and polished his act and finished as " one of the most prominent and influential members of Stars in Battledress " .
Terry @-@ Thomas , along with his Stars in Battledress unit , travelled through Britain and Europe on a tour that lasted several months . After the tour , and with his demobilisation approaching , he took compassionate leave in order to have free time while still receiving army pay . During his absence he went on a tour of the UK organised by George Black , accompanied on the piano by a former colonel , Harry Sutcliffe . Terry @-@ Thomas finished the war as a sergeant , and was finally demobbed on 1 April 1946 .
= = = Early post @-@ war work : 1946 – 55 = = =
The ENSA and Stars in Battledress tours of Britain and Europe had raised Terry @-@ Thomas 's profile and , by October 1946 , he was appearing alongside Sid Field in Piccadilly Hayride at the Prince of Wales Theatre , London . The show was described by Graham McCann as " the West End 's biggest money @-@ spinner for years " . Terry @-@ Thomas compered the show as well as appearing in some of the sketches , including his own " Technical Hitch " routine . In 1959 he described the effect of Piccadilly Hayride on his career , saying " This show made me overnight . I 'd arrived " . Ivor Brown , writing in The Observer , remarked on the " glorious rag of BBC modes , moods and intonations by Mr. Terry Thomas , a grand discovery " . Within three weeks of starting his run , Terry @-@ Thomas was invited to appear at the Royal Variety Performance on 4 November 1946 at the London Palladium . Piccadilly Hayride ran for 778 performances and ended on 17 January 1948 . The show was seen by over a million people and earned £ 350 @,@ 000 at the box office . In conjunction with Piccadilly Hayride , Terry @-@ Thomas undertook a number of other additional one @-@ off appearances in cabaret and private functions . He also appeared in editions of Variety Bandbox and Workers ' Playtime on BBC radio . His ever @-@ evolving act consisted of imitations , including that of his friend , the musician Leslie Hutchinson ( known as " Hutch " ) ; sketches , including " Technical Hitch " ; urbane monologues , and " languid shaggy dog stories " .
At the end of his run with Piccadilly Hayride , Terry @-@ Thomas took a three @-@ week break to recover from nervous exhaustion and a recurrence of his peptic ulcer . He went back to cabaret and acted as a compere at the London Palladium before making his radio breakthrough on 12 October 1948 with his own series on the BBC Home Service . Consisting of a " mixture of sketches , solo routines , musical interludes and a range of popular and topical star guests " , To Town with Terry was broadcast weekly and ran for 24 episodes until 28 March 1949 . He was disappointed with the series , saying " I was never totally satisfied with [ it ] ... The perfectionist in me always made me aware of anything that was less than first class " . He also appeared in his first post @-@ war film , A Date with a Dream , in 1949 , alongside his wife .
On 26 October 1949 Terry @-@ Thomas wrote and starred in a new series on the BBC Television Service , How Do You View ? , noted for being the first comedy series on British television . The programme was based around an on @-@ screen persona of Terry @-@ Thomas as " a glamorous , mischievous and discreetly cash @-@ strapped man @-@ about @-@ town " , introducing a series of sketches in which he appeared alongside Peter Butterworth as his chauffeur ; Janet Brown ( Butterworth 's real @-@ life wife ) ; Avril Angers ; H.C. Walton as the family retainer , Moulting ; and Diana Dors . The programme was broadcast live and often included Terry @-@ Thomas walking through control rooms and corridors of the BBC 's Lime Grove and Alexandra Palace studios . The author and historian Mark Lewisohn described the series as being " inventive ... truly televisual and not just a radio programme in costume " . The series ran until 21 December 1949 ; a second series followed between April and May 1950 , with Sid Colin taking over the scripting duties and Terry @-@ Thomas providing additional material . By the third series , which was broadcast between November 1950 and February 1951 , the audience reached four million viewers . In total there were five series of How Do You View ? ; the final episode was broadcast on 11 June 1952 . Writing about Terry @-@ Thomas on television , Wilfred Greatorex observed that " he has ... physical attributes that make him a gift to visual entertainment : a large , rather gaunt face , pre @-@ fabricated for close @-@ ups ; the notorious space of one @-@ third of an inch between his two most prominent top teeth ; a mouth that is full of expression . Add to these pictoral [ sic ] advantages his eight @-@ inch cigarette holder and Eddie Cantor eyes " .
In between filming How Do You View ? , Terry @-@ Thomas continued performing on radio as well as in cabaret , in Britain and increasingly the US . In October and November 1949 he appeared at the Palmer House Night Club , Chicago ; in June 1951 he appeared at The Wedgwood Room , Waldorf Astoria Hotel , New York , and between 22 December 1951 and 29 February 1952 he returned to the London Palladium for 109 performances in Humpty Dumpty . In September 1952 he travelled to Malaysia to entertain British troops in a series of concert parties , before returning to the UK to appear in the Royal Variety Performance in November . He finished the year in South Africa , as Honourable Idle Jack in Dick Whittington , which finished in January 1953 ; he considered the pantomime to be " so tatty and unrehearsed it was pathetic " .
In June 1953 Terry @-@ Thomas broadcast the pilot episode of the radio show , Top of the Town ; the show was successful and the BBC commissioned a series of 16 episodes , which ran between November 1953 and February 1954 . In between recording sessions , he appeared at the London Palladium in the revue Fun and the Fair , with George Formby and the Billy Cotton band , from October 1953 . Fun and the Fair was unsuccessful at the box office and closed on 19 December 1953 , after 138 performances . Terry @-@ Thomas then reprised his role of Idle Jack for a run of performances in the Granada theatres of Sutton and Woolwich , and the Finsbury Park Empire , which ran to the end of January 1954 . That year , he separated from Patlanski following an increase in domestic tension and the plethora of affairs in which they had both indulged . Patlanski moved out of the shared home , and the couple lived separate lives ; the press did not report the separation until 1957 .
Terry @-@ Thomas spent the 1954 summer season performing at the Winter Gardens Pavilion , Blackpool before starring in a second series of Top of the Town , which ran from October 1954 to February 1955 . At the end of the series he appeared as Hubert Crone in the play Room for Two , which had a UK tour prior to a run at the Prince of Wales Theatre , London . The last stop on the UK tour was at the Brighton Hippodrome , where Terry @-@ Thomas broke his arm on stage ; he returned to the show five days later when the tour reached London . He later joked that " the audience roared with laughter when I fell and made horrible faces , so much so that I considered breaking the other arm for an encore " . The London run was not a success and the show closed after 48 performances .
= = = British film years : 1956 – 61 = = =
In February 1956 Terry @-@ Thomas appeared on Desert Island Discs , and chose two songs from his " Technical Hitch " routine as part of his selection . Later that year he appeared in his first major film roles : Charles Boughtflower in The Green Man , and Major Hitchcock , " a charlatan military officer on the take " , in Private 's Progress , directed by the Boulting brothers . Terry @-@ Thomas only appeared in the latter film briefly , with a total screen time of about ten minutes , but his biographer Graham McCann thought that the actor " came close to stealing the show from the central character " , Windrush played by Ian Carmichael . Terry @-@ Thomas 's depiction of the character was not how he wished to play it : his desired choice was that of a " silly @-@ ass " sergeant major , but the role was written as a strict , alcohol and prescription drug @-@ dependent Army officer . He was initially disappointed with the role , and turned it down but , after being persuaded to accept it by his agent , he embraced its possibilities . One of his lines , delivered in his clipped upper @-@ class voice , was " You 're an absolute shower " , which became a catchphrase for him . The Boulting brothers were so impressed with Terry @-@ Thomas 's performance that they signed him up to a five @-@ film deal .
The first of the five films was Brothers in Law , in which Terry @-@ Thomas played the spiv Alfred Green , a performance which was based on Sid Field 's characterisation in Piccadilly Hayride . Roy Boulting later recounted that one short scene with Terry @-@ Thomas , Richard Attenborough and Ian Carmichael took 107 takes because of Terry @-@ Thomas 's unfamiliarity with filming techniques ; he initially struggled to hit his marks , or give his line and move on , while still acting . Filming the scene took two days and Boulting described it as " an unique experience for him , and had a wonderful after @-@ effect " . Following Brothers in Law he was cast as Romney Carlton @-@ Ricketts in Blue Murder at St Trinian 's by producers Frank Launder and Sidney Gilliat , before again appearing for the Boulting brothers in the cameo role of a local policeman in Happy Is the Bride . Terry @-@ Thomas starred in two further films in 1957 . The first was as Bertrand Welch in Lucky Jim , an adaptation of the novel of the same name by Kingsley Amis . Although Amis thought that Terry @-@ Thomas has been " totally miscast as Bertrand , the posturing painter and leading shit " of the book , the critic for The Manchester Guardian considered Terry @-@ Thomas as being " the nearest to a complete success " in the film , in a portrayal that " suggests possibilities for more serious roles " . His final part of 1957 was Lord Henry Mayley in The Naked Truth ; this brought him together with Peter Sellers for the first time , and the two of them appeared frequently together over the next few years in scenes in which , Graham McCann considered that each actor 's performance " highlight [ ed ] what was special about the other " . During one scene Terry @-@ Thomas was dumped in a near @-@ freezing lake , and his health was affected for some time afterwards .
In 1958 Terry @-@ Thomas received the first of his two film award nominations , the BAFTA Award for the " Best British Actor in 1959 " for the part of Ivan in the Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer film tom thumb . He later described the film as his second favourite ; he appeared opposite Sellers for much of his screen time , and later said that " my part was perfect , but Peter 's was bloody awful . He wasn 't difficult about it , but he knew it " . Terry @-@ Thomas was still suffering with poor health following the filming of The Naked Truth when he suffered an attack of lumbago ; filming went on for 85 days during 1957 – 58 , and he took painkillers to enable him to continue . The role was physically demanding , and required him to ride a horse , run long distances and fight in a duel . He stated that he fought and ran " just as [ he ] had seen Douglas Fairbanks Snr do in The Mark of Zorro " . Towards the end of filming , Terry @-@ Thomas went to a Christmas party at the Trocadero , where he drank champagne , as well as taking codeine tablets , and was subsequently arrested on suspicion of being drunk and disorderly . He considered the arresting policemen to have been rude , and " their attitude made me extremely angry and when I get angry ... I just go completely off my nut " . The case came to court on 14 March 1958 and his legal team from Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer provided a medical report which showed Terry @-@ Thomas had been on a course of prescription painkillers due to a gruelling filming schedule ; along with inconsistencies in the arresting policemen 's notes , the case proved inconclusive and was dismissed . For much of the rest of 1958 , Terry @-@ Thomas appeared on stage at the London Palladium in Large as Life , alongside Harry Secombe , Eric Sykes and Hattie Jacques . He played one of the Three Musketeers in one sketch and had another turn called " Filling the Gap " ; the show ran for a total of 380 performances between May and December 1958 . He also released his first record , Strictly T @-@ T , a collection of comic songs and sketches .
In 1959 Terry @-@ Thomas published his first autobiography , Filling the Gap , named after his spot in Large as Life ; he explained that " everything that has been printed about me is lies . I 'm not suggesting the writers were lying , I was " . During the year he also appeared in two further instalments of the Boultings brothers ' series of institutional satires , having appeared in the previous three . The first , in which he was joined again by Sellers , was Carlton @-@ Browne of the F.O. , in which he played Cadogan de Vere Carlton @-@ Browne , a character he described as being " rubble from the nostrils up " , " a certain type of Englishman , the Englishman who reads The Times and no other newspaper . A brolly carrier . A squash player . A bowler hat wearer . White collar , stiff , of course " . Film writer Andrew Spicer thought that Terry @-@ Thomas 's role " was the quintessential upper @-@ class ' silly @-@ ass ' , a sad relic of a vanished world " . The film was initially chosen as Britain 's entry for the 1959 Moscow International Film Festival until the Foreign Office petitioned the British Film Producers ' Association for it to be withdrawn on the basis that the Russians might consider the film to accurately portray British diplomatic behaviour .
Terry @-@ Thomas 's final film with the Boulting brothers was I 'm All Right Jack , a post @-@ war follow @-@ up to Private 's Progress with Terry @-@ Thomas reprising the role of Major Hitchcock to an industrial setting , as the " tetchily incompetent " personnel manager . Many of the other cast from Private 's Progress also returned , including Attenborough , Carmichael and Dennis Price ; they were joined by Peter Sellers , who took most of the plaudits from the critics , although Stanley Kauffman , writing in The New Republic also delighted in Terry @-@ Thomas 's " finesse " and " extraordinary skill " . The Los Angeles Times retrospectively considered I 'm All Right Jack and Carlton @-@ Browne of the F.O. to have been Terry @-@ Thomas 's best works . His final film of 1959 was as William Delany Gordon in Too Many Crooks . Bosley Crowther of The New York Times thought that Terry @-@ Thomas provided " some of the fieriest conniptions to be seen on the contemporary screen " , going on to say that the actor 's " skill is exercised in demonstrating how magnificently and completely a mad @-@ cap comedian can completely blow his top . His eyes flash , his lips curl , his sibilants whistle and he glares like a maniac " . Filming took place during the daytime ; in the evenings he appeared at the London Palladium , something he found trying on his nervous system .
In 1960 Terry @-@ Thomas appeared as Raymond Delauney in School for Scoundrels , a film his biographer , Robert Ross , called " the definitive screen presentation of his frightfully well @-@ mannered , well @-@ read and well @-@ educated lounge lizard : T @-@ T the man as T @-@ T the film star " . He again appeared opposite Ian Carmichael , and they were joined by Alastair Sim and Janette Scott . Michael Brooke , writing for the British Film Institute , thought Terry @-@ Thomas was " outstanding as a classic British bounder " . Later the same year he appeared in Make Mine Mink as Major Albert Rayne , a veteran of the Second World War who forms a gang of mink coat thieves with his female co @-@ lodgers . When he made an appearance at a screening of the film in Dalston , north @-@ east London , he was presented with a white mink waistcoat by a local furrier .
In 1961 Terry @-@ Thomas played Archibald Bannister in A Matter of WHO , which he described as " my first ( fairly ) serious role " . He was joined in the film by his second cousin Richard Briers , with Terry @-@ Thomas noting that he provided " no nepotic help " in getting Briers the part . The film was not well received by the critics ; an internal BBC memo described that in the UK the film was " murdered by the critics " , although it was " something of a success " in America . By this time Terry @-@ Thomas had decided to stop being a stand @-@ up comedian and compere and instead concentrate solely on making films . He stopped appearing on television and radio shows of his own , declaring " it was the cinema for me and me for the cinema ! " Having accumulated considerable experience by appearing in British films , he decided to try Hollywood , and moved to America .
= = = Breaking into Hollywood : 1961 – 65 = = =
Terry @-@ Thomas spent part of 1961 in America , filming the role of Professor Bruce Patterson in Bachelor Flat — his first Hollywood role — before flying to Gibraltar to film Operation Snatch , in which he teamed up with Lionel Jeffries . By the end of 1961 Terry @-@ Thomas was appearing on radio , in guest spots on American television shows , such as the December broadcast of The Bing Crosby Show , and was frequently the subject of US newspaper interviews . In 1962 Bachelor Flat and Operation Snatch were both released , and were followed by two more films : a large @-@ budget biopic from Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer called The Wonderful World of the Brothers Grimm , in which Terry @-@ Thomas shared his scenes with the American comedian Buddy Hackett , and Kill or Cure , in which he appeared with Eric Sykes , a friend since they worked together in Large as Life .
On 1 February 1962 Terry @-@ Thomas and Pat Patlanski divorced , having spent the previous eight years estranged . He had by then split from his mistress of the previous few years , Lorrae Desmond , who returned to Australia shortly afterwards and married a surgeon ; Terry @-@ Thomas resumed his bachelor life @-@ style . The break @-@ up with Desmond caused him great upset , and he sought solace with Belinda Cunningham , a 21 @-@ year @-@ old whom he had met on holiday in Majorca two years previously . The couple began a romance , and married in August 1963 at Halstead Registry Office in Colchester , Essex . The following year she gave birth to their first son — Timothy Hoar — at the Princess Beatrice Hospital in London .
In 1963 Terry @-@ Thomas was offered the role of Lt @-@ Colonel J. Algernon Hawthorne in It 's a Mad , Mad , Mad , Mad World , and turned down the opportunity before leaving for the UK . By the time his flight arrived in London he had changed his mind , so he telephoned producer Stanley Kramer from the airport to signal his acceptance , and " popped back on a plane to be fitted for the part " the same day . He was not comfortable with many of the other actors on set , later commenting that " I was the only non @-@ American , and I found it exhausting and embarrassing because they never relaxed . They were always ' on ' . " One of the American stars was Spencer Tracy , whom Terry @-@ Thomas considered " an extra @-@ special man " ; Tracy and Buster Keaton — who also appeared in the film — were described by Terry @-@ Thomas as " the only two people who ever produced in me this awe of greatness " .
Later in 1963 he picked up his second film nomination , the Golden Globe for Best Comedy Actor for his portrayal of Spender in The Mouse on the Moon . He also tried his hand at production , with three 15 @-@ minute travelogues : Terry @-@ Thomas in Tuscany , Terry @-@ Thomas in the South of France and Terry @-@ Thomas in Northern Ireland . He did not enjoy the producer 's role , complaining that " for some extraordinary reason that I could never understand , everybody was always out to do the producer of any film whoever he was . I had to be on the watch the whole time " . He worked consistently during 1963 , appearing in television programmes on both sides of the Atlantic ; these included Terry @-@ Thomas , a one @-@ off variety show on BBC television in July that included Donald Sutherland .
In 1964 Terry @-@ Thomas started filming the role of Charles Furbank in How to Murder Your Wife , a part which brought him £ 100 @,@ 000 , his largest fee up to that point . He said that it was his favourite to make , " because I felt that I did a very good job " . He enjoyed working with Jack Lemmon , the film 's star , partly because Lemmon would play jazz and sing while the scenes were being lit : the two became friends and Terry @-@ Thomas was invited to Lemmon 's wedding . Throughout the rest of the year Terry @-@ Thomas continued to appear on US television , again in Burke 's Law , but also on What 's My Line ? and An Hour with Robert Goulet , both on CBS ; he also released another record , Terry @-@ Thomas Discovers America , a collection of songs and sketches , described by Billboard as " a funny , funny comedy masterpiece " . His earlier record Strictly T @-@ T was also released in the US .
Alongside How to Murder Your Wife , there were two further releases for Terry @-@ Thomas in 1965 : Strange Bedfellows , in which he played the part of a mortician , and Those Magnificent Men in their Flying Machines . In the latter , he played Sir Percy Ware @-@ Armitage , a character the film historian Andrew Spicer calls " a cartoon version " of his usual persona in a " bloated mid @-@ Atlantic comed [ y ] " . In the film , Terry @-@ Thomas appeared again with Eric Sykes , an experience Sykes later described as magical . The roles of Ware @-@ Armitage and his sidekick were written especially for Terry @-@ Thomas and Sykes at the behest of the director Ken Annakin .
= = = European cinema : 1966 – 70 = = =
By the mid @-@ 1960s Terry @-@ Thomas was tiring of the Hollywood lifestyle , and , during the latter half of the 1960s , he worked with European filmmakers , returning occasionally to the US when he was filming there . In one of his French @-@ produced films , La Grande Vadrouille , he played Sir Reginald , a stranded Royal Air Force pilot travelling through occupied France with characters played by Bourvil and Louis de Funès . The film , released in 1966 , held the record for highest box @-@ office takings in France until 2004 , and it remains " one of the most popular films with television audiences in France " . Terry @-@ Thomas undertook a number of roles with the Italian cinema industry . For one of the Italian @-@ produced films , the 1967 farce Arabella , he played four parts and used " the help of wigs , moustaches and lashings of Max Factor " to help achieve the different characterisations , which were all with the Italian actress Virna Lisi .
Although the European films allowed him to travel and gave him a constant source of income , he received bigger fees from his less @-@ frequent engagements in US films , which he continued to appear in , joking that he " knew the fat cheques in the pipe @-@ line were endless " . One of the bigger fees came with Gene Kelly 's 1967 film A Guide for the Married Man ; he was disappointed by Kelly 's direction , later saying " I found him a very prudish director , not as imaginative or experimental as I would have liked " . Terry @-@ Thomas had more time for the actress with whom he shared his short scene , Jayne Mansfield , commenting that " I found her rather intelligent to talk to and felt quite shattered when I read about the gruesome car accident that killed her " . An actress he had difficulties in working with was Doris Day : in the 1968 film Where Were You When the Lights Went Out ? , which was produced by her husband Martin Melcher . Day would instruct Terry @-@ Thomas how he should act in a scene ( he would " listen ... politely , then do it my own way , as if the conversation had never taken place " ) . She would also launch into improvisations while filming ; director Hy Averback would mimic a scissor action behind her back to signal to Terry @-@ Thomas that the material would be duly cut from the final print . The result was a film that Geoff Mayer called " limp " , and Christopher Young described as " such an uneven movie that misses so many opportunities for real comedy " .
In 1967 Terry @-@ Thomas met his long @-@ time friend Denholm Elliott in Bel Air and the pair talked about Elliott 's new villa in Santa Eulària des Riu on the Spanish island of Ibiza . Terry @-@ Thomas was intrigued by the possibility of a Mediterranean retreat and visited the island on the way to film Monte Carlo : C 'est La Rose with Princess Grace of Monaco who was playing herself . Although he initially struggled to find the right plot of ground for the right price , he eventually settled on an appropriate location ; declaring he was " allergic to architects " , he designed the house himself . His former wife Pat moved to the nearby island of Majorca , and Terry @-@ Thomas 's relationship with her became warm and friendly ; Patlanski also had a firm friendship with Terry @-@ Thomas 's wife .
In between films Terry @-@ Thomas appeared on television on both sides of the Atlantic . In the US in March – April 1967 he was in " The Five Daughters Affair " , a two @-@ part story in the TV series The Man from U.N.C.L.E. , and on 22 May he appeared on The Red Skelton Hour . On British television , in an episode of the Comedy Playhouse called " The Old Campaigner " , he played James Franklin @-@ Jones , a salesman for a plastics company who was continually searching for love affairs while travelling on business . This character was " yet another variation on his rakish cad persona " , according to Mark Lewisohn . The episode was well @-@ received , and a six @-@ part series was commissioned that ran over December 1968 and January 1969 . Although the series performed well in the ratings , a second series was not commissioned . In between the pilot and the series of The Old Campaigner , in April 1968 , Terry @-@ Thomas appeared on the British ITV network in a one @-@ off variety special , The Big Show , which combined musical numbers and his urbane monologues . Robert Ross commented that Terry @-@ Thomas " seemed to delight in resurrecting his vintage sophisticated patter after years in movies ... the top raconteur was back where he belonged " . In 1969 he again teamed up with Eric Sykes and director Ken Annakin for a joint Italian , French and British production Monte Carlo or Bust ! . The film was " the only copper @-@ bottomed sequel to ... Those Magnificent Men in their Flying Machines " , according to Richard Ross . Terry @-@ Thomas played Sir Cuthbert Ware @-@ Armitage , the " thoroughly bad egg son of flying ace Sir Percy Ware @-@ Armitage " , his role in Those Magnificent Men . Terry @-@ Thomas secured four other roles in minor films that year , including Arthur ? Arthur ! ( which he joked had " never been shown anywhere — as far as I know ! " ) , as well as on television in the UK , US and Australia .
The 1970s began well for Terry @-@ Thomas ; television appearances in the UK and US were augmented by filming for The Abominable Dr. Phibes , which became what author Bruce Hallenbeck called a " camp classic " , despite being described by Time Out critic David Pirie , as " the worst horror film made in England since 1945 " ; the film was released in 1971 . On 1 August 1970 Terry @-@ Thomas made his second appearance on Desert Island Discs ; his luxury item was a case of brandy , chosen because it lasted longer than champagne .
= = = Dealing with Parkinson 's : 1971 – 83 = = =
While appearing in Don 't Just Lie There , Say Something ! at the Metro Theatre , Sydney in 1971 , Terry @-@ Thomas felt unwell and visited a doctor , who noticed his patient 's left hand was shaking slightly ; the doctor suggested a visit , upon his return to the UK , to a specialist , who diagnosed the actor with Parkinson 's disease . Fearing the condition would affect offers of work , he did not make the news public , but as the symptoms began to manifest themselves in tremors , a shuffling gait , stooped posture and affected speech , he made the news known — partly to stop rumours of on @-@ set drunkenness .
He continued to work as much as possible , although — as the film historian Geoff Mayer pointed out — the situation " reduced his film career to supporting roles and cameos " . The lucrative voice @-@ over role of Sir Hiss in the 1973 Walt Disney film Robin Hood was one notable part , while others were less well @-@ known , such as The Vault of Horror , a film described by Richard Ross as a " cornball terror " , in which he starred with Curd Jürgens , Tom Baker and Denholm Elliott . He also continued to appear on television shows in both the US and UK , as well as advertisements , including appearing with June Whitfield for Birds Eye fish fingers ; a series of vermouth advertisements filmed in Italy ; and an award @-@ winning series for Benson & Hedges along with Eric Sykes .
During the 1970s he starred in a series of low @-@ budget British films , including two in 1975 , Spanish Fly — called a " gruesome smutfest " by the writer Christopher Fowler — and The Bawdy Adventures of Tom Jones , described by the Film Review Digest as a " cheap , crude , sexed @-@ up rehash " of the other film adaptations of Henry Fielding 's source novel .
In 1977 he starred in The Last Remake of Beau Geste and The Hound of the Baskervilles , the latter starring Peter Cook and Dudley Moore as Holmes and Watson ; Terry @-@ Thomas thought that " it was the most outrageous film I ever appeared in ... there was no magic ... it was bad ! " By then he had exhibited a decrease in bodily movement , a sign of how serious his condition had become . His distinctive voice had developed a softer tone and his posture was contorted . Between 1978 and 1980 , he spent much time with medical consultants . Despite this he was offered a few engagements and had been voted the most recognisable Englishman among Americans in a poll which also featured Laurence Olivier , Robert Morley and Wilfrid Hyde @-@ White . As a result , he secured a lucrative advertising contract with the Ford Motor Company . Derek Jarman offered Terry @-@ Thomas a role in his 1979 film The Tempest , but the actor was forced to pull out because of his deteriorating health .
Terry @-@ Thomas undertook his final film role in 1980 in Febbre a 40 ! , a German and Italian co @-@ production that was " nondescript and barely screened " , according to Robert Ross , and did not even have a theatrical release in its two domestic markets . He continued his involvement in the film industry , where he funded three films during the early 1980s ( noted by Ross to be " destined from the outset for B @-@ picture status or straight @-@ to @-@ video exposure " ) ; he commented that " I have made a loss of one hundred per cent " . In 1982 , with his condition worsening , Terry @-@ Thomas featured in two episodes of the BBC series The Human Brain , which examined his condition ; his frank interview brought much public awareness of the disease and raised £ 32 @,@ 000 for the Parkinson 's Disease Society . Privately , he was becoming more depressed ; his London flat had been sold to provide badly @-@ needed funds , and his work offers were decreasing .
= = = Final years and death : 1983 – 90 = = =
By 1983 , with his medical bills at £ 40 @,@ 000 a year , Terry @-@ Thomas 's financial resources were dwindling . He and his wife sold their dream house and moved into the small cottage once owned by his former wife Pat Patlanski , which she left to him in her will on her death in June that year . Shortly afterwards he worked with ghostwriter Terry Daum on an autobiography , Terry @-@ Thomas Tells Tales . Although the first draft was completed by late summer 1984 , Terry @-@ Thomas refused to release the script and continued to make alterations , but never completed his copyediting : the book was finally published after his death .
By 1984 Terry @-@ Thomas was increasingly depressed by his condition and when he was interviewed that year , he admitted that " one doctor said I 've got about four more years to live . God forbid ! I shall probably blow my brains out first " . In 1987 the couple could no longer afford to live in Spain , so they moved back to London . They lived in a series of rented properties before ending up in a three @-@ room , unfurnished charity flat , where they lived with financial assistance from the Actors ' Benevolent Fund . Richard Briers was one of his first visitors at the flat , and was shocked by the change he saw : " [ S ] itting there , motionless , he was just a mere shadow . A crippled , crushed , shadow . It was really bloody awful . "
On 9 April 1989 the actor Jack Douglas and Richard Hope @-@ Hawkins organised a benefit concert for Terry @-@ Thomas , after discovering he was living in virtual obscurity , poverty and ill health . The gala , held at the Theatre Royal , Drury Lane , ran for five hours , and featured 120 artists with Phil Collins topping the bill and Michael Caine as the gala chairman . The show raised over £ 75 @,@ 000 for Terry @-@ Thomas and Parkinson 's UK . The funds from the charity concert allowed Terry @-@ Thomas to move out of his charity flat and into Busbridge Hall nursing home in Godalming , Surrey . He died there on 8 January 1990 , at the age of 78 . The funeral service was held at St. John the Baptist Church , Busbridge , where the theme from Those Magnificent Men in their Flying Machines was played ; he was cremated at Guildford Crematorium .
= = Screen persona and technique = =
Although there were exceptions , Terry @-@ Thomas 's screen characters were generally similar ; Geoff Mayer wrote that " although there would be variations , he would remain the ' rotter ' , a pretentious , elitist , seedy , sometimes lecherous cad with an eye for quick money and the easy life " . Eric Sykes , with whom Terry @-@ Thomas shared a number of screen moments , stated that it was " always the same character and always funny " . Andrew Spicer , writing for the British Film Institute , called him " the definitive postwar cad or rotter " . Terry @-@ Thomas himself agreed with the view he presented , writing in the 1980s that " T @-@ T with his permanent air of caddish disdain ... bounder ... aristocratic rogue ... upper @-@ class English twit ... genuine English eccentric ... one of the last real gentlemen ... wet , genteel Englishman ... high @-@ bred idiot ... cheeky blighter ... camel @-@ haired cad ... amiable buffoon ... pompous Englishman ... twentieth @-@ century dandy ... stinker ... king of the cads ... All those descriptions added up to my image as Terry @-@ Thomas " .
Terry @-@ Thomas identified himself as a comedy actor , but regarded himself " first and foremost , as a comedian with a built @-@ in ability to inject humour into situations " . He worked hard at the humour element , especially during his days in cabaret and revue ; he wrote that he " spent an enormous amount of time studying how to write humour and reading books on the philosophical approach to it , but it didn 't get me very far . I decided that humour was like a good watch . It would go well if left to do its job but the moment one started poking around , it went wonky " . While working on his television series How do you View ? , he would change lines around to ensure the scene worked well , even if he gave the best lines to others ; it was a quality which was appreciated by a number of others , including Jack Lemmon , who appeared with Terry @-@ Thomas in How to Murder Your Wife . Lemmon commented that " like most really good professionals he was generous to fellow actors . He worked with you , not at you " .
Before starting filming or making an entrance on stage , Terry @-@ Thomas had a routine he would undertake : " my own technique to get myself going was ... to jump in the air and execute a few dance steps " . His approach for much of his film work was to underplay many of his reactions . Filming a scene in a cinema in Private 's Progress , a close @-@ up was needed showing his character " registering shock , fury , indignation and anything else I could stuff in " ; he " just looked into the camera and kept my mind blank . It 's a trick I 've used often since . In this way , the audience does the work " . Terry @-@ Thomas said " I like to do my own stunts " , which he did for films such as A Matter of WHO and Bachelor Flat . This included some dangerous work ; for example , during Those Magnificent Men in their Flying Machines , he ran along the roof of a moving train .
= = Legacy and reputation = =
Following Terry @-@ Thomas 's death , Lionel Jeffries called him " the last of the great gentlemen of the cinema " , while the director Michael Winner commented that " no matter what your position was in relation to his , as the star he was always terribly nice . He was the kindest man and he enjoyed life so much " . Reviewing his career in The Guardian , Adrian Turner considered that " we took him for granted and he was ideal for his time . Not to put too serious a point on it , his portrayal of crass stupidity and blatant deviousness struck a chord with British audiences during the fifties as they experienced the clumsy dismemberment of the Empire and the ' never had it so good ' ethos of the Macmillan era . During the sixties he became a glorious anachronism , much in demand in America , who saw in him the irrelevant pageantry of Britain " ; he also said that Terry @-@ Thomas was " a national treasure " . Gilbert Adair , writing in The Independent , considered that " for three decades , and in literally scores of films , he personified the Englishman as amiable bounder " ; Adair wrote that " the characterisation he was to assume represented the very essence of patrician , double @-@ barrelled caddishness " . Terry @-@ Thomas 's friend Jack Lemmon called him " a consummate professional ... he was a gentleman , a delight to be with personally , let alone professionally , and above all as an actor he had one of the qualities that I admire so much — he made it look simple " .
Terry @-@ Thomas 's image of an English cad was used by others . The personification started in the 1960s when the voice actor Ivan Owen , who had worked alongside Terry @-@ Thomas in " Stars in Battledress " , based the voice for Basil Brush on that of Terry @-@ Thomas , in a characterisation which also copied Terry @-@ Thomas 's " penchant for bad , self @-@ satisfied , golf @-@ club @-@ bore jokes " . The 1960s also witnessed the fictional cartoon character Dick Dastardly in two Hanna @-@ Barbera cartoon series ( Wacky Races and Dastardly and Muttley in Their Flying Machines ) , who was inspired by Terry @-@ Thomas .
Other actors have also used Terry @-@ Thomas 's persona as an inspiration for their characters : Dustin Hoffman acknowledged that he based his interpretation of the character Captain Hook in Hook on Terry @-@ Thomas ; Rupert Everett disclosed that when he provided the voice for Prince Charming in Shrek 2 Terry @-@ Thomas " was vocally my role model while I was doing it " ; and Paul Whitehouse 's character , the 13th Duke of Wybourne , from The Fast Show was also modelled on Terry @-@ Thomas 's on @-@ screen persona .
Terry @-@ Thomas 's popularity continued after his death . In February 1999 the National Film Theatre ran a season of Terry @-@ Thomas films ; an NFT spokesman described how attendees to the films turned up " in evening dress , with false moustaches and carrying cigarettes in long holders ... everyone has been trying to steal the cardboard cutouts of Terry ... We 've never had a response like it . To be honest , we are rather unprepared . Nobody expected Terry @-@ Thomas Fever " .
Some of the innovations Terry @-@ Thomas brought into his earlier television programmes were later copied by others ; How Do You View ? later provided the " prologue " format of Up Pompeii ! , and was the first to use regular BBC announcers as foils in comic sketches — a practice continued later , particularly with the shows of Morecambe and Wise . Terry @-@ Thomas 's anecdotes , stringing several stories together , later inspired Ronnie Corbett in his monologue spot in his series The Two Ronnies .
= = Filmography and other works = =
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= SMS Comet =
SMS Comet was an aviso of the Imperial German Navy , the second and final member of the Meteor class . She had one sister ship , Meteor . Comet was laid down at the AG Vulcan shipyard in 1890 , launched in January 1892 , and commissioned in April 1893 . Like her sister , Comet was plagued by excessive vibration and poor handling , which limited her active duty career . She ended her career as a mine hulk in Emden . After the German defeat in World War I , she was sold for scrapping in 1921 .
= = Design = =
Comet was 79 @.@ 86 meters ( 262 @.@ 0 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 9 @.@ 58 m ( 31 @.@ 4 ft ) and a maximum draft of 3 @.@ 68 m ( 12 @.@ 1 ft ) forward . She displaced 1 @,@ 117 metric tons ( 1 @,@ 099 long tons ; 1 @,@ 231 short tons ) at full combat load . Her propulsion system consisted of two vertical 3 @-@ cylinder triple expansion engines . Steam for the engines was provided by four coal @-@ fired locomotive boilers . The ship 's propulsion system provided a top speed of 19 @.@ 5 kn ( 36 @.@ 1 km / h ; 22 @.@ 4 mph ) and a range of approximately 960 nautical miles ( 1 @,@ 780 km ; 1 @,@ 100 mi ) at 9 kn ( 17 km / h ; 10 mph ) . Comet had a crew of 7 officers and 108 enlisted men .
As built , the ship was armed with four 8 @.@ 8 cm SK L / 30 guns placed in single pivot mounts , two side @-@ by @-@ side forward , and two side @-@ by @-@ side aft . The guns were supplied with between 462 and 680 rounds of ammunition . Comet also carried three 35 cm ( 14 in ) torpedo tubes , one mounted submerged in the bow and the other two in deck @-@ mounted launchers on the broadside . She was protected with a 15 mm ( 0 @.@ 59 in ) thick deck , along with 30 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) of steel armor plating for the conning tower .
= = Service history = =
Comet was built by the AG Vulcan shipyard in Stettin . She was laid down in 1890 and launched on 15 January 1892 . After the completion of fitting @-@ out work , she was transferred to Kiel , where she was commissioned for sea trials . Comet was commissioned into the German fleet on 29 April 1893 . That summer , she served in the newly formed III Division of the Maneuver Fleet for the annual maneuvers in August and September .
Comet served only briefly with the fleet , owing in large part to her poor handling and excessive vibration at high speed . She and her sister ship Meteor were quickly placed in reserve , though in 1899 they were reclassified as light cruisers . Starting on 3 May 1904 , Comet was employed as a harbor defense ship in Danzig . She was stricken from the naval register on 24 June 1911 and starting in 1913 was used as a mine hulk in Emden . She served in this capacity through World War I and was broken up in 1921 in Hamburg .
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= Clathrus columnatus =
Clathrus columnatus , commonly known as the column stinkhorn , is a saprobic species of basidiomycete fungus in the family Phallaceae . It has a widespread distribution , and has been found in Africa , Australasia , and the Americas . It may have been introduced to North America with exotic plants . Similar to other stinkhorn fungi , the fruiting body , known as the receptaculum , starts out as a subterranean " egg " form . As the fungus develops , the receptaculum expands and erupts out of the protective volva , ultimately developing into mature structures characterized by two to five long vertical orange or red spongy columns , joined together at the apex . The fully grown receptaculum reaches heights of 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) tall . The inside surfaces of the columns are covered with a fetid olive @-@ brown spore @-@ containing slime , which attracts flies and other insects that help disseminate the spores . Although once considered undesirable , the fungus is listed as edible . It is found commonly in mulch .
= = Taxonomy and naming = =
The species was first named by the French botanist Louis Augustin Guillaume Bosc in 1811 . Christian Gottfried Daniel Nees von Esenbeck transferred it into Laternea in 1858 , a genus intended to accommodate those Clathrus @-@ like species with arms arranged in columns rather than a network ; in its current meaning , Laternea includes species that have gleba suspended below the arch of the receptaculum by trabeculae ( columns that extend from the peridium to the central core of the receptaculum ) . Other genera to which the species has been transferred include Linderia by Gordon Herriot Cunningham in 1932 , Colonnaria by Eduard Fischer in 1933 , and Linderiella by Cunningham in 1942 . Colonnaria , Linderia and Linderiella are now considered obsolete genera , as they have been subsumed into Clathrus .
The specific epithet columnatus is Latin , meaning " supported by pillars " . The mushroom is commonly known as the " column stinkhorn " . Curtis Gates Lloyd wrote in 1906 " in Florida , it is known to the natives as " Dead Men 's Fingers . "
= = Description = =
The fruit body , or receptaculum , of Clathrus columnatus consists of two to five ( usually four ) spongy vertical columns , which are separate where they arise from the volva , but joined together at the top in an arch . The columns are joined together in pairs ; the opposite pairs are joined by a short and broad arch similar in structure to the columns . The columns , which are narrower at the base than above , are reddish @-@ orange above and yellowish @-@ pink below . Young specimens have the fruit body compressed into the small interior space of an " egg " , which consists of a peridium that is surrounded by a gelatinous layer that encloses the compressed fruiting body . The egg , usually gray or grayish @-@ brown , typically reaches diameters of 3 to 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 to 2 @.@ 0 in ) before the columns grow . The volva remains at the base of the fruit body as a thick , loose , whitish sack . The mycelial cords found at the base of the volva are made of two types of tissues : a central bundle of fine hyphae that extend in a longitudinal direction , and an outer cortical layer of coarser hyphae that form a loose but highly interwoven structure . Full @-@ grown columns can extend to 5 to 8 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 to 3 @.@ 1 in ) above the ground , a location that optimizes spore dispersal . The fetid @-@ smelling gleba , the spore @-@ bearing mass , is smeared on the upper inner surface of the columns .
The spores are elliptical , smooth , and have dimensions of 3 @.@ 5 – 5 by 2 – 2 @.@ 5 µm . They have thin walls , and are covered by a transparent envelope .
= = = Edibility = = =
The words of William Gilson Farlow , published in 1890 , serve as a warning to those who might be inclined to consume Clathrus columnatus : " The odor of fully grown specimens of the order Phalloidea is so repulsive that the question as to their poisonous character when eaten by men has not often been the subject of experiment . " Farlow described two cases of poisoning , one involving a young girl " who ate a small piece of the fungus , and was seized with violent convulsions followed by loss of speech and a deep sleep lasting 52 hours " ; the other case involved hogs that ate the fungus found in patches in oak woods , and died 12 – 15 hours later . Despite this early report of poisoning , Orson K. Miller , Jr. notes that the taste of the egg is mild , and lists the species as edible .
= = = Similar species = = =
Pseudocolus fusiformis , Clathrus bicolumnatus , and C. ruber have similarities to Clathrus columnatus . The lattice stinkhorn , C. ruber , has a larger , more globular , lattice @-@ like receptacle . The " stinky squid " , P. fusiformis , has arms that are attached at the bases , and free at the top . It grows on rotting logs and chip @-@ mulched soil , in contrast to C. columnatus , which grows on sandy soil . C. bicolumnatus has a smaller stature ( up to 9 cm tall ) , and only has two columns .
= = Development = =
The American botanist Edward Angus Burt published a detailed description of the development of C. columnatus in 1896 . He found that the egg consists of cortical and medullary systems continued upward from the mycelial strand in the earliest stage . The cortical layer gives rise to the outer layer of the volva , the cortical plates and the pseudoparenchyma ( thin @-@ walled , usually angular , randomly arranged cells that are tightly packed ) of the receptaculum . The medullary portion gives rise to the gelatinous masses of the gelatinous layer of the volva , to the gleba , and to the gelatinous tissue of the chambers of the receptaculum . The elongation of the receptacle begins at the base and after its elongation , the gleba hangs suspended from the arch of the receptaculum by medullary tissue constituting the chamber masses of the receptacle .
= = Ecology , habitat and distribution = =
Like all Phallaceae species , C. columnatus is saprobic , and uses extracellular digestion to acquire nutrients from dead and decaying organic matter , like wood . As a consequence of its predilection for dead wood , the fungus is often associated with disturbed habitats . It can often be found growing in and around gardens and residences where areas of cultivation or landscaping have resulted in accumulations of mulch , wood chips or other cellulose @-@ rich materials . The mycelial cords can be traced to buried roots , stumps , and other woody material . The species grows in sandy soil , near woody debris , in lawns , gardens , and cultivated soil . Fruit bodies appear singly , or scattered , and can arise in the summer , autumn , and early winter , especially after wet weather .
Like other member of the Phallaceae family , the mature fungus attracts insects with its smell to help disperse its spores . Psilopyga fasciata , a stinkhorn beetle of the sap beetle family , has been recorded feeding on the gleba of Mexican specimens .
In 1980 Donald Malcolm Dring summarized the known geographical distribution of C. columnatus ; the fungus has been collected in Australia , New Zealand , Oceania , New Guinea , Africa , and North and South America ; According to Australian mycologist Tom May , the Australian distribution is " presumably erroneous " , as it is based on only a single collection in 1948 . In Central America , it has been collected from Costa Rica . It is also found in China , in Jiangsu , Fujian , and Guangdong . The North American distribution extends south to Mexico , and north to New York ; it is also in Hawaii . The fungus is less common in the southeastern and southern United States . It is thought to have been introduced to North America , as it typically appear in landscaped areas or other locations where exotic plants have been established .
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= The Boat Race 1895 =
The 52nd Boat Race took place on 30 March 1895 . The Boat Race is an annual side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race along the River Thames between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge . The 1895 race was umpired by former Oxford rower Frank Willan with one of the Oxford coaches , R. C. Lehmann being a former Cambridge alumnus . Although Cambridge made the quicker start , Oxford recovered , had the lead by Hammersmith Bridge , and won by two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ quarter lengths in a time of 20 minutes 50 seconds . It was their sixth victory in a row and took the overall record in the event to 29 – 22 in Oxford 's favour .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the boat clubs of University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . The race was first held in 1829 , and since 1845 has taken place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities ; as of 2014 it is followed throughout the United Kingdom and broadcast worldwide . Oxford went into the 1895 race as reigning champions , having beaten Cambridge by three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths in the previous year 's race , and held the overall lead , with 28 victories to Cambridge 's 22 ( excluding the " dead heat " of 1877 ) .
Oxford 's coaches were G. C. Bourne ( who rowed for Oxford in the 1882 and 1883 races ) , Douglas McLean ( an Oxford Blue five times from 1883 through 1887 ) , and R. C. Lehmann . Lehmann was a former president of the Cambridge Union Society and captain of the 1st Trinity Boat Club ; although he had rowed in the trial eights for Cambridge , he was never selected for the Blue boat . The Cambridge team was coached by Stanley Muttlebury ( who rowed for Cambridge five times between the 1886 and 1890 races ) .
Both crews suffered variously during the buildup to the race . A hard frost which persisted late into the season hindered training , forcing both crews to move to Bourne End and more open water . Both crews were then struck by influenza , Cambridge three weeks before the race and Oxford the week of the race itself . As such , Cambridge were in good form going into the race , Oxford less so .
James Brooks Close was the non @-@ rowing president of the Cambridge University Boat Club – he had rowed in the 1872 , 1873 and 1874 races . His election was considered by author and former Oxford rower George Drinkwater as " a bold step " in an attempt to overcome dissension as a result of Cambridge 's heavy defeat the prior year . Close was called away during the crew 's practice , and Francis Cargill Begg took captaincy of the crew . The umpire for the race for the seventh year in a row was Frank Willan who won the event four consecutive times , rowing for Oxford in the 1866 , 1867 , 1868 and 1869 races .
= = Crews = =
The Oxford crew weighed an average of 12 st 1 @.@ 875 lb ( 76 @.@ 9 kg ) , 1 @.@ 125 pounds ( 0 @.@ 5 kg ) per rower more than their opponents . Cambridge 's cox Francis Cargill Begg was the only Light Blue participant with Boat Race experience , having steered the boat in the previous year 's race . Oxford 's crew contained six rowers who had previously rowed in the event , including Hugh Benjamin Cotton and Charles Murray Pitman , both of whom were taking part in their fourth consecutive race . Seven of the Oxford crew were educated at Eton College .
= = Race = =
Oxford won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station , handing the Middlesex side of the river to Cambridge . In a heavy wind and a strong tide , Willan started the race at 4 : 08 pm . Cambridge , outrating their opponents at the start , took an early lead , but Oxford 's steady rhythm drew them back level and then ahead . By Hammersmith Bridge , the Dark Blues held a lead of three @-@ quarters of a length and took advantage of Cambridge experiencing rough water . With a well @-@ timed spurt from Oxford 's boat club president and stroke Pitman , the Dark Blues went clear of Cambridge and held a two @-@ length lead by the time they reached Chiswick .
With a lead of three lengths by Barnes Bridge , Oxford slowed to a paddle and passed the finishing post with a lead of two and a quarter lengths , in a winning time of 20 minutes 50 seconds . It was the Dark Blues ' sixth consecutive victory and took the overall record to 29 – 22 in their favour .
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= David Lewis ( politician ) =
David Lewis , CC QC ( born David Losz ; June 23 , or October 1909 – May 23 , 1981 ) was a Canadian labour lawyer and social democratic politician . He was national secretary of the Co @-@ operative Commonwealth Federation ( CCF ) from 1936 to 1950 , and one of the key architects of the New Democratic Party ( NDP ) in 1961 . In 1962 , he was elected as the Member of Parliament ( MP ) , in the Canadian House of Commons , for the York South electoral district . While an MP , he was elected the NDP 's national leader , and served from 1971 until 1975 . After his defeat in the 1974 federal election , he stepped down as leader and retired from politics . He spent his last years as a university professor at Carleton University , and as a travel correspondent for the Toronto Star . In retirement , he was named to the Order of Canada for his political service . After suffering from cancer for a long time , he died in Ottawa in 1981 .
Lewis ' politics were heavily influenced by the Jewish Labour Bund , which contributed to his support of parliamentary democracy . He was an avowed anti @-@ communist , and while a Rhodes Scholar prevented communist domination of the Oxford University Labour Club . In Canada , he played a major role in removing communist influence from the labour movement .
In the CCF , he took the role of disciplinarian and dealt with internal organizational problems . He helped draft the Winnipeg Declaration , which moderated the CCF 's economic policies to include acceptance of capitalism , albeit subject to stringent government regulation . As the United Steelworkers of America ( USW ) ' s legal counsel in Canada , he helped them take over the International Union of Mine , Mill , and Smelter Workers ( Mine @-@ Mill ) . His involvement with the USW also led to a central role in the creation of the Canadian Labour Congress in 1956 .
The Lewis family has been active in socialist politics since the turn of the twentieth century , starting with David Lewis ' father 's involvement in the Bund in Russia , continuing with David , and followed by his eldest son , Stephen Lewis , who led the Ontario NDP from 1970 until 1978 . When David was elected the NDP 's national leader in 1971 , he and Stephen became one of the first father @-@ and @-@ son @-@ teams to simultaneously head Canadian political parties .
= = Early life = =
= = = The Bund and Jewish life in the Pale = = =
David Losz was born in Russia sometime after Svisloch 's first snowfall in October 1909 to Moishe Losz and his wife Rose ( née Lazarovitch ) . His official birth date of June 23 was the one he gave the immigration officer when he arrived in Canada . Lewis 's political activism began in the shtetl he lived in from 1909 until 1921 . Svisloch was located in the Pale of Settlement , the western @-@ most region of the Russian Empire , in what is now Belarus . After World War I it became a Polish border town , occasionally occupied by the Soviet Union during the Polish @-@ Soviet War of the early 1920s . Jewish people were in the majority , numbering 3 @,@ 500 out of Svisloch 's 4 @,@ 500 residents . Unlike many of the other shtetls in the Pale , it had an industrial economy based on tanning . Its semi @-@ urban industrial population was receptive to social democratic politics and the labour movement , as embodied by the Jewish Labour Bund .
Moishe ( or Moshe ) Losz was Svisloch 's Bund Chairman . The Bund was an outlawed socialist party that called for overthrowing the Tsar , equality for all , and national rights for the Jewish community ; it functioned as both political party and labour movement . Lewis spent his formative years immersed in its culture and philosophy . The Bund 's membership , although mostly ethnically Jewish , was secular humanist in practice .
Moishe and David were influenced by the Bund 's political pragmatism , embodied in its maxim that " It is better to go along with the masses in a not totally correct direction than to separate oneself from them and remain a purist . " David would bring this philosophy to the Co @-@ operative Commonwealth Federation ( CCF ) and New Democratic Party ( NDP ) ; in clashes between the parties ' " ideological missionaries and the power pragmatists when internal debates raged about policy or action " , he was in the latter camp .
When the Russian Civil War and the Polish @-@ Soviet War were at their fiercest , in the summer of 1920 , Poland invaded , and the Red Russian Bolshevik army counter @-@ attacked . The Bolsheviks reached the Svisloch border in July 1920 . Moishe Losz openly opposed the Bolsheviks and would later be jailed by them for his opposition . When the Polish army recaptured Svisloch on August 25 , 1920 , they executed five Jewish citizens as " spies " . Unsafe under either regime and with his family 's future prospects bleak , Moishe left for Canada in May 1921 , to work in his brother @-@ in @-@ law 's Montreal clothing factory . By August , he saved enough money to send for his family , including David and his siblings , Charlie and Doris .
David Lewis was a secular Jew , as was Moishe . However , his maternal grandfather , Usher Lazarovitch , was religious and , in the brief period between May and August 1921 before David emigrated , gave his grandson the only real religious training he would ever receive . David did not actively take part in a religious service again until his granddaughter Ilana 's Bat Mitzvah in the late 1970s . In practice , the Lewis family , including David , his wife Sophie , and their children Janet , Nina , Stephen , and Michael , were atheists .
= = = Early life in Canada = = =
The family came to Canada by boat and landed in Halifax , Nova Scotia . They then went by rail to Montreal to meet Moishe Lewis . David Lewis was a native Yiddish speaker and understood very little English . He learned it by buying a copy of Charles Dickens ' novel The Old Curiosity Shop and a Yiddish @-@ English dictionary . A Welsh teacher at Fairmount Public School , where Lewis was a student , helped him learn English but also passed on his Welsh accent .
Lewis entered Baron Byng High School in September 1924 . He soon became friends with A.M. ( Abe ) Klein , who became one of Canada 's leading poets . He also met Irving Layton , another future prominent Canadian writer , to whom he acted as political mentor . Baron Byng High School was predominantly Jewish because it was in the heart of Montreal 's non @-@ affluent Jewish community , and was ghetto @-@ like because Jews were forbidden from attending many high schools .
Besides poets , at high school Lewis met Sophie Carson , who eventually became his wife . Klein , their mutual friend , introduced them . Carson was a first generation Jewish @-@ Canadian from a religious family . Her father did not approve of Lewis , because he was a recent immigrant to Canada , and in Carson 's father 's opinion had little to no possibility of success .
After high school , Lewis spent five years at McGill University in Montreal : four in arts , and one in law . While there , he helped found the Montreal branch of the Young People 's Socialist League . He gave lectures sponsored by this anti @-@ communist socialist club , and was its nominal leader . One of his favourite professors was Canadian humorist , and noted Conservative party proponent , Stephen Leacock , whom Lewis liked more for his personality than for his discipline , economics .
In his third year , Lewis founded The McGilliad campus magazine . It published many of his anti @-@ communist views , though the December 1930 issue included an article he wrote expressing his approval of the Russian Revolution and calling for a greater understanding of the Soviet Union ; throughout his career , he would attack communism , but would always have a sympathy for the 1917 revolutionaries . Also at McGill , Lewis met and worked with prominent Canadian socialists like F.R. Scott , Eugene Forsey , J. King Gordon , and Frank Underhill . He would work with all of them again in the 1940s and 50s in the CCF .
= = Rhodes Scholarship and Oxford = =
With Scott 's encouragement , Lewis applied for a Rhodes Scholarship during his first year at law school . The interviews for the Quebec representative were conducted in Montreal . The examining board included the then @-@ president of the Canadian Pacific Railway ( CPR ) , Sir Edward Beatty . In response to a question about what he would do if he became prime minister , Lewis stated that he would nationalize the CPR . Despite this answer and his socialist views in general , his responses to the board 's cross @-@ examination satisfied them that he was not a communist , and they awarded him the scholarship .
= = = Political involvement = = =
When David Lewis entered Lincoln College , Oxford , in 1932 , he immediately took a leadership role in the university 's socialist @-@ labour circles . Michael Foot , the future leader of the British Labour Party , mentioned in an interview that Lewis was ,
the most powerful socialist debater in the place . I don 't think with any rival ... He had a very powerful influence indeed amongst students , partly because he had so much more experience than the rest of us but partly because he had brilliant debating powers . I mean one of the best I 've ever heard . If you talk of tough political debates , well , he was absolutely unbeatable ... I knew him [ at Oxford ] when I was a Liberal [ and ] he played a part in converting me to socialism .
When Lewis came to Oxford , the Labour Club was a tame organization adhering to Christian activism , or genteel socialist theories like those expressed by R.H. Tawney in his book The Acquisitive Society . Lewis ' modified Bundist interpretation of Marxism , which Smith labels " Parliamentary Marxism " , ignited renewed interest in the club after the disappointment of Ramsay MacDonald 's Labour government .
The Oxford newspaper Isis noted Lewis ' leadership ability at this early stage in his career . In its February 7 , 1934 , issue , while Lewis was president , they wrote of the club : " The energy of these University Socialists is almost unbelievable . If the Socialist movement as a whole is anything like as active as they are , then a socialist victory at the next election is inevitable . "
In February 1934 , British fascist William Joyce ( Lord Haw Haw ) visited Oxford . Lewis and future Ontario CCF leader Ted Jolliffe organized a noisy protest by planting Labour Club members in the dance hall where Joyce was speaking and having groups of two and three of them leave at a time , making much noise on the creaking wooden floors . They were successful in drowning out Joyce , and he did not complete his speech . Afterwards , a street fight erupted between Joyce 's Blackshirt supporters and members of the Labour Club , including Lewis .
Lewis prevented the communists from making inroads at Oxford . Ted Jolliffe stated " there was a difference between his speeches at the Union and his speeches at the Labour Club . His speeches at the Union had more humour in them ; the atmosphere was entirely different . But his speeches at the Labour Club were deadly serious ... His influence at the Labour Club , more than anyone else 's , I think , explains the failure of the Communists to make headway there . There were so many naive people around who could have been taken in . " He increased the Labour Club 's membership by three quarters by the time he left .
In accordance with Bundism , Lewis rejected violent revolution and the dictatorship of the proletariat . The Bund insisted that the revolution should be through democratic means , as Marx had judged possible in the late 1860s , and that democracy should prevail afterwards . Influenced by Fabianism , Lewis became an incrementalist in his approach to replacing non @-@ socialist governments . As Lewis biographer Cameron Smith points out :
So what he ended up with was a modified Bundist interpretation of Marxism . Call it , if you will , Parliamentary Marxism . It was a Marxian analysis of economics and a parliamentary approach to politics . And if David were forced to choose , he would have chosen Parliamentary over Marxism .
Lewis was a prominent figure in the British Labour Party , which , in emphasizing parliamentary action and organizational prowess , took an approach similar to the Bund 's . Upon his 1935 graduation , the party offered him a candidacy in a safe seat in the British House of Commons . This left Lewis with a difficult decision : whether to stay in England or go home to Canada . If he had stayed in England , he likely would have been a partner in a prominent London law firm associated with Stafford Cripps and become a cabinet minister the next time Labour formed a government . Cripps , then a prominent barrister and Labour Party official , was grooming Lewis to be Prime Minister . Lewis ' other choice was to return to Montreal and help build the fledgling Co @-@ operative Commonwealth Federation ( CCF ) , with no guarantee of success . A personal note from J. S. Woodsworth , dated June 19 , 1935 , asked Lewis to take this latter option ; in the end , he did .
= = = Oxford Union = = =
Besides his political involvement , Lewis was active with the Oxford Union , probably the most prestigious and important debating club in the English @-@ speaking world . His first debate , in January 1933 , was on the resolution " That the British Empire is a menace to International good will " ; Lewis was one of the participants for the " Aye " side . They lost .
The February 9 , 1933 , debate brought Lewis some level of early prominence . The resolution was " That this House will under no circumstances fight for its King or Country " and was so controversial that it was news around the British Empire and beyond . Lewis again spoke for the " Aye " side . They won overwhelmingly and caused a newspaper uproar throughout the Empire . The Times of London entered the fray by pooh @-@ poohing those who took the Union and their motion seriously .
Lewis became a member of the Union 's Library Committee on March 9 , 1933 , and its treasurer in March 1934 . After two failed attempts , he was narrowly elected president in late November 1934 . He was president during the Hilary term , from the beginning of January until the end of April 1935 . The Isis commented that " ... David Lewis ... will be , beyond question , the least Oxonian person ever to the lead the Society . In appearance , background , and intellectual outlook he is a grim antithesis to all the suave , slightly delicate young men who for generations have sat on the Union rostrum ... "
= = CCF National Secretary = =
= = = Return to Canada = = =
Sophie Carson had accompanied Lewis to Oxford , and they wed August 15 , 1935 , shortly after their return . The wedding took place in his parents ' home ; though a rabbi officiated , most traditional Jewish practices were not observed .
In 1935 David Lewis became the National Secretary of the CCF . As Smith puts it :
Into this political whirlwind stepped David . A centralist in a nation that was decentralizing . A socialist in a country that voted solidly capitalist . A campaigner for a party with no money , facing two parties each of which was big , powerful , and affluent . A professional , in a party of amateurs who mostly thought of themselves as a movement , not a party . An anti @-@ Communist at a time when Canadian Communists were about to enter their heyday . A publicist seeking a unified voice for a party riven with dissent . An organizer whose leader , J.S. Woodsworth , really didn 't believe in organization , thinking that the CCF should remain a loosely knit , co @-@ operative association and believed this so implicitly that when it came time to appoint Lewis full @-@ time to the job of national secretary [ in 1938 ] he resisted , fearing the CCF would lose its spontaneity .
That Lewis not only survived , but prevailed is a testament to his skill and perseverance .
Most of the founders of the CCF – including Woodsworth , Tommy Douglas , M. J. Coldwell , and Stanley Knowles , – were informed by the Social Gospel , to which Lewis , with his Marxist socialism balanced by the Bund 's democratic principles , felt an affinity . Both the Bund and the Social Gospel were focused on the material present rather than the afterlife . Both called on people to change their environment for the better rather than hoping that God might do it for them . Social justice , the brotherhood of man , and moral self @-@ improvement were common to both .
It became obvious after the October 1937 Ontario election that the CCF needed an image change ; it was seen by the electorate as too far left . F.R. Scott pointed this out to Lewis in a letter , recommended moderating some of the party 's policies , and advised that " ... in the political arena we must find our friends among the near right . "
In August 1938 , Lewis quit his job at the Ottawa law firm of Smart and Biggar to work full @-@ time as the CCF National Secretary . His starting salary was $ 1 @,@ 200 per year , a low sum of money , even at that time , for a job with so much responsibility .
= = = Trying to create an organization = = =
As National Secretary , Lewis emphasized organization over ideology and forging links to unions . He worked to moderate the party 's image and downplay the Regina Manifesto 's more radical language , which seemed to scare off moderate voters . The offending language included " No CCF government will rest content until it has eradicated capitalism and put into operation the full programme of socialized planning " . Lewis , federal leader M.J. Coldwell , and Clarie Gillis would spend the next 19 years trying to modify this declaration , finally succeeding with the 1956 Winnipeg Declaration .
At the 1944 CCF convention , Lewis won a concession " that even large business could have a place in the party – if they behave . " Rather than opposing all private enterprise , Lewis was concerned with preventing monopoly capitalism . He passed a resolution reading " The socialization of large @-@ scale enterprise , however , does not mean taking over every private business . Where private business shows no signs of becoming a monopoly , operates efficiently under decent working conditions , and does not operate to the detriment of the Canadian people , it will be given every opportunity to function , to provide a fair rate of return and to make its contribution to the nation 's wealth . " This resolution allowed for a mixed @-@ economy that left most jobs in the private sphere .
Lewis did not share the desire of some members to keep the CCF " ideologically pure " , and adhered to the Bundist belief that " it was better to go along with the masses in a not totally correct direction than to separate oneself from them and remain ' purist ' . " However , the CCF was as much a movement as it was a political party , and its own members frequently undermined it with radical proclamations . Lewis criticized the British Columbia CCF for such comments , saying " ... what we say and do must be measured by the effect which it will have on our purpose of mobilizing people for action . If what we say and do will blunt or harm our purpose ... then we are saying and doing a false thing even if , in the abstract , it is true ... When , in heaven 's name are we going to learn that working @-@ class politics and the struggle for power are not a Sunday @-@ school class where purity of godliness and the infallibility of the Bible must be held up without fear of consequences . "
David Lewis was the party 's " heavy " , which did not help his popularity among CCF members , but after witnessing what he considered to be the European left 's self @-@ destruction in the 1930s , he was quick to end self @-@ immolating tactics or policies . He would tolerate some criticism of the party by its members , but when he believed that it rose to self @-@ mutilation , he suppressed it ruthlessly . This was most apparent when Lewis attacked and discredited Frank Underhill and his handling of Woodsworth House . Early in Lewis ' career , Underhill was one of his mentors ; this did not matter when Woodsworth House was stricken with financial difficulties in the late 1940s . Lewis was quick to blame and then discharged Underhill and the rest of the Woodsworth executive of their responsibilities . It was an unfortunate event that cost the CCF in the academic and intelligentsia world . To sum up Lewis ' reign , discipline and solidarity were paramount . There had to be limits to discussion and tolerance of dissenting views .
= = = Make this your Canada = = =
In 1943 , Lewis co @-@ wrote Make this Your Canada with F.R. Scott , then the CCF 's National Chairman . The book 's main argument was that national economic planning had proven itself during wartime with the King government 's imposition of wage and price controls through the Wartime Prices and Trade Board . Lewis and Scott further argued that its wartime success could translate to peacetime , and that Canada should adopt a mixed economy . They also called for public ownership of key economic sectors , and for the burden to be placed on private companies to demonstrate that they could manage an industry more effectively in the private sector than the government could in the public sector . The book also outlined the history of the CCF up to that time and explained the party 's decision @-@ making process . By Canadian standards , the book was popular , and sold over 25 @,@ 000 copies in its first year of publication .
= = = 1943 Cartier by @-@ election = = =
Lewis first ran for the CCF in the 1940 federal election in York West . He placed a distant third , receiving 8 @,@ 330 fewer votes than the second @-@ place Liberal candidate , Chris J. Bennett . Despite his poor showing in his first election , the party asked Lewis to run in the 1943 by @-@ election in the Montreal , Quebec , federal riding of Cartier , made vacant by the death of Peter Bercovitch . Lewis ' opponents included Fred Rose of the communist Labor – Progressive Party . It was a vicious campaign , immortalized by A.M. Klein in an uncompleted novel called Come the Revolution . The novel was broadcast in the 1980s on Lister Sinclair 's Ideas programme on CBC Radio One . If the Communist rhetoric could be believed , " Lewis was a Fascist done up in brown . "
Rose won and became the only ( as of 2013 ) Communist to sit in the House of Commons . Lewis placed fourth . The sizable Jewish vote mostly went to Rose . The leftist " common front " punished Lewis by supporting Rose , who was seen to be of the community ; Lewis lived in Ottawa at the time . It took Lewis many years to recover from this campaign , and its reverberation coloured Lewis ' decision on where to run .
= = = 1945 elections : disappointment and defeat = = =
The Canadian federal and the Ontario elections of 1945 were possibly the most crucial to Canada in the 20th century . They took place at the beginning of the welfare state , and the elections would set the course of political thought to the end of the century and beyond . The year was a disaster for the CCF , both nationally and in Ontario . It never fully recovered , and in 1961 would dissolve and become the New Democratic Party . As NDP strategist and historian Gerald Caplan put it : " June 4 , and June 11 , 1945 , proved to be black days in CCF annals : socialism was effectively removed from the Canadian political agenda . "
The anti @-@ socialist crusade by the Ontario Conservative Party , mostly credited to the Ontario Provincial Police ( OPP ) special investigative branch 's agent D @-@ 208 ( Captain William J. Osborne @-@ Dempster ) and the Conservative propagandists Gladstone Murray and Montague A. Sanderson , diminished the CCF 's initially favourable position : the September 1943 Gallup poll showed the CCF leading nationally with 29 percent support , with the Liberals and Conservatives tied for second place at 28 percent . By April 1945 , the CCF was down to 20 percent nationally , and on election day it received only 16 percent .
Another factor in the CCF 's defeat was the unofficial coalition between the Liberal Party of Canada and the communist Labor @-@ Progressive Party . It guaranteed a split in the left @-@ of @-@ centre vote .
Lewis ran in Hamilton West instead of the CCF @-@ friendly Winnipeg North riding that had elected CCF and Labour Party candidates since the 1920s and had a substantial Jewish population . Historians and activists disagree on Lewis ' reasons for doing so , but Caplan suggests that the shock of the Cartier election probably made him reluctant to fight another intense campaign against a Jewish Communist candidate . Whatever his reasons , he was soundly defeated . In the 1949 federal election , Lewis ran again in the Hamilton area , in the riding of Wentworth . He lost again , placing a relatively distant third .
= = = Fighting Communist influence = = =
The 1945 defeats were partially the result of an alliance between the Liberals and the communist Labor – Progressive Party ( LPP ) . The LPP focused in on CCF @-@ held seats , deliberately splitting the vote , and declared a " Liberal – Labour " coalition on May 29 , 1944 . They declared open warfare on the CCF in 1944 , with spokesman John Weir stating in the LPP 's Canadian Tribune newspaper that " a resounding defeat of the CCF at the polls must be [ their ] main objective . "
The Canadian Congress of Labour ( CCL ) supported the CCF , but the Trades and Labour Congress ( TLC ) refused to officially endorse them . This lack of unity between the two main Canadian umbrella labour organizations hurt the CCF , and was part of the Liberal – Communist alliance : TLC president Percey Berough was a Liberal , and vice @-@ president Pat Sullivan was a Communist .
In the Ontario provincial election , the communists urged trade union members to vote for the right @-@ wing Conservative George Drew rather than the CCF .
Lewis and Charles Millard , of the Canadian Congress of Labour , decided to purge organized labour 's decision @-@ making bodies of communists . Their first target was the Sudbury , Ontario , CCF riding association and its affiliated International Union of Mine , Mill , and Smelter Workers ( Mine @-@ Mill ) Local 598 . However , Local 598 was not under Communist control : out of 11 @,@ 000 dues @-@ paying members , fewer than 100 were communists . Over the next twenty years , a fierce and ultimately successful battle was waged by Millard 's United Steel Workers of America ( USW ) to take over Local 598 .
The attacks on the Sudbury CCF were even more costly , at least in terms of voter support . Sudbury 's Bob Carlin was one of the few CCF Members of Provincial Parliament ( MPPs ) to survive the Drew government 's 1945 landslide victory . Carlin had been part of Ted Jolliffe 's team that had orchestrated the CCF 's 1943 breakthrough , but was first and foremost a union man . He was a long @-@ time labour organizer , going back to 1916 and the predecessor to the Mine @-@ MIll : the Western Federation of Miners . Carlin was loyal to his union , in whose service he had spent ten years , and to the men and woman who helped build it , regardless of their political affiliation ; this made him unpopular with the CCF establishment in both Toronto and Ottawa .
Millard , Jolliffe , and Lewis did not directly accuse Carlin of being a communist . Instead , they attacked him for not dealing with communists in Local 598 , which was built by both communists and CCFers ( with the latter firmly in control of the executive ) . Lewis and Jolliffe made the case to expel him from the Ontario CCF caucus at a Toronto special meeting of the CCF executive and the legislative caucus on April 13 , 1948 . In essence , Carlin became a casualty of Steel 's plans to raid Mine @-@ Mill . The CCF lost the seat in the 1948 Ontario election , placing fourth . The Conservatives won the seat and Carlin , as an independent , finished a close second . It was not until the CCF became the New Democratic Party ( NDP ) and the Mine @-@ Mill versus USW war was over , in 1967 , that another social democrat – Elie Martel in Sudbury East – was elected to the Legislative Assembly of Ontario from the city .
Lewis and Millard 's crusade to limit communist influence received an unexpected boost from the Soviet Union , in Nikita Khrushchev 's 1956 denunciation of Stalinism . In his " Secret Speech " , On the Personality Cult and its Consequences , delivered to a closed session of the 20th Party Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union , Khrushchev denounced Stalin for his cult of personality , and his regime for " violation of Leninist norms of legality " . When the excesses of Stalin 's regime were exposed , it caused a split in the communist movement in Canada and permanently weakened it . By the end of 1956 , the LPP 's influence in the trade union movement and politics was spent .
= = Private labour law practice = =
Lewis resigned as national secretary in 1950 and moved to Toronto to practise law in partnership with Ted Jolliffe . He became the chief legal advisor to the USW 's Canadian division , and assisted them in their organizing efforts and battles with the Mine @-@ Mill union . Lewis focused on his law practice for the next five years . In his first year , he paid more in income tax than he had earned annually as CCF National Secretary .
He bought his first house , in the Bathurst Street – St. Clair Avenue West area of Toronto , during this period . After his father Moishe died in 1951 , his mother Rose moved into the 95 Burnside Drive Lewis home from Montreal . This is the home where his son Stephen Lewis would spend his teenage years , and the other three children would grow up .
= = = Winnipeg Declaration and the New Party = = =
Although he gave @-@ up day @-@ to @-@ day running of the party 's organization , he stayed on the national executive as the English @-@ speaking vice @-@ president from 1950 to 1954 . After four years of comparatively limited involvement with CCF internal politics , Lewis became the party 's national chairman , by winning the election to replace Percy Wright . He , along with Lorne Ingle , the person that replaced him as national secretary in 1950 , became the main drafters of the 1956 Winnipeg Declaration , which replaced the Regina Manifesto . The lead @-@ up to the August 1956 CCF convention had Lewis working full @-@ time in his labour practice , including work on the merger of the Canadian Congress of Labour and the Trades and Labour Congress to form the Canadian Labour Congress ( CLC ) , and putting in long hours organizing the committee that wrote the Declaration . He collapsed in his office in May 1956 ; after administering several tests for a possible cardiac condition , the doctors concluded that Lewis collapsed of exhaustion . He stayed in bed for a week and recovered enough to help the Declaration pass ten weeks later . The Winnipeg convention was the CCF 's swan song . Even with the Declaration 's modified tone , which removed state planning and nationalization of industry as central tenets of the party 's platform , the CCF suffered a crippling defeat in the 1958 federal election , which became known as the " Diefenbaker sweep " . It was obvious to Lewis , Coldwell and the rest of the CCF executive that the CCF could not continue as it was , and , with the co @-@ operation of the CLC , they started exploring how to broaden its appeal .
= = = CCF President = = =
In 1958 , Lewis worked closely with the CLC 's president , Claude Jodoin , and the CLC 's executive vice @-@ president Stanley Knowles to merge the labour and social democratic movements into a new party . Coldwell did not want to continue as the party 's national leader , because he lost his parliamentary seat in the election . Lewis persuaded him to stay on until the new party was formed . Lewis was elected party president at the July 1958 convention in Montreal , which also endorsed a motion for the executive and National Council to " enter into discussions with Canadian Labour Congress " and other like @-@ minded groups to lay the groundwork for a new party .
= = = Leadership succession crisis = = =
By 1960 , progress was being made in creating a new party , but Lewis had to again act as disciplinarian . Since Coldwell lost his seat , he was constantly considering resignation , but was repeatedly dissuaded by the party . With Coldwell lacking a seat , the CCF caucus chose Hazen Argue as its leader in the House of Commons . During the lead @-@ up to the 1960 CCF convention , Argue was pressing Coldwell to step down . This leadership challenge jeopardized plans for an orderly transition to the new party . Lewis and the rest of the new party 's organizers opposed Argue 's manoeuvres , and wanted Saskatchewan premier Tommy Douglas to be the new party 's first leader . To prevent their plans from derailing , David Lewis attempted to persuade Argue not to force a vote at the convention on the question of the party 's leadership . He was unsuccessful . There was a split between the parliamentary caucus and the party executive on the convention floor . Coldwell quit and Argue replaced him as leader .
In July 1961 , the CCF became the New Democratic Party ( NDP ) . They elected Tommy Douglas as their leader by a convincing 1391 to 380 margin over Argue . Six months later , Argue quit the party and crossed the floor to join the Liberals .
In the mid @-@ 1970s , David Lewis reflected on this incident and he concluded that he had not handled the leadership transition well :
I , as president of the CCF , was very much in the wrong in trying to get a unanimous vote for Tommy . It arose out of a tradition we had had – no one opposed Woodsworth , no one had opposed Coldwell . They were chosen .
I met with Hazen and tried to dissuade him from being a candidate . It was wrong . This attitude produced bitterness around the Hazen @-@ Douglas contest .
= = 1962 – 1971 : Member of Parliament for York South = =
Two days after the end of the NDP 's 1961 founding convention , Tommy Douglas wrote a letter to Sophie Lewis , David 's wife , telling her that David must run in the next election . Lewis decided to run in his home riding of York South , which was concurrently held provincially , in the Legislative Assembly of Ontario , by the NDP 's Ontario leader , Donald C. MacDonald .
Diefenbaker 's government had to call an election sometime in 1962 , so there was time to plan Lewis ' campaign . He had two campaign managers : his son Stephen and Gerry Caplan . One of their main strategies was to gain votes in the riding 's affluent Jewish enclave in the Village of Forest Hill . Lewis , however , was perceived by the Jewish community as an outsider because he did not take part in community events or belong to a synagogue . His opposition to the creation of the state of Israel , a result of his Bundist politics , also did not sit well with the mostly Zionist community . It took extra effort on Stephen 's and Caplan 's parts to convince community members that David was a legitimate Jewish voice and that he would not harm their businesses . Besides resistance from the Jewish community , in his role as party national vice @-@ president David Lewis had to tackle the impending doctors ' strike in Saskatchewan , the result of the CCF government 's implementation of Medicare . He called the province 's doctors " blackmailers " for suggesting such a strike . Lewis also appeared on one of the NDP 's few national television spots . He appeared on the national CTV Television Network with Walter Pitman to present the NDP 's platform on a planned economy , in a conversation @-@ style election broadcast . On June 18 , 1962 , Lewis was elected in York South , and finally became an MP . Since Tommy Douglas lost in his seat , Lewis was considered the front @-@ runner to become house leader until Douglas entered the house in an October by @-@ election .
Lewis ' first term as MP was a short one , as Diefenbaker 's minority government was defeated in the April 8 , 1963 , general election . Lewis lost in Forest Hill , as his support among its Jewish community evaporated and returned to the Liberals , who were seen as best able to contain the Social Credit Party , which was perceived to be anti @-@ Semitic . This was only a temporary set @-@ back . With Diefenbaker in opposition ( and unlikely to resurrect the coalition in Quebec that gave him his majority in 1958 ) and Social Credit a diminished force , Lewis returned to the House of Commons in the 1965 general election . He was re @-@ elected in the 1968 election , and became the NDP leader in the House of Commons after Douglas lost his seat . At the 1969 Winnipeg National Convention , Douglas announced that he intended to step @-@ down as leader by 1971 , which meant that Lewis became the de facto leader in the interim .
The October 1970 Quebec FLQ Crisis put Lewis in the spotlight , as he was the only NDP MP with any roots in Quebec . He and Douglas were opposed to the October 16 implementation of the War Measures Act . The Act , enacted previously only for wartime purposes , imposed extreme limitations on civil liberties , and gave the police and military vastly expanded powers for arresting and detaining suspects , usually with little to no evidence required . Although it was only meant to be used in Quebec , since it was federal legislation , it was in @-@ force throughout Canada . Some police services , from outside of Quebec , took advantage of it for their own purposes , which mostly had nothing even remotely related to the Quebec situation , as Lewis and Douglas suspected . Sixteen of the 20 members of the NDP parliamentary caucus voted against the implementation of the War Measures Act in the House of Commons . They took much grief for being the only parliamentarians to vote against it . Lewis stated at a press scrum that day : " The information we do have , showed a situation of criminal acts and criminal conspiracy in Quebec . But , there is no information that there was unintended , or apprehended , or planned insurrection , which alone , would justify invoking the War Measures Act . " About five years later , many of the MPs who voted to implement it regretted doing so , and belatedly honoured Douglas and Lewis for their stand against it . Progressive Conservative leader Robert Stanfield went so far as to say that , " Quite frankly , I 've admired Tommy Douglas and David Lewis , and those fellows in the NDP for having the courage to vote against that , although they took a lot of abuse at the time .... I don 't brood about it . I 'm not proud of it . "
= = Leader of the NDP = =
Stephen Lewis was coming into his own during this period . In 1963 , at the age of 26 , he was elected to the Legislative Assembly of Ontario . Following the engineered 1970 resignation of Donald C. MacDonald , Stephen was elected leader of the Ontario New Democratic Party . During the early @-@ to @-@ mid @-@ 1970s , the father @-@ and @-@ son @-@ team led the two largest sections of the NDP .
In February 1968 , Stephen Lewis , as a supposed representative of the Ontario NDP legislative caucus , asked the 63 @-@ year @-@ old Tommy Douglas to step down as leader so that a younger person could take over . Donald C. MacDonald stated that Lewis was not representing the caucus , but acting on his own . Though Douglas was taken aback by the suggestion , his defeat in the ensuing election bolstered Stephen 's case and on October 28 , 1969 , Douglas announced that he would step down as leader before the NDP 's 1971 convention .
David Lewis ran to succeed Douglas as national leader . The 1971 leadership convention was a tumultuous affair . A new generation of NDP activists known as The Waffle proposed many controversial resolutions , including nationalization of all natural resource industries and support for Quebec Sovereignty . It took the combined efforts of the NDP establishment — and the sizable trade union delegation — to vote down these resolutions , which caused many bitter debates and sharply divided the convention . Lewis , as the leading establishment figure , won the party 's leadership on April 24 in a surprisingly close race that required four ballots before he could claim victory over the Waffle 's James Laxer . Laxer had been prominently featured in media coverage leading up to and during the convention . Lewis ' perceived heavy @-@ handedness in dealing with The Waffle at this and previous conventions made him many enemies , as had his involvement in most of the CCF and NDP 's internal conflicts during the previous 36 years . Many members who had felt his wrath as party disciplinarian plotted their revenge against him . At his first press conference after winning the leadership , Lewis stated that he was not beholden to the Waffle , as they were soundly defeated at the convention , and that he made no promises to them . He also warned the party 's Quebec wing that they could continue to theorize about possible self @-@ determination resolutions , but that come election time they must pledge themselves to the party 's newly confirmed federalist policy . He did not purge the Waffle from the NDP , but left it to his son Stephen to do in June 1972 , when the party 's Ontario wing resolved to disband the Waffle or kick its members out of the party if they did not comply with the disbanding order .
David Lewis led the NDP through the 1972 federal election , during which he uttered his best known quotation , calling Canadian corporations " corporate welfare bums " , a term also used in the title of his 1972 book Louder Voices : The Corporate Welfare Bums . This election campaign also employed the first dedicated plane for the NDP leader 's tour , dubbed " Bum Air " by reporters , because it was a slow , twin engine , turbo @-@ prop driven Handley Page Dart Herald . In previous campaigns , the party 's leader , Tommy Douglas , had to use commercial Air Canada flights to get around during the election , with few people in his entourage .
The 1972 election returned a Liberal minority government and elected the greatest number of NDP MPs until the 1988 " Free Trade " election , and left the NDP holding the balance of power until 1974 . The NDP propped up Pierre Trudeau 's Liberal government in exchange for the implementation of NDP proposals such as the creation of Petro @-@ Canada as a crown corporation . Lewis wanted to topple the government in a vote of no @-@ confidence as early as possible , because he saw no strategic advantage to supporting the Trudeau government : he believed that Trudeau would get the credit if a program was well @-@ received , and that the NDP would be vilified if it was unpopular .
In hindsight , Lewis ' no @-@ win evaluation of the situation appears correct : the party would not be rewarded for its efforts by the electorate . In the 1974 election , the NDP were reduced to 16 seats . Lewis lost his seat , leading him to resign as party leader in 1975 . It was revealed immediately after the election that he had been battling leukemia for about two years ; he had reportedly kept everyone , including his family , unaware of his condition .
= = Final years = =
Lewis became a professor at the Institute of Canadian Studies at Carleton University in Ottawa during this time . In 1978 , as a travel correspondent for The Toronto Star , Lewis visited Svisloch one last time , and noted that , " not one Jew now lives there . " The Holocaust wiped out the town 's Jewish community , and with it his extended family .
He completed the first volume , of a planned two , of his memoirs , The Good Fight : Political Memoirs 1909 – 1958 in 1981 . He died shortly thereafter , on May 23 , 1981 , in Ottawa . He is the father of Stephen Lewis , a former Ontario NDP leader who in the early and mid @-@ first decade of the 21st century was the United Nations Special Envoy for HIV / AIDS in Africa . His other son , Michael Lewis , was a former Ontario NDP Secretary and a leading organizer in the NDP . He is also the father of Janet Solberg , president of the Ontario NDP in the 1980s . His other twin daughter is Nina Libeskind , the wife and business partner of architect Daniel Libeskind . Stephen 's son , broadcaster Avram ( Avi ) Lewis , is his grandson . In 2010 , his granddaughter @-@ in @-@ law Naomi Klein , gave the inaugural David Lewis Lecture , sponsored by the Canadian Centre for Policy Alternatives .
= = Awards and honours = =
In December 1976 , Lewis was appointed as a Companion of the Order of Canada , with his investiture held on April 20 , 1977 . He was appointed to the highest level of the Order of Canada in " recognition of the contributions he has made to Labour and social reform and the deep concern he has had over the years for his adopted country . " David Lewis Public School in Scarborough , Ontario is named in his honour .
= = Electoral record = =
Note : " National Government " vote is compared to Conservative vote in 1935 election .
= = = York South = = =
= = = 1971 leadership convention results = = =
Held in Ottawa , Ontario on April 24 , 1971 .
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= The Boat Race 1932 =
The 84th Boat Race took place on 19 March 1932 . Held annually , the Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . The race was umpired by former Oxford rower Harcourt Gilbey Gold on a shortened because of repairs to Putney Bridge . Cambridge won by five lengths , the largest winning margin for three years , in a time of 19 minutes 11 seconds , their ninth consecutive victory . The win equalled the record victorious streaks of Oxford between 1861 and 1869 , and 1890 and 1898 , and took the overall record to 43 – 40 in their favour .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . The race was first held in 1829 , and since 1845 has taken place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities ; it is followed throughout the United Kingdom and , as of 2014 , broadcast worldwide . Cambridge went into the race as reigning champions , having won the 1931 race by two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths , and led overall with 42 victories to Oxford 's 40 ( excluding the " dead heat " of 1877 ) .
Oxford were coached by H. R. Barker ( who rowed for the Dark Blues in the 1908 and 1909 races ) and John Houghton Gibbon ( who had participated in the 1899 and 1900 races , and umpired the previous year 's race ) . Cambridge 's coaches were F. E. Hellyer ( who had rowed for the Light Blues in the 1910 and 1911 races ) , J. A. MacNabb ( rowed in the 1924 race ) and Peter Haig @-@ Thomas ( four @-@ time Blue for Cambridge between 1902 and 1905 ) . The race was umpired by Harcourt Gilbey Gold , former Dark Blue president for the 1900 race and four @-@ time Blue , rowing in each race between 1896 and 1899 .
The start of this year 's race was moved to the University of London Boat Club , approximately 400 yards ( 370 m ) further upstream . After discussion between the umpire , the two boat club presidents , the coaches Haig @-@ Thomas and Gibbons , and a representative of the Port of London Authority , the course was shortened to avoid potential eddies around temporary buttresses erected by Putney Bridge which was undergoing repair . As noted by former Oxford rower E. P. Evans , writing in The Manchester Guardian , " no comparisons of times with previous races can be made , because the points on the course will be different " . It was the first time since the 1863 race that the event was not conducted between the University Stone and Mortlake .
Cambridge were considered to be favourites to win the race : according to Evans , they had " a command of their boat " although Oxford had " acquired more ' drive ' from the coaching of Colonel J. H. Gibbon " . The rowing correspondent for The Times stated that the Cambridge crew were " the steadiest and best combined crew since that of 1924 " , while Oxford were " not remarkable for good form " and " not very well together in their blade nor very long nor very steady . "
= = Crews = =
The Cambridge crew weighed an average of 12 st 2 @.@ 75 lb ( 77 @.@ 3 kg ) , 3 @.@ 5 pounds ( 1 @.@ 6 kg ) per rower more than their opponents . Oxford saw four rowers return to the crew with Boat Race experience . Cambridge 's crew also contained four participants who had taken part in the event previously , including bow David Haig @-@ Thomas and number six Harold Rickett . Two participants in the race were registered as non @-@ British , both of whom rowed for Cambridge : Lewis Luxton and William Sambell were Australian .
= = Race = =
Cambridge won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station , handing the Middlesex side of the river to Oxford . Weather conditions were favourable , with bright sunshine , little wind and calm water , and umpire Gold started the race at 10 : 30 a.m. Oxford made the quicker start , marginally out @-@ rating the Light Blues and led by a quarter @-@ length by the end of the Fulham Wall . They extended this lead to one third of a length by the time the crews passed the Mile Post . Cambrdige increased their stroke rate and drew level by the Crab Tree pub , and spurting at Harrods Furniture Depository they led by half a length .
As the crews passed below Hammersmith Bridge , Cambridge drew clear and held a two @-@ length lead by the Doves pub . In rough water along Chiswick Reach , Oxford struggled and at Chiswick Steps they were eleven seconds behind the Light Blues . Despite a spurt from the Dark Blues , Cambridge passed under Barnes Bridge five lengths ahead . They held that lead to pass the finishing post in a time of 19 minutes 11 seconds , the largest winning margin since the 1929 race . It was their ninth consecutive victory and the first time in the history of the race that Cambridge had equalled the successful winning streaks of Oxford between 1861 and 1869 , and 1890 and 1898 .
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= USS Leary ( DD @-@ 158 ) =
USS Leary ( DD @-@ 158 ) was a Wickes @-@ class destroyer in the United States Navy during World War II . She was named for Lieutenant Clarence F. Leary , posthumously awarded the Navy Cross in World War I.
Commissioned in 1919 , she saw a number of fleet exercises and training cruises , as well as a brief period of decommissioning from 1922 to 1930 . She was the first U.S. Navy ship to be equipped with sonar , and the first to detect a German ship with it . With the outbreak of World War II , she escorted a number of convoys to Iceland , the Caribbean , and west Africa to support the war effort , later being upgraded to serve as an antisubmarine warfare vessel . On 24 December 1943 , while escorting Card through rough seas in the North Atlantic , she was torpedoed three times by German submarine U @-@ 275 and sank with the loss of 98 men .
= = Design and construction = =
Leary was one of 111 Wickes @-@ class destroyers built by the United States Navy between 1917 and 1919 . She , along with nine of her sisters , were constructed at New York Shipbuilding Corporation shipyards in Camden , New Jersey using specifications and detail designs drawn up by Bethlehem Steel .
She had a standard displacement of 1 @,@ 090 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 070 long tons ; 1 @,@ 200 short tons ) an overall length of 314 feet ( 96 m ) , a beam of 30 feet 6 inches ( 9 @.@ 30 m ) and a draught of 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) . On trials , Leary reached a speed of 35 knots ( 65 km / h ; 40 mph ) . She was armed with four 4 " / 50 caliber guns , two 3 " / 23 caliber guns , and twelve 21 @-@ inch torpedo tubes . She had a regular crew complement of 176 officers and enlisted men . She was driven by two Curtis steam turbines powered by four Yarrow boilers .
Specifics on Leary 's performance are not known , but she was one of the group of Wickes @-@ class destroyers known unofficially as the ' Liberty Type ' to differentiate them from the destroyers constructed from detail designs drawn up by Bath Iron Works , which used Parsons or Westinghouse turbines . The ' Liberty ' type destroyers deteriorated badly in service , and in 1929 all 60 of this group were retired by the Navy . Actual performance of these ships was far below intended specifications especially in fuel economy , with most only able to make 2 @,@ 300 nautical miles ( 4 @,@ 300 km ; 2 @,@ 600 mi ) at 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) instead of the design standard of 3 @,@ 100 nautical miles ( 5 @,@ 700 km ; 3 @,@ 600 mi ) at 20 knots ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) . The class also suffered problems with turning and weight .
She was the first ship to be named for Clarence F. Leary . A subsequent USS Leary would be commissioned , this one a Gearing @-@ class destroyer completed in 1945 .
= = Service history = =
Leary was laid down on 6 March 1918 and launched on 18 December 1918 . She was sponsored by Mrs. Anne Leary , the mother of Clarence F. Leary . She was commissioned on 5 December 1919 under the command of Commander F. C. Martin .
She departed Boston on 28 January 1920 , underwent her shakedown cruise in the Caribbean and then conducted training operations along the East Coast of the United States . In January 1921 , she joined the Pacific Battle Fleet , and through February took part in a large @-@ scale battle exercise off the coast of Peru . In March , Leary transited the Panama Canal and reported to the commander of Naval Station Guantanamo Bay , Cuba . She then was on station during bombing tests conducted by the U.S. Army Air Forces against naval targets , overseen by Billy Mitchell . She resumed her training exercises off the Caribbean until June 1922 , when in accordance with the Washington Naval Conference , she was decommissioned at the Philadelphia Naval Yard .
Recommissioned on 1 May 1930 with a home port in Newport , Rhode Island , Leary alternated between the Pacific Fleet and the Atlantic Fleet , carrying out training maneuvers and taking part in several fleet problems . After 1935 , most of her time was taken up conducting training cruises for reserves and midshipmen . In April 1937 , she underwent a shipyard overhaul , including being equipped with a radar . Leary was the first U.S. navy vessel to be equipped with the device . In September 1939 , Leary and Hamilton established a continuous patrol off the coast of New England against German U @-@ Boats . On 9 September 1941 , she began escort missions to Iceland . She was also the first to make contact with a German U @-@ Boat , while escorting a British convoy in the North Atlantic on 9 November 1941 .
With the entry of the United States into World War II following the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor , Leary undertook regular convoy escort duties . After 26 February 1942 , she spent a year escorting convoys from a mid @-@ ocean meeting point to Icelandic ports . On 7 February 1943 , she left for Boston and reassignment . During this time , she was given a shipyard overhaul at Boston Navy Yard and converted into an anti @-@ submarine warfare ship . On 1 March , she left Boston for Guantanamo Bay , and undertook anti @-@ submarine exercises with R @-@ 5 . She then resumed escort duty , and made several trips to Trinidad and several Caribbean ports . Returning to New York on 25 June , she began escoring transatlantic convoys , and successfully escorted two of them through Aruba and to Algiers and Casablanca . She later joined Task Group 21 @.@ 41 under the command of Captain Arnold J. Isbell and escorting Card .
On 24 December 1943 , the task group was caught in a storm in the North Atlantic when at 01 : 58 in the morning , Leary made a ping on a U @-@ Boat off her starboard bow . After her commander , James E. Kyes , ordered her to battle stations but before the destroyer could react , she was struck by a G7es torpedo fired by German submarine U @-@ 275 . The torpedo struck her starboard side and detonated in the after engine room , killing all of the men there and damaging both propeller shafts . She quickly developed a 20 degree list to starboard , and was unable to move in the heavy seas . Unbeknownst to the task group , a second German submarine , U @-@ 382 fired at Leary but missed . Soon after , Kyes ordered the crew to abandon ship . Two additional torpedoes from U @-@ 275 rocked the ship , and it rapidly sank , stern first . She took 98 men with her , including Kyes . Survivors were picked up by her sister ship , Schenck .
Three or four minutes after the second torpedo hit , the executive officer , Lt. R. B. Watson , concluded a quick inspection of the ship , during which he found a thick , gooey substance covering the deck . He was astonished to see two seamen sitting on a torpedo tube , calmly eating Boston cream pie . The cook had just baked a batch , the explosion spattering most of it on the deck .
Leary received one battle star for her service in World War II . For his actions in ensuring the safety of his crew , Kyes was posthumously awarded the Navy Cross . The Gearing @-@ class destroyer James E. Kyes was later named for him .
= = Convoys escorted = =
= = Resources = =
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= Koli Point action =
The Koli Point action , during 3 – 12 November 1942 , was an engagement between U.S. Marine Corps and U.S. Army forces and Imperial Japanese Army forces around Koli Point on Guadalcanal during the Guadalcanal campaign . The U.S. forces were under the overall command of Major General Alexander Vandegrift , while the Japanese forces were under the overall command of Lieutenant General Harukichi Hyakutake .
In the engagement , U.S. Marines from the 7th Marine Regiment and U.S. Army soldiers from the 164th Infantry Regiment under the tactical command of William H. Rupertus and Edmund B. Sebree , attacked a concentration of Japanese Army troops , most of whom belonged to the 230th Infantry Regiment , commanded by Toshinari Shōji . Shōji 's troops had marched to the Koli Point area after the failed Japanese assaults on U.S. defenses during the Battle for Henderson Field in late October 1942 .
In the engagement , the U.S. forces attempted to encircle and destroy Shōji 's forces . Although Shōji 's unit took heavy casualties , he and most of his men were able to evade the encirclement attempt and escape into the interior of Guadalcanal . As Shōji 's troops endeavored to reach Japanese positions in another part of the island , they were pursued and attacked by a battalion @-@ sized patrol of U.S. Marine Raiders .
= = Background = =
= = = Guadalcanal campaign = = =
On 7 August 1942 , Allied forces ( primarily U.S. ) landed on Guadalcanal , Tulagi , and Florida Islands in the Solomon Islands . The landings on the islands were meant to deny their use by the Japanese as bases for threatening the supply routes between the U.S. and Australia , and to secure the islands as starting points for a campaign with the eventual goal of isolating the major Japanese base at Rabaul while also supporting the Allied New Guinea campaign . The landings initiated the six @-@ month @-@ long Guadalcanal campaign .
Taking the Japanese by surprise , by nightfall on 8 August the 11 @,@ 000 Allied troops — under the command of Major General Alexander Vandegrift and mainly consisting of U.S. Marines — had secured Tulagi and nearby small islands as well as an airfield under construction at Lunga Point on Guadalcanal . The airfield was later named Henderson Field by Allied forces . The Allied aircraft that subsequently operated out of the airfield became known as the " Cactus Air Force " ( CAF ) after the Allied codename for Guadalcanal . To protect the airfield , the U.S. Marines established a perimeter defense around Lunga Point .
In response to the Allied landings on Guadalcanal , the Japanese Imperial General Headquarters assigned the Imperial Japanese Army 's 17th Army — a corps @-@ sized command based at Rabaul and under the command of Lieutenant @-@ General Harukichi Hyakutake — with the task of retaking Guadalcanal from Allied forces . Beginning on 19 August , various units of the 17th Army began to arrive on Guadalcanal with the goal of driving Allied forces from the island .
Because of the threat by CAF aircraft based at Henderson Field , the Japanese were unable to use large , slow transport ships to deliver troops and supplies to the island . Instead , the Japanese used warships based at Rabaul and the Shortland Islands to carry their forces to Guadalcanal . The Japanese warships , mainly light cruisers or destroyers from the Eighth Fleet under the command of Vice Admiral Gunichi Mikawa , were usually able to make the round trip down " The Slot " to Guadalcanal and back in a single night , thereby minimizing their exposure to CAF air attack . Delivering the troops in this manner , however , prevented most of the soldiers ' heavy equipment and supplies , such as heavy artillery , vehicles , and much food and ammunition , from being carried to Guadalcanal with them . These high @-@ speed warship runs to Guadalcanal occurred throughout the campaign and were later called the " Tokyo Express " by Allied forces and " Rat Transportation " by the Japanese .
The first Japanese attempt to recapture Henderson Field failed when a 917 @-@ man force was defeated on 21 August in the Battle of the Tenaru . The next attempt took place from 12 – 14 September , with the 6 @,@ 000 soldiers under the command of Major General Kiyotake Kawaguchi being defeated in the Battle of Edson 's Ridge . After their defeat at Edson 's Ridge , Kawaguchi and the surviving Japanese troops regrouped west of the Matanikau River on Guadalcanal .
As the Japanese regrouped , the U.S. forces concentrated on shoring up and strengthening their Lunga defenses . On 18 September , an Allied naval convoy delivered 4 @,@ 157 men from the U.S. 7th Marine Regiment to Guadalcanal . These reinforcements allowed Vandegrift — beginning on 19 September — to establish an unbroken line of defense completely around the Lunga perimeter .
General Vandegrift and his staff were aware that Kawaguchi 's troops had retreated to the area west of the Matanikau and that numerous groups of Japanese stragglers were scattered throughout the area between the Lunga Perimeter and the Matanikau River . Vandegrift , therefore , decided to conduct a series of small unit operations around the Matanikau Valley .
The first U.S. Marine operation against Japanese forces west of the Matanikau , conducted between 23 and 27 September 1942 by elements of three U.S. Marine battalions , was repulsed by Kawaguchi 's troops under Colonel Akinosuke Oka 's local command . In the second action , between 6 and 9 October , a larger force of U.S. Marines successfully crossed the Matanikau River , attacked newly landed Japanese forces from the 2nd ( Sendai ) Infantry Division under the command of generals Masao Maruyama and Yumio Nasu and inflicted heavy casualties on the Japanese 4th Infantry Regiment . The second action forced the Japanese to retreat from their positions east of the Matanikau .
In the meantime , Major General Millard F. Harmon — commander of U.S. Army forces in the South Pacific — convinced Vice Admiral Robert L. Ghormley — commander of Allied forces in the South Pacific Area — that U.S. Marine forces on Guadalcanal needed to be reinforced immediately if the Allies were to successfully defend the island from the next expected Japanese offensive . Thus on 13 October , a naval convoy delivered the 2 @,@ 837 @-@ strong 164th U.S. Infantry Regiment , a North Dakota Army National Guard formation from the U.S. Army 's Americal Division , to Guadalcanal .
= = = Battle for Henderson Field = = =
Between 1 and 17 October , the Japanese delivered 15 @,@ 000 troops to Guadalcanal , giving Hyakutake 20 @,@ 000 total troops to employ for his planned offensive . Because of the loss of their positions on the east side of the Matanikau , the Japanese decided that an attack on the U.S. defenses along the coast would be prohibitively difficult . Thus , after observation of the American defenses around Lunga Point by his staff officers , Hyakutake decided that the main thrust of his planned attack would be from south of Henderson Field . His 2nd Division ( augmented by troops from the 38th Division ) — under Lieutenant General Masao Maruyama and comprising 7 @,@ 000 soldiers in three infantry regiments of three battalions each — was ordered to march through the jungle and attack the American defenses from the south near the east bank of the Lunga River . The 2nd Division was split into three units ; the Left Wing Unit under Major General Yumio Nasu containing the 29th Infantry Regiment , the Right Wing Unit under Major General Kiyotake Kawaguchi consisting of troops from the 230th Infantry Regiment ( from the 38th Infantry Division ) , and the division reserve led by Maruyama comprising the 16th Infantry Regiment .
On 23 October , Maruyama 's forces struggled through the jungle to reach the American lines . Kawaguchi — on his own initiative — began to shift his right wing unit to the east , believing that the American defenses were weaker in that area . Maruyama — through one of his staff officers — ordered Kawaguchi to keep to the original attack plan . When he refused , Kawaguchi was relieved of command and replaced by Colonel Toshinari Shōji , commander of the 230th Infantry Regiment . That evening , after learning that the left and right wing forces were still struggling to reach the American lines , Hyakutake postponed the attack to 19 : 00 on 24 October . The Americans remained completely unaware of the approach of Maruyama 's forces .
Finally , late on October 24 Maruyama 's forces reached the U.S. Lunga perimeter . Over two consecutive nights Maruyama 's forces conducted numerous , unsuccessful frontal assaults on positions defended by troops of the 1st Battalion , 7th Marines ( 1 / 7 ) under Lieutenant Colonel Chesty Puller and the U.S. Army 's 3rd Battalion , 164th Infantry Regiment , commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Robert Hall . U.S. Marine and Army rifle , machine gun , mortar , artillery and direct canister fire from 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 46 in ) anti @-@ tank guns " wrought terrible carnage " on the Japanese . More than 1 @,@ 500 of Maruyama 's troops were killed in the attacks while the Americans lost about 60 killed . Shōji 's right wing units did not participate in the attacks , choosing instead to remain in place to cover Nasu 's right flank against a possible attack in that area by U.S. forces that never materialized .
At 08 : 00 on 26 October , Hyakutake called off any further attacks and ordered his forces to retreat . Maruyama 's left wing and division reserve survivors were ordered to retreat back to the Matanikau River area while the right wing unit under Shōji was told to head for Koli Point , 13 mi ( 21 km ) east of the Lunga River .
To provide support for the right wing units ( now called the Shōji Detachment ) marching towards Koli , the Japanese dispatched a Tokyo Express run for the night of 2 November to land 300 fresh troops from a previously uncommitted company of the 230th Infantry Regiment , two 75 mm ( 2 @.@ 95 in ) mountain guns , provisions , and ammunition at Koli Point . American radio intelligence intercepted Japanese communications concerning this effort and the Marine command on Guadalcanal determined to try to intercept it . With many of the American units currently involved in an operation west of the Matanikau , Vandgrift could spare only one battalion . The 2nd Battalion , 7th Marine Regiment ( 2 / 7 ) — commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Herman H. Hanneken — marched east from Lunga Point at 06 : 50 on 2 November and reached Koli Point after dark the same day . After crossing the Metapona River at its mouth , Hanneken deployed his troops along 2 @,@ 000 yd ( 1 @,@ 800 m ) in the woods facing the beach to await the arrival of the Japanese ships .
= = Action = =
Early on the morning of 3 November , the five Japanese destroyers on the express run arrived at Koli Point and began to unload their cargoes and troops about 1 @,@ 000 yd ( 910 m ) east of Hanneken 's battalion . Hanneken 's force remained concealed and attempted in vain to contact their headquarters by radio to report the landing . At dawn , after a Japanese patrol discovered the Marines , both adversaries began to engage each other with mortar , machine gun , and small arms fire . Soon after , the Japanese unlimbered and began to fire the two mountain guns that they had landed during the night . Hanneken , still unable to contact his headquarters to request support and now taking casualties plus running low on ammunition , decided to retreat . Hanneken 's battalion withdrew by bounds , recrossing the Metapona and then the Nalimbiu River 5 @,@ 000 yd ( 4 @,@ 600 m ) further west , where Hanneken was finally able to establish contact with his superiors at 14 : 45 to report his situation .
In addition to Hanneken 's report of sizable Japanese forces at Koli Point , Vandegrift 's staff also possessed a captured Japanese document that outlined a plan to land the remainder of the 38th Infantry Division at Koli to attack the Marine Lunga defenses from the east . Unaware that the Japanese had abandoned the plan , Vandegrift decided that the threat from Koli Point needed to be dealt with immediately . Thus , he ordered most of the Marine units currently engaged west of the Matanikau to return to Lunga Point . Puller 's battalion ( 1 / 7 ) was ordered to prepare to move to Koli Point by boat . The 2nd and 3rd Battalions of the 164th Infantry Regiment ( 2 / 164 and 3 / 164 ) prepared to march inland to the Nalimbiu River . The 3rd Battalion , 10th Marines began to move its 75 mm pack howitzers across the Ilu river to provide artillery support . Marine Brigadier General William Rupertus was placed in command of the operation .
At the same time that the U.S. forces were mobilizing , Shōji and his troops were beginning to reach Koli Point east of the Metapona River at Gavaga Creek . Late in the day , 31 CAF aircraft attacked Shōji 's forces , inflicting about 100 deaths and injuries on the Japanese . Some of the CAF aircraft also mistakenly attacked Hanneken 's men , causing several deaths and injuries to the Marines .
At 06 : 30 on 4 November , the 164th troops began their march towards Koli Point . Around the same time , Rupertus and Puller 's battalion landed at Koli Point near the mouth of the Nalimbiu River . Rupertus decided to wait for the army troops to arrive before attacking Shōji 's forces . Because of heat , humidity , and difficult terrain the 164th troops didn 't complete the 7 mi ( 11 km ) march to the Nalimbiu until nightfall . In the meantime , the U.S. Navy cruisers Helena , San Francisco , and destroyer Sterett bombarded Shōji 's positions with artillery fire , killing many officers and soldiers from the 9th and 10th Companies , 230th Infantry .
On the morning of 5 November , Rupertus ordered the 164th troops to cross to the east bank of the Nalimbiu and envelop the inland flank of any Japanese forces that might be facing Puller 's battalion . The two battalions crossed the river about 3 @,@ 500 yd ( 3 @,@ 200 m ) inland and pivoted north to advance along the east bank . The army troops encountered few Japanese but were greatly slowed by difficult terrain and stopped short of the coast for the night . That same day , the Japanese troops that had been landed by the warships on 3 November , made contact with and joined Shōji 's forces .
The next day , Puller 's battalion crossed the Nalimbiu as the 164th troops resumed their march towards the coast . On 7 November , the Marines and army units joined forces at the coast and pushed east to a point about 1 mi ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) west of the Metapona , where they dug in near the beach because of sightings of a Japanese Express run heading for Guadalcanal that might land reinforcements at Koli that night . The Japanese , however , successfully landed the reinforcements elsewhere on Guadalcanal that night and these reinforcements were not a factor in the Koli Point action .
Meanwhile , Hyakutake ordered Shōji to abandon his positions at Koli and rejoin Japanese forces at Kokumbona in the Matanikau area . To cover the withdrawal , a sizable portion of Shōji 's forces dug @-@ in and prepared to defend positions along Gavaga Creek near the village of Tetere , about 1 mi ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) east of the Metapona . The two mountain guns landed on 3 November — in combination with mortars — kept up a constant rate of fire on the advancing Americans . On 8 November , Puller 's and Hanneken 's battalions and the 164th soldiers attempted to surround Shōji 's forces by approaching Gavaga overland from the west and landing by boat near Tetere in the east . In action during the day , Puller was wounded several times and was evacuated . Rupertus , who was suffering from dengue fever , relinquished command of the operation to U.S. Army Brigadier General Edmund B. Sebree .
On 9 November , the U.S. troops continued with their attempt to encircle Shōji 's forces . On the west of Gavaga Creek , 1 / 7 and 2 / 164 extended their positions inland along the creek while 2 / 7 and other 164th troops took positions on the east side of Shōji 's positions . The Americans began to compress the pocket while subjecting it to constant bombardment by artillery , mortars , and aircraft . A gap , however , existed by way of a swampy creek in the southern side of the American lines , which 2 / 164 was supposed to have closed . Taking advantage of this route , Shōji 's men began to escape the pocket .
The Americans closed the gap in their lines on 11 November , but by then Shōji and between 2 @,@ 000 and 3 @,@ 000 of his men had escaped into the jungle to the south . On 12 November , Sebree 's forces completely overran and killed all the remaining Japanese soldiers left in the pocket . The Americans counted the bodies of 450 – 475 Japanese dead in the area and captured most of Shōji 's heavy weapons and provisions . The American forces suffered 40 killed and 120 wounded in the operation .
= = Aftermath = =
As Shōji 's forces began their march to rejoin the main body of Japanese forces west of the Matanikau River , the U.S. 2nd Marine Raider Battalion — under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Evans Carlson , which had been guarding an airfield construction effort underway at Aola Bay , 30 mi ( 48 km ) further east from Koli Point — set off in pursuit . Over the next month , with the aid of native scouts , Carlson 's raiders repeatedly attacked trailing elements and stragglers from Shōji 's forces , killing almost 500 of them . In addition , a lack of food and tropical diseases felled more of Shōji 's men . By the time the Japanese reached the Lunga River , about halfway to the Matanikau , only 1 @,@ 300 men remained with Shōji 's main body . Several days later , when Shōji reached the 17th Army positions west of the Matanikau , only 700 – 800 survivors were still with him . Survivors from Shōji 's force later participated in the Battle of Mount Austen , the Galloping Horse , and the Sea Horse in December 1942 and January 1943 .
Speaking of the Koli Point action , U.S. Sergeant ( later Brigadier General ) John E. Stannard , who participated as a member of the 164th Regiment , stated that the battle for Koli Point was " the most complex land operation , other than the original landing , that the Americans had conducted on Guadalcanal up to that time . " He added , " The Americans learned once again that offensive operations against the Japanese were much more complicated and difficult than was defeating banzai charges . " The Americans later abandoned the attempt to construct an airfield at Aola . Instead , the Aola construction units moved to Koli Point where they successfully built an auxiliary airfield beginning on 3 December 1942 .
The next major Japanese reinforcement effort failed during the Naval Battle of Guadalcanal , undertaken as Shōji and his troops struggled to reach friendly lines near the Matanikau . Although most of Shōji 's troops had escaped from Koli Point , the inability of the Japanese to keep their forces on Guadalcanal adequately supplied or reinforced prevented them from contributing effectively to what turned out to be Japan 's ultimately unsuccessful effort to hold the island or retake Henderson Field from Allied forces .
= = = Books = = =
Dull , Paul S. ( 1978 ) . A Battle History of the Imperial Japanese Navy , 1941 – 1945 . Naval Institute Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 87021 @-@ 097 @-@ 1 .
Frank , Richard ( 1990 ) . Guadalcanal : The Definitive Account of the Landmark Battle . New York : Random House . ISBN 0 @-@ 394 @-@ 58875 @-@ 4 .
Griffith , Samuel B. ( 1963 ) . The Battle for Guadalcanal . Champaign , Illinois , USA : University of Illinois Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 252 @-@ 06891 @-@ 2 .
Hammel , Eric ( 2007 ) . Guadalcanal : The U.S. Marines in World War II . St. Paul , Minnesota , USA : Zenith Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 7603 @-@ 3148 @-@ 0 .
Jersey , Stanley Coleman ( 2008 ) . Hell 's Islands : The Untold Story of Guadalcanal . College Station , Texas : Texas A & M University Press . ISBN 1 @-@ 58544 @-@ 616 @-@ 5 .
Morison , Samuel Eliot ( 1958 ) . The Struggle for Guadalcanal , August 1942 – February 1943 , vol . 5 of History of United States Naval Operations in World War II . Boston : Little , Brown and Company . ISBN 0 @-@ 316 @-@ 58305 @-@ 7 .
Rottman , Gordon L. ( 2005 ) . Japanese Army in World War II : The South Pacific and New Guinea , 1942 – 43 . Dr. Duncan Anderson ( consultant editor ) . Oxford and New York : Osprey . ISBN 1 @-@ 84176 @-@ 870 @-@ 7 .
Smith , Michael T. ( 2000 ) . Bloody Ridge : The Battle That Saved Guadalcanal . New York : Pocket . ISBN 0 @-@ 7434 @-@ 6321 @-@ 8 .
= = = Web = = =
Anderson , Charles R. ( 1993 ) . Guadalcanal . The U.S. Army Campaigns in World War II . United States Army Center of Military History . CMH Pub 72 @-@ 8 . Retrieved 2006 @-@ 07 @-@ 09 .
Hough , Frank O. ; Ludwig , Verle E. ; Shaw , Henry I. , Jr . " Pearl Harbor to Guadalcanal " . History of U.S. Marine Corps Operations in World War II . Retrieved 2006 @-@ 05 @-@ 16 . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link )
Miller , John Jr . ( 1995 ) [ 1949 ] . Guadalcanal : The First Offensive . United States Army in World War II ( Washington , D.C. : United States Army Center of Military History ) . CMH Pub 5 @-@ 3 . Retrieved 2006 @-@ 07 @-@ 04 .
Shaw , Henry I. ( 1992 ) . " First Offensive : The Marine Campaign For Guadalcanal " . Marines in World War II Commemorative Series . Retrieved 2006 @-@ 07 @-@ 25 .
Zimmerman , John L. ( 1949 ) . " The Guadalcanal Campaign " . Marines in World War II Historical Monograph . Retrieved 2006 @-@ 07 @-@ 04 .
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= British Commandos =
The British Commandos were formed during the Second World War in June 1940 , following a request from the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom , Winston Churchill , for a force that could carry out raids against German @-@ occupied Europe . Initially drawn from within the British Army from soldiers who volunteered for the Special Service Brigade , the Commandos ' ranks would eventually be filled by members of all branches of the British Armed Forces and a number of foreign volunteers from German @-@ occupied countries .
Reaching a wartime strength of over 30 individual units and four assault brigades , the Commandos served in all theatres of war from the Arctic Circle to Europe and from the Mediterranean and Middle East to South @-@ East Asia . Their operations ranged from small groups of men landing from the sea or by parachute to a brigade of assault troops spearheading the Allied invasions of Europe and Asia .
After the war most Commando units were disbanded , leaving just the Royal Marines 3 Commando Brigade . However , the present day Royal Marine Commandos , Parachute Regiment , Special Air Service , and Special Boat Service can all trace their origins to the original Commandos . The Second World War Commando legacy also extends to mainland Europe and the United States : the French Naval commandos , Dutch Korps Commandotroepen , Belgian Paracommando Brigade and the United States Army Rangers were all influenced to some degree by the British Commandos .
= = Formation = =
The British Commandos were a formation of the British Armed Forces organized for special service in June 1940 . After the events leading to the British Expeditionary Force 's ( BEF ) evacuation from Dunkirk , after the disastrous Battle of France , Winston Churchill , the British Prime Minister , called for a force to be assembled and equipped to inflict casualties on the Germans and bolster British morale . Churchill told the joint chiefs of staff to propose measures for an offensive against German @-@ occupied Europe , and stated : " they must be prepared with specially trained troops of the hunter class who can develop a reign of terror down the enemy coast . " One staff officer , Lieutenant Colonel Dudley Clarke , had already submitted such a proposal to General Sir John Dill , the Chief of the Imperial General Staff . Dill , aware of Churchill 's intentions , approved Clarke 's proposal and on 23 June 1940 , the first Commando raid took place .
The request for volunteers for special service was initially restricted to serving Army soldiers within certain formations still in Britain , and from men of the disbanding divisional Independent Companies originally raised from Territorial Army divisions who had served in the Norwegian Campaign .
By the autumn of 1940 more than 2 @,@ 000 men had volunteered and in November 1940 these new units were organised into a Special Service Brigade consisting of four battalions under the command of Brigadier J. C. Haydon . The Special Service Brigade was quickly expanded to 12 units which became known as Commandos . Each Commando had a lieutenant colonel as the commanding officer and numbered around 450 men ( divided into 75 man troops that were further divided into 15 man sections ) . Technically these men were only on secondment to the Commandos ; they retained their own regimental cap badges and remained on the regimental roll for pay . The Commando force came under the operational control of the Combined Operations Headquarters . The man initially selected as the commander of Combined Operations was Admiral Roger Keyes , a veteran of the Gallipoli Campaign and the Zeebrugge Raid in the First World War . Keyes resigned in October 1941 and was replaced by Vice Admiral Lord Louis Mountbatten . Major @-@ General Robert Laycock was the last Commander of Combined Operations ; he took over from Mountbatten in October 1943 .
= = Organisation = =
= = = Commando units = = =
The Commando units formed in the United Kingdom were : No. 1 , No. 2 , No. 3 , No. 4 , No. 5 , No. 6 , No. 7 , No. 8 ( Guards ) , No. 9 , No. 10 ( Inter @-@ Allied ) , No. 11 ( Scottish ) , No. 12 , No. 14 ( Arctic ) , No. 30 , and No. 62 Commando . At the same time there were four Commando units formed in the Middle East : No. 50 , No. 51 , No , 52 , and the Middle East Commando . The No. 10 ( Inter @-@ Allied ) Commando was formed from volunteers from the occupied territories and enemy aliens . It was the largest Commando unit formed , and contained troops from France , Belgium , Poland , Norway , the Netherlands , and No. 3 ( X ) Troop . The No. 3 ( X ) Troop consisted of enemy aliens ; it was also known as the English , Jewish , or British troop and was officially renamed the Miscellaneous Troop in 1944 . Most of the troop had German , Austrian , or Eastern European backgrounds , while others were political or religious refugees from Nazi Germany .
Some Commandos were designated for different tasks from the start . No. 2 Commando was always intended to be a parachute unit . In June 1940 they began parachute training and were re @-@ designated the 11th Special Air Service ( SAS ) Battalion , which eventually became the 1st Parachute Battalion . After their re @-@ designation a new No. 2 Commando was formed . Other Commandos were grouped together in a larger formation known as Layforce and sent to the Middle East . The Special Air Service and the Special Boat Squadron were formed from the survivors of Layforce . The men of No. 14 ( Arctic ) Commando were specially trained for operations in the Arctic Circle and specialised in using small boats and canoes to attack shipping . The joint service unit No. 30 Commando was formed for intelligence gathering . Its members were trained in the recognition of enemy documents , search techniques , safe cracking , prisoner handling , photography , and escape techniques . No. 62 Commando or the Small Scale Raiding Force was a small 55 – man unit under the operational control of the Special Operations Executive ( SOE ) . They carried out raids planned by SOE such as Operation Postmaster on the Spanish island of Fernando Po off the coast of West Africa .
In February 1941 the Commandos were reorganized in accordance with a new war establishment . Each Commando unit now consisted of a Headquarters and six troops ( instead of the previous 10 ) . Each troop would comprise three officers and 62 other ranks ; this number was set so each troop would fit into two Assault Landing Craft . The new formation also meant that two complete Commando units could be carried in the ' Glen ' type landing ship and one unit in the ' Dutch ' type landing ship . The motor transport issued to each commando consisted of one car for the commanding officer , 12 motorcycles ( six with sidecars ) , two 15 hundredweight ( cwt ) trucks , and one 3 @-@ ton truck . These vehicles were only provided for administration and training and were not intended to accompany the men on operations .
In February 1942 the Royal Marines were tasked to organise Commando units of their own . In total nine Commando units were formed by the Royal Marines : No. 40 , No. 41 , No. 42 , No. 43 , No. 44 , No. 45 , No. 46 , No. 47 and the last , No. 48 , which was only formed in 1944 . In 1943 two other Commando units were formed . The first was the Royal Naval Commandos , who were established to carry out tasks associated with establishing , maintaining , and controlling beachheads during amphibious operations . The other was the Royal Air Force Commandos , who would accompany an invasion force either to make enemy airfields serviceable , or to make new airstrips operational and contribute to their defence .
= = = 1943 reorganization = = =
In 1943 , the formation of the Commando unit was changed . Each Commando now consisted of a small headquarters group , five fighting troops , a heavy weapons troop , and a signals platoon . The fighting troops consisted of 65 men of all ranks divided into two 30 – man sections which were subdivided into three 10 – man subsections . The heavy weapons troop was made up of 3 @-@ inch mortar and Vickers machine gun teams . The Commandos were provided with the motor transport needed to accompany them on operations . Their transport now consisted of the commanding officer 's car , 15 motorcycles ( six with side cars ) , ten 15 cwt trucks , and three 3 @-@ ton trucks . The heavy weapons troop had seven Jeeps and trailers and one Jeep for each of the fighting troops and the headquarters . This gave them enough vehicles of their own to accommodate two fighting troops , the heavy weapons troop , and the Commando Headquarters .
By now the Commandos started to move away from smaller raiding operations . They were formed into four brigades to spearhead future Allied landing operations . The previous Special Service Brigade Headquarters was replaced by Headquarters Special Services Group under command of Major General Robert Sturges . Of the remaining 20 Commando units , 17 were used in the formation of the four Special Service brigades . The three remaining Commandos ( Nos. 12 , 14 , and 62 ) were left out of the brigade structure to concentrate on smaller scale raids . The increased tempo of operations , together with a shortage of volunteers and the need to provide replacements for casualties , forced their disbandment by the end of 1943 . The small scale raiding role was then given to the two French troops of No. 10 ( Inter @-@ Allied ) Commando .
From 1944 the Operational Holding Commando Headquarters was formed . It was responsible for two sub – units : the Army and Royal Marines Holding Commando Wings . Both units had an establishment of five troops and a heavy weapons troop of fully trained commandos . The men in these troops were to provide individual or complete troop replacements for the Commando units in the field . In December 1944 , the four Special Service brigades were re @-@ designated as Commando brigades .
= = Training = =
When the Commando units were originally formed in 1940 , training was the responsibility of the unit commanding officers . Training was hampered by the general shortage of equipment throughout the British Army at this time , as most arms and equipment had been left behind at Dunkirk . In December 1940 a Middle East Commando depot was formed with the responsibility of training and supplying reinforcements for the Commando units in that theatre . In February 1942 the Commando training depot at Achnacarry in the Scottish Highlands was established by Brigadier Charles Haydon . Under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Charles Vaughan , the Commando depot was responsible for training complete units and individual replacements . The training regime was for the time innovative and physically demanding , and far in advance of normal British Army training . The depot staff were all hand picked , with the ability to outperform any of the volunteers . Training and assessment started immediately on arrival , with the volunteers having to complete an 8 @-@ mile ( 13 km ) march with all their equipment from the Spean Bridge railway station to the commando depot . When they arrived they were met by Vaughan , who stressed the physical demands of the course and that any man who failed to live up to the requirements would be ' returned to unit ' ( RTU ) .
Exercises were conducted using live ammunition and explosives to make training as realistic as possible . Physical fitness was a prerequisite , with cross country runs and boxing matches to improve fitness . Speed and endurance marches were conducted up and down the nearby mountain ranges and over assault courses that included a zip @-@ line over Loch Arkaig , all while carrying arms and full equipment . Training continued by day and night with river crossings , mountain climbing , weapons training , unarmed combat , map reading , and small boat operations on the syllabus . Living conditions were primitive in the camp , with trainees housed either under canvas in tents or in Nissen huts and they were responsible for cooking their own meals . Correct military protocols were enforced : Officers were saluted and uniforms had to be clean , with brasses and boots shining on parade . At the end of each course the final exercise was a simulated night beach landing using live ammunition .
Another smaller Commando depot , known as the Commando Mountain and Snow Warfare training camp , was established at Braemar . This camp was run by two famous mountaineers : the depot commander Squadron Leader Frank Smythe and chief instructor Major John Hunt . The depot provided training for operations in Arctic conditions , with instruction in climbing snow @-@ covered mountains , cliff climbing , and small boat and canoe handling . Training was conducted in how to live , fight , and move on foot or on skis in snowy conditions .
A major change in the training programme occurred in 1943 . From that point on training concentrated more on the assault infantry role and less on raiding operations . Training now included how to call for fire support from artillery and naval gunfire , and how to obtain tactical air support from the Allied air forces . More emphasis was put on joint training , with two or more Commando units working together in brigades . By the end of the war 25 @,@ 000 men had passed through the Commando course at Achnacarry . This total includes not only the British volunteers , but volunteers from Belgium , France , Netherlands , Norway , Poland , and the United States Army Rangers , which were modelled on the Commandos .
= = = Weapons and equipment = = =
As a raiding force , the Commandos were not issued the heavy weapons of a normal infantry battalion . The weapons used were the standard British Army small arms of the time ; most riflemen carried the Lee – Enfield rifle and section fire support was provided by the Bren light machine gun . The Thompson was the submachine gun of choice , but later in the war the Commandos also used the cheaper and lighter Sten gun . Commando sections were equipped with a higher number of Bren and Thompson guns than a normal British infantry section . The Webley Revolver was initially used as the standard sidearm , but it was eventually replaced by the Colt 45 pistol , which used the same ammunition as the Thompson submachine gun . One weapon specifically designed for the Commandos was the De Lisle carbine . Modelled on the Lee – Enfield rifle and fitted with a silencer , it used the same .45 cartridge as the Thompson and was designed to eliminate sentries during Commando raids . Some were used and proved successful on operations , but the nature of the Commando role had changed before they were put into full production and the order for their purchase was cancelled . The Fairbairn @-@ Sykes Fighting Knife was designed especially for Commandos ' use in hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat , although a whole range of clubs and knives were used in the field . Some of the heavier and crew – served weapons used included the Boys anti @-@ tank rifle and the 2 @-@ inch mortar for indirect fire support . After 1943 , the Projector , Infantry , Anti Tank , known as the PIAT , replaced the now obsolete Boys anti @-@ tank rifle . With the formation of the heavy weapons troops , Commandos were issued the 3 @-@ inch mortar and the Vickers machine gun . The issue of the medium Vickers machine gun to Commando units set them apart from typical British Army infantry divisions , who tended to only employ the weapon in specialist machine gun battalions .
Initially the Commandos were indistinguishable from the rest of the British Army and volunteers retained their own regimental head @-@ dress and insignia . No. 2 Commando adopted Scottish head @-@ dress for all ranks and No. 11 ( Scottish ) Commando wore the Tam O 'Shanter with a black hackle . The official head @-@ dress of the Middle East Commandos was a bush hat with their own knuckleduster cap badge . This badge was modelled on their issue fighting knife ( the Mark I trench knife ) which had a knuckleduster for a handle . In 1942 the green Commando beret and the Combined Operations tactical recognition flash were adopted .
As the men were equipped for raiding operations and only lightly armed , they did not carry anti @-@ gas protective equipment or large packs , and the standard British steel helmet was replaced by a woollen cap comforter . Instead of heavy ammunition boots they wore lightweight rubber soled gym shoes that allowed them to move silently . All ranks carried a toggle rope , several of which could be linked together to form longer ropes for scaling cliffs or other obstacles . During boat operations an inflatable lifebelt was worn for safety . The Commandos were the first unit to adopt the Bergen rucksack to carry heavy loads of ammunition , explosives , and other demolition equipment . A battle jerkin was produced to wear over battledress and the airborne forces ' camouflaged Denison smock became standard issue for Commando forces later in the war .
= = Operations = =
The very first Commando raid – Operation Collar on 23 June 1940 – was not actually carried out by a Commando unit , but by one of their predecessors : No.11 Independent Company . The mission , led by Major Ronnie Tod , was an offensive reconnaissance carried out on the French coast south of Boulogne @-@ sur @-@ Mer and Le Touquet . The operation was a limited success ; at least two German soldiers were killed whilst the only British injury was a flesh wound suffered by Lieutenant Colonel Dudley Clarke , who had accompanied the raiders as an observer . A second and similarly inconsequential raid , Operation Ambassador , was made on the German occupied island of Guernsey on the night of 14 July 1940 by men from H Troop of No. 3 Commando and No. 11 Independent Company . One unit landed on the wrong island and another group disembarked from its launch into water so deep that it came over their heads . Intelligence had indicated that there was a large German barracks on the island but the Commandos found only empty buildings . When they returned to the beach heavy seas had forced their launch offshore , and they were forced to swim out to sea to be picked up .
The size of the raiding force depended on the objective . The smallest raid was conducted by two men from No. 6 Commando in Operation J V. The largest was the 10 @,@ 500 man Operation Jubilee . Most of the raids were scheduled to only last overnight although some , like Operation Gauntlet , were conducted over a number of days . In north west Europe there were 57 raids made between 1940 and 1944 . Of these 36 were against targets in France . There were 12 raids against Norway , seven raids in the Channel Islands , and single raids were made in Belgium and the Netherlands . The success of the raids varied ; Operation Chariot , the raid against dock installations at St Nazaire , has been hailed as the greatest raid of all time , but others , like Operation Aquatint and Operation Musketoon , resulted in the capture or death of all involved . The smaller raids ended in mid @-@ 1944 on the orders of Major General Robert Laycock , who suggested that they were no longer as effective and only resulted in the Germans strengthening their beach defences , something that could be extremely detrimental to Allied plans .
= = = Norway = = =
The first Commando raid in Norway , Operation Claymore , was conducted in March 1941 by men of No.s 3 and 4 Commandos . This was the first large scale raid from the United Kingdom during the war . Their objective was the undefended Norwegian Lofoten Islands . They successfully destroyed the fish @-@ oil factories , petrol dumps , and 11 ships , while capturing 216 Germans , encryption equipment , and codebooks .
In December 1941 there were two raids . The first was Operation Anklet , a raid on the Lofoten Islands by No. 12 Commando on 26 December . The German garrison was in the midst of their Christmas celebrations and was easily overcome ; the Commandos re @-@ embarked after two days . Operation Archery was a larger raid at Vågsøy Island . This raid involved men from Nos. 2 , 3 , 4 and 6 Commandos , a Royal Navy flotilla , and limited air support . The raid caused significant damage to factories , warehouses , and the German garrison , and sank eight ships . After this the Germans increased the garrison in Norway by an extra 30 @,@ 000 troops , upgraded coastal and inland defences , and sent a number of capital ships to the area .
In September 1942 men from No. 2 Commando took part in Operation Musketoon , a raid against the Glomfjord hydroelectric power plant . The Commandos were landed by submarine and succeeded in blowing up some pipelines , turbines , and tunnels . This effectively destroyed the generating station and the aluminium plant was shut down permanently . One Commando was killed in the raid and another seven were captured while trying to escape . They spent a short time at Colditz Castle before being transferred to Sachsenhausen concentration camp . Shortly after their arrival at Sachenhausen they were executed . They were the first victims of the secret Commando Order , which mandated the execution of all captured Commandos . The three remaining Commandos managed to reach Sweden and were eventually returned to No. 2 Commando .
In 1943 , the Norwegian Troop of No. 10 ( Inter @-@ Allied ) , No. 12 , and No. 14 ( Arctic ) Commandos assisted the Royal Navy in carrying out anti – shipping raids in Norwegian coastal waters . The Commandos provided extra firepower for the navy Motor Torpedo Boats when they were at sea and acted as a guard force when they were at anchor in the Norwegian fjords . In April 1943 , seven men of No. 14 ( Arctic ) Commando took part in a raid on German shipping near Haugesund code named Operation Checkmate . They managed to sink several ships using limpet mines , but were captured and eventually taken to Sachsenhausen and Bergen @-@ Belsen concentration camps , where they were executed .
The Germans responded to the numerous raids directed at Norway by increasing the number of troops stationed there . By 1944 the garrison had risen to 370 @,@ 000 men . In comparison , a British infantry division in 1944 had an establishment of 18 @,@ 347 men .
= = = Channel Islands = = =
There were seven Commando missions carried out on the Channel Islands . Operation Ambassador was the first and largest of these , employing 140 men from No. 3 Commando and No. 11 Independent Company in a night raid on 14 July 1940 . Later raids were much smaller ; only 12 men of No. 62 Commando took part in Operation Dryad in September 1942 , when they captured seven prisoners and located several German codebooks . Operation Branford , a reconnaissance mission that aimed to identify a suitable gun position to support future raids on Alderney , followed only days later . In October of that year 12 men from No.s 12 and 62 Commandos took part in Operation Basalt , a raid on Sark that saw four Germans killed and one taken prisoner .
All the other Channel Islands raids were less successful . In January 1943 , Operation Huckabuck , a raid on Herm , was a failure . After three attempts to scale the islands cliffs the Commandos finally reached the top , but there were no signs of any German occupation troops or of the island 's population . The next raids were Operations Hardtack 28 and Hardtack 7 in December 1943 . The Hardtack 28 raid on Jersey ended in failure when two men were killed and one wounded after they walked into a minefield . The exploding mines alerted the German garrison and the Commandos had to abandon the operation . In Hardtack 7 the Commandos had returned to Sark , but had to abandon the operation and return to England when they were unable to scale the island 's cliffs .
= = = Mediterranean = = =
During 1941 , the Middle East Commandos and Layforce were tasked to carry out a campaign of harassment and dislocation against enemy forces in the Mediterranean . At the time that Layforce was raised , the British had the ascendency in the theatre , as they had largely defeated the Italians . It was felt that the Commandos could be employed in the capture of the island of Rhodes . However , the arrival of the Afrika Korps in Cyrenaica and the invasion of Yugoslavia and Greece greatly changed the strategic outlook . By the time Layforce arrived in Egypt in March the situation had become dire . The deployment of forces to Greece meant that the Commandos became the only troops in general reserve . As the strategic situation worsened , it became increasingly difficult to employ them in the manner intended , as they were called upon as reinforcements to the rest of the army .
In May 1941 the majority of Layforce were sent as reinforcements to the Battle of Crete . Almost as soon as they landed it was decided that they could not be employed in an offensive role and would instead be used to cover the withdrawal route towards the south . They were ill equipped for this type of operation , as they were lacking in indirect fire support weapons such as mortars or artillery ; they were armed mainly with rifles and a few Bren light machine guns . By 31 May the evacuation was drawing to a close and the commandos , running low on ammunition , rations , and water , fell back towards Sphakia . In the end , the vast majority of the commandos were left behind on the island , becoming prisoners of war . About 600 of the 800 commandos that had been sent to Crete were listed as killed , missing , or wounded ; only 179 commandos managed to get off the island . In April 1941 men from No. 7 Commando took part in the Bardia raid , but by late July 1941 Layforce had been severely reduced in strength . Reinforcements were unlikely given the circumstances . The operational difficulties that had been exposed during the Bardia raid , combined with the inability of the high command to fully embrace the Commando concept , had largely served to make the force ineffective . The decision was made to disband Layforce .
In November 1942 , No. 1 and No. 6 Commandos formed part of the spearhead for Allied landings in Algeria as part of Operation Torch . Tensions were high between the British and the Vichy French at this time because of a number of clashes like the Attack on Mers @-@ el @-@ Kébir . As a result , the decision was made for the Commandos to be equipped with American weapons and uniforms in an effort to placate the defenders . The Tunisia Campaign followed the Torch landings . No. 1 and No. 6 Commandos were involved in the first battle of Sedjenane between February and March 1943 . Both Commando units remained in theatre until April , when the decision was made to withdraw them from the fighting in North Africa . Lacking the administrative support and reinforcements of regular infantry units , the strength of the two units had fallen and they were no longer considered effective .
In May 1943 a Special Service Brigade comprising No. 2 , No. 3 , No. 40 ( RM ) , and No. 41 ( RM ) Commandos was sent to the Mediterranean to take part in the Allied invasion of Sicily . The two Royal Marines Commandos were the first into action , landing ahead of the main force . The 2nd Special Service Brigade serving in the Italian campaign was joined in November 1943 by the Belgian and Polish Troops of No. 10 ( Inter @-@ Allied ) Commando . The Polish troop captured a German occupied village on its own when the 2 / 6th Battalion Queen 's Regiment failed to reach a rendezvous on time . On 2 April 1945 the whole of the now named 2nd Commando Brigade were engaged in Operation Roast at Comacchio lagoon in north east Italy . This was the first major action of the big spring offensive to push the Germans back across the River Po and out of Italy . After a fierce three @-@ day battle the Commandos succeeded in clearing the spit separating the lagoon from the Adriatic and secured the flank of the 8th Army . This fostered the idea that the main offensive would be along the coast and not though the Argenta Gap . Major Anders Lassen ( Special Air Service ) and Corporal Thomas Peck Hunter No. 43 ( Royal Marine ) Commando were each awarded a posthumous Victoria Cross for their actions during Operation Roast .
= = = France = = =
There were 36 Commando raids targeted against France between 1940 – 1944 , mostly small affairs involving between 10 and 25 men . Some of the larger raids involved one or more commando units . In March 1942 , No. 2 Commando plus demolition experts from seven other Commando units took part in Operation Chariot , also known as the St. Nazaire Raid . The destroyer HMS Campbeltown , accompanied by 18 smaller ships , sailed into St. Nazaire where Campbeltown was rammed directly into the Normandie dock gates . The Commandos engaged the German forces and destroyed the dock facilities . Eight hours later , delayed @-@ action fuses set off the explosives in the Campbeltown , which wrecked the dock gates and killed some 360 Germans and French . A total of 611 soldiers and sailors took part in Chariot ; 169 were killed and 200 ( most wounded ) taken prisoner . Only 242 men returned . Of the 241 Commandos who took part 64 were killed or missing and 109 captured . Lieutenant Colonel Augustus Charles Newman and Sergeant Thomas Durrant of the Commandos , plus three members of the Royal Navy , were awarded the Victoria Cross . Eighty others received decorations for gallantry .
On 19 August 1942 a major landing took place at the French coastal town of Dieppe . The main force was provided by the 2nd Canadian Infantry Division , supported by No. 3 and No. 4 Commandos . The mission of No. 3 Commando was to neutralize a German coastal battery near Berneval that was in a position to fire upon the landing at Dieppe . The landing craft carrying No. 3 Commando ran into a German coastal convoy . Only a handful of commandos , under the second in command Major Peter Young , landed and scaled the barbed wire laced cliffs . Eventually 18 Commandos reached the perimeter of the battery via Berneval and engaged the target with small arms fire . Although unable to destroy the guns , they prevented the Germans from firing effectively on the main assault by harassing their gun crews with sniper fire . In a subsidiary operation No. 4 Commando landed in force along with the French Troop No. 10 ( Inter @-@ Allied ) Commando and 50 United States Army Rangers and destroyed the artillery battery at Varengeville . Most of No. 4 Commando safely returned to England . Captain Patrick Porteous of No. 4 Commando was awarded the Victoria Cross for his actions during the raid .
During the Normandy landings of 6 June 1944 two Special Service Brigades were deployed . The 1st Special Service Brigade landed behind the British 3rd Infantry Division on Sword Beach . Their main objective was to fight through to the 6th Airborne Division that had landed overnight and was holding the northern flank and the bridges over the Orne River . The Commandos cleared the town of Ouistreham and headed for the bridges , about 10 miles ( 16 km ) away . Arriving at the Pegasus Bridge , the Commandos fought on the left flank of the Orne bridgehead until they were ordered to withdraw . The brigade remained in Normandy for ten weeks , sustaining 1 @,@ 000 casualties , including the brigade commander , Brigadier Lord Lovat . The all Royal Marines 4th Special Service Brigade was also involved in the Normandy landings . No. 48 Commando landed on the left flank of Juno Beach and No. 41 Commando landed on the right flank of Sword Beach and then assaulted Lion @-@ sur @-@ Mer . No. 48 Commando landed in front of the St. Aubin @-@ sur @-@ Mer strong point and lost forty percent of its men . The last 4th Brigade unit ashore was No. 47 Commando , which landed on Gold Beach near the town of Asnells . Five of the Landing Craft Assault carrying them ashore were sunk by mines and beach obstacles , which resulted in the loss of 76 of their 420 men . These losses delayed their advance to their primary objective , the port of Port @-@ en @-@ Bessin , which they captured the following day .
= = = Netherlands = = =
The Battle of the Scheldt started 1 November 1944 , with 4th Special Service Brigade assigned to carry out a seaborne assault on the island of Walcheren . The plan was for the island to be attacked from two directions , with the Commandos coming by sea and the Canadian 2nd Division and the 52nd ( Lowland ) Division attacking across the causeway . No. 4 Commando landed at Flushing and No. 41 and 48 at Westkapelle . No. 47 Commando was held in reserve and landed after No.s 41 and 48 . They were to advance past No. 48 Commando and attempt to link up with No. 4 Commando in the south . On the first day No. 41 captured an artillery observation tower at Westkapelle and cleared the rest of the town . They then moved along the coast and dealt with the coastal defence installations .
No. 48 Commando quickly captured a radar station and then advanced on a gun battery south of Westkapelle , which was captured before nightfall . On 2 November No. 47 Commando advanced through No. 48 Commando to attack a gun battery at Zouteland . The attack failed , with the unit suffering heavy casualties , including all the rifle troop commanders . The next day No. 47 , supported by No. 48 Commando , again attacked the Zouteland gun battery . This time they managed to continue the advance and link up with No. 4 Commando . The capture of these batteries allowed the navy to start sweeping the channel into Antwerp for mines . On 5 November , No. 41 Commando captured the gun battery north east of Domburg ; this left only one battery still under German control . The brigade regrouped and concentrated its assault on the last position . Just before the attack began on 9 November , the 4 @,@ 000 men in the battery surrendered . This was quickly followed by the surrender of the rest of the island 's garrison .
= = = Germany = = =
In January 1945 the 1st Commando Brigade were involved in Operation Blackcock , where Lance Corporal Henry Harden of the Royal Army Medical Corps , attached to No. 45 ( Royal Marine ) Commando was awarded the Victoria Cross .
The 1st Commando Brigade next took part in Operation Plunder , the crossing of the Rhine River in March 1945 . After a heavy artillery bombardment on the evening of 23 March 1945 , the brigade carried out the initial assault under cover of darkness with the 15th ( Scottish ) Division and the 51st ( Highland ) Division . The Germans had moved most of their reserve troops to the Ludendorff Bridge at Remagen , which had just been captured by the U.S. 9th Armored Division . The Commandos crossed the Rhine at a point 2 @-@ mile ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) west of Wesel . Their crossing was unopposed and the brigade headed to the outskirts of Wesel . Here they waited until a raid of 200 bombers of the Royal Air Force finished their attack , during which over 1 @,@ 000 tons of bombs were dropped . Moving into the city just after midnight , the Commandos met resistance from defenders organised around an anti @-@ aircraft division . It was not until 25 March that all resistance ended and the brigade declared the city taken .
= = = Burma = = =
During the Burma Campaign in 1944 – 1945 , the 3rd Commando Brigade participated in several coastal landings of the Southern Front offensive . These landings culminated in the battle of Hill 170 at Kangaw . Here Lieutenant George Knowland of No. 1 Commando was awarded a posthumous Victoria Cross . The Commandos ' victory in the 36 @-@ hour battle for Hill 170 cut off the escape of the 54th Japanese Division . Further amphibious landings by the 25th Indian Infantry Division and the overland advance of the 82nd ( West Africa ) Division made the Japanese position in the Arakan untenable . A general withdrawal was ordered to avoid the complete destruction of the Twenty @-@ Eighth Japanese Army . The Commando brigade was then withdrawn to India in preparation for Operation Zipper , the planned invasion of Malaya . The Zipper landings were not needed due to the Japanese surrender so the brigade was sent to Hong Kong for policing duties instead .
= = Legacy = =
At the end of the Second World War all the British Army , Royal Navy , Royal Air Force , and some Royal Marines Commandos were disbanded , leaving only three Royal Marines Commandos and one brigade ( with supporting Army elements ) . As of 2010 the British Commando force is 3 Commando Brigade , which consists of both Royal Marines and British Army components , as well as commando @-@ trained personnel from the Royal Navy and Royal Air Force . Other units of the British armed forces that can trace their origins to the British Commandos of the Second World War are the Parachute Regiment , the Special Air Service , and the Special Boat Service .
Of the Western nations represented in No. 10 ( Inter @-@ Allied ) Commando only Norway did not develop a Commando force . The French troops were the predecessors of the Naval commandos . The Dutch Troops were the predecessors of the Korps Commandotroepen and the Belgian Troops were the predecessors of the Paracommando Brigade . The 1st Battalion of the United States Army Rangers were also influenced by the British Commandos . Their first volunteers were from troops stationed in Northern Ireland , who were sent to train at the Commando depot at Achnacarry . However , subsequent Ranger battalions were formed and trained independent of British influence .
The men serving with the Commandos were awarded 479 decorations during the war . This includes eight Victoria Crosses awarded to all ranks . Officers were awarded 37 Distinguished Service Orders with nine bars for a second award and 162 Military Crosses with 13 bars . Other ranks were awarded 32 Distinguished Conduct Medals and 218 Military Medals . In 1952 the Commando Memorial was unveiled by the Queen Mother . It is now a Category A listed monument in Scotland , dedicated to the men of the original British Commando Forces raised during Second World War . Situated around a mile from Spean Bridge village , it overlooks the training areas of the Commando Training Depot established in 1942 at Achnacarry Castle .
= = Battle honours = =
In the British Army battle honours are awarded to regiments that have seen active service in a significant engagement or campaign , generally ( although not always ) one with a victorious outcome . The following battle honours were awarded to the British Commandos during the Second World War .
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= USS Arizona ( BB @-@ 39 ) =
USS Arizona was a Pennsylvania @-@ class battleship built for and by the United States Navy in the mid @-@ 1910s . Named in honor of the 48th state 's recent admission into the union , the ship was the second and last of the Pennsylvania class of " super @-@ dreadnought " battleships . Although commissioned in 1916 , the ship remained stateside during World War I. Shortly after the end of the war , Arizona was one of a number of American ships that briefly escorted President Woodrow Wilson to the Paris Peace Conference . The ship was sent to Turkey in 1919 at the beginning of the Greco @-@ Turkish War to represent American interests for several months . Several years later , she was transferred to the Pacific Fleet and remained there for the rest of her career .
Aside from a comprehensive modernization in 1929 – 31 , Arizona was regularly used for training exercises between the wars , including the annual Fleet Problems ( training exercises ) . When an earthquake struck Long Beach , California , in 1933 , Arizona 's crew provided aid to the survivors . Two years later , the ship was featured in a Jimmy Cagney film , Here Comes the Navy , about the romantic troubles of a sailor . In April 1940 , she and the rest of the Pacific Fleet were transferred from California to Pearl Harbor , Hawaii , as a deterrent to Japanese imperialism .
During the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941 , Arizona was bombed . She exploded and sank , killing 1 @,@ 177 officers and crewmen . Unlike many of the other ships sunk or damaged that day , Arizona could not be fully salvaged , though the Navy removed parts of the ship for reuse . The wreck still lies at the bottom of Pearl Harbor and the USS Arizona Memorial , dedicated on 30 May 1962 to all those who died during the attack , straddles the ship 's hull .
= = Description = =
The Pennsylvania @-@ class ships were significantly larger than their predecessors , the Nevada class . Arizona had an overall length of 608 feet ( 185 @.@ 3 m ) , a beam of 97 feet ( 29 @.@ 6 m ) ( at the waterline ) , and a draft of 29 feet 3 inches ( 8 @.@ 9 m ) at deep load . This was 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) longer than the older ships . She displaced 29 @,@ 158 long tons ( 29 @,@ 626 t ) at standard and 31 @,@ 917 long tons ( 32 @,@ 429 t ) at deep load , over 4 @,@ 000 long tons ( 4 @,@ 060 t ) more than the older ships . The ship had a metacentric height of 7 @.@ 82 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) at deep load .
The ship had four direct @-@ drive Parsons steam turbine sets , each of which drove a propeller 12 feet 1 @.@ 5 inches ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) in diameter . They were powered by twelve Babcock & Wilcox water @-@ tube boilers . The turbines were designed to produce a total of 34 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 25 @,@ 000 kW ) , but only achieved 33 @,@ 376 shp ( 24 @,@ 888 kW ) during Arizona 's sea trials , when she met her designed speed of 21 knots ( 39 km / h ; 24 mph ) . However , she did manage to reach 21 @.@ 5 knots ( 39 @.@ 8 km / h ; 24 @.@ 7 mph ) during a full @-@ power trial in September 1924 . She was designed to normally carry 1 @,@ 548 long tons ( 1 @,@ 573 t ) of fuel oil , but had a maximum capacity of 2 @,@ 305 long tons ( 2 @,@ 342 t ) . At full capacity , the ship could steam at a speed of 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) for an estimated 7 @,@ 552 nautical miles ( 13 @,@ 990 km ; 8 @,@ 690 mi ) with a clean bottom . She had four 300 @-@ kilowatt ( 402 hp ) turbo generators .
Arizona carried twelve 45 @-@ caliber 14 @-@ inch guns in triple gun turrets . The turrets were numbered from I to IV from front to rear . The guns could not elevate independently and were limited to a maximum elevation of + 15 ° which gave them a maximum range of 21 @,@ 000 yards ( 19 @,@ 000 m ) . The ship carried 100 shells for each gun . Defense against torpedo boats was provided by twenty @-@ two 51 @-@ caliber five @-@ inch guns mounted in individual casemates in the sides of the ship 's hull . Positioned as they were they proved vulnerable to sea spray and could not be worked in heavy seas . At an elevation of 15 ° , they had a maximum range of 14 @,@ 050 yards ( 12 @,@ 850 m ) . Each gun was provided with 230 rounds of ammunition . The ship mounted four 50 @-@ caliber three @-@ inch guns for anti @-@ aircraft defense , although only two were fitted when completed . The other pair were added shortly afterward on top of Turret III . Arizona also mounted two 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedo tubes and carried 24 torpedoes for them .
The Pennsylvania @-@ class design continued the all @-@ or @-@ nothing principle of armoring only the most important areas of the ship begun in the Nevada class . The waterline armor belt of Krupp armor measured 13 @.@ 5 inches ( 343 mm ) thick and only covered the ship 's machinery spaces and magazines . It had a total height of 17 feet 6 inches ( 5 @.@ 3 m ) , of which 8 feet 9 @.@ 75 inches ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) was below the waterline ; beginning 2 feet 4 inches ( 0 @.@ 7 m ) below the waterline , the belt tapered to its minimum thickness of 8 inches ( 203 mm ) . The transverse bulkheads at each end of the ship ranged from 13 to 8 inches in thickness . The faces of the gun turrets were 18 inches ( 457 mm ) thick while the sides were 9 – 10 inches ( 229 – 254 mm ) thick and the turret roofs were protected by 5 inches ( 127 mm ) of armor . The armor of the barbettes was 18 to 4 @.@ 5 inches ( 457 to 114 mm ) thick . The conning tower was protected by 16 inches ( 406 mm ) of armor and had a roof eight inches thick .
The main armor deck was three plates thick with a total thickness of 3 inches ( 76 mm ) ; over the steering gear the armor increased to 6 @.@ 25 inches ( 159 mm ) in two plates . Beneath it was the splinter deck that ranged from 1 @.@ 5 to 2 inches ( 38 to 51 mm ) in thickness . The boiler uptakes were protected by a conical mantlet that ranged from 9 to 15 inches ( 230 to 380 mm ) in thickness . A three @-@ inch torpedo bulkhead was placed 9 feet 6 inches ( 2 @.@ 9 m ) inboard from the ship 's side and the ship was provided with a complete double bottom . Testing in mid @-@ 1914 revealed that this system could withstand 300 pounds ( 140 kg ) of TNT .
= = Construction and trials = =
The keel of battleship number 39 was laid on the morning of 16 March 1914 with Assistant Secretary of the Navy Franklin Delano Roosevelt in attendance . The builders intended to set a world @-@ record ten months between the ship 's keel @-@ laying and launch , for what the New York Times declared would be " the world 's biggest and most powerful , both offensively and defensively , superdreadnought ever constructed , " but the ship was only a little over half complete a year later . She was launched on 19 June 1915 , making it about fifteen months from keel @-@ laying to launch . In the meantime , the ship was named after the newest state in the union by Secretary of the Navy Josephus Daniels .
The New York Times estimated that 75 @,@ 000 people attended the launch , including John Purroy Mitchel , the mayor of New York City , George W. P. Hunt , the governor of Arizona , and many high @-@ ranking military officials . Several warships were also nearby , including many of the new dreadnoughts which had already entered service ( Florida , Utah , Wyoming , Arkansas , New York , and Texas ) . Esther Ross , the daughter of an Arizona pioneer family , was given the honors of ship sponsor and christening . To acknowledge a ban on alcohol recently passed by the state legislature , the state 's governor decided that two bottles would be used : one full of sparkling wine from Ohio , and another filled with water from the Roosevelt Dam . After the launch , Arizona was towed to the Brooklyn Navy Yard for fitting @-@ out .
Arizona was commissioned into the Navy on 17 October 1916 with John D. McDonald as captain . She departed New York on 10 November 1916 after the crew had cleaned the ship and the propulsion system had been tested at the dock . After declinating the ship 's magnetic compasses , the ship sailed south for her shakedown cruise . Outside Guantanamo Bay , a stripped turbine on 7 December forced the navy to order Arizona back to New York for repairs , although she was able to enter Chesapeake Bay to test her main and secondary gun batteries on 19 – 20 December . The turbine could not be repaired inside the ship , so the yard workers had to cut holes in the upper decks to lift the damaged casing out . It was reinstalled after almost four months of repairs at the naval yard .
= = World War I = =
Arizona left the yard on 3 April 1917 , and three days later , the United States declared war on Germany . Assigned to Battleship Division 8 operating out of the York River , Arizona was only employed as a gunnery training ship for the crewmen on armed merchant vessels crossing the Atlantic in convoys . Shortly after the war began , eight of her 5 @-@ inch guns ( the four guns farthest forward and the sternmost four guns ) were removed to equip merchant ships . When the ship sailed near the wreck of the old San Marcos ( ex @-@ Texas ) , the wreck was sometimes used as a target for the 14 @-@ inch guns . Arizona rarely ventured into the ocean for fear of U @-@ boats , and when she did , it was only in the company of other battleships and escort ships . Four coal @-@ fired American dreadnoughts were eventually sent across the Atlantic in December 1917 as Battleship Division Nine , but Arizona was not among them , as it was easier to obtain coal than oil in the United Kingdom . Life for Arizona 's crew was not all training as the race @-@ boat team from Arizona was able to win the Battenberg Cup in July 1918 by beating the team from Nevada by three lengths over the three @-@ mile course .
The fighting ended on 11 November 1918 with an armistice . A week later , the ship left the United States for the United Kingdom , arriving on 30 November 1918 . After two weeks berthed at Portland Harbor , Arizona sailed for France . On 13 December 1918 , Arizona joined nine battleships and twenty @-@ eight destroyers escorting President Woodrow Wilson on the ocean liner George Washington into Brest for one day on Wilson 's journey to the Paris Peace Conference . The ten battleships departed France the next day , taking less than two weeks to cross the Atlantic , and arrived in New York on 26 December to parades , celebrations , and a full naval review by Secretary Daniels . Arizona was the first in line and rendered a nineteen @-@ gun salute to Daniels . Along with many of the other members of the recently returned fleet , she was anchored off New York City for the next several weeks and open to the public .
= = 1920s = =
Arizona sailed from New York for Hampton Roads , where she arrived on 22 January , and she continued south to Guantanamo Bay not long after , arriving on 8 February . The time in Caribbean waters was mostly used in training for battles and fleet maneuvering , although it included a liberty visit to Port of Spain . In April , Arizona 's crew won the Battenberg Cup rowing competition for the second straight year before the ship was deployed to France once again to escort President Wilson back to the United States . While the ship was awaiting Wilson 's departure , she was redeployed to Smyrna ( now Izmir ) in Turkey in response to tensions between Greece and Italy over the awarding of Smyrna to Greece in the Paris Peace Treaty . The Greek and Italian governments had each deployed a major warship to the area ( Georgios Averof and Caio Duilio , respectively ) to enforce their interests . Shortly after Arizona arrived , Greek ground forces arrived in transports and were off @-@ loaded in the port . The resultant chaos in the city caused many American citizens in the area to seek shelter on board Arizona .
When the crisis abated , Arizona was ordered to Constantinople ( now Istanbul ) before she sailed for home on 15 June . She put into the New York Navy Yard on 30 June for an overhaul , where six 5 @-@ inch guns were removed and the fire control system was modernized . Work was completed in January 1920 and the battleship sailed south to Guantanamo Bay for crew training . During this time , Arizona was fitted with a flying @-@ off platform similar to the one given to Texas in March 1919 . In April , Arizona lost the Battenberg Cup to Nevada , and in June she was present for the Naval Academy 's graduation ceremonies . In August she became the flagship of Battleship Division Seven , although it was only later in 1920 that the battleship was refitted to be an admiral 's flagship .
In company with six battleships and eighteen destroyers , Arizona was sent south again to transit the Panama Canal in January 1921 . After meeting up with the Pacific Fleet , Arizona continued on to Peru for a week before the two fleets combined to practice battle maneuvers . After a short return to the Atlantic , which included an overhaul in New York , Arizona returned to Peru in the summer before she began operating from her new home port of San Pedro , California , part of Los Angeles , where she was based until 1940 .
For the rest of the 1920s , Arizona 's service consisted of routine training exercises . Naval historian Paul Stillwell remarked that " the Pacific years included a great deal of sameness and repetition " , and his chronology of the ship 's movements is filled with phrases like " torpedo @-@ defense practice " , " battle @-@ practice rehearsal " , " gunnery practice " , " en route to … " , and " anchored at … " . A recurring theme in these years were the annual Fleet Problems , which began in 1923 and simulated large fleet actions by having most of the active fleet face off against each other . The first two simulated an attack on the Panama Canal from the west , while in 1925 they attempted to defend the Hawaiian Islands . Other 1920s Fleet Problems included the Caribbean , near Central America , the West Indies , and Hawaii . On 27 July 1923 the ship joined President Warren G. Harding 's naval review in Seattle . Harding died just one week later , and Arizona joined the Pacific Fleet to fire a salute in his honor on 3 August .
= = Modernization = =
Four months after Fleet Problem IX in January 1929 , Arizona was modernized at the Norfolk Navy Yard . New tripod masts , surmounted by three @-@ tiered fire @-@ control directors for the main and secondary armament , replaced the old hyperboloid cage masts ; the number of 5 @-@ inch ( 130 mm ) guns was reduced to 12 and the guns re @-@ positioned one deck higher , and eight 25 @-@ caliber 5 @-@ inch anti @-@ aircraft guns replaced the 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) guns with which she had been originally equipped . The ship 's main gun turrets were modified to increase the maximum elevation of their guns to 30 ° . The compressed @-@ air catapult on the quarterdeck was replaced by one that used black powder . Her deck armor was increased by the addition of a 1 @.@ 75 @-@ inch ( 44 mm ) thickness of Special Treatment Steel and the ship was bulged to protect her from torpedoes . An additional bulkhead was added to the sides of the boiler rooms for the same purpose . Arizona 's machinery was almost entirely replaced ; her high @-@ pressure turbines were replaced by more powerful geared turbines from the cancelled battleship Washington and six new boilers replaced her originals . Their additional power offset the ship 's increased displacement as demonstrated during her sea trials ; Arizona made 20 @.@ 7 knots ( 38 @.@ 3 km / h ; 23 @.@ 8 mph ) with 35 @,@ 081 shp ( 26 @,@ 160 kW ) at a displacement of 37 @,@ 654 long tons ( 38 @,@ 258 t ) .
= = 1930s = =
On 19 March 1931 , even before Arizona was put through post @-@ modernization sea trials , she hosted President Herbert Hoover for a brief vacation in the Caribbean . The President visited Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands . Returning on 29 March , Arizona conducted her sea trials at Rockland , Maine , and had another catapult fitted on the top of Turret III , before she was transferred to the West Coast in August with her sister Pennsylvania . In February 1932 , the ship participated in Grand Joint Exercise No. 4 in which carrier aircraft successfully attacked Pearl Harbor on Sunday morning , 7 February . After returning to the West Coast from Fleet Problem XIV in 1933 , the ship was anchored in San Pedro when an earthquake struck nearby Long Beach , California , on 10 March . Sailors from the ship joined the relief efforts , providing food , treating the injured and providing security from looters .
In early 1934 , the ship and her crew were featured in a James Cagney film for Warner Brothers , Here Comes the Navy , which made extensive use of exterior footage as well as on @-@ board location shots . In the early morning of 26 July , Arizona collided with a fishing trawler , Umatilla , that was under tow by another trawler off Cape Flattery . Two men aboard the Umatilla were killed in the collision and the Navy convened a Court of Inquiry to investigate the incident . The court recommended that the ship 's captain , Captain MacGillivray Milne , be court @-@ martialed . This took place at Guantanamo Bay Naval Base , Cuba , while the ship was participating in that year 's Fleet Problem off the East Coast . Milne was judged guilty and replaced several months later by Captain George Baum after the ship returned to the West Coast . In the meantime , Rear Admiral Samuel W. Bryant assumed command of Battleship Division Two on 4 September , with Arizona as his flagship .
Rear Admiral George Pettengill relieved Bryant on 4 March 1935 and the ship participated in Fleet Problem XVI two months later . Arizona made a port visit to Balboa , Panama , in May 1936 during Fleet Problem XVII . On 8 June , Captain George A. Alexander relieved Baum as captain , and , 15 days later , Rear Admiral Claude C. Bloch relieved Pettengill . During gunnery practice on 24 July , the combustion gases from one gun of Turret II entered the gun turret , burning one crewman . The turret 's sprinkling system was turned on to prevent any powder explosion , but the water leaked into the turret 's electrical switchboard and started a small fire that was easily put out . Due to the navy 's limited budget , the ship spent most of this period in port as a fuel @-@ saving measure . In Fiscal Year 1936 – 37 , the ship was anchored for 267 days ; the following year it was in port for 255 days . The ship spent the rest of her career based on the West Coast or in Hawaii .
On 2 January 1937 , Rear Admiral John Greenslade assumed command of Battleship Division Two from Bloch and transferred his flag to the battleship Maryland on 13 April . Rear Admiral Manley Simons , commander of Battleship Division One , transferred his flag to Arizona on 7 August . He was relieved by Rear Admiral Adolphus Wilson on 8 November . Captain Alfred Winsor Brown relieved Baum on 11 December . The ship participated in Fleet Problem XIX off Hawaii in April – May 1938 . Captain Brown died in his sleep on 7 September and Captain Isaac C. Kidd assumed command of the ship on 17 September 1938 . That same day , Rear Admiral Chester Nimitz assumed command of Battleship Division One . Nimitz was relieved on 27 May 1939 by Rear Admiral Russell Willson .
Arizona 's last fleet problem was off Hawaii in April – May 1940 . At its conclusion , the United States Pacific Fleet was retained in Hawaiian waters , based at Pearl Harbor , to deter the Japanese . She was overhauled at the Puget Sound Navy Yard , Bremerton , Washington , from October 1940 to January 1941 . During this refit , her anti @-@ aircraft armament was increased to twelve 5 @-@ inch guns , the foundation for a search radar was added atop her foremast , her anti @-@ aircraft directors were upgraded and a platform for four water @-@ cooled .50 @-@ inch ( 12 @.@ 7 mm ) caliber M2 Browning machine guns was installed at the very top of the mainmast . Her last flag change @-@ of @-@ command occurred on 23 January 1941 , when Willson was relieved by Isaac Kidd , by that time a rear admiral . Captain Harold C. Train assumed command of the ship on 3 February .
Captain Franklin Van Valkenburgh relieved Train on 3 February 1941 . The battleship 's last training exercise was night @-@ firing in company with the battleships Nevada and Oklahoma , on the night of 4 December . All three ships moored at quays along Ford Island on the following day . On 6 December , the repair ship Vestal came alongside to assist the ship 's crew with minor repairs .
= = Attack on Pearl Harbor = =
Shortly before 08 : 00 local time on 7 December 1941 , Japanese aircraft from six aircraft carriers struck the Pacific Fleet as it lay in port at Pearl Harbor , and wrought devastation on the warships and the facilities defending Hawaii . On board Arizona , the ship 's air raid alarm went off at about 07 : 55 , and the ship went to general quarters soon after . Shortly after 08 : 00 , 10 Nakajima B5N " Kate " torpedo bombers , five each from the carriers Kaga and Hiryū , attacked Arizona . All of the aircraft were carrying 410 @-@ millimeter ( 16 @.@ 1 in ) armor @-@ piercing shells modified into 797 @-@ kilogram ( 1 @,@ 757 lb ) bombs . Flying at an estimated altitude of 3 @,@ 000 meters ( 9 @,@ 800 ft ) , Kaga 's aircraft bombed Arizona from amidships to stern . Soon after , Hiryu 's bombers hit the bow area .
The aircraft scored four hits and three near misses on and around Arizona . The near miss off the port bow is believed to have caused observers to believe that the ship had been torpedoed , although no torpedo damage has been found . The sternmost bomb ricocheted off the face of Turret IV and penetrated the deck to detonate in the captain 's pantry , causing a small fire . The next forwardmost hit was near the port edge of the ship , abreast the mainmast , probably detonating in the area of the anti @-@ torpedo bulkhead . The next bomb struck near the port rear 5 @-@ inch AA gun .
= = = Magazine explosion = = =
The last bomb hit at 08 : 06 in the vicinity of Turret II , likely penetrating the armored deck near the ammunition magazines located in the forward section of the ship . While not enough of the ship is intact to judge the exact location , its effects are indisputable : about seven seconds after the hit , the forward magazines detonated in a cataclysmic explosion , mostly venting through the sides of the ship and destroying much of the interior structure of the forward part of the ship . This caused the forward turrets and conning tower to collapse downward some 25 – 30 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 – 9 @.@ 1 m ) and the foremast and funnel to collapse forward . The explosion killed 1 @,@ 177 of the 1 @,@ 512 crewmen on board at the time , over half of the lives lost during the attack . It touched off fierce fires that burned for two days ; debris showered down on Ford Island in the vicinity . The blast from this explosion also put out fires on the repair ship Vestal , which was moored alongside .
Two competing theories have arisen about the cause of the explosion . The first is that the bomb detonated in or near the black powder magazine used for the ship 's saluting guns and catapult charges . This would have detonated first and then ignited the smokeless powder magazines which was used for the ship 's main armament . A 1944 Navy Bureau of Ships report suggests that a hatch leading to the black powder magazine was left open , possibly with flammable materials stocked nearby . The Naval History and Heritage Command explained that black powder might have been stockpiled outside the armored magazine . The alternative explanation is that the bomb penetrated the armored decks and detonated directly inside one of the starboard magazines for the main armament , but smokeless powder is relatively difficult to detonate . Thus the 14 @-@ inch powder bags required a black powder pad to quickly ignite the powder . The time elapsed from the bomb hit to the magazine explosion was shorter than experience suggested burning smokeless powder required to explode . It seems unlikely that a definitive answer to this question will ever be found , as the surviving physical evidence is insufficient to determine the cause of the magazine explosion .
= = = Awards and recognition = = =
After the attack , several sailors received medals for their conduct and actions under fire . Lieutenant Commander Samuel G. Fuqua , the ship 's damage control officer , earned the Medal of Honor for his cool @-@ headedness while quelling fires and getting survivors off the ship . Posthumous awards of the Medal of Honor also went to Rear Admiral Isaac C. Kidd , the first flag officer killed in the Pacific war , and to Captain Franklin Van Valkenburgh , who reached the bridge and was attempting to defend his ship when the bomb that hit the ammunition magazines destroyed her . The ship herself was awarded one battle star for her service in World War II .
= = Salvage and memorial = =
Arizona was placed " in ordinary " ( declared to be temporarily out of service ) at Pearl Harbor on 29 December , and was struck from the Naval Vessel Register on 1 December 1942 . She was so badly damaged by the magazine explosion that she was not thought fit for service even if she could be salvaged , unlike many of the other sunken ships nearby . Her surviving superstructure was scrapped in 1942 , and her main armament was salvaged over the next year and a half . The aft main gun turrets were removed and reinstalled as United States Army Coast Artillery Corps Battery Arizona at Kahe Point on the west coast of Oahu and Battery Pennsylvania on the Mokapu Peninsula , covering Kaneohe Bay at what is now Marine Corps Base Hawaii . Battery Pennsylvania fired its guns for the first and last time on V @-@ J Day in August 1945 while training , while the nearby Battery Arizona was never completed . Both forward turrets were left in place , although the guns from Turret II were salvaged and later installed on the battleship Nevada in the fall of 1944 after having been straightened and relined . Nevada later fired these same guns against the Japanese islands of Okinawa and Iwo Jima .
= = = Arizona memorials = = =
It is commonly — albeit incorrectly — believed that Arizona remains perpetually in commission , like the USS Constitution . Arizona is under the control of the National Park Service , but the U.S. Navy still retains the title . Arizona retains the right , in perpetuity , to fly the United States flag as if she were an active , commissioned naval vessel .
The wreck of Arizona remains at Pearl Harbor to commemorate the men of her crew lost that December morning in 1941 . On 7 March 1950 , Admiral Arthur W. Radford , commander in chief of the Pacific Fleet at that time , instituted the raising of colors over her remains . Legislation during the administrations of presidents Dwight D. Eisenhower and John F. Kennedy resulted in the designation of the wreck as a national shrine in 1962 . A memorial was built across the ship 's sunken remains , including a shrine room listing the names of the lost crew members on a marble wall . The national memorial was administratively listed on the National Register of Historic Places on 15 October 1966 . The ship herself was designated a National Historic Landmark on 5 May 1989 . Upon their death , survivors of the attack may have their ashes placed within the ship , among their fallen comrades . Veterans who served aboard the ship at other times may have their ashes scattered in the water above the ship .
While the superstructure and two of the four main gun turrets were removed , the barbette of one of the turrets remains visible above the water . Since her sinking , oil still leaks from the hull , with more than 2 @.@ 3 quarts ( 2 @.@ 18 l ) escaping into the harbor per day . The Navy , in conjunction with the National Park Service , has recently overseen a comprehensive computerized mapping of the hull , being careful to honor its role as a war grave . The Navy is considering non @-@ intrusive means of abating the continued leakage of oil to avoid the further environmental degradation of the harbor .
One of the original Arizona bells now hangs in the University of Arizona Student Union Memorial Center bell tower . The bell is rung after every home football victory . A gun , mast , and anchor from Arizona are in Wesley Bolin Memorial Plaza just east of the Arizona state capitol complex in downtown Phoenix , Arizona . The gun 's plaque states that it was not on the ship during the Pearl Harbor attack , but was being relined and was later mounted on USS Nevada ( BB @-@ 36 ) . It is paired with a gun from USS Missouri ( BB @-@ 63 ) to represent the start and end of the Pacific War for the United States . Other artifacts from the ship , such as items from the ship 's silver service , are on permanent exhibit in the Arizona State Capitol Museum .
Every two years the Navy awards " The USS Arizona Memorial Trophy " to the ship , determined by the Chief of Naval Operations , to have achieved the highest combat readiness in Strike warfare , Surface Fire Support and Anti @-@ Surface warfare . The 3 foot tall bronze trophy on a black marble base was provided to the Navy by the citizens of the state of Arizona on 7 December 1987 .
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= History of saffron =
Human cultivation and use of saffron spans more than 3 @,@ 500 years and extends across cultures , continents , and civilizations . Saffron , a spice derived from the dried stigmas of the saffron crocus ( Crocus sativus ) , has through history remained among the world 's most costly substances . With its bitter taste , hay @-@ like fragrance , and slight metallic notes , the apocarotenoid @-@ rich saffron has been used as a seasoning , fragrance , dye , and medicine .
The saffron crocus is a genetically monomorphic clone native to Southwest Asia ; it was probably first cultivated in or near Greece . The wild precursor of domesticated saffron crocus was likely Crocus cartwrightianus , which originated in Crete or Central Asia ; C. thomasii and C. pallasii are other possible sources . The saffron crocus is now a triploid that is " self @-@ incompatible " and male sterile ; it undergoes aberrant meiosis and is hence incapable of independent sexual reproduction — all propagation is by vegetative multiplication via manual " divide @-@ and @-@ set " of a starter clone or by interspecific hybridisation . If C. sativus is a mutant form of C. cartwrightianus , then it may have emerged in late Bronze Age Crete .
Humans may have bred C. cartwrightianus specimens by screening for specimens with abnormally long stigmas . The resulting saffron crocus was documented in a 7th @-@ century BC Assyrian botanical reference compiled under Ashurbanipal , and it has since been traded and used over the course of four millennia and has been used as treatment for some ninety disorders . The C. sativus clone was slowly propagated throughout much of Eurasia , later reaching parts of North Africa , North America , and Oceania . Global production on a by @-@ mass basis is now dominated by Iran , which accounts for some nine @-@ tenths of the annual harvest .
= = Etymology = =
The ultimate origin of the English word saffron is , like that of the cultivated saffron clone itself , of somewhat uncertain origin . It immediately stems from the Latin word safranum via the 12th @-@ century Old French term safran . Etymology beyond that point is conflicted . Safranum may derive via the Persian intercessor زعفران , or za 'ferân .
Others give an alternative derivation : that زَعْفَرَان ( za 'farān ) is the arabicised form of the Persian word زرپران zarparān ( zar + par + -ān — " having yellow leaves " ) . An even older form is the Akkadian azupiranu , " saffron " . The Latin form safranum is also the source of the Catalan safrà , Italian zafferano , but Portuguese açafrão , and Spanish azafrán come from the Arabic az @-@ zaferán . The Latin term crocus is certainly a Semitic loan word . It is adapted from the Aramaic form kurkema via the Arabic term kurkum and the Greek intermediate κρόκος krokos , which once again signifies " yellowish " . Its ultimate origin might be from the Sanskrit kunkumam unless this was itself borrowed from Semitic .
= = Minoan and Greco @-@ Roman = =
Saffron played a significant role in the Greco @-@ Roman pre @-@ classical period bracketed by the 8th century BC and the 3rd century AD . The first known image of saffron in pre @-@ Greek culture is much older and stems from the Bronze Age . A saffron harvest is shown in the Knossos palace frescoes of Minoan Crete , which depict the flowers being picked by young girls and monkeys . One of these fresco sites is located in the " Xeste 3 " building at Akrotiri , on the Aegean island of Santorini — the ancient Greeks knew it as " Thera . " These frescoes likely date from the 16th or 17th century BC` but may have been produced anywhere between 3000 – 1100 BC . They portray a Minoan goddess supervising the plucking of flowers and the gleaning of stigmas for use in the manufacture of what is possibly a therapeutic drug . A fresco from the same site also depicts a woman using saffron to treat her bleeding foot . These " Theran " frescoes are the first botanically accurate visual representations of saffron 's use as an herbal remedy . This saffron @-@ growing Minoan settlement was ultimately destroyed by a powerful earthquake and subsequent volcanic eruption sometime between 1645 and 1500 BC . The volcanic ash from the destruction entombed and helped preserve these key herbal frescoes .
Ancient Greek legends tell of brazen sailors embarking on long and perilous voyages to the remote land of Cilicia , where they traveled to procure what they believed was the world 's most valuable saffron . The best @-@ known Hellenic saffron legend is that of Crocus and Smilax : The handsome youth Crocus sets out in pursuit of the nymph Smilax in the woods near Athens ; in a brief dallying interlude of idyllic love , Smilax is flattered by his amorous advances , but all too soon tires of his attentions . He continues his pursuit ; she resists . She bewitches Crocus : he is transformed — into a saffron crocus . Its radiant orange stigmas were held as a relict glow of an undying and unrequited passion . The tragedy and the spice would be recalled later :
Crocus and Smilax may be turn 'd to flow 'rs ,
And the Curetes spring from bounteous show 'rs
I pass a hundred legends stale , as these ,
And with sweet novelty your taste to please .
For the ancient Mediterraneans , saffron gathered around the Cilician coastal town of Soli was of top value , particularly for use in perfumes and ointments . Herodotus and Pliny the Elder , however , rated rival Assyrian and Babylonian saffron from the Fertile Crescent as best — to treat gastrointestinal or renal upsets . Greek saffron from the Corycian Cave of Mount Parnassus was also of note : the color offered by the Corycian crocus is used as a benchmark in the Argonautica of Apollonius Rhodius and similarly with its fragrance in the epigrams of Martial .
Cleopatra of late Ptolemaic Egypt used a quarter @-@ cup of saffron in her warm baths , as she prized its colouring and cosmetic properties . She used it before encounters with men , trusting that saffron would render lovemaking yet more pleasurable . Egyptian healers used saffron as a treatment for all varieties of gastrointestinal ailments : when stomach pains progressed to internal hemorrhaging , an Egyptian treatment consisted of saffron crocus seeds mixed and crushed together with aager @-@ tree remnants , ox fat , coriander , and myrrh . This ointment or poultice was applied to the body . The physicians expected it to " [ expel ] blood through the mouth or rectum which resembles hog 's blood when it is cooked " . Urinary tract conditions were also treated with an oil @-@ based emulsion of premature saffron flowers mixed with roasted beans ; this was used topically on men . Women ingested a more complex preparation .
In Greco @-@ Roman times saffron was widely traded across the Mediterranean by the Phoenicians . Their customers ranged from the perfumers of Rosetta , in Egypt , to physicians in Gaza to townsfolk in Rhodes , who wore pouches of saffron in order to mask the presence of malodorous fellow citizens during outings to the theatre . For the Greeks , saffron was widely associated with professional courtesans and retainers known as the hetaerae . Large dye works operating in Sidon and Tyre used saffron baths as a substitute ; there , royal robes were triple @-@ dipped in deep purple dyes ; for the robes of royal pretenders and commoners , the last two dips were replaced with a saffron dip , which gave a less intense purple hue .
The ancient Greeks and Romans prized saffron as a perfume or deodoriser and scattered it about their public spaces : royal halls , courts , and amphitheatres alike . When Nero entered Rome they spread saffron along the streets ; wealthy Romans partook of daily saffron baths . They used it as mascara , stirred saffron threads into their wines , cast it aloft in their halls and streets as a potpourri , and offered it to their deities . Roman colonists took saffron with them when they settled in southern Roman Gaul , where it was extensively cultivated until the AD 271 barbarian invasion of Italy . Competing theories state that saffron only returned to France with 8th @-@ century Moors or with the Avignon Papacy in the 14th century .
= = Middle Eastern and Persian = =
Saffron @-@ based pigments have been found in the prehistoric paints used to illustrate beasts in 50 @,@ 000 @-@ year @-@ old cave art found in modern @-@ day Iraq , which was even then northwest of the Persian Empire . The Sumerians used saffron as an ingredient in their remedies and magical potions . Sumerians did not cultivate saffron . They gathered their stores from wild flowers , believing that divine intervention alone enables saffron 's medicinal properties . Such evidence suggests that saffron was an article of long @-@ distance trade before Crete 's Minoan palace culture reached a peak in the 2nd millennium BC . Saffron was also honoured as a sweet @-@ smelling spice over three millennia ago in the Hebrew Tanakh :
Your lips drop sweetness like honeycomb , my bride , syrup and milk are under your tongue , and your dress had the scent of Lebanon . Your cheeks are an orchard of pomegranates , an orchard full of rare fruits , spikenard and saffron , sweet cane and cinnamon .
In ancient Persia , saffron ( Crocus sativus ' Hausknechtii ' ) was cultivated at Derbena and Isfahan in the 10th century BC . There , Persian saffron threads have been found interwoven into ancient Persian royal carpets and funeral shrouds . Saffron was used by ancient Persian worshippers as a ritual offering to their deities , and as a brilliant yellow dye , perfume , and a medicine . Thus , saffron threads would be scattered across beds and mixed into hot teas as a curative for bouts of melancholy . Indeed , Persian saffron threads , used to spice foods and teas , were widely suspected by foreigners of being a drugging agent and an aphrodisiac . These fears grew to forewarn travelers to abstain from eating saffron @-@ laced Persian cuisine . In addition , Persian saffron was dissolved in water with sandalwood to use as a body wash after heavy work and perspiration under the hot Persian sun . Later , Persian saffron was heavily used by Alexander the Great and his forces during their Asian campaigns . They mixed saffron into teas and dined on saffron rice . Alexander personally used saffron sprinkled in warm bath water , taking after Cyrus the Great . Much like Cyrus , he believed it would heal his many wounds , and his faith in saffron grew with each treatment . He even recommended saffron baths for the ordinary men under him . The Greek soldiers , taken with saffron 's perceived curative properties , continued the practice after they returned to Macedonia .
= = East and South Asian = =
Various conflicting accounts exist that describe saffron 's first arrival in South and East Asia . The first of these rely on historical accounts gleaned from Persian records . These suggest to many experts that saffron , among other spices , was first spread to India via Persian rulers ' efforts to stock their newly built gardens and parks . They accomplished this by transplanting the desired cultivars across the Persian empire . Phoenicians then began in the 6th century BC to market the new Kashmiri saffron by utilising their extensive trade routes . Once sold , Kashmiri saffron was used in the treatment of melancholy and as a fabric dye .
On the other hand , traditional Kashmiri legend states that saffron first arrived in the 11th or 12th century AD , when two foreign and itinerant Sufi ascetics , Khwaja Masood Wali and Hazrat Sheikh Shariffudin , wandered into Kashmir . The foreigners , having fallen sick , beseeched a cure for illness from a local tribal chieftain . When the chieftain obliged , the two holy men reputedly gave them a saffron crocus bulb as payment and thanks . To this day , grateful prayers are offered to the two saints during the saffron harvesting season in late autumn . The saints , indeed , have a golden @-@ domed shrine and tomb dedicated to them in the saffron @-@ trading village of Pampore , India . However , the Kashmiri poet and scholar Mohammed Yusuf Teng disputes this . He states that Kashmiris had cultivated saffron for more than two millennia . Indeed , such ancient indigenous cultivation is alluded to in Kashmiri Tantric Hindu epics of that time .
Ancient Chinese Buddhist accounts from the mula @-@ sarvastivadin monastic order ( or vinaya ) present yet another account of saffron 's arrival in India . According to legend , an arhat Indian Buddhist missionary by the name of Madhyântika ( or Majjhantika ) was sent to Kashmir in the 5th century BC . Upon his arrival he seemingly sowed the first Kashmiri saffron crop . From there , saffron use spread throughout the Indian subcontinent . In addition to use in foods , saffron stigmas were also soaked in water to yield a golden @-@ yellow solution that was used as a fabric dye .
Some historians believe that saffron first came to China with Mongol invaders by way of Persia . Saffron is mentioned in ancient Chinese medical texts , including the vast Bencao Gangmu ( " Great Herbal " ) pharmacopoeia , a tome dating from around 1600 BC ( and attributed to Emperor Shen @-@ Ung ) which documents thousands of phytochemical @-@ based medical treatments for various disorders . Yet around the 3rd century AD , the Chinese were referring to saffron as having a Kashmiri provenance . The Chinese medical expert Wan Zhen wrote that " [ t ] he habitat of saffron is in Kashmir , where people grow it principally to offer it to the Buddha " . Wan reflected on how saffron was used in his time : " The [ saffron crocus ] flower withers after a few days , and then the saffron is obtained . It is valued for its uniform yellow colour . It can be used to aromatise wine . "
In modern times saffron cultivation has spread to Afghanistan due to the efforts of the European Union and the United Kingdom . Together they promote saffron cultivation among impoverished and cash @-@ strapped Afghan farmers as an ideal alternative to lucrative — and illicit — opium production .
= = Post @-@ Classical European = =
Saffron cultivation in Europe declined steeply following the fall of the Roman Empire . For several centuries thereafter , saffron cultivation was rare or non @-@ existent throughout Europe . This was reversed when Moorish civilisation spread from North Africa to settle the Iberian peninsula as well as parts of France and southern Italy . One theory states that Moors reintroduced saffron corms to the region around Poitiers after they lost the Battle of Tours to Charles Martel in AD 732 . Two centuries after their conquest of Spain , Moors planted saffron throughout the southern provinces of Andalucia , Castile , La Mancha , and Valencia .
In France , saffron cultivation probably started during the 13th century . Crocus sativus was likely introduced from Spain and from the Middle @-@ East by pilgrims , merchants , and Knights . Its first uses are documented in the south @-@ west of the Kingdom around 1250 . It is indeed unlikely that Kings and Religious didn 't try growing Crocus sativus by that time : Saffron was rare , expensive , and demanded , and Crocus sativus could be farmed under France 's latitudes . By the 14th century , the wide use of saffron for spicing and coloring food is documented in recipe books such as the " Viandier de Taillevent " , written by the King 's cook . And by the 15th century , local saffron farming is attested with taxes levied by the religious power , which reveal how important saffron crops must have been . For instance , in 1478 , the saffron tax levied by the Bishop of Albi reached 1 / 12th of saffron production .
Saffron demand skyrocketed when the Black Death of 1347 – 1350 struck Europe . It was coveted by plague victims for medicinal purposes , and yet many of the farmers capable of growing it had died off . Large quantities of non @-@ European saffron thus was imported . The finest saffron threads from Muslim lands were unavailable to Europeans because of hostilities stoked by the Crusades , so Rhodes and other places were key suppliers to central and northern Europe . Saffron was one of the contested points of hostility that flared between the declining landed gentry and upstart and increasingly wealthy merchants . The fourteen @-@ week @-@ long " Saffron War " was ignited when one 800 lb ( 363 kg ) shipment of saffron was hijacked and stolen by nobles . The load , which was en route to the town of Basel , would at today 's market prices be valued at more than US $ 500 @,@ 000 . That shipment was eventually returned , but the wider 13th – century trade was subject to mass piracy . Thieves plying Mediterranean waters would often ignore gold stores and instead steal Venetian- and Genoan @-@ marketed saffron bound for Europe . Wary of such unpleasantness , Basel planted its own corms . Several years of large and lucrative saffron harvests made Basel extremely prosperous compared to other European towns . Citizens sought to protect their status by outlawing the transport of corms out of the town ; guards were posted to prevent thieves from picking flowers or digging up corms . Yet ten years later the saffron harvest had waned . Basel abandoned the crop .
The pivot of central European saffron trade moved to Nuremberg . The merchants of Venice continued their rule of the Mediterranean sea trade , trafficking varieties from Sicily , France and Spain , Austria , Crete and Greece , and the Ottoman Empire . Adulterated goods also made the rounds : those soaked in honey , mixed with marigold petals , or kept in damp cellars — all to add quick and cheap bulk . Irritated Nuremberg authorities passed the Safranschou code to de @-@ louse the saffron trade . Adulterators were thus fined , imprisoned , and executed — by immolation . England was next to have its turn as a major producer . One theory has it that the crop spread to the coastal regions of eastern England in the 14th century AD during the reign of Edward III . In subsequent years saffron was fleetingly cultivated throughout England . Norfolk , Suffolk , and south Cambridgeshire were especially affected with corms . Rowland Parker provides an account of its cultivation in the village of Foxton during the 16th and 17th centuries , " usually by people holding a small amount of land " ; an acre planted in saffron could yield a crop worth a kingly GB £ 6 , making it " a very profitable crop , provided that plenty of unpaid labor was available ; unpaid labor was one of the basic features of farming then and for another two centuries . "
In France , saffron production became very important in the 17th and 18th centuries , reaching a few tons . By then , saffron farming had spread throughout the entire Kingdom . Saffron was especially grown in Albigeois , Angoumois , Gascony , Gâtinais , Normandy , Périgord , Poitou , Provence , and Quercy . Its mysterious decline started during the 18th century , possibly due to pandemic fungal diseases destroying bulbs and crops , to particularly cold winters , and to competing market from the Mediterranean countries .
In England , cultivation persisted only in the light , well @-@ drained , and chalk @-@ based soils of the north Essex countryside . The Essex town of Saffron Walden got its name as a saffron growing and trading centre ; its name was originally Cheppinge Walden , and the culinary name change was effected to punctuate the importance of the crop to the townsfolk ; the town 's arms still feature blooms from the eponymous crocus . Yet as England emerged from the Middle Ages , rising puritanical sentiments and new conquests abroad endangered English saffron 's use and cultivation . Puritanical partisans favoured increasingly austere , unadorned , and unspiced foods . Saffron was also a labor @-@ intensive crop , which became an increasing disadvantage as wages and time opportunity costs rose . And finally , an influx of more exotic spices from the far East due to the resurgent spice trade meant that the English , as well as other Europeans , had many more — and cheaper — seasonings to dally over .
This trend was documented by the Dean of Manchester , a Reverend William Herbert . He collected samples and compiled information on many aspects of the saffron crocus . He was concerned about the steady decline in saffron cultivation over the course of the 17th century and the dawn of the Industrial Revolution ; the introduction in Europe of easily grown maize and potatoes , which steadily took over lands formerly flush with corms , did not help . In addition , the elite who traditionally comprised the bulk of the saffron market were now growing increasingly interested in such intriguing new arrivals as chocolate , coffee , tea , and vanilla . Only in the south of France or in Italy and Spain , where the saffron harvest was culturally primal , did significant cultivation prevail .
= = North American = =
Saffron made its way to the New World when thousands of Alsatian , German , and Swiss Anabaptists , Dunkards , and others fled religious persecution in Europe . They settled mainly in eastern Pennsylvania , in the Susquehanna River valley . These settlers , who became known as the Pennsylvania Dutch , were by 1730 widely cultivating saffron after corms were first brought to America — in a trunk . It was owned by German adherents of a Protestant church known as the Schwenkfelder Church . Schwenkfelders , as members were known , were great lovers of saffron , and had grown it back in Germany . Pennsylvania Dutch saffron was soon being successfully marketed to Spanish colonists in the Caribbean , while healthy demand elsewhere ensured that its listed price on the Philadelphia commodities exchange was set equal to that of gold .
However the War of 1812 destroyed many of the merchantmen that ferried American saffron abroad . Pennsylvanian saffron growers were afterwards left with surplus inventory , and trade with the Caribbean markets never recovered . Nevertheless , Pennsylvania Dutch growers developed many uses for the now abundant saffron in their own home cooking — cakes , noodles , and chicken or trout dishes . Saffron cultivation survived into modern times principally in Lancaster County , Pennsylvania .
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= Hello Sunshine =
" Hello Sunshine " is a song by the Welsh band Super Furry Animals from their album Phantom Power . It was the seventeenth single released by the group and reached number 31 on the UK Singles Chart in October 2003 .
Several versions of the track were released : the single version omits the short sample of the song " By the Sea " by Wendy and Bonnie which begins the album version , while two remixes , by Weevil and Freiband , appear on the album Phantom Phorce . An animated music video , featuring drawings by regular Super Furries sleeve designer Pete Fowler , was produced to accompany the release of " Hello Sunshine " as a single . The track received mostly positive reviews from critics .
The band turned down " a seven @-@ figure offer " from Coca @-@ Cola to allow the use of " Hello Sunshine " in an advertising campaign citing alleged malpractice on the part of the drinks firm . The group have stated that despite the financial incentives of licensing their songs , they are happy to simply be able to make a living from music .
= = Recording and themes = =
The track begins with a sample of the song " By the Sea " by the teenage sibling duo Wendy and Bonnie , from their 1969 album Genesis , which Super Furries singer Gruff Rhys has described as " amazing songs , amazing lyrics and amazing voices " . The decision to begin the track with a snippet of " By the Sea " came about due to laziness on the band 's part — the track had originally being conceived as a duet but the group " never got around to getting anyone to sing " with them so they " chopped up the Wendy & Bonnie song and stuck it on [ as ] it 's in the same key [ and ] seemed to make sense " . The edit version , issued as a single , does not contain the sample .
" Hello Sunshine " shares the same key , D major , the same guitar tuning , D @-@ A @-@ D @-@ D @-@ A @-@ D , and was written around the same time as several other songs from Phantom Power including the " Father Father " instrumentals , " Golden Retriever " , " Cityscape Skybaby " and " Out of Control " . The track was recorded at the Super Furry Animals ' own studio in Cardiff along with the rest of Phantom Power . Rhys has stated that the song is " a courting ballad with a ' been so down looks like up to me ' mentality " .
= = Musical structure = =
The album version of " Hello Sunshine " is 3 minutes 35 seconds long and is in the key of D major . The track begins with 43 seconds of the track " By the Sea " from Wendy & Bonnie 's 1969 album Genesis featuring sparse fingerstyle guitar and female harmony vocals . The last syllable of the line " ... so hard to say goodbye " is held and pans from left to right until " Hello Sunshine " itself begins with Gruff Rhys singing the title phrase , joined by the band on the second word . The first verse follows with simple piano and bass guitar backing Rhys 's acoustic guitar to a basic 4 / 4 beat provided by drummer Dafydd Ieuan . The first chorus enters at 1 minute 13 seconds with Rhys being joined by falsetto harmony backing vocals on the lines " In honesty it 's been a while , since we had reason left to smile " . The song breaks down for the bridge with just arpeggio guitar , simple bass and occasional drum rolls playing as the lines " Hello sunshine , come into my life " are sung .
Another verse follows featuring the lyrics " I 'm a minger , you 're a minger too , so come on minger , I want to ming with you " ( quoted in many reviews of Phantom Power ) before the second chorus . This time the bridge leads , not into another verse , but the song 's middle 8 which again sees Rhys backed by multiple falsetto harmony backing vocals . The outro follows during which the title phrase is sung five times before a lead guitar line heralds the end of the song with Rhys singing " Come into my life " .
= = = Alternative versions = = =
A radio edit of " Hello Sunshine " was issued to radio stations and was also used in the music video . This version of the track is 2 minutes and 54 seconds long and omits the opening extract from " By the Sea " . The rest of song is identical to the album version .
Two remixes were included on the DVD version of Phantom Power and the album Phantom Phorce . The first , by Weevil , is 4 minutes 22 seconds in length and is largely based around samples of lead guitar from the track along with occasional snippets of Rhys 's vocal . Samples of Ieuan 's drums are also used in the second half of the song . The track ends with a brief clip of the band 's road manager , in the guise of ' Kurt Stern ' , giving a fictionalised account of Phantom Power 's production . The second remix , by Freiband , is 10 minutes 31 seconds long , is " utterly minimal " and barely resembles the original with no recognisable vocal or musical samples from the album or radio versions .
= = Critical response = =
" Hello Sunshine " received generally positive reviews with musicOMH calling it " one of the best tracks from … Phantom Power " , and Rolling Stone describing it as a " gorgeous opening track " . The ' summery ' nature of the track was commented on by several journalists with The Observer calling " Hello Sunshine " a " gloriously hazy opener " and Music Critic describing it as " passionately mellow summer doo @-@ wop " . However BBC Wales , although describing the track as " an excellent song and a near perfect album opener " , called the decision to release " Hello Sunshine " as a single " rather mystifying " stating that it is " a world away from the SFA we 've grown to love over the years " . The song was featured on the soundtrack of the 2006 film Snow Cake and also appeared in " The Heartbreak " , an episode of The O.C.
= = Coca @-@ Cola controversy = =
According to a Gruff Rhys interview with Red Pepper magazine , the band turned down " a seven @-@ figure offer by an advertising agency " for the use of " Hello Sunshine " in a Coca @-@ Cola commercial due to alleged malpractice :
The band ultimately allowed the track to be used in a short film about human rights abuses by anti @-@ poverty charity War on Want . The charity has frequently criticized the Coca @-@ Cola company 's impact on local communities . In late 2005 Rhys reiterated that , although licensing one of their tracks for use in advertising would make a big difference financially , the Super Furries are happy to simply be able to make a living from making music . Rhys went on to state that a " Red Stripe advert in Jamaica " is one of the few advertising opportunities the band could live with .
= = Music video = =
An animated music video was produced for " Hello Sunshine " , directed by Pete Fowler , Neil McFarland and Passion Pictures and featuring Fowler 's cartoon drawings . The video begins with the sun rising over a country landscape . A small , blue , ' Hello Sunshine ' winged horse flies across the sky and is watched by a man holding a 1 : 16 scale model kit for the same horse . The picture of the horse on the box flies away as he looks at it and lands on one of five hot air balloons flown by cartoon representations of the Super Furry Animals . The video cuts to a brief shot of a man staring through a shop window at an advertising display featuring models of the ' Hello Sunshine ' horse before we see Gruff Rhys coming across a huge statue of the same horse in his car .
The next shot shows the ' Hello Sunshine ' horse forming part of a stained glass window in a place of worship as a priest urges his followers ( all dressed in dark blue with a gold pendant of the ' Hello Sunshine ' horse around their necks ) to help him cause two rockets at either side of him to rise into the air and explode in the clouds . These rockets cause a thunder storm . The resultant lightning strikes an ' Hello Sunshine ' horse as it flies through the air and a duplicate horse is created . This happens repeatedly until the sky is full of small horses which fly out of the storm and towards the Super Furries ' hot air balloons . The last section shows the band playing " Hello Sunshine " and being confronted by the ' Hello Sunshine ' horse who Rhys strokes on the nose . The video appears on the DVD release of the band 's greatest hits album Songbook : The Singles , Vol . 1 .
= = Track listing = =
All songs by Super Furry Animals .
Digipak CD ( 674360 2 )
" Hello Sunshine ( Radio Edit ) " – 2 : 54
" Cowbird " – 5 : 41
" Sanitizzzed " – 2 : 45
7 " ( 674360 7 )
" Hello Sunshine ( Radio Edit ) " – 2 : 54
" Cowbird " – 5 : 41
DVD ( 674360 9 )
" Hello Sunshine ( Video ) " * – 3 : 34
" Cowbird " – 5 : 41
" Sanitizzzed " – 2 : 45
* The " Hello Sunshine " video features the radio edit of the track . A brief preliminary video featuring animal noises means that the run time matches that of the album version .
= = Personnel = =
Gruff Rhys – vocals
Huw Bunford – guitar
Guto Pryce – bass guitar
Cian Ciaran – keyboards
Dafydd Ieuan – drums
Kris Jenkins – percussion
= = Charts = =
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= Canadian Heraldic Authority =
The Canadian Heraldic Authority ( CHA ; French : L 'Autorité héraldique du Canada ) is part of the Canadian honours system under the Canadian monarch , whose authority is exercised by the Governor General of Canada . The authority is responsible for the creation and granting of new coats of arms ( armorial bearings ) , flags , and badges for Canadian citizens and corporate bodies . The authority also registers existing armorial bearings granted by other recognized heraldic authorities , approves military badges , flags , and other insignia of the Canadian Forces , and provides information on heraldic practices .
The CHA is the Canadian counterpart of the College of Arms in London , Court of the Lord Lyon in Scotland , and the Office of the Chief Herald of Ireland in the Republic of Ireland and is well known for its innovative designs , many incorporating First Nations symbolism .
= = History = =
Prior to the creation of the Canadian Heraldic Authority , Canadians wishing to obtain a legally granted coat of arms had to apply to one of the two heraldic offices in the United Kingdom : either the College of Arms in London or the Court of the Lord Lyon in Edinburgh . This process was quite lengthy — and costly . In addition , the heralds of the College of Arms and the Court of the Lord Lyon could sometimes be unfamiliar with Canadian history and symbols . In time , many Canadians with an interest in heraldry began calling for an office which would offer armorial bearings designed by and for Canadians .
As early as 1967 , plans were reportedly in the works to transfer overview of heraldry from the College of Arms in the UK to Canada . The push for a wholly Canadian heraldic system came largely from the Heraldry Society of Canada ( now the Royal Heraldry Society of Canada ) almost from its inception , though it was not seen as a priority by successive national governments . In 1986 , Vicki Huntington , a politician from British Columbia , forwarded a brief written by the RHSC calling for the creation of the Canadian Heraldic Authority to a staff member in then @-@ Secretary of State David Crombie 's office . Mr. Crombie had his department organise a meeting in Ottawa the following year , to which many national and international heraldic experts were invited . The meeting concluded with " a strong recommendation to government that an Authority be created . "
Two years later , the Queen of Canada issued the 1988 letters patent authorising the governor general " to exercise or provide for the exercise of all powers and authorities lawfully belonging to Us as Queen of Canada in respect of the granting of armorial bearings in Canada " . These letters patent were presented by Prince Edward to the governor general on behalf of the Crown . Subsequently , the Governor General , Jeanne Sauvé , authorised the creation of the Canadian Heraldic Authority on 4 June 1988 . As a result , Canada became the first Commonwealth realm outside the United Kingdom to have its own heraldic authority . Canada also provides full equality to women in terms of inheriting and transmitting arms . Additionally , all armigers within Canada may file for trademark protection of their grant of arms under the Trade @-@ Marks Act .
= = Structure = =
The authority is located at Rideau Hall , the residence of the monarch and governor general . The governor general , as the personal representative of the Canadian sovereign , is the highest authority in Canadian heraldry . Below the governor general is the Herald Chancellor , a position held by the Secretary of the Governor General . The CHA is currently organized in an office called the Chancellery of Honours , the same office that issues Canadian orders and decorations , such as the Order of Canada . The deputy secretary that administers the Chancellery of Honours is also the Deputy Herald Chancellor .
The authority itself is headed by the Chief Herald of Canada , whose job is to oversee and direct all operations of the CHA , and bears the main responsibility of granting arms , though the governor general has the authority to grant arms directly . The position of chief herald was inaugurated by Robert Watt at the inception of the CHA in 1988 and held by him until his retirement in 2007 . Since 26 June 2007 , the office of chief herald has been held by Claire Boudreau , formerly Saint @-@ Laurent Herald .
= = = Heralds of Arms = = =
Below the chief herald are the Heralds of Arms , full @-@ time workers at the CHA and considered part of the Public Service of Canada . The names of the various offices were taken from significant Canadian rivers . Though the titles are territorial designations , as per heraldic tradition , each herald serves the entire country . Each is assigned a badge of office . The Heralds of Arms are :
= = = Honorary positions = = =
The authority also allows for two types of honorary positions : Heralds Emeritus and Heralds Extraordinary . The emeritus title is reserved for Canadian heralds who have retired ; the title of extraordinary is an honorary position for those who have made notable contributions to heraldry . Honorary heralds can be enlisted by the CHA to perform work for them . Each honorary position grants the individual a badge and a title also based on a Canadian river .
Current holders of honorary positions
= = Obtaining arms = =
= = = Eligibility = = =
Any Canadian citizen or corporate body can petition for a grant of new arms or registration of existing arms . In general , eligibility for a grant of arms is based on an individual 's contributions to the community , although the exact criteria for grants or registrations have not been published . A number of grants have been made to people who have already been recognized with state honours for their notable achievements , such as through admission to the Order of Canada , and who are accordingly entitled to a grant of arms . Those who are Companions of the order may also request the chief herald to grant them supporters .
= = = Grant process = = =
In order to request either a coat of arms , flag , and / or badges , a letter must be addressed to the Chief Herald of Canada . The letter must clearly ask " to receive armorial bearings from the Canadian Crown under the powers exercised by the Governor General " and include proof of Canadian citizenship or permanent residence as well as a biography or curriculum vitae of the petitioner . Corporate petitions must include a brief history of the company , proof of incorporation in Canada , financial reports , and a copy of the corporation 's governing body resolution seeking a grant of arms .
The Chief Herald of Canada can approve or reject the petition . If the petition is approved , the authority to make the grant is given through a warrant signed by the Herald Chancellor or the Deputy Herald Chancellor . The authorisation is then sent to one of the heralds , and the process begins . The granting of arms is regarded as an honour from the monarch , via the governor general , and thus are bestowed only on those whom the Chief Herald has deemed individuals worthy of receiving a grant of arms .
First , the assigned herald develops a written description based on consultation with the petitioner . The petitioner then signs a contract with an artist at the authority to create the design . The Fraser Herald , serving as the CHA 's principal artist , must review the design . At all stages the documents must be approved by both the petitioner and the Chief Herald . The final step is to prepare the letters patent , the official notice of an award of arms , which includes a drawing of the armorial bearings and the accompanying legal text and explanation of the symbolism of the bearings . Under Canadian bilingualism laws , letters patent are written in both English and French , though the petitioner may choose which language will be placed in the left column of the document .
Completed grant documents are recorded in the Public Register of Arms , Flags and Badges of Canada and the notice of the grant is published in the Canada Gazette , Part I , under the section " Government House " .
The Government of Canada requires that the above processes be financed by the petitioner ; that is the person requesting the grant or registration of arms , who pays the fees associated with the request and grant / registration . The processing fee for all petitioners is CAD $ 435 ( plus GST ) , with the cost of one preliminary design ranging from $ 200 to $ 1 @,@ 000 . The cost of the final design , as illustrated on the letters patent , ranges from $ 900 to $ 3 @,@ 500 . In Canada , the petitioner does not " buy " a coat of arms , the arms themselves are freely given to qualified individuals , but fees must be paid to the heralds and artists for the services rendered . The average time needed to complete a grant is about 12 to 14 months , though it can take longer for particularly detailed or intricate arms .
= = = Registration of existing arms = = =
Those individuals and institutions who already possess legitimate awards of arms may apply to the Canadian Heraldic Authority to have their arms registered . There is no cost associated with application for registration and it takes less time , approximately three months , than application for a new award of arms .
= = The Authority 's armorial bearings = =
= = = Blazon = = =
The blazon , or technical description in heraldic language , of the full armorial bearings is below , along with its plain English description :
Crest
Upon a helmet mantled Gules doubled Argent within a wreath of these colours a lion passant guardant Or Royally Crowned Proper its dexter forepaw resting on an escutcheon Argent charged with a maple leaf Gules .
On top of a helmet with red and white mantling ( stylised cloth streamers , here further stylised to look like maple leaves , as in the national coat of arms ) stands a golden lion wearing a crown , holding in his paw a white shield with a red maple leaf .
Shield
Argent on a maple leaf Gules an escutcheon Argent .
On a white shield is a red maple leaf , upon which is another white shield .
Supporters
On a representation of an outcrop of the Canadian Shield proper strewn with maple leaves Gules and maple seeds Or two raven @-@ bears Gules over Argent wings elevated Gules beaked and armed Or .
A portion of the Canadian Shield is shown covered with red maple leaves and gold maple seeds . Standing upon this on either side are two red @-@ and @-@ white raven @-@ bears with golden beaks and claws .
Motto
HONORENTUR PATRIAM HONORANTES .
Let us honour those who honour our country .
= = = Symbolism and use = = =
The current arms of the authority were confirmed in a warrant by the Governor General on 15 January 1994 , in honour of the authority 's fifth anniversary , which was celebrated the previous year . The full armorial bearings of the Canadian Heraldic Authority incorporate aboriginal symbolism , as seen in the mythical raven @-@ bears , as well as the national symbol of the maple leaf and the traditional Canadian colours of red and white , which were made official by King George V in 1921 .
The crest is a modification of the Royal Crest of Canada : a lion wearing a crown and bearing a maple leaf . The crest of the authority features the same lion , instead holding a white shield containing a red maple leaf , symbolising the governor general 's authority under the Crown to grant armorial bearings to Canadians .
The shield itself is white with a red maple leaf , similar to the middle portion of the Canadian flag . The white shield upon the leaf represents " a sign of heraldry to be created and recorded for Canadians . "
The raven @-@ bears , a new heraldic beast which combined several creatures that are important to aboriginal symbolism , were proposed by the heralds in honour of the United Nations ' International Year of the World 's Indigenous Peoples , also occurring in 1993 . The raven @-@ bears are standing on an outcrop of what is known as the Canadian Shield , a geological formation which the authority foundation is based on . The Canadian Shield is formed by rocks , which are covered in red coloured maple leaves and by golden maple seeds . The motto that was chosen is Latin for Let us honour those who honour our country .
The shield and crest alone comprise the Badge of the CHA , which is used on the seal of the Authority and on the letters patent that grant and register armorial bearings . A wreath behind the arms is composed of red maple leaves bound with gold straps .
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= Holidays of Future Passed =
" Holidays of Future Passed " is the ninth episode of the twenty @-@ third season of the American animated sitcom The Simpsons . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on December 11 , 2011 . Most of the episode is set thirty years into the future , when Bart and Lisa take their children with them to Homer and Marge 's house over Christmas , while a pregnant Maggie goes into labor . Bart has divorced his wife Jenda and is struggling to become a better father for his two boys , while Lisa has trouble connecting with her rebellious teenage daughter Zia . The Simpsons creator Matt Groening made a minor uncredited cameo appearance as a sports commentator shouting " goal ! " during a football ( soccer ) game .
Originally written as a potential series finale , the episode has received highly positive reception from television critics who often cited it as the best episode of the season . It has been particularly praised for its humor and for its emotional scenes , such as one where Bart and Lisa sit in their old treehouse and talk about how difficult parenting is . During the original broadcast , " Holidays of Future Passed " was watched by about 6 @.@ 43 million people . Since then , it has garnered attention in the media for a segment taking place thirty years in the future in which it is implied that the city of Dearborn , Michigan is " still under sharia law " . Commentators have had mixed opinions on what the segment is mocking , whether it is the increasing Islamic influence in the US , specifically in Dearborn , or rather those who are thinking that Dearborn is under sharia law in December 2011 , the time that the episode aired .
= = Plot = =
After stuffing themselves with turkey on Thanksgiving , it is time to take the annual Christmas card family photo , and when Bart and Lisa complain about it , Marge notes that they will grow to appreciate the photos when they become older and have children of their own . Lisa questions why Marge would assume they will even have children in the first place , and the episode jumps thirty years into the future via a series of Simpsons Christmas cards . The photos finally settle on a future where Bart is a jobless , divorced dad with two sons whom he does not see often ; Lisa is a successful businesswoman who is married to Milhouse and has a rebellious daughter named Zia ; and Maggie is the lead singer of a famous band and in the late stages of pregnancy . In his apartment , Bart is visited by his sons , who inform him that their mother Jenda teleported them to his place because she wants him to act like a proper father by having him spend time with them . However , he plans on dropping them off at his parents ' house instead . Meanwhile , Lisa fears that Zia is spending too much of her time going into the " Ultranet " , a digital world that people enter with their consciousness by plugging themselves into a laptop . Milhouse suggests to Lisa that she spend time with Zia in order for them to have a better connection , so Lisa decides to take Zia to her parents ' house . Meanwhile , Maggie flies home from London to Springfield to celebrate Christmas with her parents .
When Bart and Lisa arrive at their parents ' home , they stay there with their children . Unfortunately for Lisa , she only gets unhelpful advice from Marge on how to be a better parent , while Zia continues to go into the Ultranet . A furious Lisa ignores it and accuses Marge of being a bad parent . She tells her belief that it 's the parents right to butt in their children 's lives regardless . Marge gets mad at Lisa for her accusations and their conflicting styles of parenting causes a rift in their relationship . Meanwhile , Bart is heartbroken to find out that Jenda has remarried while he has not found anyone new . Feeling depressed , he tells Homer to take his grandsons out . The boys become angry with their father for not spending time with them , but the two have a great time with their grandfather . Bart and Lisa then encounter each other in their old treehouse , where they become slightly drunk and talk about how difficult parenting is . Lisa admitted she had an affair with Nelson a couple of times when Milhouse was away . After exchanging inspirational advice , they realize that they need to try harder to connect with their children . Lisa comes into Marge 's room to apologize for her earlier behavior that made both of them get angry with each other . Marge understands how stressed out Lisa 's been with a lack of communication she has with Zia and finally offers her some helpful advice . Meanwhile , upon arriving in Springfield , Maggie starts experiencing contractions and Kearney , now a taxi driver , drives her to the hospital .
Homer takes Bart 's sons to a cryonics facility where Grampa has been frozen alive to prevent a disease from killing him . Although a cure has now been discovered , he is kept frozen by Homer because it is cheaper than paying for a nursing home and because Grampa has constantly been rude to him . Homer says to the boys that they should give their father another chance , since he knows Bart loves them . At that point , Bart arrives and apologizes to his sons , admitting how much he treasures them . Touched , the two boys forgive him for not having included them in his life much , while an inspired Homer decides to unfreeze Grampa and forgive him as well . Meanwhile , Lisa goes into the Ultranet to find Zia and discovers a door leading into Zia 's private world . Entering it , Lisa is overjoyed to find that Zia has hung a poster of her next to a series of posters depicting historical women who have made a difference in the world . When Zia arrives , Lisa thanks her for looking up to her and the two reconcile at last , and secretly hides her life as a party poser . With the conflicts resolved , Bart and Lisa gather their children in preparation for a new Christmas family photo . Marge arrives with Maggie , who has given birth to a baby girl . The Simpsons gather into a group just as the family pets ( who have evolved greatly over the past thirty years ) take the new photo .
= = Production = =
The episode , titled " Holidays of Future Passed " , was written by J. Stewart Burns and directed by Rob Oliver . It was first announced to the press at the Comic @-@ Con convention in San Diego , California on July 23 , 2011 , during a panel with the producers of The Simpsons . " Holidays of Future Passed " is the eleventh episode of the series with a Christmas theme , and the fourth episode set in the future ( the others being " Lisa 's Wedding " from 1995 , " Bart to the Future " from 2000 , and " Future @-@ Drama " from 2005 ) . Originally there was a joke in the episode about a meltdown occurring at the Springfield Nuclear Power Plant in the future ; however , it was cut following the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami that resulted in several nuclear accidents in Japan .
The Simpsons creator Matt Groening made a minor cameo in the episode , though his appearance is not mentioned in the closing credits . In the episode , a robot examines the health of Maggie 's fetus . Maggie 's band is present , and one of the band members presses a button on the robot 's " face " , which is a screen showing its facial expressions , and a football ( soccer ) game comes on instead . A sports commentator , voiced by Groening , gives a long " goal ! " shout that is heard over the game . According to The Simpsons music editor Chris Ledesma , as the episode was being recorded , " there were only sounds of crowd cheering during that shot and Matt said we needed to spice it up somehow . " After going through some different ideas , the staff settled on a commentator shouting " goal ! " . The staff members wanted Groening to provide the voice and he finished the recording in two takes .
In a 2013 interview with former show writer Conan O 'Brien , Jean stated that this episode was intended to serve as a series finale in the case that cast negotiations earlier in the year forced the show to end .
= = Release = =
" Holidays of Future Passed " originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on December 11 , 2011 . The episode was watched by approximately 6 @.@ 43 million people during this broadcast , and in the demographic for adults aged 18 – 49 , it received a 3 @.@ 0 Nielsen rating and a seven percent share . This was a decrease from the previous episode , " The Ten @-@ Per @-@ Cent Solution " , which received a 4 @.@ 0 rating . However , that episode was preceded by a popular National Football League game that helped increase its rating . " Holidays of Future Passed " became the most @-@ watched broadcast in Fox 's Animation Domination lineup for the night in terms of total viewers , finishing higher than new episodes of the three series Family Guy ( 6 @.@ 10 million ) , The Cleveland Show ( 5 @.@ 07 million ) , and American Dad ! ( 5 @.@ 00 million ) . It also became the second highest @-@ rated broadcast among adults aged 18 – 49 , being exceeded only by the Family Guy episode which received a 3 @.@ 1 rating . For the week of December 5 – 11 , 2011 , the episode placed twentieth in the ratings among all prime @-@ time network broadcasts in the 18 – 49 demographic .
= = = Critical reviews = = =
Since airing , " Holidays of Future Passed " has received highly positive reviews from television critics , particularly for its humor and emotional scenes . In his list of " The 50 Best TV Episodes of 2011 " , BuddyTV 's John Kubicek placed the episode at number forty @-@ nine , writing that the " various glimpses of how all the other characters have changed during the time jump was a cavalcade of comedy moments . " Rex Huffman of The Times @-@ Reporter cited it as " an amusing episode " , and Ology 's Josh Harrison described it as " legitimately funny " . Harrison noted that " seeing so many futuristic versions of familiar characters put an interesting spin on the holiday season . " He also commented : " The whole episode hinges on a surprisingly heartfelt scene that sees Bart and Lisa — both a bit sloshed — meeting up in the treehouse to discuss the challenges of parenting . " Similarly , Hayden Childs of The A.V. Club wrote that " Holidays of Future Passed " found " a sweet spot that combined a barrage of non @-@ stop jokes with a tenderness often lacking in latter @-@ day Simpsons episodes . There is even a conversation between the adult Bart and Lisa that rings surprisingly true for adult siblings wrestling with their shared familial past . "
Writing for HitFix , Alan Sepinwall cited " Holidays of Future Passed " as the best future @-@ set episode of The Simpsons since the first one , " Lisa 's Wedding " . He noted that it was " the emotional side of things " that made the episode successful , such as the dissatisfaction Bart and Lisa feel because of their disconnection with the children , and also Homer 's transformation into a " very wise , sweet guy after somehow surviving into old age . " Sepinwall particularly praised the scene at the cryonics facility where Homer encourages the children to give Bart another chance as " really sweet " , and he described the idea of a frozen Grampa as " a clever variation on the very familiar joke of how Homer and the family neglect [ Grampa ] because he 's such a pain in the ass . " Sepinwall also commended the episode for its jokes about the future , highlighting the scenes revolving around air travel as well as the scenes showing Krusty as " the Andy Rooney of 2041 " and Ralph Wiggum as " an endless series of stupid clones who keep killing one another . " In February 2012 , " Holidays of Future Passed " was listed by Matt Zoller Seitz of New York magazine as one of " Nine Latter @-@ Day Simpsons Episodes That Match Up to the Early Classics " . He noted that the " reconciliations between Bart and Lisa and their kids are moving . "
At the 64th Primetime Emmy Awards in 2012 , " Holidays of Future Passed " was nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Animated Program ( for Programming Less Than One Hour ) .
= = = Response to Islamic references = = =
A segment of " Holidays of Future Passed " was inspired by a controversy over the growing Islamic influence in the city of Dearborn , Michigan , which , according to Bill Gallagher of WJBK , has " a significant Muslim community " . The biggest mosque in the United States is also located there . During the segment in question , set in Milhouse and Lisa 's future home , Milhouse tells Lisa that he has started to feel the symptoms of his seasonal allergies now that Christmas has arrived . He is apparently allergic to Christmas @-@ related things such as holly , mistletoe , and the red part of candy cane . Lisa advises Milhouse to go and stay in Michigan over the holidays , where Christmas is not celebrated because it is " still under sharia law . " Milhouse agrees to do this , but complains that they always make him wear a veil there , pointing to a photo on the wall in which he is standing outside of the University of Michigan – Dearborn dressed in a burqa .
In a news report about this segment that aired on WJBK , Gallagher noted that it " poked fun at the untrue and unfounded notion that somehow Muslim sharia law prevails in Dearborn . " Dawud Walid , head of the Michigan branch of the Council on American @-@ Islamic Relations , commented in the report that The Simpsons " is a very prolific show . Now [ it ] is addressing this anti @-@ sharia fear mongering issue , and perhaps it may gain some currency and ... more people will make fun of it . " The segment was met with mixed reception from students at University of Michigan – Dearborn . A number of them were interviewed by Gallagher in his report . One student said : " It 's pretty cool showing how ridiculous the hate is . I think it 's pretty funny , " while another noted : " I don 't think it 's a good thing [ to mock anti @-@ Islamic bigotry ] because we can change it by talking , not making fun . "
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= Whitechapel murders =
The Whitechapel murders were committed in or near the impoverished Whitechapel district in the East End of London between 3 April 1888 and 13 February 1891 . At various points some or all of these eleven unsolved murders of women have been ascribed to the notorious unidentified serial killer known as Jack the Ripper .
Most , if not all , of the victims — Emma Elizabeth Smith , Martha Tabram , Mary Ann Nichols , Annie Chapman , Elizabeth Stride , Catherine Eddowes , Mary Jane Kelly , Rose Mylett , Alice McKenzie , Frances Coles , and an unidentified woman — were prostitutes . Smith was sexually assaulted and robbed by a gang . Tabram was stabbed 39 times . Nichols , Chapman , Stride , Eddowes , Kelly , McKenzie and Coles had their throats cut . Eddowes and Stride were killed on the same night , minutes and less than a mile apart ; their murders were nicknamed the " double event " , after a phrase in a postcard sent to the press by someone claiming to be the Ripper . The bodies of Nichols , Chapman , Eddowes and Kelly had abdominal mutilations . Mylett was strangled . The body of the unidentified woman was dismembered , but the exact cause of her death is unclear .
The Metropolitan Police , City of London Police , and private organisations such as the Whitechapel Vigilance Committee were involved in the search for the killer or killers . Despite extensive inquiries and several arrests , the culprit or culprits evaded identification and capture . The murders drew attention to the poor living conditions in the East End slums , which were subsequently improved . The enduring mystery of who committed the crimes has captured public imagination to the present day .
= = Context = =
In the late Victorian era , Whitechapel was considered to be the most notorious criminal rookery in London . The area around Flower and Dean Street was described as " perhaps the foulest and most dangerous street in the whole metropolis " ; Dorset Street was called " the worst street in London " . Assistant Police Commissioner Robert Anderson recommended Whitechapel to " those who take an interest in the dangerous classes " as one of London 's prime criminal " show places " . Robbery and violence were commonplace . The district was characterised by extreme poverty , sub @-@ standard housing , homelessness , drunkenness and endemic prostitution . These factors were focused in the institution of the common lodging @-@ house , which provided cheap communal lodgings for the desperate and the destitute , among whom the Whitechapel murder victims were numbered . All the identified victims lived in the heart of the rookery in Spitalfields , including three in George Street ( later named Lolesworth Street ) , two in Dorset Street , two in Flower and Dean Street and one in Thrawl Street .
Police work and criminal prosecutions relied heavily on confessions , witness testimony , and apprehending perpetrators in the act of committing an offence or in the possession of obvious physical evidence that clearly linked them to a crime . Forensic techniques , such as fingerprint analysis , were not in use . Policing in London was — and still is — divided between two forces : the Metropolitan Police with jurisdiction over most of the urban area , and the City of London Police with jurisdiction over about a square mile ( 2 @.@ 9 km2 ) of the city centre . The Home Secretary , a senior minister of the United Kingdom government , controlled the Metropolitan Police , whereas the City Police were responsible to the Corporation of London . Beat constables walked regular , timed routes .
Eleven deaths in or near Whitechapel between 1888 and 1891 were gathered into a single file , referred to in the police docket as the Whitechapel murders . Much of the original material has been either stolen or destroyed .
= = Victims and investigation = =
= = = Emma Smith = = =
On Tuesday 3 April 1888 , following the Easter Monday bank holiday , prostitute Emma Elizabeth Smith was assaulted and robbed at the junction of Osborn Street and Brick Lane , Whitechapel , in the early hours of the morning . Although injured , she survived the attack and managed to walk back to her lodging house at 18 George Street , Spitalfields . She told the deputy keeper , Mary Russell , that she had been attacked by two or three men , one of them a youth . Mrs Russell took Smith to the London Hospital , where medical examination revealed that a blunt object had been inserted into her vagina , rupturing her peritoneum . She developed peritonitis and died at 9 am on 4 April 1888 . The inquest was conducted on 7 April by the coroner for East Middlesex , Wynne Edwin Baxter , who also conducted inquests on six of the later victims . The local inspector of the Metropolitan Police , Edmund Reid of H Division Whitechapel , investigated the attack but the culprits were never caught . Walter Dew , a detective constable stationed with H Division , later wrote that he thought Smith was the first victim of Jack the Ripper , but his colleagues suspected it was the work of a criminal gang . Smith claimed that she was attacked by a group of men , but either refused to or could not describe them . Prostitutes were often managed by gangs , and Smith could have been attacked by her pimps as a punishment for disobeying them , or as part of their intimidation . She may not have identified her attackers because she feared reprisal , and her murder is unlikely to be connected with the later killings .
= = = Martha Tabram = = =
On Tuesday 7 August , following a Monday bank holiday , prostitute Martha Tabram was murdered at about 2 : 30 am . Her body was found at George Yard Buildings , George Yard , Whitechapel . She had been stabbed 39 times with a short blade . On the basis of statements from a fellow prostitute , and PC Thomas Barrett who was patrolling nearby , Inspector Reid put soldiers at the Tower of London and Wellington Barracks on an identification parade , but without positive results . The police did not connect the murder with Smith 's , but they did connect it with the later murders . Most experts today do not connect it with the other killings , as Tabram was stabbed whereas the later victims were slashed , but a connection cannot be ruled out .
= = = Mary Ann Nichols = = =
On Friday 31 August , prostitute Mary Ann Nichols was murdered in Buck 's Row ( since renamed Durward Street ) , a back street in Whitechapel . Her body was discovered by cart driver Charles Cross at 3 : 45 am on the ground in front of a gated stable entrance . Her throat had been slit twice from left to right and her abdomen was mutilated by a deep jagged wound . Several shallower incisions across the abdomen , and three or four similar cuts on the right side were caused by the same knife used violently and downwards . As the murder occurred in the territory of the J or Bethnal Green Division of the Metropolitan Police , it was at first investigated by the local detectives . On the same day , James Monro resigned as the head of the Criminal Investigation Department ( CID ) over differences with Chief Commissioner of the Metropolitan Police Sir Charles Warren . Initial investigations into the murder had little success , although elements of the press linked it to the two previous murders and suggested the killing might have been perpetrated by a gang , as in the case of Smith . The Star newspaper suggested instead that a single killer was responsible and other newspapers took up their storyline . Suspicions of a serial killer at large in London led to the secondment of Detective Inspectors Frederick Abberline , Henry Moore and Walter Andrews from the Central Office at Scotland Yard . On the available evidence , Coroner Baxter concluded that Nichols was murdered at just after 3 am where she was found . In his summing up , he dismissed the possibility that her murder was connected with those of Smith and Tabram , as the lethal weapons were different in those cases , and neither of the earlier cases involved a slash to the throat . However , by the time the inquest into Nichols ' death had concluded , a fourth woman had been murdered , and Baxter noted " The similarity of the injuries in the two cases is considerable . "
= = = Annie Chapman = = =
The mutilated body of the fourth woman , prostitute Annie Chapman , was discovered at about 6 : 00 am on Saturday 8 September on the ground near a doorway in the back yard of 29 Hanbury Street , Spitalfields . Chapman had left her lodgings at 2 am on the day she was murdered , with the intention of getting money from a client to pay her rent . Her throat was cut from left to right . She had been disembowelled , and her intestines had been thrown out of her abdomen over each of her shoulders . The morgue examination revealed that part of her uterus was missing . The pathologist , George Bagster Phillips , was of the opinion that the murderer must have possessed anatomical knowledge to have sliced out the reproductive organs in a single movement with a blade about 6 – 8 inches ( 15 – 20 cm ) long . However , the idea that the murderer possessed surgical skill was dismissed by other experts . As the bodies were not examined extensively at the scene , it has also been suggested that the organs were actually removed by mortuary staff , who took advantage of bodies that had already been opened to extract organs that they could sell as surgical specimens .
On 10 September , the police arrested a notorious local called John Pizer , dubbed " Leather Apron " , who had a reputation for terrorising local prostitutes . His alibis for the two most recent murders were corroborated , and he was released without charge . At the inquest one of the witnesses , Mrs Elizabeth Long , testified that she had seen Chapman talking to a man at about 5 : 30 am just beyond the back yard of 29 Hanbury Street , where Chapman was later found . Baxter inferred that the man Mrs Long had seen was the murderer . Mrs Long described him as over forty , a little taller than Chapman , of dark complexion , and of foreign , " shabby @-@ genteel " appearance . He was wearing a brown deer @-@ stalker hat and a dark overcoat . Another witness , carpenter Albert Cadosch , had entered the neighbouring yard at 27 Hanbury Street at about the same time , and heard voices in the yard followed by the sound of something falling against the fence .
In his memoirs , Walter Dew recorded that the killings caused widespread panic in London . A mob attacked the Commercial Road police station , suspecting that the murderer was being held there . Samuel Montagu , the Member of Parliament for Whitechapel , offered a reward of £ 100 ( roughly £ 10 @,@ 000 as of 2016 ) after rumours that the attacks were Jewish ritual killings led to anti @-@ Semitic demonstrations . Local residents founded the Whitechapel Vigilance Committee under the chairmanship of George Lusk and offered a reward for the apprehension of the killer — something the Metropolitan Police ( under instruction from the Home Office ) refused to do because it could lead to false or misleading information . The Committee employed two private detectives to investigate the case .
Robert Anderson was appointed head of the CID on 1 September , but he went on sick leave to Switzerland on the 7th . Superintendent Thomas Arnold , who was in charge of H ( Whitechapel ) Division , went on leave on 2 September . Anderson 's absence left overall direction of the enquiries confused , and led Chief Commissioner Sir Charles Warren to appoint Chief Inspector Donald Swanson to co @-@ ordinate the investigation from Scotland Yard . A German hairdresser named Charles Ludwig was taken into custody on 18 September on suspicion of the murders , but he was released less than two weeks later when a double murder demonstrated that the real culprit was still at large .
= = = Double event : Elizabeth Stride and Catherine Eddowes = = =
On Sunday 30 September , the body of prostitute Elizabeth Stride was discovered at about 1 am in Dutfield 's Yard , inside the gateway of 40 Berner Street ( since renamed Henriques Street ) , Whitechapel . She was lying in a pool of blood with her throat cut from left to right . She had been killed just minutes before , and her body was otherwise unmutilated . It is possible that the murderer was disturbed before he could commit any mutilation of the body by someone entering the yard , perhaps Louis Diemschutz , who discovered the body . However , some commentators on the case conclude that Stride 's murder was unconnected to the others on the basis that the body was unmutilated , that it was the only murder to occur south of Whitechapel Road , and that the blade used might have been shorter and of a different design . Most experts , however , consider the similarities in the case distinctive enough to connect Stride 's murder with at least two of the earlier ones , as well as that of Catherine Eddowes on the same night .
At 1 : 45 am Catherine Eddowes ' mutilated body was found by PC Edward Watkins at the south @-@ west corner of Mitre Square , in the City of London , about 12 minutes walk from Berner Street . She had been killed less than 10 minutes earlier by a slash to the throat from left to right with a sharp , pointed knife at least 6 inches ( 15 cm ) long . Her face and abdomen were mutilated , and her intestines were drawn out over the right shoulder with a detached length between her torso and left arm . Her left kidney and most of her uterus were removed . The Eddowes inquest was opened on 4 October by Samuel F. Langham , coroner for the City of London . The examining pathologist , Dr Frederick Gordon Brown , believed the perpetrator " had considerable knowledge of the position of the organs " and from the position of the wounds on the body he could tell that the murderer had knelt to the right of the body , and worked alone . However , the first doctor at the scene , local surgeon Dr George William Sequeira , disputed that the killer possessed anatomical skill or sought particular organs . His view was shared by City medical officer William Sedgwick Saunders , who was also present at the autopsy . Because of this murder 's location , the City of London Police under Detective Inspector James McWilliam were brought into the enquiry .
At 3 am a blood @-@ stained fragment of Eddowes ' apron was found lying in the passage of the doorway leading to 108 to 119 Goulston Street , Whitechapel , about a third of a mile ( 500 m ) from the murder scene . There was chalk writing on the wall of the doorway , which read either " The Juwes are the men that will not be blamed for nothing " or " The Juwes are not the men who will be blamed for nothing . " At 5 am , Commissioner Warren attended the scene and ordered the words erased for fear that they would spark anti @-@ Semitic riots . Goulston Street was on a direct route from Mitre Square to Flower and Dean Street , where both Stride and Eddowes lived .
The Middlesex coroner , Wynne Baxter , believed that Stride had been attacked with a swift , sudden action . She was still holding a packet of cachous ( breath freshening sweets ) in her left hand when she was discovered , indicating that she had not had time to defend herself . A grocer , Matthew Packer , implied to private detectives employed by the Whitechapel Vigilance Committee that he had sold some grapes to Stride and the murderer ; however , he had told police that he had shut his shop without seeing anything suspicious . At the inquest , the pathologists stated emphatically that Stride had not held , swallowed or consumed grapes . They described her stomach contents as " cheese , potatoes and farinaceous powder [ flour or milled grain ] " . Nevertheless , Packer 's story appeared in the press . Packer 's description of the man did not match the statements by other witnesses who may have seen Stride with a man shortly before her murder , but all but two of the descriptions differed . Joseph Lawende passed through Mitre Square with two other men shortly before Eddowes was murdered there , and may have seen her with a man of about 30 years old , who was shabbily dressed , wore a peaked cap , and had a fair moustache . Chief Inspector Swanson noted that Lawende 's description was a near match to another provided by one of the witnesses who may have seen Stride with her murderer . However , Lawende stated that he would not be able to identify the man again , and the two other men with Lawende were unable to give descriptions .
Criticism of the Metropolitan Police and the Home Secretary , Henry Matthews , continued to mount as little progress was made with the investigation . The City Police and the Lord Mayor of London offered a reward of £ 500 ( roughly £ 50 @,@ 000 as of 2016 ) for information leading to the capture of the villain . The use of bloodhounds to track the killer in the event of another attack was considered , but the idea was abandoned because the trail of scents was confused in the busy city , the dogs were inexperienced in an urban environment , and the owner was concerned that the dogs would be poisoned by criminals if their role in crime detection became known .
On 27 September , the Central News Agency received a letter , dubbed the " Dear Boss " letter , in which the writer , who signed himself " Jack the Ripper " , claimed to have committed the murders . On 1 October , a postcard , dubbed the " Saucy Jacky " postcard and also signed " Jack the Ripper " , was received by the agency . It claimed responsibility for the most recent murders on 30 September , and described the murders of the two women as the " double event " , a designation which has endured .
On Tuesday 2 October , an unidentified female torso was found in the basement of New Scotland Yard , which was under construction . It was linked to the Whitechapel murders by the press , but it was not included in the Whitechapel murders file , and any connection between the two is now considered unlikely . The case became known as the Whitehall Mystery . On the same day , the psychic Robert James Lees visited Scotland Yard and offered to track down the murderer using paranormal powers ; the police turned him away and " called [ him ] a fool and a lunatic " .
The head of the CID , Anderson , eventually got back from leave on 6 October and took charge of the investigation for Scotland Yard . On 16 October , George Lusk of the Whitechapel Vigilance Committee received another letter claiming to be from the killer . The handwriting and style were unlike that of the " Dear Boss " letter and " Saucy Jacky " postcard . The letter arrived with a small box containing half of a human kidney preserved in alcohol . The letter 's writer claimed that he had extracted it from the body of Eddowes and that he had " fried and ate " the missing half . Opinion on whether the kidney and the letter were genuine was and is divided . By the end of October , the police had interviewed more than 2 @,@ 000 people , investigated " upwards of 300 " , and detained 80 .
= = = Mary Kelly = = =
On Friday 9 November , prostitute Mary Jane Kelly was murdered in the single room where she lived at 13 Miller 's Court , behind 26 Dorset Street , Spitalfields . One of the earlier victims , Chapman , had lived in Dorset Street , and another , Eddowes , was reported to have slept rough there . Kelly 's severely mutilated body was discovered shortly after 10 : 45 am lying on the bed . The first doctor at the scene , Dr George Bagster Phillips , believed that Kelly was killed by a slash to the throat . After her death , her abdominal cavity was sliced open and all her viscera removed and spread around the room . Her breasts had been cut off , her face mutilated beyond recognition , and her thighs partially cut through to the bone , with some of the muscles removed . Unlike the other victims , she was undressed and wore only a light chemise . Her clothes were folded neatly on a chair , with the exception of some found burnt in the grate . Abberline thought the clothes had been burned by the murderer to provide light , as the room was otherwise only dimly lit by a single candle . Kelly 's murder was the most savage , probably because the murderer had more time to commit his atrocities in a private room rather than in the street . Her state of undress and folded clothes have led to suggestions that she undressed herself before lying down on the bed , which would indicate that she was killed by someone she knew , by someone she believed to be a client , or when she was asleep or intoxicated .
The coroner for North East Middlesex , Dr Roderick Macdonald , MP , presided over the inquest into Kelly 's death at Shoreditch Town Hall on 12 November . Amid scenes of great emotion , an " enormous crowd " of mourners attended Mary Kelly 's funeral on 19 November . The streets became gridlocked and the cortège struggled to travel from Shoreditch mortuary to the Roman Catholic Cemetery at Leytonstone , where she was laid to rest .
On 8 November , Charles Warren resigned as Commissioner of the Metropolitan Police after the Home Secretary informed him that he could not make public statements without Home Office approval . James Monro , who had resigned a few months earlier over differences with Warren , was appointed as his replacement in December . On 10 November , the police surgeon Thomas Bond wrote to Robert Anderson , head of the London CID , detailing the similarities between the five murders of Nichols , Chapman , Stride , Eddowes and Kelly , " no doubt committed by the same hand " . On the same day , the Cabinet resolved to offer a pardon to any accomplice who came forward with information that led to the conviction of the actual murderer . The Metropolitan Police Commissioner reported that the Whitechapel murderer remained unidentified despite 143 extra plain @-@ clothes policemen deployed in Whitechapel in November and December .
= = = Rose Mylett = = =
On Thursday 20 December 1888 , a patrolling constable found prostitute Rose Mylett ( also known as Catherine Millett and Lizzie Davis ) , 29 , strangled in Clarke 's Yard , off Poplar High Street . Mylett had lodged at 18 George Street , as had Emma Smith . Four doctors who examined Mylett 's body thought she had been murdered , but Robert Anderson thought she had accidentally hanged herself on the collar of her dress while in a drunken stupor . At Anderson 's request Dr Bond examined Mylett 's body , and he agreed with Anderson . Commissioner Monro also suspected it was a suicide or natural death as there were no signs of a struggle . The coroner , Wynne Baxter , told the inquest jury that " there is no evidence to show that death was the result of violence " . Nevertheless , the jury returned a verdict of " wilful murder against some person or persons unknown " and the case was added to the Whitechapel file .
= = = Alice McKenzie = = =
Alice McKenzie was possibly a prostitute , and was murdered at about 12 : 40 am on Wednesday 17 July 1889 in Castle Alley , Whitechapel . Like most of the previous murders , her left carotid artery was severed from left to right and there were wounds on her abdomen . However , her wounds were not as deep as in previous murders , and a shorter blade was used . Commissioner Monro and one of the pathologists examining the body , Bond , believed this to be a Ripper murder , though another of the pathologists , Phillips , and Robert Anderson disagreed , as did Inspector Abberline . Later writers are also divided , and either suggest that McKenzie was a Ripper victim , or that the unknown murderer tried to make it look like a Ripper killing to deflect suspicion from himself . At the inquest , Coroner Baxter acknowledged both possibilities , and concluded : " There is great similarity between this and the other class of cases , which have happened in this neighbourhood , and if the same person has not committed this crime , it is clearly an imitation of the other cases . "
= = = Pinchin Street torso = = =
A woman 's torso was found at 5 : 15 a.m. on Tuesday 10 September 1889 under a railway arch in Pinchin Street , Whitechapel . No other body parts were found , despite a search of the area , and neither the victim nor the culprit were ever identified . Chief Inspector Swanson and Commissioner Monro noted that the presence of blood within the torso indicated that death was not from haemorrhage or cutting of the throat . The pathologists , however , noted that the general bloodlessness of the tissues and vessels indicated that haemorrhage was the cause of death . Newspaper speculation that the body belonged to Lydia Hart , who had disappeared , was refuted after she was found recovering in hospital after " a bit of a spree " . Another claim that the victim was a missing girl called Emily Barker was also refuted , as the torso was from an older and taller woman . The age of the victim was estimated at 30 – 40 years .
Swanson did not consider this a Ripper case , and instead suggested a link to similar dismembered body cases in Rainham and Chelsea , as well as the " Whitehall Mystery " . Monro agreed with Swanson 's assessment . These three murders and the Pinchin Street case are suggested to be the work of a serial killer , nicknamed the " Torso killer " , who could either be the same person as " Jack the Ripper " or a separate killer of uncertain connection . Links between these and three further murders — the " Battersea Mystery " of 1873 and 1874 , in which two women were found dismembered , and the 1884 " Tottenham Court Road Mystery " — have also been postulated . Experts on the murders — colloquially known as " Ripperologists " — such as Stewart Evans , Keith Skinner , Martin Fido , and Donald Rumbelow , discount any connection between the torso and Ripper killings on the basis of their different modi operandi .
Monro was replaced as Commissioner by Sir Edward Bradford on 21 June 1890 , after a disagreement with Home Secretary Matthews over police pensions .
= = = Frances Coles = = =
The last of the murders in the Whitechapel file was committed on Friday 13 February 1891 when prostitute Frances Coles was murdered under a railway arch . Her body was found by PC Ernest Thompson only moments after the attack at 2 : 15 am at Swallow Gardens , a passageway under a railway arch between Chamber Street and Royal Mint Street , Whitechapel . Minor wounds on the back of her head suggest that she was thrown violently to the ground before her throat was cut at least twice , from left to right and then back again . Otherwise there were no mutilations to the body . Superintendent Arnold and Inspector Reid arrived soon afterwards from the nearby Leman Street police station , and Chief Inspectors Donald Swanson and Henry Moore , who had been involved in the previous murder investigations , arrived by 5 am . A man named James Sadler , who had been seen with Coles earlier , was arrested by the police and charged with her murder . A high @-@ profile investigation by Swanson and Moore into Sadler 's past history and his whereabouts at the time of the previous Whitechapel murders indicates that the police may have suspected him to be the Ripper . However , Sadler was released on 3 March for lack of evidence .
= = Legacy = =
Abberline retired in 1892 , and Matthews lost office in that year 's general election . Arnold retired the following year , and Swanson and Anderson retired after 1900 . There are no documents in the Whitechapel murder file dated after 1896 . The murderer or murderers were never identified and the cases remain unsolved . Sensational reportage and the mystery surrounding the identity of the killer or killers fed the development of the character " Jack the Ripper " , who was blamed for all or most of the murders . Hundreds of books and articles discuss the Whitechapel murders , and they feature in novels , short stories , comic books , television shows , and films of multiple genres .
The poor of the East End had long been ignored by affluent society , but the nature of the murders and of the victims drew attention to their living conditions . The murders galvanised opinion against the overcrowded , unsanitary slums of the East End , and led to demands for reform . On 24 September 1888 , George Bernard Shaw commented sarcastically on the media 's sudden concern in social justice in a letter to The Star newspaper :
Whilst we conventional Social Democrats were wasting our time on education , agitation and organisation , some independent genius has taken the matter in hand , and by simply murdering and disembowelling ... women , converted the proprietary press to an inept sort of communism .
Acts of Parliament , such as the Housing of the Working Classes Act 1890 and the Public Health Amendment Act 1890 , set minimum standards for accommodation in an effort to transform degenerated urban areas . The worst of the slums were demolished in the two decades following the Whitechapel murders .
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= Huon Peninsula campaign =
The Huon Peninsula campaign was a series of battles fought in north @-@ eastern Papua New Guinea in 1943 – 44 during the Second World War . The campaign formed the initial part of an offensive that the Allies launched in the Pacific in late 1943 and resulted in the Japanese being pushed north from Lae to Sio on the northern coast of New Guinea over the course of a four @-@ month period . For the Australians , a significant advantage was gained through the technological edge that Allied industry had achieved over the Japanese by this phase of the war , while the Japanese were hampered by a lack of supplies and reinforcements due to Allied interdiction efforts at sea and in the air .
The campaign was preceded by an amphibious landing by troops from the Australian 9th Division east of Lae on 4 September 1943 . This was followed by an advance west along the coast towards the town where they were to link up with 7th Division advancing from Nadzab . Meanwhile , Australian and US forces mounted diversionary attacks around Salamaua . Heavy rain and flooding slowed the 9th Division 's advance , which had to cross several rivers along the way . The Japanese rear guard also put up a stiff defence and , as a result , Lae did not fall until 16 September , when troops from the 7th Division entered it ahead of the 9th , and the main body of the Japanese force escaped north . Less than a week later , the Huon Peninsula campaign was opened as the Australians undertook another amphibious landing further east , aimed at capturing Finschhafen .
Following the landing at Scarlet Beach , the Allies set about moving south to secure Finschhafen , which saw fighting around Jivevaneng also . In mid @-@ October , the Japanese launched a counterattack against the Australian beachhead around Scarlet Beach , which lasted for about a week and resulted in a small contraction of the Australian lines and a splitting of their force before it was defeated . After this , the Australians regained the initiative and began to pursue the Japanese who withdrew inland towards the high ground around Sattelberg . Amidst heavy fighting and a second failed Japanese counterattack , Sattelberg was secured in late November and the Australians began an area advance to the north to secure a line between Wareo and Gusika . This was completed by early December , and was followed by an advance by Australian forces along the coast through Lakona to Fortification Point , overcoming strong Japanese forces fighting delaying actions .
The final stage of the campaign saw the Japanese resistance finally break . A swift advance by the Australians along the northern coast of the peninsula followed and in January 1944 they captured Sio . At the same time , the Americans landed at Saidor . After this , mopping up operations were undertaken by Allied forces around Sio until March . A lull period then followed in northern New Guinea until July when US forces clashed with the Japanese around the Driniumor River . This was followed by further fighting in November 1944 when the Australians opened a fresh campaign in Aitape – Wewak .
= = Background = =
= = = Geography = = =
The Huon Peninsula is situated along the north @-@ east coast of Papua New Guinea , and stretches from Lae in the south on the Huon Gulf to Sio in the north along the Vitiaz Strait . Along the coast , between these two points , numerous rivers and streams cut the terrain . Of these , the most prominent are the Song , Bumi and Mape Rivers . These waterways flow from the mountainous interior which is formed through the conglomeration of the Rawlinson Range in the south , with the Cromwell Mountains in the east . These meet in the centre of the peninsula to form the Saruwaged Range massif , which joins the Finisterre Range further west . Apart from a thin , flat coastal strip , at the time of the campaign , the area was thickly covered with dense jungle , through which very few tracks had been cut . The terrain was rugged and for the most part the tracks , until improved by engineers , were largely unpassable to motor transport and as a result throughout the campaign a large amount of the Allied resupply effort was undertaken on foot .
During planning , the Allies identified three areas as key and decisive terrain in the area : the beach north of Katika , which was later codenamed " Scarlet " by the Allies , the 3 @,@ 150 @-@ foot ( 960 m ) high peak called Sattelberg 5 miles ( 8 km ) to the south @-@ west , which dominated the area due to its height , and Finschhafen , possessing a small airfield and sitting on the coast in a bay which offered protected harbour facilities 5 @.@ 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 0 km ) south of Scarlet Beach . The Japanese , too , regarded Sattelberg and Finschhafen as key areas . In addition to these , they identified a ridge that ran between the village of Gusika on the coast , about 3 @.@ 4 miles ( 5 @.@ 5 km ) north of Katika , and Wareo 4 @.@ 66 miles ( 7 @.@ 5 km ) inland to the west . The importance of this ridge lay in the track that ran along it , over which the Japanese supplied their forces around Sattelberg . It also offered a natural barrier to any advance north from Finschhafen , making it a potential defensive line .
= = = Military situation = = =
By 1943 , Japanese expansionary moves in the South West Pacific Area ( SWPA ) had ceased . Their advance in Papua New Guinea had been halted the previous year by the blocking action that Australian forces had fought along the Kokoda Track . Subsequent defeats at Milne Bay , Buna – Gona , Wau and on Guadalcanal had forced the Japanese on to the back foot . As a result of these victories , the Allies were able to seize the initiative in the region in mid @-@ 1943 and began making plans to continue to push the Japanese back in New Guinea .
Allied planners began formulating their plans for the future direction of the fighting in the wider Pacific with a focus upon retaking the Philippines and the eventual capture of the Japanese Home Islands . The lynchpin to Japanese strength in the region was their main base at Rabaul . The reduction of this base came to be seen as a key tenet of success in the SWPA for the Allies and was formalised into Operation Cartwheel .
In order to achieve this , the Allies needed access to a number of airbases in the region . Allied high commanders , including General Douglas MacArthur , directed that two airbases be secured : one at Lae and another at Finschhafen . The capture of Lae would provide the Allies with a port to supply Nadzab and would facilitate operations in the Markham Valley . Gaining control of Finschhafen , and the wider Huon Peninsula , was an important precursor to conducting operations in New Britain by providing a natural harbour , and enabling control of the strategically important Vitiaz and Dampier Straits .
= = = Opposing forces = = =
At the time , there were no US ground forces under MacArthur 's command in action against the Japanese , and the task of securing Finschhafen was allocated to Australian troops from the 9th Division . A veteran formation of the all @-@ volunteer Second Australian Imperial Force ( 2nd AIF ) , the 9th Division was vastly experienced , having fought in the North African campaign , where it had held Tobruk against a German onslaught earlier in the war and had been heavily engaged at the First and Second Battle of El Alamein . In early 1943 , the division had been brought back to Australia , and it had subsequently been reorganised to take part in jungle warfare . With an establishment of 13 @,@ 118 men , the division consisted of three brigades of infantry – the 20th , 24th and 26th – each consisting of three battalions , along with organic battalion @-@ level engineer , pioneer , artillery , and armoured formations attached at divisional level . In support of the 9th Division , Militia infantry units from the 4th Brigade would also take part in the fighting after the initial fighting . American forces would also be involved , mainly providing logistical , naval and engineering support .
Air support was provided by No. 9 Operational Group RAAF , which included several Royal Australian Air Force squadrons such as No. 4 Squadron RAAF , flying CAC Boomerangs and Wirraways , and No. 24 Squadron RAAF equipped with Vultee Vengeance dive bombers ; these units undertook numerous close air support and resupply missions throughout the campaign . American Republic P @-@ 47 Thunderbolts and Lockheed P @-@ 38 Lightnings from the 348th and 475th Fighter Groups were also used to provide fighter cover for Allied shipping , while heavy and medium bombers from the Fifth Air Force carried out strategic bombing missions to reduce Japanese airbases around Wewak and New Britain , and raided Japanese lines of communication in concert with PT boats . Due to the impracticalities of using wheeled transport in the jungle , Allied logistics was undertaken primarily by means of water transport such as landing craft and barges which moved supplies along the coast , with overland supply to combat units being completed by New Guinean labourers and , at times , by Australian combat troops themselves , which were re @-@ roled temporarily to undertake portage tasks as required , and augmented where possible with jeeps .
The main Japanese force in the campaign was provided by the XVIII Army under the command of Lieutenant General Hatazō Adachi and was headquartered at Madang . This force consisted of three divisions – the 20th , the 41st and the 51st – and a number of smaller forces which included naval infantry and garrison units . Around the Finschhafen area in mid @-@ September 1943 , the main forces were drawn from the 20th Division 's 80th Infantry and 26th Field Artillery Regiments , the 41st Division 's 238th Infantry Regiment , the naval 85th Garrison Unit and a company from the 51st Division 's 102nd Infantry Regiment . These forces were under the command of Major General Eizo Yamada , commander of the 1st Shipping Group , although tactical command was devolved at local level due to the geographical spread of the Japanese units . These units were situated across a broad area between the Mongi River , east of Lae to Arndt Point , Sattelberg , Joangeng , Logaweng , Finschhafen , Sisi and on Tami Island . The largest concentrations were around Sattelberg and Finschhafen , where the main forces came under the command of Lieutenant General Shigeru Katagiri , commander of the 20th Division . The strength and efficiency of the Japanese units had been reduced by disease , and their employment in road construction tasks between Madang and Bogadjim .
Like the Allies , the Japanese also relied on water transport to ferry supplies and reinforcements around the New Guinea , using a force of three submarines to avoid interdiction by Allied aircraft which had previously inflicted heavy casualties during the Battle of the Bismarck Sea . These submarines were augmented by barges , although they were limited in supply and were subject to attack by Allied aircraft and PT boats . Once the supplies had been landed , resupply parties were used to carry the stores overland on foot along a number of key tracks to their main troop concentrations around Sattelberg and Finschhafen . Air support was provided by the 4th Air Army , consisting primarily of the 7th Air Division and 14th Air Brigade , along with some elements from the 6th Air Division . Based in Wewak , the Japanese aircraft were mainly used to escort Japanese shipping and attack Allied shipping around the main beachhead during the campaign , with a secondary task of undertaking ground attack missions in support of Japanese troops . The 11th Naval Air Fleet , based at Rabaul , also undertook anti @-@ shipping missions . Despite having these units available , heavy Allied bombing of Japanese airfields around Wewak in August 1943 greatly reduced the number of aircraft available to the Japanese and limited their ability to apply airpower throughout the campaign .
The Japanese force lacked for transport , engineer and logistical support and was hampered by a lack of cohesion due to its disparate command structure and poor infrastructure . In contrast , the Australian force had fought together in previous campaigns and was backed up by a formidable logistical support base that could deliver them a technological and industrial superiority that the Japanese were unable to match .
= = Prelude = =
Following MacArthur 's directive to secure the airfields at Lae and Finschhafen , the Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief Allied Forces , South West Pacific Area , General Thomas Blamey , an Australian , ordered the capture of the Huon Peninsula . The 9th Division under Major General George Wootten was tasked with the job . The initial focus was upon securing Lae . The Allies formulated a plan to achieve this that would see the 9th Division conduct an amphibious landing east of Lae , while the 7th Division would move by air to Nadzab in the Markham Valley , which had been secured by parachute troops from the US 503rd Parachute Infantry Regiment and the 2 / 4th Field Regiment . From Nadzab , the 7th Division would advance on Lae from the south to support the 9th Division 's drive towards Lae . At the same time , the Australian 3rd Division and the US 162nd Infantry Regiment would fight a diversionary action around Salamaua .
After training in Queensland and at Milne Bay in New Guinea , the 9th Division embarked upon US ships assigned to Rear Admiral Daniel Barbey 's naval task force – VII Amphibious Force – as part of what was the " largest amphibious operation ... undertaken by Allied forces in the South @-@ West Pacific " to that point in the war . The 20th Brigade , under the command of Brigadier Victor Windeyer , was chosen to spearhead the assault with a landing at a beach 16 miles ( 26 km ) to the east of Lae . In preparation , early on 4 September 1943 , five destroyers laid down a heavy bombardment that lasted six minutes . Upon its conclusion , the 2 / 13th Infantry Battalion led the 20th Brigade ashore , with the brigade 's other two battalions , the 2 / 15th and 2 / 17th , coming ashore shortly afterwards in the second and third waves . Unopposed on the ground , the Australian infantry quickly began to move inland as further reinforcements arrived . About 35 minutes after the initial landing , as the Australian divisional headquarters and the 2 / 23rd Infantry Battalion were coming ashore , a small force of Japanese aircraft attacked the landing craft carrying the infantry ashore . As a result , two of these craft were heavily damaged and numerous casualties inflicted , including the 2 / 23rd 's commanding officer , who was killed when a Japanese bomb landed on the bridge of LCI @-@ 339 .
Further Japanese air attacks came in the afternoon . A force of about 70 Japanese aircraft , coming from bases on New Britain , were beaten off over Finschhafen . Another group , however , achieved success around Morobe , attacking empty transports that were making their egress from Finschhafen , while off Cape Ward Hunt another group attacked an Allied convoy carrying follow @-@ on forces , including the rest of Brigadier David Whitehead 's 26th Brigade . Aboard LST @-@ 471 , 43 were killed and another 30 wounded , while eight were killed and 37 wounded on LST @-@ 473 . This did not prevent the flow of supplies and the arrival of further reinforcements in the shape of the 24th Brigade , under Brigadier Bernard Evans , the following day . The Australians then began the arduous advance west towards Lae , passing through " thick jungle , swamps , kunai grass and numerous rain @-@ swollen rivers and streams " which , along with heavy rain , slowed their progress . On the night of 5 / 6 September , the Japanese launched an attack on the lead Australian battalion , but they were unable to prevent its advance . At this point , the 26th Brigade moved inland to strike towards Lae from the north @-@ east while the 24th carried the advance along the coast .
At this point , the 9th Division 's advance began to be hampered by a lack of supplies which , along with the rugged terrain , resulted in slow progress . It was not until 9 September that they reached the Busu River . The 2 / 28th Infantry Battalion was leading the Australian advance at this stage and the soldiers waded across . The current was strong and many of the men – 13 of whom drowned – were swept downstream . Nevertheless , the 2 / 28th was able to establish a beachhead west of the river . At this point , heavy rain began to fall again , and the river rose once more , preventing any other units from crossing . This effectively isolated the single Australian battalion , which was then subjected to repeated attacks by the Japanese . On 14 September , the 26th Brigade was able to force its way across and the advance continued . Along the coast the 24th Brigade was held up by a determined Japanese defence in front of the Butibum River , which was the final crossing before Lae . The stream was finally forded on 16 September , by which time Lae had fallen to troops from the 7th Division .
In the fighting for Lae over 2 @,@ 200 Japanese were killed . In contrast , the Australian casualties were considerably lighter , with the 9th Division losing 77 killed and 73 missing . Despite the Allied success in capturing Lae , the Japanese had achieved a " creditable defence " , which had not only slowed the Allied advance , but had allowed the bulk of the Japanese forces in the vicinity to get away , withdrawing north into the Huon Peninsula , where they could continue to fight on .
= = Campaign = =
= = = Finschhafen = = =
Lae had fallen sooner than the Allies had anticipated and they exploited the advantage quickly . The first phase of the new campaign consisted of an amphibious landing by Allied troops north of Siki Cove near the confluence of the Siki River and south of the Song at a beach codenamed " Scarlet " . Positioned further east on the peninsula from Lae , in terms of strategic importance , Finschhafen overshadowed Lae in the minds of the Allied planners , due to its potential to support operations across the Vitiaz Strait into New Britain . As a result of faulty intelligence , which underestimated the size of the Japanese force in the area , the assault force chosen by the Allied commanders consisted of only a single Australian infantry brigade – the 20th . Meanwhile , the 7th Division would move north @-@ west from Lae in a separate campaign , advancing through the Markham and Ramu Valleys towards the Finisterre Range .
After a short period of preparation , the 20th Brigade 's landing took place on 22 September 1943 . It was the first opposed amphibious landing that Australian forces had made since Gallipoli . Navigational errors resulted in the troops being landed on the wrong beaches , with some of them coming ashore at Siki Cove and taking heavy fire from the strong Japanese defences in pillboxes and behind obstacles . After re @-@ organising on the beach , the Australians pushed inland . The Japanese put up stiff resistance around the high ground at Katika , but were eventually forced back . By the end of the day , having suffered 94 casualties , the Australians had secured a beachhead " several kilometres " deep . Late in the day , a force of around 30 Japanese bombers , escorted by up to 40 fighters , from the Wewak @-@ based 4th Air Army based was sent to attack Allied shipping around Finschhafen . Forewarned by the destroyer USS Reid , which was serving as an air picket and fighter controller in the Vitiaz Strait , the Allies were able to concentrate five squadrons of US fighter aircraft over the convoy and in the aerial battle that followed 39 Japanese aircraft were shot down and the raid turned back .
The next day the Australians commenced their advance south towards the village of Finschhafen , about 5 @.@ 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 0 km ) south of the landing beach , with the 2 / 15th Infantry Battalion leading the way to the Bumi River . The Japanese had established strong defences along the river 's southern bank , which the Australians attempted to outflank by sending a force to the west , climbing through steep terrain . Once they had located a suitable place to cross the river , they began wading across but were fired upon by a group of Japanese naval infantry who were positioned on a high feature overlooking the river . Despite taking casualties , the Australians were able to establish themselves south of the Bumi and at that point the 2 / 13th Infantry Battalion began to advance on Finschhafen from the west . Meanwhile , the 2 / 15th attacked the left flank of the Japanese that had opposed their crossing . After advancing up the steep slope under fire , sometimes on their hands and knees , the 2 / 15th took the position at the point of the bayonet , killing 52 Japanese in close combat .
The continued advance south by the Australians spread them thin on the ground . Due to concerns that their western flank was exposed , the 2 / 17th Infantry Battalion was sent along the Sattelberg track to deflect any Japanese thrusts from there . At Jivevaneng , the battalion was stopped and there the Japanese 80th Infantry Regiment launched a series of determined attacks against them , trying to break through to the coast .
At this point , Australian fears of a Japanese counterattack grew and they requested reinforcements from their higher commander , General Douglas MacArthur . However , the request was denied as MacArthur 's intelligence staff believed that there were only 350 Japanese in the vicinity . Actually , there were already 5 @,@ 000 Japanese around Sattelberg and Finschhafen while throughout early October this number grew to 12 @,@ 000 as they began to prepare for their planned counterattack . The Australians received some reinforcements in the shape of the 2 / 43rd Infantry Battalion . The arrival of this unit meant that the 2 / 17th , deadlocked around Jivevaneng , could be freed for the advance on Finschhafen , thus enabling the entire 20th Brigade to concentrate on that objective .
After an attack across the Ilebbe Creek by the 2 / 13th Infantry Battalion , which cost the Australians 80 casualties on 1 October , the Japanese naval troops which were holding Finschhafen began to withdraw . On 2 October , the town fell to the Australians and the Japanese abandoned the Kakakog Ridge amidst heavy Australian air and artillery attacks . Once the 20th Brigade was established in Finschhafen , it linked up with the 22nd Infantry Battalion , a Militia infantry battalion . This unit had cleared the coastal area in the south of the peninsula , advancing from Lae over the mountains . Meanwhile , the Japanese that had been around Finschhafen withdrew back into the mountains around Sattelberg . Allied air operations from the airfield at Finschhafen commenced on 4 October . The following day , the 2 / 17th Infantry Battalion was sent to Kumawa to follow up the retreating Japanese forces , and for the next couple of days minor clashes resulted before it established itself at Jivevaneng again on 7 October .
= = = Japanese counterattack = = =
The Japanese had begun planning a counterattack during the Australian advance on Finschhafen . The main part of the 20th Division was moved down from Madang as the Japanese began concentrating their forces around Sattelberg , with the main force arriving there on 11 October . The Japanese plans became known to the Australians through captured documents and by mid @-@ October 1943 the Australian 24th Infantry Brigade had been brought up to reinforce the 20th . When the Japanese counterattack came , the first wave fell upon the 24th Brigade around Jivevaneng on 16 October but the attack , having been put in a piecemeal fashion , was pushed back . The next day Japanese aircraft attacked Allied forces around Scarlet Beach and this was followed shortly an amphibious landing which was all but destroyed at sea by fire from American and Australian anti @-@ aircraft and machine @-@ guns . It was during this assault that an American soldier , Private Nathan Van Noy , from the 532nd Engineer Boat and Shore Regiment , performed the actions for which he was later posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor . Only a small number of Japanese managed to make it ashore amidst the devastating fire and , by the following day , these all had been killed or wounded by Australian infantry conducting mopping up operations .
The main elements of the Japanese counterattack had penetrated the forward and thinly stretched Australian lines throughout the previous night . The Japanese exploited the gaps in the line between the 2 / 28th Infantry and the 2 / 3rd Pioneer Battalions , and launched an attack towards the coast with the objective of capturing the high ground 1 @.@ 7 miles ( 2 @.@ 7 km ) west of Scarlet Beach , and splitting the Australian forces at Katika .
The 24th Brigade withdrew from Katika and the high ground to the north of Scarlet Beach to strengthen the defences around the beachhead in response to the Japanese penetration , while the 20th Brigade was moved into position along the Siki Creek to block the Japanese advancing towards Finschhafen . Australian resistance was strong despite giving up the advantage of the high ground , with field and anti @-@ aircraft artillery engaging at ranges as short as 220 yards ( 200 m ) " over open sights " . As result , the Japanese attack was turned away from Scarlet Beach and channelled down Siki Creek . Nevertheless , they succeeded in breaking through to Siki Cove by 18 October and effectively drove a wedge between the 24th Brigade in the north and the 20th Brigade in the south . In doing so , they captured a considerable amount of Allied supplies , including ammunition , weapons and rations , helping to replenish their own dwindling supplies .
During the night of 18 / 19 October , the Japanese cut the route that the Australians were using to supply the 2 / 17th defending Jivevaneng and established a road block astride the Jivevaneng – Sattelberg road . The 2 / 17th and a number of other Australian units , such as most of the 2 / 3rd Pioneer Battalion , as well as part of the 2 / 28th , became isolated behind Japanese lines . In order to keep them supplied , emergency air drops of ammunition were flown in by pilots of No. 4 Squadron RAAF .
At this point , the Japanese attack began to slow . The strength of the Australian resistance had resulted in heavy casualties and as a result the Japanese were unable to take advantage of the gains they had made . This allowed the Australians to begin their own counter @-@ thrust on 19 October . Following a heavy artillery preparation , the 2 / 28th Infantry Battalion retook Katika . The Australians received reinforcements the next day with a squadron of Matilda tanks from the 1st Tank Battalion arriving by landing craft at Langemak Bay amidst tight security that was aimed at keeping their arrival secret from the Japanese . Accompanying the tanks was the 26th Brigade ; its arrival meant that the 9th Division had now been committed in its entirety . Although on 21 October the Japanese withdrew from Siki Cove , the fighting around Katika continued for four more days as the Japanese attempted to retake it against fierce resistance from the 2 / 28th . Katagiri gave the order for his forces to withdraw back to Sattelberg by 25 October , when it became apparent that the counterattack had been defeated . The Japanese had suffered 1 @,@ 500 casualties , including 679 killed . In comparison , the Australians had lost 49 killed and 179 wounded .
= = = Sattelberg = = =
An old German mission , Sattelberg lay roughly 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) inland and due to its size and height – 3 @,@ 150 feet ( 960 m ) – its possession by a large force of Japanese posed a significant threat in the minds of the Australian commanders . It offered good observation of the coastal area and could serve as a base for the Japanese to disrupt Australian lines of communication . As a result , Wootten decided to capture it . The main approach to the mission lay along the road that ran through Jivevaneng . Although the main thrust of the Japanese counterattack had been turned back by 25 October , Jivevaneng was still in doubt and the 2 / 17th Infantry Battalion was still fending off Japanese attacks . Consequently , the 2 / 13th Infantry Battalion was brought up , and together with the 2 / 17th they began clearing operations . These were completed by the night of 2 / 3 November when the Japanese ceased their assault and withdrew from around the village . Follow up actions on 6 November resulted in the destruction of the road @-@ block that the Japanese had established on the Sattelberg road east of Jivevaneng in October .
With Jivevaneng decided , the Australians turned advancing west towards Sattelberg . The force that was chosen for this was the recently arrived 26th Brigade , which would be supported by nine Matildas of the 1st Tank Battalion . At the same time , the 4th Brigade , a Militia formation detached from the 5th Division , was brought up to relieve the 26th Brigade of garrison duties around Finschhafen . The tanks moved up to Jivevaneng under the cover of an artillery barrage to drown out their noise in an effort to keep their presence secret until the start of the advance . On 16 November , the 2 / 48th Infantry Battalion , supported by the artillery of the 2 / 12th Field Regiment and the machine guns of the 2 / 2nd Machine Gun Battalion , captured Green Ridge overlooking the track , which was the designated forming @-@ up point for the advance on Sattelberg , which began the following day .
The advance got off to a bad start initially as it was hampered in the inland area by the prevalent rugged terrain which consisted largely of thick jungle and steep " razor @-@ back " ridges . The ability of forces to manoeuvre in this environment was limited and Whitehead , the Australian brigade commander , determined to utilise infiltration tactics as a result . He sent columns of infantry , no more than company @-@ size , to advance along " narrow fronts " ahead of one or two tanks , with engineers in support to improve the track or deal with " booby traps " or mines as they were found . The brigade 's scheme of manoeuvre saw the 2 / 48th advance up the main track as the 2 / 23rd and 2 / 24th Infantry Battalions protected its flanks to the south and north respectively . None of the Australians ' first day objectives were met . The 2 / 48th was held up in front of Coconut Ridge by stubborn resistance after one of the tanks was disabled and two others were damaged . On the flanks , both the 2 / 23rd and 2 / 24th also came up against strong defences in the shape of pillboxes and machine @-@ gun nests , suffering many casualties and Coconut Ridge did not fall until the following day .
The advance then continued , and by 20 November Steeple Tree Hill had been secured by the 2 / 48th , with the 2 / 23rd advancing towards its southern portion from Kumawa , while the 2 / 24th continued to strike north towards the " 2200 " feature . Initially , this had just been conceived as a holding action to protect the 2 / 48th 's flank , but due to the slow progress on the main track , at this point , the Whitehead decided to change his strategy , determining to use a " double @-@ pronged " attack , with the 2 / 24th also attempting to break through to Sattelberg from the north .
Elsewhere , in the north @-@ east , closer to the coast , the establishment of observation posts on key terrain overlooking Japanese main supply routes by Australian forces began affecting the supply situation of the Japanese forces around Sattelberg , as supply parties were ambushed as they attempted to bring up food and ammunition . The Australians were also short of supplies and , as a result , they paused on 21 November while supplies were brought up to them , before the advance resumed the following day . The main thrust aimed for a jink where the track turned north . Here the 2 / 48th turned to the north @-@ east , while the 2 / 23rd left the track and began advancing north @-@ west towards the " 3200 " feature , which lay west of Sattelberg ; the 2 / 24th , coming up against increasingly steep terrain and very strong Japanese defences around the 2200 feature , unsuccessfully attempted to bypass the position and strike towards Sattelberg . The same day , in the north , the Japanese attempted another counterattack on 22 November , aiming to relieve the supply situation around Sattelberg and to recapture Finschhafen . The counterattack failed , as it was blunted by the Australian depth position around Pabu and , lacking the tempo of the earlier counterattack in October , it was ultimately beaten back , with little affect on Australian operations around Sattelberg .
The fortress around Sattelberg was methodically reduced by intensive Allied bombing which lasted five days , coming to an end on 23 November . The same day , Japanese aircraft also undertook ground support operations with a force of 44 Japanese aircraft attacking Australian positions round Jivevaneng . This did not change the situation around Sattelberg as by then the Australians had reached its southern slopes and the following day they began probing forward towards its summit . Throughout the day they launched a number of attacks , but heavy defensive fire pushed these back until a platoon under the command of Sergeant Tom Derrick fought its way almost to the top , with Derrick leading the way , destroying 10 Japanese positions with grenades as he went . With the Australians having secured a toehold just below the summit for the night , the Japanese withdrew under the cover of darkness and the following morning the advance to the mission was completed . For his feat , Derrick later received the Victoria Cross , his nation 's highest military decoration .
= = = Pabu = = =
Although the main effort of the Australian forces shortly after the landing at Scarlet Beach in late September was upon the drive towards Finschhafen , some effort was made by troops from the Papuan Infantry Battalion to carry out reconnaissance north of the main engagement area towards Bonga and Gusika and throughout early October the 2 / 43rd Battalion conducted a number of patrols in the area . Intelligence gathered from these patrols and through aerial reconnaissance evidence revealed that the Japanese were using tracks in the area to supply the forces in the west atop Sattelberg . In response , the Australians established observation posts and after further reconnaissance it became apparent to the Australians that one hill , which they named " Pabu " and which was part of a larger feature dubbed " Horace the Horse " , was the key to holding the area . Its location placed it directly astride the main Japanese supply route , and its proximity to the Australian forward positions at North Hill meant that it was in range of Australian artillery and could therefore be occupied by a small force that could be defended by indirect fire . In mid @-@ October , however , amidst the Japanese counterattack , Brigadier Bernard Evans , commander of the 24th Brigade , had ordered the withdrawal of Australian forces on Pabu as he had sought to reduce Australian lines in order to defend the beachhead .
After the October counterattack was turned back , the Australians sought to regain the initiative . Evans was replaced by Brigadier Selwyn Porter and Wootten decided to establish a position in depth behind the Japanese forward line , deciding to once again establish a force at Pabu . On 19 / 20 November , three companies from the 2 / 32nd Infantry Battalion , under the command of Major Bill Mollard , occupied the position , and began to attack the Japanese resupply parties that were moving through the area , inflicting heavy casualties .
Meanwhile , the commander of the Japanese XVIII Army , Lieutenant General Hatazō Adachi , ordered Katagiri to launch another counterattack . The supply situation was acute by this stage , with ammunition running low and troops being limited to one @-@ third of their daily rations , nevertheless the counterattack was scheduled for 23 / 24 November . However , the Australian occupation of Pabu and the threat it posed to the Japanese supply route , forced the Japanese commander to bring his schedule forward , and to divert some of the effort away from the recapture of Finschhafen and upon the Australian forces advancing towards Sattelberg in the south .
In an effort to retake Pabu and the ground north of the Song River , a force consisting of two Japanese battalions , from the 79th and 238th Infantry Regiments , advanced south along the coastal track from Bonga . From 22 November , the Japanese attacked the Australians around North Hill , which was defended by the 2 / 43 . This effectively cut off the Australian forces on Pabu , which now only consisted of two companies from the 2 / 32nd and over the course over the next three days they were subjected to almost continual attack . On 25 November , the Japanese assaults had been blunted that the Australians began to push reinforcements forward . The two remaining companies of the 2 / 32nd were sent forward on 26 November , supported by four Matilda tanks and artillery , struck forward towards Pabu to reinforce its garrison which was under its heaviest attack since it had been occupied . They arrived on Pabu and in the process secured " Pino Hill " to the south .
The following day , the Japanese called a halt to their attack on the Australian right , and subsequently troops from the 2 / 28th Infantry Battalion were then sent to the east to secure the position 's flanks . On 29 November , the 2 / 32nd was relieved by the 2 / 43rd . In doing so , it was struck by a heavy Japanese artillery bombardment which killed or wounded 25 . Over the 10 days that the 2 / 32nd had held Pabu , Mollard 's force had endured repeated mortar and artillery fire , and repeated attacks , but with the assistance of strong artillery support , it had held its ground and in doing so had helped blunt the force of the Japanese counterattack at a time when Australian forces were making heavy progress towards the Japanese fortress at Sattelberg . Later , the Japanese commanding general , Adachi , pinpointed the Australian capture of Pabu as one of the main reasons for the defeat of his force during the Huon Peninsula campaign . Losses during the fighting around Pabu were 195 Japanese and 25 Australians killed , and 51 Australians wounded .
= = = Wareo – Gusika = = =
With a second counter @-@ thrust having been beaten back again and the loss of Sattelberg , Katagiri decided to fall back to the north , to form a defensive line around Wareo to wait for the Australians to follow up their victories with a further advance . By this time , Katagiri 's forces were suffering from a manpower shortage due to a lack of reinforcements and the supply situation had still not been rectified . The Australian commander , Wootten , was keen to regain the initiative and he decided to resume the advance in the north with a view to securing the remainder of the Huon Peninsula . The first stage of Wootten 's plan involved advancing north and securing a line along a ridge that ran between Gusika , on the coast , and Wareo , which was 4 @.@ 35 miles ( 7 @.@ 0 km ) inland . It was to take place in two main drives : the 26th Brigade , having secured Sattelberg , would advance to Wareo on the left , and the 24th Brigade would advance on the right , up the coast to secure Gusika and two large water features about 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) inland near the head of the Kalueng River , known collectively to the Australians as " the Lakes " . A third , minor advance would take place in the centre to Nongora and the Christmas Hills , responsibility for which was given to the 20th Brigade .
The advance on the right saw the 2 / 28th Infantry Battalion advance towards Bonga and with armoured support , captured Gusika on 29 November . Later they crossed the Kalueng River and advanced towards the Lagoon further north along the coast . The 2 / 43rd Battalion then advanced from Pabu towards " Horace 's Ears " , where the Japanese made a stand which held the Australians up briefly . They then continued east towards the Lakes , where they were to take over responsibility for the central drive from the battalions of the 20th Brigade , who were then to be rested for the next stage of the campaign .
In the centre , the 2 / 15th Infantry Battalion set out from Katika to capture Nongora on 30 November . They advanced over broken countryside and after the lead company had crossed the Song River , they were engaged by machine @-@ gun fire from a strong defensive position . This held them up briefly , until the other companies came up . Skirting the position , they continued on towards Nongora where they stopped short of the high ground and established a defensive position for the night . The following morning , the Australians launched a costly and unsuccessful company @-@ level attack against the ridge , but after darkness the Japanese abandoned the position , allowing the 2 / 15th to occupy it and then clear Nongora on 2 December . Following this , they began sending fighting patrols out towards the Christmas Hills area in the west , and to the east towards the Lakes to make contact with the 24th Brigade .
The link up occurred on 3 December and the following day a composite force from the 2 / 32nd and 2 / 43rd Infantry Battalions took over the advance to the Christmas Hills , which were secured on 7 December after the Japanese abandoned the position in the wake of a series of flanking moves by the Australians , an intense artillery and mortar bombardment and a frontal assault .
Meanwhile , on the left , the advance began on 28 November . On the map , Wareo was roughly 3 @.@ 4 miles ( 5 @.@ 5 km ) away from Sattelberg , however , due to the nature of the terrain , the actual distance to be travelled was estimated at being four times that . For the advancing Australian infantrymen , the burden was made even greater by heavy rain which turned the tracks over which they were advancing into a muddy morass that could not be traversed by motor transport . This , coupled with the unavailability of New Guineans to serve as bearers , meant that the Australians had to carry almost all of their own supplies on their backs . In an effort to keep the advance moving , the entire 2 / 24th Infantry Battalion was tasked with carrying supplies for the 2 / 23rd , which led the advance from Sattelberg .
On 30 November , the 2 / 23rd reached the Song , fighting its way across and the next day , after sharp fighting amidst a renewed local counterattack by Japanese forces , Kuanko was taken . To the north of the abandoned village , the Japanese were positioned in strength and they launched a strong counterattack , which retook the vital high ground for them but was checked from progressing further by a heavy Australian artillery bombardment . At this stage , the 2 / 24th Infantry Battalion was released from its portage task and it was sent west to conduct a flanking movement around the Japanese position , cutting the Kuanko – Wareo track and capturing Kwatingkoo and Peak Hill early on 7 December , following a Japanese withdrawal . From there , it was a short march on to Wareo , which the Australians secured early the next day .
The main Japanese force then began to withdraw north towards Sio , however , sporadic fighting continued around Wareo over the following week as isolated pockets of Japanese resistance conducted rearguard operations to allow their comrades to get away . The most significant action during this time took place on 11 December when the 2 / 24th Infantry Battalion attacked the 2200 feature north @-@ east of Wareo , near the Christmas Hills , which resulted in 27 Japanese killed .
= = = Sio = = =
The next phase of the campaign involved the advance of Australian forces along the coast towards Sio , about 50 miles ( 80 km ) from Finschhafen . Following the capture of Gusika , the responsibility for the first part of the advance to Sio was taken over by the infantry of the 4th Brigade , under the command of Brigadier Cedric Edgar . They were brought forward from Finschhafen early in December where they had been undertaking garrison duties and on 5 December , the 22nd Infantry Battalion began the advance , crossing the Kalueng River . Lacking the experience that the 2nd AIF units had , the Militia battalions advanced more cautiously than they might otherwise have done so . They were supported by American landing craft equipped with rockets , which bombarded Japanese positions along the coast , while the expansion of the airfield around Finschhafen and the establishment of a naval facility there enabled the Allies to use Consolidated PBY Catalina aircraft and PT boats to further attack Japanese resupply efforts .
As they advanced , the Australians came up against stiff resistance , as Japanese forces in the area fought hard to buy time for the forces falling back from Wareo by delaying the Australian advance . Initially , the 22nd 's attack was turned back ; however , fire support from artillery and armour helped overcome this opposition , and the advance continued with the 22nd and 29th / 46th Infantry Battalions advancing in turns up the coast with the 37th / 52nd moving on their left further inland . Lakona was reached on 14 December and , after finding the Japanese forces there to be positioned in strength , the 22nd Battalion worked its way around the town , enveloping the Japanese defenders and pushing them back to the cliffs , where on 16 December tanks were used to launch the final attack . After this , the 29th / 46th took over the coastal advance to Fortification Point , which it reached alongside the 37th / 52nd on 20 December , crossing the Masaweng River and gaining the high ground to its north .
The 4th Brigade suffered 65 killed and 136 wounded on top of rising casualties from disease and was replaced by the 20th Brigade at this point . The 26th Brigade took over flank protection duties inland . The advance then rolled quickly as Japanese morale broke and organised resistance diminished . Large gains were made against only limited resistance , which often amounted to minor skirmishes against small groups of Japanese . Hubika fell on 22 December with no opposition , and Wandokai two days later . Blucher Point was reached on 28 December , where the 2 / 13th Infantry Battalion regained contact with the retreating Japanese and fought a sharp contact . Elsewhere , that same day , US forces landed further west at Saidor .
This sealed the Japanese decision to quit the Sio area , and over the course of two weeks the Australians advanced swiftly up the coast , overcoming only " sporadic opposition " as the Japanese continued to withdraw to the west towards Madang , seeking to avoid being cut off by the forces at Saidor . The 2 / 15th took over the advance on 31 December , reaching Nunzen on New Years Day . The Sanga River was crossed on 2 January 1944 and the following day the 2 / 17th reached Cape King William . Further river crossings followed at the Sazomu and Mangu Rivers as Kelanoa fell on 6 January ; next , the Dallman and Buri Rivers were forded as Scharnhorst Point was rounded on 9 January . After a final action was fought at Nambariwa , the 2 / 17th finally reached Sio on 15 January .
= = Aftermath = =
The operations undertaken by the 9th Division during the Huon Peninsula campaign were the largest by the Australian Army to that point of the war . Backed up by significant industrial resources which provided them with a significant technological edge over the Japanese , the Australian campaign destroyed what offensive capabilities the Japanese had in the region , and enabled them to gain control of vital sea lanes of communication and airfields that furthered their ability to conduct offensive operations in north @-@ western New Guinea and New Britain . After the capture of Sio , on 21 January 1944 the 9th Division handed over to the 5th Division . The 5th Division was a Militia formation and its take over was part of the wider Australian plan to re @-@ allocate the veteran divisions of the 2nd AIF to more intense operations elsewhere , namely the Philippines , while using the less experienced Militia formations to undertake the lower intensity work required to mop @-@ up isolated pockets of Japanese resistance . In the event , the 9th Division was precluded from taking part in the fighting in the Philippines due to inter @-@ Allied politics , and it was subsequently employed in Borneo in 1945 . Meanwhile , one of the 5th Division 's component formations , the 8th Brigade , conducted mopping up operations around Sio throughout January into February and March 1944 . They also effected a link up with US forces around Saidor .
The 9th Division suffered 1 @,@ 082 battle casualties during its involvement in the fighting on the Huon Peninsula . This included 283 men who were killed in action and one who was listed as " missing " . In addition , the 4th Brigade also suffered several hundred casualties , bringing the Australian total to 1 @,@ 387 . These casualties were relatively light in the wider context of the division 's involvement in the war as they had suffered more than twice that number during the fighting around El Alamein earlier in the war . Regardless , a number of factors combined to make the fighting on the Huon Peninsula , in the words of one participant , " harder and more nerve @-@ racking " than that which the 9th had taken part in before . These included the harsh terrain , the closeness of the combat , and the lack of hot food , water and motor transport . Disease also proved significant and during the campaign up to 85 per cent of the division 's personnel were ineffective due to illness at some stage .
Nevertheless , the most significant factor was the fighting qualities of the Japanese soldier . One Australian veteran , Sergeant Charles Lemaire , who had previously fought against the Germans at El Alamein with the 2 / 17th Infantry Battalion , described the Japanese as " tenacious , brave , self @-@ sacrificing " . In the minds of the Australian soldiers , the Japanese had a reputation for being tough opponents and for not taking prisoners . Despite this perception amongst the Australians , there was a sense of confidence in their technological superiority . For the Japanese soldiers , the technological edge that the Australians possessed and their relatively abundant supply of ammunition and artillery and air support was the main psychological factor that governed their perceptions of the Australians as enemy . In order to counter this , Japanese commanders exhorted their troops to draw upon " spiritual strength " to achieve victory . In the end , although many of the significant actions of the campaign were infantry engagements which occurred a long way from the Australian base areas where their technological superiority was limited , the Australians ' use of combined arms tactics ultimately proved decisive . Although preliminary aerial bombardment , particularly that which was employed around Sattelberg , proved largely ineffective in terms of its physical effects , it did serve to reduce Japanese morale . Used in combination with artillery preparation , which caused significant casualties , considerable disruption was caused to Japanese lines of communications that were already stretched . Suffering from ammunition shortages that limited their fire support , the Japanese defenders were overwhelmed by Australian infantry that had a level of artillery support that was unprecedented for an Australian division in the Pacific , and who advanced in concert with tanks that they employed in a manner that exploited the element of surprise .
Japanese losses during the campaign amounted to a significantly higher total than those of the Allies , although exact numbers have not been established . About 12 @,@ 500 Japanese soldiers participated in the campaign and about 5 @,@ 500 are believed to have been killed . Some sources indicate a possibly higher toll . With only 4 @,@ 300 Japanese reaching Sio at the end of the campaign , it is possible that the figure is closer to 7 @,@ 000 or 8 @,@ 000 . A significant amount of war materiel was also lost during the campaign . Of the 26 field artillery pieces that the Japanese possessed in the region , 18 were captured by the Australians during the campaign , while 28 out of their 36 heavy machine @-@ guns were also lost .
At the start of the campaign , the Australian Army had been the only ground force engaging in combat with the Japanese in the region . By the end , though , the involvement of US forces in the region had increased as the US Army took over responsibility for the main Allied effort from the Australians . Elsewhere , the 7th Division 's advance towards the Finisterre Range saw the capture of Shaggy Ridge and a subsequent advance towards Bogadjim and then Madang , which fell in April . In July and August , US forces subsequently clashed with Japanese forces , including some of those that had escaped from the Huon Peninsula , around the Driniumor River . Meanwhile , the Australian Army 's efforts in the Pacific were scaled back , and it was not until late 1944 and early 1945 , when several campaigns were launched in Bougainville , New Britain , Aitape – Wewak and Borneo , that it undertook major campaigns against the Japanese again .
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= Destiny ( wordless novel ) =
Destiny ( German : Schicksal ) is the only wordless novel by German artist Otto Nückel . It first appeared in 1926 from the Munich @-@ based publisher Delphin @-@ Verlag . In 211 wordless images the story follows an unnamed woman in a German city in the early 20th century whose life of poverty and misfortune drives her to infanticide , prostitution , and murder .
The book was the first whose images were made with leadcuts instead of the more common woodcuts , and showed a greater depth of character and cinematic sense than previous wordless novels . The book inspired American artist Lynd Ward to tackle the medium , beginning with Gods ' Man in 1929 . Ward 's success brought about an American publication of Destiny in 1930 which sold well . The book has impressed critics and has become one of the best @-@ known wordless novels .
= = Synopsis = =
The book follows an unnamed woman in a German city in the early 20th century who lives a life of poverty and misfortune . She is the constant victim of her society — especially the men , such as her drunken , abusive father , and the traveling salesman who gets her pregnant . She is imprisoned for the murder of her unwanted child , and upon release turns to life as a prostitute . The police hunt her down after she murders a man with an axe , and as she jumps from an upper @-@ floor window they shoot her dead .
= = Background = =
Otto Nückel ( 1888 – 1955 ) was born in Cologne in the German Empire . He studied medicine in Freiburg before switching to art , which he studied in Munich in 1910 – 12 . His paintings were less successful than the illustrations he made for magazines such as the satirical Simplicissimus and for books by Thomas Mann and E. T. A. Hoffmann .
In 1918 , the Belgian Frans Masereel created the first wordless novel , 25 Images of a Man 's Passion , and followed it up the next year with his longest and most successful work , Passionate Journey . Such books achieved particular popularity in Germany , where they sold in the hundreds of thousands in the 1920s . Masereel 's woodcut artwork drew inspiration from the German Expressionists and displayed socialist themes of struggle against social injustice , themes that were to be common in the wordless novel genre .
= = Production and publication = =
Nückel 's medium was the leadcut — engraved plates of lead — a medium Nückel turned to when he found wood in short supply in Germany . Lead plates are also more economical than wood in that they can be melted down and reused if errors are made during engraving . Destiny was the first wordless novel to employ lead engraving . Nückel made 211 prints in black and white for the book . The images range in size from 2 3 ⁄ 4 × 2 3 ⁄ 4 inches ( 7 × 7 cm ) to 4 3 ⁄ 4 × 4 inches ( 12 × 10 cm ) , and were originally printed on thin Japanese handmade paper when the book was published in Germany in 1926 .
= = = Editions = = =
Das Schicksal : eine Geschichte in Bildern ( 1926 ) . Munich : Delphin @-@ Verlag
Destiny : A Novel in Pictures ( 1930 ) . New York : Farrar & Rinehart
Schicksal eine Geschichte in Bildern ( 1984 ) . Zürich : Limmat Verlag Genossenschaft
Destin ( 2005 ) . Paris : Éditions IMHO
Destiny : A Novel in Pictures ( 2007 ) . New York : Dover Publications
= = Style and analysis = =
Nückel engraved his plates with a multiple tool ( also called a lining tool ) , a sort of chisel that cuts multiple parallel lines at once , which gives a mechanical hatching texture to the print . The images vary not only in dimensions but in focus , from close @-@ ups of faces to panaromas of crowds .
In contrast to the earlier works of Masereel , Destiny focuses on an individualized woman instead of the plight of a man as cipher for humankind . Lynd Ward found Nückel 's book had greater psychological depth in its characters and plot development , and more skilled technical achievement in the artwork . Canadian artist George Walker believed that Masereel 's plots were more original .
= = Reception and legacy = =
American artist Lynd Ward discovered a copy of Nückel 's book in New York in 1929 and was inspired by it to create wordless novels of his own , beginning with Gods ' Man the same year . The success of both Gods ' Man and the subsequent Madman 's Drum ( 1930 ) led to a number of American publishers bringing other wordless novels into print , including Destiny in 1930 , which sold well in the US .
Literary scholar Martin S. Cohen called Destiny " perhaps the most pathetic ... and one of the most memorable " examples of the wordless novel genre . Wordless novel scholar David Beronä judged the book " a pioneering work in the development of the contemporary graphic novel " for the complexity of its plot , its social consciousness , and its focus on an individual character . Reviewer Christian Gasser commended the book 's " narrative pull " , which he credited as creating a " haunting , edgy narrative rhythm " of a story of persecution , satire , and Expressionist art . The story , he suggests , may be allegory of the Weimar Republic in which it arose .
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= Alfred V. Verville =
Alfred Victor Verville ( November 16 , 1890 – March 10 , 1970 ) was an aviation pioneer and aircraft designer who contributed to civilian and military aviation . During his forty @-@ seven years in the aviation industry , he was responsible for the design and development of nearly twenty commercial and military airplanes . Verville is known for designing flying boats , military racing airplanes ( such as the record breaking Verville @-@ Sperry R @-@ 3 Racer ) , and a series of commercial cabin airplanes . His planes were awarded with the Pulitzer Speed Classic Trophy in 1920 and 1924 .
Verville was a founder of three aeronautical companies , the General Aeroplane Company , Verville Aircraft Company , and the Buhl Aircraft Company . He worked for General Billy Mitchell during his service at the United States Army Air Service from 1918 to 1925 . From 1937 to 1945 , he worked as a consultant for companies such as Douglas Aircraft , Curtiss @-@ Wright , Snead Aircraft , and Drexel Aviation . Verville spent the next sixteen years in the U.S. Federal government , primarily in the Bureau of Aeronautics , before retiring in 1961 .
Verville received many honors and awards , including a selection as a fellow of the Smithsonian Institution 's National Air and Space Museum in 1962 . An airmail stamp was issued in 1985 by the US Postal Service in Verville 's honor . In 1991 , he was posthumously inducted into the Michigan Aviation Hall of Fame .
= = Early life and career = =
Verville was born in Atlantic Mine , a small town in Michigan 's Upper Peninsula , on November 16 , 1890 , as the son of Victor Verville and Fabianna Miron . As a child , his mother bought him a Conyne @-@ style box kite from Sears Roebuck , which captured his imagination and started his interest in flight and aviation . Verville also began reading stories about the Wright Brothers in newspapers and magazines with great interest . Later he even wrote to the Wrights and Glenn Curtiss and received responses .
After graduating from Adams Township High School , Verville took a correspondence course in electrical engineering . He moved to Detroit , Michigan at the age of twenty , and from 1910 to 1913 he worked in the electrical departments of the Detroit Edison Company , Ford Motor Company , and Hudson Motor Car Company . By 1913 , Verville had made his mind up that he wanted to learn to fly . William Edmund Scripps , the editor and owner of The Detroit News , introduced Verville to Glenn Curtiss in July 1913 . Curtiss encouraged Verville to apply for his Spring 1914 flight school . Instead , Verville went to Hammondsport , New York in February 1914 , where Curtiss Aeroplane Company was located , and told Curtiss he wanted to work as an apprentice in his drafting and engineering shop . Curtiss agreed and this began Verville 's aviation career .
Verville excelled as a draftsman and designer , but still wanted to attend flight school and to become an exhibition pilot . After applying and being passed over three times for the Curtiss Flying School , Verville went to Curtiss , who responded : " No , Mr. Verville you don 't want to be a pilot . We can get all the pilots we want . What we want are designers . You 're [ really ] a designer and you don 't know it . " While at Curtiss Aeroplane , Verville took an active part in the development of the transatlantic flying boat America ( which was a Curtiss H @-@ 2 ) and the Curtiss Jenny of World War I fame . In the Fall of 1914 , Verville left the company and joined the Aeromarine Plane and Motor Company in New Jersey ; shortly thereafter , he joined the Thomas @-@ Morse Airplane Company . In March 1915 , he returned to Detroit and joined the General Aeroplane Company , where he led his first full design and build to his specifications , the Verville Flying Boat .
On July 9 , 1917 , Verville married Bertha M. Kamrath in Escanaba , Michigan . He had three children with her , daughters Betty and Janet , and son Myron . Also in 1917 , Verville left the General Aeroplane Company to become executive engineer of Fisher Body Corporation , where he supervised the construction of de Havilland DH @-@ 4 airplanes .
= = U.S. Army service = =
In June 1918 , Verville joined the Engineering Division of the U.S. Army Air Service ( USAAS ) as a civilian , and was based out of the USAAS Engineering Division at McCook Field in Dayton , Ohio . In 1920 , the young engineer gained national prominence when his Verville @-@ Packard R @-@ 1 Racer won the Pulitzer Speed Classic Trophy at the first held National Air Races ( at Roosevelt Field , New York ) by finishing first out of twenty four other planes , achieving a top speed of 156 @.@ 54 mph .
In 1919 Brigadier General William Mitchell requested the Engineering Division to design a light @-@ weight " motorcycle of the air " that could operate as a liaison between Army field units . Verville completed the Messenger design in early 1920 . The Lawrence Sperry Aircraft Company of Farmingdale was contracted to build five Messengers in April 1920 . The first Messenger flight was on November 1 . Later designated the Verville @-@ Sperry M @-@ 1 Messenger , the plane is notable for its small size , simple construction , and inexpensive cost , which made it ideal for testing and experimentation . The National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics used one in its pioneering aerodynamic research programs from 1923 to 1929 . Sperry modified twelve into the radio @-@ controlled Messenger Aerial Torpedo and developed the apparatus for a Messenger to make the first successful airship hook on and release in December 1924 .
Following World War I , in the capacity as an engineering advisor , Verville joined General Billy Mitchell and his aide , Lieutenant Clayton Bissell , on their sailing trip to Europe in December 1921 . The three men toured France , Italy , Germany , Holland , and England in order to check on the European progress of aviation . From their research they produced a 206 @-@ page report , which was published as an U.S. Army Air Service Information Circular . General Mitchell asked Verville to incorporate some of the European developments they had observed and to produce a plane for the U.S. Army Air Service 's participation in the upcoming 1922 National Air Races .
The resulting plane , the Verville @-@ Sperry R @-@ 3 Racer , was the second plane to utilize retractable landing gear and incorporated many features advanced for its time . The completion of the R @-@ 3 encountered challenges because the planned Curtiss D @-@ 12 engine was not available . So , instead Verville had to use the problematic Wright H @-@ 3 ( Hispano ) engine , which had major vibration issues . Three R @-@ 3 's competed in the 1922 National Air Races , but only one finished in 5th place with a top speed of 181 mph . After the 1922 race , Verville was able to finally obtain a Curtiss D @-@ 12 engine . It was installed on an R @-@ 3 and based on trials , it was determined that it could break a world record . On March 31 , 1923 , with Orville Wright officially observing from the ground , pilot Lieutenant Alexander Pearson , Jr. set a 500 km World Speed Record of 167 @.@ 73 mph ( 269 @.@ 94 km / h ) over a 10 @-@ lap course at Wilbur Wright Field . For the 1924 National Air Races , his R @-@ 3 won the 1924 Pulitzer Speed Trophy at 216 mph .
While at the Air Service , Verville was awarded eight aeronautical patents for technologies such as airplane truss design , radiator mounting , and an automatic gun mechanism .
= = Buhl and Verville Aircraft Companies = =
In 1925 , Verville left the government service to co @-@ found the Buhl @-@ Verville Aircraft Company with the Buhl family in Detroit . On March 29 , 1927 , Buhl was awarded the first Approved Type Certificate for its Buhl @-@ Verville CA @-@ 3 Airster ( i.e. A.T.C. No. 1 ) issued by the Aeronautics Branch of the Department of Commerce on March 29 , 1927 . There were a total of 20 of this aircraft manufactured and it broke a number of speed and endurance records , placing at the top of the Ford National Reliability Air Tour and the National Air Races . Verville was the chief designer from the company 's founding in 1925 until 1927 .
In 1928 , Verville left Buhl @-@ Verville to establish the Verville Aircraft Company , also in Detroit . The company sought to market planes to the wealthy private owner . Verville Aircraft produced the Verville Air Coach , a four passenger , high @-@ wing monoplane , which made its debut at the 1929 Detroit Air Show and the Verville Sport Trainer , a two @-@ seat tandem biplane . The United States Army Air Corps purchased 4 Sport Trainers under the designation YPT @-@ 10 . The USAAC tested with 5 different engine versions resulting in YPT @-@ 10 thru YPT @-@ 10D designations .
= = Bureau of Air Commerce and consulting = =
Verville joined the Aeronautics Branch of the Department of Commerce in 1933 . The Aeronautics Branch became the Bureau of Air Commerce in 1934 . During his time there , Verville served in the following roles : aeronautical engineer ; chief of the Manufacturing , Engineering , and Inspections Service ; and finally assistant chief of the Aeronautic Development Section . In his role as chief of the Manufacturing , Engineering , and Inspections Service , he was in charge of the reviews for issuing type certificates for all manufactured airplanes .
Verville left government service to be a consultant for companies including Douglas Aircraft ( 1937 – 38 ) , Curtiss @-@ Wright ( 1941 – 42 ) , Snead Aircraft ( 1942 ) , and the Drexel Aviation Company ( 1942 – 45 ) . Verville briefly returned to the Bureau of Air Commerce from 1939 @-@ 1941 .
= = U.S. Navy service and retirement = =
In 1945 , once again returning to government service , he joined as a member of the Naval Technical Mission to Europe , and later , the U.S. Navy 's Bureau of Aeronautics ( 1946 – 61 ) . At the Bureau of Aeronautics , from 1950 until his retirement in 1961 , Verville was a technical advisor and consultant to the director of the Technical Data Division . Verville retired in 1961 and moved to La Jolla , California . He died on March 10 , 1970 from a heart attack at age 79 .
= = Honors = =
In 1962 , Verville was selected as a fellow of the Smithsonian 's National Air Museum . He was honored with ten Certificates or Letters of Commendation from the U.S. Armed Forces . He was an Honorary Fellow of the Society of Experimental Test Pilots and was named an Elder Statesman of Aviation by the National Aeronautic Association in 1956 . In 1961 , he was elected as a fellow of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics . In 1991 , he was posthumously inducted into the Michigan Aviation Hall of Fame .
The Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum established the Verville Fellowship in his name , which is a competitive nine @-@ to @-@ twelve month in @-@ residence fellowship for researching the history of aviation . Over 20 boxes of material from Verville 's estate are housed at the Smithsonian Air and Space Museum 's Garber Facility . A 33 cent United States Postal Service airmail stamp was issued on February 13 , 1985 , bearing Verville 's name , picture , the text " Aviation Pioneer " , and an image of his Verville @-@ Sperry R @-@ 3 Racer low @-@ wing monoplane .
= = Planes designed by Verville = =
Over the course of his forty @-@ seven years in designing and building planes , Verville contributed to the design and development of nearly twenty different aircraft . A plane he designed , the Verville @-@ Sperry M @-@ 1 Messenger is on permanent exhibition at the National Air and Space Museum 's Steven F. Udvar @-@ Hazy Center . Another plane he designed , the Verville @-@ Sperry R @-@ 3 Racer won first place at the 1924 Pulitzer Trophy Races . In June 1961 , it was honored as one of the twelve most significant aircraft of all time by Popular Mechanics and it was featured on a USPS airmail stamp issued in 1985 .
= = = Curtiss Aircraft Company = = =
Curtiss Jenny ( 1914 )
famous WWI plane
Verville contributed to design
America ( 1914 )
first plane of Curtiss H @-@ 2 line
planned to be first transatlantic flight , but interrupted by WWI
transatlantic flying boat
= = = General Aeroplane Company = = =
Verville Flying Boat ( 1916 )
2 passenger , open cockpit , biplane , flying boat
100 hp Curtiss OX @-@ 5 or Maximotor pusher
Mahogany hull and wing floats constructed by Mayea Boat Company ( Detroit )
Gamma S ( 1917 )
A two @-@ seater , open cockpit , floatplane , biplane with an 80 hp Le Rhône pusher engine .
Gamma L ( 1917 )
Similar to Gamma S , with wheels .
Twin floats were replaced with wheels for winter operations off the ice of Lake St. Clair .
= = = U.S. Military = = =
Verville @-@ Clark @-@ Pursuit 1 & 2 ( 1920 )
Function : fighter ( also known as VCP @-@ 1 / 2 )
Two VCP @-@ 1 and two VCP @-@ 2 built
VCP @-@ 1 re @-@ designated VCP @-@ 1A & R @-@ 1 Racer , VCP @-@ 2 redesignated PW @-@ 1 & PW @-@ 1A
While at the Engineering Division and Aeronautical Systems Center of the Signal Corps - post @-@ World War I : November 11 , 1918 @-@ September 1919
Verville @-@ Packard R @-@ 1 Racer ( 1920 )
Function : racing ; crew : 1 ; engines : 1x 638 hp Packard 1A @-@ 2025 V @-@ 12
On November 27 , 1920 , Captain C. C. Moseley , flying a Verville @-@ Packard VCP @-@ R , won the Pulitzer Trophy Race at Mitchel Air Force Base. with a maximum speed of 177 miles per hour ( 285 km / h ) .
While in the Air Service
Verville @-@ Sperry M @-@ 1 Messenger ( 1921 )
Function : messenger , manufactured by Sperry Aircraft Company
This plane is exhibited in the National Air and Space Museum 's Steven F. Udvar @-@ Hazy Center .
Verville @-@ Sperry R @-@ 3 Racer ( 1922 )
Participated in the 1922 and 1924 Pulitzer Trophy Races ; won first place in 1924 . In June 1961 , it was honored as one of the twelve most significant aircraft of all time by Popular Mechanics .
Engineering Division TP @-@ 1 ( 1923 )
Was a two @-@ seat biplane fighter designed by Alfred V. Verville and Virginius E. Clark at the United States Army Air Corps Engineering Division .
Prototype TP @-@ 1 was built as the XTP @-@ 1 and tested at McCook Field in 1923 .
YPT @-@ 10 ( 1925 ) , Primary Trainer
Similar design to Verville Sport Trainer AT
While at the Air Corps
= = = Buhl @-@ Verville = = =
Buhl @-@ Verville CA @-@ 3 / CW @-@ 3 Airster ( 1925 – 1926 )
CA @-@ 3 Airster , 200 hp Wright J @-@ 4 engine
CA @-@ 3A Airster , 225 hp Wright J @-@ 5 engine
CW @-@ 3 OX5 Airster , 90 hp Curtiss OX @-@ 5 engine
CW @-@ 3 Wright Trainer , 220 hp Wright J @-@ 5 engine ( short military trial )
Also known as : J4 / J5 Airster or B @-@ V Airster
= = = Verville Aircraft Company = = =
Verville Air Coach ( 1929 )
four passenger , high @-@ wing cabin monoplane designed in 1927 by Verville
Model 102 ( 104 @-@ W , Warner Engine )
Model 104 @-@ C
Model 104 @-@ P ( Packard Diesel Coach )
Verville Sport Trainer ( 1930 )
This plane is in storage in the Smithsonian Institution system ; its engine was a Packard DR @-@ 980 .
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= Røa Line =
The Røa Line ( Norwegian : Røabanen ) is a rapid transit line of the Oslo Metro , Norway , which runs from Majorstuen in Oslo to Østerås in Bærum . It serves neighborhoods such as Smestad , Hovseter , Huseby and Røa in northwestern Oslo , and Grini , Øvrevoll and Østerås in northeastern Bærum . The line is served by Line 2 of the metro , which connects to the city center via the Common Tunnel and onwards along the Furuset Line . The lowest part of the Røa Line , consisting of two stations , is shared with the Kolsås Line , and thus also served by Line 2 of the metro . The Røa Line is owned by Kollektivtransportproduksjon , and operated by Oslo T @-@ banedrift on contract with the public transport agency Ruter .
The first part of the line , originally a light rail , was from Majorstuen to Smestad , and opened in 1912 . It was built as a cooperation between the Municipality of Aker and the company Holmenkolbanen , and connected to the Holmenkoll Line 's terminus . In 1928 , the line received a connection to the city center when the first part of the Common Tunnel was completed . In 1935 , the first extension of the Røa Line proper was made , when the line was extended to Røa . In 1942 , the Kolsås Line became a branch . Additional extensions to the Røa Line were made in 1948 to Grini , in 1951 to Lijordet and in 1972 to Østerås . By then , the line had become an integrated part of the municipal Oslo Sporveier . The line was upgraded to rapid transit in 1995 , became part of the metro and started running through the city center .
= = History = =
= = = Establishment = = =
Construction of housing in the Smestad area started after Kristiania Elektriske Sporvei ( KES ) established a tramway from the city center to Majorstuen in 1894 . Four years later , fund @-@ raising started to build the Aker Avenue towards Smestad , but the recession made fund @-@ raising difficult . The plans were launched again in 1904 , and subsequently revised in 1908 , by which time they including a tramway along the avenue . In 1910 , A. S. Guldberg , Iver Lycke , W. Munthes @-@ Kaas and H. A. Mørk applied for a concession to build a tramway along the route . This was granted by the municipal council in Aker on 26 May . The four individuals then transferred their rights to the municipality , who started negotiating rights with KES , and Holmenkolbanen — the latter who had a suburban tramway running from Majorstuen , the Holmenkollen Line .
An arrangement was made with Holmenkolbanen , where the municipality would expropriate the necessary land and build the bed , while Holmenkolbanen would lay the tracks , the wires and operate the trams . The line would remain owned by the company A / S Smedstadbanen , which was again owned by Aker Municipality . The agreement had a duration of 50 years , but the municipality retained the right to purchase the line if work to extend the line from Majorstuen through the Common Tunnel to the city center had not started by 1917 , or had not been completed by 1922 . Government approval was granted on 7 July 1911 , and the construction was completed on 7 November 1912 . The 1 @.@ 9 @-@ kilometer ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) long line was single tracked , with passing loops at Borgen and Smestad , which were the only stations in addition to Majorstuen . Holmenkolbanen used a single tram , with departures every 20 minutes . There were extra departures from Borgen to Majorstuen during the afternoon rush @-@ hour .
= = = Nationaltheatret expansion = = =
The process of extending the Holmenkollen Line from Majorstuen to the city center had started in 1901 . The process had been delayed several times because of disagreements between the city and the company , in part because the two could not agree if it should be classified as a railway or a tramway . Construction started in 1912 , but stopped again in 1914 because the municipality and the company could not agree on the location of the terminus . The municipality wanted it at Ruseløkkveien , but this would make it difficult for the company to build the tunnel through the city center to connect to the suburban tramways east of the city center . Construction was stopped in October 1914 .
The following year , the municipality launched a contest to make the best suggestion for the tram networks . It took five years to select a winner , and this allowed the municipality and company to make a compromise by locating the terminus at Nationaltheatret . But not until 1926 was permission granted for the station . Construction commenced that year and the station and tunnel opened in 1928 . When the tunnel had not been completed by 1922 , Aker Municipality decided to purchase the line . At the time , the municipality was planning to start its own tram company , Akersbanerne , and the Smestad Line was considered as part of the network , along with the planned Sognsvann Line . But delays caused the Sognsvann Line not to open until 1934 . The take @-@ over caused a disagreement between the two companies about payment for the common section , which would still be owned by Holmenkolbanen . Not until 1932 was the issue resolved .
The investments had drained Holmenkolbanen , particularly after it had received a massive lawsuit for damage to adjacent properties during the tunneling . After the issue had been resolved by the Supreme Court in 1931 , the company needed more capital to start operations . Aker Municipality offered to transfer its ownership of the Smestad Line and the Sognsvann Line to Holmenkolbanen , in exchange for the majority of shares in the company .
= = = Røa extension = = =
In the 1920s , the area towards Røa experienced a growth in housing . Akersbanerne proposed in 1931 to the municipal council that the Smestad Line be extended towards Makrellbekken . Government permission was granted on 26 May 1933 , and construction started the same year . The extension was built with single track . When the line was taken over by Holmenkolbanen , the new owner suggested extending the line to Røa . Government permission was granted in on 29 June 1934 , and construction started immediately . The 2 @.@ 9 @-@ kilometer ( 1 @.@ 8 mi ) extension opened on 24 January 1935 .
The new line was initially not profitable , because Schøyens Bilcentraler had kept its concession to operate buses in the area . Not until World War II was the bus route terminated . The Røa Line and the Sognsvann Line were both upgraded in 1939 . On 6 July , the section from Makrellbekken to Røa was upgraded to double track , and later Volvat was moved and placed inside a tunnel . A level crossing was built at the intersection with Sørkedalsveien , and was completed on 15 December .
= = = Branch to Kolsås = = =
The Lilleaker Line , which connected to the street tramway at Skøyen , had been extended to Kolsås in 1930 . The owner Bærumsbanen instead wanted the line to go the faster route via the Common Tunnel to Nationaltheatret . Concession was granted in 1938 for a link from Jar on the Lilleaker Line to Sørbyhaugen on the Røa Line . The construction was delayed because a bridge needed to be built across Mærradalen , and the company ran out of money , and construction stopped for nine months in 1940 . The line was opened on 15 June 1942 , and the section from Sørbyhaugen to Kolsås was renamed the Kolsås Line . This resulted in two companies operating from Sørbyhaugen to Nationaltheatret , but an agreement was made where only Holmenkolbanen 's tickets were sold on the section , so all revenue went to that company , regardless of the train 's operator . The Kolsås Line operated every fifteen minutes along the Røa Line part .
= = = Bærum extensions = = =
Proposals to extend the line into the neighboring municipality of Bærum had first been launched in 1919 . In 1941 , construction of an extension to Grini started . The main problem was getting building materials for a bridge to cross Grinidammen , and a local disagreement about where the station at Røa was to be located . The 0 @.@ 9 @-@ kilometer ( 1 mi ) extension was opened on 22 December 1948 , after Røa Station had been moved , and the line put in a short tunnel under the center of Røa .
The 1 @.@ 5 @-@ kilometer ( 0 @.@ 93 mi ) extension via Eiksmarka to Lijordet opened on 3 December 1951 . Lijordet was intended to be named Sørbråten , but there was already a station with that name on the Norwegian State Railways ' network , and two stations with the same name were not permitted . In 1959 , a block signaling system was installed between Røa and Makrellbekken .
During the early 1970s , Bærum Municipality wanted to extend the line onwards to Hosle , and were willing to pay the construction costs . Holmenkolbanen also wanted the municipality to pay for new trams , but the municipality was not willing to do this . The line was therefore only extended to Østerås , which could be reached using the existing fleet . The 0 @.@ 6 @-@ kilometer ( 0 @.@ 37 mi ) extension was opened in 1972 . Since 1978 , Holmenkolbanen has had sufficient trams to operate an extension , but since then the municipality has not been interested in extending the line further .
= = = Metro standard = = =
The ownership of the line was gradually taken over by the municipality through Oslo Sporveier . In 1975 , most of the shares were bought , along with those that Oslo Sporveier had received as part of the municipal merger with Aker in 1948 . Gradually during the 1970s and 1980s , Holmenkolbanen became more integrated into Oslo Sporveier , including the two using the same rolling stock , tickets and uniforms . Oslo Sporveier upgraded the line in the last half of the 1970s , laying new ties , upgrading the tracks to higher weight and purchasing new trams .
Plans to have trams run through the city center have existed since 1919 . In the late 1940s , Holmenkolbanen revised the plan , and proposed extending the Common Tunnel eastwards . From 1951 , the municipality started working on plans for the Oslo Metro in the eastern part of the city . The large difference in traffic between the eastern and western lines caused the plans to be changed during the 1960s , and the eastern network was equipped with third rail power supply . The eastern lines at first terminated at Jernbanetorget , and the plans were to continue the lines onwards towards Bislett . But by the 1970s , these plans changed , largely because of the increase of traffic in the west and decrease in the east . On 7 March 1987 , the services from the west , including the Røa Line , were extended from Nationaltheatret to Stortinget , a station that allowed transfer to the metro .
The Sognsvann Line was upgraded to metro standard and reopened on 3 April 1993 . The Røa Line was closed on 5 February 1995 to be upgraded to metro standard . The upgrades meant that all platforms needed to be extended to 110 meters ( 360 ft ) to allow six @-@ car metro trains . The only exception was Østerås , that was made only long enough for five cars , although this could easily be extended later . The upgrade involved a complete renovation of the tracks , with the old ones being replaced with new , and increasing the weight to 49 kilograms per meter ( 33 lb / ft ) . The overhead wire was replaced with a third rail ; this required all four level crossings , at Makrellbekken , Hovseter , Eiksmarka and Ekraveien , to be replaced . In the former three , the track was sunk under the level of the road , requiring several hundred meters of the line to be rebuilt . Pedestrian underpasses were built at Ekreveien , Borgen , Holmen , Huseby skole and Lijordet .
Three stations were closed : Grini , Huseby skole and Heggeli . Volvat kept the two @-@ car length , and was no longer served by the Røa Line , only the Kolsås Line . To compensate for the closing of Huseby skole , Røa was moved back to it original position , causing a heated local debate . The signaling system was replaced with the automatic train protection used on the metro . But the installation was delayed , and a temporary system was used . This caused an accident at Husebybakken , where twelve people were injured . During the upgrade , the area along the line was served by buses . Bus stops could only be established at places where cars could pass , making it difficult to place stops at Røa and Sørbyhaugen . Passengers transferring to the Kolsås Line would normally have 15 minutes longer travel time , and congestion caused delays of up to 30 minutes . This caused more people to use cars , which increased the congestion further . Ridership on the buses was significantly lower than on the rail . The Kolsås Line opened on 20 August and the Røa Line on 19 November . After the opening , the line connected with the Furuset Line as Line 2 , and started being served by T1000 trains . The Røa Line , including the common section in the city center , has been extended eight times , more than any other line of the Oslo Metro .
= = Route = =
The Røa Line starts at Majorstuen , a major public transport hub located 2 @.@ 7 kilometers ( 1 @.@ 7 mi ) from Stortinget . Majorstuen was the site of the company 's head offices , depots , workshops and employee residences . Majorstuen serves several educational institutions , such as Chateau Neuf , MF Norwegian School of Theology , the Norwegian Academy of Music , the Norwegian Police University College , several larger office complexes and the Oslo Tramway Museum . From Majorstuen , the Røa Line and the Kolsås Line follow the same tracks . The line immediately enters a short tunnel , in which the now closed Volvat Station is located , 0 @.@ 7 kilometers ( 0 @.@ 43 mi ) from Majorstuen . Borgen follows next , located 1 @.@ 5 kilometers ( 0 @.@ 93 mi ) from Majorstuen , and serves a primarily housing area and a larger cemetery .
Next is the now closed Heggeli , and Smestad , located 1 @.@ 9 kilometers ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) from Majorstuen . The areas are mostly single dwellings built in the 1910s , following the arrival of the line . After Smestad , the Kolsås Line branches off and the Røa Line continues past the closed Sørbyhaugen to Makrellbekken , located 2 @.@ 7 kilometers ( 1 @.@ 7 mi ) from Majorstuen . The next station is Holmen , located 3 @.@ 4 kilometers ( 2 @.@ 1 mi ) from Majorstuen , and Hovseter , located 4 @.@ 0 kilometers ( 2 @.@ 5 mi ) from Majorstuen . Hovseter is a residential area with dominated by apartment blocks from the 1970s , and also serves Persbråten Upper Secondary School . The station has previously been used as a terminus for extra rush @-@ hour trains . The line then runs past the closed Huseby skole , located 4 @.@ 3 kilometers ( 2 @.@ 7 mi ) from Majorstuen , which served Huseby Leir , the base of the Royal Guard . The next station is Røa , located 4 @.@ 8 kilometers ( 3 @.@ 0 mi ) from Majorstuen , which has also been a terminus for extra rush @-@ hour trains . Røa has substantial commercial properties and is located close to Bogstadvannet and a golf course . The line then passes Ekraveien , located 5 @.@ 2 kilometers ( 3 @.@ 2 mi ) from Majorstuen , which is the last station located in Oslo .
The line then runs over Lysakerelva , which is also the border to Bærum , and past the closed Grini . The next station is Eiksmarka , located 6 @.@ 2 kilometers ( 3 @.@ 9 mi ) from Majorstuen , which until the late 1970s had the line 's only spur , to allow ballast stone to be loaded from Franzefoss . The area has single dwellings from the 1950s . Next is Lijordet , located 6 @.@ 9 kilometers ( 4 @.@ 3 mi ) from Majorstuen , which serves Øvrevoll Galoppbane , the country 's only gallop race course . The line 's terminus is Østerås , located 7 @.@ 5 kilometers ( 4 @.@ 7 mi ) from Majorstuen . There are some commercial and office buildings in the vicinity of the station , although the area is dominated by housing .
= = Service = =
The Røa Line is served by Line 2 of the Oslo Metro , which continues from Majorstuen via the Common Tunnel and connects to the Furuset Line . The line runs every 15 minutes , with enhanced service weekdays between 7 and 19 giving eight departures an hour . During late evenings and Saturday and Sunday mornings , it runs every 30 minutes . The lower part of the line , from Majorstuen to Borgen , is also served by Line 2 , which continues along the Kolsås Line . Along this section , there is twice the frequency . Travel time from Østerås to Majorstuen is 16 minutes , to Stortinget is 20 minutes , and to Vestli on the Grorud Line is 50 minutes . The metro and the line are owned by Kollektivtransportproduksjon and operated by Oslo T @-@ banedrift on contract with Ruter .
The line crosses into Bærum , but the entire metro system is within a single fare zone . Ticket machines are available at all stations , and the system is operated with a proof @-@ of @-@ payment system . Smestad is a transfer station to the Kolsås Line ( Line 2 ) , while Majorstuen is a transfer station for other west @-@ bound lines . Transfer to Ruter buses can be made at Majorstuen , Smestad , Hovseter , Røa and Eiksmarka . Transfer to the Oslo Tramway can be made at Majorstuen to lines 11 , 12 and 19 , serving the Briskeby Line , the Homansbyen Line , and the Frogner Line . In the Common Tunnel , Jernbanetorget is the transfer station for Oslo Central Station , which serves all mainline trains in Eastern Norway . Most west @-@ bound mainline trains can also be reached at Nationaltheatret .
= = Future = =
Proposals for the line have been made since the extension to Østerås . The current municipal master plan calls for the line to be extended to Bekkestua Station , where it would again intersect with the Kolsås Line . One possibility is also that the service be continued along the Kolsås Line and a new branch be built to Sandvika , the municipal center of Bærum . However , an extension has not been a priority for the municipal politicians , although the right @-@ of @-@ way has been secured , which will simplify construction .
= = = Biography = = =
Aspenberg , Nils Carl ( 1995 ) . Neste stopp Makrellbekken : historien om Røabanen . Oslo : Baneforlaget . ISBN 82 @-@ 91448 @-@ 18 @-@ 3 .
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= Just Like Heaven ( song ) =
" Just Like Heaven " is a song by British alternative rock band The Cure . The group wrote most of the song during recording sessions in southern France in 1987 . The lyrics were written by their frontman Robert Smith , who drew inspiration from a past trip to the sea shore with his future wife . Before Smith had completed the lyrics , an instrumental version of the song was used as the theme for the French television show Les Enfants du Rock .
" Just Like Heaven " was the third single released from their 1987 album Kiss Me , Kiss Me , Kiss Me , while Smith 's memories of the trip formed the basis for the song 's accompanying music video . The song became the Cure 's first American hit and reached number 40 on the Billboard charts in 1988 . It has been praised by critics and covered by artists such as Dinosaur Jr . , Alvin and the Chipmunks , and Katie Melua . Smith has said he considers " Just Like Heaven " to be one of the band 's strongest songs .
= = Background and recording = =
In order to develop material for Kiss Me , Kiss Me , Kiss Me , Smith forced himself to write music for 15 days of each month . During this regimen , he developed the chords and melody which form the basis of " Just Like Heaven " . Structurally , Smith found what he had written was similar to The Only Ones 's 1979 hit " Another Girl , Another Planet " . When he brought an instrumental demo of the song to the album recording sessions in Southern France , Cure drummer Boris Williams increased the tempo and added an opening drum fill which inspired Smith to introduce each instrument singularly and in sequence .
When the French TV show Les Enfants du Rock asked The Cure to provide a theme song , Smith offered the instrumental version . As he explained , " It meant the music would be familiar to millions of Europeans even before it was released " . He completed the lyrics when the group moved the sessions to Studio Miraval , located in Le Val , Provence @-@ Alpes @-@ Côte d 'Azur . The band completed the song quickly , and at the time Smith considered it to be the most obvious potential single from the songs the band had recorded during their two @-@ week stay at Miraval .
= = Composition and lyrics = =
" Just Like Heaven " is written in the key of A major and consists of an A – E – Bm – D chord progression which repeats throughout the song , except during the chorus when the band plays an F ♯ m – G – D progression . The song 's central hook is formed from a descending guitar riff which appears between song verses and in parts of the bridge and the last verse . This guitar line contrasts with the " fuzzier mix " of the rhythm guitars .
According to Smith , " The song is about hyperventilating — kissing and fainting to the floor . " The lyrics were inspired by a trip with his then @-@ girlfriend ( and later wife ) Mary Poole to Beachy Head in southern England . Smith said the opening line of the song ( " Show me , show me , show me how you do that trick " ) refers to his childhood memories of mastering magic tricks , but added " on another [ level ] , it 's about a seduction trick , from much later in my life " .
= = Reception = =
" Just Like Heaven " was the third single released from the band 's Kiss Me Kiss Me Kiss Me album . Melody Maker 's review of the single was undecided ; writer David Stubbs described it as " a colourful , fluttery , fussy thing " and " unimpeachable " , but added , " [ it ] turns my face green , as if having consumed too many truffles . " The song was The Cure 's eleventh top 40 hit in the UK , and stayed on the charts there for five weeks during October and November 1987 , peaking at number 29 . In the United States , " Just Like Heaven " became The Cure 's first top 40 hit when in January 1988 it reached number 40 on the Billboard Hot 100 for one week .
Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic said " the stately ' Just Like Heaven ' [ ... ] is remarkable and helps make the album [ Kiss Me , Kiss Me , Kiss Me ] one of the group 's very best " . Ned Raggett , also of Allmusic , wrote that the song was " instantly memorable , [ and ] sparkling with rough energy [ ... ] it 's a perfect showcase for Robert Smith 's ear for wistful , romantic numbers . His main guitar line , a descending , gently chiming melody , contrasts perfectly against the fuzzier mix of the rhythm guitars , while Simon Gallup 's bass and Boris Williams ' strong , immediate drums make for a great introduction to the track . " Barry Walsh of Slant magazine said The Cure " ... is at the top of its game [ ... ] on the simply stellar ' Just Like Heaven ' . Glistening descending guitar lines , Gallup 's throbbing bass line , and Williams ' authoritative thumping frame a typically lovelorn Smith lyric , with the end result being one of The Cure 's finest singles , and perhaps one of the best pop singles of the late ' 80s . "
Although the later singles " Lovesong " and " Friday I 'm in Love " reached higher chart positions , " Just Like Heaven " was the band 's American breakthrough , and has been described as " in American terms , at least , the one Cure song everyone seems to know . " The song inspired the name of , and was used in the 2005 film Just Like Heaven . In 2004 Rolling Stone magazine ranked it number 483 on their list of the " 500 Greatest Songs of All Time " . In 2005 Entertainment Weekly ranked " Just Like Heaven " 25th on its list of " The 50 Greatest Love Songs " , saying , " Turns out guys who wear black eyeliner can be happy . " The following year the song placed at number 22 on VH1 's poll " 100 Greatest Songs of the 80s " .
Robert Smith said he considers " Just Like Heaven " to be one of the band 's strongest works , and called it " the best pop song The Cure have ever done " . Several high @-@ profile fans have expressed their appreciation of the song . Musician Ben Folds told Blender " everything about it — the songwriting , the music — is state of the art . It ’ s as good as it gets . Anytime I hear it on the radio or a mix tape , I jump around like a freak . " J Mascis said his band Dinosaur Jr . ' s affection for the song inspired them to record a cover version that was released in 1989 . On 16 July 2006 , " Just Like Heaven " was played as a wake @-@ up call for the crew of Space Shuttle Discovery on their flight STS @-@ 121 at the request of astronaut Piers Sellers ' family ; Sellers told mission control center that the song reminded him of " the wild , happy , beer @-@ drinking years of my youth . " Just like Heaven was used extensively as the playout track on episode ten of the current series of the BBC TV drama New Tricks " The Queen 's Speech " which was broadcast on Monday 20 October 2014 .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Just Like Heaven " was directed by Tim Pope , who had directed all of the band 's previous videos since 1982 's " Let 's Go to Bed " . The video was filmed in England 's Pinewood Studios in October 1987 . Set on a cliff overlooking a sea , the video recreates many of the memories detailed in the song 's lyrics . When a fanzine asked Smith what the song was about , he said it was inspired by " something that happened to me a long time ago — see the video ! " While Smith had claimed for years that the video was shot at the same place that inspired the song , he later admitted that the bulk of it was filmed in a studio , utilising footage of the water and cliffs of Beachy Head taken for the band 's 1985 video for " Close to Me " .
During the song 's piano solo the sky turns to nighttime and the band is shown clad in white shirts . Mary Poole appears in this sequence as a woman dressed in white dancing with Smith . As Smith explained , " Mary dances with me in the video because she was the girl [ in the song ] , so it had to be her . " Pope later commented , " [ Poole ] can honestly lay claim to being the only featured female in any Cure video , ever . "
= = Cover versions = =
A number of cover versions of " Just Like Heaven " have been released , including recordings in Spanish , French , and German .
Katie Melua recorded a cover for the 2005 film Just Like Heaven , which also appeared on her 2005 album Piece by Piece . In the UK the cover was released as a double A @-@ side single with " I Cried for You " in late 2005 , and in the U.S. it became a minor adult contemporary radio hit in 2006 . In 2007 , Alvin and the Chipmunks covered the song for their video game Alvin and the Chipmunks , which also appeared in the 2011 video game Alvin and the Chipmunks : Chipwrecked .
AFI has covered " Just Like Heaven " as well on MTV Icon on The Cure in 2004 and have since incorporated it into their tour rotation for their upcoming album Burials .
Goldfinger covered the song on their 1999 album Darrin 's Coconut Ass : Live from Omaha Punk band 30footFALL also covered the song in 1999 on their album Ever Revolving , Never Evolving . Indie rock band Gatsbys American Dream covered the song on the 2005 compilation album Punk Goes 80 's . Jazz singer Kat Edmonson covered the song in 2009 .
Deadsy recorded a version of the song on their 1995 demo . This version was much slower than the original .
Robert Smith 's personal favourite is the cover recorded by American alternative rock band Dinosaur Jr . , which was released as a single in the UK in 1989 ( and 1990 in the US ) . Dinosaur Jr . ' s version has a faster tempo and showcases the band 's loud and distortion @-@ heavy sound . The band 's frontman J Mascis explained , " We recorded it for a compilation album , but when we finished it we liked it so much we didn 't want to give it to them . " Smith said , " J Mascis sent me a cassette , and it was so passionate . It was fantastic . I 've never had such a visceral reaction to a cover version before or since " , and even said the cover has " influenced how we play it live " .
= = Track listing = =
= = Charts = =
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= Meta Knight =
Meta Knight ( Japanese : メタナイト , Hepburn : Meta Naito ) is a fictional character in Nintendo 's Kirby video game series created by Masahiro Sakurai and developed by HAL Laboratory . He first appeared in the 1993 video game Kirby 's Adventure as a nameless character remaining there until the game Kirby 's Avalanche . The character also appears in several Kirby comic books , in the 2001 anime series , and in the Super Smash Bros. series .
Meta Knight is a mysterious but honorable knight ; due to this attitude he has played a " friend or foe " role in the Kirby series , which led video game critics to debate his nature and allegiances . He has received mainly positive critical reception since his introduction ; his development within the series , from a nameless character to one of Kirby 's main enemies , was praised , and he has been described as a " cool " character by reviewers .
= = Characteristics = =
Meta Knight is an enigmatic , yet honorable swordsman who follows a chivalric code ; this is exemplified when he gives Kirby a sword with which to fight . In keeping with his penchant of offering Kirby a sword with which to duel , Meta Knight himself wields a sacred , golden sword called Galaxia ( ギャラクシア , Gyarakushia ) . He is always seen wearing a silver mask ; beneath it he looks identical to Kirby , with a dark blue body ( black in his debut ) and white eyes , which appear yellow with his mask on ( and with his mask off in Kirby : Planet Robobot ) . He also sports a navy blue mantle ( red in his debut ) called the Dimensional Cape ( ディメンションマント , Dimenshon Manto ) , which can change into a pair of wings and allows him to teleport . However , these wings appear directly attached to his body in Kirby 's Return to Dream Land and Kirby : Planet Robobot . Much like a knight , Meta Knight 's design has become more armored since his debut ; he has sported a pair of pauldrons since Kirby 's Avalanche , gauntlets on his mitten @-@ like gloves since Kirby : Squeak Squad , and sabatons since Super Smash Bros. Brawl . He is usually described as Kirby 's rival and occasional mentor , as well as an anti @-@ hero . Despite occasionally being portrayed as a villain , he has benign intentions , will often fight alongside or assist Kirby when necessary for his survival or for the sake of the world . This attitude has led to debate about his allegiances .
= = Appearances = =
= = = In the Kirby video game series = = =
Meta Knight first appeared in the NES game Kirby 's Adventure as boss of the Orange Ocean level , where he fights Kirby to stop him from taking a piece of the Star Rod and keep it out of Nightmare 's hands . He is the main antagonist of the Revenge of Meta Knight mode in Kirby Super Star , in which he tries to take over Dream Land to end the inhabitants ' lazy lifestyle . Meta Knight is a playable character in special mode Meta Knightmare of Kirby : Nightmare in Dream Land . In Kirby & the Amazing Mirror , Dark Meta Knight — an evil , Mirror World counterpart of Meta Knight — splits Kirby into four , differently colored copies of himself by shattering a mirror after trapping Meta Knight in the Mirror World . After Kirby defeats Dark Meta Knight , Meta Knight himself helps Kirby defeat Dark Mind , the true main antagonist . In Kirby : Squeak Squad , he appears as a boss who tries to keep the chest containing Dark Nebula out of Kirby 's hands . In Kirby Super Star Ultra , he appears as a playable character in the Meta Knightmare Ultra mode . Meta Knight also appears in Kirby 's Return to Dream Land as one of the four playable protagonists , alongside Kirby , King Dedede and Bandana Waddle Dee , and as a playable character in multi @-@ player mode . After only making cameos in Kirby : Triple Deluxe , Meta Knight made an active return to the series in Kirby : Planet Robobot . In addition to partaking in the game 's story mode , he is the playable character of the Meta Knightmare Returns mode .
Meta Knight also appears in several spin @-@ off games in the series . He makes brief appearances in Kirby 's Pinball Land and Kirby 's Avalanche . In the latter , his name was revealed for the first time , where he is the penultimate challenger . He is an unlockable character in Kirby Air Ride and Kirby : Canvas Curse . Meta Knight is a boss in Kirby 's Epic Yarn and appears as a boss in two sub @-@ games in Kirby Mass Attack . Though he is absent from Kirby and the Rainbow Curse 's story mode , Meta Knight appears as a collectible figurine . The game is also compatible with the Meta Knight Amiibo , which Kirby can use for a temporary increase in attack power .
= = = Other appearances = = =
Meta Knight has made several appearances outside of the Kirby video game series , including the 1994 – 2006 manga Hoshi no Kirby : Dedede de Pupupu na Monogatari written by Hirokazu Hikawa and published by Shogakukan in CoroCoro Comic . He also appears in the ongoing Enterbrain 's Hoshi no Kirby : Kirby to Dedede no Pupupu Nikki manga written by Noboru Matsuyama and published in Famitsu DS + Wii ( originally called Famitsu DS + Cube + Advance ) , and in the Asami Taniguchi manga Hoshi no Kirby : Moretsu Pupupuawā ! published in Bessatsu CoroCoro Comic , where he is a main character . He is also featured in the 2012 Yuki Kawakami manga by Shogakukan , Hoshi no Kirby : Pack to Daibaku Show . In the 2001 – 2003 anime Kirby : Right Back at Ya ! he is a main character . In the series he is the last surviving member of the Galaxy Soldier Army , made up of " Star Warriors " , and acts as a mentor to Kirby .
He also appears in three Super Smash Bros. series games ; in Melee , he is a trophy , and in Super Smash Bros. Brawl , he is a playable character . However , Meta Knight was removed from professional gaming competitions in the United States and Canada due to being considered too powerful . On August 13 , 2014 , Nintendo confirmed that Meta Knight would be returning as a playable character in Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS and Wii U ; the game 's director , Masahiro Sakurai , assured some changes to re @-@ add Meta Knight .
= = Reception = =
IGN described Meta Knight as " one of the most enigmatic characters " in the series , naming him one of their ten favorite sword @-@ wielding characters in the video games and adding that although he was once " a mere villain " in the series , " his devilishly cool appearance set him apart from the rest " . GamesRadar ranked Meta Knight twelfth on its list of " Most Misunderstood Videogame Villains " , saying that he is " the standard good @-@ guy folderol [ ... ] , except that Meta Knight is invariably the bad guy " ; it said of the Meta Knight @-@ versus @-@ Kirby battles that " [ i ] t 's like if Batman picked a fight with a morbidly obese shut @-@ in , and you were supposed to root for the shut @-@ in . " It listed him on " The Top 7 Unlikeliest Badasses in Gaming " list , saying " Thanks to his brooding , serious attitude and his lavish taste in imposing capes , Meta Knight has created a beautiful illusion of something incredibly threatening , despite being a spherical bundle of delight . " He is the 18th @-@ best Nintendo character of all time , according to GameDaily ; that also placed him third on their list of Nintendo characters which deserve their own game . Complex stated that he developed from " a nameless villain " in Kirby 's Adventure into " Kirby 's rival " and stating that his popularity has surpassed that of King Dedede , ranking Meta Knight eighth on its list of " 25 Video Game Characters That Deserve a Spinoff " . Similarly , he was placed sixth on WhatCulture 's list of " 10 Video Game Characters That Deserve Their Own Spin @-@ Off Game " .
His inclusion in Super Smash Bros. Brawl was praised ; he was listed in the top five characters of Bozon ( ranked second ) , Peer ( ranked fourth ) , and Richard George ( ranked first ) from IGN , with all three highlighting his speed and Bozon saying he is " the best single @-@ player Brawler " . Jesse Schedeen from the same site said that " Meta Knight is a true powerhouse of the SSBB cast " , and UGO Networks called Meta Knight " [ t ] he most dangerous sword @-@ wielding , helmet @-@ wearing , sentient balloon you 're ever likely to meet " . Also , WhatCulture ranked him as the 6th greatest character in beat 'em up games , saying " he 's a brilliant character skills @-@ wise , even if he may be totally unfair in the grand scheme of things . " However , the balance among the Brawl characters was impaired , with Meta Knight " standing tall above the rest " .
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= Hurricane Erin ( 2001 ) =
Hurricane Erin was the longest @-@ lived hurricane in the 2001 Atlantic hurricane season . The sixth tropical depression , fifth tropical storm , and first hurricane , Erin developed from a tropical wave on September 1 . After strengthening to a 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) tropical storm as it moved to the west @-@ northwest , wind shear weakened Erin and caused it to dissipate on September 5 . The remnants re @-@ organized into a tropical depression the next day , and Erin strengthened into a hurricane on September 9 while moving northwestward . This was the latest date for the first hurricane of the season since Hurricane Diana on September 10 , 1984 . Erin quickly intensified and reached peak winds of 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) later on September 9 . At its closest approach , Erin passed 105 miles ( 170 km ) east @-@ northeast of Bermuda near peak intensity , and subsequently weakened as it turned to the east . A trough turned Erin to the northeast , and after passing just east of Cape Race , Newfoundland it became extratropical on September 15 . The extratropical remnant continued northeastward and lost its identity near Greenland on September 17 .
Though it passed 105 miles ( 170 km ) east of Bermuda , Hurricane Erin caused little damage or effects on the island . Large swells from the hurricane produced rough surf and rip currents along the East Coast of the United States . In Newfoundland , Erin dropped moderate amounts of rain and gusty winds , though no damage was reported . Throughout its path , Erin caused no casualties , no injuries , and minor damage .
= = Meteorological history = =
A tropical wave moved off the coast of Africa on August 30 . It almost immediately displayed signs of tropical cyclone formation with the development of deep convection and curved rainbands . Organization continued , and late on August 30 Dvorak classifications began on the system . On August 31 , after passing well south of the Cape Verde islands , the system stopped its organization trend . Convection became sporadic , and the system became poorly organized as it moved westward at 20 mph ( 32 km ) . However , environmental conditions remained favorable . On September 1 , the cloud pattern became better organized , and a low @-@ level circulation quickly developed . Following an increase in convection and conformation of a low @-@ level circulation by a buoy , it is estimated the system developed into Tropical Depression Six late on September 1 while located 1 @,@ 600 miles ( 2 @,@ 590 km ) east of the Lesser Antilles .
Located to the south of a mid @-@ level ridge , the depression moved to the west @-@ northwest . With weak to moderate upper @-@ level wind shear over the system , the depression gradually organized , and intensified into Tropical Storm Erin on September 2 . Though Erin had favorable upper @-@ level outflow and developing convection , the inner core of the storm remained disorganized . The storm slowly strengthened , and attained an initial peak intensity of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) while located about 1 @,@ 150 miles ( 1 @,@ 855 km ) east of the Lesser Antilles . Favorable conditions were expected to allow Erin to continue to strengthen to reach winds of 85 mph ( 135 km / h ) . However , an upper @-@ level low to the northwest of Erin produced strong vertical shear over the storm , and Erin quickly weakened as the low @-@ level circulation became exposed to the southwest of the deep convection . The shear slightly abated on September 4 , allowing Erin to briefly re @-@ strengthen . However , the storm remained disorganized , and following an increase in southwesterly wind shear Erin began a weakening trend . On September 5 , Erin weakened to a tropical depression , and hours later the low @-@ level circulation dissipated .
The remnant low pressure area continued to the west @-@ northwest , and on September 6 the system gradually produced deep convection . A surface circulation redeveloped in the northern portion of the remnants of Erin , and the system developed into a tropical depression again late on September 6 while located 365 miles ( 585 km ) north @-@ northwest of where it previously dissipated . The depression moved to the north @-@ northeast , then turned to the north @-@ northwest , and regained tropical storm status on September 7 . Erin steadily intensified , and its convection and cloud pattern became much better organized on September 8 . On September 9 Erin intensified into a hurricane while located 275 miles ( 440 km ) , and a 40 mile ( 65 km ) wide eye developed . Erin quickly strengthened on September 9 to reach a peak intensity of 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) . , however some sources claim that Erin may have been a little stronger .
Shortly after reaching its peak intensity , Erin passed 105 miles ( 170 km ) east @-@ northeast of Bermuda , its closest approach to the island . The hurricane maintained peak strength for 18 hours before slowly weakening . Its weakening trend was slower than usual due to warmer than usual water temperatures , and by late on September 10 Erin weakened to a Category 2 hurricane . Multiple short @-@ wave troughs weakened the western portion of the subtropical ridge , and on September 11 Erin decelerated as it turned to the east . A strengthening mid- to upper @-@ level trough over eastern Canada turned the hurricane to the northeast . It gradually accelerated its forward motion , and on September 15 , after weakening to a strong tropical storm , Erin passed just east of Cape Race , Newfoundland . Convection gradually diminished as it moved through the north Atlantic Ocean , and later on September 15 Erin became extratropical . The extratropical storm continued northeastward , and after crossing over southern Greenland Erin merged with a high @-@ latitude cyclonic flow to the east of Greenland on September 17 .
= = Impact and preparations = =
When the hurricane appeared to pose a threat to Bermuda , its government issued a hurricane watch . Around 24 hours before Erin made its closest approach , the watch was upgraded to a hurricane warning . Initial forecasts indicated Erin would pass within 15 miles ( 24 km ) of the island . As a result , ferry and bus transport was suspended . Officials prepared a school to be used as an emergency shelter , though few people used it . The threat of the hurricane cancelled several flights in and out of the Bermuda International Airport , stranding hundreds of travellers . Cruise ships and cargo ships also cancelled or delayed their arrivals . The strongest winds of Erin remained to the east of the island . As a result , the highest winds on the island peaked at 41 mph ( 66 km / h ) . Moderate winds downed several trees onto power lines , leaving dozens of homes without power for several hours . Prolonged durations of strong waves resulted in coastal beach erosion . Large waves broke a boat from its moorings , though two men swam through the rough seas to prevent the yacht from running aground . The storm produced rainfall on the island , yet no flooding was reported . Little structural damage occurred on Bermuda , and there were no reported injuries or casualties .
Swells from Erin produced rip currents along the North Carolina coastline . Waves were expected to reach over 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) in height . Officials at the National Hurricane Center cautioned authorities and residents to monitor the rough seas .
Erin produced moderate winds across Newfoundland , including a maximum sustained wind report of 53 mph ( 85 km / h ) with a gust of 67 mph ( 108 km / h ) at Cape Race . The storm also produced moderate amounts of precipitation , peaking at 5 @.@ 1 inches ( 131 mm ) at Sagona Island . Along the coast , the passage of the storm led to wave heights of up to 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 3 m ) , while offshore a buoy recorded a wave height of 47 feet ( 14 @.@ 2 m ) . No damage was reported in Canada .
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= Stargate ( production team ) =
Stargate is a Norwegian record producing and songwriting team , composed of Tor Erik Hermansen ( born 14 October 1972 ) and Mikkel Storleer Eriksen ( born in 1972 ) , based in New York City . The team 's genres include R & B , pop , dance @-@ pop , Europop and hip hop . Stargate was established in Trondheim , Norway .
Stargate broke into the American recording industry in 2006 , with the release of the Billboard Hot 100 No. 1 single , " So Sick " , produced and co @-@ written by the team and performed by Ne @-@ Yo . They also produced and co @-@ wrote Beyoncé 's worldwide hit single " Irreplaceable " , which topped the Billboard Hot 100 for 10 consecutive weeks . Throughout their career they have been noted for their extensive work with Rihanna , writing and producing four consecutive Billboard Hot 100 No. 1 singles with the Barbadian singer in 2010 and 2011 . They have together written 12 No. 1 singles in the U.S. and 11 in the UK .
= = Formation and early works = =
Stargate began in 1997 as a song @-@ writing trio in Trondheim , Norway , consisting of Tor Erik Hermansen , Mikkel Storleer Eriksen , and Hallgeir Rustan . When they first met , Hermansen was a talent scout for the Norwegian branch of the record label Warner Music Group , Eriksen owned a studio , and Rustan was a mechanical engineer before becoming involved in music . One of their first successful productions was with Norwegian R & B singer Noora Noor . Her first album " Curious " was produced in their Trondheim studio . Noora Noor was signed to the Norwegian branch of the record label Warner Music Group . Her main hit from this album " Need You " was released throughout Europe and gave Stargate attention from the UK music industry . While in Norway , they ventured into the British market , mostly writing songs for R & B @-@ pop performers . At this time they called the team Stargate , a name specifically established for their projects in the United Kingdom .
The team 's initial successes was in the British market . Stargate 's first international success came with British pop outfit S Club , whose 1999 single " S Club Party " reached No. 1 in Australia and New Zealand . This success was followed with another British pop group , Hear 'Say 's single " The Way To Your Love " , which peaked at No. 1 in the United Kingdom in 2001 . The team has also produced many Top 10 hits in the United Kingdom for acts such as Blue , Mis @-@ Teeq and Atomic Kitten , and worked with European acts Javine , Shola Ama , Five , and Samantha Mumba .
The team had been listening to American hits and " trying to measure up " . They remixed American hip @-@ hop and R & B songs , adding layers of melody to suit the European radio audience . In the wake of their early successes , the team had to choose whether to remain in Norway or move to pursue their goals : " We knew that to make the records we really wanted to make , we had to go to America . " Hermansen and Eriksen chose to produce records in the United States , while Rustan preferred to remain a producer in Norway because he did not want to leave his family behind .
In 2001 , Stargate produced and co @-@ wrote songs for American pop singer Mikaila 's self @-@ titled debut album . " So in Love With Two " , a track from the album , had reached No. 25 on the US Billboard Hot 100 , becoming one of the team 's earliest co @-@ written singles that appeared on the US charts . It was followed three years later with Mis @-@ Teeq 's " Scandalous " , which peaked at No. 35 on the Hot 100 and No. two in the United Kingdom .
In the spring of 2005 , Eriksen and Hermansen settled in New York . Initially , their work was slow until they met singer @-@ songwriter Ne @-@ Yo in a hallway at Sony Music Studios in New York . Ne @-@ Yo , who had been working on his debut album , In My Own Words , decided to collaborate with the team , aware that Stargate produced R & B records . After listening to each other 's music , a songwriting session ensued and spawned in its second day the song " So Sick " , which later topped the Billboard Hot 100 and ushered Stargate into American pop songwriting .
= = Notable collaborations = =
Stargate and Ne @-@ Yo collaborated on the hit single " Unfaithful " for Barbadian singer Rihanna 's 2006 album A Girl Like Me . In the same year , Stargate again collaborated with Ne @-@ Yo for the single " Irreplaceable " , recorded by American singer Beyoncé Knowles . The single topped the Billboard Hot 100 for ten consecutive weeks in 2007 . Also in 2006 , Stargate and Taj Jackson gave American singer @-@ songwriter Lionel Richie his first R & B hit , " I Call It Love " , in 10 years .
With the team 's contributions to music , Stargate emerged as the No. 1 hot producer on the 2006 Billboard Year End Chart . In the following year , Stargate received a Spellemann ( Norwegian Grammy ) . The team received three awards at the ASCAP Pop Music Awards 2007 in Los Angeles , for the songs " So Sick " , " Sexy Love " and " Unfaithful " ; and two awards at the ASCAP Rhythm & Soul Awards 2007 for " So Sick " and " Sexy Love " . They were named Songwriters of the Year at the 2007 ASCAP / PRS in London , receiving nine awards including Song of the Year for " So Sick " .
In 2007 , " Beautiful Liar " , a duet between Knowles and Colombian singer Shakira , became another hit for Stargate , reaching No. 1 in more than 30 countries including the United Kingdom . The song earned Hermansen and Eriksen the Ivor Novello Award for Best @-@ Selling British song . Although " Beautiful Liar " is chiefly an American song , it includes British songwriters Amanda Ghost and Ian Dench , thus eligible for the award .
At the 2008 ASCAP Pop Music Awards , Hermansen and Eriksen received five awards for most performed songs , including " Irreplaceable " among the top five . Stargate was named Best Hitmakers in Rolling Stone magazine 's " Best of Rock 2008 " . Eriksen and Hermansen received Grammy nominations for five separate songs in six categories for the 2008 Grammy Awards , including Record of the Year for " Irreplaceable " , Best R & B Song for " Hate That I Love You " and Best Dance Record for " Don 't Stop The Music " .
On Ne @-@ Yo 's third solo @-@ album , Year of the Gentleman , Stargate have produced and co @-@ written four songs , among them the singles " Closer " and " Miss Independent " , the latter of which had reached No. 1 on the Billboard Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs . Stargate received nominations in more than 10 categories for the 2009 Grammy Awards . They won their first Grammy in 2009 in the Best R & B Song category for " Miss Independent " , performed by Ne @-@ Yo .
Stargate produced " Black and Yellow " for rapper Wiz Khalifa in 2010 , a song that reached No. 1 in the Billboard U.S Charts , and Sean Kingstons " Letting Go " . They produced four No. 1 singles for Barbadian recording artist Rihanna including " Rude Boy " , " Only Girl ( In The World ) " , " What 's My Name ? " and " S & M " . Stargate co @-@ wrote and co @-@ produced Owl City 's single " Shooting Star " which was released on the Shooting Star EP on May 15 , 2012 .
In 2015 , Stargate produced together with Rik Simpson the Coldplay album A Head Full of Dreams .
= = Other ventures = =
Stargate teamed @-@ up with American hip hop mogul Jay @-@ Z to launch the record label StarRoc . The label , which is based at Jay @-@ Z 's Roc The Mic studio in Manhattan , will be a 50 / 50 partnership with the team and Jay @-@ Z 's entertainment company Roc Nation . Eriksen and Hermansen 's connection with Jay @-@ Z , who was then the CEO of the record label Def Jam , began with the release of " So Sick " . They met through Ty Ty Smith , A & R from record label Def Jam and a long @-@ time friend of Jay @-@ Z.
In addition to their new venture , Eriksen signed a global co @-@ publishing deal with EMI Music Publishing . According to Music Week , his relationship with EMI will further the publishing company 's involvement on Stargate 's future projects . Prior to the deal , EMI has been involved with Hermansen 's projects for nearly ten years since he signed a deal in 1999 . Hermansen and Eriksen will also continue their joint @-@ venture partnership , Stellar Songs , with EMI .
Mikkel Eriksen owns part of the Norwegian clothing firm JohnnyLove which they are trying to introduce to the American market . On the American launch party in New York on the 12th of October 2011 Jay @-@ Z came to show his support and stated to the reporter that he was " a little bit Norwegian , as I am sure you know " .
Tor Erik Hermansen owns one third of the award @-@ winning Norwegian St. Lars restaurant in Oslo together with international TV @-@ chef Andreas Viestad and Face2Face @-@ founder Per Meland . Queen Sonja of Norway and the former Norwegian prime minister Jens Stoltenberg are regular guests . The owners have tried to bring some of the ambience from the New York @-@ restaurant The Spotted Pig , owned by Stargate 's StarRoc @-@ partner Jay @-@ Z , to the restaurant .
= = Influences and style = =
Stargate chiefly produces songs in the genres ; R & B , pop , dance @-@ pop , Europop and hip hop music .
Hermansen and Eriksen grew up as R & B and hip hop fanatics in Norwegian suburbs , where most children listen to Europop and American rock . Their interest in music started in the 1980s with breakdance and rap . Eriksen and Hermansen were raised on pop music , growing up listening to music of 1970s pop group ABBA and Germany @-@ based pop outfit Boney M. In an article by The New York Times , Barry Weiss , president of Jive Records , who had hired Stargate to produce songs , " Those influences lend themselves to them making very melodic pop records , with great hooks and choruses . " According to the team , they have always loved American music , citing acts such as Prince , Michael Jackson , Usher , Destiny 's Child , and R. Kelly and the English band Depeche Mode as their inspiration . The team also cited producers Antonio " L.A. " Reid and Kenneth " Babyface " Edmonds of the 1980s R & B band The Deele , and R & B @-@ pop production team Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis as their early influences .
In their usual production style , Stargate first creates an instrumental backing track — also common in pop and hip hop productions — from which a collaborator would write lyrics and add vocal melody into . In an interview with About.com , the team explained their style :
We always start out with a musical idea . Great effort goes into creating a solid melodic core . We both play the keyboards and program , but in general Mikkel plays the instruments and controls Pro Tools , while Tor has the executive overlook as well as lyrical input . However , we both are hands on and have no rules or limitations . When we have some killer beats and musical starting points , we hook up with one of our favorite topline writers , who gets cracking on the lyrics and melody . We make sure there 's a lot of melody in the track , so it can inspire the writer . Together with the topline writer we work , often tweek and simplify the song , and never quit before we feel we 've got a killer hook .
Ben Sisario of The New York Times described Stargate 's music as " sugary , lilting R & B in the Michael Jackson vein leavened with the kind of melody @-@ rich European pop that paints everything in bright primary colors ... Their work carries on a tradition of Scandinavian bubble @-@ gum artistry that stretches from Abba to Max Martin " . Sisario added that , unlike other 's producers in the United States , " Stargate signature is more difficult to detect , because to some degree the duo 's style is an adaptable method , not a specific sound " . Steve Lunt , an A & R executive at Atlantic Records , pointed out , however , that " if you put a bunch of Stargate songs together you will see the thread running through them " .
= = Critical reception = =
Critics found some of Stargate 's succeeding works a replica of " Irreplaceable " ' s musical formula . Sheffield commented that , in the song " Tattoo " by Sparks , the team " have no shame about churning out ' Irreplaceable ' replicants forever " , reprising the acoustic guitar @-@ drum loop formula . The New York Times music critic Kelefa Sanneh deemed it " sounds like a cousin " of " Irreplaceable " . The release of R & B singer Chris Brown 's 2007 single " With You " produced similar impressions : Sheffield , in his review for Brown 's album , noted that " Stargate was just trying to roll out ' Irreplaceable ' one more time " . Hillary Crosley of Billboard magazine wrote that " With You " " leans a bit too heavily " toward " Irreplaceable " . Stylus Magazine also noted that Rihanna 's Stargate produced single , " Hate That I Love You " was a rehash of Ne @-@ Yo and Stargate 's previous works saying , " Here you 've got the ' Sexy Love ' drums , the ' Irreplaceable ' strum , and a bit of the synth and chorus melody from ' So Sick ' ... is hardly the new twist all these old bits need to sound fresh . "
= = Discography = =
For a complete list , see Stargate production discography
= = = Top ten singles = = =
The following singles peaked inside the top ten on the Billboard Hot 100 and / or the UK Singles Chart .
1999 : " S Club Party " ( S Club 7 )
1999 : " Always Come Back to Your Love " ( Samantha Mumba )
1999 : " Two in a Million " ( S Club 7 )
2000 : " Day & Night " ( Billie Piper )
2000 : " Mama - Who Da Man ? " ( Richard Blackwood )
2000 : " Sweet Love 2K " ( Fierce )
2000 : " The Way to Your Love " ( Hear 'Say )
2001 : " One Night Stand " ( Mis @-@ Teeq )
2001 : " All Rise " ( Blue )
2002 : " Sorry Seems to Be the Hardest Word " ( Blue featuring Elton John )
2002 : " The Last Goodbye " ( Atomic Kitten )
2003 : " Scandalous " ( Mis @-@ Teeq )
2003 : " Real Things " ( Javine )
2004 : " Love You Like Mad " ( VS )
2004 : " Eyes on You " ( Jay Sean )
2004 : " Stolen " ( Jay Sean )
2006 : " Sexy Love " ( Ne @-@ Yo )
2006 : " So Sick " ( Ne @-@ Yo )
2006 : " Unfaithful " ( Rihanna )
2006 : " Irreplaceable " ( Beyoncé )
2007 : " Beautiful Liar " ( Beyoncé & Shakira )
2007 : " Because of You " ( Ne @-@ Yo )
2007 : " Hate That I Love You " ( Rihanna featuring Ne @-@ Yo )
2007 : " Don 't Stop the Music " ( Rihanna )
2007 : " Tattoo " ( Jordin Sparks )
2007 : " With You " ( Chris Brown )
2008 : " Take a Bow " ( Rihanna )
2008 : " Closer " ( Ne @-@ Yo )
2008 : " Mad " ( Ne @-@ Yo )
2010 : " Rude Boy " ( Rihanna )
2010 : " Beautiful Monster " ( Ne @-@ Yo )
2010 : " Happiness " ( Alexis Jordan )
2010 : " Only Girl ( In the World ) " ( Rihanna )
2010 : " What 's My Name ? " ( Rihanna featuring Drake )
2010 : " Firework " ( Katy Perry )
2011 : " Black and Yellow " ( Wiz Khalifa )
2011 : " S & M " ( Rihanna )
2011 : " Good Girl " ( Alexis Jordan )
2011 : " I 'm Into You " ( Jennifer Lopez featuring Lil Wayne )
2012 : " R.I.P. " ( Rita Ora featuring Tinie Tempah )
2012 : " Let Me Love You ( Until You Learn to Love Yourself ) " ( Ne @-@ Yo )
2012 : " Diamonds " ( Rihanna )
2013 : " Come & Get It " ( Selena Gomez )
2013 : " The Fox " ( Ylvis )
2014 : " Black Widow " ( Iggy Azalea featuring Rita Ora )
2015 : " Worth It " ( Fifth Harmony featuring Kid Ink )
2015 : " Same Old Love " ( Selena Gomez )
2015 : " Adventure of a Lifetime " ( Coldplay )
2016 : " Hymn for the Weekend " ( Coldplay )
2016 : " Write On Me " ( Fifth Harmony )
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= Elmo 's World =
" Elmo 's World " is a 18 @-@ minute @-@ long segment that was shown at the end of the children 's television program Sesame Street . It premiered on November 16 , 1998 as part of the show 's structural changes , designed to appeal to younger viewers and to increase ratings , which had fallen in the past decade . The segment was developed out of a series of workshops that studied the changes in the viewing habits of their audience , and the reasons for the show 's lower ratings . " Elmo 's World " used traditional elements of production , but had a more sustained narrative . It was presented from the perspective of a three @-@ year @-@ old child as represented by its host , the Muppet Elmo , who was performed by Kevin Clash . In 2002 , Sesame Street 's producers changed the rest of the show to reflect its younger demographic and the increase in their viewers ' sophistication .
Long @-@ time writer Judy Freudberg came up with the concept of " Elmo 's World " , and writer Tony Geiss and executive producer Arlene Sherman helped develop it . Instead of the realism of the rest of the show , the segment presented Elmo moving between and combining two worlds of live action and computer @-@ generated animation , which looked like " a child 's squiggly crayon drawing come to life " created by the host , and with " a stream @-@ of @-@ consciousness feel to it " . Elmo 's pet goldfish Dorothy and the members of the Noodle family were silent in order to allow Elmo to do all the talking , and to give children the opportunity to respond to what they saw on the screen .
" Elmo 's World " remained popular throughout its run . In 2009 , " Elmo 's World " temporarily ceased production and was replaced by " Elmo the Musical " in 2012 .
= = Background = =
By the early 1990s , Sesame Street had been on the air for over 20 years and was , as author Michael Davis put it , " the undisputed heavyweight champion of preschool television " . The show 's dominance began to be challenged throughout the decade by other television shows for preschoolers such as Barney & Friends , by the growth of the children 's home video industry , and by the increase of thirty @-@ minute children 's shows on cable . Sesame Street 's ratings declined , so the Children 's Television Workshop ( CTW ) , the organization responsible for putting the show on the air , responded by researching the reasons for their lower ratings .
For the first time since the show debuted , the producers and a team of researchers analyzed Sesame Street 's content and structure and studied how children 's viewing habits had changed . The analysis was conducted during a series of two @-@ week @-@ long workshops and was completed in time for the show 's 30th anniversary in 1999 . The CTW found that although the show was produced for children between the ages of three and five , their viewers had become more sophisticated since its debut and began to watch the show sooner , as early as ten months of age . The producers found that the show 's original format , which consisted of a series of short clips similar to the structure of a magazine , was not necessarily the most effective way to hold young viewers ' attention . They also found that their viewers , especially the younger ones , lost attention with Sesame Street after 40 to 45 minutes .
The first way the CTW addressed the issues brought up by their research was by lowering the target age for Sesame Street , from four years to three years . In late 1998 , they created a new 15 @-@ minute segment entitled " Elmo 's World " , hosted by the Muppet Elmo , that was shown at the end of each episode . The segment used traditional elements ( animation , Muppets , music , and live @-@ action film ) , but had a more sustained narrative . " Elmo 's World " followed the same structure each episode , and depended heavily on repetition . It focused on child @-@ centered topics such as balls and dancing , from the perspective of a three @-@ year @-@ old child , and was " designed to foster exploration , imagination , and curiosity " . Instead of an adult providing narration , Elmo led the child through the action .
In 2002 , Sesame Street 's producers went further in changing the show to reflect its younger demographic and increase in their viewers ' sophistication . They decided , after the show 's 33rd season , to expand upon the " Elmo 's World " concept by , as San Francisco Chronicle TV critic Tim Goodman called it , " deconstructing " the show . They changed the structure of the entire show to a more narrative format , making the show easier for young children to navigate . Arlene Sherman , a co @-@ executive producer for 25 years and one of the creators of " Elmo 's World " , called the show 's new look " startlingly different " .
= = Development and filming = =
Long @-@ time Sesame Street writer Judy Freudberg came up with the idea of creating a segment with " an entirely different format " from the rest of the show during the CTW 's workshops , and writer Tony Geiss further developed the idea with her . Freudberg stated that the concept " was radical because we had never veered from that magazine mosaic and had never given any character more than another character to do " .
Animator Mo Willems came up with the idea of creating a less @-@ realistic setting compared to the rest of the show . The segment presented Elmo moving between and combining two worlds of live action and computer @-@ generated animation , which looked like " a child 's squiggly crayon drawing come to life " created by the host , and with " a stream @-@ of @-@ consciousness feel to it " . The segment was filmed at a different time than the rest of the season , much of it in front of a blue screen , with animation and digital effects added later . Kevin Clash was Elmo 's principal puppeteer for " Elmo 's World " . For more complicated shots that showed Elmo 's entire body , a puppet called " Active Elmo " was operated with assistance from other puppeteers ; the puppet was also filmed in front of a blue screen and edited later .
In addition to Freudberg and Geiss , other writers of " Elmo 's World " included Emily Kingsley and Molly Boylan . The theme song was based upon a song Geiss wrote called " Elmo 's Song " , with lyrics changed to fit the segment . Writer Louise Gikow and The New York Times called it " a show within a show " . Clash called it " a playdate between the child and Elmo " , and felt that its intimacy provided an effective teaching tool . He also called it " an instant success " . Davis compared " Elmo 's World " with the long @-@ running children 's TV show Peewee 's Playhouse .
The CTW , as it has done throughout its existence and for all the shows it produced , conducted extensive studies on " Elmo 's World " . They found that the segment had high appeal for children , regardless of their age , sex , and socioeconomic background . Attention and participation such as hand @-@ clapping , moving along with the music , and counting along with the characters increased with repeated viewing .
= = Characters = =
The Muppet Elmo , who represented the three- to four @-@ year @-@ old child , was chosen as host of " Elmo 's World " because he had always tested well with Sesame Street 's younger viewers . Elmo was created in 1979 and was performed by various puppeteers , including Richard Hunt , but did not become what his eventual portrayer Kevin Clash called a " phenomenon " until Clash took over the role in 1983 . Elmo became , as writer Michael Davis reported , " the embodiment " of Sesame Street , and " the marketing wonder of our age " when five million " Tickle Me Elmo " dolls were sold in 1996 . Clash believed the " Tickle Me Elmo " phenomenon made Elmo a household name and led to the " Elmo 's World " segment . Clash called " Elmo 's World " " a colorful , lively celebration of creativity " and " one of the most imaginative endeavors I 've ever been involved in " . He stated that the segment provided him with new challenges and opportunities for " creative risk @-@ taking " .
According to Clash and Gikow , Elmo 's pet goldfish Dorothy and the members of the Noodle family were silent in order to allow Elmo to do all the talking , and to give children the opportunity to respond to what they saw on the screen . Dorothy 's silence allowed children to fill in the blanks , and her curiosity , which was created and enhanced by Elmo 's imagination , allowed the writers and researchers to insert the curriculum lessons they want to convey . Up to nine goldfish were used per episode , so they could be replaced when necessary . Several fish were needed each season , and the surviving Dorothys were given good homes afterwards .
Mr. Noodle was played by Broadway actor Bill Irwin , who had previously worked with Sherman in short films for Sesame Street . When he became unavailable , Sherman asked her friend Michael Jeter to replace Irwin as Mr. Noodle 's brother Mr. Noodle . Jeter was in the role beginning in 2000 , until his death in 2003 . Kristin Chenoweth played Mr. Noodle 's sister Ms. Noodle , and Sarah Jones played Mr. Noodle 's other sister Miss Noodle . According to Freudberg , " Mr. Noodle , who never speaks , is all about trial and error . When you throw him a hat , he acts like he 's never seen one before . Kids feel empowered watching him because they can do what he can 't " .
= = Muppet performers = =
Kevin Clash - Elmo
= = = Additional Muppet performers = = =
Pam Arciero
Fran Brill - Zoe
R. Bruce Connelly
Stephanie D 'Abruzzo
Rick Lyon
Jim Martin
Joey Mazzarino
Jerry Nelson - Count
Martin P. Robinson - Telly and Snuffy
David Rudman - Baby Bear
Caroll Spinney - Big Bird and Oscar
John Tartaglia
Alice Vernon
Steve Whitmire
Bryant Young
= = End of production = =
" Elmo 's World " remained popular throughout its run , especially for the younger viewers for which it was designed . In 2009 , when " Elmo 's World " temporarily ceased production , the producers of Sesame Street began taking steps to increase the age of their viewers and to increase their ratings . By the end of the show 's 40th anniversary in 2009 , 3 @-@ year @-@ old viewers had increased by 41 % , 4 @-@ year @-@ olds by 4 % , and 5 @-@ year @-@ olds by 21 % . According to The New York Times , executive producer Carol @-@ Lynn Parente " was itching to revamp the final segment " even before production of " Elmo 's World " ended , but was prevented by the apparent satisfaction of the viewers and by tight budgets . They were also reluctant to replace the segment ; as writer Joey Mazzarino explained , it was " an emotionally charged process " because Freudberg had become ill and was not present for the discussions about it .
Although " Elmo 's World " was replaced by " Elmo the Musical " in 2012 , it continued to appear on repeats of Sesame Street , on DVDs , and on the show 's website , which sold products related to the segment .
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= Lisa 's Sax =
" Lisa 's Sax " is the third episode of The Simpsons ' ninth season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on October 19 , 1997 to overwhelmingly positive reviews . In the series ' sixth flashback episode , it is explained how Lisa got her saxophone . The episode was executive produced by Al Jean and Mike Reiss and was the first episode Jean wrote by himself as all of his previous writing credits had been shared with Reiss . It was directed by Dominic Polcino and guest starred Fyvush Finkel , who appeared as himself portraying Krusty in a film .
= = Plot = =
Homer and Bart are watching television when they are interrupted by Lisa playing her saxophone in her bedroom . Bart enters Lisa 's bedroom and tries to grab the saxophone from her , but he inadvertently tosses it out the window . It lands in the middle of the street and is run over by a car , a truck , and a man riding a tricycle , and stomped on by Nelson Muntz . In a period of mourning , Lisa reveals she cannot remember ever not having that saxophone , so Homer recounts the instrument 's origins .
In a flashback to 1990 , Bart goes to his first day of school , but things do not go so well for him and he becomes depressed . It is during discussions of Bart 's future that the school psychologist realizes the young Lisa is very intelligent , telling Homer and Marge that they need to nurture her gifted spirit . They try to send Lisa to a private school but the tuition fee costs $ 6 @,@ 000 . Meanwhile , a terrible heat wave hits Springfield and Homer saves $ 200 to buy an air conditioner . Marge , however , asks Homer not to buy one until they figure out how to help Lisa . At the school , Bart talks with his future friend Milhouse and makes a farting sound , which Milhouse finds amusing . Encouraged , Bart entertains a group of children and sets out on his path to become the school prankster .
On his way to purchase a new air conditioner , Homer discovers that a musical instrument is a way to encourage a gifted child , and subsequently sacrifices his air conditioner money to buy Lisa her first saxophone . In the present , Marge mentions that there is some money in the air conditioner account , so Homer decides to buy another saxophone for Lisa .
= = Production = =
" Lisa 's Sax " is the first episode that Al Jean had ever been credited as having written by himself . Before this episode , all of his writing credits had been shared with Mike Reiss . The episode was written with a small staff that consisted of Jean , Reiss and David Stern , among others . According to Reiss , the final episode contained 80 – 90 % of Jean 's original script . It is the sixth flashback episode done by the show . " The Way We Was " was the first flashback episode and in it , Homer graduated from high school in 1974 and that made it difficult to have a realistic timeframe as this episode is set in 1990 . Jean conceived the idea for the All in the Family style opening while waiting to get tickets to the O.J. Simpson murder trial . The episode was very short and the clip of Lisa playing the sax at the end was added to lengthen it .
The pastel drawing of Krusty was drawn entirely by Dominic Polcino , who revealed it was the only piece of original artwork created solely by him that was featured in an episode . He created the pastel drawing with this in mind . It was an easy episode for Polcino to direct due to the lack of crowds and being a " grounded episode " . This is the last episode in which Doris Grau has a speaking role as Lunchlady Doris , although this episode aired nearly two years after her death . It would also mark the final time the character would speak until Season 18 's " The Mook , the Chef , the Wife and Her Homer " when she was voiced by Tress MacNeille .
= = Cultural references = =
While telling Bart and Lisa about 1990 , Homer says , " Tracey Ullman was entertaining America with [ ... ] crudely drawn filler material . " This is a reference to The Simpsons 's debut as " bumpers " airing before and after commercials on The Tracey Ullman Show . The song " Those Were the Days " parodies the opening credits of the television show All in the Family . One of the people who run over the saxophone is a man on a tricycle , who promptly falls over . This is a reference to the show Rowan & Martin 's Laugh @-@ In . At the beginning of the flashback , the song " Don 't Worry , Be Happy " by Bobby McFerrin can be heard . In the flashback , Dr. Hibbert fashioned his hair and attire like Mr. T in The A @-@ Team . Homer can be seen watching Twin Peaks and The Giant is then shown waltzing with the White Horse . In King Toot 's music store , when Homer buys Lisa her first saxophone , there is a guitar in the background that is similar to Eddie Van Halen 's " Frankenstrat " guitar . The photo beside Kent Brockman on the news has him modeled after the Coppertone Girl .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast , " Lisa 's Sax " finished 51st in ratings for the week of October 13 – 19 , 1997 , with a Nielsen rating of 8 @.@ 2 , equivalent to approximately 8 @.@ 0 million viewing households . It was the second highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , following King of the Hill .
The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , called it " a terrific episode , full of amusing self @-@ referential wit and it is especially nice to finally discover what it was that caused Bart to go down the path to the dark side . " Robert Canning of IGN strongly praised the episode , saying it is " not only very funny , but it 's also loaded with Simpson heart . " A review of The Simpsons season 9 DVD release in The San Diego Union @-@ Tribune highlighted " Lisa 's Sax " along with " All Singing , All Dancing " and " Trash of the Titans " as some of the more memorable episodes of the series . Stephen Becker of The Dallas Morning News noted that season 9 " has a special affinity for Lisa " , and highlighted this episode along with " Das Bus " and " Lisa the Simpson " in his review of the DVD . A segment of the episode where two schoolgirls chant the digits of pi while playing patty @-@ cake is used by mathematicians Sarah J. Greenwald of Appalachian State University and Andrew Nestler of Santa Monica College in a website on the mathematics of The Simpsons .
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= Hugh Trenchard , 1st Viscount Trenchard =
Marshal of the Royal Air Force Hugh Montague Trenchard , 1st Viscount Trenchard , GCB , OM , GCVO , DSO ( 3 February 1873 – 10 February 1956 ) was a British officer who was instrumental in establishing the Royal Air Force . He has been described as the Father of the Royal Air Force .
During his formative years Trenchard struggled academically , failing many examinations and only just succeeding in meeting the minimum standard for commissioned service in the British Army . As a young infantry officer , Trenchard served in India and with the outbreak of the Boer War , he volunteered for service in South Africa . While fighting the Boers , Trenchard was critically wounded and as a result of his injury , he lost a lung , was partially paralysed and returned to Great Britain . On medical advice Trenchard travelled to Switzerland to recuperate and boredom saw him taking up bobsleighing . After a heavy crash , Trenchard found that his paralysis was gone and that he could walk unaided . Following further recuperation , Trenchard returned to active service in South Africa .
After the end of the Boer War , Trenchard saw service in Nigeria where he was involved in efforts to bring the interior under settled British rule and quell intertribal violence . During his time in West Africa , Trenchard commanded the Southern Nigeria Regiment for several years .
In Summer 1912 , Trenchard learned to fly and gained his aviator 's certificate ( No. 270 ) on 31 July flying a Henry Farman biplane of the Sopwith School of Flying at Brooklands . He was subsequently appointed as second in command of the Central Flying School . He held several senior positions in the Royal Flying Corps during World War I , serving as the commander of the Royal Flying Corps in France from 1915 to 1917 . In 1918 , he briefly served as the first Chief of the Air Staff before taking up command of the Independent Air Force in France . Returning as Chief of the Air Staff under Winston Churchill in 1919 , Trenchard spent the following decade securing the future of the Royal Air Force . He was Metropolitan Police Commissioner in the 1930s and a defender of the RAF in his later years . Trenchard is recognized today as one of the early advocates of strategic bombing .
= = Early life = =
Hugh Montague Trenchard was born at Windsor Lodge on Haines Hill in Taunton , England on 3 February 1873 . He was the third child and second son of Henry Montague Trenchard and his wife Georgina Louisa Catherine Tower . Trenchard 's father was a captain in the King 's Own Yorkshire Light Infantry and his mother was the daughter of the Royal Navy captain John McDowall Skene . Although in the 1870s the Trenchards were living in an unremarkable fashion , their forebears had played notable roles in English history . The family claimed descent from Raoul de Trenchant , a knight and one of the close companions of William the Conqueror who fought alongside him at the Battle of Hastings . Other notable ancestors were Sir Thomas Trenchard , a High Sheriff of Dorset in the 16th century and Sir John Trenchard , the Secretary of State under William III .
When Hugh Trenchard was two , the family moved to Courtlands , a farm @-@ cum @-@ manor house less than three miles ( 4 km ) from the centre of Taunton . The country setting meant that the young Trenchard could enjoy an outdoor life , including spending time hunting rabbits and other small animals with the rifle he was given on his eighth birthday . It was during his junior years that Trenchard and his siblings were educated at home by a resident tutor , whom Trenchard did not respect . Unfortunately for Trenchard 's education , the tutor was neither strict enough nor skillful enough to overcome the children 's mischievous attempts to avoid receiving instruction . As a consequence , Trenchard did not excel academically ; however , his enthusiasm for games and riding was evident .
At the age of 10 , Trenchard was sent to board at Allens Preparatory School near Botley in Hampshire . Although he did well at arithmetic , he struggled with the rest of the curriculum . However , Trenchard 's parents were not greatly concerned by his educational difficulties , believing that it would be no impediment to him following a military career . Georgina Trenchard wanted her son to follow her father 's profession and enter the Royal Navy . In 1884 , Trenchard was moved to Dover where he attended Hammond 's , a cramming school for prospective entrants to HMS Britannia . Trenchard failed the Navy 's entrance papers , and at the age of 13 he was sent to the Reverend Albert Pritchard 's crammer , Hill Lands in Wargrave , Berkshire . Hill Lands prepared its pupils for Army commissions and although Trenchard excelled at rugby , as before he did not apply himself to his studies .
In 1889 , when Hugh Trenchard was 16 years old , his father , who had become a solicitor , was declared bankrupt . After initially being removed from Hill Lands , the young Trenchard was only able to return thanks to the charity of his relatives . Trenchard failed the Woolwich examinations twice and was then relegated to applying for the Militia which had lower entry standards . Even the Militia 's examinations proved difficult for Trenchard and he failed in 1891 and 1892 . During this time , Trenchard underwent a period of training as a probationary subaltern with the Forfar and Kincardine Artillery . Following his return to Pritchard 's , Trenchard finally achieved a bare pass in March 1893 . At the age of 20 , he was gazetted as a second @-@ lieutenant in the Second Battalion of the Royal Scots Fusiliers and posted to India .
= = Early military career = =
= = = India = = =
Trenchard arrived in India in late 1893 , joining his regiment at Sialkot in the Punjab . Not long after his arrival , Trenchard was called upon to make a speech at a mess dinner night . It was common practice for the youngest subaltern to make such a speech and Trenchard was expected to cover several highlights of the Royal Scots Fusiliers ' history . Instead , he simply said " I am deeply proud to belong to this great regiment " , followed by " I hope one day I shall live to command it . " His ' speech ' was received with hoots of incredulous laughter , although some appreciated his nerve .
Young officers stationed in India in the 1890s enjoyed many social and sporting diversions and Trenchard did little militarily . While every regiment was required to undertake a period of duty beyond the Khyber Pass , for the most part conditions of peace and prosperity were evident and Trenchard was able to engage in various sporting activities . In early 1894 he won the All @-@ India Rifle Championship . After his success at shooting , Trenchard set about establishing a battalion polo team . Being of the infantry , his regiment had no history of playing polo and there were many obstacles for Trenchard to overcome . However , within six months the battalion polo team was competing and holding its own . It was during a polo match in 1896 that Trenchard first met Winston Churchill , with whom he clashed on the field of play . Trenchard 's sporting prowess saved his reputation among his fellow officers . In other respects he did not fit in ; lacking social graces and choosing to converse little , he was nicknamed " the camel " , as like the beast he neither drank nor spoke .
It was also during Trenchard 's time in India that he took up reading . His first choice was for biographies , particularly of British heroes . Trenchard kept the long hours he spent reading quiet , but in so doing succeeded in providing himself with an education where the service crammers had failed . However , in military terms Trenchard was dissatisfied . He failed to see any action during his time in India , missing out on his regiment 's turn at the frontier , as he was sent to England on sick leave for a hernia operation .
With the outbreak of the Second Boer War in October 1899 , he applied several times to rejoin his old battalion which had been sent to the Cape as part of the expeditionary corps . Trenchard 's requests were rejected by his Colonel , and when the Viceroy Lord Curzon , who was concerned about the drain of leaders to South Africa , banned the dispatch of any further officers , Trenchard 's prospects for seeing action looked bleak . However , a year or two previously , it had so happened that Trenchard had been promised help or advice from Sir Edmond Elles , as a gesture of thanks after rescuing a poorly planned rifle @-@ shooting contest from disaster . By 1900 , Elles was Military Secretary to Lord Curzon and Trenchard ( recently promoted to captain ) sent a priority signal to Elles requesting that he be permitted to rejoin his unit overseas . This bold move worked , and Trenchard received his orders for South Africa several weeks later .
= = = South Africa = = =
On his arrival in South Africa , Trenchard rejoined the Royal Scots Fusiliers and in July 1900 he was ordered to raise and train a mounted company within the 2nd Battalion . The Boers were accomplished horsemen and the tactics of the day placed a heavy strain upon the British cavalry . Accordingly , the British sought to raise mounted infantry units and Trenchard 's polo playing experiences led to him being selected to raise a mounted unit for service west of Johannesburg . Part of Trenchard 's new company consisted of a group of volunteer Australian horsemen who , thus far being under @-@ employed , had largely been noticed for excessive drinking , gambling and debauchery .
Trenchard 's company came under the command of the 6th ( Fusilier ) Brigade which was headquartered at Krugersdorp . During September and early October 1900 Trenchard 's riders were involved in several skirmishes in the surrounding countryside . On 5 October the 6th Brigade , including Trenchard , departed Krugersdorp with the intention of drawing the Boers into battle on the plain where they might be defeated . However , before the Brigade could reach the plain it had to pass through undulating terrain which favoured the Boer guerrilla tactics .
The Brigade travelled by night and at dawn on 9 October the Ayrshire Yeomanry , who were in the vanguard , disturbed a Boer encampment . The Boers fled on horseback and Trenchard with his Australians pursued them for 10 miles ( 16 km ) . The Boers , finding themselves unable to shake off Trenchard 's unit , led them into a trap . The Boers rode up a steep slope and disappeared into the valley beyond . When Trenchard made the ridge he saw the Dwarsvlei farmhouse with smoke coming from the chimney . It appeared to Trenchard that the Boers thought they had got away and were eating breakfast unawares . Trenchard placed his troops on the heights around the building and after half an hour 's observation , he led a patrol of four men down towards the farmhouse . The remainder of Trenchard 's troops were to close in on his signal . However , when Trenchard and his patrol reached the valley floor and broke cover , the Boers opened fire from about a dozen points and bullets whistled past Trenchard and his men . He pressed forward reaching the sheltering wall of the farmhouse . As he headed for the door , Trenchard was hit by a Boer bullet to the chest . The Australians , seeing their leader fall , descended from the heights to engage the Boers at close quarters in and around the farmhouse . Many of the Boers were killed or wounded , a few fled and several were taken prisoner . Trenchard being critically wounded was medically evacuated to Krugersdorp .
= = Medical treatment and convalescence = =
After Trenchard was brought to the hospital in Krugersdorp , he slipped from semi @-@ consciousness into unconsciousness . The surgeons believed that he would die as the bullet had punctured his left lung and they had removed six and a half pints of blood from his pleural cavity through a tube . On the third day , Trenchard regained consciousness but spent most of that day sleeping . After three weeks , Trenchard had shown some improvement and was moved to Johannesburg where he made further progress . However , when he tried to rise from his bed , Trenchard discovered that he was unable to put weight on his feet , leading him to suspect that he was partially paralysed . He was next moved to Maraisburg for convalescing and there Trenchard confirmed that he was suffering from partial paralysis below the waist . The doctors surmised that after passing through his lung , the bullet had damaged his spine .
In December 1900 , Trenchard returned to England , arriving by hospital ship at Southampton . He hobbled with the aid of sticks down the gangplank where his concerned parents met him . As a disabled soldier without independent financial means , Trenchard was now at his lowest point . He spent the next fortnight at the Mayfair nursing home for disabled officers which was run by the Red Cross . Trenchard 's case came to the attention of Lady Dudley , by whose philanthropic efforts the Mayfair nursing home operated . Through her generosity she arranged for Trenchard to see a specialist who told Trenchard that he needed to spend several months in Switzerland where the air was likely to be of benefit to his lung . Trenchard and his family could not afford the expense and Trenchard was too embarrassed to explain the situation . However , without asking any questions , Lady Dudley presented Trenchard with a cheque to cover the costs .
On Sunday 30 December , Trenchard arrived in St Moritz to begin his Swiss convalescence . Boredom saw him take up bobsleighing as it did not require much use of his legs . Initially he was prone to leave the run and end up in the snow , but after some days of practice he usually managed to stay on track . It was during a heavy crash from the Cresta Run that his spine was somehow readjusted , enabling him to walk freely immediately after regaining consciousness . Around a week later , Trenchard won the St. Moritz Tobogganing Club 's Freshman and Novices ' Cups for 1901 ; a remarkable triumph for a man who had been unable to walk unaided only a few days before .
On arriving back in England , Trenchard visited Lady Dudley to thank her and then set about engineering his return to South Africa . His lung was not fully healed , causing him pain and leaving him breathless . Furthermore , the War Office were sceptical about Trenchard 's claim to be fully fit and were disinclined to allow him to forgo his remaining nine months of sick leave . Trenchard then took several months of tennis coaching in order to strengthen his remaining lung . Early in the summer of 1901 he entered two tennis competitions , reaching the semi @-@ finals both times and gaining favourable press coverage . He then sent the newspaper clippings to the doctors at the War Office , arguing that this tennis ability proved he was fit for active service . Not waiting for a reply , Trenchard boarded a troop ship in May 1901 , passing himself off as a volunteer for a second tour of duty .
= = Return to Africa = =
= = = Back in South Africa = = =
On Trenchard 's return to South Africa he made his way to Pretoria , arriving there in late July 1901 . He was assigned to a company of the 12th Mounted Infantry where patrolling duties required long days in the saddle . Trenchard 's wound still caused considerable pain ; the entry and exit scars frequently bled .
Later in the year , Trenchard was summoned to see Kitchener , who was by then the Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief . He was tasked with reorganizing a demoralized mounted infantry company , which was completed in under a month . Kitchener then sent Trenchard to D 'Aar in the Cape Colony to expedite the training of a new corps of mounted infantry . Kitchener summoned Trenchard for the third time in October 1901 , this time sending Trenchard on a mission to capture the Boer Government who were in hiding . Kitchener had received intelligence on their location and he hoped to damage the morale of Boer commandos at large by sending a small group of men to capture the Boer Government . Trenchard was accompanied by a column of so @-@ called loyalist Boers whose motives he suspected . Also with Trenchard were several British NCOs and nine mixed race guides . After riding through the night , Trenchard 's party were ambushed the next morning . Trenchard and his men took cover and gave fight . After Trenchard 's column had suffered casualties , the ambush party withdrew . Although this last mission failed , Trenchard was praised for his efforts with a mention in dispatches .
Trenchard spent the remainder of 1901 on patrolling duties , and in early 1902 he was appointed acting commander of the 23rd Mounted Infantry Regiment . During the last few months of the War , Trenchard only once got to lead his Regiment into action . In response to Boer cattle rustling , Zulu raiders crossed the border into the Transvaal and the 23rd Mounted Infantry Regiment took action . After peace terms were agreed in May 1902 , Trenchard was involved in supervising the disarming of the Boers and later took leave . In July , the 23rd Mounted Infantry was recalled to Middleburg four hundred miles to the south and after the trek Trenchard occupied himself with polo and race meetings . Trenchard was promoted to brevet major in August 1902 .
= = = Nigeria = = =
Following the end of the Boer War , Trenchard decided to apply for service in the West African Frontier Force and was granted the position of Deputy Commandant of the Southern Nigeria Regiment with the promise that he was entitled to lead all regimental expeditions . On arrival in Nigeria in December 1903 , Trenchard initially had some difficulty in getting his Commanding Officer to allow him to lead the upcoming expedition and only replaced his superior by going over his head .
Once established , Trenchard spent the next six years on various expeditions to the interior patrolling , surveying and mapping an area of 10 @,@ 000 square miles which later came to be known as Biafra . In the occasional clashes with the Ibo tribesmen , Trenchard gained decisive victories . The many tribesmen who surrendered were given jobs as road builders and thereby began to develop the country as part of the British Empire . From summer 1904 to the late summer 1905 , Trenchard was acting Commandant of the Southern Nigeria Regiment . He was appointed to the Distinguished Service Order in 1906 and was Commandant with the temporary rank of lieutenant colonel from 1908 onwards .
= = England and Ireland = =
In early 1910 , Trenchard became seriously ill and after several months he returned home , this time with a liver abscess . Back in England , Trenchard did not recover quickly and probably prolonged his convalescence by over @-@ exertion . However , by the late summer he was well enough to take his parents on holiday to the West Country .
October 1910 saw Trenchard posted to Londonderry where the Second Battalion of the Royal Scots Fusiliers were garrisoned . Trenchard was reduced from a temporary lieutenant @-@ colonel to major and made a company commander . As before , he occupied himself with playing polo and he took up hunting . Finding peace @-@ time regimental life dull , Trenchard sought to expand his area of responsibility by attempting to re @-@ organize his fellow officers ' administrative procedures , which they resented . Trenchard also clashed with Colonel Stuart , his commanding officer , who told him that the town was too small for both of them and by February 1912 had resorted to applying for employment with various colonial defence forces without success .
= = Flying school = =
During his time in Ireland , Trenchard received a letter from Captain Eustace Loraine , urging him to take up flying . Trenchard and Loraine had been friends in Nigeria , and on his return to England , Loraine had learnt to fly . After some effort , Trenchard persuaded his Commanding Officer to grant him three months of paid leave so that he might train as a pilot . Trenchard arrived in London on 6 July 1912 , only to discover that Captain Loraine had been killed in a flying accident on the previous day . At the age of 39 , Trenchard was just short of 40 , the maximum age for military student pilots at the Central Flying School , and so he did not postpone his plan to become an aviator .
When Trenchard arrived at Thomas Sopwith 's flying school at Brooklands , he told Sopwith than he only had 10 days to gain his aviator 's certificate . Trenchard succeeded in going solo on 31 July , gaining his Royal Aero Club aviator 's certificate ( No. 270 ) on a Henry Farman biplane . The course had cost £ 75 , involved a meagre two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half weeks tuition and a grand total of 64 minutes in the air . Although Copland Perry , Trenchard 's instructor , noted that teaching him to fly had been " no easy performance " , Trenchard himself had been " a model pupil . " Trenchard 's difficulties were in some measure due to his partial blindness in one eye , a fact he kept secret .
Trenchard arrived at Upavon airfield , where the Central Flying School was based , and was assigned to Arthur Longmore 's flight . Bad weather delayed Longmore from assessing his new pupil , and before the weather improved , the School 's Commandant , Captain Godfrey Paine RN had co @-@ opted Trenchard to the permanent staff . Part of Trenchard 's new duties included those of School examiner , and so he set himself a paper , sat it , marked it and awarded himself his ' wings ' . Trenchard 's flying ability still left much to be desired , and Longmore soon discovered his pupil 's deficiencies . Over the following weeks Trenchard spent many hours improving his flying technique . After Trenchard had finished his flying course , he was officially appointed as an instructor . However , Trenchard was a poor pilot , and he did no instructing , instead becoming involved in administrative duties . As a member of the staff , Trenchard set to work organizing training and establishing procedures . He paid particular attention to ensuring that skills were acquired in practical topics such as map reading , signalling and engine mechanics . It was during his time at the Central Flying School that Trenchard earned the nickname " Boom " either for his stentorian utterances or for his low rumbling tones .
In September 1912 , Trenchard acted as an air observer during the Army Manoeuvres . His experiences and actions developed his understanding of the military utility of flying . The following September , Trenchard was appointed Assistant Commandant and promoted to temporary lieutenant @-@ colonel . Trenchard 's paths crossed once more with Winston Churchill , who was by then First Lord of the Admiralty , and learning to fly at Eastchurch and Upavon . Trenchard formed a distinctly unfavourable opinion of Churchill 's ability as a pilot .
= = World War I = =
= = = Officer Commanding the Military Wing = = =
With the outbreak of World War I , Trenchard was appointed Officer Commanding the Military Wing of the Royal Flying Corps , replacing Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Sykes . This appointment put Trenchard in charge of the Royal Flying Corps in Great Britain , which retained one third of the Corps ' total strength . Trenchard 's headquarters were at Farnborough and being disappointed about remaining in England , he applied to rejoin his old regiment in France . However , the head of the RFC , General Sir David Henderson , refused to release him . Trenchard 's new duties included providing replacements and raising new squadrons for service on the continent . Trenchard initially set himself a target of 12 squadrons . However , Sefton Brancker , the Assistant Director of Military Aeronautics , suggested that this should be raised to 30 and Lord Kitchener later set the target at 60 . In order to begin the task of creating these squadrons , Trenchard commandeered his old civilian training school at Brooklands and then used its aircraft and equipment as a starting point for the establishment of new training schools elsewhere .
In early October 1914 , Kitchener sent for Trenchard and tasked him with providing a battle @-@ worthy squadron forthwith . The squadron was to be used to support land and naval forces seeking to prevent the German flanking manoeuvres during the Race to the Sea . On 7 October , only 36 hours later , No. 6 Squadron flew to Belgium , the first of many additional squadrons to be provided .
Later in October , detailed planning for a major reorganization of the Flying Corps ' command structure took place . Henderson offered Trenchard command of the soon @-@ to @-@ be created First Wing . Trenchard accepted the offer on the basis that he would not be subordinated to Sykes , whom he distrusted . The next month , the Military Wing was abolished and its units based in Great Britain were re @-@ grouped as the Administrative Wing . Command of the Administrative Wing was given to Lieutenant Colonel E B Ashmore .
= = = Commander of the First Wing = = =
Trenchard took up command of the First Wing in November 1914 and established his headquarters at Merville . On his arrival Trenchard discovered that Sykes was to replace Henderson as Commander of the Royal Flying Corps in the Field , making Sykes Trenchard 's immediate superior . Trenchard bore Sykes some animosity and their working relationship was troubled . Trenchard appealed to Kitchener , by then the Secretary of State for War , threatening to resign . Trenchard 's discomfort was relieved when in December 1914 Kitchener ordered that Henderson resume command of the Royal Flying Corps in the Field . Trenchard 's First Wing consisted of Nos Two and Three Squadrons and flew in support of the IV Corps and the Indian Corps . After the First Army under General Haig came into being in December , the First Wing provided support to the First Army .
In early January 1915 , Haig summoned Trenchard to explain what might be achieved in the air . During the meeting Haig brought Trenchard into his confidence regarding his plans for a March attack in the Merville / Neuve Chapelle region . After aerial photographic reconnaissance had been gathered , the Allied plans were reworked in February . During the Battle of Neuve Chapelle in March , the RFC and especially the First Wing supported the land offensive . This was the first time that aircraft were used as bombers with explosives strapped to the wings and fuselage as opposed to being released by hand which had happened earlier in the War . However , the bombing from the air had little effect and the artillery disregarded the information provided by the RFC 's airmen . Prior to Haig 's offensives at Ypres and Aubers Ridge in April and May , Trenchard 's camera crews flew reconnaissance sorties over the German lines . Despite the detailed information this provided and the improved air @-@ artillery cooperation during the battles , the offensives were inconclusive . At the end of this engagement Henderson offered Trenchard the position as his chief of staff . Trenchard declined the offer , citing his unsuitability for the role although his ambition for command may have been the real reason . In any case , this did not stop his promotion to full colonel in June 1915 .
= = = Commander of the Royal Flying Corps = = =
On Henderson 's return to the War Office in the summer of 1915 , Trenchard was promoted to brigadier @-@ general and appointed Officer Commanding the RFC in France . Trenchard was to serve as the head of the RFC in the field until the early days of 1918 . In late 1915 when Haig was appointed as commander of the British Expeditionary Force , Haig and Trenchard re @-@ established their partnership , this time at a higher level . In March the following year , with the RFC expanding , Trenchard was promoted to major @-@ general .
Trenchard 's time in command was characterized by three priorities . First was his emphasis on support to and co @-@ ordination with ground forces . This support started with reconnaissance and artillery co @-@ ordination and later encompassed tactical low @-@ level bombing of enemy ground forces . While Trenchard did not oppose the strategic bombing of Germany in principle , he rejected moves to divert his forces on to long @-@ range bombing missions as he believed the strategic role to be less important and his resource to be too limited . Secondly , he stressed the importance of morale , not only of his own airmen , but more generally the detrimental effect that the presence of an aircraft had upon the morale of opposing ground troops . Finally , Trenchard had an unswerving belief in the importance of offensive action . Although this belief was widely held by senior British commanders , the RFC 's offensive posture resulted in the loss of many men and machines and some doubted its effectiveness .
Following the Gotha raids on London in the summer of 1917 , the Government considered creating an air force by merging the RFC and the Royal Naval Air Service . Trenchard opposed this move believing that it would dilute the air support required by the ground forces in France . By October he realized that the creation of an air force was inevitable and , seeing that he was the obvious candidate to become the new Chief of the Air Staff , he attempted to bring about a scheme whereby he would retain control of the flying units on the Western Front . In this regard Trenchard was unsuccessful and he was succeeded in France by Major @-@ General John Salmond .
= = = Chief of the Air Staff ( 1st appointment ) = = =
After the Air Force Bill received the Royal Assent on 29 November 1917 , there followed a period of political manoeuvring and speculation over who would take up the new posts of Air Minister , Chief of the Air Staff and other senior positions within soon @-@ to @-@ be created Air Ministry . Trenchard was summoned back from France , crossing the Channel on a destroyer on the morning of 16 December . At around 3 pm , Trenchard met newspaper proprietor Lord Rothermere who had recently been appointed as Air Minister . Rothermere offered Trenchard the post of Chief of the Air Staff and before Trenchard could respond , Rothermere explained that Trenchard 's support would be useful to him as he was about to launch a press campaign against Sir Douglas Haig and Sir William Robertson , the Chief of the Imperial General Staff . Trenchard flatly refused the job , being personally loyal to Haig and antipathetic to political intrigue . Rothermere and his brother Lord Northcliffe , who was also present , then spent over 12 hours acrimoniously debating with Trenchard . The brothers pointed out that if Trenchard refused , they would use the fact to attack Haig on the false premise that Haig had refused to release Trenchard . Trenchard defended Haig 's policy of constant attack , arguing that it had been preferable to standing on the defensive and he also had maintained an offensive posture throughout the War which , like the infantry , had resulted in the Flying Corps taking dreadful casualties . In the end , the brothers wore Trenchard down and he accepted the post on the condition that he first be permitted to consult Haig . After meeting with Haig , Trenchard wrote to Rothermere , accepting the post .
= = = Disputes and resignation = = =
The New Year saw Trenchard made a Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath and appointed Chief of the Air Staff on the newly formed Air Council . Trenchard began work on 18 January and during his first month at the Air Ministry , he clashed with Rothermere over several issues . First , Rothermere 's tendency to disregard his professional advisors in favour of outside experts irritated Trenchard . Secondly , Rothermere insisted that Trenchard claim as many men for the RAF as possible even if they might be better employed in the other services . Finally and most significantly , they disagreed over proper future use of air power which Trenchard judged as being vital in preventing a repeat of the strategic stalemate which had occurred along the Western Front . Also during this time Trenchard resisted pressure from several press barons to support an " air warfare scheme " which would have seen the British armies withdrawn from France and the defeat of Germany entrusted to the RAF . Despite the arguments and his differences with Rothermere , Trenchard was able to put in place planning for the merger of the Royal Flying Corps and the Royal Naval Air Service . However , as the weeks went on , Trenchard and Rothermere became increasingly estranged and a low point was reached in mid @-@ March when Trenchard discovered that Rothermere had promised the Navy 4000 aircraft for anti @-@ submarine duties . He accorded the highest priority to air operations on the Western Front : there were fewer than 400 spare aircraft in Great Britain . On 18 March , Trenchard and Rothermere exchanged letters , Trenchard expressing his dissatisfaction and Rothermere curtly replying . The following day Trenchard sent Rothermere a letter of resignation and although Rothermere called for Trenchard and asked him to remain , Trenchard only agreed to defer the date until after 1 April when the Royal Air Force would officially come into being .
After the Germans overran the British Fifth Army on 21 March , Trenchard ordered all available reserves of aircrew , engines and aircraft to be speedily transported to France . Reports reached Trenchard on 26 March that concentrations of Flying Corps ' machines were stopping German advances . On 5 April , Trenchard travelled to France , inspecting squadrons and updating his understanding of the air situation . On his return , he briefed Lloyd George and several other ministers on air activity and the general situation .
On 10 April , Rothermere informed Trenchard that the War Cabinet had accepted his resignation and Trenchard was offered his old job in France . Trenchard refused the offer saying that replacing Salmond at the height of battle would be " damnable " . Three days later Major @-@ General Frederick Sykes replaced Trenchard as Chief of the Air Staff . On the following Monday , Trenchard was summoned to Buckingham Palace where King George listened to Trenchard 's account of the events which caused him to resign . Trenchard then wrote to the Prime Minister stating the facts of his case and pointing out that in the course of the affair , Rothermere had stated his intention to resign also . Trenchard 's letter was circulated among the Cabinet with a vindictive response written by Rothermere . Around the same time , the question of Rothermere 's general competence as Air Minister was brought to the attention of Lloyd George . Rothermere , realizing his situation , offered his resignation which was made public on 25 April 1918 .
= = = In @-@ between duties = = =
In the weeks that followed his resignation Trenchard was without a role and he kept a low profile , avoiding the Press and making no public comments . The new Air Minister , Sir William Weir , under pressure to find a position for Trenchard , offered him command of the yet to be formed Independent Force which was to conduct long @-@ range bombing operations against Germany . Instead , Trenchard , seeking equal status with Sykes , argued for a reorganization of the RAF which would have seen himself appointed as the RAF 's commander of fighting operations while Sykes would have been left to deal with administrative matters . Weir did not accept his proposal and instead gave Trenchard several options . Trenchard rejected the offer of a proposed new post which would have meant a London @-@ based command of the bombing operations conducted from Ochey , arguing that the responsibility was Newall 's under the direction of Salmond . He also turned down the post of Grand Co @-@ ordinator of British and American air policy and that of Inspector General of the RAF overseas . Weir then offered Trenchard command of all air force units in the Middle East or the post of Inspector @-@ General of the RAF at home but strongly encouraged him to take command of the independent long @-@ range bombing forces in France .
Trenchard had many reasons for not accepting any of the posts which he saw as being artificially created , of little value or lacking authority . On 8 May Trenchard was sitting on a bench in Green Park and overheard one naval officer saying to another " I don 't know why the Government should pander to a man who threw in his hand at the height of a battle . If I 'd my way with Trenchard I 'd have him shot . " After Trenchard had walked home , he wrote to Weir accepting command of the as yet unformed Independent Force .
= = = Commander of the Independent Air Force = = =
After a period of what was officially termed " special duty " in France , Trenchard was appointed GOC Independent Air Force on 15 June 1918 with his headquarters in Nancy . The Independent Air Force continued the task of the VIII Brigade from which it was formed , carrying out intensive strategic bombing attacks on German railways , airfields and industrial centres . Initially , the French general Ferdinand Foch refused to recognize the Independent Air Force which caused some logistical difficulties . The problems were resolved after a meeting of Trenchard and General de Castelnau , who disregarded the concerns about the status of the Independent Air Force and did not block the much needed supplies . Trenchard also improved the links between the RAF and the American Air Service , providing advanced tuition in bombing techniques to American aviators .
In September 1918 , Trenchard 's Force indirectly supported the American Air Service during the Battle of Saint @-@ Mihiel , bombing German airfields , supply depots and rail lines . Trenchard 's close co @-@ operation with the Americans and the French was formalized when his command was redesignated the Inter @-@ Allied Independent Air Force in late October 1918 and placed directly under Foch , the supreme commander . When the November armistice came , Trenchard sought and received permission from Foch to return his squadrons to British command . Trenchard was succeeded as commander of the Independent Air Force by his deputy Brigadier @-@ General Courtney . Trenchard departed France in mid @-@ November and returned to Great Britain to take a holiday .
= = Between the wars = =
= = = Army mutiny in Southampton = = =
After two months on the RAF 's inactive list , Trenchard returned to military duties in mid @-@ January 1919 when Sir William Robertson , the Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of Home Forces , asked him to take charge of around 5 @,@ 000 mutinying soldiers in Southampton . Putting on his Army general 's uniform he arrived in Southampton with a staff of two , his clerk and Maurice Baring , his aide @-@ de @-@ camp . Trenchard initially attempted to speak to the mutinying soldiers but was heckled and jostled . He then arranged for armed troops to be sent to Southampton and when Trenchard threatened lethal force , the mutineers surrendered , bringing matters to a close without bloodshed .
= = = Chief of the Air Staff ( 2nd appointment ) = = =
= = = = Re @-@ appointment and sickness = = = =
In early 1919 , Churchill was appointed Secretary of State for War and Secretary of State for Air . While Churchill was preoccupied with implementing post @-@ War defence cuts and the demobilization of the Army , the Chief of the Air Staff , Major @-@ General Frederick Sykes , submitted a paper with what were at the time unrealistic proposals for a large air force of the future . Being dissatisfied with Sykes , Churchill began to consider reinstating Trenchard whose recent performance at Southampton had once more brought him into favour with Churchill .
During the first week in February , Trenchard was summoned to London by official telegram . At the War Office , Trenchard met with Churchill , who asked him to come back as Chief of the Air Staff . Trenchard replied that he could not take up the appointment as Sykes was currently in post . After Churchill indicated that Sykes might be appointed Controller of Civil Aviation and made a knight grand cross of the Order of the British Empire , Trenchard agreed to consider the offer . Churchill , not wanting to leave matters hanging , asked Trenchard to provide him with a paper outlining his ideas on the re @-@ organization of the Air Ministry . Trenchard 's brief written statement of the essentials required met with Churchill 's approval and he insisted that Trenchard take the appointment . Trenchard returned to the Air Ministry in mid @-@ February and formally took up post as Chief of the Air Staff on 31 March 1919 .
For most of March Trenchard was unable to do much work as he had contracted Spanish flu . During this period he wrote to Katherine Boyle ( née Salvin ) , the widow of his friend and fellow officer James Boyle , whom he knew from his time in Ireland . At Trenchard 's request , Mrs Boyle took on the task of nursing him back to health . Once Trenchard had recovered , he proposed marriage to Katherine Boyle , who refused his offer . Trenchard remained in contact with her and when he proposed marriage again , she accepted . On 17 July 1920 , they were married at St. Margaret 's Church in Westminster .
= = = = Establishing the RAF and the struggle for survival = = = =
During the summer of 1919 , Trenchard worked on completing the demobilization of the RAF and establishing it on a peace @-@ time basis . This was a sizable task as the RAF was budgeted to shrink from 280 squadrons to around 28 squadrons . It was also during this time that the new RAF officer ranks were decided upon , despite some opposition from members of the Army Council . Trenchard himself was regraded from major @-@ general to air vice @-@ marshal and then promoted to air marshal a few days later .
By the autumn of 1919 , the budgetary effects of Lloyd George 's Ten Year Rule were causing Trenchard some difficulty as he sought to develop the institutions of the RAF . He had to argue against the view that the Army and Navy should provide all the support services and education , leaving the RAF only to provide flying training . Trenchard viewed this idea as a precursor to the break @-@ up of the RAF and in spite of the costs , he wanted his own institutions which would develop airmanship and engender the air spirit . Having convinced Churchill of his case , Trenchard oversaw the founding of the RAF ( Cadet ) College at Cranwell as the world 's first military air academy . Later , in 1920 , Trenchard inaugurated the Aircraft Apprentice scheme which provided the RAF with specialist groundcrew for over 70 years . In 1922 , the RAF Staff College at Andover was set up to provide air force @-@ specific training to the RAF 's middle @-@ ranking officers .
Late 1919 saw Trenchard created a baronet and granted £ 10 @,@ 000 . Although Trenchard had attained a measure of financial security , the future of the RAF was far from assured . Trenchard judged that the chief threat to his service came from the new First Sea Lord , Admiral Beatty . Looking to take the initiative , Trenchard arranged to see Beatty , meeting with him in early December . Trenchard , arguing that the " air is one and indivisible " , put forward a case for an air force with its own strategic role which also controlled army and navy co @-@ operation squadrons . Beatty did not accept Trenchard 's argument and Trenchard resorted to asking for a 12 months amnesty to put his plans into action . The request appealed to Beatty 's sense of fair play and he agreed to let Trenchard be until the end of 1920 . Around this time Trenchard indicated to Beatty that control over some supporting elements of naval aviation ( but not aircrew or aircraft ) might be returned to the Admiralty . Trenchard also offered Beatty the option of locating the Air Ministry staff who worked in connection with naval aviation at the Admiralty . Beatty declined the offer and later , when no transfer of any naval aviation assets occurred , came to the view that Trenchard had acted in bad faith .
During the early 1920s , the continued independent existence of the RAF and its control of naval aviation were subject to a series of Government reviews . The Balfour report of 1921 , the Geddes Axe of 1922 and the Salisbury Committee of 1923 all found in favour of the RAF despite lobbying from the Admiralty and opposition in Parliament . On each occasion Trenchard and his staff officers , supported by Christopher Bullock , worked to show that the RAF provided good value for money and was required for the long @-@ term strategic security of the United Kingdom .
Trenchard also sought to secure the future of the RAF by finding a war @-@ fighting role for the new Service . In 1920 he successfully argued that the RAF should take the lead during the operation to restore peace in Somaliland . The success of this small air action then allowed Trenchard to put the case for the RAF 's policing of the British Empire . Trenchard particularly argued for the RAF to take the lead in Iraq at the Cairo Conference of 1921 and in 1922 the RAF was given control of all British Forces in Iraq . The RAF also carried out imperial air policing over India 's North @-@ West Frontier Province . More controversially , in early 1920 , he wrote that the RAF could even suppress " industrial disturbances or risings " in Britain itself . The idea was not to Churchill 's liking and he told Trenchard not to refer to this proposal again .
= = = = Later years as Chief of the Air Staff = = = =
By late 1924 , the creation of the reserve air force , known as the Auxiliary Air Force , meant that Trenchard was able to modestly expand the RAF 's strength , and over the next two years 25 auxiliary squadrons were created . It was during this period that he oversaw the introduction of the short @-@ service commission scheme which proved to be useful in providing some of the regular manning on the new squadrons . Trenchard also instigated the University Air Squadron scheme and in 1925 the first three UAS squadrons were formed at Cambridge , London and Oxford .
Since the early 1920s Trenchard had supported the development of a flying bomb and by 1927 a prototype , code @-@ named " Larynx " , was successfully tested . However , development costs were not insignificant and in 1928 , when Trenchard applied for further funding , the Committee of Imperial Defence and the Cabinet discontinued the project . Following the British failure to win the Schneider Trophy in 1925 , Trenchard ensured that finances were available for an RAF team and the High Speed Flight was formed in preparation for the 1927 race . After the British won in 1927 , Trenchard continued to use Air Ministry funds to support the race , including purchasing two Supermarine S.6 aircraft which won the race in 1929 . Trenchard was criticised by some in the Treasury for wasting money .
On 1 January 1927 , Trenchard was promoted from air chief marshal to marshal of the Royal Air Force , becoming the first person to hold the RAF 's highest rank . The following year Trenchard began to feel that he had achieved all he could as Chief of the Air Staff and that he should give way to a younger man . He offered his resignation to the Cabinet in late 1928 , although it was not initially accepted . Around the same time as Trenchard was considering his future , the British Legation and some European diplomatic staff based in Kabul were cut off from the outside world as a result of the civil war in Afghanistan . After word had reached London , the Foreign Secretary Austen Chamberlain sent for Trenchard who informed Chamberlain that the RAF would be able to rescue the stranded civilians . The Kabul Airlift began on Christmas Eve and took nine weeks to rescue around 600 people .
Trenchard continued as Chief of the Air Staff until 1 January 1930 . Immediately after he had relinquished his appointment , Trenchard was created Baron of Wolfeton in the County of Dorset , entering the House of Lords and becoming the RAF 's first peer . Looking back over Trenchard 's time as Chief of the Air Staff , while he had successfully preserved the RAF , his emphasis on the Air Force providing defence at a comparatively low cost had led to a stagnation and even deterioration in the quality of the Service 's fighting equipment .
= = = Metropolitan Police Commissioner = = =
After Trenchard had retired from the RAF , he worked as a director of the Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company , largely disappearing from public life . However , in March 1931 , Ramsay MacDonald asked Trenchard to take the post of Metropolitan Police Commissioner , which after initially declining , Trenchard eventually accepted in October 1931 . Trenchard served as head of the Metropolitan Police until 1935 and during his tenure he instigated several changes . These included limiting membership of the Police Federation , introducing limited terms of employment and the creation of separate career paths for the lower and higher ranks akin to the military system of officer and non @-@ commissioned career streams . Perhaps Trenchard 's most well known achievement during his time as Commissioner was the establishment of the Hendon Police College which originally was the institution from which Trenchard 's junior inspectors graduated before following a career in the higher ranks . Trenchard retired in November 1935 and in his final few months as Police Commissioner , he was made a knight grand cross of the Royal Victorian Order .
= = = Later inter @-@ war years = = =
During his time as Metropolitan Police Commissioner , Trenchard maintained a keen interest in military affairs . In 1932 , he aroused the Governments displeasure by submitting an unsolicited private paper outlining his idea for the air defence of Singapore . Trenchard 's ideas were rejected and the Cabinet Secretary , Maurice Hankey who chaired the Committee of Imperial Defence was angered by Trenchard 's intervention . Later that year , when the Government was considering entering into an international treaty which would have banned all bomber aircraft , Trenchard wrote to the Cabinet outlining his opposition to the idea . Ultimately the idea was dropped .
Trenchard developed a negative view of Hankey whom he saw as being more interested in maintaining unanimity among the service heads than dealing with weaknesses in British defence arrangements . Trenchard began to speak privately against Hankey who , for his part , had no liking for Trenchard . By 1935 , Trenchard privately lobbied for Hankey 's removal on the grounds that the nation 's security was at stake . Following his departure from the Metropolitan Police , Trenchard was free to speak publicly . In December 1935 Trenchard wrote in The Times that the Committee of Imperial Defence should be placed under the chairmanship of a politician . Hankey responded by accusing Trenchard of " trying to stab him in the back . " By 1936 , the idea of bolstering the Committee of Imperial Defence had become a popular point of debate and Trenchard presented his arguments in the House of Lords . In the end the Government conceded and Sir Thomas Inskip was appointed as the Minister for Coordination of Defence .
With Hankey and his ban on inter @-@ service disputes gone , the Navy again campaigned for their own air service . The idea of transferring the Fleet Air Arm from Air Ministry to Admiralty control was raised and although Trenchard opposed the move in the Lords , in the Press and in private conversations , he lacked the influence to prevent the transfer , which took place in 1937 . Beyond politics , Trenchard took on the chairmanship of the United Africa Company , which had sought out Trenchard because of his West African knowledge and experience . In 1936 Trenchard was upgraded from Baron to Viscount Trenchard .
From late 1936 to 1939 Trenchard spent much of his time travelling overseas on behalf of the companies who employed him as a director . During one visit to Germany in the summer of 1937 , he was hosted at a dinner by Hermann Göring , the Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the Luftwaffe . Although the evening started in a cordial fashion , it ended in Göring 's opinion that " one day German might will make the whole world tremble " . Trenchard replied that Göring " must be off his head " . In 1937 Newall was appointed Chief of the Air Staff and Trenchard did not hesitate in criticising the new air chief . As an ardent supporter of the bomber , Trenchard found much to disagree with in the air expansion programme , its emphasis on defensive fighter aircraft . Trenchard took to writing directly to the Cabinet and eventually Newall was reduced to imploring Trenchard to exercise some discretion . Trenchard offered his services to the Government on at least two occasions but they were not accepted .
= = World War II = =
Just after the outbreak of World War II , Chamberlain summoned Trenchard and offered him the job of organizing advanced training for RAF pilots in Canada , possibly as a pretext to remove Trenchard from England . Trenchard turned Chamberlain down , saying that the role required a younger man who had up @-@ to @-@ date knowledge of training matters . Trenchard then spent the remainder of 1939 arguing that the RAF should be used to strike against Germany from its bases in France . It was clear to the Government that Trenchard was dissatisfied and early in 1940 he was offered the job of co @-@ ordinating the camouflaging of England . Trenchard flatly refused this job . Without an official role , Trenchard took it upon himself to spend the spring of 1940 visiting many RAF units , including those of the Advanced Air Striking Force in France . In April , Sir Samuel Hoare , who was again Secretary of State for Air , unsuccessfully attempted to get Trenchard to come back as Chief of the Air Staff .
In May 1940 , after the failure of the Norwegian Campaign , Trenchard used his position in the Lords to attack what he saw as the Government 's half @-@ hearted prosecution of the war . When Churchill replaced Chamberlain as Prime Minister , Trenchard was asked to organize the defence of aircraft factories . Trenchard declined this offer on the grounds that he was not interested in helping the general who already had the responsibility . Towards the end of the month , Churchill offered Trenchard a job that would have seen him acting as a general officer commanding all British land , air and sea forces at home should an invasion occur . Trenchard responded by bluntly stating that in order to be effective , the officer with such responsibility would need the military powers of a generalissimo and political power that would come from being Deputy Minister of Defence . Churchill was virtually reduced to apoplexy and did not grant Trenchard the enormous powers he sought .
Notwithstanding their disagreement , Trenchard and Churchill remained on good terms and on Churchill 's 66th birthday ( 30 November 1940 ) they took lunch at Chequers . The Battle of Britain had recently concluded and Churchill was full of praise for Trenchard 's pre @-@ War efforts in establishing the RAF . Churchill made Trenchard his last job offer , this time as the reorganizer of Military Intelligence . Trenchard seriously considered the offer but declined it by letter two days later , chiefly because he felt that the job required a degree of tact which he would have been unable to supply .
From mid @-@ 1940 onwards , Trenchard realized that by his rash demands in May he had excluded himself from a pivotal role in the British war effort . He then took it upon himself to act as an unofficial Inspector @-@ General for the RAF , visiting deployed squadrons across Europe and North Africa on morale @-@ raising visits . As a peer , a friend of Churchill 's and with direct connections to the Air Staff , Trenchard championed the cause of the Air Force in the Lords , in the Press and with the Government , submitting several secret essays concerning the importance he attached to air power .
Trenchard also continued to exert considerable influence over the Royal Air Force . Acting with Sir John Salmond he quietly but successfully lobbied for the removal of Newall as Chief of the Air Staff and Dowding as the Command @-@ in @-@ Chief of Fighter Command . In the Autumn , Newall was replaced by Portal and Dowding was succeeded by Douglas . Both the new commanders were Trenchard protégés .
During the war , the Trenchard family suffered tragedy . Trenchard 's elder stepson John was killed in action in Italy and his younger stepson Edward was killed in a flying accident . His own first @-@ born son , also called Hugh , was killed in North Africa . However , Trenchard 's younger son Thomas did survive the war and frequently visited his parents when he was able .
= = Later years = =
In the aftermath of the war , several American generals , including Henry H. Arnold and Carl Andrew Spaatz , asked Trenchard to brief them in connection with the debate which surrounded the proposed establishment of the independent United States Air Force . The American air leaders held Trenchard in high esteem and dubbed him the " patron saint of air power " . The USAF was formed as an independent branch of the American Armed Forces in 1947 .
After World War II , Trenchard continued to set out his ideas about air power . He also supported the creation of two memorials . For the first , the Battle of Britain Chapel in Westminster Abbey , Trenchard headed a committee with Air Chief Marshal Sir Hugh Dowding to raise funds for the furnishing of the chapel and for the provision of a stained glass window . The second , the Anglo @-@ American Memorial to the airmen of both nations , was erected in St Paul 's Cathedral , after Trenchard 's death . In the late 1940s and early 1950s Trenchard continued his involvement with the United Africa Company , holding the chairmanship until 1953 when he resigned . From 1954 , during the last two years of his life , Trenchard was partially blind and physically frail .
Trenchard died one week after his 83rd birthday at his London home in Sloane Avenue on 10 February 1956 . Following his funeral at Westminster Abbey on 21 February , his ashes were buried in the Battle of Britain Chapel he helped to create . Trenchard 's viscountcy passed to his son Thomas .
= = Legacy = =
Several institutions and buildings are named after Trenchard , including the University of Ibadan 's Trenchard Hall , and RAF Cranwell 's Trenchard Hall . Also named after Trenchard are : Trenchard Lines – one of the two sites of British Army Headquarters Land Forces , the small museum at RAF Halton , one of the five houses at Welbeck College which are named after prominent military figures , and Trenchard House , which is currently used by Farnborough Air Sciences Trust to store part of their collection . In 1977 Trenchard was invested in the International Aerospace Hall of Fame at the San Diego Aerospace Museum .
Trenchard 's work in establishing the RAF and preserving its independence have led to him being described as the Father of the Royal Air Force . For his own part , Trenchard disliked the description , believing that General Sir David Henderson deserved the accolade . His obituary in The Times considered that Trenchard 's greatest gift to the RAF was the belief that mastery of the air must be gained and retained through offensive action . During his life , Trenchard strongly argued that the bomber was the key weapon of an air force and he is recognized today as one of the early advocates of strategic bombing and one of the architects of the British policy on imperial policing through air control .
= = Arms = =
= = = Specific = = =
= = = General = = =
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= Walter Bache =
Walter Bache ( / ˈbeɪtʃ / ; 19 June 1842 – 26 March 1888 ) was an English pianist and conductor noted for his championing the music of Franz Liszt and other music of the New German School in England . He studied privately with Liszt in Italy from 1863 to 1865 , one of the few students allowed to do so , and continued to attend Liszt 's master classes in Weimar , Germany regularly until 1885 , even after embarking on a solo career . This period of study was unparalleled by any other student of Liszt and led to a particularly close bond between Bache and Liszt . After initial hesitation on the part of English music critics because he was a Liszt pupil , Bache was publicly embraced for his keyboard prowess , even as parts of his repertoire were questioned .
Bache 's major accomplishment was the establishment of Liszt 's music in England , to which he selflessly devoted himself between 1865 and his death in 1888 . This was at the height of the War of the Romantics , when conservative and liberal musical factions openly argued about the future of classical music and the merits of the compositions written in their respective schools . Bache featured several of the orchestral and choral works through an annual series of concerts , which he single @-@ handedly funded , organised and promoted . Likewise , he played an annual series of solo recitals that incorporated Liszt 's piano music .
Bache 's strategy for presenting these works was one of familiarity . He performed two @-@ piano arrangements of Liszt 's orchestral works prior to the debuts of the original versions , and performed some of Liszt 's symphonic poems shortly after they had been premiered at the Crystal Palace . He also provided informative , scholarly program notes , written by leading musical analysts and intimates in the Liszt circle . The English musical press , while generally hostile to the music he presented , noted and appreciated Bache 's efforts . Liszt remained grateful ; without Bache , he acknowledged , his music might not have gained the foothold that it did .
= = Life = =
= = = Early years = = =
Bache was born in Birmingham , the second @-@ oldest son of well @-@ known Unitarian minister Samuel Bache , who ran a private school in conjunction with his wife , Emily Higginson . His older brother , Francis Edward Bache , was a composer and organist , while his sister , Constance Bache , was a composer , pianist and teacher who would write a joint biography of both brothers under the title Brother Musicians . He received some rudimentary musical education at his father 's school , but remained a carefree , undistinguished and funloving child until he followed in Edward 's footsteps . Like Edward , he studied with Birmingham City Organist James Stimpson and in August 1858 , aged 16 , he travelled to Germany to attend the Leipzig Conservatory . His father was supposed to accompany him to the university , but was detained at the bedside of Edward , who was dying of consumption . Undeterred , he made the journey on his own , an early indication of his independence .
In Leipzig , Bache studied piano with Ignaz Moscheles and composition with Carl Reinecke . He also became friends with a fellow student , Arthur Sullivan , who , he wrote , " cannot play well , but ... has written some things which I think show great talent . " Another fellow student Bache knew well , though they were not especially close , was Edvard Grieg . While the city was reportedly past the halcyon days it had experienced under Mendelssohn , it proved valuable for exposing Bache to artists such as Pauline Viardot , Giulia Grisi , Joseph Joachim and Henri Vieuxtemps , and to the music of Beethoven , Bellini , Chopin , Moritz Hauptmann and Mendelssohn . He applied himself to his piano studies , but by his own admission wasted much time in Leipzig and lacked direction . In Brother Musicians , Constance quotes " a musician of high standing " who was one of his circle of friends ( possibly Sullivan or the pianist Franklin Taylor ) , who explained , " You see in Leipzig nobody was compelled to work , there being no particular supervision ; and there was always plenty to do , in the way of amusement , for the less energetic . As far as my recollection goes Bache was at that time rather given to working by fits and starts , frequently making excellent resolutions , the effect of which did not last many days . "
Upon completing his piano studies in December 1861 , the 19 @-@ year @-@ old Bache travelled to Italy , staying in Milan and Florence with the intent of soaking in Italian culture before returning to England . In Florence he met Jessie Laussot , " who had founded of a flourishing musical society in the city ... and was intimately acquainted with Liszt , Wagner , Hans von Bülow and other leading musicians . " While Laussot remained kindly disposed towards Bache , she also quickly summed up his overly easy @-@ going character and decided to help him . She encouraged him to teach harmony as well as piano , then arranged a harmony class that met early in the morning some ways out of town so that he would not oversleep . She eased his way into polite society and also suggested , after hearing him play at several local concerts , that he travel to Rome and seek out Liszt . However , she insisted that he do so without any introduction from her , as she wanted Liszt to judge him solely on his own merits .
= = = Studies with Liszt = = =
Bache arrived in Rome in June 1862 . After some initial confusion ( Liszt mistook Bache , who was nervous and tongue @-@ tied , for someone wanting to borrow money ) Liszt made Bache welcome . Two or three impromptu lessons followed , along with some chamber music appearances , thanks to Liszt 's recommendation . Eventually , Liszt suggested that , if Bache were willing to move to Rome the following year , he would take him on as a regular student . Considering this " the greatest possible advantage I could have " , Bache wrote to Constance ,
I hope I have not exaggerated in talking about Liszt ; he won 't make me anything wonderful , so that I can come home and set the Thames on fire — not at all , so don 't expect it ; but — his readings or interpretations are greater and higher than anyone else 's ; if I can spend some time with him and go through a good deal of music with him , I shall pick up at least a great deal of his ideas ; ... The two or three lessons I had of him this summer showed me what an immensity I might learn .
After a visit to Birmingham , Bache moved to Rome in 1863 and lived there the next two years . While there he received private lessons from Liszt , one of the few pupils thus privileged ; most of Liszt 's students attended only his master classes . He also heard Liszt play his own music on many occasions in private homes , including a then @-@ rare performance of the Piano Sonata in B minor . Liszt helped him prepare for several public concerts in Rome and encouraged him to learn some difficult pieces that Bache initially felt unable to play ; these pieces included Liszt 's transcriptions of Gounod 's Faust Waltz and Meyerbeer 's " Patineurs " Waltz from his opera Le prophète . These lessons , the kindness that Liszt continually showed , and Bache 's exposure to Liszt in general , became a life @-@ defining experience . Liszt expected him to work hard and Bache applied himself with a purpose to his keyboard studies . The same " musician of high standing " that Constance quotes about Bache 's years in Leipzig also states that " there can be no doubt that it was his friendship with Liszt that he owed that enthusiasm and power of sustained hard work which distinguished him during his career in London , and which was often the astonishment of those who had known him in earlier years . "
Bache supported himself as an organist at the English Church , where the chaplain had previously known Bache 's brother Edward . As his reputation as a performer grew , he also came into demand as a teacher . These two activities guaranteed financial security . He also became acquainted with several young gifted musicians , including fellow Liszt pupil Giovanni Sgambati and violinist Ettore Pinelli . During this time , Bache began exploring the two @-@ piano repertoire , especially the arrangements of Liszt 's symphonic poem Les préludes and Schubert 's Wanderer Fantasy , which he performed with Sgambati in concert . The two @-@ piano arrangements of Liszt 's symphonic poems would become an important feature of Bache 's concert series once he returned to England . He was also active in chamber music — the works he performed during this time include Chopin 's cello sonata , the David @-@ Pinelli Violin Variations , Mendelssohn 's D minor piano trio , a piano trio by Anton Rubinstein and a Schumann violin sonata arranged for viola .
Bache 's studies with Liszt did not end when he left Italy . He attended Liszt 's master classes in Weimar , Germany regularly until 1885 . This period of study was unparalleled by any other student of Liszt and led to a particularly close bond between Bache and Liszt . He also sought out his fellow pupil Hans von Bülow for lessons in 1871 ; the two spent much time together , which resulted in a lifelong friendship . The fact Bache valued Bülow 's advice highly is shown by his warning to Jessie Laussot to " never again attempt to ' mark , learn and inwardly digest ' the [ Chromatic Fantasy and Fugue ] without getting Bülow 's edition of it ... it is splendid — quite equivalent to having had a lesson on it from Liszt " .
For Bache , Liszt wrote his concert arrangement of the Sarabande and Chaconne from Handel 's opera Almira in 1879 .
= = = Promoting Liszt 's music = = =
Before he moved to Rome , in June 1863 , Bache returned to Birmingham to raise funds for the erection of a memorial window to his brother Edward . Among these efforts was a performance of Mendelssohn 's oratorio St. Paul , at which his organ playing was noted , and a solo piano recital which featured a few pieces by Liszt . Critics proved unreceptive to Liszt 's music and Bache was advised to program less adventurous works if he wanted his career to succeed . Matters had not improved when Bache settled in London in 1865 . The War of the Romantics between musically conservative and liberal factions was in full swing and he found himself branded as " dangerous " for having studied with Liszt . This was vividly illustrated when Bache called upon J. W. Davison , then the most powerful music critic in London . Such a call was not unwarranted : Davison had been acquainted with Edward and shared that brother 's conservative musical views . Bache related that when he called on Davison and handed in his card , the maid returned and told him , " Please , sir , Mr. Davison says that he is not at home . "
Dangerous or not , Bache soon began a lifelong crusade to win popularity for Liszt 's works in England . In 1865 he began a series of annual concerts in conjunction with singer Gustave Garcia . They began modestly , in Collard 's Rooms , Grosvenor Street . As they increased in popularity , they were relocated to the more spacious Beethoven Rooms in Cavendish Square , then to the Queen 's Concert Rooms in Hanover Square , and finally to St. James 's Hall in Regents Square . At first these concerts were of instrumental and chamber works and piano arrangements . In 1868 , they had grown to include choral works , which allowed pieces such as Liszt 's Soldatenlied and choruses from Wagner 's Tannhäuser and Lohengrin to be programmed . By 1871 , the concerts had been changed to an orchestral format .
The concerts , which were held in February or March and continued until 1886 , became known as the " Walter Bache Annual Concerts . " They became fixtures on the London music scene , attracting the attention of the press and of eminent musicians . While some of the press coverage he received was positive , overall Bache faced a continual barrage of opposition and scorn from critics and fellow musicians over the music he presented . The notice printed in the Athenaeum after the first concert was typical : " On Tuesday , M. Gustave Garcia , one of the best of rising baritones , and Mr. Walter Bache gave a concert in company . We cannot think ' Les Préludes , ' a very difficult duett [ sic ] by the Abbé Liszt for two pianofortes , worth the labour bestowed on it by a couple of players so skilled as himself and Mr. Dannreuther . It was well received however . " Largely through Bache 's perseverance , at least some of the public was gradually convinced of the music 's worth .
At these concerts , Bache frequently appeared as soloist , accompanist or conductor , but he also engaged other artists in an attempt to show he was not giving the concerts out of self @-@ aggrandizement . Bülow conducted two concerts , Edward Dannreuther led the orchestra in two concerts . August Manns , the conductor of a series of orchestral concerts held at the Crystal Palace and an admirer of Liszt 's works , led four concerts . The majority of instrumentalists engaged were also members of the Crystal Palace orchestra to ensure the level of performance was as high as possible . Among guest soloists was the noted violinist August Wilhelmj , who played the Bach Chaconne in D minor at one concert .
For these concerts , Bache programmed five of Liszt 's symphonic poems , the Faust and Dante symphonies , the Thirteenth Psalm and the Legend of St. Elisabeth . Works of Berlioz , Schumann and Wagner were also featured , but Liszt 's compositions predominated . While the performances of the Faust and Dante symphonies were British premieres , the symphonic poems had previously been introduced at the Crystal Palace ; nevertheless , Bache felt that offering repeat performances of the symphonic poems was important in making them familiar to audiences . Les préludes was performed three times at the Bache concerts , Mazeppa , Festklänge and Orpheus each twice and Tasso once . Part of this strategy of familiarity was the inclusion of the two @-@ piano arrangements of the symphonic poems as a way to prepare audiences for the orchestral versions . Bache had begun this practice with his first concert in 1865 , when he and Dannreuther presented the two @-@ piano arrangement of Les préludes . Another part of this strategy was supplying learned , well @-@ considered and thoroughly detailed essays for program notes . Sometimes Bache wrote them himself ; at other times , he relied on prominent theorists such as Carl Weitman and Frederick Niecks . According to musicologist Alan Walker , they " are filled with insights that were both new and original for their time , and they are lavishly illustrated with music examples — a sure sign that they were aimed at a sophisticated public and were intended to have a potential life after the concert was over . " According to Walker , they still are worth study for Liszt scholars as many of the ideas , while transmitted through members of Liszt 's inner circle , probably originated with the composer himself . These notes , along with the inclusion of the two @-@ piano arrangements and what musicologist Michael Allis calls " a thoughtful approach to programming ... all contributed to an aggressive marketing of Liszt 's new status as a composer " .
The concerts were a considerable financial outlay for Bache , who did not have a regular salary until 1881 and had to sustain himself through teaching . By 1873 , he wrote , he had to " decide whether I shall sacrifice myself entirely to the production of Liszt 's orchestral and choral works ( which after all can never be immortal as Bach , Beethoven and Wagner : here I feel that Bülow is right ) . Or shall I make my own improvement the object of my life , and not spend a third of my income in one evening . " Bülow became concerned enough about the situation to waive his fee after one concert he conducted , and to contribute £ 50 out of his own pocket . Liszt was also concerned , writing , " For years [ Bache ] has sacrificed money for the performance of my works in London . Several times I advised him against it , but he answered imperturbably , ' That is my business . ' " Whenever Bache was asked about finances for the concerts , he would tell whoever was asking that the cost was " a just recompense " and add that even if Liszt had charged him for his lessons at the same rate as the average village piano teacher , he would still be deeply in his debt .
In addition to the orchestral concerts , Bache gave an annual series of solo recitals on Liszt 's birthday , 22 October , between 1872 and 1887 . In October 1879 , Bache gave his first all @-@ Liszt recital . At some of these recitals , the two @-@ piano arrangements of Liszt 's orchestral works were given . The two @-@ piano version of Mazeppa was presented in October 1876 , two months before the orchestral version was played at the Crystal Palace and four months before Bache presented it at his own orchestral concert . The Monthly Musical Record felt " There was ... good reason in introducing [ it ] as a duet , with a view to familiarizing hearers with it beforehand " , and the Musical Standard found that presenting the two @-@ piano arrangement was " an immense help to those who wished to form a correct judgment on it at its first orchestral performance ... as it is impossible , with even the best intentions , to estimate correctly the larger works of Liszt after only one hearing . "
Liszt remained grateful to Bache and thanked him on several occasions , writing to him , " Without Walter Bache and his long years of self @-@ sacrificing efforts in the propaganda of my works , my visit to London were indeed not to be thought of . "
= = = Liszt 75th birthday celebrations = = =
Bache had long cherished the wish of bringing Liszt to London , which Liszt had last visited in 1841 while still a touring virtuoso , and Liszt knew that whatever standing his music had in that city had in large part to do with Bache 's efforts . At least in part to repay the debt he felt he owed Bache , Liszt accepted Bache 's invitation to attend celebrations in April 1886 to commemorate Liszt 's 75th birthday . These celebrations included the foundation of a Liszt piano scholarship at the Royal Academy of Music , a performance of his oratorio The Legend of Saint Elizabeth led by Alexander Mackenzie in St. James 's Hall , an audience with Queen Victoria and a public reception in Liszt 's honour at the Grosvenor Gallery . Bache was involved in all four of these events , which were highly successful ; by popular demand , Saint Elizabeth had to be repeated at the Crystal Palace .
= = = The Working Men 's Society = = =
In the summer of 1867 , Bache and Dannreuther formed " The Working Men 's Society , " a small association to promote the music of Wagner , Liszt and Schumann in England , with Karl Klindworth as an elder statesman for the group . The Society met regularly at one another 's homes for the study and discussion of this music . The first study session met in December and consisted of the " Spinning Song " from Wagner 's opera The Flying Dutchman , played by Dannreuther in Liszt 's piano transcription . At the meeting the next month , the group tackled the first two scenes of Das Rheingold . The meeting which followed featured a reading of Die Walküre . Neither of the latter two works had been presented anywhere ; their world premieres at the Munich Court Opera were still two years away . Klindworth 's special relationship with Wagner ensured that the group had access to the scores . In the July 1869 meeting , Liszt pupil Anna Mehlig played Liszt 's First Piano Concerto for the group . Wagner and Liszt were not the only composers discussed — Bach , Beethoven , Chopin , Henselt , Raff and Schumann were among the others whose music was featured . However , the main focus of the group remained the music of Wagner .
= = = Other achievements = = =
Bache became a professor of piano at the Royal Academy of Music in 1881 . The foundation of the Liszt Scholarship at that institution in 1886 was mainly due to his efforts . After Bache 's death , the name of the scholarship was changed to the Liszt @-@ Bache Scholarship .
= = = Death = = =
Bache died in London in 1888 , at the age of 45 , after a brief illness . He developed a chill and an ulcerated throat , which " proved too much for his over @-@ worked and highly strung nature . " He had otherwise been in good health and had taught his piano students just a couple of days before his death .
= = Pianism = =
= = = Technique and repertoire = = =
From his early concerts , Bache was noted for showing thoughtfulness in his interpretations and an excellent pianistic technique . He was especially noted for the evenness and crispness of his scales and the " great delicacy and refinement of feeling " in his playing . Like Hans von Bülow , he was considered an " intellectual " pianist who gave performances that were well executed . He was also considered to have improved with time , becoming a less mercurial and " fidgety " player and that despite occasional exaggerations in his interpretations , his artistry was beyond question .
While he was not the only pianist in England to play Liszt 's works , Bache was significant in that he played works in concert for solo piano , two pianos and piano and orchestra . In addition to the two @-@ piano arrangements of the symphonic poems , the first two piano concertos , the B minor piano sonata and the Dante Sonata , Bache played a handful of transcriptions , five of the Hungarian Rhapsodies and a number of smaller @-@ scaled virtuosic works and miniatures which often highlighted " the melodic nature of Liszt 's writing " . Bache also played a number of works by other composers in his recitals , many of which are unfamiliar today . Grateful for Bülow 's assistance in conducting two of his annual concerts , Bache programmed several of the conductor 's piano works in his recitals . He also played various works by Mackenzie , Mendelssohn , Mozart , Raff , Silas , Tchaikovsky and Volkmann and more familiar pieces by Bach , Beethoven and Chopin .
Like Bülow , Bache performed works from memory instead of from the printed page , at a time when doing so was a matter of open debate . Also like Bülow , he began giving recitals devoted entirely to the work of one composer . In 1879 , he began giving all @-@ Liszt recitals , and in 1883 he experimented with an all @-@ Beethoven recital .
= = = Reception = = =
Bache was considered authoritative in the music of Liszt . About his performance of the B minor piano sonata , the Musical Standard wrote that Bache had made the work his own , giving the impression that Liszt 's interpretation of the piece and Bache 's were essentially one . However , while Bache 's performances were universally acclaimed , the works he chose to play received a mixed reception . The Musical Standard wrote , after a performance of the First Piano Concerto in 1871 , that while Bache 's playing was excellent , it did nothing to make Liszt 's " bizarre " concerto interesting . The Athenaeum wrote about the same performance that while the concerto was intricate , there was no difficulty in following the work as played by Bache .
Bache received praise for the works of other composers , as well . The Musical Standard wrote that he sounded at home with whatever the musical style of the pieces he played . The Musical World noted that Bache 's playing of Chopin , Raff , Schumann and Weber all showed " true artistic spirit and taste " . Bache 's playing of Bach was singled out for mention , with the Chromatic Fantasy and Fugue " neat and highly finished " . Bache was also said to have given a " masterly " performance of the Bach D minor keyboard concerto .
Despite receiving positive reviews for his pianism , Bache 's difficulties with the critics on behalf of Liszt 's music had a negative backlash on his performing career . He was never invited to play with the Philharmonic Society , even after Liszt personally recommended him as a soloist . After printed inquiries by the Musical Standard , which openly questioned why Bache 's career had not advanced despite his obvious talent , he was invited in 1874 to play at the Crystal Palace . While his playing was lauded , his choice of music ( the Liszt arrangement of Weber 's Polonaise Brillante for piano and orchestra ) was derided as astoundingly impudent . He also appeared at concerts led by Hans Richter , as organist in Liszt 's symphonic poem Die Hunnenschlacht and as pianist in Beethoven 's Choral Fantasy and Chopin 's Second Piano Concerto .
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= 1928 Okeechobee hurricane =
The Okeechobee hurricane , also known as San Felipe Segundo hurricane , was one of the deadliest tropical cyclones in the history of Puerto Rico . The fourth tropical cyclone , third hurricane , and only major hurricane of the 1928 season , this system developed just offshore the west coast of Africa on September 6 . Initially a tropical depression , it strengthened into a tropical storm later that day , shortly before passing south of the Cape Verde Islands . Further intensification was slow and halted by late on September 7 . About 48 hours later , the storm resumed strengthening and became a Category 1 hurricane on the modern @-@ day Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale . Still moving westward , the system reached Category 4 intensity before striking Guadeloupe on September 12 . There , the storm brought " great destruction " and 1 @,@ 200 deaths . The islands of Martinique , Montserrat , and Nevis also reported damage and fatalities , but not nearly as severe as in Guadeloupe .
Around midday on September 13 , the storm strengthened into a Category 5 hurricane and peaked with sustained winds of 160 mph ( 260 km / h ) . About six hours later , the system made landfall in Puerto Rico ; it was the only recorded tropical cyclone to strike the island at Category 5 intensity . Very strong winds resulted in severe damage in Puerto Rico . Throughout the island , an estimated 24 @,@ 728 homes were destroyed and 192 @,@ 444 were damaged , leaving over 500 @,@ 000 people homeless . Heavy rainfall also led to extreme damage to vegetation and agriculture . On Puerto Rico alone , there were 312 deaths and about $ 50 million ( 1928 USD ) in damage . While crossing the island and emerging into the Atlantic , the storm weakened slightly , falling to Category 4 intensity . The storm began crossing through the Bahamas on September 16 . Due to preparations , minimal damage or loss of life occurred , with 18 fatalities reported .
Early on September 17 , the storm made landfall near West Palm Beach , Florida with winds of 145 mph ( 233 km / h ) . In the city , more than 1 @,@ 711 homes were destroyed . Elsewhere in the county , impact was severest around Lake Okeechobee . The storm surge caused water to pour out of the southern edge of the lake , flooding hundreds of square miles as high as 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) above ground . Numerous houses and buildings were swept away in the cities of Belle Glade , Canal Point , Chosen , Pahokee , and South Bay . At least 2 @,@ 500 people drowned , while damage was estimated at $ 25 million . While crossing Florida , the system weakened significantly , falling to Category 1 intensity late on September 17 . It curved north @-@ northeastward and briefly re @-@ emerged into the Atlantic on September 18 , but soon made another landfall near Edisto Island , South Carolina with winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) . Early on the following day , the system weakened to a tropical storm and became extratropical over North Carolina hours later . Overall , the system caused $ 100 million in damage and at least 4 @,@ 079 deaths .
= = Meteorological history = =
On September 6 , ships reported a tropical depression developing just off the west coast of Africa near Dakar , Senegal . The next day , a ship reported winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) , or tropical storm status ; on this basis , the Atlantic hurricane reanalysis project estimated that the system attained tropical storm status late on September 6 . However , lack of observations for several days prevented the system from being classified in real time as it moved generally westward across the Atlantic Ocean . On September 10 , the S.S. Commack first observed the storm about 900 miles ( 1450 km ) to the east of Guadeloupe , which at the time was the most easterly report of a tropical cyclone ever received through ship 's radio . Later that day , two other ships confirmed the intensity of the storm , and the Hurricane Research Division estimated it strengthened into a hurricane at 18 : 00 UTC on September 10 .
As the storm neared the Lesser Antilles , it continued to intensify . Between 17 : 30 and 18 : 30 UTC on September 12 , the hurricane 's eye moved over Guadeloupe with a barometric pressure of 940 millibars ( 28 inHg ) , suggesting maximum sustained winds of 240 km / h ( 140 mph ) , or the equivalent of a Category 4 on the Saffir – Simpson scale . Continuing to the west @-@ northwest , the hurricane passed about 10 mi ( 16 km ) south of Saint Croix before approaching Puerto Rico . On September 13 , the 15 mi ( 25 km ) eye crossed Puerto Rico in eight hours from the southeast to the northwest , moving ashore near Guayama and exiting between Aguadilla and Isabela . A ship near the southern coast reported a pressure of 931 mbar ( 27 @.@ 5 inHg ) , and the cup anemometer at San Juan reported sustained winds of 160 mph ( 268 km / h ) before failing . As the wind station was 30 miles ( 50 km ) north of the storm 's center , winds near the landfall point were unofficially estimated as high as 200 mph ( 320 km / h ) . On this basis , the hurricane made landfall in Puerto Rico as a Category 5 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson scale , although there was uncertainty in the peak intensity , due to the large size and slow movement .
After emerging from Puerto Rico , the hurricane had weakened to winds of about 140 mph ( 240 km / h ) , based on a pressure reading of 941 mbar ( 27 @.@ 8 inHg ) at Isabela . The storm brushed the northern coast of Hispaniola while moving west @-@ northwestward , gradually restrengthening . On September 15 , it passed within 35 mi ( 55 km ) of Grand Turk , by which time the winds increased to 155 mph ( 250 km / h ) . The storm continued through the Bahamas as a strong Category 4 hurricane , passing near Nassau at 10 : 00 UTC on September 16 . Initially , Richard Gray of the U.S. Weather Bureau was optimistic that the storm would spare the south Florida region . However , at 00 : 00 UTC on September 17 the large hurricane made landfall in southeastern Florida near West Palm Beach with estimated winds of 145 mph ( 230 km / h ) . This was based on a pressure reading of 929 mbar ( 27 @.@ 4 inHg ) in the city , which at the time was the lowest pressure reading in the United States ; this broke the previous record of 935 mbar ( 27 @.@ 6 inHg ) set during the 1926 Miami hurricane . Peak gusts were estimated near 160 mph ( 260 km / h ) at Canal Point .
The hurricane quickly weakened as it progressed inland and moved over Lake Okeechobee , although the large size allowed it to maintain hurricane status for several more days . Late on September 17 , the hurricane recurved to the northeast and passed near Jacksonville early the next day with winds of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) . At 08 : 00 UTC on September 18 , the storm once again reached open waters . Later that day , the hurricane restrengthened slightly over open waters , making a second United States landfall near Edisto Island , South Carolina at 19 : 00 UTC with winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) . Accelerating northeastward , the system quickly weakened into a tropical storm over North Carolina . On September 19 , the storm evolved into an extratropical cyclone , although it restrengthened slightly to hurricane status . The cyclone turned to the north @-@ northwest , moving quickly through the eastern United States . On September 21 , the former hurricane dissipated over Ontario , having merged with another disturbance .
= = Impact = =
= = = Leeward Islands = = =
The hurricane moved directly over the Leeward Islands in the Caribbean Sea , strengthening as it did so . On the island of Dominica winds were clocked at 24 mph ( 39 km / h ) ; there were no reports of damage . In Martinique , even further south of the storm 's path , there were three fatalities . Guadeloupe received a direct hit from the storm , apparently with little warning ; the death toll there was 1 @,@ 200 , and damage reports relayed through Paris indicated " great destruction " on the island . Approximately 85 % – 95 % of banana crops were destroyed , 70 % – 80 % of tree crops suffered severe damage , and 40 % of the sugar cane crop was ruined .
Montserrat , just north of the storm 's center , was warned in advance of the storm but still suffered £ 150 @,@ 000 ( 1928 UKP ) in damages and 42 deaths ; Plymouth and Salem were devastated and crop losses caused near @-@ starvation conditions before relief could arrive . The storm passed to the south of the islands of St. Kitts and St. Croix , which suffered heavy damage to property and crops but no reported fatalities . Nevis also reported three deaths due to the storm .
= = = Puerto Rico = = =
While the storm was passing near Dominica , the San Juan , Puerto Rico Weather Bureau warned about the threat of the hurricane which would strike the island within a day or two . The advisory was sent via telegraph to 75 police districts and was broadcast from the naval radio station every two hours ; this was the first hurricane warning broadcast by radio . Warnings were also posted for 12 ports along the southern coast , causing ships to avoid the island or remain at port . Effective preparation is credited for the relatively low death toll of 312 , and not a single ship was lost at sea in the vicinity of Puerto Rico . By comparison , the weaker 1899 San Ciriaco hurricane killed approximately 3 @,@ 000 people .
According to the San Juan National Weather Service office , the storm was " up to this time the greatest and more [ sic ] intense and destructive hurricane of record in Puerto Rico . " Along the storm path , the eye passed over Guayama , Cayey , and Aibonito , resulting in a period of calm lasting 20 minutes . The island of Puerto Rico received the worst of the storm 's winds when the hurricane moved directly across the island at Category 5 strength . The hurricane was extremely large as it crossed Puerto Rico . Hurricane @-@ force winds were measured in Guayama for 18 hours ; since the storm is estimated to have been moving at 13 mph ( 21 km / h ) , the diameter of the storm 's hurricane winds was estimated very roughly to be 234 miles ( 376 km ) .
The storm was named the San Felipe II Hurricane because the eye of the cyclone made landfall on the Christian feast day of Saint Philip . It was named " Segundo " , Spanish for " the Second " , because of another destructive " San Felipe hurricane " which struck Puerto Rico on that same day in 1876 . Since European arrival in the Americas in 1492 all storms and hurricanes were named after the name of the saint of the day the storm hit Puerto Rico . In 1953 the United States started naming hurricanes by female names until 1978 when both gender names began to be used . Yet it was only in 1960 that hurricanes stopped being officially named after saints .
The rainfall recorded on September 13 – 14 , 1928 , remains the record for the maximum rainfall associated with a hurricane in Puerto Rico within a period of forty @-@ eight hours . In those regions where precipitation is more common place , as in Adjuntas in the Cordillera Central and in the Sierra de Luquillo , the rain was over 25 inches ( 640 mm ) , with 29 @.@ 60 inches ( 752 mm ) recorded in Adjuntas . The anemometer located in Puerta de Tierra lost one of its cups at 11 : 44 am on September 13 , just when it had registered a maximum speed of 150 miles ( 240 km ) per hour — a speed that was sustained for five consecutive minutes . Previously the same instrument had measured 160 miles ( 260 km ) per hour for one minute . Because these measurements were taken 30 miles ( 48 km ) from San Felipe 's eye , at the time , it seemed possible that some estimates of 200 miles ( 320 km ) per hour near the center of the storm were not overdrawn .
There was general destruction through the island , with the towns where the eye passed being swept away . Property damage on the island from winds and rain was catastrophic . The northeast portion of the island received winds in excess of Category 3 strength , with hurricane @-@ force winds lasting as long as 18 hours . Official reports stated " several hundred thousand " people were left homeless , and property damages were estimated at $ 50 million .
On the island there was no building that was not affected . Some sugar mills ( " Centrales " ) that had cost millions of dollars to build were reduced to rubble . Reports say that 24 @,@ 728 homes were destroyed and 192 @,@ 444 were partially destroyed . Most of the sugarcane fields were flooded , ruining the year 's crops . Half of the coffee plants and half of the shade trees that covered these were destroyed ; almost all of the coffee harvest was lost . The coffee industry would take years to recover since coffee needs shade trees to grow . The tobacco farms also had great losses . After this hurricane , Puerto Rico never regained its position as a major coffee exporter .
Communications were impacted by fallen trees , landslides , and damaged bridges . Of the school buildings 770 were destroyed or damaged . According to some estimates of the day , excluding personal losses , the damages reached $ 85 @.@ 312 million and over 500 @,@ 000 people were left homeless . San Felipe II is officially classified as Puerto Rico 's biggest , worst , and most devastating hurricane to ever have impacted the island .
= = = Greater Antilles and Bahamas = = =
After affecting Puerto Rico , the hurricane passed just north of the Dominican Republic , producing very little damage . This was due to the small core and weaker winds to the south of the center . Advance warning reduced the number of ships traversing the region .
While the hurricane was passing nearby , Grand Turk reported winds of 120 mph ( 193 km / h ) . According to a ship report in the region , " The force of the wind ... could only be judged by the noise made by the storm , which reminded me of the New York subway going full speed passing switches . " Winds approached 120 mph ( 193 km / h ) at Nassau before the anemometer failed . In addition to the winds , the storm dropped heavy rainfall in the region , totaling 9 in ( 228 mm ) in Nassau . As in Puerto Rico , authorities in the Bahamas had ample warning of the hurricane 's approach , and preparations minimized the loss of life in the islands . Two boats were wrecked as they washed ashore in Grand Turk , although the crews were saved . A sloop traversing from Ambergris Caye to Grand Turk was lost , killing all 18 people on board . The storm caused heavy damage throughout the Bahamas , mostly to property and crops .
In Nassau , some buildings which were recently repaired after the 1926 Nassau hurricane were destroyed during this storm . A 10 @-@ year @-@ old girl drowned after falling into an open trench filled with water . At the Fort Montague Hotel , the windows , doors , and furniture were badly damaged . Similar impact was reported at the Royal Victoria Hotel , while the British Colonial Hotel was largely spared . However , the gardens of the three hotels were " damaged almost beyond recognition " .
On Bimini , sustained winds of 140 mph ( 230 km / h ) were observed , causing major damage to buildings . Ninety @-@ five houses and some other buildings , including a few churches and government buildings , were damaged or destroyed on Eleuthera . Minor damage was reported on Rum Cay . Most of the food crops were destroyed . On San Salvador Island , four buildings were demolished , including two churches , while several other structures suffered minor damage . Food crops were nearly wiped out .
= = = Florida = = =
While the hurricane was moving through the Bahamas , the Weather Bureau issued storm warnings from Miami to Titusville , later upgrading to a hurricane warning from Miami to Daytona Beach . The agency advised residents to take precautions for the hurricane , citing the potential for strong winds and waves . Hurricane warnings were also posted for the west coast from Punta Rassa to Apalachicola , and after the storm recurved , hurricane warnings were extended along the east coast to Jacksonville . Because of well @-@ issued hurricane warnings , residents were prepared for the storm , and the number of lives lost in the coastal Palm Beach area was only 26 .
Strong winds struck southern Florida as the hurricane moved ashore , with three unofficial reports of 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) . In Miami to the south of the center , winds reached 78 mph ( 126 km / h ) , and farther south , Key West reported winds of only 39 mph ( 63 km / h ) . The eye at landfall was 25 miles ( 40 km ) wide , and after moving inland crossed Lake Okeechobee , where a calm was reported for 30 minutes . Winds at Canal Point , adjacent to the lake , were estimated as high as 160 mph ( 255 km / h ) ; the anemometer blew away after reporting sustained winds of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) . The pressure at Canal Point dropped to 942 mbar ( 27 @.@ 82 inHg ) . The lowest pressure north of Lake Okeechobee was 966 mbar ( 28 @.@ 54 inHg ) in Bartow , and along the west coast , winds reached 31 mph ( 50 km / h ) in Tampa .
The hurricane left thousands of people homeless in Florida ; property damage was estimated at $ 25 million ( $ 345 million ) . It is estimated if a similar storm were to strike as of the year 2003 , it would cause $ 18 @.@ 7 billion in damages . The cyclone remains one of three Atlantic hurricanes to strike the southern mainland of Florida with a central pressure below 940 mbar ( 27 @.@ 76 inHg ) , the others being the 1926 Miami hurricane and Hurricane Andrew of 1992 .
In addition to the human fatalities , 1 @,@ 278 livestock and 47 @,@ 389 poultry were killed , respectively . Agriculture was impacted significantly , with the storm destroying what may have been the largest " citrus crop in the history of the industry " . Approximately 6 % of oranges and 18 % of grapefruit were ruined , respectively . Harvesting the remaining crops was delayed until mid @-@ October due to inundated groves . Communications also suffered severely . Throughout the state , 32 @,@ 000 households were left without telephone service and 400 poles were broken and about 2 @,@ 500 others leaning . Then @-@ Governor of Florida John W. Martin estimated that 35 @,@ 000 families were left homeless in Palm Beach County alone . Additionally , about 11 @,@ 500 families would need to be " re @-@ established " .
= = = = Coastal South Florida = = = =
In Miami , damage was minimal , limited to broken windows and awnings . In Hollywood and Fort Lauderdale , windows and roofs were damaged , although damage was still fairly minor . Numerous power lines and telephone wires were downed in the latter . Northward , from Pompano Beach to Jupiter , buildings suffered serious damage from the heavy winds and 10 ft ( 3 m ) storm surge . Nearly all small frame houses were destroyed in Deerfield Beach , while several citizens estimated that at least 50 % of homes were demolished . The town 's post office , depot , and an entire business block were also destroyed . An eight @-@ year @-@ old boy drowned in a ditch near where his family sought refuge . In Boca Raton , two garages and several houses were destroyed . At the Cloister Inn , windows were shattered and the roof was damaged ; across the street , 32 freight cars belonging to a train along the Florida East Coast Railway were tossed by the wind into a nearby ditch . A short distance to the north , a warehouse was flattened . A building occupied by a restaurant and a store was flattened . In Delray Beach , four churches suffered severe damage and the Alta Repp and Seacrest hotels both lost a portion of their roof . The police reported three deaths within the city . In Delray Beach and Lantana , all houses and the railroad station were badly damaged . In Boynton Beach , about 75 % of businesses suffered complete destruction . Fifteen people were injured by a roof collapse while taking refuge in the auditorium of a high school .
In Lake Worth , approximately 50 % of homes were damaged or destroyed , while 75 % of buildings in the business district suffered damage . Impact along the coast was most severe in Palm Beach . Total coastal damages were estimated as " several million " dollars . In West Palm Beach , the storm destroyed 1 @,@ 711 homes and damaged 6 @,@ 369 others , and demolished 268 businesses and impacted 490 other businesses ; the city suffered the worst damage , totaling just under $ 13 @.@ 8 million . Likewise , there was also severe wind damage in Palm Beach . A few buildings constructed by Henry Flagler , such as The Breakers , the Royal Poinciana Hotel , and Whitehall , were damaged . Mar @-@ a @-@ Lago suffered little impact other than uprooted trees and the destruction of a large Roman @-@ style window , according to Marjorie Merriweather Post . Rodman Wanamaker 's house , known as " La Guerida " and later the " Winter White House " during the presidency of John F. Kennedy , suffered heavy damage during the storm . The Alba , Billows , New Palm Beach , and Royal Daneli hotels all suffered water damage , while the Alba Hotel was also deroofed . Nearby , the Rainbow Pier only received structural damage to its railings , though the pier office was blown away . Approximately 600 structures , including 10 hotels , were damaged in Palm Beach . Damage totaled over $ 2 million .
The strongest winds in the eyewall affected northern Palm Beach County , particularly the vicinity of Jupiter , as the eye made landfall farther south . At the Jupiter Inlet Lighthouse , the mortar was reportedly " squeezed ... like toothpaste " between the bricks during the storm , swaying the tower 17 in ( 430 mm ) off the base . The lighthouse keeper , Captain Seabrook , and his son , Franklin , worked to keep the light on during the storm after the electricity went out . After the generator failed to work , they hand @-@ cranked the light 's mantle . The building formerly used as a Weather Bureau Office was destroyed . Nearby , six people died after a house was demolished . Six other fatalities occurred west of Jupiter after a school where people sought shelter collapsed .
= = = = Lake Okeechobee and Everglades = = = =
Inland , the hurricane wreaked much more widespread destruction along the more heavily populated coast of Lake Okeechobee . Residents had been warned to evacuate the low ground earlier in the day , but after the hurricane did not arrive on schedule , many thought it had missed and returned to their homes . In the weeks prior to storm , heavy rainfall caused the lake to rise 3 ft ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) between August 10 and September 10 and filled nearby canals and ditches . Precipitation from the hurricane itself caused Lake Okeechobee to rise further . When the worst of the storm crossed the lake , the south @-@ blowing wind caused a storm surge to overflow the small dike that had been built at the south end of the lake . The resulting flood covered an area of hundreds of square miles with water that in some places was over 20 ft ( 6 m ) deep . Houses were floated off of their foundations and dashed to pieces against any obstacle they encountered . Most survivors and bodies were washed out into the Everglades where many of the bodies were never found . Agricultural losses in the area surrounding Lake Okeechobee were also significant , with virtually all crops destroyed and over 150 tractors suffering damage .
As the rear eyewall passed over the area , the flood reversed itself , breaking the dikes along the northern coast of the lake and causing similar but smaller flooding . Route 98 , then known as Conner 's Highway , was closed until January , when the bridge across the Onosohatchee River at Taylor Creek was replaced after the original bridge was carried about 150 ft ( 46 m ) upstream during the storm . In Okeechobee County , homes along the lake were destroyed by the storm surge , while dwellings within the city of Okeechobee were severely impacted or demolished by winds of at least 90 mph ( 140 km / h ) . However , brick and concrete @-@ structured dwellings received little damage . A number of three @-@ story business buildings collapsed during the storm . Almost all roads were left impassable , while communications were nearly wiped out . Overall , 27 deaths occurred in Okeechobee County . Along the southwestern shore of Lake Okeechobee , the towns of Clewiston and Moore Haven were both flooded , but much of the damage to houses was due to strong winds .
On Kreamer Island , many residents received information about the storm when it was too late to evacuate . In some homes , 20 – 30 people sought shelter inside and later stood on tables and chairs to remain above the water . Most of the homes were swept away into rows of pine trees and others more than half a mile ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) away . Despite this , only one person drowned on the island . Residents of Torry Island also did not have ample time to prepare for the storm . They attempted to evacuate , but the causeway was already inundated , forcing twenty @-@ three people to seek refuge in a packinghouse . Floodwaters entered the building , forcing the occupants into the rafters . However , the building was eventually pushed into a nearby canal . Ten people drowned , but thirteen others survived by clinging to a barge or tree tops , while one woman tied herself to a telegraph pole . Others that survived were swept far away from where the building once stood or the barge . A teenage boy was carried from the packinghouse to the Everglades Experiment Station in Belle Glade – a distance of about 8 mi ( 13 km ) . On Ritta Island , a number who successfully climbed to the roof of their houses were struck by trees or received fatal bites from water moccasin .
In South Bay , nearly all houses were destroyed and several buildings were unroofed . At least 160 fatalities occurred in the city . Throughout the 1920s , Okeelanta suffered several floods and muck fires . Finally , the town was flooded severely during the storm and was subsequently abandoned . Bean City was also destroyed during the hurricane , but it was eventually rebuilt by Arthur Wells . Sebring Farms was reduced to piles of rubber , with only four tall royal palm trees left standing . Only the hotel at Miami Locks survived the storm . Ninety @-@ nine people died in that town . In Chosen , only two people managed to escape a house that sheltered nineteen people . Twenty other residents took refuge in a building which lost its roof during the storm , forcing the occupants to move into the restroom . A house that was full of people floated about half a mile ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) from its original location . The refugees were unaware that the house was moving until it collided with a railroad embankment .
Floodwaters persisted for several weeks , greatly impeding attempts to clean up the devastation . Burial services were quickly overwhelmed , and many of the bodies were placed into mass graves . Around 75 % of the fatalities were migrant farm workers , making identification of both dead and missing bodies very difficult ; as a result of this , the count of the dead is not very accurate . The Red Cross estimated the number of fatalities as 1 @,@ 836 , which was taken as the official count by the National Weather Service for many years ( and exactly equal to the official count for Hurricane Katrina ) . Older sources usually list 3 @,@ 411 as the hurricane 's total count of fatalities , including the Caribbean . However , in 2003 the U.S. death count was revised to " at least " 2 @,@ 500 , making the Okeechobee hurricane the second @-@ deadliest natural disaster in United States history behind the 1900 Galveston hurricane . A mass grave at the Port Mayaca Cemetery east of Port Mayaca contains the bodies of 1 @,@ 600 victims of the hurricane .
= = = = Central and North Florida = = = =
In Fort Myers , property damage was slight , limited mostly to scores of small boats and fishing shacks along the waterfront . Nearly all cigar factories in Tampa were closed after wind and rain drove too much moisture into the buildings . Offshore , the fishing smack Wallace A. McDonnell was beached near Piney Point , though all of the crew survived . Additionally , the Cuban schooner Isabel Alvado sank offshore Boca Grande . The crew , who were immigrants , were rescued by the Coast Guard and later deported . In Martin County , a bridge connecting Stuart and Palm City was severely damaged and closed to traffic as a result . A temporary ferry service across the St. Lucie River was established and operated until repairs to the bridge were complete in the summer of 1929 . In Fort Pierce , most of the impact was confined to the waterfront areas . A warehouse , fish houses , docks , and a bridge across the Indian River were destroyed , while several other buildings were unroofed . Damage in the city totaled about $ 150 @,@ 000 .
In the interior areas of Central and North Florida , impact was mainly confined to agricultural losses , particularly citrus , though wind damage occurred to structures . Between Sebring and Lake Wales , 200 telephone poles were toppled . In Bartow , business building windows were shattered and signs were knocked down , while several roofs and chimneys also suffered damage . Winds gusting up to 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) lashed Lakeland . Many trees were uprooted and several buildings were impacted , including the hospital and a number of businesses . At Florida Southern College ( FSC ) , the north side of the gymnasium collapsed while other buildings on campus were damaged to a less degree . The trees in the citrus grove surrounding FSC lost much of their fruit . Overall , Lakeland suffered about $ 50 @,@ 000 in damage . In Orlando , impact to properties was described as slight . Winds up to 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) impacted the Jacksonville area , resulting in minor damage at Jacksonville Beach .
= = = Elsewhere = = =
Outside of Florida , damage in the United States was minor from the hurricane . In Georgia , low @-@ lying streets were flooded or washed out in the Savannah area . Additionally , winds downed trees and power lines . Heavy rainfall occurred from eastern Florida through coastal Georgia , the Carolinas , and southeast Virginia . The highest rainfall total was 12 @.@ 53 inches ( 318 mm ) at Darlington , South Carolina . The storm caused flooding in North Carolina and brought near @-@ hurricane @-@ force winds and a 7 foot ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) storm surge to the Norfolk area . After the hurricane became extratropical , its wind field became very large . Atlantic City , New Jersey recorded winds of 76 mph ( 122 km / h ) despite being far from the center .
= = Aftermath = =
In the immediate aftermath of the storm , relief arrived from nearby areas such as Miami . Early on September 18 , a train leaving Miami carried 20 doctors and 20 nurses to West Palm Beach . The Miami Red Cross Citizens Relief Committee , which was established to provide aid for victims of the storm , transported " hundreds of loaves of bread , gallons of milk , pounds of coffee and sugar , blankets , cots , and medical supplies . " The first relief train was ridden by U.S. Senator Joseph T. Robinson , the Democratic vice presidential nominee during the election that year . At least 100 people were brought to Miami for medical treatment . In Lake Worth , 25 people were treated for various injuries at the Gulf Stream Hotel and the local fire station . Dr. W. A. Claxton , chief of the Miami Department of Public Welfare , requested antitoxin , typhoid serum , and at least 200 tetanus serums . There was also a request for 1 @,@ 000 more cots in West Palm Beach and Kelsey City .
= = = Racial issues = = =
In Florida , although the hurricane destroyed everything in its path with impartiality , the death toll was by far highest in the economically poor areas in the low @-@ lying ground right around Lake Okeechobee , such as Belle Glade , Chosen , Pahokee , South Bay , and Bean City . Around 75 % of the fatalities were among migrant farm workers , most of whom were black . The black workers did most of the cleanup work , and the few caskets available for burials were mostly used for the bodies of whites . Additionally , the white victims received a proper burial at Woodlawn Cemetery in downtown West Palm Beach , which was the only mass gravesite to receive a memorial .
In contrast , the bodies of black victims were burned in funeral pyres or thrown into mass burial sites such as the ones in West Palm Beach and Port Mayaca . Robert Hazard , a resident of West Palm Beach , established the Storm of ' 28 Memorial Park Coalition Inc. to fight for recognition of the black victims of the storm . In 2000 , the West Palm Beach burial site was reacquired by the city of West Palm Beach and plans for construction of a memorial began . The site was listed on the U.S. National Register of Historic Places in 2002 and a state historical marker was added in 2003 during the 75th anniversary of the hurricane . The inequity has caused ongoing racial friction . The effects of the hurricane on black migrant workers was dramatized in Zora Neale Hurston 's novel Their Eyes Were Watching God .
= = = Improved building codes = = =
In the aftermath of the hurricane in coastal Florida , it became apparent that well @-@ constructed buildings with shutters had suffered practically no damage from winds that caused serious structural problems to lesser buildings . Buildings with well @-@ constructed frames , and those made of steel , concrete , brick , or stone were largely immune to winds , and the use of shutters prevented damage to windows and the interior of the buildings . Coming on the heels of the 1926 Miami hurricane where a similar pattern had been noticed , one lasting result of the 1928 storm was improved building codes .
= = = Flood control = = =
To prevent a recurrence of disasters like this one and the Great Miami Hurricane of 1926 , the Florida State Legislature created the Okeechobee Flood Control District , which was authorized to cooperate with the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers in flood control undertakings . After a personal inspection of the area by President Herbert Hoover , the Corps drafted a new plan which provided for the construction of floodway channels , control gates , and major levees along Lake Okeechobee 's shores . A long term system was designed for the purpose of flood control , water conservation , prevention of saltwater intrusion , and preservation of fish and wildlife populations . One of the solutions was the construction of the Herbert Hoover Dike . Today , concerns related to the dike 's stability have grown in response to studies indicating long term problems with " piping " and erosion . Leaks have been reported after several heavy rain events . Proposed solutions to the dike 's problems have included the construction of a seepage berm on the landward side of the dike , with the first stage costing approximately $ 67 million ( US $ ) .
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= Double Allergic =
Double Allergic is the second studio album by the Australian alternative rock band Powderfinger . Released in Australia on 2 September 1996 Polydor , the album was produced by Tim Whitten and widely considered Powderfinger 's mainstream breakthrough .
Four singles were released from the album : " Pick You Up " , " D.A.F. " , " Living Type " and " Take Me In " . " Pick You Up " was the most successful single from the album , and Powderfinger 's first moderate success , reaching # 23 on the ARIA charts . " D.A.F. " also charted as a moderate success ; it reached # 39 on the Australian music charts . Both " Living Type " and " Take Me In " did not chart officially , but " Living Type " was voted into the Triple J Hottest 100 in 1996 .
Critics were generally favorable in their reviews of Double Allergic . It was praised by Allmusic reviewer Jonathan Lewis as " a cohesive and mature effort " . It has also been certified platinum three times , with over 200 @,@ 000 copies sold . Double Allergic was also nominated for five ARIA awards , with singles from the album nominated for an additional four , however , it won none of the awards it was nominated for .
= = Recording and production = =
Double Allergic contained material that had been written by Powderfinger in 1995 and 1996 . Prior to its release , guitarist Darren Middleton described it as " by far the best thing we 've done " , an analogy that would be often made when comparing the album to its predecessor , Parables for Wooden Ears . Middleton praised the album because the band knew how they wanted the record to sound before they began to record ; he also described it as " the most concise continuation of who we are down on record " .
Lead singer Bernard Fanning noted that another important element of the album was that there " was more space in the songs , it wasn 't overcrowded " . However , Fanning commented that Powderfinger had not intended to greatly change their sound in creating Double Allergic , instead , the change in sound came as a natural progression. the guitarist Ian Haug agreed , stating the music was " more melodic and sort of simpler " , without " so many different time signatures and things " . Rolling Stone author Tracey Grimson also commented on this , stating that " Powderfinger have become practical advocates of space " and lauding their acknowledgment that the " absence of sound can be lush , evocative " . She noted that even in the " rockers " on the album songs — like " Pick You Up " and " Skinny Jean " — the band were still able to pull back and give the songs additional space .
Powderfinger spent less money producing Double Allergic than on their previous works . Previously , the band had worked with Tony Cohen , whom Fanning stated was expensive due to his success in the industry . For Double Allergic the band chose Tim Whitten , a less well known producer , and because the band knew what they intended to do as they entered the studio they managed to spend less despite the improved sound . Middleton commented on Whitten 's capabilities in the recording studio , saying " He 's what a band looks for in a producer / engineer , because he 's got his own ideas " , but stating that Whitten would also listen to and appreciate the band 's ideas .
= = Album and single releases = =
Double Allergic was released on 2 September 1996 in Australia on the Polydor record label . It entered the ARIA chart at # 7 , and spent ten weeks in the top ten . Over 200 @,@ 000 copies were sold , and the album is currently certified 3x platinum , asserting at least 210 @,@ 000 sales . The album finished 1996 at # 44 on the ARIA end of year albums chart , and finished 1997 at # 53 .
" Pick You Up " , the first single , was released on 13 April 1996 , and entered the ARIA singles chart at # 34 . By its fifth week , on 30 June , it had reached its peak at # 23 - it spent a further seven weeks on the chart before dropping out . " Pick You Up " was described as having a " very professional sound " . The song appeared at # 6 on the Triple J Hottest 100 , 1996 . " D.A.F. " , the second single , was released on 5 August 1996 . It spent four weeks on the ARIA chart , peaking at # 39 . The title of the song was taken from its chord progression , in the words of the bass guitarist John Collins " because we were stupid " . The song appeared at # 18 on the Triple J Hottest 100 , 1996 .
" Living Type " was the third single , released on 11 November 1996 . The song peaked at # 42 on the ARIA charts and stayed in the top 50 for three weeks . " Living Type " was written by Fanning about the Manson Family cult , and came with an X @-@ Files style music video . The song appeared at # 32 on the Triple J Hottest 100 , 1996 . The fourth single , " Take Me In " , was released on 12 May 1997 . It failed to chart , and was the least noted single from the album . Fanning wrote " Take Me In " as a response to hypocrisy by police , which he had read about in newspapers .
The album contains three secret tracks placed onto the twelfth track after silence that follows the track 's primary song " ( The Return of ) The Electric Horseman " . The first of these is called " Vladimir " which , according to Fanning is about a transvestite . The second song is called " SS " which refers to Australian cricket bat manufacturer Stuart Surridge , which is often known by those initials . The song refers in part to the bat itself , though mostly to cricket in general , with lyrics " Then we 'll race like jets for the fading moon ; Then we all fall down " , which refers to running for the opposite crease following striking the ball , and then diving to the ground to secure the run . The third and final secret track is called " Come Away " which also appeared as a B @-@ side for the single of " Pick You Up " . In a first for the group , it had the guitarist Darren Middleton as lead vocalist , while a spoken sound sample at the end of the song is the bass guitarist John Collins ' voice .
= = Critical response = =
Double Allergic was well received by Allmusic , with reviewer Jonathan Lewis claiming that Powderfinger " managed to successfully create an album of melodic pop songs coupled with noisy guitars " . The album was summarised as " a cohesive and mature effort " .
Sputnikmusic reviewer blueyxd , had mixed feelings about the album . The level of experimentation in the album was praised , with the reviewer stating that " the instrument playing and some of the unusual styles used " were beneficial . However , the main concern was that there wasn 't enough experimentation , and that the album was rather " solid " , thus earning it its score of 3 @.@ 5 .
Juice magazine reviewed Double Allergic positively , calling it a much more mature album than its predecessor , Parables for Wooden Ears . The " band 's mellowing tone " , compared to the " aggression " in past works , was also commended , with the review stating that " the result is an album filled with potential and character " . The experimentation on " JC " , " Glimpse " and " Oipic " was again praised , with comparisons to Motown drawn . The review summarised the album as " proof of a band maturing , streets ahead of anything they 've previously recorded " .
= = Track listing = =
All music written and arranged by Powderfinger . All lyrics by Fanning , except " Boing Boing " lyrics by Fanning / Haug , " JC " & " Come Away " lyrics by Middleton , " Take Me In " & " ( Return Of ) The Electric Horseman " lyrics by Fanning / Middleton .
" Skinny Jean " – 3 : 57
" Turtle 's Head " – 3 : 23
" Pick You Up " – 4 : 19
" D.A.F. " – 3 : 30
" Boing Boing " – 3 : 37
" Give " – 2 : 28
" Oipic " – 4 : 09
" Living Type " – 3 : 25
" JC " – 2 : 50
" Glimpse " – 1 : 43
" Take Me In " – 2 : 51
" ( Return of ) The Electric Horseman " – 18 : 57 ( actual track time 3 : 47 )
Hidden tracks ( included in 18 : 57 track time ) :
" Vladimir " - 4 : 47
" SS " - 3 : 26
" Come Away " - 3 : 55
= = Awards and nominations = =
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= Farm to Market Road 1938 =
Farm to Market Road 1938 ( FM 1938 ) is a Farm to Market Road in the US state of Texas . The highway runs from State Highway 26 ( SH 26 ) to FM 1709 , in Tarrant County . While located in Westlake , FM 1938 is named Precinct Line Road . While located in Southlake , from the northern border of Southlake to its junction with FM 1709 , FM 1938 is named Randol Mill Avenue , and from the FM 1709 intersection to its southern terminus , the highway is named Davis Boulevard . FM 1938 was designated in 1952 , in Hockley County , but was cancelled and redesignated in 1955 , at its modern location in Tarrant County . In 1995 , the entire route of FM 1938 was redesignated as Urban Road 1938 ( UR 1938 ) by the Texas Department of Transportation ( TxDOT ) . FM 1938 passes through central North Richland Hills and Southlake , providing access to several businesses . As of 2012 , FM 1938 is in the process of being extended from an intersection with FM 1709 to the north frontage road of SH 114 .
= = Route description = =
FM 1938 ( Davis Boulevard ) begins at its southern terminus with SH 26 , directly besides the raised Interstate 820 ( I @-@ 820 ) freeway . FM 1938 continues on for about 0 @.@ 2 miles ( 0 @.@ 32 km ) before two exit ramps coming from I @-@ 820 merge with it , giving incomplete access to the freeway . The highway proceeds as a paved , asphalt , six @-@ lane highway , with a center left @-@ turn lane dividing it . The road continues through " downtown North Richland Hills " , passing several small businesses and large residential neighborhoods . Along this stretch , FM 1938 is traveling due north . After an intersection with Smithfield Road , the highway turns in a northeastern direction and heads that way . It continues through North Richland Hills , intersecting with several large roads and passing a set of railroad tracks . The highway heads north for about 5 @.@ 5 miles before intersecting with FM 3029 and entering the city of Keller . The highway proceeds through Keller , passing several small businesses and large neighborhoods . FM 1938 passes through Keller for about one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) before passing over a small creek and entering the city of Southlake . Just after entering Southlake , the highway passes a large landscaping and stone supplies facility . FM 1938 continues through Southlake for approximately one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) , passing several small businesses , before reaching its northern terminus , as of 2012 , FM 1709 .
= = = Continuation = = =
On August 23 , 2007 , TxDOT authorized an extension of FM 1938 from the intersection with FM 1709 to the northern frontage road of SH 114 . This will include the designation of approximately 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) of Randol Mill Road , and the creation of approximately two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) of road , which will be named Precinct Line Road . This is in order to connect the current length of Randol Mill Road to SH 114 . With the extension , FM 1938 is estimated to total 11 @.@ 1 miles ( 17 @.@ 9 km ) long .
= = History = =
On January 18 , 1952 , FM 1938 was designated in Hockley County , traveling from an intersection with FM 1490 to an intersection with Hockley County Road 237 . On November 1 , 1954 , FM 1938 was cancelled and combined with the newly designated FM 597 . On August 24 , 1955 , FM 1938 was redesignated for a route in Tarrant County , traveling from FM 1709 to the SH 121 freeway , which was 7 @.@ 514 miles ( 12 @.@ 093 km ) long . On June 27 , 1995 , the entire route was redesignated as Urban Road 1938 , although , like other routes like this , the signage did not change . On August 23 , 2007 , an extension of FM 1938 was authorized from FM 1709 to SH 114 , adding approximately 3 @.@ 6 miles ( 5 @.@ 8 km ) to the road . The extension to SH 114 opened in August 2012 but construction on the Randol Mill Avenue section of the extension in addition to landscaping and sidewalk work on the whole extension is ongoing .
= = Major junctions = =
The entire route is in Tarrant County .
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= Rang De Basanti =
Rang De Basanti ( IPA : [ ˈrəŋɡ d ̪ eː bəˈsənt ̪ i ] ; English : Colour it Saffron ) is a 2006 Indian drama film co written , co produced and directed by Rakeysh Omprakash Mehra . The literal meaning of the title can be translated as " Paint me with the colours of spring . " It features an ensemble cast comprising Aamir Khan , Siddharth Narayan , Soha Ali Khan , Kunal Kapoor , R. Madhavan , Sharman Joshi , Atul Kulkarni and British actress Alice Patten in the lead roles . Made on a budget of ₹ 250 million ( US $ 3 @.@ 7 million ) , it was shot in and around New Delhi . Upon release , the film broke all opening box office records in India . It was the highest @-@ grossing film in its opening weekend in India and had the highest opening day collections for a Bollywood film . The film was well received and praised for strong screenplay and dialogues .
The story is about a British documentary filmmaker who is determined to make a film on Indian freedom fighters based on diary entries by her grandfather , a former officer of the British Indian Army . Upon arriving in India , she asks a group of five young men to act in her film .
Rang De Basanti 's release faced stiff resistance from the Indian Defence Ministry and the Animal Welfare Board due to parts that depicted the use of MiG @-@ 21 fighter aircraft and a banned Indian horse race .
The film was released globally on 26 January 2006 , the Republic Day of India , it received critical acclaim winning National award for most popular film and it is also rated as 8 @.@ 4 out of 10 on IMDB which is one of the highest among Bollywood films . It was subsequently nominated for Best Foreign Language Film at the 2006 BAFTA Awards . Rang De Basanti was chosen as India 's official entry for the Golden Globe Awards and the Academy Awards in the Best Foreign Language Film category , though it did not ultimately yield a nomination for either award . A. R. Rahman 's soundtrack , which earned positive reviews , had two of its tracks considered for the Academy Award nomination . The film was well received by critics and audiences for its production values and had a noticeable influence on Indian society . In India , Rang De Basanti did well at many of the Bollywood awards ceremonies , including a win for Best Movie at the Filmfare Awards . The film was declared " Blockbuster " by Box Office India .
= = Plot = =
A young , struggling British filmmaker Sue McKinley ( Alice Patten ) comes across the diary of her grandfather , Mr. McKinley ( Steven Mackintosh ) , who served as a jailer in the Imperial Police during the Indian independence movement . Through the diary , she learns about the story of five freedom fighters who were active in the movement : Chandrasekhar Azad , Bhagat Singh , Shivaram Rajguru , Ashfaqulla Khan , and Ram Prasad Bismil . McKinley , in his diary , states that he had met two type of people in his life , those who died without uttering a sound and those who died with lots of anguish , crying over their deaths . McKinley reveals that it was then that he met with the third kind - those who die with a smile on their lips .
Having decided to make a self @-@ financed documentary film about these revolutionaries , Sue travels to India , with the help of her friend , Sonia ( Soha Ali Khan ) , from the Institute for International Studies at the University of Delhi . After a few unsuccessful auditions in search of the actors , Sue finally casts Sonia 's friends , four young men – Daljit " DJ " Singh ( Aamir Khan ) , Karan Singhania ( Siddharth Narayan ) , Aslam Khan ( Kunal Kapoor ) and Sukhi Ram ( Sharman Joshi ) — to portray the revolutionaries .
Though they aren 't very enthusiastic at the idea of acting in a film about the independence movement , Sue eventually manages to convince them . Laxman Pandey ( Atul Kulkarni ) , a right @-@ wing political party activist , joins the cast later , despite initially being unpopular due to his anti @-@ Western ideology , due to which he is often at odds with the other four , and anti @-@ Muslim beliefs and contempt for Aslam Khan . In the process of filming , the idealism of India 's revolutionary heroes seeps into the protagonists . They gradually begin to realize that their own lives are quite similar to the characters they portray in Sue 's film and that the state of affairs that once plagued the revolutionaries continues to torment their generation .
Meanwhile , Ajay Singh Rathod ( R. Madhavan ) , a flight lieutenant in the Indian Air Force who is Sonia 's fiancé , is killed when his jet , a MiG @-@ 21 , crashes . The government proclaims that the crash was caused by pilot error and closes the investigation . Knowing that Rathod was an ace pilot , Sonia and her friends do not accept the official explanation . Instead , they claim that he sacrificed his life to save hundreds of other lives that would have been lost had he ejected from the aircraft and left it to crash into a populous city . They investigate and learn that the crash was due to a corrupt defence minister Shastri ( Mohan Agashe ) , who had signed a contract exchanging cheap and illegal MiG @-@ 21 aircraft spare parts for a personal favour . To their surprise , they learn that the key person who was responsible for organizing the deal was Karan 's father , Rajnath Singhania ( Anupam Kher ) .
Angered by the situation , the group and their supporters decide to protest peacefully at India Gate , a war memorial in New Delhi . Police forcefully break up their protest using batons ; in the process , Rathod 's mother ( Waheeda Rehman ) is severely injured and slips into a coma . DJ , Karan , Aslam , Sukhi , and Laxman decide that they must emulate the early freedom fighters and resort to violence to achieve justice . As a result , they kill the defence minister to avenge Rathod 's death , while Karan murders his father for his corrupt actions . The minister is reported to have been killed by terrorists and is hailed as a martyr by the media . To bring forth their intentions behind the killings , the five of them attempt to reach the public through a radio station . They forcibly take over the All India Radio station premises after having evacuated its employees . Karan goes on air and reveals the truth about the defence minister and his wrongdoings . While still on the air , the police proclaim that they are dangerous terrorists who have forcefully taken over the AIR , and therefore they are to be shot on sight . The first to be shot is Daljit , who tries to get out of cover and establish that they are not terrorists . Sukhi , unable to control his anger , shows himself and is instantly shot . As they are trying to lock the terrace doors , Aslam and Pandey are then killed by a grenade and the once archenemies die holding hands and smiling , as they have visions of Ram Prasad Bismil and Ashfaqullah Khan .
Daljit manages to crawl to the recording room , where Karan is still on air . When Karan understands that he has been shot , they speak amongst themselves for the last time , regarding the others , about Sue and about Daljit 's love for her . They are then killed by police commandos while laughing . It is then revealed that McKinley described the third kind of people he came across as being the ones who embraced death as a friend and an equal , with a heartfelt laughter . After their death , the public reacts with outrage and expresses urge to bring Indian politics to justice , following the motives of all the boys .
The film comes to an end with Sue describing the impact of the boys on her life . As she and Sonia watch from the rooftop that Ajay proposed to her on , they have a vision of the boys running in the fields , singing happily and victoriously throwing their shirts in the air , acting as if they are celebrating life itself , as if the ebb of their once @-@ there vitality still reverberates in the places where they once used to go , and a wave of melancholy comes over the two surviving women .
In an afterlife @-@ like state , the boys watch as a father tells his son ( a young Bhagat Singh ) about gardening . They watch over him with smiling faces , then depart as friends for eternity .
= = Cast = =
Aamir Khan as Daljit ' DJ ' Singh / Chandrashekhar Azad
Siddharth Narayan as Karan R. Singhania / Bhagat Singh
Atul Kulkarni as Laxman Pandey / Ramprasad Bismil
Kunal Kapoor as Aslam Khan / Ashfaqullah Khan
Sharman Joshi as Sukhi Ram / Rajguru
Alice Patten as Sue McKinley
Soha Ali Khan as Sonia / Durgawati Devi
Steven Mackintosh as James McKinley , Sue 's grandfather
R. Madhavan as Flight Lt. Ajay Rathod
Waheeda Rehman as Mrs. Rathod , Ajay 's mother
Anupam Kher as Rajnath Singhania , Karan 's father
Kiron Kher as Mitro , DJ 's mother
Om Puri as Amanullah Khan , Aslam 's father
Lekh Tandon as DJ 's grandfather
Cyrus Sahukar as Rahul ( Radio Jockey )
Mohan Agashe as Defence Minister Shastri
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Rakeysh Mehra took seven years to research and develop the story , including three to write the script . While some raised doubts about his morale following the failure of his last film , Aks , at the box office , he retorted by saying that it would not affect him at all . He added that not only did his storytelling technique improve , but past mistakes had helped him improve his filmmaking abilities .
Development of Rang De Basanti originated with several ideas Mehra came up with early on but later dropped or greatly evolved into new directions . One of these involved a group of youngsters who worked in an automobile repair shop , while another was about the life of Bhagat Singh , an Indian freedom revolutionary . During this time , he personally conducted a survey with a group of youths in New Delhi and Mumbai about the Indian revolutionaries he was planning on depicting , which indicated that many of youngsters did not recognize the names of some of the most prominent revolutionaries . This led Mehra to believe that the sense of " patriotism had blurred " in the young generation . Because of this , he dropped his original plans in favor of a new idea in which a British documentary filmmaker on a visit to India realizes that the local " kids are more Western than her " . This new story , which eventually formed the basis for Rang De Basanti 's script , was influenced by Mehra 's upbringing , youth and experiences over the years , including his desire to join the Indian Air Force while in school , as well as his recollections of listening to Independence Day speeches and watching patriotic films such as Mother India . Although Mehra denies that the film is autobiographical , he confessed that the character sketches were loosely inspired by himself and his friends .
Mehra approached Angad Paul after having been impressed with his production work on British films Lock , Stock and Two Smoking Barrels and Snatch . Paul , who was keen to work in India , liked Mehra 's story and agreed to produce the film , bringing with him David Reid and Adam Bohling as executive producers . Despite having no prior knowledge of Hindi cinema , Reid and Bohling 's belief in the script was strong enough that they each were willing to work at half their normal rate . While it was originally suggested that language versions of the film would be made concurrently , in English ( as Paint it Yellow ) and Hindi , the plans for an English version were dropped during development . Mehra believed that English @-@ language version felt alien and that " one can tell a film in just one language " . After the English version was dropped , the writer Kamlesh Pandey was brought on board to pen the first draft of Rang De Basanti in Hindi , marking the start of his screenwriting career . Thereafter Mehra and co @-@ writer Rensil D 'Silva took over the script , working on it for about two years . Prasoon Joshi , the film 's lyricist , worked on the dialogue , marking his foray into screenwriting .
Rang De Basanti suffered a significant setback when one of the initial producers ultimately failed to contribute any funds towards it ; the shortfall left production looking uncertain just two months away from the beginning of principal photography . However , after Aamir Khan agreed to act in the film , Mehra approached Ronnie Screwvala of UTV Motion Pictures with the script . Screwvala , who supported Mehra from the beginning of the production , had faith in the film , reasoning that in historical films , " the treatment and execution is very different from regular masala fare " , and that such films " find favour with the audience owing to their elaborate sets and period costumes " . The budget was reported as Rs . 250 million ( approximately US $ 5 @.@ 5 million ) , and , despite going a little over the initially planned budget , Mehra did not have any serious disagreements with UTV .
= = = Casting = = =
Aamir Khan agreed to act in Rang De Basanti immediately after reading Mehra 's script . Mehra described his character as a simple man with a strong sense of integrity and dignity . Khan , who would turn 40 during the shoot , lost about 10 kilograms ( 22 lb ) with a strict diet and exercise regime to more convincingly depict a man in his late twenties . Atul Kulkarni and Kunal Kapoor were publicly attached to the film by the time it was officially announced ; Kapoor had been the assistant director to Mehra during the filming of Aks and was already familiar with the material Mehra had been developing . Mehra gave Kulkarni biographies of Ram Prasad Bismil as preparation , including Bismil 's autobiography . Early rumors indicated that actors Arjun Rampal and Arjan Bajwa would be amongst the male leads , but these roles ultimately were filled by Sharman Joshi , Siddharth Narayan and R. Madhavan .
Rang De Basanti marked Siddharth 's Bollywood debut , following on the success of his Telugu film Nuvvostanante Nenoddantana . Having previously worked as an assistant director , Siddharth praised Mehra as being " by far the most ambitious technical filmmaker in Indian cinema " . Madhavan , despite being a well @-@ known Tamil cinema actor , took the smaller role of a fighter aircraft pilot because he was convinced of the film 's potential and wanted to be a part of it . Om Puri appears in a two @-@ scene cameo as Aslam 's staunch Muslim father .
Soha Ali Khan and Alice Patten immediately became Mehra 's clear favorites for each of their roles during casting , which led to Patten flying to Mumbai for a screen test with the entire cast . She was informed that she had won the documentary filmmaker role after she returned home to the United Kingdom . Soha , portraying the pilot 's fiancée , was filming Rituparna Ghosh 's Antarmahal and David Dhawan 's comedy Shaadi No. 1 concurrently with her work in Rang De Basanti . In particular , the demands of her emotional scenes in Antarmahal often left her exhausted , thus requiring " a lot of personal overhauling " to ensure that her performance in Rang De Basanti was unaffected . During filming , reports indicated that co @-@ stars Siddharth and Soha had become romantically involved with each other . Alongside the two lead actresses , Lakh Tandon played the role of Aamir 's Grand Father and Kirron Kher played the mother of Khan 's character .
= = = Filming = = =
The film , which was shot in New Delhi , Mumbai , Rajasthan and Punjab , was officially launched at a hotel on 1 February 2005 . When shooting began , Mehra made an announcement to his crew saying that they would enjoy their holiday only in July .
Instead of filming at the actual locations from the script , other locations were selected for picturisation . One such scene is where Soha Ali Khan is filmed at the India Habitat Center that masquerades as the University of Delhi . On similar lines , New Delhi 's Modern School at Barakhamba Road served as the location for all the scenes pertinent to All India Radio station , which is shown to be stormed by the youngsters in the film . The Delhi Tourism department was happy to encourage filming in the city if it helped promote tourism , though any filming near India Gate was prohibited due to the ensuing bureaucratic paperwork . Similar issues with bureaucracy were faced by Mehra while filming at the Jaipur Fort . To use a historical location for filming , they had to seek permissions of seven officials ranging from the local police to the Archaeological Survey of India office . Nahargarh Fort , which oversees the city of Jaipur , was another such historical location where one of the songs was filmed . Besides these locations , the filming was also done at Amritsar 's Harmandir Sahib Gurudwara . For Aamir Khan , a Muslim , it was for the first time that he was playing a North Indian Punjabi character and it took him some time to get the right dialect and diction . While speaking about his experience of visiting the Gurudwara for the first time , he said :
It 's one of the most peaceful places I 've been to . As you enter the place there 's a certain serenity that surrounds you . I really enjoyed being there . The first shot we took was of our feet entering the water just as you pass the doorway of the temple . The water was cold but it was great !
Once the locations were finalized , the team of Lovleen Bains and Arjun Bhasin was chosen for designing the look of Rang De Basanti . Bhasin had previously worked on Kama Sutra : A Tale of Love ( 1996 ) and Dil Chahta Hai ( 2001 ) , the latter of which featured Aamir Khan , and he was referred to Mehra by Khan due to their previous association . Since the film 's plot focused on men in their late twenties , Bhasin designed their look accordingly . Although he was responsible for Khan 's rebellious look , Sharman Joshi 's ( who played Sukhi ) lovable persona or Madhavan 's dignified appearance , Bhasin credited Bains for her major contributions to the film . Khan 's hair was styled by Avan Contractor , who came up with soft curls falling over Khan 's forehead . This new look , which took Contractor one hour to come up with , surprised the audience at the film 's launch .
In post @-@ production , the visual effects were handled by Tata Elxsi 's Visual Computing Labs . The military aircraft they created was so realistic that the Indian Air Force called to check the producer 's permission of using an actual MiG @-@ 21 .
= = Music = =
The soundtrack of Rang De Basanti , which was released by Sony BMG , featured music composed by A. R. Rahman and lyrics penned by Prasoon Joshi and Blaaze , an India @-@ based rapper . From the film 's announcement in April 2005 , Rahman was slated to compose the music . In a press conference with pop singer Nelly Furtado , he said that she was to originally have featured on the soundtrack , although this was ultimately prevented from happening due to a change in producers and other factors . Aamir Khan , with his knowledge of Hindi and Urdu , worked with Rahman and Joshi for the soundtrack . In addition , Mehra and Rahman chose him to sing for one of the songs .
Joshi , one of the lyricists , was impressed with the director , Rakeysh Mehra , who was ready to adjust to his style of writing as well as his creativity . Confessing that the film 's soundtrack was his favorite out of all his previous works , Joshi felt that it " was a wonderful experience getting to know the mindset of today 's youth and to pen down their feelings " . Speaking about one of his songs , " Luka Chuppi " , in which veteran Lata Mangeshkar sang with Rahman , Joshi said that it was developed while discussing with Rahman the scene about a mother losing her son . Joshi wrote the lyrics about the mother and son playing hide @-@ and @-@ seek with the sad reality of the son being hidden forever . He confessed to have been in tears while Mangeshkar was singing the song . The soundtrack won the Filmfare Award for Best Music Director , and had two of its tracks , Khalbali and Luka Chuppi , considered for an Academy Award for Best Original Song nomination .
While discussing typical Bollywood soundtracks , Nilanjana Bhattacharjya , a professor of music at Colorado College , noted that Rahman integrated traditional Punjabi cultural elements within his music for this soundtrack . Regionally defined elements such as a woman 's prayer at the Sikh Gurdwara ( Golden Temple ) and the bhangra harvest dance are incorporated alongside more contemporary , global styles such as hard rock and hip hop to depict the cosmopolitan lifestyle of the youngsters in the film .
= = Release = =
Rang De Basanti received its world premiere on 26 January 2006 , with high expectations that it would be a success with western audiences , though it also faced ire from several organizations because of certain controversial scenes . The film contained scenes of a MiG @-@ 21 , a controversial aircraft in the Indian Air Force , which has a long history of fatal accidents in India . Promptly , the Indian Defence Ministry raised concerns , causing the Indian censor board to urge the filmmakers to seek clearance from the ministry . Accordingly , Khan and Mehra screened the film for the then Defence Minister Pranab Mukherjee along with other top officials from the armed forces . One Air Force official reportedly said that it was " not a review , but a preview " . After the special screening , the defence ministry did not insist on any cuts , but on their recommendation more names were added to the slide that dedicates the film to deceased MiG pilots . After this clearance , the Animal Welfare Board raised objections on the use of animals in the film . Although the filmmakers had obtained a No Objection Certificate from the board officials , Maneka Gandhi , a well @-@ known animal rights activist and member of the welfare board , found flaws in this certificate . Subsequently , this certificate was revoked and with only a few days left for the world premiere , Mehra personally requested Gandhi to reconsider her objection . After another viewing , the board cleared their objection stating that the use of animals in the film was natural and justified . However , after they recommended the deletion of a 20 @-@ second scene that depicted a banned horse race conducted by the Nihang Sikhs , the filmmakers deleted this scene . Mrs. Kavita Gadgil whose son , late Flight Lieutenant Abhijeet Gadgil was killed when his MiG @-@ 21 fighter crashed , objected to the film 's release because she believed that the film was loosely based on her son 's life and the producers should have shown her the film . In response , Kamlesh Pandey , one of the writers of the film , said that the film was not inspired by Abhijeet Gadgil .
The film was screened at several international film festivals . In 2006 , it premiered in France with the Lyon Asiexpo Film Festival , the Wisconsin Film Festival and the Morocco @-@ based International Film Festival of Marrakech . As a part of the publicity , the cast , visited prominent University campuses in New Delhi , Mumbai , Kolkata , Hyderabad and Pune with an intention of interacting with the students . After hiring international experts for the film 's publicity , the marketing expenditure for the film grew to 40 percent of the total production budget of ₹ 250 million ( US $ 3 @.@ 7 million ) . This expenditure was unprecedented in Bollywood because usually the Indian filmmakers spend only about five percent of their production budget on marketing . Out of the ₹ 100 million ( US $ 1 @.@ 5 million ) marketing campaign , a fifth of it came from the producers while the rest was obtained through brand tie @-@ ups and partnering .
Since Rahman 's last musical success , Saathiya , was back in 2002 , there were high expectations from the soundtrack in the media . The soundtrack , first released commercially in early December 2005 , generally received above average reviews . One of the songs , " Masti Ki Paatshaala " ( translation : " Classroom of Fun " ) , was voted as the " Song of the year " for 2006 by leading Indian television channels , while two compositions were considered for an Academy Award nomination .
Before its theatrical release , the producers tied up with several top brands to help in the marketing the film . An alliance was formed with The Coca @-@ Cola Company by releasing special edition bottles to commemorate the film 's release , a first of its kind in Bollywood . Besides this , the music CDs and cassettes were co @-@ branded with the cola company along with the launch of the sale of collectibles from the film . Provogue , a well @-@ known clothing retail chain in India , launched a special limited edition clothing merchandise targeting the youth of India . Besides these , the producers collaborated with LG Group , Berger Paints , Bharti Airtel and Hindustan Petroleum . The producers tied up with several media partners such as MSN India , Channel V and Radio Mirchi to further enhance their marketing efforts . A video game launched by an Indian mobile content company was based on an adaptation of the film 's plot .
In India , The Hindu reported that with audiences from the metropolitan cities turning out in large numbers , Rang De Basanti was notching up record collections in its opening week . Accordingly , 55 percent of the film 's revenues came from multiplexes in these cities . While the opening week box @-@ office collections from Mumbai , the home of Bollywood , were reported to be over ₹ 40 million ( US $ 590 @,@ 000 ) , theaters in New Delhi earned about half of Mumbai 's revenue . Throughout the country , the cumulative collections in the first week was about ₹ 80 million ( US $ 1 @.@ 2 million ) . Overseas collections from the United States , United Kingdom and Australia were collectively put at over ₹ 60 million ( US $ 890 @,@ 000 ) for the same week . Released in about 60 theaters in the United States , the film grossed ₹ 31 million ( US $ 460 @,@ 000 ) in its opening weekend and earned ₹ 99 million ( US $ 1 @.@ 5 million ) within 10 weeks . With ₹ 1 @.@ 23 billion ( US $ 18 million ) alone coming from the Indian territory , the film earned more than ₹ 1 @.@ 36 billion ( US $ 20 million ) worldwide . Currently , the film holds the record for the highest @-@ grossing film to be released in January .
Within a week of the film 's theatrical release , illegal copies of the film priced at ₹ 10 million ( US $ 150 @,@ 000 ) were seized at an Indian airport . A report carried out by The Times of India highlighted copyright infringement on the Internet where movies like Rang De Basanti could be downloaded freely . The DVD release sold more than 70 @,@ 000 copies over six months , and as a result the film was the highest selling title at the time of its release .
Rang De Basanti was released on Blu @-@ ray ( plus steelbook edition ) in May 2014 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
Critics gave the film an overwhelmingly positive response , in particular the ensemble cast 's performance and credibility . Although The Indian Express spoke positively of the cinematography and the film 's story , it noted that " the message that the film carries with it tends to get diluted towards the climax . Praising the film 's cast for their performance and the cinematography of Binod Pradhan , Taran Ardash wrote that the film would be successful with the urban audiences . The Hindustan Times summarized the film as being a " well @-@ scripted , skilfully crafted [ and ] thought @-@ provoking entertainer " . Saisuresh Sivaswamy of Rediff.com wrote that films like Rang De Basanti can easily get into " preachiness " , but believed Mehra got his message across while avoiding this , also appreciating the music , cinematography , dialogues and art direction . The Hindu credited Kamlesh Pandey for writing a story that would have been a difficult film to make , but it added by saying that the transformation of the youngsters into heroes seemed poetic . Although the screenplay , direction and the cast were also well @-@ appreciated , the reviewer felt that Rahman 's soundtrack lacked pace .
The film also received positive reviews from critics outside India . The review from the BBC gave it the highest possible five star rating and added that it was " an entertaining mix of romance , history and social commentary " . The Bloomberg website wrote positively about " the raw energy of a young cast and A. R. Rahman 's splendidly rousing soundtrack " .
Sight & Sound magazine conducts a poll every ten years of the world 's finest film directors to find out the Ten Greatest Films of All Time . This poll has been going since 1992 , and has become the most recognised poll of its kind in the world . In 2012 Cyrus Frisch voted for " Rang De Basanti " . Frisch commented : " Corruption became the subject of fierce debate in India after the major success of this film among youngsters . "
= = = 2007 Academy Awards Best Foreign Film submission = = =
Since the film " reflected contemporary Indian reality and had cinematic excellence " , it was chosen as India 's official entry for the 79th Academy Awards despite stiff competition from films such as Krrish , Lage Raho Munna Bhai , Omkara and Kabhi Alvida Naa Kehna . While discussing if the selection committee 's choice was correct , critics felt that the Academy members could have better related with Omkara , an adaptation of Shakespeare 's play Othello . Despite these qualms and Mehra 's belief that his film did not stand a chance at the Oscars , the efforts to publicize the film in the United States began earnestly . Music composer A. R. Rahman performed several concerts across the East Coast to promote the film . Besides his efforts , producer Screwvala planned to use resources and expertise from his partners in 20th Century Fox and Walt Disney Pictures for organizing its publicity efforts . When the nominations in the foreign film category did not feature this film , it sparked off debates on whether the film should have been India 's entry for the Oscars . In one such debate on a television channel that involved Screwvala , the selection committee was questioned about its knowledge of the requisite artistic criteria for such award ceremonies . While one outcome of the debate was on how Omkara would have been a better choice , the other discussed the West @-@ centric sensibilities of the Academy members . However , results from a simultaneously conducted SMS poll indicated that 62 percent felt that the film was the right choice for the Oscars .
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
Rang De Basanti received the National Film Award for Best Popular Film Providing Wholesome Entertainment in addition to awards at a number of other ceremonies . It won several awards at the annual India @-@ based Filmfare Awards including Best Film , Best Director , Best Music Director , Critics Best Performance - Male ( Aamir Khan ) , Best Editing ( P. S. Bharathi ) , Best Cinematography and RD Burman Award for New Music ( Naresh Iyer ) categories . It also won the 2007 International Indian Film Academy awards for Best Movie , Best Supporting Actress ( Soha Ali Khan ) , Best Screenplay ( Rensil D 'Silva and Rakeysh Mehra ) and Best Music Director among other technical awards . Apart from these , the film won eight awards apiece at the 2006 Global Indian Film Awards and 2007 Star Screen Awards , and six at the 2007 Zee Cine Awards .
The film was also nominated for the Best Film not in English language at the 2007 British Academy of Film and Television Arts awards .
= = Social influence = =
Rang De Basanti had a noticeable impact on Indian society . A study of bloggers behavioral patterns during the first month of the film 's release revealed a significant increase in public ire towards government and politicians for constantly being mired in corruption and bureaucracy and their inefficiency in providing basic amenities . Intense political discussions spurred on by the film 's influence were observed in these patterns . While commenting on this , writer D 'Silva said that the film " has struck a chord somewhere " . Besides instigating political thought and discussions , it evoked social awakening for many . Some discussions rallied on how citizens should support and contribute to non @-@ governmental organizations and exercising simple citizen duties of paying taxes and voting , while the others contemplated on how to become more responsible towards the country . Unlike other Indian films with jingoistic overtones , many young Indians could relate well to the characters of this film .
While such reactions were observed on the Internet , youth activism took to streets to protest on public interest issues . A direct impact was on the 1999 Jessica Lall Murder Case , one of the high @-@ profile murder cases in India . A month after the film 's release , a court acquitted the main accused because of inefficient prosecution and hostile witnesses . This sparked intense civil protests and media campaigns that sought his re @-@ arrest . Taking cue from the scene in which the protagonists hold a silent , candlelight vigil at New Delhi 's India Gate , one such group of demonstrators carried out a similar rally to voice their protest . Shortly thereafter , a survey was conducted to assess reasons for the sudden upsurge in people 's social involvements . Eighteen percent of the respondents felt that movies like Rang De Basanti were the main reason behind it . Another such massive youth activism was seen in the Priyadarshini Mattoo rape and murder case where similar rallies were organized in India , United States and around the world . Following the release of the film , another social outcry was against the introduction of reservations for socially backward classes in educational institutions . Young doctors and engineers joined hands in peaceful rallies in major cities across India . Though the film was not released in the neighbouring Pakistan , it evoked similar reactions there . Inspired by the film , Pakistan 's national newspaper , Jang , launched a television channel that was to focus on citizens ' issues and support public awakening . Reacting to these strong social reactions , actor Kunal Kapoor thought that the film was just a catalyst that presented " patriotism in a package that the youngsters understood and empathised with " .
In the Indian media , frequent referencing of the film was evident , with many brands using pictorials from the movie . In addition , the media also uses the terms " RDB " ( abbreviated title of the movie ) and " RDB effect " while referring to instances of public activism on matters of public interest . When the 2007 University of Delhi Student Elections focused more on the important issues facing the students than in the previous years , one student referred to this as the " RDB Syndrome " . On similar lines , Kamal Sunavala wrote a play titled Under the Influence which focuses on a young Indian expatriate whose life changes after watching this film .
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= Konnan =
Charles Ashenoff ( born January 6 , 1964 ) also known as Carlos Santiago Espada Moises and better known by his ring name , Konnan , is a Cuban professional wrestler and rapper . Konnan is well known in Mexico due to his appearances on Mexican television , particularly with Asistencia Asesoría y Administración ( AAA ) , and has in the past been described as " the Mexican Hulk Hogan " , reflecting his mainstream popularity .
= = Early life = =
Born in Santiago , Cuba of Puerto Rican and Cuban descent , Konnan 's family relocated to Miami , Florida while he was a child . He had a troubled childhood , during which he was expelled from one other high school before graduating from Southwest Miami Senior High School in 1982 . Ashenoff served time in prison after joining a street gang . After his incarceration was over , Ashenoff fled Miami due to conflicts with other drug dealers . He was given a choice of either going to jail or entering the military . He decided to join the United States Navy and served for four years . While in the Navy , he trained as a boxer , becoming the Californian Middleweight Amateur Boxing Champion in 1982 and 1983 . He also represented the United States in fights around the world .
= = Professional wrestling career = =
= = = Universal Wrestling Association ( 1988 ) = = =
During his residence in San Diego , Ashenoff became a bodybuilder then later a wrestler , following a meeting with wrestling promoter John Roberts , who introduced him to Rey Mysterio , Sr. Comparing the masked and caped wrestlers he met to " superheroes " , Ashenoff was impressed by the colorful Mexican wrestling culture . He subsequently traveled to Tijuana , Mexico where , alongside Psicosis , Rey Mysterio , Jr . , Halloween and Damián 666 , he trained under the tutelage of various veteran luchadores . Wearing a mask and billed as El Centurión ( " The Centurion " ) , Ashenoff debuted for the Universal Wrestling Association ( UWA ) on January 6 , 1988 . He competed in an eight @-@ man tag team match for the sum of $ 200 MXP ( $ 19 @.@ 13 USD / € 16 @.@ 03 EUR ) .
= = = World Championship Wrestling ( 1990 ) = = =
Konnan 's first appearance with World Championship Wrestling ( WCW ) was at Starrcade on December 16 , 1990 . Teaming with his trainer and mentor , Rey Mysterio , Sr. , Konnan entered the Pat O 'Connor Memorial International Cup Tag Team Tournament held at the event . They defeated Norman Smiley and Chris Adams in the quarter @-@ finals , but lost to eventual winners , the Steiner Brothers ( Rick and Scott ) in the semi @-@ finals .
= = = World Wrestling Federation ( 1991 ) - Max Moon = = =
While still part of WCW , Konnan was contacted by talent scout Pat Patterson on New Year 's Eve 1990 , which led to a meeting with Vince McMahon , where the initial idea for what became Max Moon was discussed . According to Konnan , " When I was wrestling in Japan , I saw this Japanese anime cartoon robot on TV that shot confetti and fire . [ Vince ] asked if I knew anybody that could design it . " Konnan was given an outfit ( purchased by the WWF at the cost of $ 13 @,@ 000 ) bedecked with circuitry and a pyrotechnic gun that shot sparkles into the crowd . Konnan recollected later that the costs associated with the costume led to problems between himself and the promotion right from the start .
Days later he received a tryout on January 7 , 1991 at a WWF Superstars taping in Amarillo , Texas defeating Ultraman . He returned again on March 26 in Las Vegas , Nevada , defeating Louie Spicolli in a WWF Superstars dark match . He would defeat Spicolli again one night later at a Wrestling Challenge taping in Reno . Konnan returned again on January 7 , 1992 at a WWE Superstars taping in Daytona , Beach FL . Wrestling this time as The Latin Fury , he defeated The Heartbreaker . The next day he defeated The Juicer in a dark match at a Wrestling Challenge taping in Fort Myers , Florida . Konnan would wrestle twice more as The Latin Fury , the final time at a house show in Hyannis , Massachusetts on July 19 , 1992 when he defeated Pete Dougherty .
The next day , when he appeared at a WWF Superstars taping in Worcester , Massachusetts against Luis Mendieta , he was renamed Relampago . He wrestled again as Relampago the following night against Johnny Rodriquez . A little over a month later he received the gimmick that he would become known for , Max Moon ( although he was originally called The Comet Kid for a handful of appearances ) . The Moon character , created by Konnan , was that of a cyborg from " The Future " or " Outer Space " .
Konnan was still working in Mexico while under contract to WWE , and was also simultaneously appearing in a Mexican telenovela aimed at children called El abuelo y yo " . As he was becoming more popular in Mexico , he was not as focused on making it in America . Konnan recollected , " Wrestling was so hot in Mexico , because they had lifted this 30 @-@ year ban on wrestling on TV in Mexico City . I was able to capitalize on that wrestling boom . I was wrestling three times in one day on many weekends . The amount of work was incredible . It was like when Raw and Nitro were going head @-@ to @-@ head and there was work for everybody . "
There was also some locker room tension over the costs associated with the costume , Konnan 's perceived attitude , and Konnan also was missing tapings because he was more successful in Mexico and was not focusing on WWF . In the end , the Max Moon character was given to Paul Diamond , who appeared as the character on the first episode of Monday Night Raw on January 11 , 1993 .
= = = Empresa Mexicana de la Lucha Libre ( 1991 @-@ 1992 ) = = =
Konnan joined Empresa Mexicana de la Lucha Libre ( EMLL ) , where he was pushed into the main event . In the EMLL , Ashenoff adopted the ring name Konnan El Barbaro ( " The Barbarian " ) . He lost his mask to Perro Aguayo in a Lucha de Apuesta mask versus hair match . After the match , a young boy — introduced as Konnan 's brother — entered the ring crying and handed Konnan his mask back , generating considerable bonhomie towards Konnan from the sympathetic crowd ( in lucha libre , losing one 's mask can be a major , career shaping event ) . Konnan went on to become the first ever CMLL World Heavyweight Champion by winning a tournament in Mexico City on June 9 , 1991 . He , however , lost the title to Cien Caras in his first title defense on August 18 , 1991 .
= = = Asistencia Asesoría y Administración ( 1992 – 1996 ) = = =
In 1992 , Konnan , along with several other EMLL wrestlers , joined Asistencia Asesoría y Administración ( AAA ) . Shortening his ring name to simply " Konnan " , he feuded with Cien Caras . Following interference from Jake Roberts , Konnan lost a two out of three falls retirement match by count @-@ out to Caras at Triplemanía I on April 30 , 1993 in front of 48 @,@ 000 fans in Mexico City , setting the all @-@ time attendance record for a Mexican wrestling event . Konnan did not comply with the stipulations of the match and returned to defeat Roberts in a hair versus hair match at Triplemanía II on May 27 , 1994 in Tijuana .
Later in 1994 , Konnan began a storyline where he betrayed his tag team partner , Perro Aguayo , and formed a heel alliance known as Los Gringos Locos with Eddie Guerrero , Art Barr and Madonna 's Boyfriend . Aguayo gained his revenge on Konnan by defeating him in the only AAA pay @-@ per @-@ view , " When Worlds Collide " , in a steel cage match . He eventually became the AAA booker . Konnan defeated Killer on February 2 , 1996 in Querétaro to become the first ever AAA Heavyweight Champion . He vacated the title after leaving AAA in October 1996 to form his own promotion , Promo Azteca , and the title remained inactive until 2004 . Konnan 's Mexican wrestling career was hampered in the late @-@ 1990s by his American wrestling commitments , and Promo Azteca closed in 1998 . He made a return to the Mexican wrestling circuit in the 2000s after a six @-@ year absence , selling out arenas in Mexico City and Guadalajara .
= = = World Wrestling Federation ( 1992 – 1993 ) = = =
Debuting in the WWF on September 1 , 1992 in Hershey , Pennsylvania under the name the Comet Kid , he pinned Duane Gill . After three televised matches , Konnan abruptly left the WWF following a disagreement with WWF owner Vince McMahon in 1992 . Konnan was not showing up for WWF events due to his rising fame in Mexico , and his supposed " bad attitude " and heat from fellow WWF workers lead to a very strained relationship with McMahon , who had invested heavily in the Max Moon character , both financially and creatively , up until that point . The Max Moon gimmick was subsequently given to Paul Diamond for a brief run , before being abandoned .
= = = Extreme Championship Wrestling ( 1995 ) = = =
Konnan once again attempted to expand his activities out of Mexico in the mid @-@ 1990s . After meeting Extreme Championship Wrestling ( ECW ) booker Paul Heyman while on a wrestling tour of Singapore , Konnan joined ECW in 1995 and feuded with The Sandman . He appeared at ECW November to Remember on November 18 , 1995 , squashing Jason Knight . He also wrestled at an event co @-@ promoted by ECW and the AAA in Chicago , Illinois .
= = = World Championship Wrestling ( 1996 @-@ 2001 ) = = =
= = = = U.S. Champion ; Dungeon of Doom ( 1996 – 1997 ) = = = =
Feeling that he had accomplished all that he could in Mexico and desiring to expand his popularity north of the border , Konnan returned to WCW on a full @-@ time basis on the January 22 , 1996 edition of Nitro . Promising , in a promo at the start of the show , to defend his " Mexican Heavyweight Championship " against Psicosis the next week . As a WCW employee , he was largely responsible for the hiring of several prominent Mexican wrestlers by WCW , including Rey Mysterio Jr . , Psicosis , Juventud Guerrera and La Parka . Konnan defeated The One Man Gang for the WCW United States Heavyweight Championship on January 29 , 1996 . During his reign , he continued to defend his IWAS and AAA Heavyweight Championships in Mexico ( these championships were billed as a " Mexican Heavyweight Title " wherever Konnan wore one or the other to a WCW ring ) . He lost the United States Title to Ric Flair on July 7 , 1996 at Bash at the Beach following interference from Flair 's valets , Miss Elizabeth and Woman . Several months after losing the United States Championship , Konnan became a villain and joined the Dungeon of Doom .
= = = = nWo ( 1997 – 1999 ) = = = =
Konnan joined the New World Order ( nWo ) on July 14 , 1997 . Konnan developed an increasingly hip @-@ hop based gimmick and was nicknamed " K @-@ Dogg . " During his first stint in the nWo , Konnan feuded with the Luchadores whom he had brought to WCW . During this storyline , he wrestled in a Mexican Death match at Road Wild against Rey Mysterio , Jr. and a match against Juventud Guerrera at Uncensored in March 1998 . When the nWo divided into two rival factions on the May 4 , 1998 episode of Nitro , Konnan sided with the nWo Wolfpac , led by Kevin Nash . The Wolfpac feuded with nWo Hollywood , led by Hollywood Hogan and became tweeners . On the November 30 , 1998 episode of Nitro , Konnan defeated Chris Jericho for the WCW World Television Championship . His reign lasted until December 28 , 1998 , when he lost to nWo Hollywood member Scott Steiner on Nitro following interference from Buff Bagwell . When the two halves of the nWo reunited in January 1999 , Konnan was thrown out of the nWo for standing up for Rey Misterio , Jr and was attacked by Lex Luger . As a result , he became a fan favorite and teamed with Misterio to fight the nWo . After feuding with nWo member Lex Luger , Konnan and Mysterio , Jr. were defeated by The Outsiders at SuperBrawl IX , with The Outsiders removing Mysterio 's mask in the process . Konnan later criticized WCW for not respecting Mexican wrestling culture by writing storylines that saw several Mexican wrestlers unceremoniously unmasked ( Juventud Guerrera , Psicosis , and Mysterio unmasked in WCW ) . He compared asking a luchador to remove their mask to " going to Japan and telling the Japanese they have to eat with a fork instead of chopsticks " .
= = = = No Limit Soldiers ; Filthy Animals ( 1999 – 2001 ) = = = =
Konnan spent several months feuding with Disco Inferno , and then he began a rivalry with Stevie Ray . He and Mysterio formed an alliance with Master P and his No Limit Soldiers and fought with The West Texas Rednecks . After Master P left WCW , Konnan formed a stable known as The Filthy Animals . He and Mysterio , representing the Filthy Animals , defeated Harlem Heat ( Booker T and Stevie Ray ) for the WCW World Tag Team Championship on October 18 , 1999 . They were scheduled to defend the titles against Harlem Heat in the MGM Grand Garden Arena on October 24 , 1999 at Halloween Havoc , but on the night of the event Mysterio was announced as being injured . The title was then contested in a three way tag match pitting Konnan and Billy Kidman , representing the Filthy Animals , against Harlem Heat and the First Family ( Hugh Morrus and Brian Knobs ) . Harlem Heat regained the title after Stevie Ray pinned Morrus . Konnan and Kidman defeated Harlem Heat for the title the next night on Nitro , but lost to Creative Control ( Patrick and Gerald ) on November 22 , 1999 .
Konnan was inactive throughout early 2000 , as he was suspended for three months by Bill Busch after requesting his release from WCW , unhappy with the way he was being used . Shortly after returning from suspension and reforming the Filthy Animals , Konnan was sidelined once again , this time with a legitimately torn triceps muscle , damaged when Van Hammer threw Juventud Guerrera at him during a match and Guerrera 's elbow connected with Konnan 's upper arm as he attempted to catch him . Throughout 2000 , the Filthy Animals feuded with other stables , including The Misfits In Action , The Natural Born Thrillers and Team Canada . At Greed on March 18 , 2001 , Lance Storm and Mike Awesome ( representing Team Canada ) defeated Hugh Morrus and Konnan in one of his last appearances with the promotion before it was sold to the WWF in March 2001 .
Following the sale of WCW , Konnan toured Australia and Europe throughout 2001 with the newly formed World Wrestling All @-@ Stars promotion . Konnan would also compete in Xtreme Pro Wrestling ( XPW ) where he led a group of luchadores including Halloween , Psicosis , and Juventud Guerrera through 2001 into 2002 . In addition to wrestling , Konnan acted as a color commentator . He also studied criminology during a period in which he briefly considered working alongside his father as a private investigator .
= = = World Wrestling Council = = =
Konnan worked in Puerto Rico 's World Wrestling Council as a friend of the Colón Family until he turned heel during an angle that turned in to a very intense situation in Humacao , Puerto Rico when Konnan came to the ring with some Mariachis to play a Serenata for Stacy Colón Carlos Colon 's daughter . Moments later Konnan blasted Stacy Colón with a guitar on top of her head and attacked Carlos Colón as well . The entire face locker room including brothers Carly and Eddie Colón came to their sister 's rescue . That incident started a riot with the fans inside and outside the arena . Konnan had to be escorted by police out of the arena .
= = = Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( 2002 @-@ 2007 ) = = =
Konnan appeared on the inaugural Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( TNA ) pay @-@ per @-@ view on June 19 , 2002 in the Von Braun Center in Huntsville , Alabama . He entered the Gauntlet for the Gold match for the vacant NWA World Heavyweight Championship , but he was chokeslammed and subsequently eliminated by Malice . He returned to TNA on February 12 , 2003 and formed a villainous alliance , the Authentic Luchadores , with fellow Hispanic wrestlers Juventud Guerrera , Super Crazy and the Spanish Announce Team . The stable feuded with Jerry Lynn until April 2 , 2003 , when Lynn claimed that he had been heavily influenced by lucha libre and that he respected his Mexican opponents , thus earning the friendship of Konnan .
= = = = The 3Live Kru ( 2003 – 2005 ) = = = =
In May and June 2003 , Konnan began teaming with B.G. James and Ron Killings , and in July 2003 the trio formed a heroic alliance known as the 3Live Kru . The Kru first wrestled as a unit on August 13 , 2003 , defeating The New Church ( Sinn , Vampire Warrior and Tempest ) . On November 26 , the Kru defeated Simon Diamond , Johnny Swinger and Glenn Gilberti in a six @-@ man tag team match with the vacant NWA World Tag Team Championships on the line . The championship was held by all three members of the Kru , until January 28 , 2004 , when they were defeated by Kevin Northcutt and Legend in Nashville . After several abortive attempts to regain the tag title , the Kru began supporting Ron Killings 's bid to become NWA World Heavyweight Champion . The Kru later feuded with Jarrett 's mercenaries , The Elite Guard ( Chad Collyer , Hotstuff Hernandez and Onyx ) . On July 14 , 2004 , the 3Live Kru , Dusty Rhodes and Larry Zbyszko defeated Jarrett , Ken Shamrock and the Elite Guard in a ten @-@ man tag team match . The Kru began feuding with Team Canada in August 2004 , and at the inaugural three @-@ hour TNA pay @-@ per @-@ view , Victory Road on November 7 , 2004 , Konnan and James defeated Team Canada members Bobby Roode and " Showtime " Eric Young for the NWA World Tag Team Championship . Their reign lasted one month , with Team Canada regaining the title on December 5 , 2004 at Turning Point with the help of the injured Johnny Devine .
Throughout early @-@ 2005 , the Kru feuded with Michael Shane and Kazarian , Team Canada and The Naturals . Dissension arose after James 's former tag team partner from the WWF , Billy Gunn , joined TNA as " The New Age Outlaw " and began trying to convince James to reform their highly successful tag team , the New Age Outlaws . Konnan and Killings feuded with The Outlaw and " The Alpha Male " Monty Brown , with James 's loyalties divided . Brown and The Outlaw , who had by now renamed himself " Kip James " , defeated Konnan and Killings at No Surrender on July 17 , 2005 , with James declining to help either team . Konnan and Killings became increasingly frustrated , at one point referring to themselves as the " 2Live Kru " . The two teams faced one another in a No Surrender rematch on August 14 , 2005 at Sacrifice , with James appointed guest referee by Director of Authority Larry Zbyszko , and James reaffirmed his loyalty to the Kru by attacking Kip , enabling Konnan to pin him and win the match . The Kru , apparently undivided , celebrated together following the match .
Over the following weeks , Kip James began assisting the 3Live Kru , and on October 23 , 2005 at Bound for Glory , he saved Konnan from a beating at the hands of Team Canada . On the November 26 episode of Impact ! , B.G. James brought Kip James and the 3Live Kru to ringside , then asked Killings and Konnan whether James could join the stable . Following a heated argument between the still skeptical Konnan and B.G. , both Killings and Konnan gave their assent , and the " ' 4Live Kru " was born . At Turning Point the 4Live Kru faced Team Canada in an eight @-@ man tag match . In the course of the match , Konnan attacked both B.G. and Kip James .
= = = = The Latin American Xchange ( 2005 – 2007 ) = = = =
On the December 31 , 2005 , episode of Impact ! , Konnan told B.G. ' s father , Bob Armstrong , that he was a " hothead " and invited Armstrong to accompany him backstage for an apology . Instead of apologizing , Konnan turned heel by leading Armstrong into an ambush at the hands of Apolo and the debuting Homicide . The trio , later identified as The Latin American Xchange ( LAX ) , then instructed an unconscious Armstrong to tell B.G. and Kip to " take care of their own business " . At Final Resolution on January 15 , 2006 , Konnan and Homicide defeated The Naturals . After Apolo was released by TNA , he was replaced by Machete , who was in turn evicted from LAX by Konnan and Homicide . In subsequent weeks , Konnan began feuding with Bob Armstrong . On the April 8 , 2006 episode of Impact ! , Konnan faced Armstrong in a " Arm Wrestling Challenge " ; the contest ended in a no @-@ contest after LAX member Hernandez attacked Armstrong . At Lockdown on April 23 , 2006 , Konnan was defeated by Armstrong in an arm wrestling contest held within the confines of a steel cage ; following the bout , each member of the LAX received ten lashes from the James Gang .
In May 2006 , Konnan became the Impact ! Spanish color commentator . In the same month , he and the LAX began a storyline that saw them refuse to wrestle ( as well as himself and Moody Jack refusing to commentate ) , claiming that Latinos were discriminated against within TNA . After LAX were forced to resume wrestling by Jim Cornette , they began feuding with A.J. Styles and Christopher Daniels , with whom Homicide and Hernandez traded the NWA World Tag Team Championship back and forth . LAX then feuded with America 's Most Wanted and Team 3D , losing the NWA World Tag Team Championship to Team 3D at Lockdown .
In early 2007 , Konnan underwent hip replacement surgery , and his appearances in TNA from then on saw him frequently using a wheelchair . In June , Konnan left TNA for AAA in Mexico . He successfully underwent kidney transplant surgery in July 2007 . In March 2008 , Konnan sued TNA for racism and discrimination , alleging that while the company said that they would help pay for his hip replacement surgery , they did not . To add leverage to the suit , Konnan claimed that TNA helped pay for Scott Steiner 's operation , but did not pay for Ron Killings 's surgery from around the same time .
= = = Return to AAA ( 2004 – 2016 ) = = =
After leaving TNA , Konnan later returned to Asistencia Asesoría y Administración , where Juventud Guerrera claimed in 2009 that Konnan is the " real boss " of the promotion . In AAA he is the leader of the company 's top rudo stable La Legión Extranjera ( Foreign Legion ) . Konnan remained in the role until February 3 , 2013 , when he was in storyline fired from the promotion . He returned to the promotion on April 15 , announcing that he was once again becoming an in @-@ ring performer . In February 2016 , Konnan stated that he had lost his creative position in AAA and was now merely a consultant for the promotion .
On March 20 , 2015 , Konnan was ringside at a show organized by the independent promotion , The Crash , in Tijuana , Mexico , when fellow wrestler El Hijo del Perro Aguayo died in a freak accident .
= = = Lucha Underground ( 2014 – 2015 ) = = =
In August 2014 , Konnan was announced as one of the AAA wrestlers to star in the El Rey network 's new television series Lucha Underground . In the premiere episode , he appeared as the manager of Prince Puma ; subsequently , he announced his responsibility for bringing Fénix , Pentagón Jr. and Drago into the promotion .
= = In wrestling = =
Finishing moves
187 / Montezuma 's Revenge ( Cradle DDT ) – 1996 – 1997 ; used as a signature move thereafter
Tequila Sunrise ( Arm trap single leg Boston crab )
Signature moves
DDT
Face Jam / K @-@ Factor ( Sitout facebuster , often preceded by a mule kick )
Rolling thunder clothesline
Splash Mountain ( Crucifix powerbomb , sometimes from the second rope )
Zip Lock ( Arm trap cloverleaf )
Managers
Jimmy Hart
Kevin Sullivan
Vincent
Torrie Wilson
Tygress
Wrestlers managed
Prince Puma
Nicknames
" K @-@ Dawg "
Entrance themes
" Eye of the Tiger " by Survivor ( AAA ; 1992 – present )
" In Yer Face " by Howard Pfeifer ( WCW ; 1996 )
" Dead Man 's Trousers " ( production theme ) ( WCW ; 1996 )
" Dungeon of Doom Theme " by Jimmy Hart ( WCW ; 1996 – 1997 )
" Tear It Up " by Jimmy Hart and H. Helm ( WCW ; Used while a part of the New World Order ; 1997 – 1998 )
" Rockhouse " by Jimmy Hart and H. Helm ( WCW ; Used while a part of the New World Order ; 1997 – 1998 )
" Wolfpac Theme " ( WCW ; Used while a part of the nWo Wolfpac ; 1998 – 1999 )
" Psycho " ( WCW ; 1999 )
" Bow Wow Wow " by Konnan featuring Madd One ( WCW ; 1999 )
" Filthy " ( WCW ; 1999 , 2000 )
" Reason " ( WCW ; 2000 – 2001 )
" 3 Live K " by 3 Live Kru ( TNA ; while a part of 3 Live Kru with Ron Killings and B. G. James )
" Beware " by 3 Live Kru ( TNA ; while a part of 3 Live Kru )
" Dawgz " by Konnan ( TNA ; Used while a part of the Latin American Xchange )
= = Championships and accomplishments = =
Asistencia Asesoría y Administración
AAA Americas Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
AAA Parejas Increibles Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Cibernético
IWC World Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
Championship Wrestling USA Northwest
Championship Wrestling USA Northwest Tag Championship ( 1 time ) – with Beetlejuice
Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre
CMLL World Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
International Wrestling All @-@ Stars
IWAS World Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
IWAS World Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Rey Mysterio , Jr .
Latin American Wrestling Association
LAWA Heavyweight Championship ( 2 times )
Global Championship Wrestling
GCW Heavyweight Champion ( 1 time )
Pro Wrestling Illustrated
PWI ranked him # 131 of the top 500 singles wrestlers of the " PWI Years " in 2003
Total Nonstop Action Wrestling
NWA World Tag Team Championship ( 2 times ) – with B.G. James and Ron Killings
World Championship Wrestling
WCW United States Championship ( 1 time )
WCW World Tag Team Championship ( 2 times ) – with Rey Mysterio , Jr . ( 1 ) and Billy Kidman ( 1 )
WCW World Television Championship ( 1 time )
World Wrestling Council
WWC Universal Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
WWC World Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Carly Colón
Wrestling Observer Newsletter Awards
Wrestling Observer Newsletter Hall of Fame ( Class of 2009 )
= = = Luchas de Apuestas record = = =
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= Mladen Lorković =
Mladen Lorković ( 1 March 1909 – April 1945 ) was a Croatian politician and lawyer who became a senior member of the Ustaše and served as the Foreign Minister and Minister of Interior of the Independent State of Croatia ( NDH ) during World War II . Lorković led the Lorković @-@ Vokić plot , an attempt to establish a coalition government between the Ustaše and the Croatian Peasant Party and align the Independent State of Croatia with the Allies .
As a student , he joined the Croatian Party of Rights but , viewed as a dissident in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia , he fled the country to avoid arrest and eventually settled in Germany where he obtained a doctorate in law at the University of Berlin . In 1934 , he joined the Ustaše and became a close associate of Ante Pavelić . Although he was initially commander of all Ustaše in Germany , where he sought support in creating and protecting a Croatian state , he later became leader of all Ustaše outside Italy . Soon after the establishment of the NDH , he was appointed as Foreign Minister and strongly opposed Italian influence on the state . After his cabinet chief , Ivo Kolak , was executed in 1943 for smuggling gold , Lorković was removed from office but later named Minister of Interior . As Minister of Interior , he negotiated with the Croatian Peasant Party ( HSS ) in the hopes of establishing a coalition government . He also held secret negotiations with HSS representatives to propose having the NDH join the Allies against Germany . Although he apparently had the support of Pavelić , he and his cohorts were soon arrested as conspirators against the state and after a period in detention was executed at the end of April 1945 alongside Ante Vokić .
= = Early life = =
Lorković was born in Zagreb on 1 March 1909 , the son of prominent politician Ivan Lorković . He attended gymnasium in Zagreb where he became a supporter of the Croatian Party of Rights and later joined the Croatian Youth Movement . He began law studies at the University of Zagreb , but completed them in Innsbruck , Austria , following his escape . He later earned a Ph.D on the subject of the " Establishment of the State of Slovenes , Croats and Serbs " under Max Hildebert Boehm at the University of Berlin . Lorković and Branimir Jelić spoke about the state of Croatian university students at the International Students Federation congress in Brussels in 1930 for which they were arrested and held at the Palace of Justice before being taken to the German border . During his time in Berlin he met and later married Wally Marquead . He later divorced Marquead , and on 19 August 1944 he remarried to the Countess Nada von Ghyczy .
= = Activities with the Ustaše = =
On 6 January 1929 , King Alexander dissolved the government and introduced a royal dictatorship over the newly created Kingdom of Yugoslavia . Because he was viewed as a dissident , Lorković was placed under constant police surveillance . On 15 November 1929 , a warrant for his arrest was issued , but he succeeded in escaping to Austria and later to Germany .
Lorković was a keen advocate for the amalgamation of all Croatian parties into a ' super @-@ party ' to secede from the Kingdom of Yugoslavia and on 4 October 1934 swore his Ustaše oath . He became commander of all Ustaše units in Germany and later , after the assassination of King Alexander , commander of all Ustaše outside Italy . The assassination of King Alexander led to him being briefly detained in Germany , but was released in mid @-@ 1935 after a German court rejected a Yugoslav request for his extradition .
In 1937 , Lorković was arrested following a hearing conducted by the Gestapo . He subsequently left Germany and moved to Hungary and in 1939 returned to Yugoslavia , where he became an associate editor of the Hrvatski narod ( Croatian Folk ) journal and the editor of the underground journal Hrvatska pošta ( The Croatian Post ) . Matica hrvatska published his book , The Croatian People and Their Lands , in 1939 in which he stated that all Bosnian Muslims were Croats by nationality . After the Banovina of Croatia proclamation , he was arrested in 1940 and detained at Lepoglava prison and later in Krušćica , near Vitez . Lorković was a signatory to a declaration , made on 31 March 1941 and signed on 5 May 1941 , in which the Ustaše requested the declaration of a Croatian state . The document also sought German support , protection and recognition among Axis nations .
= = Independent State of Croatia = =
Lorković was one of the most pro @-@ German members of the pre @-@ war Ustaše movement having cultivated political and academic ties in Germany during his time there . After the establishment of the NDH , Lorković became a member of the temporary government of Slavko Kvaternik known as the Croatian State Leadership . On 16 April 1941 , Lorković was named Secretary of the Foreign Ministry in the first government formed by Ante Pavelić , who also served as Foreign Minister . Up to April 1943 , he also served as the chief contact between Edmund Glaise von Horstenau , the Plenipotentiary General in the Independent State of Croatia , and the Pavelić cabinet .
Lorković succeeded Pavelić as Foreign Minister on 9 June 1941 . Shortly after taking office , he inquired with the French authorities about the fate of three Ustaše implicated in the 1934 assassination of King Alexander in Marseilles and sentenced to life imprisonment . The actual assassin was a Bulgarian mercenary , Vlado Chernozemski , who was killed after the deed by French security forces . Two of the men died in prison , but the third , Milan Rajić , was returned to the NDH in early 1942 through the intervention of the German occupation forces in France , where he was later killed allegedly on Pavelić 's orders .
On 27 July 1941 , in a speech designed to inflame Croats against the Serbs living in the NDH , Lorković lied that Serbs had beaten , mutilated and massacred tens of thousands of Croatian peasants during the inter @-@ war period . In August , he strongly opposed an Italian request to implement civil administration in the demilitarized zone of the NDH . The Italians countered the following spring by accusing Lorković of being a communist to discredit him for his pro @-@ German views . Lorković was cleared of all charges after a police investigation . However , a German police attaché in Zagreb did claim that Lorković had been in contact with some communists in the early 1930s and had helped some Croatian communists in 1941 and 1942 . In May 1942 , Lorković was appointed honorary member of the German Institute for Border and Foreign Studies . Lorković , along with Vladimir Košak and Stijepo Perić , strongly opposed Italian influence over the Independent State of Croatia and towards the end of 1942 , wrote a note ( " Spomenica " ) in which he described the cooperative efforts of Italy 's 2nd Army with the Chetniks . This note was officially submitted on 26 January 1943 to the Italian Foreign Minister Galeazzo Ciano . In response , the Italian diplomat Raffaele Casertano tried to have Lorković removed from office .
Heinrich Himmler , leader of the German Schutzstaffel ( SS ) , wanted to form a Croatian Muslim SS division . He sent Phleps as his representative to Zagreb to begin formal negotiations with the Croatian government on 18 February 1943 . He met with German foreign ministry envoy Siegfried Kasche and Mladen Lorković who represented Pavelić . Pavelić had already agreed to raise the division but the Waffen SS and Croatian government disagreed on how the division would be recruited and controlled . Lorković suggested that it be named " SS Ustaša Division " , a Croatian unit raised with SS assistance , with familiar regimental titles such as Bosna , Krajina and Una . Pavelić and Kasche were concerned that an exclusively Muslim division might aid a Muslim bid for independence . As a compromise , the word " Croatian " was included in its official title and some Croatian Catholic officers were recruited . Himmler and Phleps largely prevailed and created the division as they saw fit causing grave dissatisfaction among the NDH leadership , particularly regarding its ethnic composition .
On 23 April 1943 Lorković was removed from office after Lorković 's cabinet chief , Ivo Kolak , was found guilty of gold smuggling and executed . Following his removal , Lorković was named a Minister in Government 's Presidency , where he was responsible for relations with the German Army , and become a close associate of General Edmund Glaise von Horstenau . During the summer of 1943 , he advocated cooperation with the Croatian Peasant Party ( HSS ) and represented the Ustaše in negotiations with the vice president of the HSS , August Košutić , about forming a coalition government . Lorković advocated a stronger government and greater independence in its activity . He initiated a new government to be led by himself as a prime minister and not the Poglavnik , but Pavelić named Nikola Mandić as prime minister on 2 September 1942 . Lorković and some of his associates submitted their resignations , which were not accepted . Despite this setback , Lorković , along with Mandić , continued negotiations with HSS throughout September finalising them at the end of the month .
After the capitulation of Italy on 20 September 1943 , Lorković , with Kasche and other high @-@ ranking German officers , discussed the return of territory lost after the Treaty of Rome in April 1941 . Ultimately , Hitler gave permission for the Independent State of Croatia to annex the territory by " guaranteeing unlimited independence of Croatia , including this Croatian Adriatic coast . "
On 11 October 1943 , Lorković was named Minister of Interior , where he advocated stricter policing , and a second term as Foreign Minister from 29 April until 5 May 1944 , after his friend Perić was removed from office . It was agreed that Lorković would remain Foreign Minister and Minister of Interior simultaneously , but was soon replaced by Mehmed Alajbegović as Foreign Minister . After realising that Germany would lose the war and the NDH would cease to exist , he advocated radical changes in state policy . In February 1944 , he wrote a detailed memorandum in German which summarized the history , current situation and the fundamental problems of the NDH and its Armed Forces , as well as problems with the German Army .
= = = Lorković @-@ Vokić plot and death = = =
In May 1944 , he secretly met with the president of Knin County , David Sinčić , with whom he discussed the poor state of the German war @-@ effort and that the Allies may invade the Balkans via Taranto . That month , he launched an initiative to renew negotiations with the HSS , which he conducted in his apartment . There , he secretly met with Sinčić , August Košutić and Ivanko Farolfi . Lorković also sought foreign contacts and through Switzerland made contact with British and American officials , but was rebuffed . He proposed that the NDH end its relations with Germany and join the Allies , a proposal supported by the Minister of the Armed Forces , Ante Vokić , as well as many high @-@ ranking Croatian Home Guard officers and politicians . Lorković also negotiatied with the HSS about switching sides with Pavelić 's knowledge and consent .
At a special session of government held on 30 August 1944 in Pavelić 's villa , guarded by armed men , Lorković and Vokić were accused of conspiracy against the Poglavnik and Croatia 's German ally . Vice President of the Government , Džafer Kulenović , and many others defended them but to no avail . Lorković was kept under house arrest until he was tried before the Poglavnik 's Bodyguard Division ( PTS ) where it was decided that he would be stripped of his rank and expelled from the PTS . After the trial , he was transferred to Koprivnica and later in Lepoglava , alongside Vokić , Farolfi , Ljudevit Tomašić and others , although Košturić later escaped . Lorković was executed at the end of April 1945 .
= = Publishing activities = =
Lorković 's publications during the time of the NDH were closely tied with his political activity and state obligations . He cooperated with a number of magazines , such as Croatia , which was published by HIBZ in German and French for the Foreign Ministry .
In 1939 , Matica hrvatska published his book , The Croatian People and Their Lands ( Narod i zemlja Hrvata ) , in which Lorković focused on the issue of Croatian boundaries . In 1942 , he participated in the Croatian Parliament ( Sabor ) . Two of his speeches were independently published : The International Political Position of Croatia ( Međunarodni politički položaj Hrvatske ; 1942 ) and The Croatian Struggle Against Bolshevism ( Hrvatska u borbi protiv boljševizma ; 1944 ) . The latter was published in German in 1944 .
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= The Amazing Spider @-@ Man 2 =
The Amazing Spider @-@ Man 2 ( also released as The Amazing Spider @-@ Man 2 : Rise of Electro in some markets ) is a 2014 American superhero film featuring the Marvel Comics character Spider @-@ Man , directed by Marc Webb and released by Columbia Pictures . It is the fifth theatrical Spider @-@ Man film produced by Columbia Pictures and Marvel Entertainment , and is a sequel to The Amazing Spider @-@ Man ( 2012 ) . The studio hired James Vanderbilt to write the screenplay and Alex Kurtzman , and Roberto Orci to rewrite it . The film stars Andrew Garfield as Peter Parker / Spider @-@ Man , Emma Stone as Gwen Stacy , Dane DeHaan as Green Goblin / Harry Osborn , Campbell Scott and Embeth Davidtz as Peter 's parents , and Sally Field as Aunt May , with the addition of a new cast including Paul Giamatti as Rhino / Aleksei Sytsevich and Jamie Foxx as Electro / Max Dillon .
Development of The Amazing Spider @-@ Man 2 began after the success of The Amazing Spider @-@ Man . DeHaan , Giamatti , Jones , and Cooper were cast between December 2012 and February 2013 . Filming took place in New York City from February to June 2013 . The film was released in 2D , 3D , and IMAX 3D on May 2 , 2014 , in the United States with two international premieres being held between March 31 & April 10 , 2014 . The film received mixed reviews , and although it grossed $ 709 million worldwide and became the ninth @-@ highest @-@ grossing film of 2014 , it was the lowest @-@ grossing film in the series . However , the film was declared a " hit " in the overseas markets with high openings and a wide cinematic release . The film subsequently won awards for its music composition and acting , notably one Nickelodeon Kids ' Choice Award and two ASCAP Awards .
The Amazing Spider @-@ Man 2 was originally envisioned as the beginning of a shared fictional universe , which would have continued with two sequels and several spin @-@ off films . Due to it performing below expectations , all subsequent installments were cancelled and a new iteration of the character , portrayed by Tom Holland appears in the Marvel Cinematic Universe , beginning with the 2016 film Captain America : Civil War , before he is scheduled to appear in his own film Spider @-@ Man : Homecoming in 2017 .
= = Plot = =
OsCorp scientist Richard Parker records a video message to explain his disappearance . Later , he and his wife , Mary , are aboard a private jet hijacked by a man sent to assassinate Richard . The plane crashes , killing both Richard and Mary , after he uploads the video .
In the present , Richard 's son Peter continues to fight crime as Spider @-@ Man . He pursues and apprehends Aleksei Sytsevich . Later , Peter meets with Gwen at their high school graduation ceremony and , insisting he keep his vow to her father , ends their relationship . Peter 's childhood friend , Harry Osborn , returns to Manhattan to see his terminally @-@ ill father , Norman , CEO of OsCorp . Norman explains his illness is genetic , and Harry is at the age where it first develops . Norman gives Harry a small device he claims contains his life 's work . The next day , Norman dies and Harry is appointed the new OsCorp CEO .
While working in an OsCorp laboratory , electrical engineer Max Dillon shocks himself by accident and falls into a tank of genetically @-@ engineered electric eels . They attack him , and he mutates into a living electric generator . Meanwhile , Peter attempts to maintain a friendship with Gwen , but she reveals that she may move to England for schooling . Before they can discuss it , Dillon wanders into Times Square , accidentally causing a blackout , and is stopped by Spider @-@ Man after a battle . Dillon is taken to Ravencroft Institute , where he is studied by German scientist Dr. Kafka . Meanwhile , the first symptoms of Harry 's illness are showing , and he uses the device Norman gave him to deduce that Spider @-@ Man 's blood could help save him . He asks Peter , who has been selling photos of Spider @-@ Man to the Daily Bugle , to aid him in finding Spider @-@ Man . Peter refuses , unsure of what effects the transfusion would have . Although he later comes to Harry as Spider @-@ Man , he still refuses , and Harry develops an intense hatred towards Spider @-@ Man . The OsCorp board @-@ members , in particular the vice @-@ president , Donald Menken , frame Harry for covering up Dillon 's accident , and remove him as CEO . Harry 's assistant , Felicia Hardy , informs him of equipment that could help him , so he makes a deal with Dillon , who now calls himself " Electro , " to get him back inside the OsCorp building . There he finds a suit of armour and other equipment made by Norman , as well as venom from the now @-@ destroyed genetically @-@ altered spiders . The venom accelerates Harry 's illness and transforms him into a goblin @-@ like creature , but the suit 's built @-@ in emergency protocol restores his health and cures his disease .
Peter uses information left by his father to locate the video message in an abandoned subway station 's hidden lab . Richard explains he had to leave because he refused to cooperate with Norman 's biogenetic weaponization plans . Peter then hears a voicemail from Gwen , telling him she was offered the British scholarship and is heading to the airport earlier than expected . He manages to catch her and professes his love for her , and , vowing to go wherever she goes , they agree to go to England together . Electro causes another blackout , and Peter heads off to fight him as Spider @-@ Man . Gwen follows , and together they restore power and overload Electro 's body , killing him . Afterward , the transformed Harry , who now calls himself " Green Goblin , " arrives equipped with Norman 's armor and weaponry ; upon seeing Gwen , Green Goblin deduces Spider @-@ Man 's secret identity and , swearing revenge for being refused the blood transfusion , kidnaps her . He fights Spider @-@ Man at the top of a clock tower but is knocked unconscious and defeated . Despite Spider @-@ Man 's attempts to save Gwen , she falls to her death after webbing breaks in the clock tower . Distraught , Peter ends his career as Spider @-@ Man .
Five months later , Harry is coping with the aftereffects of his transformation while incarcerated at Ravencroft . His associate , Gustav Fiers , visits Harry and the pair discuss forming their own team in order carry out their own ends . Harry orders Fiers to start with Sytsevich , and Fiers breaks Sytsevich out of prison . Equipped with electromechanical suit armor , Sytsevich calls himself the Rhino and rampages through the streets . Peter , inspired by Gwen 's graduation speech , resumes his career as Spider @-@ Man and confronts him .
= = Cast = =
Andrew Garfield as Peter Parker / Spider @-@ Man : An orphaned teenage boy who received spider @-@ powers after being bitten by a genetically altered spider . Peter first uses his powers to try to hunt down the killer of his uncle in The Amazing Spider @-@ Man but soon decides to use his powers to fight crime as the vigilante known as Spider @-@ Man . Garfield explained that the suit that he would wear in the film would undergo a new design . Garfield hoped to bring back the theme of him being an orphan stating , " I wanna keep exploring that theme of being fatherless , being motherless , searching for purpose and finding a purpose within himself " . He felt that it was his responsibility to take on the role and that he does not take it lightly.Max Charles also reprises his role as Young Peter Parker .
Emma Stone as Gwendolyn " Gwen " Stacy : A high school student and Peter 's love interest . When asked about Peter and Gwen 's relationship in the sequel , Stone said , " She saves him more than he saves her . She 's incredibly helpful to Spider @-@ Man ... He 's the muscle , she 's the brains . "
Jamie Foxx as Max Dillon / Electro : An electrical engineer who works for Oscorp Industries and later transforms into a powerful , electronical creature following an accident , then taking the alias of " Electro " . Foxx described the character as " a nobody " who initially idolizes Spider @-@ Man . He develops an obsession with Spider @-@ Man after being saved by him and obtains his powers through an accident at Oscorp involving electric eels . Foxx revealed that the character would be redesigned to be more grounded , and that the villain 's classic yellow and green suit would be omitted in favor of a modern look like black as depicted in the film .
Dane DeHaan as Harry Osborn / Green Goblin : Peter 's longtime friend for 10 years and son of Norman Osborn . He was sent away to boarding school around the same time Peter 's parents disappeared , and meets him for the first time . He eventually assumes the role of the Green Goblin after injecting a special serum of spider @-@ venom into his body , initially injected to provide a cure , which instead turns him into a hideous , psychotic , goblin @-@ like creature . As the Green Goblin , Harry dons a technological suit capable of healing him and can fly with the use of a large glider .
Colm Feore as Donald Menken : Oscorp 's Vice President and Head of the Board . He is often in dispute with Harry over his capabilities of being a CEO to Oscorp , claiming that because Harry is a boy , he is incapable of leading the company .
Felicity Jones as Felicia Hardy : Norman 's assistant at Oscorp , and later Harry 's . Jones was only credited as Felicia in the final film , her surname was revealed as " Hardy " in a marketing video for the film releasing on digital HD formats .
Paul Giamatti as Aleksei Sytsevich / Rhino : a Russian hired killer for the Russian Mafia , who allies with Harry and receives a massive , well @-@ armored , robotic , rhino @-@ like suit from him , deciding to call himself " the Rhino " . Giamatti said of his character , " He 's a Russian mobster . Russians are always good villains . I have an ability to just destroy things " , he said . " My accent is pretty hammy . I loved doing it . It seemed to me like an opportunity to be as over @-@ the @-@ top hammy as possible . It was really fun . "
Sally Field as Aunt May : Peter 's aunt .
Campbell Scott as Richard Parker : Peter 's father .
Embeth Davidtz as Mary Parker : Peter 's mother .
Marton Csokas as Dr. Kafka : The head of Ravencroft Institute .
Chris Cooper portrays Norman Osborn , the late founder of Oscorp and Harry Osborn 's father , while B. J. Novak portrays Alistair Smythe . Denis Leary reprises his role as George Stacy from the first film , where he appears as a ghost in Peter 's visions , while Kari Coleman , Charlie DePew , Skyler Gisondo and Jacob Rodier reprise their roles as Helen Stacy , Philip Stacy , Howard Stacy and Simon Stacy respectively . Spider @-@ Man co @-@ creator , Stan Lee , has a cameo appearance as a guest at Peter and Gwen 's graduation ceremony . Michael Massee reprises his role as the " Man in the Shadows " from the first film , with the character now credited as " Gustav Fiers ( The Gentleman ) " . Aidy Bryant appears as a woman dressed as the Statue of Liberty . J.D. Walsh appears as an online instructor demonstrating how batteries work and an uncredited actor portrays the Oscorp hired assassin who was sent to kill Richard and Mary .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
The sequel 's villain was teased in the 2012 film . Webb stated that the origin story would further unfold in the second installment . In June 2012 , Webb said he was unsure whether he would return , though it was confirmed on September 28 , 2012 , that he would return to direct the sequel . He stated that he " wanted to create a universe that not only can withstand but anticipate future storylines " while also " working in and of itself for one movie . " Andrew Garfield had also expressed hope to reprise his role , and in September 2012 , it was confirmed that he would do so . Emma Stone was later confirmed to be reprising her role as Gwen Stacy , having signed a contract for two Amazing Spider @-@ Man sequels . The original costume and mask from The Amazing Spider @-@ Man was altered and has lens in the mask , making the eyes bigger . The web shooters were also modified .
Actor J. K. Simmons expressed interest in reprising his role as J. Jonah Jameson from Sam Raimi 's Spider @-@ Man trilogy should the studio offer it to him . In October 2012 , Electro was rumored as the next villain . Jamie Foxx was given the role . That December , Foxx confirmed that he was cast as the character , and during an interview with MTV , explained that the redesign of the character would be more grounded as well as details of his depiction . On December 3 , 2012 , Marc Webb revealed that Dane DeHaan was chosen to play Harry Osborn . Paul Giamatti was confirmed as a cast member in February 2013 . Felicity Jones confirmed her involvement with the film under an undisclosed role . Giamatti also indicated in an October 2013 interview that he would return in The Amazing Spider @-@ Man 3 as well . On February 27 , 2013 , Chris Cooper was cast as Norman Osborn .
By October 10 , 2012 , Shailene Woodley was in talks for the role of Mary Jane Watson . By March 14 , 2013 , Woodley had concluded filming her small role . Garfield recalled , " I think all of [ those scenes ] were in our backyards . We had two or three scenes with me talking over the fence , and there was one with us riding together on a motorcycle that we never got to shoot . " By mid @-@ June , Mary Jane was cut from the film , with director Webb explaining it as " a creative decision to streamline the story and focus on Peter and Gwen and their relationship . "
= = = Filming = = =
On February 4 , 2013 , Marc Webb posted on Twitter that principal photography had begun and that the sequel was being shot on 35 mm film in the anamorphic format , instead of being filmed digitally as the preceding film was . Sony revealed this would be the first Spider @-@ Man film to be filmed entirely in New York State , including a car @-@ chase scene that was filmed in Rochester because the speed laws are less restrictive in upstate New York . It became the largest film production ever in New York State . The decision to film in Williamsburg , Brooklyn near the Passover holiday caused some controversy , as critics believed that this was culturally insensitive , and would cause problems with parking . The filming company decided to work with the community and then agreed to adjust its production activities for Passover . The producers had assembled a 200 @-@ person crew for the 10 @-@ day shoot in Rochester , with a total number of 250 local crew members and 150 local extras . The prominent scenes were shot mostly on Main Street of Rochester and were digitally remastered to look like New York City .
On June 25 , Webb posted on Twitter that filming was completed . Soundstage work was done at Grumman Studios and Gold Coast Studios , both in Bethpage , New York , and at the Marcy Armory in Brooklyn .
= = = = Special effects = = = =
Sony Pictures Imageworks designed the special effects for the film . The digital composition of the film , including the scene where the battle of Spider @-@ Man and Electro in Times Square , took one year to complete . The sets of Times Square were built in Gold Coast Studios with the green screens and most of the scenes were digitally re @-@ designed by computer . The photography and VFX team took over 36 @,@ 000 photos of the Times Square in order to re @-@ create the location digitally . In addition , the animation team captured over 100 billboards during the photography process .
The film was post @-@ converted from 2D to 3D , in part because the production team wanted to shoot 35 mm film . Dan Mindel used Kodak Vision3 500T 5219 and 200T 5213 , while the second unit shot day exteriors on Kodak Vision3 50D 5203 . During the production , 20 layers of lightning CGI effects were applied to depict Electro . Jamie Foxx was photographed as Electro by KNB EFX team and the skin colors used to show the moods of the character . A total number of 1600 , visual effects shots of the film was originally filmed in 2K resolution and then converted into 4K resolution with the help of color grading . To give the visual effects a realistic look , sound designers Addison Teague and Eric Norris and re @-@ recording mixers Paul Massey and David Giammarco mixed the background music using Auro 11 @.@ 1 cinema sound technology and the film 's soundtrack was remixed using Dolby Atmos , Auro and Dolby 5 @.@ 1 .
= = = Post @-@ production = = =
The film was mixed in Auro 11 @.@ 1 and Dolby Atmos in the converted William Holden Theater . The mix for both was completed by Paul Massey and David Giammarco .
A mid @-@ credit teaser scene from X @-@ Men : Days of Future Past was added to the film after its London premiere , due to an existing deal between Webb and 20th Century Fox , in which Fox allowed Webb to direct the film if Sony would promote the X @-@ Men film for free . The scene , set during the Vietnam War , shows Mystique ( Jennifer Lawrence ) , a rogue mutant , trying to infiltrate a military camp led by William Stryker ( Josh Helman ) in an attempt to recruit fellow mutants Havok ( Lucas Till ) and Toad ( Evan Jonigkeit ) . The scene 's inclusion sparked confusion among some viewers in the United Kingdom , who thought it meant an X @-@ Men – Spider @-@ Man crossover film was being planned , based on how Marvel Studios and Disney use codas within the Marvel Cinematic Universe to promote future films .
= = = Music = = =
On July 20 , 2013 , Webb announced that Hans Zimmer would be composing the music for the film , replacing James Horner , the composer of the first film . On October 25 , 2013 , Pharrell Williams revealed to Billboard that he would co @-@ compose the score with Zimmer . Webb and Zimmer formed a supergroup with Williams , Johnny Marr , Mike Einziger and former Eurythmic , David A. Stewart to create the music for the sequel . Eventually , Stewart did not participate in the film 's music , and the supergroup , credited as The Magnificent Six ( a reference to the Sinister Six ) was composed of Williams , Marr , Einziger , Junkie XL , Steve Mazzaro and Andrew Kawczynski assisting Zimmer . The soundtrack for the film was released on April 22 , 2014 by Columbia Records and Madison Gate Records . Hans Zimmer described his work for this film asdifferent from previous works by him , thus revealing one of the themes for the film , which was first heard on the website .
On March 31 , 2014 , a track called " It 's On Again " was uploaded to Soundcloud . It features vocals by Kendrick Lamar and Alicia Keys . Keys announced the song on Twitter and credited Zimmer and Williams , along with Lamar and herself for the song , indicating the song as a part of the film 's soundtrack . Webb described the song as “ upbeat and exciting ” .
= = Marketing = =
The release of the film in the United Kingdom was postponed to April 16 , 2014 , two days ahead of its original April 18 date . Deadline reported that , in addition to the production budget , the film 's marketing budget was $ 180 – 190 million .
On July 17 , 2013 , Sony released a clip from the film with the first released footage of Jamie Foxx as Electro to encourage attendance at the panel , at the San Diego Comic @-@ Con International . At the panel they premiered a four @-@ minute trailer , which was not publicly released but eventually leaked on the internet . Viral marketing for the film included a version of the Daily Bugle on the blogging service Tumblr , which included references to Kate Cushing , Detective Stan Carter , the " Big Man " , Izzy Bunsen , Joy Mercado , Donald Menken , the Vulture , Hydro @-@ Man , Spencer Smythe , Ned Leeds , Anne Weying , J. Jonah Jameson , Shocker , Alistair Smythe , Doctor Octopus , Eddie Brock , The Enforcers and Puma . Marc Webb posted a photo on Twitter with a message written in Dwarven language revealing that the first trailer would debut prior to 3D screenings of The Hobbit : The Desolation of Smaug .
On December 8 , 2013 , it was announced that new footage from the film would be presented during New Year 's Eve festivities at New York City 's Times Square . The film was further promoted during the World Wide Fund for Nature ( WWF ) " Earth Hour " campaign . The cast was present at the launch of the 2014 event in Singapore . Disney Consumer Products announced a merchandise product line for the film at the American International Toy Fair on February 17 , 2014 .
In March 2014 , Gameloft and Marvel announced the launch of a mobile game of the same name for smartphones and tablets . It was released on consoles afterward . Kellogg 's released an application featuring the film . Evian served as a promotional partner of the film . On April 1 , 2014 , the brand released an advertisement " The Amazing Baby & Me 2 " featuring Spider @-@ Man and a baby version of him , as a follow @-@ up to their original " Baby & Me " campaign . The film partnered with NBCUniversal for advertising . Spots for the film appeared on Bravo , E ! , USA , Syfy , Telemundo , and mun2 . A customized page was created on Fandango . In May 2014 , Marvel announced that Spider @-@ Man 's costume from the film would be shown within Marvel : Avengers Alliance .
= = Home media = =
Fans who saw the film started petitions on several petition websites to include a " Director 's Cut " in the home video release for cutting out scenes from the film 's marketing , including scenes featuring Martin Sheen reprising his role as Uncle Ben and Chris Zylka reprising his role as Flash Thompson , along with Shailene Woodley and Electro 's deleted scenes and a post @-@ credits scene . The film has an alternate ending where Peter Parker 's father meets Peter at Gwen 's resting place . Creative agency Deckhouse Digital was hired to produce several animated GIFs ahead of the DVD / Blu @-@ ray release as part of a sponsored ad campaign on Tumblr . The Amazing Spider @-@ Man 2 was released by Sony Pictures Home Entertainment for digital download on August 5 , 2014 and was released on Blu @-@ ray , Blu @-@ ray 3D and DVD on August 19 , 2014 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
The Amazing Spider @-@ Man 2 received mixed reviews from film critics and audiences . The Los Angeles Times said , " [ The film is ] overstuffed with plot lines , set pieces and villains , although stars Andrew Garfield and Emma Stone do their best to give the movie heart . " Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a 53 % approval rating from critics , with an average score of 5 @.@ 8 / 10 based on 267 reviews . The site 's consensus states : " While the cast is outstanding and the special effects are top @-@ notch , the latest installment of the Spidey saga suffers from an unfocused narrative and an overabundance of characters . " On Metacritic the film also has a score of 53 out of 100 , based on 49 critics , indicating " mixed or average reviews " . CinemaScore polls conducted during the opening weekend revealed the average grade cinemagoers gave the film was B + on an A + to F scale .
The main criticisms of the film were the underdeveloped characters , overlong running time , and crowded script . However , the special effects , chemistry between Stone and Garfield , Dane DeHaan 's performance , the action scenes , and Hans Zimmer 's musical score were met with high praise . Foxx 's portrayal of Max Dillon / Electro was met with mixed reviews .
Tim Robey of The Telegraph said , " Marc Webb 's Spider @-@ Man sequel is overstuffed with high @-@ voltage villains , but the sparks between Andrew Garfield and Emma Stone save the day " . Simon Reynolds of Digital Spy said , " Peter 's past , present and future all intertwine in a sequel that offers bang for your buck . That said you can 't help [ but ] feel the franchise bean counters at work here thanks to all the ominous foreshadowing and unresolved character arcs . Too many cooks and all that ... " . Kim Newman of Empire scored the film three out of five stars , saying : " A few too @-@ broad gags aside — and even these are in the funky spirit of ' 60s Marvel — this is a satisfying second issue with thrills , heartbreak , gasps , and a perfectly judged slingshot ending . " Leslie Felperin of The Hollywood Reporter said , " The eponymous hero hits his super @-@ heroic stride here , as does Andrew Garfield in the role , especially when Spider @-@ Man 's alter ego Peter Parker learns there 's always some fine print in a contract with this many benefits . The plot gets itself tangled up in multiple villain strands , but in the main , this installment is emotionally weightier and more satisfying than its predecessor . " Guy Lodge of Variety said , " Redundancy remains a problem , but this overlong superhero sequel gets by on sound , fury and star chemistry . " Richard Roeper gave the film a B + , stating that " It 's about 20 minutes too long and it 's overstuffed with too many characters and too many subplots , but there 's enough good stuff in The Amazing Spider @-@ Man 2 to warrant optimism about the next chapter of the franchise . " A negative review came from Peter Travers of Rolling Stone , giving the film two stars out of four , he said : " Things go wrong quickly with Amazing 2 . Am I the only one who hates the word Amazing to describe a movie that isn 't ? Just asking . "
= = = Box office = = =
The Amazing Spider @-@ Man 2 grossed $ 8 @.@ 7 million on its early Thursday night showings . It finished its opening weekend in first place with $ 91 @.@ 6 million , almost $ 30 million more than the opening weekend gross of the first film . The film grossed $ 202 @,@ 853 @,@ 933 in North America and $ 506 @,@ 128 @,@ 390 in other countries , for a total gross of $ 708 @,@ 982 @,@ 323 .
Outside North America , The Amazing Spider @-@ Man 2 opened on April 16 , 2014 to $ 2 @.@ 73 million in the UK and to $ 190 @,@ 000 in Belgium , while opening to $ 1 @.@ 44 million in Australia and $ 1 @.@ 11 million in Germany . The film 's release in India was the biggest opening weekend for an American film at that point . In China , the film played on 11 @,@ 002 screens , which is the biggest release of any film in history . On its opening day in Hong Kong , the film earned $ 1 @.@ 23 million , the highest opening gross in the territory .
= = = Accolades = = =
= = Canceled franchise and reboot = =
Sony had originally intended the film to launch an expansive film universe around Spider Man to compete with the Marvel Cinematic Universe . In 2013 , Sony announced a third Amazing Spider @-@ Man film with a release date of June 10 , 2016 , which Alex Kurtzman , Roberto Orci and Jeff Pinkner would return to write , and a fourth film with a release date of May 4 , 2018 . Additionally , the series was to include spin @-@ off films featuring the Sinister Six and Venom , with Drew Goddard writing and directing Sinister Six and Kurtzman directing a Venom script co @-@ written by himself , Orci , and Ed Solomon . Sinister Six had been planned for a November 11 , 2016 release . Additionally , by August 2014 , Sony had hired Lisa Joy Nolan to write the script for a 2017 film starring a Marvel superheroine .
However , between December 2013 and the release of The Amazing Spider @-@ Man 2 in May 2014 , Garfield and Webb revealed that while they would both return for the third film , neither was certain of their involvement in the fourth , with Webb adding he would certainly not be directing . Following the mixed critical reviews and franchise @-@ low box office performance of The Amazing Spider @-@ Man 2 , the future of the franchise was unclear . By July 2014 , Orci had left the third film to work on Star Trek Beyond , The Amazing Spider @-@ Man 3 , which would have included Chris Cooper returning as Norman Osborn and focused on Peter 's recovering from Gwen 's death , was delayed to an unspecified date in 2018 , and The Amazing Spider @-@ Man 4 was moved to a later , unknown date .
Following the 2014 Sony Pictures Entertainment hack , Sony was revealed to have been in talks to have Sam Raimi return to the franchise to direct a new trilogy for the character and was in discussion with Marvel Studios about including Spider @-@ Man in the Marvel Cinematic Universe film Captain America : Civil War . Marvel reportedly was unhappy with some of the terms of the proposed arrangement , including the film rights staying with Sony , and both talks allegedly ceased . However , in February 2015 , Sony and Marvel Studios announced that a new iteration of Spider @-@ Man will appear in the MCU , with the character appearing in Captain America : Civil War before Sony releases a standalone film titled Spider @-@ Man : Homecoming produced by Kevin Feige and Amy Pascal on July 7 , 2017 . Following this announcement , The Amazing Spider @-@ Man 3 was canceled . Sony Pictures will continue to finance , distribute , own and have final creative control of the Spider @-@ Man films . Marvel Studios and Sony will explore opportunities to integrate other characters of the MCU into future Spider @-@ Man films . Tom Holland stars as the new Spider @-@ Man . In March 2016 , The Hollywood Reporter has reported that Sony are moving forward with the standalone Venom film with Dante Harper writing the script while Avi Arad and Matt Tolmach will be producing and supervising the project ; it will not be related to the Amazing Spider @-@ Man film franchise and the MCU 's Spider @-@ Man .
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