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= Typhoon Bolaven ( 2012 ) =
Typhoon Bolaven , known in the Philippines as Typhoon Julian , was regarded as the most powerful storm to strike the Korean Peninsula in nearly a decade , with wind gusts measured up to 186 km / h ( 116 mph ) . Forming as a tropical depression on August 19 , 2012 to the southwest of the Mariana Islands , Bolaven steadily intensified as it slowly moved west @-@ northwestward in a region favoring tropical development . The system was soon upgraded to a tropical storm less than a day after formation and further to a typhoon by August 21 . Strengthening became more gradual thereafter as Bolaven grew in size . On August 24 , the system attained its peak intensity with winds of 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) and a barometric pressure of 910 mbar ( hPa ; 26 @.@ 87 inHg ) . Weakening only slightly , the storm passed directly over Okinawa on August 26 as it began accelerating toward the north . Steady weakening continued as Bolaven approached the Korean Peninsula and it eventually made landfall in North Korea late on August 28 before transitioning into an extratropical cyclone . The remnants rapidly tracked northeastward over the Russian Far East before turning eastward and were last noted on September 1 crossing the International Dateline .
Although Bolaven struck the Ryukyu Islands as a powerful typhoon , damage was less than expected . Relatively few buildings were damaged or destroyed across the region . The most significant effects stemmed from heavy rains , amounting to 551 @.@ 5 mm ( 21 @.@ 71 in ) , that caused flash flooding and landslides . One person drowned on Amami Ōshima after being swept away by a swollen river . In mainland Japan , two people drowned after being swept away by rough seas . In South Korea , 19 people were killed by the storm . Many buildings were damaged and approximately 1 @.@ 9 million homes were left without power . Losses in the country reached ₩ 420 billion ( US $ 374 @.@ 3 million ) , the majority of which was due to destroyed apple orchards . Significant damage also took place in North Korea where at least 59 people were killed and 50 others were reported missing . Additionally , 6 @,@ 700 homes were destroyed . Offshore , nine people drowned after two Chinese vessels sank .
= = Meteorological history = =
On August 18 , an area of showers and thunderstorms associated with a trough formed about 520 km ( 320 mi ) west @-@ southwest of Guam . Over the following day , a low @-@ level circulation developed within the trough . Tracking slowly northeastward into a region of warm sea surface temperatures , low wind shear , and favorable divergence , continued development was anticipated . Later on August 19 , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) issued a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert as the system was anticipated to develop further . Hours later , the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) classified the low as a tropical depression . The JTWC followed suit early on August 20 , designating the system as Tropical Depression 16W . Following the development of convective banding features along the southern side of the low , both the JMA and JTWC upgraded the depression to a tropical storm , with the former assigning it the name Bolaven . By this time , the storm began turning northwestward in response to a subtropical ridge south of Japan . Later on August 20 , microwave imagery from the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission satellite depicted a weak eye @-@ like feature .
Early on August 21 , the JMA upgraded Bolaven to a severe tropical storm , with maximum estimated winds at 95 km / h ( 60 mph ) . Throughout the day , a large central dense overcast developed around the low @-@ level circulation and banding features became more prominent , especially over the southern half of the storm . However , the northwestern quadrant of Bolaven struggled to organize as quickly due to moderate wind shear produced by a nearby upper @-@ level anticyclone . Due to the improved structure , both the JMA and JTWC upgraded Bolaven to a typhoon during the latter half of August 21 . Gradual intensification ensued over the following days as the storm became increasingly organized . A second anticyclone developed over the center of Bolaven later that day and enhanced the cyclone 's poleward outflow . Although subsidence and wind shear increased along the northern edge of the storm on August 23 , the system 's outflow allowed it mitigate the negative effects ahead of it .
Due to the storm 's large size , it began turning towards the north @-@ northwest along the subtropical ridge on August 24 , earlier than anticipated . During this brief turn , the center of Bolaven crossed 135 ° E , entering the area of responsibility of the Philippine Atmospheric , Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration ( PAGASA ) . As such , the administration assigned the typhoon with the local name Julian . Later that day , a well @-@ defined , 18 km ( 11 mi ) wide eye developed within the central dense overcast and several additional feeder bands formed along the south side of the circulation . Based on the improved structure , the JTWC estimated that the system attained one @-@ minute sustained winds of 215 km / h ( 135 mph ) , equivalent to a Category 4 on the Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Scale . By the morning of August 25 , Bolaven began to undergo an eyewall replacement cycle . Despite the slightly degrading structure , the JTWC estimated the storm to have intensified slightly , attaining one @-@ minute winds of 230 km / h ( 145 mph ) .
On August 25 , Bolaven began to interact with Typhoon Tembin , which was located over the South China Sea , causing Tembin to execute a slow counter @-@ clockwise loop . An outer eyewall became more apparent late on August 25 with a clear second ring of deep convection surrounding the original eye . Similar to the JTWC , the JMA continued to indicate that Bolaven was intensifying through early on August 26 . At that time , the JMA estimated the typhoon to have reached its peak intensity with winds of 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) and a barometric pressure of 910 mbar ( hPa ; 26 @.@ 87 inHg ) . As the system approached Okinawa , radar imagery showed a 55 km ( 34 mi ) wide eyewall surrounding a small , but well @-@ organized 11 km ( 6 @.@ 8 mi ) wide inner eyewall . Shortly before 1500 UTC on August 26 , the center of Bolaven passed directly over Okinawa . At the time , the JTWC assessed the system to have had one @-@ minute sustained winds of 195 km / h ( 120 mph ) while the JMA estimated the winds to be 175 km / h ( 110 mph ) . Early on August 27 , the storm 's inner eyewall collapsed as the eyewall replacement cycle finished , with the new eye estimated to be about 220 km ( 140 mi ) in diameter . In addition to its unusually large eye , the storm itself was large , spanning approximately 890 to 1 @,@ 020 km ( 550 to 630 mi ) . However , microwave satellite imagery indicated an overall weakening of the western side of the storm . Accelerating northward , Bolaven maintained a well @-@ defined outflow due to a large tropical upper @-@ tropospheric trough to its southeast and a mid @-@ latitude trough to the northwest .
As the storm moved northward over the Yellow Sea , atmospheric conditions became increasingly hostile , with significantly lower sea surface temperatures and high wind shear . During the overnight of August 27 – 28 , the typhoon brushed South Korea as a weakening cyclone . Convection on the west side of the storm diminished and its feeder bands began to collapse . Increasing shear started taking its toll early on August 28 as convection became displaced from the center of circulation , leaving part of the southwestern quadrant exposed . This also indicated that Bolaven had begun to undergo an extratropical transition as it approached the Korean Peninsula . Following structural weakening , the JMA and JTWC downgraded Bolaven to a severe tropical storm and tropical storm , respectively . Hours before moving onshore in North Korea , the majority of the convection had moved over land while the circulation and the center itself had only stratocumulus clouds covering it . Around 1500 UTC on August 28 , Bolaven made landfall in North Korea with winds of 100 km / h ( 65 mph ) . Rapidly moving towards the northeast , the storm became fully embedded within a baroclinic zone near the China – North Korea border later that day . The JMA continued to monitor Bolaven as a tropical cyclone until early on August 29 , at which time the system was situated over the southern region of the Russian Far East . The extratropical remnants later turned eastward and were last noted on September 1 crossing the International Dateline .
= = Preparations = =
= = = Philippines = = =
On August 24 , fishing vessels and small craft off the northern and eastern coasts of Luzon , Philippines were advised to not venture out due to large swells produced by Typhoons Bolaven and Tembin .
= = = Ryukyu Islands = = =
On August 22 , hours before the JTWC classified Bolaven as a typhoon , Okinawa was placed under Tropical Cyclone Condition of Readiness ( TCCR ) four . The following day , media reports began calling Typhoon Bolaven " the bad one . " At this time , the then Category 4 @-@ equivalent typhoon was expected to pass directly over Okinawa and based on forecasts from the JTWC , it would be the most powerful storm to hit the island in 13 years . On August 24 , the TCCR was raised to level three . During the afternoon of August 25 , the TCCR was raised to the third @-@ highest level , one . Residents were urged to have all their preparations complete as soon as possible before the storm arrived . This was further raised to TCCR 1 @-@ C ( caution ) as tropical storm force winds began impacting the island .
Across Ishigaki Island , all public activities were canceled by August 24 and flights to mainland Japan were suspended . Ferry service to Kagoshima Prefecture was also canceled . Throughout Okinawa , 850 people , including 300 in Naha , evacuated to public shelters due to the threat of flooding . Transportation across the island was paralyzed due to the storm as ferry terminals , airports , and bus and rail services were shut down . During the evening of August 25 , All Nippon Airways and Japan Airlines canceled all flights to and from the Ryukyu Islands , south of Amami Ōshima for August 26 and the morning of August 27 . The slow motion of the storm led meteorologists at the JMA to warn residents of a potential record rainfall event , stating that localized areas could receive between 400 and 600 mm ( 16 and 24 in ) of rain . Rainfall rates were expected to reach nearly 150 mm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) per hour during the height of the storm . Due to the significant threat of flash flooding and mudslides , residents living in flood @-@ prone or mountainous areas were urged to evacuate .
= = = China = = =
Although located more than 500 km ( 310 mi ) away from Eastern China , officials in the country issued sea warnings on August 27 due to waves estimated between 9 and 12 m ( 30 and 39 ft ) over the East China Sea and Yellow Sea . In Northeastern China , ferry service along the Yalu River in Dandong City was suspended the same day . Due to the threat of heavy rains , approximately 23 @,@ 000 were evacuated in Jiangsu Province . In Weihai city , more than 2 @,@ 000 vessels sought refuge at port and ferry services were canceled . In Shanghai , more than 100 flights were canceled on August 28 due to the storm .
= = = Korean Peninsula and Russia = = =
Initially , forecasts from the JMA and Korea Meteorological Administration indicated that Bolaven would strike the country at an intensity greater than that of the nation 's worst typhoon disaster in decades : Typhoon Rusa in 2002 . On August 27 , nearly all of South Korea was placed under a typhoon warning as the storm approached . The state disaster relief board went to its highest alert level prior to the storm 's arrival . More than 400 flights were canceled across the country , including 109 international flights from Incheon International Airport . The majority of cancellations were domestic flights , mainly from Ningbo to Jeju Island . Local authorities conducted safety inspections of areas prone to landslides and closed off beaches and seawalls . Residents in flood @-@ prone areas were encouraged to evacuate for their own safety as well . Along the coast , hundreds of ships sought refuge from rough seas in various harbors and ports . Numerous ports banned sea travel and shut down activities by August 27 , and 68 of the nation 's 87 ferry routes were canceled . In Busan , all ships were not allowed access to the docks until the typhoon 's passage .
Storm warnings were issued as far north as the Russian Far East as officials anticipated the remnants of the typhoon to cause significant disruption in the region . Residents were advised to avoid outdoor activities from August 28 to 29 as the storm moved through . In the Sea of Japan , more than 100 ships sought refuge in bays across the Primorsky Krai . Ferry service to all islands in the region was also suspended . All military personnel in the region were placed at an elevated state of readiness for the storm . On August 28 , crisis centers were opened in 12 cities and 22 districts across Primorsky Krai . Although the storm was expected to cause significant disruptions in the region , Russian Emergencies Minister Vladimir Puchkov stated that the Asia @-@ Pacific Economic Cooperation Summit in Vladivostok would continue as planned .
= = Impact = =
= = = Japan = = =
Regarded as the most powerful typhoon to strike the region since 1956 , strong winds in Japan 's Kagoshima Prefecture left approximately 60 @,@ 000 residences without power . Although a strong storm when it passed over Okinawa , damage was less than initially feared . Across Okinawa , sustained winds were measured up to 167 km / h ( 104 mph ) with gusts to 222 km / h ( 138 mph ) . On Okinoerabujima , wind gusts were measured up to 153 km / h ( 95 mph ) . At Kadena Air Base , a barometric pressure of 952 mb ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 11 inHg ) was measured as the storm passed over . Numerous trees were snapped or uprooted and dozens of buildings were damaged by the winds . Throughout the Ryukyu Islands , rainfall peaked in Setouchi , Kagoshima at 551 @.@ 5 mm ( 21 @.@ 71 in ) . In Kunigami , 535 mm ( 21 @.@ 1 in ) of rain fell during the storm . These rains triggered flash flooding across several islands . On Amami Ōshima , one person drowned after being swept away by a swollen river . Numerous landslides took place across the islands , damaging roads and buildings . During the height of the storm , the highest level of warning , TCCR 1 @-@ E ( emergency ) , was issued for the island , indicating that all outdoor activities were banned . Numerous roads and bridges were either shut down or blocked by debris across many of the islands , making travel difficult . Damage to public facilities throughout Kagoshima reached ¥ 6 @.@ 3 billion ( US $ 80 @.@ 6 million ) .
Due to the threat of landslides , 5 @,@ 500 households were evacuated across the Amami Islands on August 27 . One home was destroyed and 1 @,@ 065 residences were evacuated in Tokunoshima . Eight people were injured across the island and 549 sought refuge in public shelters . In Yonabaru , the typhoon 's storm surge and large swells flooded coastal highways and inundated nearby buildings . Large sections of roads were also washed away by the storm . Cellphone service was lost late on August 26 throughout much of Okinawa Prefecture .
Passing over Okinawa with a central pressure of 910 mbar ( hPa ; 26 @.@ 87 inHg ) , Bolaven became one of the most intense typhoons to ever strike the region . Off the coast of Wakayama Prefecture , swells from the typhoon battered fishing vessels and knocked the captain of one ship overboard . Although a rescue helicopter was quick to reach him , he was later pronounced dead at a local hospital . Just off the coast of Jogashima Misaki @-@ cho in Miura , Kanagawa , two boys were swept away by large swells . A mother attempted to swim after them to save them but later drowned . The two boys were later rescued with minor injuries by the Coast Guard . Although the storm did not strike the Japanese mainland , its outer bands brought showers and thunderstorms to parts of Kyushu . Due to the rains , rail service in Saga Prefecture was temporarily suspended , affecting 4 @,@ 200 passengers . In Isahaya , one person was injured after being struck by a billboard downed by high winds . Throughout Japan , losses to agriculture and fisheries amounted to ¥ 423 @.@ 28 million ( US $ 5 @.@ 39 million ) .
= = = South Korea = = =
The first area in South Korea impacted by Typhoon Bolaven was Jeju Island , a small island located off the southwestern coast of the nation . There , high winds from the storm downed power poles , broke street lamps , and damaged buildings . More than 70 @,@ 000 households on the island lost power . On Jeollanam @-@ do Wando , a wind gust of 186 km / h ( 116 mph ) was recorded during the storm 's passage . Across the country , approximately 1 @.@ 9 million people lost power , though it was quickly restored to all but 34 @,@ 000 within a day . In Seoul , strong winds damaged street lamps , church spires , and downed signs . Due to various storm @-@ related incidents , hundreds of people had to be evacuated . Throughout the country , at least 19 people were killed by Typhoon Bolaven . Reports indicated that there was extensive property damage from the storm . Many buildings lost their roofs , several collapsed , and smaller structures were blown over . In Gwangju , a record 10 @,@ 004 emergency calls were made in one day in relation to the storm , the majority of which were about fallen billboards .
In Naju , the country 's largest producer of pears , approximately 1 @,@ 400 hectares ( 3 @,@ 460 acres ) of pear trees , or 60 % of the total crop , was destroyed . Agriculture as a whole suffered significantly from the storm , with a total of 9 @,@ 000 hectares ( 22 @,@ 000 acres ) of apple and pear plantations being destroyed . As a result , the price of produce across the nation jumped substantially . In Yesan alone , a town where more than 1 @,@ 500 families relies on their apple orchards for a living , losses to the orchards reached ₩ 300 billion ( US $ 265 @.@ 4 million ) . The prices of spinach , cabbage , and lettuce rose by 124 % , 72 % , and 26 % respectively in just one day . Total losses throughout the country were estimated at ₩ 420 billion ( US $ 374 @.@ 3 million ) . More than 500 people were left homeless as a result of Bolaven , mostly in South Jeolla Province . Additionally , economic losses to airlines related to the typhoon reached ₩ 17 billion ( $ 15 million ) . Korean Air and Asiana Airlines suffered the greatest losses of the affected companies .
About 2 km ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) off the coast of Jeju Island , two Chinese vessels with a total of 33 people aboard , sank during the storm on August 28 . According to local media , 18 of the crewmen were rescued or swam back to shore while 9 drowned and 6 others remained missing . Off the coast of South Gyeongsang Province , a 77 @,@ 458 ton cargo ship ran aground during the storm and broke in half . Eighteen people were on board the vessel , though no one was injured during the incident .
= = = North Korea = = =
In North Korea , heavy rains from the storm triggered significant flooding and many landslides . The Korean Central News Agency reported wind speeds of more than 108 km / h ( 67 mph ) in North Hwanghae , South Hwanghae , South Hamgyong , South Pyongan Provinces and the city of Nampho , and waves as high as 1 @.@ 11 m ( 3 @.@ 6 ft ) in the sea of Kimchaek . According to the North Korean Hydrometeorological Management Office , wind gusts reached 130 km / h ( 81 mph ) . Widespread damage took place throughout the country as a result of the storm . The hardest hit area was South Hamgyong Province , where 48 people were killed and another 45 were reported missing . Across the province , 2 @,@ 405 homes were destroyed and another 1 @,@ 500 were damaged . In South Phyongan Province , eight people were killed and 714 homes were destroyed . Two people were killed in North Hamgyong Province and another died in Ryanggang Province . At least 8 @,@ 950 homes were destroyed and approximately 101 @,@ 000 hectares ( 250 @,@ 000 acres ) of crop and rice fields were flooded . More than a dozen schools and medical buildings were destroyed . Additionally , 16 @,@ 730 trees were downed and 880 public and industrial buildings were severely damaged . In all , at least 59 people were killed , 50 others were reported missing , and more than 21 @,@ 800 others were left homeless .
= = = China and Russia = = =
Northeastern China did not experience the full @-@ force of Typhoon Bolaven , though heavy rains did impact the country . Changchun recorded the heaviest rains in China related to Bolaven , with 120 @.@ 6 mm ( 4 @.@ 75 in ) falling . In the city alone , 25 roads were flooded and 20 power poles were downed . Thousands of people were evacuated due to flooding triggered by the storm . Gale @-@ force winds in Jilin Province damaged approximately 690 @,@ 000 hectares ( 1 @.@ 7 million acres ) of crops . Rainfall amounting to 139 mm ( 5 @.@ 5 in ) caused localized flooding , disrupting transportation in Heilongjiang Province . Throughout Northeastern China , an estimated 40 million people were affected by the typhoon .
On August 29 , the remnants of Bolaven brought winds up to 90 km / h ( 56 mph ) in the Primorsky Krai , leaving 9 @,@ 800 people without power . Power was soon restored to all but 195 residents who live in the town of Vityaz . In Vladivostok , wind gusts reached 118 km / h ( 73 mph ) , downing numerous trees . Rains associated with the storm were light , with only 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 20 in ) recorded in Vladivostok . Gale @-@ force winds prompted the temporary closure of the Bridge to Russky Island , which was built specifically for the Asia @-@ Pacific Economic Cooperation Summit . With ferries already canceled , residents were unable to leave the island until the storm passed . In the Khabarovsk Krai , heavy rains from the storm proved beneficial as they allowed firefighters to extinguish six wildfires and contain five others within a 24 ‑ hour span . Along the coast , large waves caused some beach erosion and prompted evacuations in Manchzhurka . Additionally , five people had to be rescued after ignoring warnings and wading into the sea . In some areas , large numbers of crabs , fish , and oysters washed ashore during the storm .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = South Korea = = =
By September 6 , farmers in southern areas of the country requested aid from the government . In South Jeolla Province , ₩ 35 billion ( US $ 31 @.@ 1 million ) was allocated for post @-@ storm recovery . Of this , about half went to repairing public facilities . Across the province , repairs were expected to be completed by October or November 2012 . On September 11 , the Food , Agriculture , Forestry and Fisheries Minister announced that residents severely affected by the typhoon were eligible for up to ₩ 50 million ( US $ 44 @,@ 000 ) in construction assistance . Economically , Typhoons Bolaven and Tembin contributed to a 6 @.@ 6 % decrease in construction investment , the largest drop since January 2003 .
= = = North Korea = = =
On September 4 , Hwang Woo @-@ yea , chairman of South Korea 's Saenuri Party , urged the government to seek international aid , namely in the form of food , for North Korean residents affected by the typhoon . On September 6 , the Red Cross Society of Democratic People 's Republic of Korea announced that international aid may be requested for the effects of severe flooding in July and Typhoon Bolaven . Locally , the Red Cross distributed 2 @,@ 515 emergency kits to more than 11 @,@ 600 people in three of the hardest hit provinces . During the first week of September , the government of North Korea requested aid from South Korea and later accepted their offer of 10 @,@ 000 tons of flour , and 3 million packages of instant noodles , medical supplies and other aid . Additionally , the United Nations World Food Program called for emergency assistance for the country . However , despite initially agreeing to terms with South Korea , North Korea rejected the aid offer , stating that " they don 't need such aid . "
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= ... And Justice for All ( album ) =
… And Justice for All is the fourth studio album by American heavy metal band Metallica , released on August 25 , 1988 , by Elektra Records . It was the band 's first studio album to feature bassist Jason Newsted after the death of Cliff Burton in 1986 . … And Justice for All is musically progressive , with long and complex songs , fast tempos , and few verse @-@ chorus structures . The album is noted for its sterile production , which producer Flemming Rasmussen attributed to his absence during the mixing process . The lyrics feature themes of political and legal injustice seen through the prisms of censorship , war , and nuclear brinkmanship .
The album 's front cover , designed by Stephen Gorman on a scheme by James Hetfield and Lars Ulrich , features a representation of Lady Justice , bound by ropes , with one breast bare and its scales tipping toward one plate filled with money . The phrase " … And Justice for All " appears spray @-@ painted in the lower right corner . The album title is derived from the American Pledge of Allegiance . Originally released on one vinyl disc , the album was quickly re @-@ released as a double album without additional tracks . Three songs from the album were released as singles : " Harvester of Sorrow " , " Eye of the Beholder " , and " One " , while the title track was released as a promotional single .
… And Justice for All was acclaimed by music critics . It was included in The Village Voice 's annual Pazz & Jop critics ' poll of the year 's best albums , and the single " One " earned Metallica its first Grammy Award for Best Metal Performance in 1990 . The group 's best @-@ selling album at the time , it was the first underground metal album to achieve chart success in the United States . The album was certified 8 × platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) in 2003 for shipping eight million copies in the US , making it Metallica 's second @-@ best @-@ selling album in the country .
= = Background = =
… And Justice for All was Metallica 's first full @-@ length studio album to feature bassist Jason Newsted after the death of Cliff Burton in 1986 . Newsted had previously played on Metallica 's The $ 5 @.@ 98 E.P. : Garage Days Re @-@ Revisited , an extended play released in 1987 . The band intended to record the album earlier , but was sidetracked by the large number of festival dates scheduled for the summer of 1987 , including the European leg of the Monsters of Rock festival . Another reason was frontman James Hetfield 's arm injury in a skateboarding accident . The band 's previous studio album , Master of Puppets , marked the end of Metallica 's contract with the Music for Nations label . Manager Peter Mensch wanted the band to sign with British record distributor Phonogram Records , and Phonogram chairman Martin Hooker was keen to obtain the band 's contract . To persuade Metallica to choose his label Hooker offered them a bigger deal , " worth well over £ 1 million , which at that time was the biggest deal we 'd ever offered anyone " . His explanation was that the final figure for combined British and European sales of all three Metallica albums was more than 1 @.@ 5 million copies . The album title was revealed in April 1988 : … And Justice for All , after the final words of the Pledge of Allegiance . The artwork was created by Stephen Gorman , based on a concept developed by Hetfield and drummer Lars Ulrich . It depicts a cracked statue of a blindfolded Lady Justice , bound by ropes with her breasts exposed and her scales overflowing with dollar bills . The title appears graffiti @-@ style in the lower right corner .
= = Production and recording = =
… And Justice for All was recorded from January to May 1988 at One on One Recording Studios in Los Angeles . Metallica produced the album with Flemming Rasmussen . Rasmussen was initially unavailable for the planned start on January 1 , 1988 , and the band brought in Mike Clink , who had caught their attention for producing Guns N ' Roses ' debut Appetite for Destruction ( 1987 ) . Things did not work out as planned , and three weeks later Rasmussen became available after Ulrich gave him a call . Rasmussen listened to Clink 's rough mixes for the album on his February 14 flight to Los Angeles , and upon his arrival Clink was fired . Hetfield explained that recording with Clink did not work out so well , and Rasmussen came over as a last @-@ minute replacement . However , Clink is credited with engineering the drums on two of the album 's tracks : " The Shortest Straw " and " Harvester of Sorrow " . While waiting for Rasmussen to arrive , the band recorded two cover songs — " Breadfan " and " The Prince " — to " fine ‑ tune the sound while they got into the studio vibe " . Both were released as B @-@ sides of the " Harvester of Sorrow " CD single , as separate B @-@ sides for " Eye of the Beholder " and " One " respectively , and were included on the covers album Garage Inc . ( 1998 ) .
Rasmussen 's first task was to adjust and arrange the guitar sound with which the band was dissatisfied . A guide track for the tempos and a click track for Ulrich 's drumming were used . The band played in a live room , recording the instruments separately . Each song used three reels : one for drums , a second for bass and guitars and a third for anything else . Hetfield wrote lyrics during the recording sessions ; these were occasionally unfinished as recording began , and Rasmussen said that Hetfield " wasn 't really interested in singing " but instead " wanted that hard vibe " . Metallica 's recording process was new to Jason Newsted , who questioned his impact on the overall sound and the lack of discussion with the rest of the team . Newsted had a different experience with his previous band , Flotsam and Jetsam , describing their style as " basically everybody playing the same thing like a sonic wall " . He recorded his parts separately from the rest of the band , with only the assistant engineer present . Newsted noted that his parts were at the same audio frequency as Hetfield 's guitar parts , and this created a " [ battle ] for the same frequency " . Steve Thompson , who mixed the album , claims that Ulrich was squarely to blame for the inaudible bass and unusual drums . Thompson wanted to be relieved of his mixing duties when Ulrich presented his ideas on the production , but Thompson was not allowed to leave and received the majority of the criticism for the poor sound quality of the record .
= = Music = =
… And Justice for All is a musically progressive album featuring long and complex songs , fast tempos and few verse @-@ chorus structures . Metallica decided to broaden its sonic range , writing songs with multiple sections , heavy guitar arpeggios and unusual time signatures . Hetfield later explained : " Songwriting @-@ wise , [ the album ] was just us really showing off and trying to show what we could do . ' We 've jammed six riffs into one song ? Let 's make it eight . Let 's go crazy with it . ' " Music critic Simon Reynolds noted the riff changes and experimentation with timing on the album 's epically constructed songs : " The tempo shifts , gear changes , lapses , decelerations and abrupt halts " . BBC Music 's Eamonn Stack wrote that … And Justice for All sounds different from the band 's previous albums , with longer songs , sparser arrangements , and harsher vocals by Hetfield . According to journalist Martin Popoff , the album was less melodic than its predecessors because of its frequent tempo changes , unusual song structures and layered guitars . He argued that the album is more of a progressive metal record because of its intricately performed music and bleak sound . Music writer Joel McIver called the album 's music aggressive enough for Metallica to maintain its place with bands " at the mellower end of extreme metal " . According to writer Christopher Knowles , Metallica took " the thrash concept to its logical conclusion " on the album .
The album was noted for its " dry , sterile " production . Rasmussen said that was not his intention , as he tried for an ambient sound similar to the previous two albums . He was not present during the album 's mixing , for which Steve Thompson and Michael Barbiero had been hired beforehand . Rasmussen felt that , in his absence from the mixing process , Thompson and Barbiero ended up using only the close microphones on the mix and none of the room microphones , thus causing the " clicking " , thin drum sound . Popoff noted that because of the strange production , the bass guitar was nearly inaudible , while the guitars sounded " strangled mechanistic " . He saw the " synthetic " percussion as another reason for the album 's compressed sound . The sound has nearly @-@ inaudible bass guitar , which Rasmussen claims was ordered by Hetfield and Ulrich after hearing the initial mixes , resulting in his belief that " Jason Newsted , [ engineer ] Toby Wright and I are probably the only people who know what the bass parts actually sounded like on that album " . Thompson similarly blamed Ulrich for the inaudible bass , stating that Ulrich ordered him to remove the bass from the mix . In their defence , Hetfield and Ulrich said that most of Newsted 's bass lines closely followed the rhythm guitar lines to the point of being indiscernible from each other . A lack of direction is also partly to blame ; since the album was largely produced by the band , there was no one present in the studio to guide the band 's new bassist and tell him what was expected of him , something a producer would typically do . Newsted was not satisfied with the final mixes : " The Justice album wasn 't something that really felt good for me , because you really can 't hear the bass . "
= = Lyrics = =
The lyrical content of … And Justice for All is conceptually unified around notions of political and legal injustice as seen through the prism of war , censored speech , and nuclear brinksmanship . The majority of the songs raise issues that differ from the violent retaliation of the previous releases . Tom King wrote that for the first time the lyrics dealt with political and environmental issues . He named contemporaries Nuclear Assault as the only other band who applied ecological lyrics to thrash metal songs rather than singing about Satan and Egyptian plagues . McIver noted that Hetfield , the band 's main lyricist , wrote about topics that he had not addressed before , such as his revolt against the establishment . Ulrich described the songwriting process as their " CNN years " , with him and Hetfield watching the channel in search for song subjects — " I 'd read about the blacklisting thing , we 'd get a title , ' The Shortest Straw , ' and a song would come out of that . "
Concerns about the environmental plight of the planet ( " Blackened " ) , corruption ( " … And Justice for All " ) , and blacklisting and discrimination ( " The Shortest Straw " ) are emphasized with traditional existential themes . Issues such as freedom of speech and civil liberties are presented from a grim and pessimistic point of view . " One " was unofficially entitled " antiwar anthem " because of the lyrics which portray the suffering of a wounded soldier . " Dyers Eve " is a lyrical rant from Hetfield to his parents . Burton received co @-@ writing credit on " To Live Is to Die " as the bass line was a medley of unused recordings Burton had performed prior to his death . Because the original recordings are not used on the track , the composition is credited as written by Burton and played by Newsted . The spoken word at the end of the song ( " When a man lies , he murders some part of the world . These are the pale deaths which men miscall their lives . " ) was written by German poet Paul Gerhardt , but was erroneously attributed to Burton in the liner notes . The second half of the speech ( " All this I cannot bear to witness any longer . Cannot the kingdom of salvation take me home ? " ) was written by Burton .
= = Critical reception = =
Released on August 25 , 1988 , by Elektra Records , … And Justice for All was acclaimed by music critics . In a contemporary review for Rolling Stone , Michael Azerrad said that Metallica 's compositions are impressive and called the album 's music " a marvel of precisely channeled aggression " . Spin magazine 's Sharon Liveten called it a " gem of a double record " and found the music both edgy and technically proficient . Simon Reynolds , writing in Melody Maker , said that " other bands would give their eye teeth " for the songs ' riffs and found the album 's densely complicated style of metal to be distinct from the monotonous sound of contemporary rock music : " Everything depends on utter punctuality and supreme surgical finesse . It 's probably the most incisive music I 've ever heard , in the literal sense of the word . " Borivoj Krgin of Metal Forces said that it was the most ideal album he has heard because of typically exceptional production and musicianship that is more impressive than on Master of Puppets . In a less enthusiastic review for The Village Voice , Robert Christgau felt that the band 's compositions lack song form and that the album " goes on longer " than Master of Puppets . In 1988 , … And Justice for All was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Hard Rock / Metal Performance , but with much controversy , it lost to Jethro Tull 's Crest of a Knave . In 2007 , Entertainment Weekly , named the win one of the 10 biggest upsets in Grammy history .
In a retrospective review , Greg Kot of the Chicago Tribune said that … And Justice for All was both the band 's " most ambitious " and ultimately " flattest @-@ sounding " album . AllMusic 's Steve Huey noted that Metallica followed the blueprint of the previous two albums , with more sophisticated songs and " apocalyptic " lyrics that envisioned a society in decay . Music journalist Mick Wall was critical of the progressive elements on the album and felt that , apart from " One " and " Dyers Eve " , most of the album sounded clumsy . Colin Larkin , writing in the Encyclopedia of Popular Music ( 2006 ) , wrote that , apart from the praiseworthy " One " , the album diminished the band 's creativity by concentrating the songs with too many riffs . Ulrich said in retrospect that the album has improved with time and it is well @-@ revered among their contemporaries .
= = = Accolades = = =
In The Village Voice 's annual Pazz & Jop critics poll , … And Justice for All was voted the 39th best album of 1988 , having received 117 votes , including 12 first @-@ place votes . The album was ranked at number nine on IGN 's Top 25 Metal Albums . In a 2006 reader poll by Guitar World , … And Justice for All was placed 12th among the 100 Greatest Guitar Albums . All of the album 's tracks were featured on " The 100 Greatest Metallica Songs of All Time " made by the same magazine . Kerrang ! listed the album at number 42 among the " 100 Greatest Heavy Metal Albums of All Time " . Martin Popoff ranks the effort at number 19 in his book The Top 500 Heavy Metal Albums of All Time , the fourth highest ranked Metallica album on the list . The album is featured in Robert Dimery 's 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die .
After years of refusing to release music videos , Metallica released its first for " One " . The video was controversial among fans , who had valued the band 's apparent opposition to MTV and other forms of mainstream music . Slant Magazine ranked it number 48 on their list of the " 100 Greatest Music Videos " , saying that Metallica " evoke a revolution of the soul far more devastating than that presented in the original text " . The guitar solo was ranked number seven in Guitar World 's compilation of the 100 Greatest Guitar Solos of all time . Additionally , heavy metal website Noisecreep classed the song ninth among the " 10 Best ' 80s Metal Songs " .
= = Commercial performance = =
Although Metallica 's music was considered unappealing for mainstream radio , … And Justice for All became the first underground metal album to achieve chart success in the US . It became Metallica 's best @-@ selling album upon release , peaking at number six on the Billboard 200 , where it charted for 83 weeks . Since 1991 , when Nielsen SoundScan began tracking sales , … And Justice for All has sold 5 @,@ 330 @,@ 000 copies in the United States . It was certified platinum nine weeks after it was released in stores , and sold 1 @.@ 7 million copies in the US by the end of 1988 . Since its release , the album has scanned more than 8 million copies in the US and , according to MTV 's Chris Harris , " helped cement [ Metallica 's ] status as a rock and roll force to be reckoned with " . Classic Rock explained that with this album , Metallica received substantial media exposure , becoming a multi @-@ platinum act by 1990 . The group broke through on radio in 1988 with " One " , which was released as the third single from the record . According to Billboard , … And Justice for All found the band evolving into arena headliners , as " One " , accompanied by the group 's first music video , garnered significant airplay .
… And Justice for All achieved similar chart success outside the United States . It peaked within the top 5 on the charts in Germany , Sweden , and the United Kingdom , and remained on the UK chart for six weeks . The album managed to peak in the top 10 on the Finnish , Norwegian , and Swiss album charts . It was less successful in Spain , Mexico and France , where it peaked at number 92 on the former chart , number 130 on the latter , and number 64 in Spain . … And Justice for All received a three times platinum certification from Music Canada for shipping 300 @,@ 000 copies , a platinum certification from IFPI Finland for having a shipment of little over 50 @,@ 000 copies , and was certified gold by the Bundesverband Musikindustrie ( BVMI ) for shipments of 250 @,@ 000 copies . It was awarded gold by the British Phonographic Industry in 2013 for shipping 100 @,@ 000 copies in the UK . … And Justice for All was commercially succeeded by the band 's following album Metallica ( 1991 ) .
= = Live performances = =
Guitarist Kirk Hammett noted that the length of the songs was problematic for fans and for the band : " Touring behind it , we realized that the general consensus was that songs were too fucking long . One day after we played ' Justice ' and got off the stage one of us said , ' we 're never fucking playing that song again . ' " Nevertheless , " One " quickly became a permanent fixture in the band 's setlist . When performed live , the opening war sound is lengthened from seventeen seconds to approximately two minutes . At the song 's conclusion , the stage turns pitch @-@ black and fire erupts from various points . The live performance is characterized as a " musical and visual highlight " by Rolling Stone journalist Denise Sheppard . Other songs from … And Justice for All that have frequently been performed are " Blackened " and " Harvester of Sorrow " , which were often featured during the album 's promotional Damaged Justice Tour .
Metallica played the title track in the opening show of the Sick of the Studio ' 07 tour , for the first time since October 1989 , and made it a set @-@ fixture for the remainder of that tour . A statue of Lady Justice is commonly placed on the scene , to be torn down as the song approaches its conclusion . " Eye of the Beholder " has not been played live since 1989 ; one such performance appears on Metallica 's live extended play , Six Feet Down Under . During the World Magnetic Tour in 2009 , " The Shortest Straw " made its way back into the setlist after a 12 @-@ year absence , and has been sporadically performed since . " The Frayed Ends of Sanity " debuted live on the Metallica By Request tour in 2014 , although the band had previously played segments during solos , impromptu jams , or in a " Justice " medley . " To Live Is to Die " premiered at the band 's 30th @-@ anniversary concert at The Fillmore in San Francisco . " Dyers Eve " debuted live sixteen years after it was recorded , during the Madly in Anger with the World Tour at The Forum in Inglewood , California .
= = Track listing = =
All lyrics written by James Hetfield , except " To Live Is to Die " by Cliff Burton .
= = Personnel = =
Credits are adapted from the album 's liner notes .
= = = Metallica = = =
James Hetfield – lead vocals , rhythm guitar
Kirk Hammett – lead guitar
Jason Newsted – bass guitar
Lars Ulrich – drums
= = = Production = = =
Michael Barbiero – mixing
Mike Clink – drum engineering
George Cowan – assistant engineering
Bob Ludwig – mastering
Metallica – production
Flemming Rasmussen – production , engineering
Steve Thompson – mixing
Toby Wright – additional engineering
= = = Packaging = = =
Stephen Gorman – cover art
Ross Halfin – photography
Pushead – illustrations
Reiner Design Consultants , Inc . – design , layout
= = Charts = =
= = Certification = =
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= I @-@ 351 @-@ class submarine =
The I @-@ 351 @-@ class submarine ( 伊三百五十一型潜水艦 , I @-@ san @-@ byaku @-@ go @-@ jū @-@ ichi @-@ gata sensuikan ) was a class of tanker / transport submarines built for the Imperial Japanese Navy ( IJN ) during World War II . The IJN called this type of submarine Senho type submarine ( 潜補型潜水艦 , Sen @-@ Ho @-@ gata sensuikan ) . The type name , was shortened to Hokyū Sensuikan ( 補給潜水艦 , Submarine Tanker ) . The IJN designed these submarines to support flying boats in forward areas . By the time the first submarine was finished , this capability was no longer needed and she was converted into an oil tanker . That boat , I @-@ 351 , was sunk on the return leg of her second voyage in 1945 ; the second boat was destroyed by an American air raid before she was completed . Four additional submarines were planned , but were cancelled before they were laid down .
= = Design and description = =
The I @-@ 351 @-@ class submarines were ordered under the 5th Fleet Replenishment Program of 1942 to support IJN flying boats in areas where there were no shore facilities and seaplane tenders could not operate . They were designed to support up to three flying boats with fuel , ammunition , water and even replacement aircrew .
These submarines had a length of 111 meters ( 364 ft 2 in ) overall , a beam of 10 @.@ 2 meters ( 33 ft 6 in ) and a draft of 6 @.@ 1 meters ( 20 ft 0 in ) . They displaced 3 @,@ 512 long tons ( 3 @,@ 568 t ) on the surface and 4 @,@ 290 long tons ( 4 @,@ 360 t ) submerged . They had a diving depth of 90 meters ( 300 ft ) and a crew of 77 officers and enlisted men plus accommodations for 13 aircrew .
The boats had two propellers , each of which was driven by a 1 @,@ 850 @-@ brake @-@ horsepower ( 1 @,@ 380 kW ) diesel engine as well as a 600 @-@ shaft @-@ horsepower ( 447 kW ) electric motor . This arrangement gave the I @-@ 351 @-@ class submarines a maximum speed of 15 @.@ 75 knots ( 29 @.@ 17 km / h ; 18 @.@ 12 mph ) while surfaced and 6 @.@ 3 knots ( 11 @.@ 7 km / h ; 7 @.@ 2 mph ) submerged . They had a range of 13 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 24 @,@ 000 km ; 15 @,@ 000 mi ) at 14 knots ( 26 km / h ; 16 mph ) while on the surface and 100 nmi ( 190 km ; 120 mi ) at 3 knots ( 5 @.@ 6 km / h ; 3 @.@ 5 mph ) while submerged . This gave them an endurance of 60 days .
The boats were equipped with four 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedo tubes in the bow and they carried four torpedoes . For surface combat they were designed to carry one 14 @-@ centimeter ( 5 @.@ 5 in ) deck gun , but this was unavailable when the submarines were under construction and three 81 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 2 in ) Type 3 mortars were substituted . The submarines were fitted with seven 25 mm Type 96 anti @-@ aircraft guns , in two twin and three single mounts .
The I @-@ 351 @-@ class submarines were initially equipped to carry 365 long tons ( 371 t ) of aviation gasoline , 11 long tons ( 11 t ) of fresh water , and either sixty 550 @-@ pound ( 250 kg ) bombs or 30 bombs and 15 aircraft torpedoes . Four of the torpedoes could be replaced by an equal number of reload torpedoes for the submarine .
= = Boats = =
= = Construction and service = =
Only I @-@ 351 and I @-@ 352 were actually laid down , the other four submarines were cancelled before their keels were laid .
I @-@ 351 was modified before completion into an oil tanker . The boat made one round trip from Singapore , carrying 132 @,@ 000 US gallons ( 500 @,@ 000 l ; 110 @,@ 000 imp gal ) of aviation fuel , and was sunk on the return leg of her second trip in the South China Sea at coordinates 04 ° 30 ′ N 110 ° 00 ′ E by the American submarine Bluefish on 14 July 1945 . I @-@ 352 was 90 percent complete when she was destroyed during an air raid by Boeing B @-@ 29 heavy bombers on 22 July .
= = Books = =
Carpenter , Dorr ; Polmar , Norman ( 1986 ) . Submarines of the Imperial Japanese Navy 1904 – 1945 . London : Conway Maritime Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 85177 @-@ 396 @-@ 6 .
Jentschura , Hansgeorg ; Jung , Dieter ; Mickel , Peter ( 1977 ) . Warships of the Imperial Japanese Navy , 1869 – 1945 . Annapolis , Maryland : United States Naval Institute . ISBN 0 @-@ 87021 @-@ 893 @-@ X.
Stille , Mark ( 2007 ) . Imperial Japanese Navy Submarines 1941 @-@ 45 . New Vanguard 135 . Botley , Oxford , UK : Osprey Publishing . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 84603 @-@ 090 @-@ 1 .
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= Geyser =
A geyser ( US pronunciation : / ˈɡaɪzər / ; UK / ˈɡiːzə / or / ˈɡaɪzə / ) is a spring characterized by intermittent discharge of water ejected turbulently and accompanied by steam .
The formation of geysers is due to particular hydrogeological conditions , which exist in only a few places on Earth , so they are a fairly rare phenomenon . Generally all geyser field sites are located near active volcanic areas , and the geyser effect is due to the proximity of magma . Generally , surface water works its way down to an average depth of around 2 @,@ 000 metres ( 6 @,@ 600 ft ) where it contacts hot rocks . The resultant boiling of the pressurized water results in the geyser effect of hot water and steam spraying out of the geyser 's surface vent ( a hydrothermal explosion ) .
Over one thousand known geysers exist worldwide . At least 1 @,@ 283 geysers have erupted in Yellowstone National Park , Wyoming , United States , and an average of 465 geysers are active there in a given year . A geyser 's eruptive activity may change or cease due to ongoing mineral deposition within the geyser plumbing , exchange of functions with nearby hot springs , earthquake influences , and human intervention .
Jet @-@ like eruptions , often referred to as cryogeysers , have been observed on several of the moons of the outer solar system . Due to the low ambient pressures , these eruptions consist of vapor without liquid ; they are made more easily visible by particles of dust and ice carried aloft by the gas . Water vapor jets have been observed near the south pole of Saturn 's moon Enceladus , while nitrogen eruptions have been observed on Neptune 's moon Triton . There are also signs of carbon dioxide eruptions from the southern polar ice cap of Mars . In the latter two cases , instead of being driven by geothermal energy , the eruptions seem to rely on solar heating via a solid @-@ state greenhouse effect .
= = Name = =
The word geyser comes from Geysir , the name of an erupting spring at Haukadalur , Iceland ; that name , in turn , comes from the Icelandic verb geysa , " to gush " , the verb itself from Old Norse .
= = Form and function = =
Geysers are temporary geological features . Geysers are generally associated with volcanic areas . As the water boils , the resulting pressure forces a superheated column of steam and water to the surface through the geyser 's internal plumbing . The formation of geysers specifically requires the combination of three geologic conditions that are usually found in volcanic terrain .
= = = Intense heat = = =
The heat needed for geyser formation comes from magma that needs to be near the surface of the earth . The fact that geysers need heat much higher than normally found near the earth 's surface is the reason they are associated with volcanoes or volcanic areas . The pressures encountered at the areas where the water is heated make the boiling point of the water much higher than at normal atmospheric pressures .
= = = Water = = =
The water that is ejected from a geyser must travel underground through deep , pressurized fissures in the Earth 's crust .
= = = A plumbing system = = =
In order for the heated water to form a geyser , a plumbing system is required . This includes a reservoir to hold the water while it is being heated . Geysers are generally aligned along faults . The plumbing system is made up of a system of fractures , fissures , porous spaces and sometimes cavities . Constrictions in the system are essential to the building up of pressure before an eruption .
= = Eruptions = =
Geyser activity , like all hot spring activity , is caused by surface water gradually seeping down through the ground until it meets rock heated by magma . The geothermally heated water then rises back toward the surface by convection through porous and fractured rocks . Geysers differ from non @-@ eruptive hot springs in their subterranean structure ; many consist of a small vent at the surface connected to one or more narrow tubes that lead to underground reservoirs of water and pressure tight rock .
As the geyser fills , the water at the top of the column cools off , but because of the narrowness of the channel , convective cooling of the water in the reservoir is impossible . The cooler water above presses down on the hotter water beneath , not unlike the lid of a pressure cooker , allowing the water in the reservoir to become superheated , i.e. to remain liquid at temperatures well above the standard @-@ pressure boiling point .
Ultimately , the temperatures near the bottom of the geyser rise to a point where boiling begins ; steam bubbles rise to the top of the column . As they burst through the geyser 's vent , some water overflows or splashes out , reducing the weight of the column and thus the pressure on the water underneath . With this release of pressure , the superheated water flashes into steam , boiling violently throughout the column . The resulting froth of expanding steam and hot water then sprays out of the geyser vent .
The rocks in the nearby region produce a material called geyserite . Geyserite — mostly silicon dioxide ( SiO2 ) , is dissolved from the rocks and gets deposited on the walls of the geyser 's plumbing system and on the surface . The deposits make the channels carrying the water up to the surface pressure @-@ tight . This allows the pressure to be carried all the way to the top and not be leaked out into the loose gravel or soil that are normally under the geyser fields .
Eventually the water remaining in the geyser cools back to below the boiling point and the eruption ends ; heated groundwater begins seeping back into the reservoir , and the whole cycle begins again . The duration of eruptions and time between successive eruptions vary greatly from geyser to geyser ; Strokkur in Iceland erupts for a few seconds every few minutes , while Grand Geyser in the United States erupts for up to 10 minutes every 8 – 12 hours .
= = General categorization = =
There are two types of geysers : fountain geysers which erupt from pools of water , typically in a series of intense , even violent , bursts ; and cone geysers which erupt from cones or mounds of siliceous sinter ( including geyserite ) , usually in steady jets that last anywhere from a few seconds to several minutes . Old Faithful , perhaps the best @-@ known geyser at Yellowstone National Park , is an example of a cone geyser . Grand Geyser , the tallest predictable geyser on earth , ( although Geysir in Iceland is taller , it is not predictable ) , also at Yellowstone National Park , is an example of a fountain geyser .
There are many volcanic areas in the world that have hot springs , mud pots and fumaroles , but very few have erupting geysers . The main reason for their rarity is because multiple intense transient forces must occur simultaneously for a geyser to exist . For example , even when other necessary conditions exist , if the rock structure is loose , eruptions will erode the channels and rapidly destroy any nascent geysers .
As a result , most geysers form in places where there is volcanic rhyolite rock which dissolves in hot water and forms mineral deposits called siliceous sinter , or geyserite , along the inside of the plumbing systems which are very slender . Over time , these deposits strengthen the channel walls by cementing the rock together tightly , thus enabling the geyser to persist , as mentioned in the previous section .
Geysers are fragile phenomena and if conditions change , they may go dormant or extinct . Many have been destroyed simply by people throwing debris into them while others have ceased to erupt due to dewatering by geothermal power plants . However , the Great Geysir of Iceland has had periods of activity and dormancy . During its long dormant periods , eruptions were sometimes artificially induced — often on special occasions — by the addition of surfactants to the water .
= = Biology of geysers = =
The specific colours of geysers derive from the fact that despite the apparently harsh conditions , life is often found in them ( and also in other hot habitats ) in the form of thermophilic prokaryotes . No known eukaryote can survive over 60 ° C ( 140 ° F ) .
In the 1960s , when the research of biology of geysers first appeared , scientists were generally convinced that no life can survive above around 73 ° C maximum ( 163 ° F ) — the upper limit for the survival of cyanobacteria , as the structure of key cellular proteins and deoxyribonucleic acid ( DNA ) would be destroyed . The optimal temperature for thermophilic bacteria was placed even lower , around 55 ° C average ( 131 ° F ) .
However , the observations proved that it is actually possible for life to exist at high temperatures and that some bacteria even prefer temperatures higher than the boiling point of water . Dozens of such bacteria are known . Thermophiles prefer temperatures from 50 to 70 ° C ( 122 to 158 ° F ) , whilst hyperthermophiles grow better at temperatures as high as 80 to 110 ° C ( 176 to 230 ° F ) . As they have heat @-@ stable enzymes that retain their activity even at high temperatures , they have been used as a source of thermostable tools , that are important in medicine and biotechnology , for example in manufacturing antibiotics , plastics , detergents ( by the use of heat @-@ stable enzymes lipases , pullulanases and proteases ) , and fermentation products ( for example ethanol is produced ) . Among these , the first discovered and the most important for biotechnology is Thermus aquaticus . The fact that such bacteria exist also stretches our imagination about life on other celestial bodies , both within and beyond the solar system .
= = Major geyser fields and their distribution = =
Geysers are quite rare , requiring a combination of water , heat , and fortuitous plumbing . The combination exists in few places on Earth .
= = = Yellowstone National Park , U.S. = = =
Yellowstone is the largest geyser locale , containing thousands of hot springs , and approximately 300 to 500 geysers . It is home to half of the world 's total number of geysers in its nine geyser basins . It is located mostly in Wyoming , USA , with small portions in Montana and Idaho . Yellowstone includes the world 's tallest active geyser ( Steamboat Geyser in Norris Geyser Basin ) , as well as the renowned Old Faithful Geyser , Beehive Geyser , Giantess Geyser , Lion Geyser , Plume Geyser , Aurum Geyser , Castle Geyser , Sawmill Geyser , Grand Geyser , Oblong Geyser , Giant Geyser , Daisy Geyser , Grotto Geyser , Fan & Mortar Geysers , & Riverside Geyser , all in the Upper Geyser Basin which alone contains nearly 180 geysers .
= = = Valley of Geysers , Russia = = =
The Valley of Geysers ( " Dolina Geiserov " in Russian ) located in the Kamchatka Peninsula of Russia is the only geyser field in Eurasia and the second largest concentration of geysers in the world . The area was discovered and explored by Tatyana Ustinova in 1941 . Approximately 200 geysers exist in the area along with many hot @-@ water springs and perpetual spouters . The area was formed due to a vigorous volcanic activity . The peculiar way of eruptions is an important feature of these geysers . Most of the geysers erupt at angles , and only very few have the geyser cones that exist at many other of the world 's geyser fields . On June 3 , 2007 , a massive mudflow influenced two thirds of the valley . It was then reported that a thermal lake was forming above the valley . Few days later , waters were observed to have receded somewhat , exposing some of the submerged features . Velikan Geyser , one of the field 's largest , was not buried in the slide and has recently been observed to be active .
= = = El Tatio , Chile = = =
The name " El Tatio " comes from the Quechua word for oven . El Tatio is located in the high valleys on the Andes surrounded by many active volcanoes in Chile , South America at around 4 @,@ 200 metres ( 13 @,@ 800 ft ) above mean sea level . The valley is home to approximately 80 geysers at present . It became the largest geyser field in the Southern Hemisphere after the destruction of many of the New Zealand geysers , and is the third largest geyser field in the world . The salient feature of these geysers is that the height of their eruptions is very low , the tallest being only 6 metres ( 20 ft ) high , but with steam columns that can be over 20 metres ( 66 ft ) high . The average geyser eruption height at El Tatio is about 750 millimetres ( 30 in ) .
= = = Taupo Volcanic Zone , New Zealand = = =
The Taupo Volcanic Zone is located on New Zealand 's North Island . It is 350 kilometres ( 217 mi ) long by 50 km wide ( 31 mi ) and lies over a subduction zone in the Earth 's crust . Mount Ruapehu marks its southwestern end , while the submarine Whakatane volcano ( 85 km or 53 mi beyond White Island ) is considered its northeastern limit . Many geysers in this zone were destroyed due to geothermal developments and a hydroelectric reservoir , but several dozen geysers still exist . In the beginning of the 20th century , the largest geyser ever known , the Waimangu Geyser existed in this zone . It began erupting in 1900 and erupted periodically for four years until a landslide changed the local water table . Eruptions of Waimangu would typically reach 160 metres ( 520 ft ) and some superbursts are known to have reached 500 metres ( 1 @,@ 600 ft ) . Recent scientific work indicates that the Earth 's crust below the zone may be as little as 5 kilometres ( 3 mi ) thick . Beneath this lies a film of magma 50 km wide ( 31 mi ) and 160 km long ( 99 mi ) .
= = = Iceland = = =
Due to the high rate of volcanic activity in Iceland , it is home to some famous geysers in the world . Geysers and hot springs are distributed all over the island . Many of the geysers are located in Haukadalur . Geysers are known to have existed in at least a dozen other areas on the island . The Great Geysir , which first erupted in the 14th century , gave rise to the word geyser . By 1896 , Geysir was almost dormant before an earthquake that year caused eruptions to begin again , occurring several times a day , but in 1916 , eruptions all but ceased . Throughout much of the 20th century , eruptions , usually following earthquakes , did happen from time to time . Some man @-@ made improvements were made to the spring and eruptions were forced with soap on special occasions . Earthquakes in June 2000 subsequently reawakened the giant for a time but it is not currently erupting regularly . The nearby Strokkur geyser erupts every 5 – 8 minutes to a height of some 30 metres ( 98 ft ) .
= = = Extinct and dormant geyser fields = = =
There used to be two large geysers fields in Nevada — Beowawe and Steamboat Springs — but they were destroyed by the installation of nearby geothermal power plants . At the plants , geothermal drilling reduced the available heat and lowered the local water table to the point that geyser activity could no longer be sustained .
Many of New Zealand ’ s geysers have been destroyed by humans in the last century . Several New Zealand geysers have also become dormant or extinct by natural means . The main remaining field is Whakarewarewa at Rotorua . Two thirds of the geysers at Orakei Korako were flooded by the Ohakuri hydroelectric dam in 1961 . The Wairakei field was lost to a geothermal power plant in 1958 . The Taupo Spa field was lost when the Waikato River level was deliberately altered in the 1950s . The Rotomahana field was destroyed by the Mount Tarawera eruption in 1886 .
= = Misnamed geysers = =
There are various other types of geysers which are different in nature compared to the normal steam @-@ driven geysers . These geysers differ not only in their style of eruption but also in the cause that makes them erupt . Such geysers are not true geysers but are yet referred as such as they all emit water under pressure .
= = = Artificial geysers = = =
In a number of places where there is geothermal activity , wells have been drilled and fitted with impermeable casements that allow them to erupt like geysers . The vents of such geysers are artificial , but are tapped into natural hydrothermal systems . These so @-@ called artificial geysers , technically known as erupting geothermal wells , are not true geysers . Little Old Faithful Geyser , in Calistoga , California , is an example . The geyser erupts from the casing of a well drilled in the late 19th century . According to Dr. John Rinehart in his book A Guide to Geyser Gazing ( 1976 p . 49 ) , a man had drilled into the geyser in search for water . He had actually " simply opened up a dead geyser " .
= = = Cold @-@ water geysers = = =
The eruptions of cold @-@ water geysers are similar to those of their hot @-@ water counterparts , except that CO2 @-@ bubbles drive the eruption instead of steam . In cold @-@ water geysers , CO2 @-@ laden water lies in a confined aquifer , in which water and CO2 are trapped by less permeable overlying strata . This water and CO2 can escape this strata only in weak regions like faults , joints , or drilled wells . A drilled borehole provides an escape for the pressurized water and CO2 to reach the surface . The magnitude and frequency of such eruptions depend on various factors such as plumbing depth , CO2 concentrations , aquifer yield etc . The column of water exerts enough pressure on the gaseous CO2 so that it remains in the water in small bubbles . When the pressure decreases due to formation of a fissure , the CO2 bubbles expand . This expansion displaces the water and causes the eruption . Cold @-@ water geysers may look quite similar to their steam @-@ driven counterparts ; however , often CO2 @-@ laden water is more white and frothy . The best known of these is probably Crystal Geyser , near Green River , Utah . There are also two cold @-@ water geysers in Germany , Wallender Born ( a.k.a. Brubbel ) and Andernach Geyser ( a.k.a. Namedyer Sprudel ) , and one in Slovakia , Herľany .
= = = Perpetual spouter = = =
This is a natural hot spring that spouts water constantly without stopping for recharge . Some of these are incorrectly called geysers , but because they are not periodic in nature they are not considered true geysers .
= = Commercialization = =
Geysers are used for various activities such as electricity generation , heating and tourism . Many geothermal reserves are found all around the world . The geyser fields in Iceland are some of the most commercially viable geyser locations in the world . Since the 1920s hot water directed from the geysers has been used to heat greenhouses and to grow food that otherwise could not have been cultivated in Iceland 's inhospitable climate . Steam and hot water from the geysers has also been used for heating homes since 1943 in Iceland . In 1979 the U.S. Department of Energy ( DOE ) actively promoted development of geothermal energy in the " Geysers @-@ Calistoga Known Geothermal Resource Area " ( KGRA ) near Calistoga , California through a variety of research programs and the Geothermal Loan Guarantee Program . The Department is obligated by law to assess the potential environmental impacts of geothermal development .
= = Cryogeysers = =
There are several bodies in the Solar System where jet @-@ like eruptions , often termed cryogeysers ( cryo meaning " icy cold " ) , have been observed or are believed to occur . Unlike geysers on Earth , these represent eruptions of volatiles , together with entrained dust or ice particles , without liquid .
Enceladus
Geyser @-@ like plumes of water vapour , together with ice particles and smaller amounts of other components ( such as carbon dioxide , nitrogen , ammonia , hydrocarbons and silicates ) , have been observed erupting from vents associated with the " tiger stripes " in the south polar region of Saturn 's moon Enceladus by the Cassini orbiter . The mechanism by which the plumes are generated remains uncertain , but they are believed to be powered at least in part by tidal heating resulting from orbital eccentricity due to a 2 : 1 mean @-@ motion orbital resonance with the moon Dione . These jets are believed to be the source of Saturn 's E Ring .
Europa
In December 2013 , the Hubble Space Telescope detected water vapor plumes above the south polar region of Europa , one of Jupiter 's Galilean moons . It is thought that Europa 's lineae might be venting this water vapor into space , caused by similar processes also occurring on Enceladus .
Mars
Similar solar @-@ heating @-@ driven jets of gaseous carbon dioxide are believed to erupt from the south polar cap of Mars each spring . Although these eruptions have not yet been directly observed , they leave evidence in the form of dark spots and lighter fans atop the dry ice , representing sand and dust carried aloft by the eruptions , and a spider @-@ like pattern of grooves created below the ice by the out @-@ rushing gas .
Triton
One of the great surprises of the Voyager 2 flyby of Neptune in 1989 was the discovery of geyser @-@ like eruptions on its moon Triton . Astronomers noticed dark plumes rising to some 8 km above the surface , and depositing material up to 150 km downwind . These plumes represent invisible jets of gaseous nitrogen , together with dust . All the geysers observed were located close to Triton 's subsolar point , indicating that solar heating drives the eruptions . It is thought that the surface of Triton probably consists of a semi @-@ transparent layer of frozen nitrogen overlying a darker substrate , which creates a kind of " solid greenhouse effect " , heating and vaporizing nitrogen below the ice surface it until the pressure breaks the surface at the start of an eruption . Voyager 's images of Triton 's southern hemisphere show many streaks of dark material laid down by geyser activity .
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= The Hudsucker Proxy =
The Hudsucker Proxy is a 1994 comedy film co @-@ written , produced , and directed by Joel and Ethan Coen . Sam Raimi co @-@ wrote the script and served as second unit director . The film stars Tim Robbins as a naïve business @-@ school graduate who is installed as president of a manufacturing company , Jennifer Jason Leigh as a newspaper reporter , and Paul Newman as a company director who hires the young man as part of a stock scam .
The script was finished in 1985 , but production did not start until 1991 , when Joel Silver acquired the script for Silver Pictures . Warner Bros. subsequently agreed to distribute the film , with further financing from PolyGram Filmed Entertainment and Working Title Films . Filming at Carolco Studios in Wilmington , North Carolina lasted from November 1992 to March 1993 . The New York City scale model set was designed by Micheal J. McAlister and Mark Stetson , with further effects provided by The Computer Film Company . Upon its release in March 1994 , The Hudsucker Proxy received mixed reviews from critics , and was a box office flop .
= = Plot = =
In December 1958 , Norville Barnes ( Tim Robbins ) , a business college graduate from Muncie , Indiana , arrives in New York City looking for a job . He struggles due to lack of experience and becomes a mailroom clerk at Hudsucker Industries . Meanwhile , the company 's founder and president , Waring Hudsucker ( Charles Durning ) , unexpectedly commits suicide during a business meeting by jumping out of a top @-@ floor window . Afterwards , Sidney J. Mussburger ( Paul Newman ) , a ruthless member of the board of directors , learns Hudsucker 's stock shares will be soon sold to the public ; he mounts a scheme to buy the controlling interest in the company by temporarily depressing the stock price by hiring an incompetent president to replace Hudsucker .
In the mailroom , Norville is assigned to deliver a " Blue Letter " , a top @-@ secret communication from Hudsucker , sent shortly before his death , to Mussburger . However , Norville takes the opportunity to pitch an invention he 's been working on which turns out to be a simple drawing of a circle and his cryptic explanation , " you know , for kids . " Believing Norville to be an idiot , Mussburger selects him as a proxy for Hudsucker . Across town , Amy Archer ( Jennifer Jason Leigh ) , a brassy Pulitzer Prize @-@ winning reporter for the Manhattan Argus , is assigned to write a story about Norville and find out what kind of man he really is . She gets a job at Hudsucker Industries as his personal secretary , pretending to be yet another desperate graduate from Muncie . One night , Amy searches the building to find clues and meets Moses , a man who operates the tower 's giant clock and knows " just about anything if it concerns Hudsucker " . He tells her Mussburger 's plot , and she takes the story back to her Chief ( John Mahoney ) , but he does not believe a word of it .
The other executives decide to produce Norville 's invention in hopes that it will flop and depress the company 's stock . The invention turns out to be the hula hoop , which initially fails but then turns into an enormous success . Norville allows success to go to his head and becomes yet another uncaring tycoon . Amy , who had fallen for his naive charm , is infuriated over Norville 's new attitude and leaves him . Buzz , the eager elevator operator , pitches a new invention : the flexi @-@ straw . Norville dismisses it and fires Buzz . Meanwhile , Aloysius ( Harry Bugin ) , a Hudsucker janitor , discovers Amy 's true identity and informs Mussburger . Mussburger reveals Amy 's secret identity to Norville and tells him he will be dismissed as president after the new year . Mussburger also convinces the board that Norville is insane and must be sent to the local psychiatric hospital .
On New Year 's Eve , Amy finds Norville drunk at a beatnik bar . She apologizes , but he storms out and is chased by an angry mob led by Buzz , whom Mussburger had convinced that Norville had stolen the hula hoop idea . Norville escapes to the top floor of the Hudsucker skyscraper and changes back into his mailroom uniform . He climbs out on the ledge , where Aloysius locks him out and watches as he slips and falls off the building at the stroke of midnight . All of a sudden , Moses stops the clock and time freezes . Waring Hudsucker appears to Norville as an angel and tells him the Blue Letter that was supposed to be delivered to Mussburger contains a legal document indicating that Hudsucker 's shares would go to his immediate successor , who is now Norville . Moses fights and defeats Aloysius inside the tower , allowing Norville to fall safely to the ground . Norville and Amy reconcile . As 1959 progresses , it is Mussburger who is sent to the asylum while Norville develops a new invention " for kids " , an enigmatic circle on a folded sheet of paper that will ultimately turn out to be a frisbee .
= = Cast = =
= = Development = =
= = = Writing = = =
The Coen brothers first met Sam Raimi when Joel Coen worked as an assistant editor on Raimi 's The Evil Dead ( 1981 ) . Together , they began writing the script for The Hudsucker Proxy in 1981 , and continued during the filming of Crimewave ( 1985 ) , and post @-@ production on Blood Simple ( 1985 ) , in which Joel and Ethan Coen shared a house with Raimi . The Coens and Raimi were inspired by the films of Preston Sturges , such as Christmas in July ( 1940 ) and the Hollywood satire , Sullivan 's Travels ( 1941 ) . The sentimental tone and decency of ordinary men as heroes was influenced by films of Frank Capra , like Mr. Deeds Goes to Town ( 1936 ) , Meet John Doe ( 1941 ) , and It 's a Wonderful Life ( 1946 ) . The dialogue is an homage to Howard Hawks ' His Girl Friday ( 1940 ) , while Jennifer Jason Leigh 's performance as fast @-@ talking reporter Amy Archer is reminiscent of Rosalind Russell and Katharine Hepburn , in both the physical and vocal mannerisms . Other movies that observers found references to include Executive Suite ( 1954 ) and Sweet Smell of Success ( 1957 ) . The brothers had no intention commenting on or parodying such movies , instead as Ethan said " It 's the case where , having seen those movies , we say ' They 're really fun - let 's do one ; as opposed to ' They 're really fun- let 's comment upon them . " Raimi describes the script as " " big @-@ business comedy . It 's a return to the very large love story comedies they used to make in the forties and early fifties . " So they brothers started to pace around their apartment , taking turns on the typewriter , and when they found themselves stuck at a point , Raimi would do all sorts of trick to get the boys back up . For example , While Ethan is pacing around , he would move things around the apartment so Ethan would be thrown off , He even said he threw firecrackers at them .
One film critic described the numerous influences : " From his infelicitous name to his physical clumsiness , Norville Barnes is a Preston Sturges hero trapped in a Frank Capra story , and never should that twain meet , especially not in a world that seems to have been created by Fritz Lang – the mechanistic monstrousness of the mailroom contrasted with the Bauhaus gigantism of the corporate offices perfectly matches the boss @-@ labour split in Metropolis ( 1927 ) . " An interviewer proposed that the characters represent capitalism versus labour economics . Joel Coen replied : " Maybe the characters do embody those grand themes you mentioned , but that question is independent of whether or not we 're interested in them – and we 're not . " The Hudsucker Proxy presents various narrative motifs pertaining to the Rota Fortunae and visual motifs concerning the shape of circles . This includes Moses ' monologue at the beginning , the Hudsucker Clock , Mussburger 's wristwatch , the inventions of both the hula hoop and frisbee , as well as Norville and Amy 's conversation about Karma .
The first image the Coens and Raimi conceived was of Norville Barnes about to jump from the window of a skyscraper and then they had to figure out how he got there and how to save him . The inclusion of the hula hoop came as a result of a plot device . Joel remembers , " We had to come up with something that Norville was going to invent that on the face of it was ridiculous . Something that would seem , by any sort of rational measure , to be doomed to failure , but something that on the other hand the audience already knew was going to be a phenomenal success . " Ethan said , " The whole circle motif was built into the design of the movie , and that just made it seem more appropriate . " Joel : " What grew out of that was the design element which drives the movie . The tension between vertical lines and circles ; you have these tall buildings , then these circles everywhere which are echoed in the plot ... in the structure of the movie itself . It starts with the end and circles back to the beginning , with a big flashback . " It took the Coens and Raimi three months to write the screenplay . As early as 1985 , the Coens were quoted as saying that an upcoming project " takes place in the late Fifties in a skyscraper and is about Big Business . The characters talk fast and wear sharp clothes . "
Despite having finished the script in 1985 , Joel explained , " We couldn 't make Hudsucker back then because we weren 't that popular yet . Plus , the script was too expensive and we had just completed Blood Simple , which was an independent film . " After completing Barton Fink ( 1991 ) , the Coens were looking forward to doing a more mainstream film . The Hudsucker Proxy was revived and the Coens and Raimi performed a brief rewrite . Producer Joel Silver , a fan of the Coens ' previous films , acquired the script for his production company , Silver Pictures , and pitched the project at Warner Bros. Pictures . Silver also allowed the Coens complete artistic control .
= = = Production = = =
This was the first time the Coen brothers chose big stars to act in their movie . Joel Silver 's first choice for Norville Barnes was Tom Cruise , but the Coens persisted in a desire to cast Tim Robbins . Winona Ryder and Bridget Fonda were in competition for the role of Amy Archer before Jennifer Jason Leigh was cast . Leigh had previously auditioned for a role in the Coens 's Miller 's Crossing and Barton Fink . Her failed auditions prompted the Coens to cast her in The Hudsucker Proxy . To prepare for her role as Amy Archer , Leigh read the biographies some of the most substantial ladies of the thirties and forties such as , Rosalind Russell , Katharine Hepburn and Jean Arthur . When casting the role of Sidney Mussburger , " Warner Bros. suggested all sorts of names , " remembered Joel . " A lot of them were comedians who were clearly wrong . Mussburger is the bad guy and Paul Newman brought that character to life . " However , the Coens first offered the role to Clint Eastwood , but he was forced to turn it down due to scheduling conflicts .
Once Newman and Robbins signed on , PolyGram Filmed Entertainment and Working Title Films agreed to co @-@ finance the film with Warner Bros. and Silver Pictures . The film was shot on five sound stages at Carolco Studios in Wilmington , North Carolina beginning on November 30 , 1992 . Raimi served as second unit director , shooting the hula hoop sequence and Waring Hudsucker 's suicide . Production designer Dennis Gassner was influenced by fascist architecture , particularly the work of Albert Speer , as well as Terry Gilliam 's Brazil ( 1985 ) , Frank Lloyd Wright and the Art Deco movement . Gassner contemplated using five huge rooms needed to accommodate the sound stages . Gassner noted " You see , we wanted things to be big . " He said that the huge 1950 's @-@ inspired table up in the boardroom was so long , it had to be built in five sections and later on assembled on the soundstage . The intention for the set sizes was to generate an oppressive feel . Principal photography ended on March 18 , 1993 .
In addition , numerous sequences were filmed in downtown Chicago , particularly in the Merchandise Mart building for the entrance and lobby to Hudsucker Industries and the Hilton Chicago Christmas ballroom .
The presses in the News & Observer building in downtown Raleigh , North Carolina appeared in the movie .
= = = Visual effects = = =
The visual effects supervisor was Michael J. McAlister ( Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade , Willow ) with Mark Stetson ( Superman Returns , Peter Pan ) as miniatures supervisor . Peter Chesney , mechanical effects designer on many Coen brothers films , created a pair of 16 @-@ foot angel wings for actor Charles Durning , who portrayed Waring Hudsucker . " I made a complicated steel armature with a lot of electric motors to time everything so he can fold up his wings , unfold them and flap them about . Then we covered them with real duck and turkey feathers , " says Chesney . " We modeled them after photographs of a hovering dove landing in slow motion . " The buildings in the background ( designed by McAlister and Stetson ) were 1 : 24 scale models , shot separately and merged in post @-@ production . To lengthen the sequence , the model of the Hudsucker building was the equivalent of 90 stories , not 45 .
Despite the New York City setting , additional skyscrapers in Chicago , Illinois provided inspiration for the opening sequence of the skyline , such as the Merchandise Mart and Aon Center . Skyscrapers from New York City included the Chanin Building , the Fred F. French Building and One Wall Street , Manhattan . " We took all our favorite buildings in New York from where they actually stood and sort of put them into one neighborhood , " Gassner continued , " a fantasy vision which adds to the atmosphere and flavor . " First of all , a model had to be created based on the fantasy 1950 's New York for the opening shot . So a miniature city was created , as McAlister mentioned that the Coens did not want a realistic reproduction of 1950 's New York skyline , instead they wanted a more stylized version of it . So Gassner used the book New York in The Forties as a reference to create the look for the cityscape . It took three months and 27 crew member to create the miniature city at the scale of 24 : 1 . As for the Hudsucker building , they made it at the scale of 6 : 1 for closer shots including the long @-@ zoom in of Norville at the beginning . For that scene to be created , it started off with a wide angle shot , moving closer towards Tim Robbins , who was standing in a full sized set , which they inserted inside the shot of the model clock . ‘ Marrying a live @-@ action image with a painted or miniature element was , of course , nothing new , however , in the case of the zoom @-@ in on Robbins from such a distance , keeping the full @-@ size set locked in with the model building , ‘ that was state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art and the only way to do it was with computers . ’ says McAlister . Most of the buildings were created with two sides only , as they will only be seen from the front and the side , and some only needed one side as they were only going to be seen from the front , while the Hudsucker building was made completely three @-@ dimensional . The work of The Computer Film Company ( supervised by Janek Sirrs ) included manipulations of the zoom @-@ in shot of Norville at the beginning , as well as CGI snow and composites of the falling sequences .
To create the two suicide falls , the miniature New York set was hung sideways to allow full movement along the heights of the buildings . McAlister calculated that such a drop would take seven seconds , but for dramatic purposes it was extended to around thirty . Problems occurred when the Coens and cinematographer Roger Deakins decided that these shots would be more effective with a wide @-@ angle lens . " The buildings had been designed for an 18 mm lens , but as we tried a 14 mm lens , and then a 10 mm , we liked the shots more and more . " However , the wider amount of vision meant that the edges of the frame went beyond the fringes of the model city , leaving empty spaces with no buildings . In the end , extra buildings were created from putting the one @-@ sided buildings together and placing them at the edges . Charles Durning 's fall was shot conventionally , but because Tim Robbins had to stop abruptly at the camera , his was shot in reverse as he was pulled away from the camera .
According to Cinefex Magazine # 74 ( July 1998 ) , the skyscraper models created for The Hudsucker Proxy were re @-@ used for Godzilla .
= = Soundtrack = =
The score to The Hudsucker Proxy was written by Carter Burwell , the fifth of his collaborations with the Coen Brothers . " Adagio of Spartacus and Phrygia " from the ballet Spartacus by Khachaturian is the basis of the main theme and additional music from the ballet runs under the Hula @-@ Hoop sequence . The popular music of the time is also reflected in the character of Vic Tenetta , played by Peter Gallagher and modeled after Dean Martin , who sings " Memories Are Made of This . " Additional inspiration comes from Aram Khachaturian 's Gayane suite . A section from the ballet is used by Burwell for the scene in which Norville and Amy meet for the first time . The composer 's " Sabre Dance " ( from Gayane ) is also used when the boy is the first to try the hula hoop .
" Prologue " ( Khachaturian ) – 3 : 20
" Norville Suite " – 3 : 53
" Waring 's Descent " – 0 : 27
" The Hud Sleeps " – 2 : 13
" Light Lunch " ( Khachaturian ) – 1 : 38
" The Wheel Turns " – 0 : 52
" The Hula Hoop " ( Khachaturian ) – 4 : 10
" Useful " – 0 : 40
" Walk Of Shame " – 1 : 22
" Blue Letter " – 0 : 43
" A Long Way Down " – 1 : 46
" The Chase " – 1 : 02
" Norville 's End " – 3 : 52
" Epilogue " ( Khachaturian ) – 2 : 08
" Norville 's Reprise " – 1 : 22
Other songs used in the film but not on the soundtrack album include :
" Memories Are Made of This " , performed by Peter Gallagher as Vic Tenetta , the party singer
" In a Sentimental Mood " , performed by Duke Ellington
" Flying Home " , performed by Duke Ellington
" Carmen " , performed by Grace Bumbry ; used in dream dance sequence .
The classical music used was :
Georges Bizet , Habanera from Carmen
Luigi Boccherini , Minuet ( 3rd movt ) from String Quintet in E , Op.11 No.5
Frédéric Chopin Chopin Waltz ( Waltz No.1 in E @-@ flat " Grande valse brillante " , Op.18 B62 ) from Les Sylphides
Aram Khachaturian , Adagio of Spartacus and Phrygia from Spartacus Suite No.2
Aram Khachaturian , Sabre Dance from Gayane Suite No.3
Peter Tchaikovsky , Waltz from Swan Lake
= = Release = =
= = = Commercial reception = = =
Warner Bros. held test screenings and audience comments were largely mixed . The studio suggested re @-@ shoots , but the Coens , who held final cut privilege , refused because they were very nervous working with their biggest budget to date and were eager for mainstream success . The producers eventually added footage that had been cut and also shot minor pick @-@ ups for the ending . Variety magazine claimed that the pick @-@ ups were done to try to save the film because Warner feared it was going to be a box office bomb . Joel Coen addressed the issue in an interview : " First of all , they weren 't reshoots . They were a little bit of additional footage . We wanted to shoot a fight scene at the end of the movie . It was the product of something we discovered editing the movie , not previewing it . We 've done additional shooting on every movie , so it 's normal . "
The film premiered in January 1994 at the Sundance Film Festival in Park City , Utah . In addition , The Hudsucker Proxy was screened at the 1994 Cannes Film Festival on May 12 , 1994 . The film was in competition for the Palme d 'Or , but lost to Pulp Fiction . The Hudsucker Proxy was released on March 11 , 1994 , and only grossed $ 2 @,@ 816 @,@ 518 in the United States . The production budget was officially set at $ 25 million , although , it was reported to have increased to $ 40 million for marketing and promotion purposes . Nonetheless , the film was a box office bomb .
= = = Critical responses = = =
Along with the film 's being a disappointment at the box office , The Hudsucker Proxy opened to lukewarm reviews from critics . Rotten Tomatoes reports 58 % approval based on 40 reviews with the consensus : " Intriguingly strange and visually distinctive , The Hudsucker Proxy is ultimately almost -- but not quite -- as smart and absorbing as it needs to be . "
Roger Ebert praised the production design , scale model work , matte paintings , cinematography , and characters . " But the problem with the movie is that it 's all surface and no substance , " Ebert wrote . " Not even the slightest attempt is made to suggest that the film takes its own story seriously . Everything is style . The performances seem deliberately angled as satire . " Desson Thomson of The Washington Post described The Hudsucker Proxy as being " pointlessly flashy and compulsively overloaded with references to films of the 1930s . Missing in this film 's performances is a sense of humanity , the crucial ingredient in the movies Hudsucker is clearly trying to evoke . Hudsucker isn 't the real thing at all . It 's just a proxy . "
Todd McCarthy , writing in Variety , called the film " one of the most inspired and technically stunning pastiches of old Hollywood pictures ever to come out of the New Hollywood . But a pastiche it remains , as nearly everything in the Coen brothers ' latest and biggest film seems like a wizardly but artificial synthesis , leaving a hole in the middle where some emotion and humanity should be . " James Berardinelli gave a largely positive review . " The Hudsucker Proxy skewers Big Business on the same shaft that Robert Altman ran Hollywood through with The Player . From the Brazil @-@ like scenes in the cavernous mail room to the convoluted machinations in the board room , this film is pure satire of the nastiest and most enjoyable sort . In this surreal world of 1958 can be found many of the issues confronting large corporations in the 1990s , all twisted to match the filmmakers ' vision . "
Warner Home Video released The Hudsucker Proxy on DVD in May 1999 . No featurettes were included . It was one of the first Blu @-@ Ray Disc titles released through the Warner Archive Collection in 2013 , but it still lacked any featurettes .
Two decades after the film 's release , Scout Tafoya of RogerEbert.com praised the film for its stylistic adventurousness and expansion upon the themes and concepts of the films that inspired it . " Whereas the comedies of the 1930s and ' 40s could talk quickly and move quickly , they couldn 't run at a full gallop like the Coen Brothers . Their camera soars , traveling at the speed of progress , gossip , capitalism itself . Everything races at top speed . The production design , the one thing everyone felt comfortable praising , is a marvel . Every frame doubles as a survey of early modern art , from Art Deco to Futurism . "
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= William Longchamp =
William Longchamp ( died 1197 ) , sometimes known as William de Longchamp or William de Longchamps , was a medieval Lord Chancellor , Chief Justiciar , and Bishop of Ely in England . Born to a humble family in Normandy , he owed his advancement to royal favour . Although contemporary writers accused Longchamp 's father of being the son of a peasant , he held land as a knight . Longchamp first served an illegitimate son of King Henry II , but quickly transferred to the service of Richard I , Henry 's eldest surviving son . When Richard became King in 1189 , Longchamp paid £ 3 @,@ 000 for the office of Chancellor , and was soon named to the see , or bishopric , of Ely and appointed legate by the pope .
Longchamp governed England while Richard was on the Third Crusade , but his authority was challenged by Richard 's brother , John , who eventually succeeded in driving Longchamp from power and from England . Longchamp 's relations with the other leading English nobles were also strained , which contributed to the demands for his exile . Soon after Longchamp 's departure from England , Richard was captured on his journey back to England from the crusade and held for ransom by Henry VI , Holy Roman Emperor . Longchamp travelled to Germany to help negotiate Richard 's release . Although Longchamp regained the office of Chancellor after Richard 's return to England , he lost much of his former power . He aroused a great deal of hostility among his contemporaries during his career , but he retained Richard 's trust and was employed by the king until the bishop 's death in 1197 . Longchamp wrote a treatise on the law , which remained well known throughout the later Middle Ages .
= = Background and early life = =
Longchamp 's ancestors originated in the village of Longchamps , Normandy , but he was born near the Norman village of Argenton . His father , Hugh de Longchamp , also held land in England , as did many other Norman nobles after the Norman Conquest of England in 1066 . Hugh Nonant — one of Longchamp 's opponents — declared that the elder Longchamp was the son of a peasant , which seems unlikely , as Hugh de Longchamp appears to have held a knight 's tenancy in Normandy . The family was originally of humble background , but rose through service to King Henry II . The elder Longchamp also held land in Herefordshire in England , including the manor of Wilton near Ross in Wales . Hugh married a woman named Eve , a relative of the Lacy family . Historian David Balfour suggests that Eve was the daughter of Gilbert de Lacy , the son of Roger de Lacy , exiled by King William II in 1095 for rebellion .
Longchamp 's sister , Richeut , married the castellan of Dover Castle . A second sister , Melisend , came to England with Longchamp , but otherwise is unknown . A sister is recorded as having married Stephen Devereux , but whether this is Melisend is unclear . Of Longchamp 's brothers , Osbert remained a layman , and owed much of his advancement to William ; Stephen served King Richard I on crusade ; Henry , another layman , became a sheriff along with Osbert ; and Robert became a monk . Two of Longchamp 's brothers became abbots .
Longchamp entered public life at the close of Henry II 's reign , as an official for the King 's illegitimate son Geoffrey . He soon left Geoffrey 's service , and served in Henry II 's chancery , or writing office , before he entered service with Henry 's son Richard . Richard , who was Duke of Aquitaine at the time , named Longchamp chancellor of the Duchy of Aquitaine . Longchamp first distinguished himself at the court of King Philip II of France in Paris in 1189 , when he acted as Richard 's envoy in a dispute with William Marshall , King Henry 's envoy . By that time , Longchamp was already one of Richard 's trusted advisors .
= = Chancellor and Justiciar = =
On Richard 's accession to the throne of England in 1189 Longchamp became Chancellor of England . Longchamp paid 3 @,@ 000 pounds ( £ ) for the office of Chancellor . This was followed by an increase in the price of having chancery documents sealed with the Great Seal , necessary for their authentication , perhaps to help Longchamp recoup the cost of office . At the council held at Pipewell on 15 September 1189 , the king raised Longchamp to the bishopric of Ely . Richard named three other bishops at the same time : Godfrey de Lucy to Winchester , Richard FitzNeal to London , and Hubert Walter to Salisbury . Longchamp was consecrated on 31 December 1189 and enthroned at Ely on 6 January 1190 .
Before leaving England in 1189 , Richard put the Tower of London in Longchamp 's hands and appointed him jointly with Hugh de Puiset , the Bishop of Durham , to the office of Chief Justiciar , at that time not strictly a judicial office . Instead , the justiciar was the person entrusted with much of the king 's authority when the king was outside the kingdom , able to act in the king 's name . Along with Puiset , the king named Hugh Bardulf , William Briwerre , Geoffrey fitz Peter , and William Marshall as associates in the justiciarship , under Puiset and Longchamp . As Justiciar , Longchamp sent judges throughout the country to visit the shires on judicial visits , even though he had no previous knowledge of the judiciary . Longchamp and Puiset were unable to work together , and so in March 1190 Richard gave authority north of the River Humber to Hugh , and authority south of the river to Longchamp . Historian 's opinions are divided whether Richard explicitly made Longchamp superior to Puiset at this time , or if in theory the two were supposed to co @-@ equal in their respective spheres . By June , Longchamp had eased Puiset out of power and the justiciar 's office . He also received a commission as a papal legate from Pope Clement III at this time . Supposedly Richard paid 1 @,@ 500 marks ( £ 1 @,@ 000 ) to the papacy to secure the legateship for Longchamp .
Longchamp granted the citizens of London the right to elect their own sheriffs , and to collect and remit their monetary levy of £ 300 directly to the Exchequer , the treasury of England . On Longchamp 's visits to his diocese he was accompanied by a large train of retainers and animals , which became notorious throughout the country as a sign of his extravagance . Under his legatine authority , the bishop held legatine councils of the church at Gloucester and Westminster in 1190 . He also acted to restore authority in York , which had suffered a breakdown in order after the massacre of Jews in March 1190 . Also in 1190 , he sent an army against Rhys ap Gruffydd , a Welsh prince who was attempting to throw off the control of the marcher lords that surrounded Wales .
= = Disputes with John = =
Longchamp 's relations with the English people were made more difficult because he was a native of Normandy , and often insensitive to English customs . The medieval writer William of Newburgh claimed that Longchamp was " an obscure foreigner of unproven ability and loyalty " . For example , it appears likely that Longchamp did not speak English , making his relations with his flock more difficult . The leading nobles complained that Longchamp marginalised the other officials Richard had appointed to serve with him , and that he brought in foreigners to fill offices . Although the first charge is mostly untrue , the second appears to have been valid , as Longchamp did install non @-@ natives in judicial offices and as sheriffs . He also attempted to seize control of a number of English castles by granting their custody to relatives and dependents .
Throughout 1190 , Longchamp 's relations with Richard 's younger brother John were difficult . This led to Longchamp besieging Lincoln Castle because the castellan would not surrender the castle and allow himself to be replaced by Longchamp 's nominee . The castellan , Gerard de Camville , had sworn allegiance to John and stated he would no longer recognise the chancellor 's authority . In response , John took the two castles of Tickhill and Northampton . News of the dispute reached Richard , who sent Walter de Coutances , the Archbishop of Rouen , to England in late spring 1191 , with orders to negotiate a peace between John and Longchamp . Eventually , Walter brokered a compromise between the two as a result of which Gerard was confirmed as castellan and John relinquished the castles . Longchamp also agreed to work to ensure John 's succession to the throne in the event of Richard 's death .
Longchamp 's legatine commission from the papacy expired in spring 1191 , on the death of Clement III , thus removing one of Longchamp 's power bases . The legation was , however , renewed a few months later by Clement 's successor , Celestine III . A further complication for Longchamp arose in September 1191 , when Henry II 's illegitimate son Geoffrey , Archbishop of York , was arrested by Longchamp 's subordinates , led by the castellan of Dover Castle , Longchamp 's brother @-@ in @-@ law . Their orders had been to arrest the Archbishop of York as he landed at Dover on the archbishop 's return to England , but Geoffrey had been warned of their plans , and fled to sanctuary in St. Martin 's Priory . Longchamp 's men laid siege to the priory , and after four days forcibly removed Geoffrey . The violence of the attack reminded the public of Thomas Becket 's martyrdom , and public opinion turned against Longchamp . Longchamp claimed that Geoffrey had not sworn fealty to Richard , but this was likely just an excuse to eliminate a rival .
An intense propaganda campaign led by partisans of John ensued . One of the leaders of the campaign against Longchamp was Hugh Nonant , the Bishop of Coventry , and he along with other magnates , including Geoffrey , who had been released , convened a trial on 5 October 1191 at Loddon Bridge near London . Longchamp did not attend , but he was deposed and excommunicated , and after trying to hold the Tower of London , he was forced to surrender due to lack of support from the citizens of London . The council then declared his offices forfeit , and ordered the surrender of the castles in his custody . The main charge against Longchamp appears to have been his autocratic behaviour .
Longchamp went to Dover in late 1191 to seek transport to the continent . During his escape , he was unable to answer the local people when they spoke to him in English . He attempted to leave England in various disguises , including a monk 's habit and women 's clothes . Hugh Nonant wrote that Longchamp attempted on one occasion to hide dressed as a prostitute , which led to him being assaulted by a fisherman who mistook him for a whore . Longchamp eventually succeeded in leaving England , on 29 October .
= = Exile and return = =
Longchamp went to the court of Henry VI , the Holy Roman Emperor , who was holding King Richard I captive at Trifels . The bishop arranged for Richard to be held at the imperial court and negotiated a payment plan for the ransom , 100 @,@ 000 marks , under the terms of which the emperor agreed to release Richard once 70 @,@ 000 marks had been paid and hostages for the payment of the rest had been received . When the Emperor in January 1194 called a meeting of the imperial magnates to debate King Philip II of France 's offer to pay the Emperor to keep Richard captive , Longchamp attended along with Walter of Coutances and Eleanor of Aquitaine , Richard 's mother . After further diplomatic wrangling , Richard was freed on 4 February 1194 .
Richard rewarded Longchamp with the custody of Eye and an appointment as Sheriff of Essex and Sheriff of Hertfordshire when the pair returned to England , but Longchamp soon became embroiled in a renewal of his disagreement with Archbishop Geoffrey of York . Richard left England in May 1194 , and Longchamp accompanied him to the continent , never to return to England ; Longchamp returned to the Emperor 's court in 1195 . Richard continued to use Longchamp in diplomacy — although it was Geoffrey who arranged a truce with King Philip in 1194 — as well as retaining the bishop as chancellor , but the main power in England was now Hubert Walter . Longchamp spent the rest of his life outside his diocese , usually accompanying the king .
= = Death and legacy = =
Longchamp died in January 1197 , at Poitiers , while on a diplomatic mission to Rome for Richard , and was buried at the abbey of Le Pin . Much of the information on his career comes from people hostile to him , for example , Gerald of Wales called Longchamp that " monster with many heads " . The historian Austin Lane Poole says that Gerald described Longchamp as more like an ape than a man . Longchamp was reportedly a cultured and well @-@ educated man . He was supported by others among his contemporaries , including Pope Clement III , who , when he appointed Longchamp legate , wrote that he did so at the urging of the English bishops . When he was one of four men named bishop in 1189 , medieval chronicler Richard of Devizes wrote that the four new bishops were " men of no little virtue and fame " . Historian John Gillingham wrote that Longchamp 's " record of his life in politics and administration was a good one , spoiled only by his failure in 1191 " .
One of Longchamp 's probable innovations as chancellor was the replacement of the first person singular previously used in documents drafted in the king 's name with the majestic plural or " royal we " . He wrote a work on law entitled Practica legum et decretorum , a manual on the usage of both civil and canon law in the Angevin possessions on the continent , composed sometime between 1181 and 1189 . It was well known in the Middle Ages , and served as a practical guide for those involved in litigation . The medieval poet Nigel Wireker ( also known as Nigel de Longchamps ) dedicated to the bishop a satirical poem , Speculum Stultorum ( " Mirror of Fools " ) , on the habits of students . Richard Barre , a medieval writer and judge , dedicated his work Compendium de veteris et novo testamento to Longchamp . Longchamp was one of Barre 's patrons , and secured the post of Archdeacon of Ely for him as well as judicial posts .
Two writers have seen in the assembly that met to try Longchamp in 1191 a precursor to the gathering at Runnymede in 1215 that drew up Magna Carta , as it was one of the earliest examples of the nobles of the realm coming together to force the government to rule with their advice . Longchamp also promoted the careers of his brothers ; Henry and Osbert became sheriffs in the 1190s , Osbert the Sheriff of Yorkshire . His brother Robert , a cleric , also benefitted , becoming prior of the Ely cathedral chapter and later abbot of St Mary 's Abbey , York .
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= Rip Hawk =
Harvey Maurice Evers ( June 6 , 1930 – December 22 , 2012 ) was an American professional wrestler best known by his ring name , Rip Hawk . He began his wrestling career in the Mid @-@ Western United States before joining Jim Crockett Promotions ( JCP ) in the early 1960s . In the company , he teamed with fellow wrestler Swede Hanson as the " Blond Bombers , " and the duo held several championships . In the 1970s , he worked as a booker in JCP .
= = Early life = =
Evers was born on June 6 , 1930 in Indiana . He was raised in Ohio .
= = Professional wrestling career = =
= = = Early career = = =
Hawk made his wrestling debut in 1949 . He began as an amateur in Ohio and was discovered by professional boxer Jack Dempsey , who convinced him to wrestle professionally . His ring name came from a variety of sources : his sister called him " Rip " as a nickname , while a promoter gave him the last name " Hawk " due to his nose and his movements in the wrestling ring . His nickname , " The Profile " , was taken from actor John Barrymore . He began wrestling professionally in Ohio around his 18th birthday , and later moved to Chicago , where he trained for a year with Karl Pojello . He also briefly wrestled in New York .
Hawk was soon drafted to serve in the Korean War . He joined the United States Marine Corps and continued to wrestle during his service . He was discharged from the Marine Corps in 1954 , believing he could make a better living from wrestling . He competed in several territories after returning to the United States , including Tennessee and Atlanta , Georgia , Iowa . He later moved to Missouri , where he competed in St. Joseph and St. Louis . In St. Joseph , he had a scripted feud with Sonny Myers and Larry Hamilton . He continued to move around and held his first championship , the NWA Rocky Mountain Heavyweight Championship , while wrestling for NWA Western States Sports in 1958 .
= = = Jim Crockett Promotions = = =
Hawk moved to North Carolina in the early 1960s , where he began competing for Jim Crockett Promotions , an organization run by Jim Crockett , Sr. that promoted events in the Carolinas . He met fellow wrestler Swede Hanson and approached Crockett about forming a tag team with Hanson . Crockett agreed to the idea , and Hawk and Hanson began competing as the " Blond Bombers " , named after their matching blond hair and their strength in the ring . While competing in Australia , Hawk met manager Gary Hart . He approached Crockett and convinced him to bring Hart to the Carolinas to manage Hawk and Hanson .
The team competed as heels ( villains ) and was unique for wearing suits to their matches , as most wrestlers did not worry about dressing like professionals outside of the ring . They aroused anger from many spectators , some of whom threw acid or threatened the team with knives and guns . They also had a following among some fans , and a fan club was formed for them at one point . During interviews , Hawk spoke for the team while Hanson stood silently ; Hawk occasionally insulted Hanson in the interviews , but Hanson did not respond . The team competed in the Carolinas and Virginia , as well as touring overseas in Australia , New Zealand , and Japan .
Hawk wrestled in other territories , including Texas , where he held the NWA Texas Heavyweight Championship and the Texas version of the NWA World Tag Team Championship ( the latter while teaming with Rock Hunter ) . Nine of his championships came as a member of the Blond Bombers , however . Hawk and Hanson were booked in an angle to win their first title together , the Florida version of the NWA World Tag Team Championship , on August 3 , 1965 . They combined to hold the NWA Atlantic Coast Tag Team Championship on four occasions , which was the center of their feud with Johnny Weaver and George Becker . They were also booked to win the IWA World Tag Team Championship on a wrestling tour of Tasmania .
The Blond Bombers were involved in a series of unusual matches in Jim Crockett Promotions ; they faced other heel tag teams , which was a rarity at the time because most promoters stuck to good versus evil storylines . They competed against such teams as Aldo Bogni and Bronko Lubich , Gene and Ole Anderson , and Skull Murphy and Brute Bernard . Hawk , along with Johnny Weaver , was also involved in booking , or scheduling , events in Jim Crockett Promotions , a task he took on in the early 1970s . He also collaborated with Johnny Ringo to design the National Wrestling Alliance logo .
In 1971 , Hanson suffered a heart attack and had to take time off of wrestling . Hawk competed as a singles wrestler and feuded with the Brisco brothers ( Jack and Jerry ) . During this rivalry , Hawk held the NWA Eastern States Heavyweight Championship four times . He was then paired with Ric Flair , who was billed as his nephew . On July 4 , 1974 , Hawk and Flair were booked the NWA Mid @-@ Atlantic Tag Team Championship .
Hanson returned to wrestling but soon became a face ( fan favorite ) and feuded with Hawk . The former partners faced each other in tag team matches in which Hanson teamed with Tiger Conway , Jr. and Hawk teamed with Flair . Eventually , the partners were dropped and the two faced each other in a series of singles matches . Hawk left Jim Crockett Promotions permanently in 1975 due to differences with booker George Scott .
= = = Later career = = =
Hawk then took on a new partner , Roger Kirby , with whom he held the NWA Florida Tag Team Championship twice over the next two years . Hawk and Hanson reunited as a tag team in Texas , where they competed for NWA Western States Sports . In 1976 and 1977 , they were booked to win the NWA Western States Tag Team Championship three times . After their final title reign , Hanson left to wrestle elsewhere while Hawk continued to wrestle in Texas .
Hawk and Hanson were inducted into the NWA Legends Hall of Heroes in 2007 . Hawk returned in 2008 to posthumously induct long @-@ time rival and real @-@ life friend Johnny Weaver .
= = Personal life = =
After retiring from wrestling , he moved to Hereford , Texas , where he lived with his wife , Kitty . They have 2 daughters . He worked as a personal trainer and wrestling coach at the YMCA in Hereford until 2011 . Several of his trainees went to the Junior Olympics and received athletic scholarships to college .
Evers died on December 22 , 2012 . He had suffered from cardiac problems prior to his death .
= = In wrestling = =
Finishing moves
Piledriver
Managers
Gary Hart
Homer O 'Dell
Nicknames
" The Profile "
= = Championships and accomplishments = =
Championship Wrestling from Florida
NWA Florida Tag Team Championship ( 2 times ) - with Roger Kirby
NWA World Tag Team Championship ( Florida version ) ( 1 time ) - with Swede Hanson
Mid @-@ Atlantic Championship Wrestling
NWA Atlantic Coast Tag Team Championship ( 4 times ) - with Swede Hanson
NWA Eastern States Heavyweight Championship ( 4 times )
NWA Mid @-@ Atlantic Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) - with Ric Flair
NWA Southern Tag Team Championship ( Mid @-@ Atlantic version ) ( 1 time ) - with Swede Hanson
NWA Western States Sports
NWA Rocky Mountain Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
NWA Western States Tag Team Championship ( 3 times ) - with Swede Hanson
Southwest Sports Inc .
NWA Texas Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
NWA World Tag Team Championship ( Texas version ) ( 1 time ) - with Rock Hunter
St. Louis Wrestling Hall of Fame
Class of 2014
World Championship Wrestling ( Australia )
IWA World Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) - with Swede Hanson
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= New York State Route 37 =
New York State Route 37 ( NY 37 ) is a state highway in the North Country of New York in the United States , extending for 127 @.@ 40 miles ( 205 @.@ 03 km ) on a west – east axis . The western terminus of the route is at an intersection with U.S. Route 11 ( US 11 ) in Pamelia , Jefferson County . Its eastern terminus is at a junction with US 11 , NY 11B , and NY 30 in Malone , Franklin County . In between the termini , NY 37 passes through Ogdensburg and Massena . It is a two @-@ lane , nondivided , full access roadway for most of its entire length , except for portions between Massena and western Franklin County , where the route widens to a four @-@ lane divided highway .
NY 37 was assigned in 1930 to the portion of the Theodore Roosevelt International Highway between Redwood and Malone as well as to a previously unnumbered roadway between Watertown and Redwood . The Redwood – Malone portion was originally part of NY 3 when the first set of posted routes in New York were assigned in 1924 . NY 37 has since been rerouted in areas , primarily near Ogdensburg and Massena .
= = Route description = =
= = = Watertown to Ogdensburg = = =
NY 37 begins at an intersection with US 11 just north of Watertown in the town of Pamelia . Between Watertown and Theresa , NY 37 follows a north – south alignment and parallels Interstate 81 ( I @-@ 81 ) , located just west of NY 37 . Southwest of Theresa , I @-@ 81 turns to the northwest as NY 37 intersects NY 26 and NY 411 , the westward continuation of NY 26 . NY 26 joins NY 37 around the western edge of the village before splitting to the northwest a short distance to the north . NY 37 , however , continues northward , passing through Redwood before curving northeast as it enters St. Lawrence County .
Across the county line , NY 37 parallels NY 12 to the north as both routes proceed northeast . Roughly 7 miles ( 11 km ) from the county line , NY 37 encounters Hammond , a small village located west of Black Lake . Past Hammond , Route 37 heads north toward Morristown , where it meets NY 12 , the primary roadway along the St. Lawrence River 's southern bank west of this point . NY 12 ends here ; however , NY 37 takes over the routing of NY 12 and proceeds northeast along the edge of the St. Lawrence River . Just east of NY 12 , NY 37 meets the northernmost point of NY 58 .
Midway between Morristown and Ogdensburg , NY 37 enters St. Lawrence State Park , one of many New York state parks located on the southern bank of the river . The route exits the park and heads northeast to Ogdensburg , where it meets NY 68 ( the former routing of NY 37 into Ogdensburg ) west of the city . While NY 68 continues into downtown , NY 37 turns eastward , then northeastward and bypasses the city to the south . Near the Ogdensburg International Airport , NY 37 meets NY 812 at an interchange . Here , NY 812 joins NY 37 and the two routes intersect NY 68 once more before leaving Ogdensburg .
= = = Ogdensburg to Massena = = =
Just outside Ogdensburg , NY 812 separates from NY 37 to continue northward to Canada over the Ogdensburg – Prescott International Bridge , where it becomes Highway 16 farther inland . NY 37 , however , continues to follow the south bank of the St. Lawrence River , passing Galop Island State Park on its way to Waddington , where it intersects the northernmost point on NY 345 . East of the village , NY 37 passes south of the riverside Coles Creek State Park and traverses Coles Creek itself .
In the Louisville hamlet of Louisville Corner ( west of Massena ) , NY 37 departs the St. Lawrence River and intersects the western end of NY 131 , a northerly bypass of Massena along the riverbank . Farther east in Massena , NY 37 intersects NY 37B , the former routing of NY 37 through Massena , west of the village before crossing over the Grasse River and intersecting the northern termini of both NY 56 ( where NY 37 widens into a four @-@ lane divided highway ) and NY 420 . NY 37B later rejoins NY 37 east of the village , as does NY 131 directly north of the Massena International Airport .
= = = Eastern St. Lawrence and Franklin counties = = =
East of the airport in the town of Massena , NY 37 begins to parallel the north bank of the Raquette River as it intersects NY 37C near a hamlet named for the waterway . NY 37 and the river continue northeast to the vicinity of the hamlet of Rooseveltown , where NY 37 formerly connected to a large traffic circle linking NY 37 to the Three Nations Crossing as well as County Route 45 ( CR 45 ) . The traffic circle has since been replaced with a T @-@ intersection and traffic light because of the expansion of the American Customs facility . Upon crossing into Franklin County and the St. Regis Mohawk Reservation a short distance to the east , the road narrows back to a two @-@ lane undivided highway and crosses over the Raquette River .
Although most of NY 37 in the town of Bombay is contained within the reservation , a short portion east of Hogansburg and the St. Regis River and west of Tarbell Road is located outside the reservation limits . Within this stretch , NY 37 meets both the eastern end of NY 37C and the northern terminus of NY 95 . East of the reservation , NY 37 roughly parallels the CSX Transportation @-@ owned Montreal Subdivision northeast to Fort Covington , where NY 37 crosses the railroad line and intersects Water Street ( unsigned NY 970T ) , a connector to Quebec Route 132 on the northern side of the Canadian border .
East of Fort Covington , NY 37 follows a more southeasterly routing as it separates from the northernmost extents of the state . In the Westville hamlet of Westville Center , NY 37 meets the western terminus of NY 122 . Farther south , NY 37 enters the village of Malone , where it terminates at US 11 , NY 11B and NY 30 .
= = History = =
The portion of NY 37 from Redwood to Malone was originally part of the Theodore Roosevelt International Highway , an international auto trail connecting Portland , Maine , on the Atlantic Ocean coast to Portland , Oregon , east of the Pacific Ocean . When the first set of posted routes in New York were assigned in 1924 , the entirety of the Roosevelt Highway in New York was designated NY 3 . In the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , NY 3 was rerouted to follow its current routing between Watertown and Plattsburgh . The former routing of NY 3 along the St. Lawrence River became part of the new NY 37 , which utilized a previously unnumbered highway between Watertown and Redwood via Theresa . Initially , NY 37 directly served Theresa by way of modern CR 136 , CR 46 , and CR 193 ; however , it was realigned c . 1934 to bypass the village to the west .
When NY 37 was first assigned , it entered Ogdensburg on Main Street ( modern NY 68 ) and exited the city on Ford Street and Proctor Avenue . East of the city , NY 37 used less than 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) of its modern alignment before turning south to follow Van Rensselaer Road to Waddington . The modern , riverside alignment of NY 37 between Ogdensburg and Waddington was designated as NY 37A as part of the 1930 renumbering . In the late 1950s , the alignments of NY 37 and NY 37A were flipped , placing NY 37 on its current routing and NY 37A on Van Rensselaer Road . During the same time period , NY 37 was rerouted to follow a new bypass around the southern edge of Ogdensburg .
In the Massena area , NY 37 originally broke from its modern alignment west of the village and followed what is now NY 37B east to Main Street . Here , it turned south onto Main Street to traverse the Grasse River before continuing east on Orvis Street ( and meeting modern NY 37B at Center Street ) to reconnect to its current alignment east of the village . Lastly , from modern NY 131 adjacent to the Massena International Airport to Rooseveltown , NY 37 was initially routed on Trippany Road , NY 37C , and Roosevelt Road . In the mid @-@ 1950s , construction began on a new southern bypass of Massena that connected to NY 37 at the modern termini of NY 37B . It was completed and opened to traffic by 1958 . Work on an eastward , divided highway extension of the bypass to Rooseveltown began c . 1961 . The final section , from the hamlet of Raquette River to Rooseveltown , opened to traffic later that year .
= = Suffixed routes = =
NY 37 once had as many as four suffixed routes ; two have since been removed .
NY 37A was an alternate route of NY 37 between Ogdensburg and Waddington . It was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York to what is now NY 37 between the two locations . At the time , NY 37 was routed on Van Rensselaer Road . The alignments of NY 37 and NY 37A were flipped in the late 1950s . On April 10 , 1980 , the NY 37A designation was removed . Ownership and maintenance of Van Rensselaer Road was transferred from the state of New York to St. Lawrence County on September 1 , 1982 , at which time the highway was redesignated as CR 28 .
NY 37B ( 4 @.@ 03 miles or 6 @.@ 49 kilometres ) is the former routing of NY 37 through Massena . NY 37B leaves NY 37 west of the village and rejoins its parent just east of Massena . It was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering .
NY 37C ( 9 @.@ 89 miles or 15 @.@ 92 kilometres ) is a loop off of NY 37 in northeastern St. Lawrence County and northwestern Franklin County . While NY 37 follows a direct east – west routing between Massena and the Bombay community of Hogansburg , NY 37C dips south to serve to the Brasher community of Helena . NY 37C was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering .
NY 37D was a spur connecting NY 37 to NY 26 in Theresa , utilizing part of NY 37 's original alignment through the Theresa area . It was assigned c . 1936 and removed in the mid @-@ 1960s . It is now maintained by Jefferson County as CR 136 and CR 46 .
= = Major intersections = =
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= 2nd Brigade , 7th Infantry Division ( United States ) =
The 2nd Brigade , 7th Infantry Division , originally known as the 13th Infantry Brigade was an infantry brigade of the United States Army , and a part of the 7th Infantry Division . The brigade was based at Fort Ord , California for most of its history .
Activated for service in World War I , the unit saw brief service in the conflict , but never fought as an entire unit . After the Korean War , it was reactivated as a brigade , and was returned to the United States where it saw action in Operation Just Cause and Operation Golden Pheasant . The 2nd Brigade was sent to quell civil unrest resulting from the 1992 Los Angeles Riots . The brigade was finally deactivated in 1993 .
= = History = =
= = = World War I = = =
The 2nd Brigade , 7th Infantry Division was first constituted and activated in the regular army as the 13th Infantry Brigade on 6 December 1917 at Camp Wheeler , Georgia . One month later it organized and prepared for deployment to Europe to participate in World War I as a part of the American Expeditionary Force , along with the rest of the division . The 13th Infantry Brigade was one of two brigades assigned to the division headquarters , the other being the 14th Infantry Brigade . Serving within the brigade were the 34th Infantry Regiment and the 55th Infantry Regiment , bringing the total strength of the brigade to around 8 @,@ 000 men . Most of the brigade sailed to Europe aboard the SS Leviathan .
During its time in France , the brigade did not participate as a whole in any engagements , though its infantry and reconnaissance elements did engage German forces . On 11 October 1918 the 13th Brigade and 7th Division first came under shelling attacks . At Saint @-@ Mihiel the units also came under chemical attack . Elements of the 7th probed up toward Prény near the Moselle River , capturing positions and driving German forces out of the region . It was around this time that the division first received its shoulder sleeve insignia , which the 13th Brigade wore as a part of the division .
In early November , the 13th Brigade began readying itself for an attack on the Hindenburg Line with the division , which was part of the Second Army . The division launched a reconnaissance in force on the Voëvre Plain , but before it could begin a full assault , the Allies signed an Armistice ending hostilities . After 33 days on the front lines , the 7th Division suffered 1 @,@ 988 casualties . It was awarded one campaign streamer for Lorraine . The brigade performed occupation duties for the next year as it began preparations to return to the continental United States .
The 13th Brigade returned to the United States in late 1919 , and gradually demobilized at Camp George G. Meade , Maryland until 1921 . On 22 September of that year , the Headquarters Company , 7th Division was inactivated , and the 13th and 14th Brigades deactivated with it .
= = = Reorganization = = =
On 1 July 1940 , the 7th Infantry Division was reactivated at Camp Ord , California Under the command of Major General Joseph W. Stilwell . The Headquarters element , 13th and 14th Brigades did not reactivate , however , and the division was instead centered around three infantry regiments ; the 17th Infantry Regiment , the 32nd Infantry Regiment , and the 53rd Infantry Regiment . The 13th Brigade was not activated for the duration of the war and its headquarters formation was not used to form a new unit .
= = = Post @-@ Korean War = = =
In the wake of the Korean War , between 1953 and 1971 , the 7th Infantry Division defended the Korean Demilitarized Zone . Its main garrison was Camp Casey , South Korea . During these occupation duties , the division saw a complete reorganization in compliance with the Reorganization Objective Army Divisions plan . In 1963 , the division 's former headquarters company grew into the 1st Brigade , 7th Infantry Division while the 13th Infantry Brigade became the 2nd Brigade , 7th Infantry Division . The 14th Infantry Brigade redesignated at the 3rd Brigade , 7th Infantry Division . These renamed formations retained all of the lineage and campaign credits of their previous designations . On 2 April 1971 , the division and its brigades returned to the United States and inactivated at Fort Lewis , Washington .
In October 1974 the 7th and two brigades reactivated at their former garrison , Fort Ord ( a National Guard " roundout " brigade , the 41st , would periodically train with the division as its third brigade ) . The unit did not see any action in Vietnam or during the post war era , but was tasked to keep a close watch on South American developments . It trained at Fort Ord , Camp Roberts , and Fort Hunter Liggett . On 1 October 1985 the division redesignated as the 7th Infantry Division ( Light ) , organized again as a light infantry division . It was the first US division specially designed as such . The various battalions of the 17th , 31st , and 32nd Regiments moved from the division , replaced by battalions from other regiments , including battalions from the 21st Infantry Regiment , the 27th Infantry Regiment , and the 9th Infantry Regiment . The 27th Infantry and the 9th Infantry Regiment participated in Operation Golden Pheasant in Honduras . In 1989 the 2nd Brigade , 7th Infantry Division participated in Operation Just Cause in Panama .
In 1991 the Base Realignment and Closure Commission recommended the closing of Fort Ord due to the escalating cost of living on the Central California coastline . By 1994 , the garrison was closed and the Division was assigned to relocate to Fort Lewis , Washington . The 2nd Brigade , to include its Headquarters and Headquarters Company along with the 3rd Brigade 's 3rd Battalion 17th Infantry Regiment and other assigned military police companies participated in one final mission in the United States before inactivation ; quelling the 1992 Los Angeles Riots , called Operation Garden Plot . In 1993 the division was slated to move to Fort Lewis , WA and inactivate as part of the post @-@ Cold War drawdown of the US Army , but the 2nd and 3rd Brigades of the 7th inactivated at Ft . Ord in 1993 . The 1st Brigade relocated to Ft . Lewis and was later reflagged as the 2nd Brigade of the 2nd Infantry Division while the division headquarters formally inactivated on 16 June 1994 at Fort Lewis .
= = Honors = =
= = = Unit decorations = = =
= = = Campaign streamers = = =
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= Orthodox Church in America =
The Orthodox Church in America ( OCA ) is an autocephalous Eastern Orthodox church in North America . The OCA consists of more than 700 parishes , missions , communities , monasteries and institutions in the United States and Canada . In 2011 , it had an estimated 84 @,@ 900 members in the United States .
The OCA began when eight Russian Orthodox monks established a mission in Alaska , then part of Russian America , in 1794 . This became a diocese of the Russian Orthodox Church after the United States purchased Alaska from Russia in 1867 . By the late 19th century , the Russian Orthodox Church had grown in other areas of the United States due to the arrival of immigrants from areas of Eastern and Central Europe , many of them formerly of the Eastern Catholic churches ( " Greek Catholics " ) , and from the Middle East . These immigrants , regardless of nationality or ethnic background , were united under a single North American diocese of the Russian Orthodox Church .
After the Bolshevik Revolution , Patriarch Tikhon of Moscow directed all Russian Orthodox churches outside of Russia to govern themselves autonomously . Orthodox churches in America became a self @-@ governing Russian Orthodox Greek Catholic Church in America in 1924 under the leadership of Metropolitan Platon ( Rozhdestvensky ) , popularly called the Metropolia . The Russian Orthodox Greek Catholic Church in America was granted autocephaly by the Russian Orthodox Church in 1970 , and renamed the Orthodox Church in America . Its hierarchs are part of the Assembly of Canonical Orthodox Bishops of North and Central America .
= = Official name = =
According to the April 1970 Tomos of Autocephaly granted by the Russian Orthodox Church , the official name of the Church is The Autocephalous Orthodox Church in America . The more comprehensive March 1970 Agreement of Tomos of Autocephaly , however , states in Article VIII that the legal name of the Church was changed to " Orthodox Church in America " ( with no definite article ) .
In 2005 , Tikhon ( Fitzgerald ) , then Bishop of the OCA Diocese of the West , commented that the official name of the jurisdiction is The Orthodox Church in America ( TOCA ) , but the definite article was dropped due to a printing error . The former uses ( Orthodox Church in America and OCA ) remain the most common both within and outside the jurisdiction .
= = History = =
= = = Missionary work = = =
The first Native Americans to become Orthodox were the Aleuts living in contact with Siberian fur traders in the mid 18th century . They had been baptized mostly by their Orthodox trading partners or during occasional visits by priests serving aboard exploring vessels of the Russian navy . Russian colony in Alaska was established in 1784 by merchant Grigory Shelikhov . Shelikhov 's attempt to colonize Kodiak Island was met with resistance by the native population . He returned to Russia and installed Alexandr Baranov as director of the colony . In order to convince the Russian imperial court of the seriousness of his colonial ambitions , Shelikhov recruited volunteers from the Valaam , an environment that appears strikingly similar to the Kodiak archipelago 's landscape , and Konevitsa monasteries to travel to the new colony .
The volunteers , led by Archimandrite Joasaph ( Bolotov ) , departed Saint Petersburg on December 21 , 1793 , and arrived at Kodiak Island on September 24 , 1794 . When they arrived they were shocked by the harsh treatment of the Kodiak natives at the hands of the Russian settlers and Baranov . They sent reports to Shelikhov detailing the abuse of the local population , but were ignored . In response , however , the Holy Synod created an auxiliary episcopal see in Alaska in 1796 , and elected Fr . Joasaph as bishop . Fr . Joasaph and a small party returned to Russia in 1798 for his consecration , and to offer first @-@ hand accounts of what they had seen . During their return voyage to the colony in May 1799 , their ship sank and all aboard died . In 1800 , Baranov placed the remaining monks under house arrest , and forbade them to have any further contact with the local population .
Despite the lack of leadership , the Orthodox mission in Alaska continued to grow . In 1811 , however , the Holy Synod officially closed the episcopal see . It was not until 1823 that the Holy Synod sent instructions for a new priest to travel to Alaska . John Veniaminov of Irkutsk volunteered for the journey , and left Russia in May 1823 . He and his family arrived at Unalaska Island on July 29 , 1824 . In 1840 , after the death of his wife , Veniaminov accepted monastic tonsure and , taking the name Innocent , ordination as the Bishop of Kamchatka , the Kurile and Aleutian Islands , making him the first ruling bishop of the Alaskan mission since Bishop Joasaph . Bishop Innocent was elevated to archbishop in 1850 . For his missionary and scholarly work that had focused on blending indigenous Alaskan languages and cultures with Orthodox tradition , Innocent became a saint of the Orthodox Church in America in 1977 , and is referred to as the Enlightener of the Aleuts and Apostle to the Americas .
= = = Growth = = =
In 1868 , the first Orthodox church in the continental United States was established in San Francisco , California . Numerous parishes were established across the country throughout the rest of the 19th century . Although these parishes were typically multi @-@ ethnic , most received support from the missionary diocese . In 1872 the diocesan see was relocated from Alaska to the city of San Francisco , California in the United States . The mission itself was instituted as a separate Diocese of Alaska and the Aleutian Islands on June 10 , 1870 , subsequent to the sale of Alaska to the United States in 1867 . In November 1870 , the first Orthodox church in New York City was consecrated .
Eastern @-@ Rite Catholicism was viewed with suspicion by several Latin @-@ Rite bishops in the United States ; some , such as Archbishop John Ireland of Saint Paul , Minnesota , were actually hostile , especially concerning the matter of married clergy . In 1891 , Alexis Toth brought a group of 361 Eastern Catholics into Orthodoxy . From then until his death in 1909 , Toth brought approximately 20 @,@ 000 Eastern Catholics from 65 independent communities to Orthodoxy . By 1917 , 163 Eastern @-@ Rite Catholic parishes consisting of more than 100 @,@ 000 faithful had been converted . For his efforts , Toth was glorified as a saint by the OCA in 1994 .
In recognition of the expansion of the Church beyond Alaska , Bishop Tikhon ( Belavin ) petitioned the Holy Synod to change the diocese 's title to the Diocese of the Aleutians and North America . This was approved in February 1900 . He consecrated an auxiliary bishop for Alaska in 1903 , and in 1904 he consecrated Raphael Hawaweeny to administer to the Arab parishes . In 1905 , Bishop Tikhon relocated the diocesan administration from San Francisco to New York City .
In a report to the Holy Synod that year , Bishop Tikhon proposed dramatic changes in the operation of the diocese . Recognizing the needs of the growing multi @-@ ethnic Orthodox community , he recommended reforming the missionary diocese into a self @-@ supporting American diocese , composed of numerous ethnic auxiliary dioceses . His plan called for Russian ( New York ) , Arab ( Brooklyn ) , Serbian ( Chicago ) , and Greek dioceses . Additionally , he called for the formation of a governing council , composed of clergy and laity , which would meet to discuss administrative and canonical issues . On March 5 , 1907 , the first All @-@ American Sobor convened in Mayfield , Pennsylvania . Following Archbishop Tikhon 's reassignment to Russia that year , however , few of his reforms were implemented .
During this period , education and charity was a focus of the diocese . In 1905 , Archbishop Tikhon oversaw the creation of an Orthodox seminary in Minneapolis , Minnesota . St. Platon 's Seminary moved from Minneapolis to Tenafly , New Jersey in 1912 and enrolled 78 students from then until 1923 . In 1916 , an unaccredited Russian Women 's College was established in Brooklyn . An immigrant society and orphanage also were established , as well as the first Orthodox monasteries in the United States ( Saint Tikhon 's Monastery for men in 1905 and Holy Virgin Protection for women in 1915 ) .
By 1917 , the American diocese was the largest in the Russian Orthodox Church . It had grown from ten parishes in 1890 to more than 350 . Most of the funding for the diocese was provided by Russian Church , via the Imperial Missionary Society . The connections between the American diocese and the Russian Church would be severely compromised by the events of that year .
= = = Revolution and turmoil = = =
The Russian Revolution of 1917 and the subsequent establishment of the Communist Soviet government ushered in a period of repression for the Russian Orthodox Church . Church property was confiscated , and when Patriarch Tikhon resisted , he was imprisoned from April 1922 until June 1923 . On November 20 , 1920 , Patriarch Tikhon formally authorized Russian Orthodox bishops to set up temporarily independent organizations , until such time as normal communications with and governance from the patriarchate could be restored .
Ethnic groups within the American diocese began to re @-@ align themselves with other national churches . In 1918 , a group of Ukrainians in Canada formed the Ukrainian Greek Orthodox Church in Canada , and in 1922 , the Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America was established . In 1926 , the Serbs aligned with the Serbian Orthodox Church .
In Soviet Russia , a splinter group known as the Living Church gained official state recognition in place of the Russian Orthodox Church in 1922 . In the United States , a group of Living Church clergy led by John Kedrovsky attempted to depose ruling American hierarch Bishop Alexander ( Nemolovsky ) . Bishop Alexander , in addition to the political and ethnic struggles of his diocese , had also to deal with mounting Church debt as a result of the loss of funds from the Russian Church . He was forced to mortgage Church property to pay creditors , and was replaced in 1922 by Archbishop Platon ( Rozhdestvensky ) , who had previously served as archbishop of the diocese from 1907 to 1914 .
After Archbishop Platon 's return , he was elected Metropolitan of All America and Canada at the third All @-@ American Sobor in November 1922 . Soon after , Communist authorities in Russia ( in collaboration with the Living Church ) attempted to seize Church assets in the United States . In response , the fourth All @-@ American Sobor convened in April 1924 . During the Sobor , the historic step of declaring the North American diocese to be temporarily self @-@ governing was taken . This was meant to be necessary only until relations with the Russian Church could be normalized , and the justification for the move was the earlier decree by Patriarch Tikhon . The diocese was officially incorporated as the Russian Orthodox Greek Catholic Church of America .
Despite the conditions set out by Tikhon 's decree for this temporary autonomy not being met , the American diocese of the Russian church declared self @-@ governance in 1924 , against the protests of the patriarchate , with which it had communication and which was capable of governance had its American branch been willing . The refusal of the American branch to submit to the patriarchate thus based itself officially on a document whose conditions it had not met . In reality , however , it was a fear of Communism and a belief that the patriarchate had been compromised which fueled the rebellion , paired with a desire on the part of the Metropolia to dissociate itself from the Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia ( ROCOR ) of which it had been part .
Despite the declaration of self @-@ governance , Kedrovsky and the Living Church were awarded the Church 's diocesan cathedral in New York City . To prevent further loss of property , the diocese allowed individual parishes to take ownership of their properties , which made them effectively independent . This , combined with the increasing number of ethnic parishes aligning themselves with other Orthodox jurisdictions ( as well as some non @-@ Orthodox ) , led to a unique situation in Orthodox America whereby multiple jurisdictions overlapped geographically . The remainder of the American Church became known informally as the Metropolia ( or under the jurisdiction of the Metropolitan ) . Following Patriarch Tikhon 's death , the Russian Orthodox Church , led by Metropolitan Sergius , began cooperating with the Soviet government . In 1933 , the Russian Church declared the Metropolia to be schismatic .
A third Russian Church , the Synod of Bishops of the Russian Church Abroad ( also known as the Karlovtsy Synod and later , the Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia or ROCOR ) , formed in 1921 . The Synod saw itself as representing all Russian Orthodox abroad , including the Metropolia . The Metropolia cooperated with the Synod at first but severed relations with them in 1926 , citing the Synod 's increasing claims of authority in America . The Synod , for its part , suspended Metropolitan Platon and his clergy . In 1935 , an agreement entitled " Temporary Regulations of the Russian Orthodox Church Abroad " was signed that normalized relations between the Metropolia and the ROCOR . The 6th All @-@ American Sobor , held in 1937 , affirmed that while the Metropolia remained autonomous , it reported to the ROCOR in matters of faith .
The ROCOR , forced to leave Yugoslavia toward the end of World War II , eventually established its base of operations in New York City . In 1946 , it was decided at the 7th All @-@ American Sobor that the Metropolia would sever its ties with the ROCOR and attempt to return to the Patriarchate of Moscow . This return was proposed with the stipulation that the Metropolia be allowed to retain its autonomy . When this condition was not met , the Metropolia continued as a self @-@ governing Church .
Although there were periodic attempts at reconciliation between the Metropolia and the Russian Church over the next few decades , no serious progress was made . During this time , the ethnic character of the Metropolia began to change . Since many Russian immigrants to America aligned themselves with the vocally anti @-@ Communist ROCOR , the Metropolia experienced its growth increasingly through the addition of English @-@ speaking converts . As a result , the ethnic makeup of the Metropolia began to shift away from a purely Slavic one that had included mainly Russians , Ukrainians , Galicians , and Rusyns .
= = = Move toward unity and independence = = =
Prior to the 13th All @-@ American Sobor in November 1967 , a proposal was prepared to change the name of the Church from the Russian Orthodox Greek Catholic Church of America to the " Orthodox Church in America " . The Council of Bishops , already aware of the proposal , forbade a vote on the matter . After much debate however , a non @-@ binding straw poll was permitted . The result of the poll was decidedly in favor of the name change . As a result , the decision to deal with the matter at another Sobor ( to be held in two years ) was made .
In the early 1960s , the Metropolia resumed communication with the Patriarch of Moscow . In 1968 , the Metropolia and the Russian Church communicated informally to resolve long @-@ standing differences . Representatives from the Metropolia sought the right of self @-@ governance , as well as the removal of Russian jurisdiction from all matters concerning the American Church . Official negotiations on the matter began in 1969 . On April 10 , 1970 , Patriarch Alexius I and fourteen bishops of the Russian Church 's Holy Synod signed the official Tomos of Autocephaly , which made the newly renamed Orthodox Church in America the fifteenth autocephalous Orthodox Church . The name change , as well as the granting of autocephaly , was officially accepted at the 14th All @-@ American Sobor ( also known as the 1st All @-@ American Council in recognition of the Church 's new @-@ found independence ) in October 1970 . The OCA 's autocephaly is currently recognized only by a minor share of other autocephalous Orthodox Churches . All canonical Orthodox Churches recognize the OCA as canonical and its sacraments as valid , however .
Within the past twenty years , the OCA has established more than 220 new parishes . It was a member of the Standing Conference of Orthodox Bishops in America ( SCOBA ) , together with the Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America , the Antiochian Orthodox Christian Archdiocese of North America ( AOCA ) and the other member jurisdictions . In 2010 , SCOBA was dissolved with the creation of the new Assembly of Canonical Orthodox Bishops of North and Central America , which was mandated by Orthodox Patriarchates in 2009 at a meeting in Switzerland . Serious consideration has been given recently to a possible merger between the OCA and the AOCA . Both groups share a significant common history , in that a Syrian priest , Raphael Hawaweeny , was sent by the Moscow Patriarchate in the late 19th century as a missionary to Arabic @-@ speaking Orthodox Christians living in North America . Raphael was ordained a bishop in 1904 , and his flock eventually became the AOCA . Bishop Raphael was canonized in March 2000 by the OCA as St. Raphael of Brooklyn .
= = = Financial scandal = = =
In 2005 , former treasurer , Protodeacon Eric Wheeler publicly accused the OCA administration of financial misconduct . Wheeler alleged that millions of dollars in donations to the church were improperly used for personal expenses or to cover shortfalls in church accounts .
A 32 @-@ page report was released on September 3 , 2008 , that addressed the financial scandal and recommended " discipline " for five individuals including then @-@ primate Metropolitan Herman , his predecessor Metropolitan Theodosius and two former treasurers as well as a former comptroller . The same report recommended then @-@ primate Metropolitan Herman immediately resign or retire from his post or risk bring defrocked .
One day after the report was released , Metropolitan Herman resigned from his position as Metropolitan . That November , the OCA elected a new Primate at its 15th Annual All @-@ American Council . Metropolitan Jonah ( Paffhausen ) was chosen because he had recently been appointed as a bishop ( only 11 days prior ) and was viewed to not be involved with the previous financial scandal . Metropolitan Jonah immediately took a strong stance against the previous scandal and became a very public metropolitan , seeking to repair damage done by the previous scandal and bring the OCA into the public realm . Metropolitan Jonah also sought to improve relations with non @-@ Orthodox groups and especially sought to repair the relations between the OCA and traditional Anglican groups . He was invited twice to speak at the conference of the Anglican Church of North America , in 2009 and 2012 .
Less than four years after his election , Metropolitan Jonah was asked by the Holy Synod , in a unanimous decision , to resign from his position . While wary of initially releasing information about the resignation , the Holy Synod felt prompted to release a public statement about his release due to rumors that had spread about their intentions . The statement they released on the official website of the OCA detailed several administrative decisions Metropolitan Jonah had made that the Holy Synod felt put the church and its members at risk . In the statement , the Holy Synod clarified the reason they withheld information initially was to protect the reputation and integrity of Metropolitan Jonah as well as protect anyone involved in the specific decisions made by him .
On November 13 , 2012 , an extraordinary All @-@ American Council elected Archbishop Tikhon Mollard of Philadelphia and Eastern Pennsylvania as the Metropolitan of All @-@ America and Canada . He was installed on January 27 , 2013 . Metropolitan Tikhon is a convert to the Orthodox faith and a long @-@ time monk of St. Tikhon 's Monastery in South Canaan , Pennsylvania .
= = = Recognition of autocephaly = = =
Currently , the Russian , Bulgarian , Georgian , Polish , Serbian , and Czech and Slovak churches recognize the autocephaly of the OCA , though the Bulgarian , Russian , and Serbian patriarchates continue to maintain parishes inside the OCA 's claimed jurisdiction . Among the churches that do not recognize it is the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople , which argues that the Russian Church did not have the authority to grant autocephaly , partly because the Russian Church at the time was considered to be heavily influenced by the Soviet government . The Ecumenical Patriarch also cites Canon 28 of the Council of Chalcedon , which asserted the jurisdiction of the bishop of Constantinople in dioceses located " among the barbarians " ( i.e. outside the Roman Empire ) , is cited as the source of the Ecumenical Patriarchate 's authority in the matter .
Apologists for the OCA 's autocephaly claim that the decree did not need the approval of the Ecumenical Patriarchate , as it was an internal matter for the Russian Orthodox Church to decide . Many autocephalous churches , the Russian Church included , were not recognized as such for many years , albeit their autocephaly was granted by the Ecumenical Patriarchate .
= = Membership = =
The exact number of OCA parishioners is debated . According to the 2006 edition of the Yearbook of American and Canadian Churches , the OCA has 1 @,@ 064 @,@ 000 members , an increase of 6 @.@ 4 percent from 2005 . This figure places the OCA as the 24th largest Christian denomination in the United States , and the second largest Eastern Orthodox church in the country , after the Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America .
In 2000 , a study by Alexei D. Krindatch , of the Patriarch Athenagoras Orthodox Institute , presented a substantially lower figure — 115 @,@ 100 adherents ( baptized Orthodox who attend services on at least an occasional basis and their children ) and 39 @,@ 400 full members ( persons older than 18 , paying annual Church membership fees ) . The Greek Orthodox Archdiocese , by comparison , was listed as having 440 @,@ 000 adherents . In response to the study , an OCA representative stated the Church had " around 750 @,@ 000 adults and children . "
In 2004 , Jonathan Ivanoff stated in a presentation at the OCA 's Evangelization Conference that the Church 's census population in 2004 was 27 @,@ 169 , and that membership from 1990 – 2000 declined 13 percent . It further stated that the OCA population in the continental United States declined between six and nine percent per year .
In 2011 , The Atlas of American Orthodox Christian Churches , published by Holy Cross Orthodox Press and based on research by Alexei Krindatch , was released . It has extensive data on various Orthodox Churches in the United States , including both Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox groups ( as well as groups considered uncanonical by those two groups ) . The publication is endorsed by the Assembly of Canonical Orthodox Bishops and is being used by various Assembly committees as part of their research and planning . The Atlas lists the United States membership of the OCA as 84 @,@ 900 , 33 @,@ 800 of which it says are regular church attendees . It lists the OCA as having 551 parishes and 19 monasteries in the United States . It also indicates the states with the heaviest concentration of OCA parishes are , in order : Alaska ( with 86 ) , Pennsylvania ( with 83 ) , California ( with 43 ) and New York ( with 41 ) .
= = Structure = =
= = = Episcopacy = = =
The supreme canonical authority of the OCA is the Holy Synod of Bishops , composed of all the church 's diocesan bishops . The ex officio chairman of the Holy Synod is the metropolitan . The Holy Synod meets twice annually , however special sessions can be called either by the metropolitan or at the request of at least three diocesan bishops .
= = = Metropolitan = = =
The primate of the OCA is the metropolitan . He also serves as the bishop of one of the Church 's dioceses . With the other bishops of the Church , the metropolitan is considered the first among equals . His official title is " Metropolitan of All @-@ America and Canada . " His role is to manage the welfare of the Church , and to act as its representative with other Orthodox Churches , religious organizations , and secular authorities . The metropolitan is elected , when necessary , by the Holy Synod at an All @-@ American Council ( a general council of OCA clergy and laity ) . There are no age or term limits for the metropolitan , and he may retire at any time , but usually does so only for health @-@ related reasons .
= = = Dioceses = = =
The diocese is the basic church body that comprises all the parishes of a determined geographical area . It is governed by the Diocesan Bishop , with the assistance of a Diocesan Assembly and a Diocesan Council . The OCA is currently composed of twelve geographic and three ethnic dioceses . The boundaries of the ethnic dioceses overlap those of certain geographic ones . These dioceses are the result of smaller ethnic jurisdictions joining the OCA at some point in its history , usually after having broken from other bodies . Dioceses are established by the Holy Synod whenever needed , and the Synod may also modify the boundaries of an existing diocese .
= = = All @-@ American Council = = =
According to the Statute of the Orthodox Church in America , the All @-@ American Council is the " highest legislative and administrative authority within the Church . " The Council is composed roughly of the Metropolitan , all bishops , priests , and selected lay delegates . The purpose of the All @-@ American Council is to discuss and vote on Church matters . When necessary , the Council has also elected new metropolitans .
The period between All @-@ American Councils is set at three years , although this is not always the case . The first thirteen Councils ( held from 1907 – 1970 ) are referred to as All @-@ American Sobors , reflecting the American Church 's jurisdictional ties to the Russian Orthodox Church . The fourteenth Sobor ( held in 1970 ) is jointly known as the 1st All @-@ American Council , reflecting the autocephalous status of the OCA . The most recent All @-@ American Council ( 16th ) was held in November 2012 , at which time Metropolitan Tikhon ( Mollard ) was elected .
= = = Metropolitan Council = = =
The Metropolitan Council is the permanent executive body of the Church 's administration . It is tasked with implementing the decisions of the All @-@ American Council , as well as handling the Church 's budgetary concerns . The Council is headed by a chairman ( the current Metropolitan ) , and is composed of the OCA 's chancellor , secretary , treasurer , and selected clergy and lay delegates . It usually meets twice per year , but in December 2006 a rare joint meeting between the Metropolitan Council and the Holy Synod of Bishops was held .
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= Alexandre Burrows =
Alexandre " Alex " Ménard @-@ Burrows ( born April 11 , 1981 ) is a French @-@ Canadian professional ice hockey right winger and an alternate captain for the Vancouver Canucks of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . He is known for playing in the style of an agitator and for his ascension to the NHL from being an undrafted player in the ECHL . After a two @-@ year career in the Quebec Major Junior Hockey League ( QMJHL ) , he played in the minor leagues for three seasons . He was signed by the Canucks in 2005 from their American Hockey League ( AHL ) affiliate , the Manitoba Moose . Burrows established himself as a checking forward with the Canucks in his first three NHL seasons before emerging as a scorer with four consecutive 25 + goal seasons from 2008 – 09 to 2011 – 12 .
Before making it to the NHL , Burrows also enjoyed a prolific ball hockey career , competing in national and international tournaments in the summers . In 2005 , he was named the International Ball Hockey Player of the Year . He has also been inducted into the Canadian and International Ball Hockey Hall of Fame .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Junior and minor leagues = = =
Burrows played two seasons in the Quebec Major Junior Hockey League ( QMJHL ) with the Shawinigan Cataractes , beginning in 2000 – 01 . He recorded 16 goals and 30 points over 63 regular season games , then added three points over 10 post @-@ season games . The following season , he improved to 35 goals and 70 points over 64 games , third in team @-@ scoring , behind Jonathan Bellemare and Jason Pominville . He went on to lead his team in post @-@ season scoring with nine goals and 21 points in 12 games as the Cataractes advanced to the Conference Finals , where they were eliminated in seven games by the Victoriaville Tigres .
Undrafted by a National Hockey League ( NHL ) club , Burrows went professional in 2002 – 03 with the Greenville Grrrowl of the ECHL , a third @-@ tier minor league . Late in his professional rookie season , he transferred to the Baton Rouge Kingfish and finished with a combined 32 points in 66 games between the two teams . The following season , in 2003 – 04 , he returned to the South Division , as he was signed by the Columbia Inferno . Early in the season , he was signed by Columbia 's American Hockey League ( AHL ) affiliate , the Manitoba Moose , on October 21 , 2003 , having been scouted by Moose general manager Craig Heisinger . He appeared in two AHL games for Manitoba before being sent back down to the ECHL . Shortly after his return , he was suspended for three games and fined an undisclosed amount by the league for abusing officials during a game on October 24 against the Greensboro Generals . Later on in the season , he was named to the 2004 ECHL All @-@ Star Game for the Eastern Conference and recorded one assist . He went on to finish the season with 29 goals and 73 points , second in points among Columbia players to league @-@ scoring champion Tim Smith .
In the subsequent off @-@ season , Burrows was re @-@ signed by the Moose on August 3 , 2004 . He was initially sent back down to the ECHL after a training camp both he and head coach Randy Carlyle described as disappointing . Following an injury to Wade Brookbank , he was recalled on October 29 , 2004 . He scored his first AHL goal with the Moose five days later , a game @-@ winning goal against goaltender David LeNeveu of the Utah Grizzlies in a 2 – 1 win . He finished the 2004 – 05 season with Manitoba and posted 26 points over 72 games in a fourth @-@ line role .
= = = Vancouver Canucks = = =
Having worked his way up from the ECHL , Burrows ' energetic play in the minors earned him a two @-@ way contract with the Moose 's NHL affiliate , the Vancouver Canucks , on November 8 , 2005 . He had appeared earlier in the Canucks ' training camp for the 2005 – 06 season , but was sent back to the Moose . After recording 30 points in 33 games with the Moose , he was recalled by the Canucks on January 2 , 2006 . Eight days later , Burrows scored his first career NHL goal against Ed Belfour of the Toronto Maple Leafs . He also added an assist as the Canucks won the game 4 – 3 . Establishing himself on the Canucks roster , he added his first NHL career hat trick on March 27 , 2006 , in a 7 – 4 win against the Los Angeles Kings . He finished with seven goals and 12 points over 43 games in his NHL rookie campaign . Burrows ' ascension to the NHL has been attributed to his hard @-@ working and abrasive style of play , generating momentum for his team and aggravating opposing players .
Burrows completed his first full campaign with the Canucks the following season in 2006 – 07 . He contributed primarily on the team 's penalty kill , which ranked first in the league . Burrows ' average shorthanded ice time per game was second among team forwards , behind Ryan Kesler . He struggled to produce offensively , however , and recorded a career @-@ low three goals and nine points in 81 games .
In 2007 – 08 , Burrows formed an effective duo with center Ryan Kesler on the third line as defensive forwards , countering opposing teams ' top players while contributing offensively , as well . During the season , he was fined an undisclosed amount by the league after spearing Detroit Red Wings forward Aaron Downey at centre ice during the two teams ' pre @-@ game skate on February 23 , 2008 . He finished the campaign with 12 goals , 31 points and a team @-@ high plus @-@ minus of + 11 . He was voted by Canucks ' fans to receive the team 's Most Exciting Player Award and the Fred J. Hume Award , given to the team 's " unsung hero " as voted by the Canucks Booster Club .
After remaining on the third line with Kesler at the start of the following season , head coach Alain Vigneault separated the two after the All @-@ Star break , placing Burrows on the first line with Daniel and Henrik Sedin , beginning on February 12 , 2009 , during a game against the Phoenix Coyotes . Burrows ' crash @-@ the @-@ net style – skating hard to the opposing team 's goalmouth for rebounds or tip @-@ ins – combined well with the Sedins ' cycling plays . Vigneault 's line adjustments were precipitated by a losing streak in January , which Burrows was instrumental in breaking . The Canucks ' home winless streak had extended to eight games , a franchise record , when Burrows broke a 3 – 3 tie with a shorthanded breakaway goal with 82 seconds remaining in a game against the Carolina Hurricanes . This sparked a resurgence in the Canucks , spearheaded by Burrows , who then immediately followed their record setting home losing streak with a record setting home winning streak , winning their next 10 games at home . Shortly thereafter , the Canucks extended his contract with a four @-@ year , $ 8 million deal on February 4 , 2009 , quadrupling his $ 525 @,@ 000 salary . Following a game against the Edmonton Oilers on April 4 , Burrows received a $ 2 @,@ 500 fine from the league for punching Oilers enforcer Zach Stortini from the bench .
Late in the campaign , he was selected by the Professional Hockey Writers ' Association as the Canucks ' nominee for the Bill Masterton Memorial Trophy , awarded for perseverance , dedication and sportsmanship . Burrows was not shortlisted for the award , however . Prior to the last game of the season , he received his second consecutive Most Exciting Player Award .
Playing in a more offensive role on the first line for the latter part of the season , Burrows finished the 2008 – 09 campaign with 51 points . His 28 goals broke Andrew Brunette 's mark for the most in a single season by an ECHL alumnus ( 27 in 2006 – 07 ) . In the subsequent first round of the 2009 playoffs , Burrows scored the series @-@ winning goal in overtime to sweep the St. Louis Blues . It was his second goal of the game . The Canucks advanced to meet the Chicago Blackhawks in the second round , who defeated them in six games . Burrows ' level of play was noticeably diminished in the Chicago series and it was revealed afterwards that he required surgery to remove bone chips in his left wrist . He finished the playoffs with three goals and an assist over 10 games .
The following season , Burrows recorded back @-@ to @-@ back hat tricks against the Columbus Blue Jackets and Phoenix Coyotes on January 5 and 7 , 2010 , respectively . It marked the first time an NHL player notched consecutive three @-@ goal games since Ilya Kovalchuk in November 2007 and the first time a Canucks player did so since Petri Skriko in 1986 . With six goals and an assist over two games , Burrows was named the NHL First Star of the Week on January 11 , 2010 .
= = = = NHL officials controversy = = = =
The night of his first star of the week selection , Burrows and the Canucks played a controversial game against the Nashville Predators . With the game tied 2 – 2 in the third period , Burrows was penalized twice by referee Stéphane Auger – once for diving and the other for interference . The latter call was deemed questionable by media sources , including TSN and the National Post . The interference penalty along with an additional penalty committed by Henrik Sedin resulted in Nashville 's game @-@ winning , 5 @-@ on @-@ 3 powerplay goal late in the game . With three seconds to go in regulation , Burrows skated by Auger and protested the interference penalty , resulting in an unsportsmanlike minor and a ten @-@ minute misconduct .
Following the game , Burrows accused Auger of having a personal vendetta against him for a play against the Predators the previous month that had made him look bad . After Burrows had been hit into the boards by Nashville forward Jerred Smithson during a game on December 8 , 2009 , Auger assessed Smithson with a five @-@ minute major and a game misconduct . However , the league later rescinded because it was believed Burrows had embellished injury . Burrows claimed that Auger told him before the January 11 game : " you made me look bad [ for calling the Smithson penalty ] so I 'm going to get you back tonight . " He went on to tell reporters that Auger " should stay out for the rest of the year making calls like that ... We just blew two points because of his officiating tonight . "
The following day , the NHL fined Burrows US $ 2 @,@ 500 for publicly criticizing Auger and deemed that his claims " cannot be substantiated . " Later that week , the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation ( CBC ) ' s Hockey Night in Canada telecast aired an 11 @-@ minute segment hosted by Ron MacLean and NHL vice @-@ president Colin Campbell reviewing Burrows ' past transgressions , spanning two years . The segment was widely criticized for being biased against Burrows and failing to illustrate both sides of the argument . Burrows ' parents subsequently issued a formal letter of complaint to the CBC , accusing MacLean of " verbal assassination " and for displaying " no journalistic balance . "
The following Saturday after the segment aired , the Canucks refused any interviews with the CBC before , during or after their game against the Chicago Blackhawks , which was broadcast on Hockey Night in Canada . The boycott was ordered by Canucks general manager Mike Gillis after MacLean refused to apologize . CBC and Canucks representatives later agreed in a conference call to " move on " and team players were allowed to resume interviews . MacLean later issued an unofficial apology aimed to clarify the situation .
= = = Vancouver Canucks ( cont 'd ) = = =
Later in the 2009 – 10 season , Burrows left during a game against the Los Angeles Kings after being hit in the throat by a Jarret Stoll slapshot . He was not injured , however , and did not miss any games thereafter . Playing a full season on the Canucks ' top line with the Sedins , he recorded a career @-@ high 35 goals , 32 assists , 67 points and a + 34 rating . His goals total ranked first on the Canucks . Fans voted him as recipient of the team 's Most Exciting Player Award for the third consecutive season .
The Canucks first line struggled to score in the playoffs , however . In 12 games , Burrows scored three goals , two of which were into empty nets , and notched three assists . The Canucks advanced to the second round past the Los Angeles Kings , where they were eliminated by the Chicago Blackhawks for the second consecutive year . It was revealed in the off @-@ season that Burrows was suffering from a shoulder injury , which he later received surgery for .
While Burrows ' offensive numbers increased from playing on the top line , the Sedins ' mutually benefitted from playing with him . Daniel and Henrik had not had a constant linemate on the first line since Anson Carter played with them in 2005 – 06 . Since then , Vigneault had used a variety of wingers , including Markus Naslund , Taylor Pyatt and Steve Bernier , to fill out the unit . In those years , Daniel and Henrik were point @-@ a @-@ game players ; with Burrows on their line , they vaulted into top scorers in the league , as Henrik won the Art Ross Trophy as the league 's leading point @-@ getter ( Daniel scored at a similar pace , but played less due to an injury ) .
Due to rehabilitation from the shoulder surgery , Burrows missed the first ten games of the 2010 – 11 season . Continuing to play with the Sedins upon his return , he recorded 48 points ( 26 goals and 22 assists ) in 72 games , sixth in team @-@ scoring . Winning the Presidents ' Trophy , the Canucks entered the 2011 playoffs as the first seed in the West and matched up against the Blackhawks for the third consecutive year . With a 3 – 0 lead in the series , the Canucks lost their next three games , resulting in a game seven . In the deciding game , Burrows scored two goals in a 2 – 1 overtime win , helping Vancouver eliminate Chicago . After defeating the Nashville Predators and San Jose Sharks in rounds two and three , the Canucks reached the Stanley Cup Finals for the first time in 17 years . Playing the Boston Bruins , Burrows received much attention of the series for allegedly biting opposing forward Patrice Bergeron during a scrum at the end of the first period in Game 1 of the series . While the two players were being held apart by a linesman , Burrows appears to be shown biting down on Bergeron 's finger , while both players were pushing and shoving at one another . The incident was reviewed by the league , but was ruled unsuspendable with " no conclusive evidence that [ he ] intentionally bit [ Bergeron 's ] finger . " The following game , Burrows scored his second overtime @-@ winner of the playoffs , part of a three @-@ point effort ( two goals and an assist ) . Occurring 11 seconds into the extra period , it was the second @-@ fastest goal scored from the start of an overtime game in Stanley Cup Finals history ( Montreal Canadiens forward Brian Skrudland scored nine seconds into overtime in Game 2 of the 1986 Stanley Cup Finals against the Calgary Flames ) . With two overtime goals in one playoff season , Burrows tied the NHL record , which was held by 28 other players . After leading two @-@ games @-@ to @-@ none in the series , Vancouver went on to lose the Stanley Cup to Boston in seven contests . Burrows finished the post @-@ season with 9 goals and 17 points over 25 games .
In 2011 – 12 , Burrows recorded 28 goals and 52 points in 80 contests , helping Vancouver to a second consecutive Presidents ' Trophy . Facing the eighth @-@ seeded Los Angeles Kings in the first round , they were eliminated in five games . Burrows had one goal during the series . The Los Angeles Kings went on to become the 2012 Stanley Cup Champions .
= = International play = =
Following his seventh NHL season , Burrows received his first invite to the Canadian national team for the 2012 IIHF World Championship , held in Finland and Sweden . Burrows ' Vancouver Canucks had been eliminated in the first round of the 2012 playoffs , making him available for selection . At 31 years old , he was the oldest player on the Canadian roster . Making his Team Canada debut against Slovakia in the first game of the tournament , he fell to the ice and hit his head after colliding with two opposing players . After leaving the ice , he was kept out of the contest with concerns that he had sustained a concussion . The following day , Burrows ' agent , Paul Corbeil , told reporters that while he was symptom free , a return to the lineup would not be possible for four @-@ to @-@ five days , as per team protocol in scenarios in which a concussion is suspected . Returning to the lineup a week after the hit , he scored his first career international goal against Finnish goaltender Kari Lehtonen in a 5 – 3 win . The following contest , he scored a shorthanded goal in an 8 – 0 win against Kazakhstan to earn player of the game honours for Canada .
= = Ball hockey career = =
Burrows began playing organized ball hockey at the age of 19 . In 2001 , he won his first national championship with the Montreal Red Lites in Burnaby , British Columbia . Burrows went on to win the national championship in every year he played with the Red Lites . He was the tournament scoring leader in 2002 and 2003 and earned All @-@ Star Team honours from 2002 to 2004 . In 2005 , Burrows scored two goals in a 5 – 2 win against the Toronto Midnight Express in the national final to capture his fifth consecutive Canadian title with the Red Lites . Burrows was named the Tournament MVP by the Canadian Ball Hockey Association ( CBHA ) . He returned the following year to lead the Red Lites to a sixth consecutive title in 2006 .
Burrows made his first appearance on the international stage in ball hockey when he was named to Canada 's national ball hockey team for the 2003 World Championships in Sierre , Switzerland . He helped Canada beat the Czech Republic 6 – 1 in the final . Tying for the lead in tournament scoring with five goals and 10 points , Burrows was named the Most Valuable Forward . Two years later , in 2005 , he won his second World Championship in as many appearances with Canada in Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania . He capped the season off by being named the 2005 International Player of the Year by the International Street and Ball Hockey Federation ( ISBHF ) . The following year , he was voted in a Canadian poll as the country 's greatest ball hockey player ever .
Burrows has credited ball hockey for his fitness and discipline which has carried over to the NHL . Following his first full season with the Canucks in 2006 – 07 , Burrows retired from his ball hockey career . In 2010 , he was inducted into the CBHA Hall of Fame , along with national teammate and goaltender Michel Perodeau . He is also a member of the ISBHF Hall of Fame .
= = Personal life = =
Burrows was born in Pincourt , Québec , to parents Rodney and Carole . His father emigrated from London , England , at 23 , while his mother , a Québec native , is an elementary school principal . Burrows has two sisters as well – one older and one younger . He grew up speaking mostly French and attended French schools . His English has a noticeable French accent .
In July 2010 , Burrows married his longtime girlfriend , Nancy Roy . On April 27 , 2011 , Nancy gave birth to the couple 's first child , a girl named Victoria . Alex became a second time father on March 4 , 2013 to a daughter named Lexie . They live in Montreal during the offseason .
Burrows was the closest friend on the Canucks to former teammate Luc Bourdon , who died in a motorcycle accident in May 2009 . In the hockey season following his death , Burrows occasionally celebrated goals with a bow @-@ and @-@ arrow mime , a gesture that Bourdon himself did after scoring during his junior career . He and his wife ( girlfriend at the time ) remained close to Bourdon 's girlfriend , Charlene Ward .
In the 2009 off @-@ season , Burrows was involved in an assault incident while playing in a summer ice hockey league . Police were called to an arena in Kirkland , Québec , on July 21 after Burrows allegedly struck a goaltender , 19 @-@ year @-@ old Koray Celik , in the face . No arrests , however , were made at the scene .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =
= = = International = = =
= = Awards = =
= = = ECHL = = =
= = = Vancouver Canucks = = =
= = = NHL = = =
= = = Ball hockey = = =
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= Ahimsa in Jainism =
Ahimsā ( Ahiṃsā ) in Jainism is a fundamental principle forming the cornerstone of its ethics and doctrine . The term ahimsa means nonviolence , non @-@ injury or absence of desire to harm any life forms . Vegetarianism and other nonviolent practices and rituals of Jains flow from the principle of ahimsa . The Jain concept of ahimsa is very different from the concept of nonviolence found in other philosophies . Violence is usually associated with causing harm to others . But according to the Jain philosophy , violence refers primarily to injuring one 's own self – behaviour which inhibits the soul 's own ability to attain moksha ( liberation from the cycle of births and deaths ) . At the same time it also means violence to others because it is this tendency to harm others that ultimately harms one 's own soul . Furthermore , the Jains extend the concept of ahimsa not only to humans but to all animals , plants , micro @-@ organisms and all beings having life or life potential . All life is sacred and everyone has a right to live fearlessly to its maximum potential . The living beings do not have any fear from those who have taken the vow of ahimsa . According to Jainism , protection of life , also known as abhayadānam , is the supreme charity that a person can make .
Ahimsa does not merely indicate absence of physical violence , but also indicates absence of desire to indulge in any sort of violence . Jains have strongly advocated vegetarianism and nonviolence throughout the ages . Ahimsa being central to the Jain philosophy , Jain Ācāryas have produced , through ages , quite elaborate and detailed doctrinal materials concerning its various aspects . According to Aidan Rankin , the concept of ahimsa is very much intertwined with Jainism .
= = Overview = =
Jain texts expound that there are ten vitalities or life @-@ principles , these are : the five senses , energy , respiration , life @-@ duration , the organ of speech , and the mind . Living beings are classified on the basis of their sensory organs ( indriya ) and vitalities ( praṇa ) they possess . According to Jain texts :
The one @-@ sensed lives possess four vitalities – sense organ of touch , strength of body or energy , respiration , and life @-@ duration .
The two @-@ sensed beings have six , namely the sense of taste and the organ of speech in addition to the former four .
The three @-@ sensed beings have seven with the addition of the sense of smell .
The four @-@ sensed beings have eight with the addition of the sense of sight .
The five- sensed beings without mind have nine life @-@ principles with the addition of the sense of hearing . Those endowed with mind are said to have ten vitalities with the addition of the mind .
According to Tattvarthasutra , a major Jain text , " the severance of vitalities out of passion is injury " . Therefore , the higher the number of senses and vitalities a being has , the more is its capacity to suffer and feel pain . Hence according to Jainism , violence to higher @-@ sensed beings like man , cow , tiger and those who have five senses and the capacity to think and feel pain attracts more karma than violence to lesser @-@ sensed beings like insects , or single @-@ sensed beings like microbes and plants . Out of the five types of living beings , a householder is forbidden to kill , or destroy , intentionally , all except the lowest ( the one sensed , such as vegetables , herbs , cereals , etc . , which are endowed with only the sense of touch ) . But , the ascetic is required to avoid even injuring the one @-@ sensed form of life to the best of his ability .
Hence Jainism enjoins its adherents to completely avoid violence to higher @-@ sensed beings and as far as possible minimise violence to lower @-@ sensed and single @-@ sensed beings .
= = Vow of Ahiṃsā = =
In Jainism , both ascetics and householders ( śrāvaka ) have to follow five major vows ( vratas ) . Ascetics observe these fives vows more strictly and therefore observe complete abstinence .
1 . Ahimsa is formalised into Jain doctrine as the first and foremost vow . The votary must not to hurt any living being by actions , words or thoughts . Jain text , Puruşārthasiddhyupāya deals with the conduct required of the householder ( śrāvaka ) and therefore discusses the fundamental vow of Ahimsa in detail . The text expounds that " all these subdivisions ( injury , falsehood , stealing , unchastity , and attachment ) are hiṃsā as indulgence in these sullies the pure nature of the soul . Falsehood etc. have been mentioned separately only to make the disciple understand through illustrations . "
2 . Satya ( Truth ) - The underlying cause of falsehood is passion and therefore , it is said to cause hiṃsā ( injury ) . According to Jain text Sarvārthasiddhi , translates S.A. Jain , " that which causes pain and suffering to the living is not commendable , whether it refers to actual facts or not is immaterial " .
3 . Asteya ( Non @-@ thieving ) - According to Puruşārthasiddhyupāya :
Driven by passions , taking anything that has not been given be termed as theft and since theft causes injury , it is hiṃsā
4 . Brahmacharya- It means chastity for householders and celibacy in action , words & thoughts for ascetics .
Unchastity ( abrahma ) is copulation arising from sexual desire . There is all @-@ round injury to the living in copulation and , therefore , it is hiṃsā .
Just as a hot rod of iron inserted into a tube filled with sesame seeds burns them up , in the same way , many beings get killed during sexual intercourse
5 . Aparigraha ( Non @-@ possession ) - According to Jain texts , attachment to possessions ( parigraha ) is of two kinds : attachment to internal possessions ( ābhyantara parigraha ) , and attachment to external possessions ( bāhya parigraha ) . The fourteen internal possessions are : Wrong belief , the three sex @-@ passions ( male sex @-@ passion , female sex @-@ passion , and neuter sex @-@ passion ) , also the six defects ( laughter , liking , disliking , sorrow , fear , and disgust ) , and four passions ( anger , pride , deceitfulness , and greed ) . According to Jain texts , " internal possessions are proved to be hiṃsā as these are just another name for himsā " . External possessions are divided into two subclasses , the non @-@ living , and the living . " External possessions , due to the passion of attachment in them , result into himsā . "
= = = Ascetic practices for adherence to Ahimsa = = =
These five vows are called Mahāvratas ( major vows ) when observed by an ascetic . Ahimsa is the first and foremost of all vows . Jain monks and nuns must rank among the most " nonviolent " people in the world . A Jain ascetic is expected to uphold the vow of Ahimsa to the highest standard , even at the cost of his own life . The other four major vows – truthfulness , non @-@ stealing , non @-@ possession and celibacy – are in fact extension of the first vow of complete nonviolence .
The ascetic practices of total renunciation of worldly affairs and possessions , refusal to stay in a single place for a long time , continuous practice of austerities like fasting etc. are geared towards observance of Ahimsa . The Jain mendicants abide by a rigorous set of rules of conduct , where they must eat , sleep and even walk with full diligence and with an awareness that even walking kills several hundreds of minute beings . Jain ascetics sweep the ground before them to avoid injuring the most minuscule forms of life . They generally brush the ground clear of insects before they tread . Digambara monks do not wear any clothes and eat food only when it is not prepared for themselves . Ascetics of the Śvētāmbara tradition wear a small mask to avoid taking in tiny insects . The observation of three guptis or the controls of mind , speech and body and five samiti are designed to help the monks in observing the vow of Ahimsa faultlessly . A monk is required to cultivate the habit of carefulness ( samti ) , in respect of the following five particulars : -
walking , so as not to injure any living being ;
speech , so as not to cause pain to any one by offensive , disagreeable language , or by a careless use of words having a tendency to incite others to violent deeds ;
eating , so as not to cause injury to any living being ;
handling things — the water gourd , books and the feather whisk , with which there is a great danger of injury to small insects ; and
evacuation and disposal of faeces , urine , and the like .
Entire day of a Jain monk is spent in ensuring that he observes his vow of ahimsa through mind , body and speech faultlessly . This seemingly extreme behaviour of the monks comes from a sense that every action , no matter however subtle , has a karmic effect which can bind soul and inhibit liberation , especially those that result in hiṃsā ( injury ) .
= = = Householders adherence to the vow = = =
A Jain layman , on account of his household and occupational compulsions , is unable to adhere to the five major vows of ascetic . Hence he observes aṇuvrata or minor vows which although are similar to the major vows of the ascetics are observed with a lesser severity . It is difficult to avoid some violence by a lay person to single @-@ sensed immobile beings in the process of occupation , cooking , self @-@ defense etc . That is why he vows not to kill without a necessary purpose and determined intention , a moving sentient being , when it is innocent . Tying up , injuring , mutilating , burdening with heavy load and depriving from food and drinks any animal or human being with a mind polluted by anger and other passions are the five aticāra or transgressions of the vow of ahimsa . However , it is to be understood that ultimately , there is limited spiritual progress and no emancipation unless the major vows are adhered to .
Jainism is perhaps the only religion in the world that requires all its adherents to follow a strict vegetarian diet . Vegetarian food that also involves more harm to the living beings such as roots , bulbs , multi seeded vegetables etc. are avoided by strict Jains . The importance of ahimsa manifests in many other ways in the daily life of Jains . For a layperson it means participating in business that results in least amount of violence to living beings . No furs , plumes or silk are worn . Use of leather is kept to a minimum and must in any event be from naturally dead animals . Food is usually eaten during the day unless unavoidable , since there is too much danger of injuring insects in cooking at night . The Jain will not use an open light nor leave a container of liquid uncovered lest a stray insect be destroyed ; even with this precaution , liquids are always strained before use . Through the ages Jains have sought to avoid occupations that unavoidably entail injury , and this accounts for the disproportionate number who have entered banking , commerce and other mercantile trades .
= = = Transgressions = = =
Jain text list down five transgressions of the vow of ahimsa :
Tying up animals too tightly ,
Beating them mercilessly ,
Cutting their limbs ,
Overloading them ,
Neglecting to feed them properly .
A king who fights in defending his empire , however , does not violate the vow of ahimsa , for his motive is to protect his subjects . The same is the case with the judge who punishes to maintain law and order .
= = Philosophical overview = =
= = = Important constituents = = =
While Jainism enjoins observance of total nonviolence by the ascetics , it is often argued that the man is constantly obliged to engage in destructive activities of eating , drinking , breathing and surviving in order to support his body . According to Jainism , life is omnipresent with infinite beings including microorganisms pervading each and every part of universe . Hence it may still be possible to avoid killing of gross animals , but it is impossible to avoid killing of subtle microorganisms in air and water , plant life and various types of insects that may be crushed by walking .
However , the Jain conception of ahimsa is quite different from what is commonly understood by violence . The violence is defined more by the motives and the consequences to the self rather than by the act itself . Furthermore , according to Jain Scriptures , destruction of less developed organism brings about lesser karmas than destruction of developed animals and karmas generated in observance of religious duties faultlessly disappears almost immediately . Hence , it is possible to observe complete nonviolence with right knowledge , even when some outward violence occurs to living beings in the course of performing religious duties by observing carefulness and pure mental disposition without any attachment .
= = = = Carefulness = = = =
According to Jainism , a monk who is careless in his activities is guilty of violence irrespective of whether a living being remains alive or dies ; on the other hand , the person who is ever vigilant and careful in observing the samitis experiences no karmic bondage simply because some violence may have taken place in connection with his activities . Carefulness came to be seen as a defence for the monks against violence in Jainism . Tattvārthasūtra defines hiṃsā or violence simply as removal of life by careless activity of mind , body and speech . Thus action in Jainism came to be regarded as truly violent only when accompanied by carelessness .
= = = = Mental states and intention = = = =
Ahimsa does not merely indicate absence of physical violence , but also indicates absence of desire to indulge in any sort of violence . This Jain ideal of ahimsa profoundly influenced Mahatma Gandhi ; through his friendship with the Jain scholar Shrimad Rajchandra , it formed a basis of his satyagraha ( truth struggle ) against colonial rule and caused him to rethink many aspects of contemporary Hindu practices . Jains have strongly advocated vegetarianism and nonviolence throughout the ages . Ahimsa being central to the Jain philosophy , Jain Ācāryas have produced , through ages , quite elaborate and detailed doctrinal materials concerning its various aspects . Paul Dundas quotes Ācārya Jinabhadra ( 7th century ) , who shows that the omnipresence of life @-@ forms in the universe need not totally inhibit normal behaviour of the ascetics :
It is the intention that ultimately matters . From the real point of view , a man does not become a killer only because he has killed or because the world is crowded with souls , or remain innocent only because he has not killed physically . Even if a person does not actually kill , he becomes a killer if he has the intention to kill ; while a doctor has to cause pain but is still non @-@ violent and innocent because his intention is pure , for it is the intention which is the deciding factor , not the external act which is inconclusive .
Thus pure intention along with carefulness was considered necessary to practice Ahimsa as Jains admitted that even if intention may be pure , careless activities often resulted in violence unknowingly .
= = = = Knowledge = = = =
The Jains also considered right knowledge as a prerequisite for practising Ahimsa . It is necessary to know what is living and what is non @-@ living to practice Ahimsa faultlessly . A person who is confused between Living and non @-@ living can never observe non @-@ violence . Daśavaikālika Sūtra declared :
First knowledge , then compassion . Thus does one remain in full control . How can an ignorant person be compassionate , when he cannot distinguish between the good and the evil ?
It further declares :
Knowledge of living and non @-@ living alone will enable one to become compassionate towards all living creatures . Knowing this all aspirants , proceed from knowledge to eternal virtues . What can an ignorant do ? How does he know what is noble and what is evil ?
The knowledge is also considered necessary to destroy Karmas . Samaṇ Suttaṁ declared :
The ignorant cannot destroy their Karmas by their actions while the wise can do it by their inaction i.e. by controlling their activities because they are free from greed and lustful passions and do not commit any sin as they remain contented
= = = Anekantavada = = =
Anekantavada is the principle of relativity of truth or the doctrine of multiple aspects . Jains hold that truth is multifaceted and has multiple sides that cannot be completely comprehended by anyone . Anekantavada describes the world as a multifaceted , ever @-@ changing reality with an infinity of viewpoints relative to the time , place , nature and state of one who is the viewer and that which is viewed . What is true from one point of view is open to question from another . Absolute truth cannot be grasped from any particular viewpoint alone , because absolute truth is the sum total of all different viewpoints that make up the universe . Because it is rooted in these doctrines , Jainism cannot exclusively uphold the views of any individual , community , nation , or species . It recognises inherently that other views are valid for other peoples , and for other life @-@ forms . This perception leads to the doctrine of syadvada or sevenfold predication stating the truth from different viewpoints . Anekantvada is the doctrine and Syadvada is its expression . According to Jaina philosophers all important philosophical statements should be expressed in this sevenfold way in order to remove the danger of dogmatism ( ekanta ) in philosophy .
The concept of syadvada allows the Jains to accept the truth in other philosophies from their perspectives , thus inculcating a tolerance for other viewpoints . Anekantvada is non @-@ absolutist and stands firmly against all dogmatisms , even including any assertion that only Jainism is the right religious path . It is thus an intellectual Ahimsa or Ahimsa of mind . In Anekantvada , there is no " battle of ideas " , because this is considered to be a form of intellectual himsa or damage , leading quite logically to physical violence and war . In today 's world , the limitations of the adversarial , " either with us or against us " form of argument are increasingly apparent leading to political , religious and social conflicts .
= = = Various aspects and consequences of violence = = =
Ācārya Amṛtacandra has described as to how the consequences of violence ( karmas attracted ) differ from person to persons for similar and different types of acts . A small violence may bring serious consequences to one person , while to another person grievous violence may bring about lesser consequences . For instance , a person hunting and killing only one small animal suffers severe consequences while a person who is building a temple or hospital suffers milder karmic consequences even though its construction kills many animals . Even when violence is jointly committed by two persons , the same act may result in severe consequence for one person and mild consequence for another person . This may happen in the case where the leader and planner of violence binds severe karmas , while a follower binds much lesser karmas . One who actually does not commit violence may be responsible for hiṃsā while one who actually commits violence is not responsible for hiṃsā . For instance , a burglar who fails in his robbery is still a felon but a diligent surgeon who is trying to save a patient is not responsible for violence even if a patient dies during the surgery . Persons who have not committed violence may become responsible for violence committed by others . This may happen when a violence which is carried out by someone is approved and instigated by someone else . Ahimsa often gives result of himsa to one and himsa may sometimes give result of ahimsa to another . For instance , one person saves another from oppression by use of violence and hence enjoys consequences of ahimsa although resorting to violence , while another does not act to save someone wishing that the other person is not saved and thus suffers the consequences of violence although he may have not actually done anything .
= = = Dravya hiṃsā and bhāva hiṃsā = = =
= = = Types of violence = = =
While the Jain ascetics observe absolute nonviolence , so far as a Jain householder is concerned , the violence is categorised as follows :
Sankalpinī hiṃsā or intentional violence – Intentional violence knowingly done is the worst form of violence and is a transgression of the layperson 's vow of nonviolence . Examples of sankalpinī hiṃsā are killing for hunting , amusement or decoration , or butchering for food or sacrifice or killing or hurting out of enmity , malice or mischief. sankalpinī hiṃsā has to be totally renounced by a householder .
Virodhinī hiṃsā or Self @-@ defence – One is allowed to practice self @-@ defense against a robber , murderer , or any other criminal . This self @-@ defense is necessary when evil attacks .
Āṛambhinī ( Graharambhi ) hiṃsā or domestic or household violence – This violence is unavoidably committed in the course of preparing food , household cleanliness , washing , construction of houses , wells , etc .
Udyoginī hiṃsā or Occupational Violence – This violence is connected to occupational undertakings like agriculture , building and operating industries , etc .
While sankalpinī hiṃsā has to be avoided at all costs , the other three types of hiṃsā , although unavoidable in some cases , should not exceed the strict requirements of fulfilling the duties of a householder . Furthermore , they should not be influenced by passions such as anger , greed , pride and deceit or they take the character of sanpalkinī hiṃsā .
= = = Ways of committing violence = = =
It would be wrong , however , to conclude that Ahimsa only prohibits physical violence . An early Jain text says : " With the three means of punishment – thoughts , words , deeds – ye shall not injure living beings . " In fact , violence can be committed by combination of the following four factors :
1 . The instrumentality of our actions . We can commit violence through
a. body i.e. physical action ,
b. speech i.e. verbal action , or
c. mind i.e. mental actions
2 . The process of committing violence . This includes whether
a. we only decide or plan to act ,
b. we make preparations for the act e.g. like collecting necessary materials or weapons , or
c. we actually begin the action
3 . The modality of our action , whether
a. we ourselves commit violence ,
b. we instigate others to carry out the violence , or
c. we give our silent approval for the violence
4 . The motivation for action . This includes which of the following negative emotions motivate the violence .
a . Anger
b . Greed
c . Pride
d . Manipulation or deceit
In Jainism , " non @-@ manifestation of passions like attachment is non @-@ injury ( Ahimsa ) , and manifestation of such passions is injury ( himsa ) . " This is termed as the essence of the Jaina Scriptures .
= = The rationale of nonviolence = =
According to Jainism , the purpose of nonviolence is not because it is a commandment of a God or any other supreme being . Its purpose is also not simply because its observance is conducive to general welfare of the state or the community . While it is true that in Jainism , the moral and religious injunctions were laid down as law by Arhats who have achieved perfection through their supreme moral efforts , their adherence is just not to please a God , but the life of the Arhats has demonstrated that such commandments were conductive to Arhat 's own welfare , helping him to reach spiritual victory . Just as Arhats achieved spiritual victory by observing non @-@ violence , so can anyone who follows this path .
Another aspect that provides a rationale to the avoidance of hiṃsā is that , any acts of himsā results in himsā to self . Any act of violence though outwardly is seen to harm others , harms the soul of the person indulging in the act . Thus by an act of violence , a soul may or may not injure the material vitalities known as dravya praṇa of someone else , but always causes injury to its own bhāva praṇa or the psychic vitalities by binding the soul with karmas . It would be entirely wrong to see Ahimsa in Jainism in any sentimental light . The Jain doctrine of non @-@ injury is based on rational consciousness , not emotional compassion ; on responsibility to self , not on a social fellow feeling . The motive of Ahimsa is totally self @-@ centered and for the benefit of the individual . And yet , though the emphasis is on personal liberation , the Jain ethics makes that goal attainable only through consideration for others .
Furthermore , according to the Jain karmic theory , each and every soul , including self , has reincarnated as an animal , plant or microorganism innumerable number of times besides re @-@ incarnated as humans . The concept of Ahimsa is more meaningful when understood in conjunction with the concept of karmas . As the doctrine of transmigration of souls includes rebirth in animal as well as human form , it creates a humanitarian sentiment of kinship amongst all life forms . The motto of Jainism – Parasparopagraho jīvānām , translated as : all life is inter @-@ related and it is the duty of souls to assist each other- also provides a rational approach of Jains towards Ahimsa .
In conclusion , the insistence of ahimsa is not so much about non @-@ injury to others as it is about non @-@ injury and spiritual welfare of the self . The ultimate rationale of ahimsa is fundamentally is about karmic results of the hiṃsā on self rather than the concern about the well being of other beings for its own sake .
= = Ahimsa and vegetarianism = =
Jain vegetarian diet is practised by the followers of Jain culture and philosophy . It is considered one of the most rigorous forms of a spiritually motivated diet on the Indian subcontinent and beyond . The Jain cuisine is completely vegetarian , and it also excludes potatoes , onions and garlic , like the shojin @-@ ryori cuisine of Japan .
According to Amṛtacandra Sūri :
" Those who wish to renounce hiṃsā must , first of all , make effort to give up the consumption of wine , flesh , honey , and the five udumbara fruits ( the five udumbara trees are Gular , Anjeera , Banyan , Peepal , and Pakar , all belonging to the fig class ) .
The strictest forms of Jain diet are practised by the monastic ascetics . It also excludes potatoes and other root vegetables . The scrupulous and thorough way of applying nonviolence to everyday activities , and especially to food , shapes their entire lives and is the most significant hallmark of Jain identity . For Jains , lacto @-@ vegetarianism ( generally known simply as vegetarianism in India ) is mandatory . Food which contains even small particles of the bodies of dead animals or eggs is absolutely unacceptable . Some Jain scholars and activists support veganism , as the production of dairy products is perceived to involve violence against cows . Strict Jains don 't eat root vegetables such as potatoes , onions , roots and tubers . This is so because tiny life forms are injured when the plant is pulled up and because the bulb is seen as a living being , as it is able to sprout . Also , consumption of most root vegetables involves uprooting and killing the entire plant , in contrast to consumption of most other terrestrial vegetables , upon which the plant lives on after plucking the vegetables ( or it was seasonally supposed to wither away anyway ) . Mushrooms , Funguses and Yeasts are forbidden because they are parasites , grow in non @-@ hygienic environments , and may harbour other life forms . Alfalfa is the only known plant that contains vitamin D2 , which they may use directly or make vitamin D2 supplements from . Honey is forbidden , as its collection would amount to violence against the bees . Jains are also not supposed to consume food left overnight because of contamination by microbes . Most Jain recipes substitute for potato with plantain .
= = Misconceptions = =
The Jain scriptures discuss various misconceptions that are harboured in case of Ahimsa . They often oppose the Vedic beliefs in sacrifices and other practices that justified violence in various ways . Ācārya Amritacandra 's Puruṣārthasiddhyupāya discuss these wrong beliefs at length to alert the Jain laity to them . These misconceptions are as follows .
= = = Animal sacrifices = = =
The belief that animals were created for yajna ( sacrifice ) and hence it was not considered a slaughter , as it elevated not only the person making the sacrifice , but also the animals was also denounced by the Jains . Ācārya Amṛtacandra of Puruṣārthasiddhyupāya condemned this practice by stating that it is a misconception to hold that Gods are pleased at sacrifices of living beings and there is no wrong in committing hiṃsā for the sake of religion .
Ācārya Amṛtacandra says that animals should not be killed for guests or persons deserving respect as often advocated in certain scriptures . It is also a wrong belief that wild animals that kill many other animals should be killed . This is often justified in the name of hunting of ferocious animals like tigers for sport . Another wrong belief forwarded to justify killing of ferocious animals is that , these kill many lives and accumulate grave sins and hence killing them is an act of mercy . According to Jainism , killing can never be an act of mercy . It is also a misconception to believe that it is advisable to kill those who are suffering so that they may get relief from agony . These sorts of arguments are forwarded to justify killing of those animals that may have become old or injured and hence have become commercially useless .
= = = Other wrong beliefs = = =
Other wrong beliefs are killing those who are in state of happiness or those who are in meditation under wrong belief that the mental state at the time of death will be perpetuated in future lives . It is also a wrong belief that killing of self and others is justified as the soul that is imprisoned in the body will be permanently released and achieve salvation .
= = Fruits of nonviolence = =
According to Jain texts , the fruits of himsā ( violence ) depends upon the severity of passions at the time of commencement of such an act . One may be responsible for the sinful act of himsā without actually causing injury ; the other , while having caused injury , may not be responsible for the act . Also , when two persons commit the act of himsā jointly , its consequences on fruition ( of karma ) , may be grave for one person and mild for the other .
According to Jains , the consequences of karma are inevitable . The consequences may take some time to take effect but the karma is never fruitless . The latent karma becomes active and bears fruit when the supportive conditions arise . A great part of attracted karma bears its consequences with minor fleeting effects , as generally most of our activities are influenced by mild negative emotions . However , those actions that are influenced by intense negative emotions cause an equally strong karmic attachment which usually does not bear fruit immediately . It takes on an inactive state and waits for the supportive conditions — like proper time , place , and environment — to arise for it to manifest and produce effects . If the supportive conditions do not arise , the respective karmas will manifest at the end of maximum period for which it can remain bound to the soul . These supportive conditions for activation of latent karmas are determined by the nature of karmas , intensity of emotional engagement at the time of binding karmas and our actual relation to time , place , surroundings . There are certain laws of precedence among the karmas , according to which the fruition of some of the karmas may be deferred but not absolutely barred .
= = Appreciation = =
Ahimsa , an important tenet of all the religions originating in India , is now considered as an article of faith by the adherents of the Indian religions .
The Jain ideal of Ahimsa profoundly influenced Mahatma Gandhi ; through his friendship with the Jain scholar Shrimad Rajchandra . It formed a basis of his satyagraha ( truth struggle ) against colonial rule and caused him to rethink many aspects of contemporary Hindu practices . Mahatma Gandhi was of the view :
No religion in the World has explained the principle of Ahimsa so deeply and systematically as is discussed with its applicability in every human life in Jainism . As and when the benevolent principle of Ahimsa or non @-@ violence will be ascribed for practice by the people of the world to achieve their end of life in this world and beyond . Jainism is sure to have the uppermost status and Lord Mahavira is sure to be respected as the greatest authority on Ahimsa .
Bal Gangadhar Tilak has credited Jainism with cessation of slaughter of animals in the brahamanical religion . Some scholars have traced the origin of Ahimsa to Jains and their precursor , the sramanas . According to Thomas McEvilley , a noted Indologist , certain seals of Indus Valley civilisation depict a meditative figure surrounded by a multitude of wild animals , providing evidence of proto yoga tradition in India akin to Jainism . This particular image might suggest that all the animals depicted are sacred to this particular practitioner . Consequently , these animals would be protected from harm .
Prime Minister of India Narendra Modi wrote the Jain slogan , Ahimsa parmo dharma , on Facebook 's Real Wall at its headquarters , when he visited for a town hall question @-@ and @-@ answer session in September 2015 .
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= Chacma baboon =
The chacma baboon ( Papio ursinus ) , also known as the Cape baboon , is , like all other baboons , from the Old World monkey family . It is one of the largest of all monkeys .
Located primarily in southern Africa , the chacma baboon has a wide variety of social behaviors , including a dominance hierarchy , collective foraging , adoption of young by females , and friendship pairings . These behaviors form parts of a complex evolutionary ecology .
In general the species is not threatened , but human population pressure has increased contact between humans and baboons . Hunting , accidents and trapping kill or remove many baboons from the wild . This has reduced baboon numbers and disrupted their social structure .
= = Taxonomy = =
Due to hybridization between different baboon ( Papio ) populations across Africa , authors have occasionally grouped the entire radiation as a single species , the hamadryas baboon , Papio hamadryas . Arbitrary boundaries were then used to separate the populations into subspecies . Other authors considered the chacma baboon a subspecies of the yellow baboon , Papio cynocephalus , though it is now recognised as a separate species , Papio ursinus . The chacma baboon has two or three subspecies , depending on which classification is followed . Grubb et al . ( 2003 ) listed two subspecies , while Groves ( 2005 ) in Mammal Species of the World listed three . This article follows Groves ( 2005 ) and describes three distinct subspecies . In the Grubb et al . ( 2003 ) paper , P. u. raucana was believed to be synonymous with P. u. ursinus .
Papio ursinus ursinus Kerr , 1792 – Cape chacma ( found in southern South Africa )
P. u. griseipes Pocock , 1911 – Gray @-@ footed chacma ( found in northern South Africa to southern Zambia )
P. u. raucana Shortridge , 1942 – Ruacana chacma ( found from Namibia to southern Angola )
= = Physical description = =
The chacma baboon is perhaps the longest species of monkey , with a male body length of 50 – 115 cm ( 20 – 45 in ) and tail length of 45 – 84 cm ( 18 – 33 in ) . It also one of the heaviest ; the male weighs from 21 to 45 kg ( 46 to 99 lb ) . Baboons are sexually dimorphic , and females are considerably smaller than males . The female chacma weighs from 12 to 25 kg ( 26 to 55 lb ) . It is similar in size to the olive baboon and of similar weight to the more compact mandrill , which is usually crowned the largest of all monkeys . The chacma baboon is generally dark brown to gray in color , with a patch of rough hair on the nape of its neck . Unlike the males of northern baboon species ( the Guinea , hamadryas , and olive baboons ) , chacma males do not have a mane . Perhaps the most distinctive feature of this baboon is its long , downward @-@ sloping face . The canine teeth of male chacma baboons have a mean length of 3 @.@ 86 ± 0 @.@ 30 cm at the time they emigrate from their natal troop . This is the time of greatest tooth length as the teeth tend to wear or be broken thereafter .
The three subspecies are differentiated by size and color . The Cape chacma is a large , heavy , dark @-@ brown , and has black feet . The gray @-@ footed chacma is slightly smaller than the Cape chacma , lighter in color and build , and has gray feet . The Ruacana chacma generally appears to be a smaller , less darkly colored version of the Cape chacma .
= = Ecology = =
= = = Habitat and distribution = = =
The chacma baboon inhabits a wide array of habitats including woodland , savanna , steppes , and subdesert , from the grassy alpine slopes of the Drakensberg to the Kalahari desert . During the night the chacma baboon needs hills , cliffs , or large trees in which to sleep . During the day water availability may limit its range in arid areas . It is found in southern Africa , ranging from South Africa north to Angola , Zambia , and Mozambique . The subspecies are divided across this range . The Cape chacma is found in southern South Africa ; the gray @-@ footed chacma , is present from northern South Africa , through the Okavango Delta in Botswana , Zimbabwe , Mozambique ( south of the Zambezi ) , to southwest Zambia ; and the Ruacana chacma is found in northern Namibia and southern Angola .
= = = Diet = = =
The chacma baboon is omnivorous with a preference for fruits , while also eating insects , seeds , grass , smaller vertebrate animals , and fungi ( the desert truffle Kalaharituber pfeilii ; at the Cape of Good Hope in particular , it is also known for taking shellfish and other marine invertebrates . It is generally a scavenger when it comes to game meat , and rarely engages in hunting large animals . One incident of a chacma baboon killing a human infant has been reported , but the event is so rare , the locals believed it was due to witchcraft . Normally , chacma baboons will flee at the approach of humans , though this is changing due to the easy availability of food near human dwellings .
= = Behavior = =
= = = Social organization = = =
The chacma baboon usually lives in social groups , called troops , which are composed of multiple adult males , adult females , and their offspring . Occasionally , however , very small groups form that consist of only a single adult male and several adult females . Chacma troops are characterized by a dominance hierarchy . Female ranking within the troop is inherited through the mother and remains relatively fixed , while male ranking is often in flux , especially when the dominant male is replaced . Chacmas are unusual among baboons in that neither males nor females form strong relationships with members of the same sex . Instead , the strongest social bonds are often between unrelated adult males and females . Infanticide is also common compared to other baboon species , as newly dominant males will often attempt to kill young baboons sired by the previously dominant male . Baboon troops possess a complex group behavior and communicate by means of body attitudes , facial expressions , vocalizations and touch .
= = = Morning dispersal patterns = = =
The chacma baboon often sleeps in large groups on cliffs or in trees at night to avoid predators . The morning dispersal from the sleeping site is synchronized , with all members leaving at the same time . In most cases , dispersal is initiated by a single individual , and the other members of the group decide whether or not to follow . At least five followers must be recruited for a successful dispersal initiation , and not all initiation attempts are successful . Surprisingly , the initiator 's dominance status shows little correlation with successful initiation of departure ; more @-@ dominant individuals are no more likely to lead a successful departure than subordinate individuals . One study has shown that while the success rate of dispersal initiation attempts is relatively constant across all sexes , male are more likely to attempt initiation than females , and lactating females are less likely to attempt initiation than females without dependent offspring . A separate study has achieved slightly different results . While dominance hierarchy does not play a significant role in initiating the morning dispersal , social affiliation does . Chacma baboons that play a more central role in the group ( as measured by grooming behavior and time spent with other members ) are more likely to be followed during the morning dispersal . This study concluded that group members are more likely to follow the behavior of individuals with which they are closely affiliated .
= = = Foraging behavior = = =
Dominance does play a role in group foraging decisions . A dominant individual ( usually the alpha male ) leads the group to easily monopolized resources . The group usually follows , even though many subordinate members cannot gain access to that particular resource . As in morning dispersal , the inclination of group members to follow the leader is positively associated with social interactions with that dominant individual .
Collective foraging behavior , with many individuals taking advantage of the same resource at once , has also been observed . However , this behavior can be chiefly attributed to shared dietary needs rather than social affiliation . Pregnant females , who share similar dietary needs , are more likely to synchronize their behavior than fertile females . Foraging synchronization decreases in areas with lower food density .
= = = Adoption = = =
Adoption behavior has been observed in chacma baboons . Orphaned baboons whose mothers have disappeared or died are often too small to care for themselves . In one study of nine natural orphans and three introduced orphans , all but one orphan were adopted by another member of the group . The individual that was not adopted was 16 months old , four months older than the next oldest orphan , and was old enough to survive on its own . Adoption behavior includes sleeping close to the orphaned infant , grooming and carrying the orphan , and protecting it from harassment by other members of the troop . Both males and females care for infants , and care does not depend on the infant 's sex . Additionally , all caregivers are prereproductive , only four or five years of age . The two major theories explaining this behavior are kin selection , in which caregivers take care of potentially related orphans , and parental practice , in which young caregivers increase their own fitness by using an orphan to practice their own parental skills .
= = = Friendship = = =
Males and female chacma baboons often form relationships referred to as " friendships " . These cooperative relationships generally occur between lactating females and adult males . The females are believed to seek out male friendships to gain protection from infanticide . In many baboon species , immigrant alpha males often practice infanticide upon arrival in a new troop . By killing unrelated infants , the new male shortens the time until he can mate with the females of the troop . A female with dependent offspring generally does not become sexually receptive until she weans her offspring at around 12 months of age . However , a mother usually becomes sexually receptive shortly after the death of her offspring .
This protection hypothesis is supported by studies of stress hormones in female baboons during changes in the male hierarchy . When an immigrant male ascends to the top of the male dominance hierarchy , stress hormones in lactating and pregnant females increases , while stress hormones in females not at risk of infanticide stay the same . Additionally , females in friendships with males exhibit a smaller rise in stress hormones than do females without male friends .
The benefits of friendship to males are less clear . A male is more likely to enter into friendships with females with which he has mated , which indicates males might enter into friendships to protect their own offspring and not just to protect that female 's future reproductive success . These friendships may play a role in the mating system of chacma baboons . A female will often mate with several males , which increases the number of potential fathers for her offspring and increases the chances she will be able to find at least one friend to protect her infants .
Female chacma baboons have been observed to compete with each other for male friends . This may be the result of one male having a high probability of paternity with multiple females . These competitions are heavily influenced by the female dominance hierarchy , with dominant females displacing subordinate females in friendships with males . Generally , when a more @-@ dominant female attempts to make friends with an individual which is already the friend of a subordinate female , the subordinate female reduces grooming and spatial proximity to that male , potentially leaving her offspring at higher risk of infanticide .
= = Relationship with humans = =
= = = Conservation = = =
The chacma baboon is widespread and does not rank among threatened animal species . However , in some confined locations , such as South Africa 's Southern Cape Peninsula , local populations are dwindling due to habitat loss and predation from other protected species , such as leopards and lions . Some troops have become a suburban menace , overturning trash cans and entering houses in their search for food . These troops can be aggressive and dangerous , and such negative encounters have resulted in hunting by frustrated local residents . This isolated population is thought to face extinction within 10 years .
The chacma is listed under Appendix II of CITES as it occurs in many protected areas across its range . The only area in South Africa where they are monitored is in the Cape Peninsula , where they are protected .
Observations by those working hands @-@ on in South Africa 's rehabilitation centers have found this species is damaged by human intervention ; troop structures are influenced , and over the years a significant loss in numbers has occurred . Because they live near human habitats , baboons are shot , poisoned , electrocuted , run over , and captured for the pet industry , research laboratories and muthi ( medicine ) . Despite this , assessors working for the IUCN believe there are no major threats that could result in a range @-@ wide decline of the species .
= = = In popular culture = = =
In 2011 , the British Television Channel ITV1 aired an eight @-@ episode miniseries , hosted by popular British comedian Bill Bailey . The series followed the lives of three different family groups of chacma baboons in South Africa . The series focuses on the baboons ' abilities to adapt to human settlement and their complex social lives . It is generally structured within a narrative , with each adult baboon having a name and being treated as an ' actor ' in the story . The three families of baboons have each developed their own ways of life ; the ' Smitz ' group spends most its time trying to rob food from tourists along a coastal highway , the ' Tokai ' group has remained in a more natural forest area , and the ' Da Gama ' group lives on the rooftops of an apartment complex . The program is the second attempt by Bailey to produce a semiserious nature documentary , and it received generally favourable reviews .
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= California State Route 190 =
State Route 190 ( SR 190 ) is a state highway in the U.S. state of California that is split into two parts by the Sierra Nevada . The western portion of begins at Tipton at a junction with State Route 99 and heads east towards Porterville before ending at Quaking Aspen in the Sequoia National Forest . The eastern portion begins at US 395 at Olancha , heads east through Death Valley National Park , and ends at State Route 127 at Death Valley Junction . The 43 @.@ 0 @-@ mile ( 69 @.@ 2 km ) portion over the Sierra Nevada remains unconstructed , and the California Department of Transportation ( Caltrans ) has no plans to build it through the wilderness areas .
The route east of State Route 136 near Keeler is on the California Freeway and Expressway System , but is a two @-@ lane road . Except west of State Route 65 in Porterville , SR 190 is eligible for the State Scenic Highway System ; the part within Death Valley National Park , known as the Death Valley Scenic Byway , has been added to the system and is a National Scenic Byway .
= = Route description = =
State Route 190 begins at State Route 99 just south of downtown Tipton in Tulare County and heads straight east along the flat San Joaquin Valley on Avenue 144 . There is a short expressway segment in Porterville , including a cloverleaf interchange at State Route 65 and a partial interchange at Main Street , after which the highway begins to curve alongside the Tule River , passing the south side of Lake Success , as the terrain becomes more rugged . Following the river , it meets the south end of County Route J37 , an access road to Balch Park in the Mountain Home State Forest , at the forks of the river near the community of Springville . SR 190 continues east near the Middle Fork and South Fork Middle Fork Tule River to near Camp Nelson , where it begins rising into the foothills , going around many hairpin curves in order to rise to Quaking Aspen , the source of the South Fork Middle Fork and the end of the western segment of SR 190 . The county @-@ maintained Western Divide Highway continues south to a point west of Johnsondale , where traffic can turn east to reach US 395 via Sherman Pass and County Route J41 .
From Quaking Aspen across the Sierra Nevada to Olancha , Caltrans has adopted a proposed alignment , but is unlikely to build it , in part due to two protected wilderness areas — the Golden Trout Wilderness and South Sierra Wilderness — along the route . The unconstructed routing heads northeast from Quaking Aspen , cresting a small summit before following Freeman Creek easterly past the Freeman Creek Grove , crossing the Kern River near its forks , and then using the path of Rattlesnake Creek and Beach Creek to the Beach Meadows area . Crossing several ridges to the northeast , SR 190 would make its way to the South Fork Kern River near Monache Mountain , then heading southeast along that waterway to the vicinity of Haiwee Pass . That pass , elevation about 8200 feet ( 2500 m ) above sea level , would take the highway over the Sierra crest into Inyo County , dropping for 12 @.@ 0 miles ( 19 @.@ 3 km ) in a north @-@ northeasterly direction to US 395 at Olancha ( elevation 3650 feet / 1100 m ) .
The eastern section of SR 190 begins at Olancha in the Owens Valley , at the intersection with US 395 . The route heads northeast along the southeast side of Owens Lake to the junction with SR 136 southeast of Keeler , where it turns southeast and east around the south side of the Inyo Mountains . After passing the turnoff to Darwin , SR 190 enters Death Valley National Park and becomes curvier as it heads down into the Panamint Valley . The highway crosses the valley and then turns northeast over Towne Pass and into the northern part of Death Valley at Stovepipe Wells . Within the valley , at the intersection with North Highway , which leads to Scotty 's Castle and Beatty , Nevada , SR 190 turns southeast through Death Valley , which it remains inside until the turnoff to Badwater Basin , the lowest point in North America , near the settlement of Furnace Creek . It leaves the valley to the southeast alongside Furnace Creek Wash , where the highway is usually closed at least once a year by flash floods . SR 190 turns east away from the wash at the turnoff to Dante 's View , and soon leaves the park , after which it follows a mostly straight alignment to its end at State Route 127 at Death Valley Junction .
= = History = =
The path of SR 190 east of the Panamint Range in Death Valley National Park was followed in late 1849 and early 1850 by the Death Valley ' 49ers , a group of ' 49ers that had left the Old Spanish Trail at Enterprise , Utah to look for a shortcut to Walker Pass . The pioneers crossed the state line from Nevada near Ash Meadows , following the general route of present SR 190 from Death Valley Junction into Death Valley , which they left to the west into Panamint Valley and then turned south towards present State Route 178 . After ore was discovered in Death Valley , the route became a primitive road , though most travel into the valley , such as the twenty mule team borax route , was from the south .
The second boom in Death Valley was tourism , started in the 1920s by Herman Eichbaum . After several failures in getting a toll road approved from Lida , Nevada or over Towne Pass , he scaled back plans to include only the part of the latter route between southeast of Darwin and his resort at Stovepipe Wells . The new Eichbaum Toll Road was certified complete on May 4 , 1926 , and toll rates were set : $ 2 per motor vehicle and 50 ¢ per person . In 1933 , the state legislature added many roads to the state highway system , including a new ( unsigned ) Route 127 , connecting Tipton with Baker via Lone Pine and Death Valley Junction . The Death Valley National Monument was created on February 11 , 1933 , and in December 1934 the Division of Highways paid $ 25 @,@ 000 for the 30 @.@ 35 @-@ mile ( 48 @.@ 84 km ) road , giving the 17 miles ( 27 km ) east of the park boundary at the pass to the National Park Service . The state Division of Highways and National Park Service soon paved the route from Lone Pine ( on US 395 ) through Towne Pass and Death Valley to Baker ( on US 91 ) . The work was completed in October 1937 , including the 17 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 18 km ) Darwin cutoff that bypassed Darwin and the old toll road west of Panamint Springs . The National Park Service , using Civilian Conservation Corps labor , maintained the road through the park until August 1942 , when an 11 @-@ mile ( 18 km ) stretch east of the valley was washed out by a storm . At that time , maintenance was given back to the state , which rebuilt the destroyed segment .
When the state sign route system was created in 1934 , Sign Route 190 was assigned to the portion of Route 127 west of Death Valley Junction , while the remainder to Baker became part of Sign Route 127 . However , the highway was not continuous , with the roadway from Tipton ( which had been built by Tulare County ) ending at Quaking Aspen ( east of Camp Nelson ) and that from Death Valley ending southwest of Lone Pine . In 1923 , Tulare County businessmen had begun to push for a new trans @-@ Sierra highway connecting Porterville with Lone Pine , but were set back by a lack of state aid , as the road was not a state highway . The first piece , which would turn out to be the only one built , opened in early July 1931 to Quaking Aspen ( and became a state highway in 1933 ) . Grading of the 15 @-@ mile ( 24 km ) Western Divide Highway , a county road that was supposed to continue south to State Route 155 at Greenhorn Summit , was completed from Quaking Aspen south to near Johnsondale in July 1962 . A new road from Johnsondale across Sherman Pass , maintained by the U.S. Forest Service and Tulare and Inyo Counties ( the latter as County Route J41 ) , was completed in 1976 , allowing traffic on the western segment of SR 190 to reach US 395 , though via a longer route than the proposed SR 190 .
In March 1959 , Tulare County approved a change in location of the proposed highway to Olancha Pass ( Haiwee Pass , just to the south , was soon considered for a possible alternate location ) , and the legislature moved the main line of Route 127 south to that location , crossing US 395 at Olancha , later that year . The old route from southeast of Keeler to Lone Pine remained as a branch , and was still signed as SR 190 . Also in 1959 , the original routing from Lone Pine through Death Valley to Baker was added to the proposed California Freeway and Expressway System , though no parts have been upgraded as such . The east – west piece between Tipton and Death Valley Junction legislatively received the State Route 190 designation in the 1964 renumbering , and the north – south part became State Route 127 , which it had been signed as ; the branch to Lone Pine became a new State Route 136 . By the mid @-@ 1970s , the environmental movement had essentially killed the planned connection , and the designation of the Golden Trout Wilderness in 1978 and South Sierra Wilderness in 1984 were the final blow , though Caltrans still has an officially adopted alignment designated over Haiwee Pass .
= = Major intersections = =
Except where prefixed with a letter , postmiles were measured on the road as it was in 1964 , based on the alignment that existed at the time , and do not necessarily reflect current mileage . R reflects a realignment in the route since then , M indicates a second realignment , L refers an overlap due to a correction or change , and T indicates postmiles classified as temporary ( for a full list of prefixes , see the list of postmile definitions ) . Segments that remain unconstructed or have been relinquished to local control may be omitted . The numbers reset at county lines ; the start and end postmiles in each county are given in the county column .
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= Liberty Walk =
" Liberty Walk " is a song by American recording artist Miley Cyrus , from her third studio album Can 't Be Tamed ( 2010 ) . It was written by Cyrus , Antonina Armato , Tim James , Nicholas J. Scapa , John Read Fasse and Michael McGinnis , and produced by Armato , James and Paul Palmer under their stage @-@ name Rock Mafia . Cyrus explained that the theme of female empowerment was a lyrical inspiration for the song . Musically , " Liberty Walk " is an uptempo dance @-@ pop song which also contains rapped verses . Critical reception of the song was generally mixed , however , the majority of reviewers criticized the rapped verses and described the overall song as " dull " . Despite not being released as a single , " Liberty Walk " peaked at number three on the U.S. Billboard Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart and number 79 on the Canadian Hot 100 due to strong digital downloads .
= = Background = =
" Liberty Walk " was written by Cyrus , Nicholas J. Scapa , John Read Fasse , Michael McGinnis , Antonina Armato and Tim James . It was produced by the latter three under their stage name Rock Mafia . The song serves as the opening track of Can 't Be Tamed ( 2010 ) . In an interview with Sway Calloway for MTV News , Cyrus explained the lyrical inspiration of the song which is about female empowerment , saying : " It 's just about freeing yourself from anything you think is holding you back . And I think that 's really important , especially for girls , because so many people are told , ' No , you can 't do something , ' or , ' You need to be this because Mom and Dad say that , teachers say this . ' " Upon the making of the song , Cyrus stated in the same interview that she tried to combine a serious topic with a lighter sound , explaining : " I wrote it for women that feel like they 're stuck in abusive relationships , but it 's a dance song " . She elaborated : " So you think that must be kind of a sad ballad , but it 's a party song . ... It 's about breaking free . "
= = Composition = =
" Liberty Walk " is an uptempo dance @-@ pop song , with a length of four minutes and six seconds . According to the digital sheet music published by Sony / ATV Music Publishing , it is written in the key of B minor and is set in common time . The beat moves at 120 beats per minute . Cyrus ' vocal range in the song spans from the low note of Bb2 to the high note of F # 5 . Heather Phares of Allmusic noted the use of " bold synths and beats " . She also said that the " rapped verses " that Cyrus delivers sound " edgier " than the singer 's previous work . Cyrus opens the song by chanting " Don ’ t live a lie , this is your one life " . Punch Liwanag of Manila Bulletin described the song as " swanky dance " and characterised the synth sounds as " ear filling " . According to Jon Caramanica of The New York Times , Cyrus applies four different vocal strategies in the song .
= = Critical reception = =
" Liberty Walk " has received generally mixed reviews from music critics . Heather Phares of Allmusic commended the upbeat lyrics as being radio Disney @-@ friendly . Similarly , Leah Greenblatt of Entertainment Weekly described the song as a " thumping album opener " . A reviewer from Sputnik Music noted that " ' Liberty Walk ' showcases classic Miley spunk a la ' Hoedown Throwdown ' " . However some reviewers were critical of the song . Michelle Griffin of the Sydney Morning Herald concluded that " Liberty Walk " would " make Glee 's Mr Shue blush " . Glenn Gamboa of Newsday labeled it as a " loopy Jason DeRulo rip @-@ off " , and stated that " where Cyrus raps , she 's hard to take seriously . " Donald Gibson of Seattle Post @-@ Intelligencer was also unfavorable of the song , who called it a " monotonous opener " . Evan Sawdey of PopMatters noted that in " Liberty Walk " , Cyrus ' " search for a new identity renders her as anonymous and generic @-@ sounding as ever . "
= = Live performances and promotional video = =
Cyrus has performed the " Liberty Walk " at the House of Blues Sunset Strip in Los Angeles , California . She also performed the song during a concert in Melbourne , Australia . According to Julia Foskey of The Hot Hits Live from LA , Cyrus wore " raunchy leather hotpants and sequined bra " . She opened her concert with " Liberty Walk " at the Brisbane Entertainment Centre in Brisbane , Australia . In this performance , the singer wore " thigh @-@ high boots , leather shorts , killer heels and a black bustier " . The song has also been performed during Gypsy Heart Tour .
On November 23 , 2011 , Cyrus released a video which featured a remixed version of " Liberty Walk " by Rock Mafia . It features news footage of the Occupy movement that spread from Wall Street to other areas of the world . The video begins with a message saying " This is dedicated to the thousands of people who are standing up for what they believe in " . Later in the video , scenes of sign @-@ waving protesters and pepper @-@ spraying police are shown .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Songwriting , vocals – Miley Cyrus , Antonina Armato , Tim James , Nicholas J. Scapa , John Read Fasse , Michael McGinnis
Production – Rock Mafia
Engineering – Steve Hammons , Adam Comstock
Editing – Rock Mafia , Nigel Lundemo
Mixing – Paul Palmer , Rock Mafia
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Can 't Be Tamed .
= = Charts = =
Due to strong digital downloads , " Liberty Walk " peaked at number three on the U.S. Billboard Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart . The song also reached number 79 on the Canadian Hot 100 .
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= Braathens SAFE Flight 139 =
Braathen SAFE Flight 139 was an aircraft hijacking that occurred in Norway on 21 June 1985 . The incident took place on a Boeing 737 @-@ 205 belonging to Braathens SAFE that was on a scheduled flight from Trondheim Airport , Værnes to Oslo Airport , Fornebu . The hijacker was Stein Arvid Huseby , who was drunk during most of the incident . It was the first plane hijacking to take place in Norway ; there were no deaths and no injuries . Huseby was sentenced to three years prison and five years detention .
Armed with an air gun , Huseby threatened a cabin attendant and told the captain to proceed as planned to Fornebu . He claimed ( falsely ) to have placed explosives on board . His demands were to make a political statement and talk to Prime Minister Kåre Willoch and Minister of Justice Mona Røkke . The plane landed at 15 : 30 at Fornebu and was surrounded by the police . After one hour , Huseby released 70 hostages in exchange for having the aircraft being moved closer to the terminal building . Thirty minutes later , Huseby released the remaining passengers . He drank throughout the incident , and at 17 : 30 , after he consumed the plane 's beer supply , he surrendered his weapon in exchange for more beer . The plane was immediately stormed and Huseby arrested .
= = Hijacking = =
The hijacking occurred on board Braathens SAFE Flight 139 en route from Trondheim Airport , Værnes to Oslo Airport , Fornebu . The aircraft was a Boeing 737 – 205 , named Harald Gille ( after Harald IV of Norway ) with registration LN @-@ SUG . The day before the hijacking , Huseby graduated from upper secondary school , where he studied health and social work . That evening , he purchased an air gun in Trondheim . The weapon was in his hand luggage when boarding the aircraft at Trondheim Airport , Værnes , where there was no security control . He selected a seat at the rear of the aircraft . While airborne , the hijacker showed a female flight attendant the air gun , and asked her to inform the captain that he wanted control over the aircraft , but that otherwise all was to proceed as planned . The flight attendant and later the hijacker used the intercom to communicate with the pilot . The police were informed about the incident via air controllers at 15 : 05 .
The plane landed at Fornebu at 15 : 30 , fifteen minutes after schedule . The aircraft parked at a location 700 metres ( 2 @,@ 300 ft ) from the terminal . It was immediately surrounded by police special forces , as well as officers from Asker and Bærum Police Department . Two special @-@ trained police officers were placed in the control tower , where they negotiated with Huseby . Fornebu was closed , and air traffic was rerouted to Oslo Airport , Gardermoen . The passengers were not informed about the incident until the aircraft was surrounded by the police . The hijacker informed the passengers and crew falsely that he had placed explosives in the toilet rooms , but that no one would be hurt if they cooperated . Huseby was dressed in a suit with sunglasses . The passengers on board described his actions as calm . During the whole incident , Huseby repeatedly asked for and drank beer .
Huseby 's demands were to talk to Prime Minister Kåre Willoch and Minister of Justice Mona Røkke , both from the Conservative Party . He also wanted to hold a press conference at Fornebu . Huseby was unsatisfied with his treatment after he left prison . He demanded to receive guarantees for a better treatment and economic security from the authorities . Assisted by a psychologist , the police negotiated with Huseby . One hour after the plane landed , 70 passengers were let out of the plane . The first group were those passengers who had or claimed they had transfers to other flights . In exchange , the aircraft was moved closer to the terminal building . The passengers were picked up by a bus and transported to the domestic terminal , where they were questioned by the police . The remaining passengers were let out thirty minutes later . Only the five crew members remained .
A friend of Huseby helped the police in the negotiations . At 18 : 30 , the aircraft was out of beer , so Huseby made an agreement that he would throw the gun out of the window in exchange for more beer . This was delivered by a civilian police officer . The aircraft was then immediately stormed by special forces and Huseby arrested . No @-@ one was injured in the hijacking .
= = Aftermath = =
Stein Arvid Huseby , originally from Karmøy , was at the time 24 years old . He had just finished studying at a Christian upper secondary school in Trondheim . He had previously been sentenced five times for violence offenses , including an armed robbery of a taxi and threatening a lensmann with a shotgun . He was beaten and abused by his father , and started drinking as a 13 @-@ year @-@ old . He lost his job as a seaman due to drunkenness , and was put into a psychiatric institution in 1980 , aged 19 . In 1983 , he was admitted to a Christian school , and had managed to stay away from alcohol for two years , but had started again just prior to the incident . He stated that he was afraid to lose his friends due to his misuse of alcohol .
During the court case , Huseby stated that he wanted help from society and attention drawn to his cause . However , he stated that he regretted doing this by hijacking . He stated that all he wanted was to send a message to the minister of justice and prime minister that he needed help , and that he did not intend that the other passengers be aware of his threats . Huseby stated that the hijacking was spontaneous and that he planned to make an armed robbery or take hostages at the Radisson SAS hotel in Oslo . His defense attorney argued that Huseby did not commit a hijacking in the letter of the law , but had instead taken hostages , which would result in a lesser sentence . The court psychologists stated that Huseby had a difficult childhood , and had been defined as an alcoholic at the age of 17 . They considered him to have very underdeveloped ability to make rational decisions and weak mental health . They also stated that he committed crimes to identify himself due to his low self @-@ esteem . On 29 May 1986 , Huseby was found guilty of hijacking in Eidsivating Court of Appeal . He was sentenced to three years prison and five years of preventive supervision .
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= Bob Heffron =
Robert James " Bob " Heffron ( 10 September 1890 – 27 July 1978 ) , also known as R. J. Heffron , was a long @-@ serving New South Wales politician , union organiser and Australian Labor Party Premier of New South Wales from 1959 to 1964 . Born in New Zealand , Heffron became involved in various Socialist and Labor movements in New Zealand and later Australia before joining the Australian Labor Party . Being a prominent unionist organiser , having been gaoled at one stage for " conspiracy to strike action " , he was eventually elected to the Parliament of New South Wales for Botany in 1930 . However his disputes with party leader Jack Lang led to his expulsion from the ALP in 1936 and Heffron formed his own party from disgruntled Labor MPs known as the Industrial Labor Party . The success of his party enabled his readmission to the party and his prominence in a post @-@ Lang NSW Branch which won office in 1941 .
Heffron served as Minister of the Crown in the cabinets of William McKell , James McGirr and Joseph Cahill , most notably as Minister for Education from 1944 to 1960 and as Deputy Premier . In his significant tenure as minister for education Heffron oversaw massive expansion of the state 's public schools and the development of higher education services including the establishment of the New South Wales University of Technology ( now the University of New South Wales ) . Rising to become Premier in 1959 , he spearheaded a final attempt to abolish the New South Wales Legislative Council via referendum in 1961 , which ended in failure . Serving as Premier until 1964 , Heffron was a member of the New South Wales Legislative Assembly for 37 years until his retirement on 23 January 1968 .
= = Early years and background = =
" Bob " Heffron ( as he was widely known ) was born on 10 September 1890 in Thames , New Zealand , the fifth child of Irish @-@ born parents Michael Heffron , a blacksmith , and Ellen Heath . After spending his early education at nearby Hikutaia , Heffron left school at 15 to work in a gold @-@ treating plant while studying metallurgy at the Thames School of Mines . At 19 , he went to California to work and to the Yukon in Canada to look for gold ; when this proved unsuccessful he returned to New Zealand in 1912 .
Heffron joined the New Zealand Socialist Party in 1912 and , becoming a miners ' union organiser , was involved in the Waihi miners ' strike , an event significant to the development of the labour movement in New Zealand . Appointed an organiser for the Auckland General Labourers ' Union , Heffron studied law part @-@ time at Auckland University College , whilst residing at the Heffron family home at 24 Grosvenor Street Grey Lynn . Although having volunteered for military service in the First World War , Heffron was rejected on medical grounds , with the attending doctor citing heart troubles . However , the rejection on the grounds of health was done despite an allegation that Heffron , in an attempt to encourage such a finding , had smoked 12 packs of cigarettes prior to his medical , in order to avoid military service . His elder brother , William Thomas Heffron , enlisted as a Private on 3 October 1917 and was killed in action a few days before the armistice on 4 November 1918 , while serving with the 1st Battalion , Auckland Infantry Regiment . On 29 December 1917 he married Jessie Bjornstad , the daughter of a Norwegian engineer and they would have two daughters , Maylean Jessie and June .
In 1921 , the Heffrons moved to Melbourne , Victoria . That same year in Victoria , Heffron was appointed an organiser for the Federated Clothing Trades of the Commonwealth of Australia and also joined the leftist Victorian Socialist Party . Later in 1921 he moved to Sydney , becoming the secretary of the New South Wales branch of the Federated Marine Stewards ' and Pantrymen 's Association of Australasia . As the union 's state secretary , a role he would hold for ten years , he took a prominent role in maritime trade unionism in Sydney . In February 1924 , when the Commonwealth and Dominion Line steamer Port Lyttelton was declared ' Black ' by the Labor Council of New South Wales owing to various worker 's disputes and the ship having been declared unseaworthy , Heffron and six other union representatives acted to advise members of the Seamen 's Union to refuse to work on the Port Lyttelton . For this , in April the government of Sir George Fuller had Heffron and the six other unionists arrested on the charge of conspiracy to strike action . Although controversially refused bail by the trial judge , Heffron and his fellow defendants , represented by Richard Windeyer KC and H. V. Evatt , were found not guilty and released in July 1924 by the court , a verdict that had been returned by the direction of the judge . Later joining the Australian Labor Party , at the time he showed himself to be a supporter of party leader Jack Lang , supporting Lang 's successful motion at the 1923 state conference to readmit James Dooley to the party .
= = Early political career = =
Having confirmed his Lang credentials , Heffron stood as the endorsed Labor party candidate for the seat of Botany at the 1927 election , which was held by Thomas Mutch , who had split from party after a stoush with Lang and stood as an ' Independent Labor ' candidate after being denied preselection . A contest marked by clashes and accusations of rorting , Heffron was ultimately unsuccessful , gaining only 45 % of the vote . He was eventually successful at the next election in 1930 , defeating Mutch , and would hold Botany until its abolition in 1950 .
While his support for Lang had enabled Heffron to accelerate his political career , he found himself increasingly unhappy with Lang 's autocratic and divisive political style , which had been amplified by the Great Depression , the expulsion of the NSW branch of the Labor Party from the federal branch and the ultimate dismissal of Lang 's government in 1932 by Governor Sir Philip Game . After Labor 's defeats at the hands of the United Australia Party ( UAP ) at the 1932 and 1935 state elections , Heffron became associated with a small group in caucus and in the NSW Labor Council who aimed to depose Lang as leader . However , while Heffron 's movement was based on his personal stronghold in his Botany – Maroubra ALP branches and the left @-@ wing trade unions , Lang maintained majority control of the caucus , party machine and the party newspaper , Labor Daily .
= = = Industrial Labor Party = = =
When Labor Council Secretary Robert King organised a conference of dissident left @-@ wing unions on 1 August 1936 , which was attended by Heffron and three other caucus members , Lang summoned a special party conference on 22 August which expelled Heffron , King and all the other leaders who attended the conference . As a result , Heffron , along with his colleague Carlo Lazzarini and others , formed the Industrial Labor Party ( ILP ) , which was also known as the ' Heffron Labor Party ' . Despite their expulsion , Heffron and the new ILP did increasingly well against Lang and the Labor Party , winning two subsequent by @-@ elections in the seats of Hurstville ( won by Clive Evatt ) and Waverley ( won by Clarrie Martin ) . In June 1939 , three other MPs , Frank Burke ( Newtown ) , Mat Davidson ( Cobar ) and Ted Horsington ( Sturt ) , unhappy with Lang 's leadership joined the ILP . As a result of its success , John Curtin and the federal executive of the ALP pressured the NSW ALP to readmit Heffron and his party at a unity conference at the Majestic Theatre in Newtown on 26 August 1939 . Heffron then combined forces with William McKell to depose Lang on 5 September 1939 , with McKell becoming the new leader of the party , although he declined to stand for the position of deputy leader .
= = Minister of the Crown = =
= = = National Emergency Services = = =
When the Labor Party eventually regained office under McKell , defeating Alexander Mair and the UAP at the May 1941 election , Heffron was elevated to the ministry as Minister for National Emergency Services , charged with the implementation of the National Emergency Services Act , and the administration of National Emergency Services , New South Wales . In this role he was responsible for the civil defence and air @-@ raid precautions of New South Wales , which became increasingly more important after the entry of Japan in the Second World War in December 1941 and subsequent attacks on Australia on Darwin and Sydney in 1942 . Serving until 8 June 1944 , Heffron advocated public vigilance whilst in this portfolio , declaring : " We are living in a fool 's paradise in Australia ... Many people have the idea that what is happening in other countries cannot happen here . "
Heffron also clashed with the Federal Government 's imposition of National Emergency Services procedures , most notably over the imposition of brownouts for the city of Sydney . In the Legislative Assembly in November 1942 , Heffron denounced the advisers of the Federal Government who continued to maintain the brown @-@ out as an essential defence measure : " The only conclusion I can come to , is that the brown @-@ out was born of a form of panic when Japan entered the war and it has continued because of a few brass hats will not look at the facts and the evidence of the fighting men , but persist in sticking to their first conclusion . The position , therefore , is ludicrous . " Heffron later affirmed that the brown @-@ out was completely unnecessary as a black @-@ out , with short notice given , was a more effective and safer defensive measure .
= = = Minister for Education = = =
Appointed by McKell as Minister for Education in June 1944 , Heffron authored in 1946 a comprehensive policy for the New South Wales education system entitled : Tomorrow is Theirs : The Present and Future of Education in New South Wales . As minister during the important post @-@ war era of economic growth and infrastructure development , Heffron presided over the expansion in the number and facilities of the public schools in NSW , with enrollments in all areas doubling in size .
In November 1952 he appointed Harold Wyndham as the Director @-@ General of Education , and commissioned him to chair a committee tasked to completely review the Secondary education system in New South Wales and make recommendations for improvements . The committee 's report , popularly referred to as " The Wyndham Report " , was presented to Heffron in October 1957 and gave rise to the Public Education Act of 1961 , being brought into effect in 1962 , during Heffron 's term as Premier . Key amongst the changes was the objective of presenting all students with the opportunity to experience a wide range of subjects , including visual arts , industrial arts , music and drama , and a wide range of languages . The five @-@ year secondary school system was abandoned in favour of adding another year to the course , with major statewide external examinations at the end of the tenth ( School Certificate ) and the twelfth ( Higher School Certificate ) years of schooling .
Heffron 's reformist attitude in education also extended to the tertiary level , in which he intended to significantly expand NSW 's capacity for higher @-@ level learning . On 9 July 1946 he presented a proposal to the cabinet outlining the creation of a technological @-@ based university in NSW , as a separate institution to the existing Sydney Technical College and a year later cabinet authorised the appointment of a Developmental Council , chaired by Heffron , to bring the new tertiary institution into existence . First meeting in August 1947 , the council established all the guidelines and regulations that would set @-@ up the future institution and by March 1948 , 46 students had already enrolled to study .
This institution , now named the " New South Wales University of Technology " , gained its statutory status through the enactment of ' New South Wales University of Technology Act 1949 ' , which was carried by Heffron 's firm support of its cause : " the Government ... is fully alive to the need in a democratic country to extend facilities to students who , for financial reasons , cannot attend present full @-@ time university courses " . This was the first time that a second university was to be established in any Australian state . With the establishment of this institution receiving opposition by some areas in the media and conservatives , Heffron came to its defence in an article published in the Sydney Morning Herald on 4 May 1949 , noting : " I feel that this new institution should be given time to prove its worth through the quality and work of its graduates " . In September 1958 Heffron moved the bill to change the name of the New South Wales University of Technology to the University of New South Wales following the recommendations of the Murray Report that had proposed the expansion of its focus from technology into such fields as medicine and arts . When several opposition MPs objected during debate on the basis of it posing a threat to the status of the University of Sydney , with one joking that it could be called " Heffron University " , Heffron came to the defence of the university and dismissed the objections as " absurd " . In 1950 Heffron 's seat of Botany was abolished and largely replaced by Maroubra , which he was subsequently elected to and would hold until his retirement in 1968 .
Meanwhile , Heffron , who supported a general policy of decentralising tertiary education across the state , directed his Department to begin the establishment of various Teachers ' Colleges in New South Wales , to provide sufficient tertiary training to the expanding numbers of teachers filling the new schools and colleges across the state . Among them was the Newcastle Teachers ' College , established in 1949 and opened in 1950 , which facilitated growing calls from the city of Newcastle for a more permanent University in the city . In May 1951 , Heffron indicated his support for the establishment of a satellite college of Sydney University in Newcastle as an initial step towards the establishment of a full university . By July Heffron sought to approach Sydney University officials to facilitate efforts " to have a university established in Newcastle as soon as possible " , and noted that his moves to purchase land in the city as the site of this college was an indication of the government 's intentions : " I didn 't buy that site in Newcastle just for fun . I want to provide a university in Newcastle and I want that to be only the first step in providing universities all over the state " . However , by the time Heffron opened the Newcastle University College ( NUC ) on 3 December 1951 , no affiliation had been finalised . By May 1952 , a University Establishment Group had gained much momentum but Heffron had been notified by Premier Joseph Cahill that there were insufficient funds available for the establishment of another full university . Nevertheless , in early 1954 this college had become a college of the New South Wales University of Technology . As premier , in late 1961 Heffron moved with his Minister for Education , Ernest Wetherell , that the Newcastle University College would become a full university " come what may " . This was achieved when on 12 March 1962 , the University of Technology Vice @-@ Chancellor Philip Baxter notified the NUC Warden , Professor James Auchmuty , that it would be allowed to take on full autonomy to become the University of Newcastle from 1 January 1965 .
In 1951 Heffron also played a role in the establishment of the University of New England ( UNE ) when he discussed with the University of Sydney on its thoughts about training and certifying schoolteachers by external studies and / or correspondence courses . The university rejected the idea , stating that external degree or certification programs would be significantly inferior to residence education . Undeterred , Heffron asked New England about its willingness to conduct external studies . The Warden of the New England University College ( and later first Vice Chancellor of UNE ) Robert Madgwick enthusiastically supported the idea and instructed his college 's staff to begin preparing an external studies program . Heffron asked the University of Sydney if it had any objection to New England being granted independence to operate the state 's external education program . The university replied that it had no objection . As a result , Heffron introduced the ' University of New England Act ' to parliament in early December 1953 , it received assent on 16 December 1953 and the college became the independent University of New England on 1 February 1954 .
= = = Deputy premier and leadership = = =
Throughout his period in the cabinet , Heffron was seen as a prominent and well @-@ performing member of the government , and as such a potential contender for the premiership . The first opportunity for Heffron came in February 1946 , when McKell announced to the Labor caucus of his intention to resign before the 1947 election . McKell , with the intention of ensuring Heffron as his successor , remained as an MP even after Prime Minister Joseph Chifley had announced his appointment as Governor @-@ General in order to vote for Heffron . At the ballot on 5 February 1947 , Heffron lost by two votes to the Minister for Housing , James McGirr , who was favoured by the more Catholic and conservative caucus members . When McGirr announced his resignation on the grounds of ill health on 1 April 1952 , Heffron put himself forward as a candidate to succeed him against , among others , Deputy Premier Joseph Cahill . However , the day before the ballot on 3 April , Heffron had been made aware that he would not have the numbers in caucus to win against Cahill and consequently made arrangements with Cahill to give the votes of his bloc to Cahill , in exchange for his support to become Deputy Premier . As a result , on 3 April Cahill defeated Attorney General Clarrie Martin 32 votes to 14 to become Premier and Heffron defeated Mines Secretary Joshua Arthur 32 votes to 14 to become Deputy Premier .
When Heffron 's former opponent Arthur resigned from the ministry on 23 February 1953 when a Royal Commission was set up to investigate his involvement in corrupt business activity , Heffron was commissioned to replace him as Secretary for Mines , serving from February to September 1953 . As Deputy Premier , Heffron acted in Cahill 's absence and in times of infirmity , which included receiving the Japanese Prime Minister Nobusuke Kishi , on his arrival at Sydney Airport on 31 October 1957 , the first visit of a Prime Minister of Japan to Australia . Heffron 's role as deputy became of prime importance when Cahill died suddenly in October 1959 , and the 68 @-@ year @-@ old Heffron was elected to succeed him unopposed .
= = Premier of New South Wales = =
Heffron became Premier , being sworn in with his cabinet on 23 October 1959 at Government House , Sydney by Governor Sir Eric Woodward . However , his time as Premier was marked by significant tensions within the Labor Party in NSW and nationally , where although a split involving the Democratic Labor Party had been avoided during Cahill 's term , the sectarian and factional undercurrent in the party was very much present in what was increasingly perceived as a tired and divided government . Indeed , the 68 @-@ year @-@ old Heffron 's government consisted mostly of MPs and Ministers who had come in with McKell after the 1941 election . In parliament , Heffron tended to reflect this by leaving most of the speaking roles to his deputy Jack Renshaw and local government and highways minister Pat Hills . It was clear to many that the aged Heffron 's best days as a politician were behind him , as future Labor political advisor Richard Hall noted in The Bulletin : " In the House he tends to ramble on , recalling past glories as Minister for Education or Minister for Emergency Services in answer to questions . In an age where clichés cloak most politicians , Heffron throws them out as though they were devastating retorts , although occasionally the old radical has shown his teeth , flashed into anger , and for a few minutes reminded us that this was the great mob @-@ orator who led many bitter strikes . " His old nemesis Jack Lang also took the opportunity to take a last swipe at him , ridiculing Heffron in his newspaper , Century , as " Mr Magoo " . On 14 October 1960 , Heffron presided over the official opening of Warragamba Dam , the completion of which meant that it became the primary reservoir and the first reliable water supply for the whole Sydney catchment . At the opening , Heffron declared : " We have come along way from the Tank Stream , Sydney 's first water supply " .
= = = Evatt as chief justice = = =
In January 1960 Heffron provided his old friend H. V. Evatt a dignified exit from federal politics by nominating him to succeed Sir Kenneth Street as Chief Justice of New South Wales . His Attorney General Reg Downing , however , was horrified , having favoured the senior puisne justice Sir William Owen as the most suitable candidate while also realising that Evatt 's worsening health would render him less than equal to the task of chief justice . Therefore , while Downing , as attorney general , would normally be the person to move the nomination of chief justice in cabinet , he refused to do so , leaving Heffron to do it himself . Heffron 's motion to nominate Evatt was passed narrowly by 8 votes to 6 . Downing 's concerns would come to pass as Evatt indeed proved highly ineffective , often wracked by mental and physical ill @-@ health , was reduced to having most of his judgements written or co @-@ written for him , and resigning in 1962 after only two years as chief justice .
= = = Legislative Council abolition = = =
Upon his elevation as premier Heffron , following an approved motion from the 1958 state conference , reanimated the longstanding Labor policy to abolish the Legislative Council of New South Wales by announcing a statewide referendum on this question . Heffron had long supported this policy from his Langite days , seeing the council as an outdated bastion of conservative privilege , a position that was echoed by trade union official and member of the Legislative Council , Tom Dougherty , who had pushed through a rule at the 1952 state conference that banned MLCs from becoming members of the state party executive . However , Heffron 's efforts found themselves up against significant opposition , not only from the Liberal and Country parties but also within the Labor party itself . Indeed , when the ' Constitution Amendment ( Legislative Council Abolition ) Bill ' came before the Legislative Council on 2 December 1959 , the council resolved 33 votes to 25 to send it back to the Legislative Assembly on the grounds that such a bill should have originated in the council . This was passed with the support of seven Labor councillors crossing the floor ( including Cyril Cahill , Anne Press and Donald Cochrane ) , who were all subsequently expelled from the party and formed the Independent Labor Group .
On 6 April 1960 , Heffron attempted to send the bill back to the council , which returned it to the assembly on the same grounds as before . As a result of the deadlock , Heffron requested the Governor to order a joint session of parliament on 20 April , a session which lasted two hours and was boycotted by the opposition . On 12 May the Assembly resolved that the bill be submitted for a referendum . However , later that day the leader of the opposition in the Legislative Council , Hector Clayton , started legal action against the government on the grounds that under section 5B of the NSW Constitution , the council had neither voted nor deliberated on the bill and thus the bill could not be submitted for a referendum . In the case of Clayton v. Heffron ( 1960 ) a majority of the full bench of the Supreme Court of New South Wales ( headed by Chief Justice Evatt ) found in favour of the government four to one on the grounds that they had complied fully with the intention of section 5B , while also denying the plaintiff leave to appeal to the High Court . The subsequent appeal to the New South Wales Court of Appeal was rejected by Chief Judge in Equity McLelland on 10 October . In a subsequent case to the High Court , Clayton argued that section 15 of the Commonwealth Constitution , which dealt with the process by which state parliaments filled senate vacancies , entrenched the requirement for such parliaments to be bicameral on account of its exclusive mention of both houses . This was rejected by the court that affirmed that the mention did not exclude the right of state parliaments to do as they saw fit regarding abolition or reform .
In January 1961 , Heffron announced the date of the referendum for 29 April 1961 and affirmed that it would be a simple yes / no question and would not include " alternative proposals such as retaining the Upper House on an elective basis " . However , despite the lack of time allocated for a campaign , the Liberal / Country opposition led by Robert Askin and Charles Cutler , despite rallying around a moderate slogan of " retain and reform " , spearheaded a strong campaign centered on warnings of a Labor @-@ dominated single house subject to " Communist and Trades Hall influence " . Askin promised to fight abolition " from one end of the state to the other " while Cutler also promised an " all @-@ out campaign " alongside the Liberals . By contrast Heffron and Labor 's campaign was described as extremely " tame " and " lacklustre " , having been weakened against the fact that any criticism of the Legislative Council also included its Labor members , with some Labor backbench MLAs terming the council " the union officials club " .
As a result , the referendum on 29 April was categorically rejected with 802 @,@ 512 votes ( 42 @.@ 4 % ) for abolition and 1 @,@ 089 @,@ 193 votes ( 57 @.@ 5 % ) against . This would be the last attempt to abolish the council and , as the first time the NSW Labor party had lost a state poll in many years , was widely seen as the beginning of the end for the Labor government , which had been in power since 1941 . Heffron 's supporter Dougherty resigned from the council a month later in protest of the result .
= = = Second term = = =
At the 1962 election Heffron , despite the damage to prestige represented by the failed referendum , put forward new policies including the establishment of a Department of Industrial Development to reduce unemployment , free school travel , aid to home buyers and commencing the construction of the Sydney – Newcastle Freeway as a toll @-@ road . At the election the Labor Party increased its margin by 5 seats , leaving a comfortable majority in the new parliament , although its success was attributed to the unpopularity at the time of Sir Robert Menzies ' federal Liberal government following the 1961 credit squeeze .
Another one of Heffron 's election promises , namely a Royal Commission into the legalisation of off @-@ course betting , caused considerable tension with his own cabinet . His Attorney General Reg Downing favoured its legalisation through a government @-@ supervised Totalisator Agency Board ( TAB ) while his Chief Secretary Gus Kelly favoured legalising the activities of existing SP bookmakers . Downing however , went over Heffron 's head and procured an ALP State Executive order requiring the establishment of a TAB . When the Final Report of Commission was handed down on 29 March 1963 , echoing the position of Downing , Heffron was obliged to carry out the establishment of the TAB .
Another issue arose when Cardinal Norman Gilroy presented Heffron in September 1962 with a plan for State aid to Catholic Church schools , including assistance for teacher salaries and capital grants for buildings , an issue that was highly explosive in the sectarian politics of New South Wales at the time . Heffron , alive to the need for a limited form of state support to placate sectarian conflict that could destroy the government , permitted Treasurer Jack Renshaw to include state support for school laboratories and a means @-@ tested allowance to school students in the 1963 budget . Heffron later dropped the school laboratory provision but his permitting of the means @-@ tested allowance provoked condemnation from the Federal Party Executive in Adelaide on 30 September 1962 , who were less interested in placating the traditional Catholic hierarchy and more informed by the bitterness of the earlier ALP / DLP split in the party in 1955 . Heffron and Renshaw backed down on this last provision , leaving no state aid for Catholic schools , and affirming the dominance of the Federal party in such matters .
Heffron , humiliated and tired after several decades in ministerial office , resigned as Premier six months later on 30 April 1964 at the age of 73 . His announcement came as a surprise to many members of his own party , although there had been existing hints in the previous months that the Labor caucus had been discussing a departure plan for Heffron , to be replaced by the Deputy Premier Renshaw . Heffron insisted that he had made the decision to himself a year prior , declaring : " It was purely my own decision , so I cannot complain about anyone throwing me out or advising me to get out . Sometimes we are advised to get out - there are hints , but we don 't take any notice when they come from outside , but it is not the same , of course , as coming from your own party . " Renshaw succeeded him as Premier . On 24 June 1964 , Heffron was granted by Queen Elizabeth II retention of the title " The Honourable " for having served for more than three years as a Member of the Executive Council of New South Wales .
= = Later life = =
After resigning as Premier , Heffron remained in Parliament as Member for Maroubra , retaining his seat at the 1965 election , thereby witnessing his Labor Party enter opposition for the first time in twenty @-@ five years . He stayed for one more term until his retirement in January 1968 , marking thirty @-@ seven years in Parliament . In his valedictory speech , Heffron remarked :
" In looking back on my life , I express happiness that I did go into politics . If anybody had then said to me that I would become a Minister of the Crown , I should have thought that I would be the last card in the pack . When I see these young fellows in the Ministry , it reminds me of when I was beating about back in the dark days of the depression . Had anybody then suggested that I would become a Premier of New South Wales , I should have considered that man a suitable candidate for Callan Park . However , with the passage of time , these things happen , and it then becomes a matter of doing one 's best . That is what I have tried to do over the years . "
In youth a Roman Catholic , he spent most of his adulthood – unusually for a New South Wales Labor politician at the time – outside the Roman Church , describing himself as a " proselytising rationalist " . In his later years he became more attached to the beliefs of his youth , and became the first Australian statesman to be received by Pope Paul VI during an official visit to the Vatican in July 1963 . In retirement , Heffron lived in the North Shore suburb of Kirribilli . His wife Jessie died aged 84 on 7 July 1977 at Kirribilli Private Hospital while Heffon was also admitted there as a patient . He died aged 87 at the same hospital on 27 July 1978 , survived by his two daughters . Heffron was granted a State funeral with a service at St Stephen 's Uniting Church , Sydney that was attended by over 200 people including Governor Roden Cutler , Premier Neville Wran and former Premiers McKell , Renshaw , Askin , Lewis and Willis , before being sent for cremation at Eastern Suburbs Crematorium in Matraville . In Heffron 's condolence motion in the Legislative Assembly on 15 August 1978 , Wran reflected on Heffron 's achievements :
" The importance of his term as Minister for Education lies not merely in its record length of sixteen years ; it lies in the unprecedented challenges of those years and the way he met them . Because of the seminal importance of those years , Mr Heffron could well lay claim to be father of the modern education system in New South Wales . [ ... ] These were years not only of vast expansion in the number of schools and pupils ; they were also years of great experimentation and innovation reflecting deep changes in community attitudes to the purposes of education . The Heffron years established for the first time that equality of opportunity in education was the right of all , not just of the privileged few . "
= = Honours and legacy = =
In 1947 Heffron was honoured by the Royal Australian Historical Society by being made an Honorary Fellow . Heffron was made an honorary Doctor of Letters by the University of Sydney on 29 August 1952 , with his citation reading :
" Robert James Heffron 's whole political career has shown him to be a man of deep sincerity of purpose and with the courage of his convictions , ' One who never turned his back , but marched breastforward . ' It is , in consequence , not surprising that under his ministerial aegis we see the results of his educational zeal and enthusiasm in the rapid growth of the Child Welfare Department , which he has raised to a level equal to the best overseas , in the expansion of library and other cultural facilities , in the planning and creation of new schools , colleges and institutes of higher learning , and last , but not least , in the unfailing sympathy he has always shown with our own University and in his ready understanding of its more pressing problems . "
Heffron was also awarded an Honorary Doctor of Science at the New South Wales University of Technology 's first graduation ceremony to be held on the Kensington campus on 16 April 1955 . The citation noted that Heffron " has played a vital role in the founding and early development of this university and remains a sympathetic and wise counsellor to our cause ... His name is written indelibly into the history of the New South Wales University of Technology " . In 1956 his portrait , depicting him in the Scarlet and Old Gold robes of his honorary D.Sc. , was painted by Henry Hanke , entered into that year 's Archibald Prize , and was purchased by the university for its collection in 1957 . In 1962 , the now University of New South Wales , in honour of his role in its establishment and his continuing support , named its newest building after him as the " Robert Heffron Building " , it is now the Australian School of Business .
He was also made an honorary Doctor of Letters by the University of New England in 1956 . In 1961 Prince Henry Hospital named the A Ward building of its 1935 extension as " Heffron House " in his honour . In 1962 , in honour of Heffron 's role in establishing the school in 1950 , South Sydney Boys ' High School named its library after him as the " R. J. Heffron Library " . The nearby Randwick Boys High School had done the same to its new library when Heffron opened the school on 11 March 1959 . On 14 June 1966 , the Sydney City Council resolved to name the newly built community hall on Burton Street , Darlinghurst , after him as " Heffron Hall " . In 1973 , the New South Wales Electoral Commission named the new state electorate of Heffron after him and it covers much of his former electorate of Botany . The Charles Sturt University Faculty of Education building in its Bathurst Campus was also named after Heffron in honour of his role in the establishment of the preceding Bathurst and Wagga Wagga Teacher 's Colleges ( now the CSU Bathurst and Wagga Wagga campuses ) . Heffron Park and Heffron Road in Maroubra are named after him , as is Heffron Road in Lalor Park . His first daughter , Maylean , married Dutch sailor Pieter Cordia in 1945 , was a trained nurse and was awarded the Medal of the Order of Australia in 2005 for her efforts to save the heritage of Prince Henry Hospital , which included the building named after her father forty years previously .
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= Great Southern Group =
Great Southern Group was a group of Australian companies that was notable as the country 's largest agribusiness managed investment scheme ( MIS ) business . Great Southern Limited ( GSL ) , the parent company was listed on the Australian Securities Exchange . Through its wholly owned subsidiary , Great Southern Managers Australia Ltd ( GSMAL ) , it established , sold and managed approximately 43 agricultural managed investment schemes . Finance for the MIS was offered to investors via another wholly owned subsidiary , Great Southern Finance ( GSF ) .
The company was founded in 1987 and became a public company in 1999 . It expanded its MIS business rapidly in the 2000s , supported by favourable tax regulations for these types of investments . Most of the Group 's business was in plantation forestry to supply woodchips for the pulp and paper industry , but in the 2000s it diversified into high @-@ value timbers , beef cattle , olives , viticulture , and almond production . The company 's after @-@ tax profit peaked at A $ 132 million in 2006 , but by 2008 had deteriorated to a A $ 63 million loss .
The Great Southern companies attracted debate and criticism associated with the operation of managed investment schemes generally , and the environmental performance of their Tiwi Islands operation in particular . On 16 May 2009 , as a result of worsening economic conditions and regulatory issues , the GSL , GSMAL , GSF and other subsidiaries of GSL entered into voluntary administration . Ferrier Hodgson was appointed as the Administrator . On 18 May 2009 secured creditors appointed McGrath Nicol as the Receiver and Manager to GSL and GSMAL ( as well as other subsidiaries ) . On 19 November 2009 GSL , GSMAL and other subsidiaries of GSL were placed into liquidation . Ferrier Hodgson was appointed as liquidator .
According to Ferrier Hodgson , the Great Southern Group had about 52 @,@ 000 investors who contributed about $ 2 @.@ 2 billion . Further , the group raised over $ 260 million in equity from shareholders , obtained over $ 200 million in unsecured convertible notes and raised over $ 600 million in secured funding .
Subsequent to the liquidation of the Great Southern Group , aggrieved MIS investors commenced various class actions .
Ferrier Hodgson is currently completing the liquidation of the Great Southern Group .
The collapse of Great Southern Group , in conjunction with the failure of another high @-@ profile agribusiness company , Timbercorp , led to three separate Australian parliamentary committee inquiries into the MIS industry .
= = Business activities = =
The Great Southern Group in 2008 formed Australia 's largest managed agribusiness investment scheme operation . The company comprised a parent entity , Great Southern Plantations Limited ( from 2007 renamed Great Southern Limited ) , and over forty subsidiaries , almost all wholly owned . Those subsidiaries held or operated Great Southern 's businesses , including providing management services .
At the centre of Great Southern 's operations were management investment schemes ( referred to as MIS schemes ) . MIS schemes are a mechanism by which investors ' funds are pooled to invest in a common business enterprise . A " responsible entity " ( such as Great Southern ) controls the routine administration of the investments . In primary production schemes such as those managed by Great Southern , investors are the growers of products ( such as forestry plantations ) , with an agreement with the company to manage the investment " to plant , establish and maintain the trees until they are harvested at maturity " . Investors in Great Southern generally purchased lots ( typically of 1 hectare ) on land owned or leased by Great Southern . Thus investors owned the plantations , but the land assets belonged to the company . While investors owned individual woodlots , risks and returns were distributed across all investors in individual projects , with growers sharing " the average yield at harvest for the entire Project ... rather than the return from their individual woodlot " . These were not high rates of return for the length of investment involved . Some of the schemes relied upon the rationale that investors would retire and therefore receive income from the scheme when their marginal tax rate was lower than at the time of initial investment . Based on this premise some schemes were claiming a rate of return after tax of eight to nine percent . Others suggested the schemes were a poor investment likely to achieve only six percent return .
Returns to investors comprised a tax deduction in the year in which they bought the products , and returns from the sale of produce over the life of the project , which was typically at the point of harvest 10 – 12 years later for plantations , " and up to 23 years for horticultural projects such as almonds " . Great Southern would deduct management fees from the final sale value . A typical forestry investment in the early 2000s involved an initial payment of $ 3000 for one @-@ third of a hectare woodlot , yielding a $ 2900 tax deduction at that time . Returns on harvesting depended on many variables ; Great Southern forecast that investors would recoup their original investment and a further return of between $ 1923 and $ 4569 per woodlot , however early schemes did not achieve these figures on the basis of the timber sales , with some resulting in woodchip sales of only around A $ 1500 , half the value of what was originally invested . Investors received their returns when the product ( usually woodchip ) was harvested and sold .
While the majority of Great Southern 's activity was in the sale of managed investment schemes , in 2007 it diversified into funds management through the purchase of Rural Funds Management Ltd , retaining its diversified agricultural assets fund and offering a new share fund and a blended property fund . In addition to retailing MIS products to investors , Great Southern also provided loans to investors wanting to borrow to invest . By 2009 its loan book comprised 14 @,@ 500 loans with an average value of approximately A $ 50 @,@ 000 .
= = Rise = =
The Great Southern Group began as the company Great Southern , co @-@ founded in 1987 by accountant John Carlton Young , and microbiologist Helen Sewell . It began by managing South @-@ east Australian plantations of Pinus radiata , but in 1992 shifted to Eucalytus plantations for woodchip production , dealing in blue gum woodlot investments . Through the 1990s it developed its plantation business in south western Western Australia including the Great Southern region ( after which the company is named ) , leasing woodlots to investors on land owned by Great Southern . A related entity , Templegate Finance Pty Ltd , would also lend finance to investors .
Young was Great Southern 's Executive Chairman when it listed on the Australian Stock Exchange in 1999 , and co @-@ founder Sewell remained in a full @-@ time role until her retirement in February 2001 . When the ASX200 , a new stock exchange index comprising the top 200 Australian companies by market capitalisation and liquidity , was instituted in March 2000 , Great Southern was one of the stocks included .
By 2001 , the Group had 66 000 hectares of forestry plantations in New South Wales , Queensland , Victoria and Western Australia . Its performance on the share market was strong enough that it was Shares magazine 's number one ranked stock in its table of top 50 stocks by yield in January 2002 . However the business faced some turbulent times , with profits in 2001 and 2002 down on the levels of 2000 . The company was delisted from the ASX200 for a period ( from October 2002 to August 2003 ) , although it was relisted and remained in the index until December 2008 .
In 2004 , the Group diversified into viticulture , planting vines in Western Australia . The company reported that it had been the ASX200 's fourth @-@ best performer in 2004 , and second @-@ best performer over the preceding two years . In November 2004 , Young indicated to the company 's annual meeting that harvesting of the first plantations had now commenced , and forecast further MIS sales growth . The shares in Great Southern peaked at A $ 4 @.@ 76 at this time , and Young sold a significant proportion of his shareholding , netting him A $ 32 @.@ 6 million .
In 2005 Great Southern expanded into organic olives , acquired some existing beef cattle MIS businesses , and bought forest products company Sylvatech , including its A $ 700 million of assets . The purchase of Sylvatech meant the company now also had forestry plantations in the Northern Territory , on the Tiwi Islands .
Great Southern 's cattle properties included the 660 @,@ 000 @-@ hectare Moola Bulla property in WA 's East Kimberley region , the similar sized Wrotham Park , 300 kilometres west of Cairns , and the 196 @,@ 000 @-@ hectare blue @-@ ribbon station of Chudleigh Park near Townsville " , as well as a further 2 @.@ 4 million hectares of pastoral leasehold . In 2007 , the company also diversified its MIS offerings to high value timbers , such as mahogany , the uses for which included furniture and flooring . The following table outlines the expansion of the Great Southern Group 's operations .
= = Fall = =
In the mid @-@ 2000s , Great Southern 's business was growing rapidly , with sales and market capitalisation increasing at more than 100 per cent per annum . However , in its 2005 Annual Report , the company disclosed that it was subsidising the returns to its 1994 forestry scheme by approximately A $ 3 million , and that it expected to have to similarly subsidise the 1995 and 1996 schemes by up to A $ 12 million in future years . Board Chairman Peter Patrikeos and non @-@ executive director Jeffry Mews both expressed concern about the way in which Great Southern was funding shortfalls on the sales of timber products , with the issue leading directly to Mews ' resignation . Although the company continued to sell over A $ 800 million of MIS products in the two financial years after incurring losses on its early offerings , it was not meeting sales targets , and its share price was falling .
Underpinning Great Southern 's decision to subsidise returns to its early investors was a looming problem : its forestry plantations were not performing to expectations . Timber yields were poorer than had been projected . Great Southern 's baseline projection had been 250 tonnes of woodchips per hectare , but an assessment in 2003 suggested that in most plantations yield would be reduced : in some cases to less than half the planned figure . The company itself considered that yields were proving to be " disappointing " , with actual yields for the woodlots planted in the period between 1994 and 1997 ( and thus harvested by 2008 ) being between 120 and 200 tonnes per hectare . Plantation growth had been limited by drought conditions and issues with the site and seedling quality of early plantings .
The company 's sales of MIS schemes , and its profits , both peaked in 2006 , with over A $ 450 million in sales , and a net profit after tax of A $ 133 million . However , the 2006 harvest ( of 1996 plantations ) yielded a return of only A $ 1500 and $ 1750 for the woodlots that investors had bought for A $ 3000 . These plantations had not been productive enough to yield a profit for investors , so Great Southern inflated the returns to A $ 4100 using its own funds .
In December 2007 Young announced he would step down as managing director , remaining as both non @-@ executive director and major shareholder . Saying that he wanted someone younger to implement the company 's five @-@ year business plans , he handed over to Cameron Rhodes , one of Great Southern 's existing senior management team .
In 2008 , Great Southern had over 430 employees managing investment schemes on behalf of over 47 000 investors . Industry sectors in which investment occurred included beef cattle , forestry , wine grapes , almonds , and poultry production . Its plantation estate had grown to 179 000 hectares , the vast majority of which was for wood pulp production .
As MIS sales declined from their 2006 peak , the Group 's debt levels rose . By October 2008 , business analysts Austock Securities were describing the company as " excessively geared " . The Group developed a proposal , known as Project Transform , to restructure the business , in particular through seeking the agreement of investors to swap their MIS investments for shares in Great Southern Limited . The intention was to free up capital to reduce debt , and make the business more attractive to investors . Analysts such as Austock Securities and Macquarie Research Equities supported the strategy .
The company reported a A $ 64 million loss in its 2008 financial year . By 2009 , the global economic downturn , and regulatory uncertainty associated with MIS schemes , was putting the company under financial pressure , and it was seeking to improve its situation both through asset sales and refinancing of debt . Its debt levels had risen significantly : it had extended its debt financing with its banks from A $ 245 million to A $ 350 million in 2007 . By September 2008 its total debt had ballooned to A $ 820 million , of which A $ 376 million was owed to its lead bankers , ANZ , Commonwealth Bank , BankWest and Mizuho . Great Southern had also been hoping to see a rise in the price obtained for its woodchips , but was unsuccessful in its 2009 negotiations with Japanese customers .
By early 2009 , business analysts Lonsec Agribusiness Research considered Great Southern to be financially stressed , and that it was " hard to envisage a rapid turnaround in the outlook " for the company . They gave Great Southern as managers the second @-@ lowest rating on their assessment scale , just short of stating that the investment would be " detrimental to an investor 's ... portfolio " . Great Southern 's banks refused a request in 2009 for a further $ 35 million loan . Great Southern 's attempts to extract itself from financial trouble were unsuccessful and by May 2009 , when a trading halt was called , the company 's shares were worth just 12 cents . On 16 May 2009 administrators were appointed under the Corporations Act 2001 , with the companies ' assets passing into control of receivers McGrathNicol on 18 May 2009 . The assets of the group were primarily its land holdings . By the time it went into administration , they were valued at A $ 1 @.@ 8 billion , however , despite company expansion plans , its net assets had not grown for four years .
In July 2009 the receivers determined that the company was insolvent . With a complex business structure to unravel , some commentators expect it may take years for the company 's collapse to be fully resolved . By April 2010 , timber company Gunns had taken over as the responsible entity running most of Great Southern 's pulpwood schemes , but the land on which they were being grown was yet to be sold .
Following its collapse , there was some speculation about whether Great Southern had disclosed to the market issues with the rate of return it was going to achieve on some of its timber investments . During parliamentary committee inquiries , these allegations were extended to the possibility that the auditors had been misled . It was also noted that , at the time that difficulties were emerging for Great Southern , its CEO sold some of his shares at the top of the companies ' fortunes for $ 32 @.@ 6 million .
One of Australia 's other leading managed investment scheme companies , Timbercorp , had also gone into administration the previous month . The two corporate collapses prompted examination by three separate Parliamentary committee inquiries : the first by the Parliamentary Joint Committee on Corporations and Financial Services , into Agribusiness Managed Investment Schemes , which reported in September 2009 ; the second by the Senate Select Committee on Agricultural and Related Industries ; and the third by the Senate Economics References Committee , " Agribusiness managed investment schemes - Bitter harvest " ; published in 11 March 2016 .
In 2012 , over 22 @,@ 000 of Great Southern 's investors commenced civil action suing for damages , claiming they had been misled by the company .
= = Great Southern and the regulation of managed investment schemes ( MIS ) = =
Great Southern and its nearest industry rival Timbercorp were estimated as having 43 per cent of all managed investment schemes ( MIS ) business in Australia . In contrast to other MIS industry participants , for which MIS activity is only a small part of their operations , managed investment schemes were 100 per cent of Great Southern Group and Timbercorp 's business .
Agribusiness MISs offer certain advantages to investors , dispersing investment risks across a large pool of investors and , through tax concessions , sharing those risks between the private investor and the taxpayer . The schemes were intended to overcome failures in the market for risk , and in the area of forestry reflect the fact that Australia has always subsidised plantation development .
MIS schemes however have a long history of criticism . Reports from the Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation ( RIRDC ) in 2000 and 2004 were reported to have found the schemes performed relatively poorly , in one case relating an analysis " of schemes offered to the public in 2002 – 03 [ that ] found that less than 10 per cent were sufficiently sound investments to warrant their recommendation " . In 2006 , another RIRDC report in 2006 observed :
Along with other studies , our analysis suggests that the MIS sector ( but not all MIS ) continues to
perform poorly with respect to realistic or actual rates of return versus marketed rates . There are limited rights for investors . Issues arising from the large number and small economic size of the retail
investor population and those arising from asymmetric information dominate the economics of MIS .
The Australian Securities and Investments Commission ( ASIC ) was also reported to have identified issues with inadequate disclosure of information to potential investors , poor performance of the investments , and high management fees for agricultural MIS schemes . In 2003 , the commission commented that it " has deployed a disproportionate percentage of its resources to the regulation of this sector , which represents only a minority of funds under management " . In 2010 it commenced revision of disclosure rules , prompted by " recent turmoil in the agribusiness scheme sector " .
The Great Southern Group relied significantly on financial planners and accountants recommending their MIS products to investors . The company was paying commissions of ten percent – high by industry standards , and similar to those paid by other failed investment businesses including Westpoint Corporation and Storm Financial . It was also spending a lot of money on recruiting financial advisers to sell its products . One report indicated that A $ 137 million was spent on " commissions , marketing and promotion in two years to 2008 " . Some accountants , with Great Southern 's support , were recommending the agribusiness investment schemes , though they did not have a financial services licence ; one report suggested over half of Great Southern 's MIS sales were coming through accountants , often tax specialists from small practices . These practices had been questioned for several years by the corporate regulator ASIC and some market analysts , and were widely criticised following Great Southern 's collapse . Some experts were critical of the lack of knowledge and expertise of the investment advisers recommending agroforestry MIS schemes .
= = = Taxation treatment of MIS schemes = = =
Crucial to the attractiveness to investors of all MIS schemes is their taxation treatment . The Australian government had for many years been encouraging agricultural and forestry investment schemes by allowing investors to claim up @-@ front tax deductions of the costs of investment . Investors paid Great Southern a fee to lease plantation woodlots . Great Southern managed the woodlot , and the investor could deduct the cost of the lease from the income they declared that year for tax assessment purposes . The tax deductible status of the investment was widely regarded as the main attraction of MIS schemes to investors .
The tax @-@ driven nature of investment in the sector made it vulnerable to policy changes and court rulings interpreting tax law . Tax law reforms in the late 1990s resulting from a major review of tax policy ( called the Ralph review ) altered the way in which deductions could be claimed . These changes , together with company profit warnings , caused a decline in Great Southern 's share price and its business prospects in 2000 and 2001 . Although Great Southern survived the reforms , another company , Australian Plantation Timber , was driven into administration . In June 2001 a Senate committee report was critical of Australian Taxation Office ( ATO ) advice on forestry investments , and the ATO released a statement reassuring forest product investors that they had investment certainty . MIS schemes recovered in 2002 , despite a further Senate Committee report critical of mass @-@ marketed investment schemes , that recommended " that the government seek advice from both ASIC and the ACCC on the question of the adequacy of the current measures for monitoring the schemes market , with particular reference to agribusiness and franchise schemes " .
Throughout the mid @-@ 2000s , MIS schemes , including those of Great Southern , attracted increasing investment , driven by tax advantages . Tax benefits for investors that had been due to expire in June 2006 were extended in the Howard government 's 2005 budget to June 2008 , and Great Southern was one of the beneficiaries of the decision . Nevertheless , although Great Southern 's business had continued to grow , the sector was unhappy about taxation uncertainty . The government moved to address this in 2007 , through the Tax Laws Amendment ( 2007 Measures No.3 ) Bill 2007 . Forest industry peak bodies , the National Association of Forest Industries , Tree Plantations Australia , Treefarm Investment Managers Australia and the Australian Plantation Products and Paper Industry Council jointly supported the legislation , saying it would end " ten years of instability and uncertainty about the future ongoing taxation arrangements for retail forestry projects " . Nevertheless , the bill attracted heated debate in the Parliament , and did not end taxation issues in the sector .
In 2007 , the ATO moved to end the up @-@ front tax deductions for non @-@ forestry MIS investments . This announcement was a disappointment to Great Southern , although only 30 per cent of its business at that stage was non @-@ forestry MIS that would be affected by the ATO ruling . The ATO 's ruling was overturned in 2008 , however it had created significant investor and lender uncertainty .
= = Great Southern and Australian politics = =
Because Great Southern was involved in a controversial industry , it figured in policy debates throughout its life as a publicly listed company . At the centre of Great Southern 's business was the development of new forest estates for commercial harvest . Australia 's state and federal governments had agreed in 1992 to a National Forest Policy Statement , which included the goal of expanding Australia 's plantation forests . On this foundation , in July 1996 , the federal forests minister and his state and territory counterparts met and " endorsed the plantation industry 's target of trebling the plantation estate from 1 @.@ 1 million hectares to 3 million hectares by the year 2020 " . In October 1997 governments , the Australian Plantation Products and Paper Industry Council , the Australian Forest Growers , and the National Association of Forest Industries , jointly released Plantations for Australia : The 2020 Vision , known as " Plantations 2020 " .
The federal minister for forests from 1998 to 2001 , Wilson Tuckey , was a strong advocate of Plantations 2020 . He also held the federal seat of O 'Connor in Western Australia , which included much of the Great Southern region and significant areas of plantation forests . Tuckey and the forest industry had a close relationship , to the extent that the industry paid for newspaper advertisements that reproduced a letter from Tuckey , following critical coverage of forestry MIS schemes in the media . Great Southern also reproduced Tuckey 's letter in their 2000 Annual Report .
During the 2004 election year , Great Southern gave A $ 20 @,@ 000 to each of the governing Liberal and National Parties , as well as to the Labor opposition . In the lead up to the 2007 federal election , Great Southern made A $ 40 @,@ 000 of donations to the Labor opposition , including A $ 10 @,@ 000 two days after the release of the party 's primary industries policy . After Labor won the election , Great Southern 's managing director John Young spoke positively of the change in government and of Labor 's willingness to review policy toward managed investment schemes .
= = Environmental and land use issues = =
In acquiring the Acacia mangium plantations of Sylvatech on the Tiwi Islands , Great Southern Group had taken on responsibility for an investment that , while supported by the local Tiwi Land Council , was opposed by environmental non @-@ government organisations ( NGOs ) and some individuals on the Tiwi Islands . The concerns expressed by NGOs related to loss of biodiversity and to greenhouse gas emissions .
Complaints were made that Great Southern Group 's 2005 acquisition , Sylvatech , was conducting clearing and plantation activities in breach of environmental conditions set by the Commonwealth Department of the Environment , Water , Heritage and the Arts . These complaints led to a departmental investigation and an agreement between the company and the government that recognised there had been inadvertent breaches of environmental conditions by the company , where forestry operations had intruded into zones designed to protect sensitive rainforests and wetland areas . The company was required to " fix all incursions into the rainforest and wetland buffers " , post a $ 1 million bond to ensure the works were completed , and provide $ 1 @.@ 35 million over three years toward the Tiwi Land Council 's Indigenous Rangers Program , a group of Indigenous land management staff funded by the Tiwi Land Council and Great Southern to conduct environmental works , including weed management and monitoring threatened species .
There had been criticism of MIS companies generally , and Great Southern Group ( as the largest company in the sector ) in particular , suggesting that their appetite for land for plantations and agribusiness was driving up land prices in some regions , and distorting some commodity markets . In 2004 , Great Southern 's leading competitor Timbercorp reported a rise in plantation land prices from around A $ 3 @,@ 000 to around A $ 6 @,@ 000 per hectare in just five years . The high demand for forestry MIS schemes led to plantations being expanded on to less suitable land , with timber growth and yield then falling below projections that were based on better quality plantations . Some farmers claimed that MIS were driving up prices in agricultural water markets . Opinion was also divided about whether the expansion of MIS properties in a region was causing shrinkage of towns or was , conversely , stimulating employment .
= = Analysing the Group 's failure = =
Analysis of the MIS failures of Great Southern Group and Timbercorp focused on several factors . First , critics argued that some MIS investments resembled Ponzi schemes , where securing financial returns for existing investors relied on attracting new investors rather than on successful economic activity . Second , Great Southern Group 's rapid expansion had been underpinned by high levels of debt , and in difficult economic circumstances in which new investment was diminishing and new borrowings were hard to obtain , that debt could not successfully be serviced . Third , some experts and Great Southern Group itself expressed concern that investor uncertainty caused by ATO rulings , and fueled by reporting of taxation policy issues , had scared investors away from their MIS . This was a view that the Australian Taxation Office rejected , arguing that the administrators of both Timbercorp and Great Southern had not identified taxation uncertainty as an issue . Finally , a range of commentators considered that the MIS tax concessions were encouraging unsustainable business models , with companies focusing on selling the tax benefits of investments rather than focussing on profitable commodity production . This , it was argued , led them to underestimate business risks , overinflate land prices , and sell products at lower @-@ than @-@ optimal prices . The failure of MIS schemes for these reasons was predicted in 2008 by Ajani , who argued that " we know that investment driven by the demand for tax minimisation , and not market realities , is associated with collapse " .
The Australian Financial Review ( AFR ) had for years carried stories critical of managed investment schemes . An AFR story had prompted the letter , supporting the forest industries , from federal government minister Wilson Tuckey in 2000 . When Great Southern collapsed , Tuckey was asked for comment by the Sydney Morning Herald . He said " Everyone thought [ a plantation strategy ] was a good idea at the time " . He argued investors would probably not lose their money , but " shareholders and lenders could be in a bit of trouble " . With both Great Southern Group and Timbercorp under administration , the AFR continued its editorial attack on government MIS policy . An AFR journalist wrote , " as a general rule , MIS industries are inherently doomed to fail both from an investment and a social good perspective ... Taxpayers should ... not be surprised that they continue to fall over " .
= = Great Southern Class Action = =
In May , 2011 more than 2 @,@ 000 of the estimated 8 @,@ 000 investors who lost money in the collapse of GSL took legal action seeking damages from Great Southern . They said the company did not disclose the risks associated with managed investment schemes and the company 's poor financial performance . The action also sort to question Bendigo and Adelaide Bank , Javelin Asset Management and Great Southern Finance as to why they issued loans to investors in Great Southern .
The trial of the Great Southern Group proceedings began in late October 2012 and concluded in late October 2013 before his Honour Justice Croft . The plaintiffs ' principal claim was that the responsible entity , Great Southern Managers Australia Limited , issued product disclosure statements which were ' defective ' under Part 7 @.@ 9 of the Corporations Act 2001 ( Cth ) . No allegations of wrongdoing were made against the BEN Parties or Javelin . However , the plaintiffs sought consequential declarations that the loans were void and unenforceable .
In July 2014 , shortly before judgment was due to be handed down , the parties settled the Great Southern Group proceedings . A term of the settlement for those group members with loans with the BEN Parties or Javelin was an acknowledgment and admission that their loans were valid and enforceable .
The $ 23 million settlement , flagged in July , resolves a class action by 2000 investors led by Macpherson and Kelley Lawyers and targeting Bendigo and Adelaide Bank 's involvement in Great Southern 's schemes .
The class action had sought to void more than $ 300 million of loans taken out with Bendigo and Javelin Asset Management to fund the schemes on the basis that investors were misled by Great Southern , which collapsed five years ago .
The deed of settlement , however , confirms the loans are valid and enforceable , while waiving accrued penalty interest on overdue borrowings .
About $ 20 million of the $ 23 million will be paid to Macpherson and Kelley Lawyers to cover its costs , with just $ 3 million to be distributed among tens of thousands of investors who sunk nearly $ 2 billion into Great Southern .
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= Ian Smith =
Ian Douglas Smith , GCLM , ID ( 8 April 1919 – 20 November 2007 ) was a politician , farmer and fighter pilot who served as Prime Minister of Rhodesia ( or Southern Rhodesia ) from 1964 to 1979 . His country 's first native @-@ born premier , he led the predominantly white government that unilaterally declared independence from the United Kingdom in 1965 , following prolonged dispute over the terms . He remained Prime Minister for almost all of the 14 years of international isolation that followed , and oversaw Rhodesia 's security forces during most of the Bush War , which pitted the unrecognised administration against communist @-@ backed black nationalist guerrilla groups . Smith , who has been described as personifying white Rhodesia , remains a highly controversial figure — supporters venerate him as a man of integrity and vision " who understood the uncomfortable truths of Africa " , while critics describe an unrepentant racist whose policies and actions caused the deaths of thousands and contributed to Zimbabwe 's later crises .
Smith was born to British immigrants in Selukwe , a small town in the Southern Rhodesian Midlands , four years before the colony became self @-@ governing in 1923 . Serving as a Royal Air Force fighter pilot in the Middle East and Europe during the Second World War , he spent months behind German lines in Italy and suffered debilitating facial and bodily wounds that remained conspicuous for the rest of his life . He set up a farm in his home town in 1948 and , the same year , became Member of Parliament for Selukwe — at 29 years old , the country 's youngest ever MP . Originally a Liberal , he moved to the United Federal Party in 1953 , and served as Chief Whip from 1958 . He left in 1961 in protest at the territory 's new constitution , and the following year helped Winston Field to form the all @-@ white , firmly conservative Rhodesian Front ( RF ) , which called for independence without an immediate shift to black majority rule .
Smith became Deputy Prime Minister following the RF 's December 1962 election victory , and stepped up to the premiership after Field resigned in April 1964 . With the UK government refusing to grant independence while Rhodesia did not devise a set timetable for the introduction of majority rule , talks with the British Prime Minister Harold Wilson repeatedly broke down , leading Smith and his Cabinet to declare independence on 11 November 1965 . His government endured in the face of United Nations economic sanctions with the assistance of South Africa and , until 1974 , Portugal . Talks with Britain in 1966 , 1968 and 1971 came to nothing . Smith declared Rhodesia a republic in 1970 and led the RF to three more decisive election victories over the next seven years . After the Bush War began in earnest in 1972 , he negotiated with the non @-@ militant nationalist leader Bishop Abel Muzorewa and the rival guerrilla movements headed by Joshua Nkomo and Robert Mugabe .
In 1978 , Smith and non @-@ militant nationalists including Muzorewa signed the Internal Settlement , under which the country became Zimbabwe Rhodesia in 1979 . Mugabe and Nkomo continued fighting ; no country recognised the settlement . Smith was part of Muzorewa 's delegation that settled with Britain and the revolutionary guerrillas at Lancaster House , and following Zimbabwe 's recognised independence in 1980 , he was Leader of the Opposition during Mugabe 's first seven years in power . Smith was a stridently vocal critic of the Mugabe government both before and after his retirement from front @-@ line politics in 1987 ; he dedicated much of his 1997 memoirs , The Great Betrayal , to condemning Mugabe and UK politicians . As Mugabe 's reputation thereafter plummeted amid Zimbabwe 's economic ruin , reckoning of Smith and his legacy improved . Zimbabwean opposition supporters lauded the elderly Smith as an immovable symbol of resistance . He remained in Zimbabwe until 2005 , when he moved to Cape Town , South Africa for medical reasons . After his death two years later at the age of 88 , his ashes were repatriated and scattered at his farm .
= = Early life = =
= = = Family , childhood and adolescence = = =
Ian Douglas Smith was born on 8 April 1919 in Selukwe , a small mining and farming town about 310 km ( 190 mi ) southwest of the Southern Rhodesian capital Salisbury . He had two elder sisters , Phyllis and Joan . His father , John Douglas " Jock " Smith , was originally from Hamilton , Scotland ; the son of a cattle breeder and butcher , he had emigrated to Rhodesia as an 18 @-@ year @-@ old in 1898 , and become a prominent rancher , butcher , miner and garage owner in Selukwe . Jock and his English wife Agnes ( née Hodgson ) had met in 1907 , when she was 16 , a year after her family 's emigration to Selukwe from Frizington , Cumberland . After Mr Hodgson sent his wife and children back to England in 1908 , Jock Smith astonished them in 1911 by arriving unannounced in Cumberland to ask for Agnes 's hand ; they had not seen each other for three years . They married in Frizington , then returned together to Rhodesia , where Jock , an accomplished horseman , won the 1911 Coronation Derby at Salisbury .
The Smiths involved themselves heavily in local life . Jock chaired the village management board and commanded the Selukwe Company of the Southern Rhodesia Volunteers ; he was also a founder member of the Selukwe Freemasons ' Lodge and president of the town football and rugby clubs . Agnes , who became informally known as " Mrs Jock " , established and ran the Selukwe Women 's Institute . Both won the MBE ( at different times ) for their services to the community . " My parents strove to instil principles and moral virtues , the sense of right and wrong , of integrity , in their children , " Smith wrote in his memoirs . " They set wonderful examples to live up to . " He considered his father " a man of extremely strong principles " — " one of the fairest men I have ever met and that is the way he brought me up . He always told me that we 're entitled to our half of the country and the blacks are entitled to theirs . " Raised on the frontier of the British Empire in the UK 's youngest settler colony , Smith and his generation of white Rhodesians grew up with a reputation for being " more British than the British " , something in which they took great pride .
Ian Smith showed sporting promise from an early age . After attending the Selukwe primary school , he boarded at Chaplin School in Gwelo , about 30 km ( 19 mi ) away . In his final year at Chaplin , he was head prefect , captain of the school teams in cricket , rugby and tennis , recipient of the Victor Ludorum in athletics , and the school 's outstanding rifle marksman . " I was an absolute lunatic about sport , " he later said ; " I concede , looking back , that I should have devoted much more time to my school work and less to sport . " All the same , his grades were good enough to win a place at Rhodes University College , in Grahamstown , South Africa , which was often attended by Rhodesian students , partly because Rhodesia then had no university of its own , and partly because of the common eponymous association with Cecil Rhodes . Smith enrolled at the start of 1938 , reading for a Bachelor of Commerce degree . After injuring his knee playing rugby , he took up rowing and became stroke for the university crew .
= = = Second World War ; Royal Air Force pilot = = =
When the Second World War broke out in September 1939 , Southern Rhodesia had been self @-@ governing for 16 years , having gained responsible government from Britain in 1923 . It was unique in the British Empire and Commonwealth in that it held extensive autonomous powers ( including defence , but not foreign affairs ) while lacking dominion status . Coming under the British flag diplomatically , it entered the conflict automatically when the UK declared war , but issued a symbolic declaration of war anyway . Smith , who was about halfway through his university course , later described feeling patriotically compelled to put his studies aside to " fight for Britain and all that it represented " . Excited by the idea of flying a Spitfire , he wanted to join the air force , but was prevented from immediately doing so by a policy adopted in Rhodesia not to recruit university students until after they graduated . Smith engineered his recruitment into the Royal Air Force ( RAF ) in spite of this rule during 1940 , suppressing mention of his studies , and formally joined in September 1941 .
After a year 's training at Gwelo under the Empire Air Training Scheme , Smith passed out with the rank of pilot officer in September 1942 . He hoped to be stationed in Britain , but was posted to the Middle East instead ; there he joined No. 237 ( Rhodesia ) Squadron RAF , flying Hurricanes . In October 1943 , in Egypt , Smith crashed his Hurricane after his throttle malfunctioned during a dawn takeoff . Suffering serious facial disfigurements , he also broke his jaw , leg and shoulder . Doctors and surgeons in Cairo rebuilt Smith 's face through skin grafts and plastic surgery , and he was passed fit to fly again in March 1944 . Turning down an offer to return to Rhodesia as an instructor , he rejoined No. 237 Squadron , which had switched to flying Spitfire Mk IXs , in Corsica in May 1944 .
During a strafing raid over northern Italy on 22 June 1944 , Smith was hit by enemy flak and forced to bail out behind German lines . He was briefly hidden by a peasant family named Zunino , then recruited into a group of pro @-@ Allied Italian partisans with whom he took part in sabotage operations against the German garrison for about three months . When the Germans pulled out of the area in October 1944 , Smith left to try to link up with the Allied forces who had just invaded southern France . Accompanied by three other servicemen , each from a different European country , and a local guide , Smith hiked across the Maritime Alps , finishing the journey walking barefoot on the ice and snow . He was recovered by American troops in November 1944 . Smith again turned down the offer of a billet in Rhodesia , and returned to active service in April 1945 with No. 130 ( Punjab ) Squadron , by then based in western Germany . He flew combat missions there , " [ having ] a little bit of fun shooting up odd things " , he recalled , until the war in Europe ended on 7 May 1945 with Germany 's surrender . Smith remained with No. 130 Squadron for the rest of his service , flying with the unit to Denmark and Norway , and was discharged at the end of 1945 with the rank of flight lieutenant . He retained reasonable proficiency in Italian for the rest of his life , albeit reportedly with an " atrocious " accent .
= = = Graduation , marriage and entrance to politics = = =
With Jock in increasingly poor health after the war , the Smith family briefly considered sending Ian to start a life in the United States with the help of Jock 's brother Elijah , who had become a prosperous New York businessman . Smith showed little interest in leaving Rhodesia , however , and decided that he would finish at university , then come home and buy his own farm . He returned to Rhodes in early 1946 to find the campus swamped with veterans like himself — there were 400 of them out of barely 1 @,@ 000 students . Smith became spokesman for the university 's ex @-@ servicemen , senior student of his hall and chairman of the students ' representative council . He turned down the presidency of the rowing club , saying it would be one administrative commitment too many , but agreed to coach the crew . Training the rowers under strict military @-@ style discipline , he led them to victory in the 1946 South African Inter @-@ Varsity Boat Race at the Vaal Dam south of Johannesburg , upstaging the well @-@ fancied Wits crew , and subsequently received national @-@ standard varsity honours for rowing , the first Rhodes student ever to do so . At the end of the year , having passed the exams to gain his commerce degree ( " by some miracle " , he recalled ) , he returned to Southern Rhodesia to study farming at Gwebi Agricultural College , near Salisbury .
Smith attended dedicated courses for ex @-@ servicemen at Gwebi during 1947 and 1948 , learning skills such as ploughing , herding and milking ; he gained practical experience at Taylor 's dairy farm near Selukwe and on a tobacco ranch at Marandellas . In 1947 he met Janet Duvenage ( née Watt ) , a schoolteacher from the Cape in South Africa who had come to Selukwe to stay with family after the death of her husband Pieter on the rugby field . What Janet had planned as a short holiday for herself and her two infant children , Jean and Robert , turned into a permanent move when she accepted a job offer from the Selukwe junior school . Smith later wrote that the qualities that had attracted him most to Janet were her intelligence , courage and " oppos [ ition ] on principle to side @-@ stepping or evading an issue ... her tendency was to opt for a decision requiring courage , as opposed to taking the easy way out " . They were engaged in 1948 . Meanwhile , Smith negotiated the purchase of a piece of rough land near Selukwe , bounded by the Lundi and Impali Rivers and bisected by a clear stream . He and Janet gave the previously nameless 3 @,@ 600 @-@ acre ( 15 km2 ) plot the name that the local Karanga people used to refer to the stream , " Gwenoro " , and set up a ranch where they ran cattle and grew tobacco and maize .
A general election was called in Southern Rhodesia in July 1948 after the United Party government , headed by the Prime Minister Sir Godfrey Huggins , unexpectedly lost a vote in the Legislative Assembly . In August , about a month before election day , Smith was approached by members of the opposition Liberal Party and asked to stand for them in Selukwe . Jacob Smit 's Liberals , despite their name , were decidedly illiberal , chiefly representing commercial farming , mining and industrial interests . Smith was initially reluctant , saying he was too busy organising his life to stand , but agreed after one of the Liberal officials suggested that a political career might allow him to defend the values he had fought for in the Second World War . With their wedding barely a fortnight away , Janet was astonished to learn of Smith 's decision to run for parliament , having never before heard him discuss politics . " I can 't say that I am really interested in party politics , " Smith explained to her , " but I 've always been most interested in sound government . " Smith duly became a Liberal Party politician , finalised his purchase of Gwenoro , and married Janet , adopting her two children as his own , all in a few weeks in August 1948 . They enjoyed a few days ' honeymoon at Victoria Falls , then went straight into the election campaign .
The Southern Rhodesian electoral system allowed only those who met certain financial and educational qualifications to vote . The criteria were applied equally to all regardless of race , but since most black citizens did not meet the set standards , the electoral roll and the colonial parliament were overwhelmingly white . Smith canvassed around the geographically very large Selukwe constituency and quickly won considerable popularity . Many white families were receptive to him because of their respect for his father , or because they had had children at school with him . His RAF service also helped , particularly as the local United Party candidate , Petrus Cilliers , had been interned during the hostilities for opposing the war effort . On 15 September 1948 , Smith defeated Cilliers and the Labour candidate Egon Klifborg with 361 votes out of 747 , and thereby became Member of Parliament for Selukwe . At 29 years old , he was the youngest MP in Southern Rhodesian history . The Liberals , however , were roundly defeated , going from 12 seats before the election to only five afterwards . Smit , who had lost his seat in Salisbury City , retired and was replaced as Leader of the Opposition by Raymond Stockil , who renamed the Liberals the Rhodesia Party . Having grown up in an area of Cape Town so pro @-@ Smuts that she had never had to vote , Janet did not think her husband 's entry to parliament would alter their lives at all . " First of all I was marrying a farmer , " she later said , " now he was going to be a politician as well . So I said , ' Well , if you are really interested in it , carry on . ' ... It never dawned on me — being so naive about politicians — that our lives would be affected in the slightest degree . "
= = Parliament = =
= = = Backbencher = = =
Because of Southern Rhodesia 's small size and lack of major controversies , its unicameral parliament then sat only twice a year , for about three months in total , holding discussions in the afternoons either side of a half @-@ hour break for tea on the lawn . Smith 's early parliamentary commitments in Salisbury therefore did not detract greatly from his ranching . His maiden speech to the Legislative Assembly , in November 1948 , concerned the Union of South Africa Trade Agreement Bill , then at its second reading . He was slow to make an impact in parliament — most of his early contributions related to farming and mining — but his exertions within the party won him Stockil 's respect and confidence . Janet ran Gwenoro during Smith 's absences , and gave birth to his only biological child , Alec , in Gwelo on 20 May 1949 .
The pursuit of full dominion status was then regarded as something of a non @-@ issue by most Southern Rhodesian politicians . They viewed themselves as virtually independent already ; they lacked only the foreign affairs portfolio and taking this on would mean having to shoulder the expense for high commissions and embassies overseas . Huggins and the United Party instead pursued an initially semi @-@ independent Federation with Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland , two protectorates directly administered from London , with the hope of ultimately creating a single , united dominion in south @-@ central Africa .
Smith was one of the few to raise the independence issue at this time , according to his memoirs because his " instinct and training told me to be prepared for every contingency " . During the Federation debate in the House of Assembly , he posited that since Southern Rhodesia was effectively choosing Federation over independence , a clause should be inserted into the bill guaranteeing Southern Rhodesia dominion status in the event of a Federal break @-@ up . The United Party rejected this on the grounds that the Federation had to be declared indissoluble so it could raise loans . Smith was uncertain about the Federal project , but publicly supported it after the mostly white electorate approved it in a referendum in April 1953 . He told the Rhodesia Herald that now it had been decided to pursue Federation , it was in Southern Rhodesia 's best interests for everybody to try to make it succeed . He and other Rhodesia Party politicians joined the new Federal Party , headed by Huggins and Northern Rhodesia 's Sir Roy Welensky , on 29 April 1953 .
= = = Federation ; Chief Whip = = =
The Federation was overtly led by Southern Rhodesia , the most developed of the three territories — Salisbury was its capital and Huggins its first Prime Minister . Garfield Todd replaced Huggins as Prime Minister of Southern Rhodesia . Resigning his Selukwe seat , Smith contested and won the Federal Assembly 's Midlands constituency in the inaugural Federal election on 15 December 1953 , and thereafter continued as a backbench member of little distinction . In the recollection of Welensky , who took over as Federal Prime Minister on Huggins 's retirement in 1956 , Smith " didn 't spend much time in Salisbury " during the early Federal period , and had " three major interests ... one was daylight saving , one was European education and he always showed an interest in farming " .
Smith received his first political office in November 1958 , following that month 's Federal election ( in which he was returned as MP for Gwanda ) , after one of Welensky 's Federal Cabinet ministers requested Smith 's appointment as a Parliamentary Secretary in the new United Federal Party ( UFP ) government . Welensky turned this down , saying that while he appreciated Smith 's relative seniority on the back benches after 10 years in parliament , he did not think he had " shown the particular drive that I would have expected " for such a role . He decided to instead give Smith " a run as Chief Whip , which is generally the step to a ministerial appointment , and ... see how he works out " .
According to his biographer Phillippa Berlyn , Smith remained a somewhat pedestrian figure as Chief Whip , though he was acknowledged by his peers as someone who " did his homework well " whenever he contributed . Clifford Dupont , then Smith 's counterpart as Chief Whip of the Dominion Party , later commented that the UFP 's huge majority in the Federal Assembly gave Smith little opportunity to distinguish himself as few votes were ever in serious doubt .
= = = Leaving the UFP = = =
Amid decolonisation and the Wind of Change , the idea of " no independence before majority rule " ( " NIBMAR " ) gained considerable ground in British political circles during the late 1950s and early 1960s . The Federation , which had faced black opposition from the start , particularly in Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland , grew ever more tenuous . Despite Todd 's lowering of Southern Rhodesia 's educational and financial voting qualifications in 1957 to enlarge the black electorate , very few of the newly enfranchised blacks registered to vote , partly because the black nationalist movement targeted those who did with arson attacks and petrol bombings . Attempting to advance the case for Southern Rhodesian independence , particularly in the event of Federal dissolution , Sir Edgar Whitehead , who replaced Todd in 1958 , agreed a new constitution with Britain in 1961 . The 1961 constitution contained no explicit independence guarantees , but Whitehead , Welensky and other proponents nevertheless presented it to the Southern Rhodesian electorate as the " independence constitution " under which Southern Rhodesia would become a Commonwealth realm on a par with Australia , Canada and New Zealand if the Federation broke up .
Smith was one of the loudest voices of white dissent against the new constitution . He opposed its splitting of the heretofore non @-@ racial , qualified electorate into graduated " A " and " B " rolls , saying the proposed system had " racialist " connotations , and objected to the idea that the first black MPs would be elected on what he said would be a " debased franchise " . " Our policy in the past has always been that we would have a government , in Rhodesia , based on merit and that people wouldn 't worry whether you were black or whether you were white , " he said . He also pointed out that the document did not actually guarantee Southern Rhodesian independence in the event of Federal dissolution . At the UFP vote on the constitution on 22 February 1961 , Smith was the only member out of 280 to vote against it . Deeply disillusioned by these developments , he resigned from the UFP soon after to sit in the Federal Assembly as an independent . He lent his support to the " United Group " , an awkward coalition wherein Winston Field 's conservative Dominion Party closed ranks with Sir Robert Tredgold and other liberals against the constitutional proposals , despite opposing them for totally contradictory reasons . The black nationalist leaders initially endorsed the constitution , signing the draft document , but almost immediately repudiated it and called for blacks to boycott elections held under it . A referendum of the mostly white electorate approved the new constitution by a majority of 65 % on 26 July 1961 .
= = = Forming the Rhodesian Front = = =
As the UK government granted majority rule in Nyasaland and made moves towards the same in Northern Rhodesia , Smith decided that the Federation was a lost cause and resolved to found a new party that would push for Southern Rhodesian independence without an immediate transfer of power . With the support of the millionaire rancher , miner and industrialist D C " Boss " Lilford , he formed the Rhodesian Reform Party ( RRP ) , based around defectors from the UFP , in December 1961 . Meanwhile , Whitehead attempted to counter the black nationalists and persuade newly eligible blacks to register as voters . He banned the main nationalist group , the National Democratic Party , for being violent and intimidatory — it reformed overnight as the Zimbabwe African People 's Union ( ZAPU ) — and announced that the UFP would repeal the Land Apportionment Act , which segregated the ownership and occupation of certain areas on a racial basis , if it won the next Southern Rhodesian election . Commitments such as these won the UFP few black votes and prompted many scandalised whites to defect to the RRP or Field 's Dominion Party .
Smith , Field and others met in Salisbury on 13 March 1962 and agreed to unite against Whitehead as the Rhodesian Front ( RF ) . The Front ranged from former UFP men , including Smith , who advocated gradual transition and a government based on merit and electoral qualifications , to the Dominion Party 's more right @-@ wing members , some of whom held segregationist views not dissimilar to those of South Africa 's National Party . Amid these differences , the nascent RF coalition was shaky at best . Its members were brought together by their common opposition to Whitehead 's promises of fast @-@ track reform , which they agreed would lead to a Congo @-@ style national crisis , the flight of the white community and ultimately the country 's destruction . In the wider Cold War context , the ardently anti @-@ communist RF aspired to represent a pro @-@ Western bulwark in Africa , alongside South Africa and Portugal , in the face of what they saw as Soviet and Chinese expansionism . Smith asserted that the RF worked to thwart " this mad idea of a hand @-@ over , of a sell @-@ out of the European and his civilisation , indeed of everything he had put into his country " . " The white man is the master of Rhodesia , " he said ; " [ he ] has built it and intends to keep it " .
The RF ignored the April 1962 Federal elections , deeming them irrelevant , and instead concentrated on the Southern Rhodesian elections that were due at the end of the year . Whitehead attempted to curb the continuing black nationalist violence through new legislation and in September 1962 banned ZAPU , arresting 1 @,@ 094 of its members and describing it as a " terrorist organisation " , but he was still seen by much of the electorate as too liberal . He set a general election for 14 December 1962 . A number of corporations that had previously funded UFP campaigning this time backed the RF . The RF campaign exploited the chaos in the Congo and the uncertainty regarding Southern Rhodesia 's future to create a theme of urgency — it pledged to keep power " in responsible hands " , to defend the Land Apportionment Act , to oppose compulsory integration , and to win Southern Rhodesian independence .
The electoral race was close @-@ run until the night before election day , when Whitehead made what proved a fatal political gaffe by telling a public meeting at Marandellas that he would appoint a black Cabinet minister immediately if he won the election , and might soon have as many as six . This statement appeared on the radio news just before the polling booths opened the next morning , and stunned white voters . Many abandoned Whitehead at the last minute . The results , announced on 15 December 1962 , put the RF into government with 35 " A " -roll seats to the UFP 's 15 " A " -roll and 14 " B " -roll seats . Few had expected this ; even the RF was somewhat taken aback by its victory , though Smith later described feeling " quietly confident " on election day . Contesting the Umzingwane constituency in the rural south @-@ west , he bested the UFP 's Reginald Segar by 803 votes to 546 .
= = = Deputy Prime Minister under Field = = =
Announcing his Cabinet on 17 December 1962 , Field named Smith his Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of the Treasury . Two days later , R A Butler , the British Deputy Prime Minister and First Secretary of State , announced that the UK government would allow Nyasaland to leave the Federation . With Northern Rhodesia now also under a secessionist black nationalist government — Kenneth Kaunda and Harry Nkumbula had formed a coalition to keep the UFP out — and Southern Rhodesia under the RF , the Federation was effectively over . The Field Cabinet made Southern Rhodesian independence on Federal dissolution its first priority , but the Conservative government in the UK was reluctant to grant this under the 1961 constitution as it knew doing so would lead to censure and loss of prestige in the United Nations ( UN ) and the Commonwealth . Indeed , Southern Rhodesia 's minority government had already become something of an embarrassment to the UK and it hurt Britain 's reputation to even maintain the status quo there . Granting independence without major constitutional reform would furthermore provoke outcry from the Conservatives ' main parliamentary opposition , the Labour Party , which was strongly anti @-@ colonial and supportive of black nationalist ambitions .
Butler announced on 6 March 1963 that he was going to convene a conference to decide the Federation 's future . It would be impossible ( or at least very difficult ) for Britain to dissolve the union without Southern Rhodesia 's co @-@ operation as the latter , being self @-@ governing , had been co @-@ signatory to the Federal agreement in 1953 . According to Smith , Field , Dupont and other RF politicians , Butler made several oral independence guarantees to ensure Southern Rhodesia 's attendance and support at the conference , but repeatedly refused to give anything on paper . Field and Smith claimed that Butler justified this to them the day before the conference began by saying that binding Whitehall to a document rather than his word would be against the Commonwealth 's " spirit of trust " — an argument that Field eventually accepted . " Let 's remember the trust you emphasised , " Smith warned , according to Field 's account wagging his finger at Butler ; " if you break that you will live to regret it . " No minutes were made of this meeting . Butler denied afterwards that he had ever made such a promise . Southern Rhodesia attended the conference , held at the Victoria Falls Hotel over a week starting from 28 June 1963 , and among other things it was agreed to formally liquidate the Federation at the end of 1963 .
The Federation dissolved on 31 December 1963 with Nyasaland and Northern Rhodesia both on track for full statehood by the end of 1964 , while Southern Rhodesia continued to drift in uncertainty . Under huge pressure from the RF to rectify this matter and win independence , Field 's perceived vacillation and timidness in his dealings with the UK government caused sections of his party to lose confidence in him during early 1964 . On 2 April 1964 , with Smith in the chair , the RF caucus passed a near @-@ unanimous vote of no confidence in Field , leading to the Prime Minister 's resignation 11 days later . Smith accepted the Cabinet 's nomination to take his place . He was the first Southern Rhodesian Prime Minister to have been born in the country , something that he thought profoundly altered the character of the dispute with Britain . " For the first time in its history the country now had a Rhodesian @-@ born PM , someone whose roots were not in Britain , but in southern Africa , " he later reflected — " in other words , a white African . "
= = Prime Minister = =
= = = First days ; banning of PCC / ZAPU and ZANU = = =
Most of the Southern Rhodesian press predicted that Smith would not last long ; one column called him " a momentary man " , thrust into the spotlight by the RF 's dearth of proven leaders . His only real rival to replace Field had been William Harper , an ardent segregationist who had headed the Dominion Party 's Southern Rhodesian branch during the Federal years . Some reporters predicted Welensky 's imminent introduction to Southern Rhodesian politics at the head of an RF – UFP coalition government , but Welensky showed little interest in this idea , saying he would be unable to manoeuvre in an RF @-@ dominated House . The RF 's replacement of Field with Smith drew criticism from the British Labour leader Harold Wilson , who called it " brutal " , while J B Johnston , the British High Commissioner in Salisbury , indicated his disapproval by refusing to meet Smith for two weeks after he took office . The ZAPU leader Joshua Nkomo branded the new Smith Cabinet " a suicide squad ... interested not in the welfare of all the people but only in their own " , and predicted that the RF would " eventually destroy themselves " . Asserting that a lasting " place for the white man " in Southern Rhodesia would benefit all of the country 's people , the new Prime Minister said the government should be based " on merit , not on colour or nationalism " , and insisted that there would be " no African nationalist government here in my lifetime " .
Smith announced his Cabinet on his first day in office , 14 April 1964 . He increased the number of ministers from 10 to 11 , redistributed portfolios , and made three new appointments . Smith 's fellow former UFP men made up most of the new RF Cabinet , with Harper and the Minister of Agriculture , the Duke of Montrose ( also called Lord Graham ) , heading a minority of hardline Dominion Party veterans . Ken Flower , whom Field had appointed Director of the Central Intelligence Organisation ( CIO ) on its creation the previous year , was surprised to be retained by Smith . Smith announced his policies to the nation through full @-@ page advertisements in the newspapers : " No forced integration . No lowering of standards . No abdication of responsible government . No repeal of the Land Apportionment Act . No appeasement to suit the Afro @-@ Asian bloc . " " An honest Rhodesian , " a 1964 political poster declared — " Trust Mr Smith . He will never hand over Rhodesia . "
One of the Smith government 's first actions was to crack down hard on the black nationalist political violence that had erupted following the establishment of a second black nationalist organisation , the Zimbabwe African National Union ( ZANU ) , by disgruntled ZAPU members in Tanzania in August 1963 . The rival movements were split tribally , ZAPU being mostly Ndebele and ZANU predominantly Shona , and politically — ZAPU , which had relabelled itself the People 's Caretaker Council ( PCC ) within Southern Rhodesia to circumvent its ban , was Marxist – Leninist and backed by the Warsaw Pact and its allies , while ZANU had aligned itself with Maoism and the bloc headed by communist China . Their respective supporters in the black townships clashed constantly , also targeting non @-@ aligned blacks whom they hoped to recruit , and sporadically attacked whites , businesses and police stations .
Amid PCC / ZAPU 's calls for various strikes and protests , including an appeal for black children to boycott state schools , Smith 's Justice Minister Clifford Dupont had Nkomo and other PCC / ZAPU leaders restricted at Gonakudzingwa in the remote south @-@ east two days after Smith took office . The politically motivated killing of a white man , Petrus Oberholzer , near Melsetter by ZANU insurgents on 4 July 1964 marked the start of intensified black nationalist violence and police counteraction that culminated in the banning of ZANU and PCC / ZAPU on 26 August , with most of the two movements ' respective leaders concurrently jailed or restricted . ZANU , ZAPU and their respective guerrilla armies — the Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army ( ZANLA ) and the Zimbabwe People 's Revolutionary Army ( ZIPRA ) — thereafter operated from abroad .
= = = Unilateral Declaration of Independence ( UDI ) = = =
Smith , who had been to the UK only four times before 1964 and never more than briefly , was soon labelled a " raw colonial " by Whitehall . He was almost immediately at loggerheads with the UK government , which he claimed had forsaken British ideals , and the Commonwealth , which he said had abandoned its own founding principles amid the Wind of Change . He accused both of isolating Southern Rhodesia because it still respected these values . When he learned in June that Salisbury would not be represented at the Commonwealth Prime Ministers ' Conference for the first time since 1932 , he was deeply insulted and alleged British betrayal , double standards and appeasement . Three months later , Smith accepted the British condition that the independence terms had to be acceptable to majority opinion , but impasse immediately developed regarding the mechanism by which black views would be gauged . Labour 's narrow victory in the October 1964 UK general election meant that Smith would be negotiating not with Sir Alec Douglas @-@ Home but with Harold Wilson , who was far less accommodating towards the RF stand . Smith declared acceptability to majority opinion to have been demonstrated after a largely white referendum and an indaba of tribal chiefs and headmen both decisively backed independence under the 1961 constitution in October and November 1964 , but black nationalists and the UK government dismissed the indaba as insufficiently representative of the black community .
Following Northern Rhodesia 's independence as Zambia in October 1964 — Nyasaland had been independent Malawi since July — Southern Rhodesia began referring to itself simply as Rhodesia , but Whitehall rejected this change . Perceiving Smith to be on the verge of a unilateral declaration of independence ( UDI ) , Wilson issued a statement in October 1964 warning of dire economic and political consequences , and wrote to Smith demanding " a categorical assurance forthwith " that no UDI would be attempted . Smith ignored this , expressing confusion as to what he had done to provoke it . The UK and Rhodesian governments exchanged often confrontational correspondence over the next year or so , each accusing the other of being unreasonable and intransigent . Little progress was made when two Prime Ministers met in person in January 1965 , when Smith travelled to London for Sir Winston Churchill 's funeral . The RF called a fresh election for May 1965 and , campaigning on an election promise of independence , won all 50 " A " -roll seats ( elected mostly by whites ) . Wilson 's ministers deliberately stonewalled Smith during mid @-@ 1965 , hoping to eventually break him down , but this only caused the Rhodesian hierarchy to feel yet more alienated . From June , a peripheral dispute concerned Rhodesia 's unilateral and ultimately successful attempt to open an independent mission in Lisbon ; Portugal 's acceptance of this in September 1965 prompted British outrage and Rhodesian delight .
Amid rumours that UDI was imminent , Smith arrived in London with the declared intent of settling the independence issue on 4 October 1965 , but flew home eight days later with the matter unresolved . When Wilson travelled to Salisbury on 26 October , Smith offered to enfranchise about half a million black Rhodesians immediately along the lines of " one taxpayer , one vote " in return for independence , but Wilson said this was unacceptable as most blacks would still be excluded . He proposed a Royal Commission to test public opinion in Rhodesia regarding independence under the 1961 constitution , and suggested that the UK might safeguard black representation in the Rhodesian parliament by withdrawing relevant devolved powers . This latter prospect horrified Smith 's team as it seemed to them to have ruled out the failsafe option of keeping the status quo . After Wilson returned to Britain on 30 October 1965 , he presented terms for the Royal Commission that the Rhodesians found unacceptable — among other things , Britain would not commit itself to accepting the results . Smith rejected these conditions on 5 November , saying they made the whole exercise pointless . After waiting a few days for new terms from Wilson , Smith made a consensus decision with his Cabinet to break ties unilaterally on 11 November 1965 , and signed the Unilateral Declaration of Independence at 11 : 00 local time .
= = = Fallout from UDI = = =
UDI , while received calmly by most Rhodesians , prompted political outrage in Britain and overseas . It astonished Wilson , who called on the people of Rhodesia to ignore the post @-@ UDI government , which he described as " hell @-@ bent on illegal self @-@ destroying " . Following orders from Whitehall , the colonial Governor Sir Humphrey Gibbs formally sacked Smith and his Cabinet , accusing them of treason . Smith and his ministers ignored this , considering Gibbs 's office obsolete under the 1965 constitution enacted as part of UDI . After Gibbs made clear that he would not resign , Smith 's government effectively replaced him with Dupont , who was appointed to the post of " Officer Administering the Government " ( created by the 1965 constitution ) . No attempt was made to remove Gibbs from his official residence at Government House , however ; he remained there , ignored by the Smith administration , until the declaration of a republic in 1970 .
The UN General Assembly and Security Council quickly joined Britain in condemning UDI as illegal and racist . Security Council Resolutions 216 and 217 , adopted in the days following Smith 's declaration , denounced UDI as an illegitimate " usurpation of power by a racist settler minority " , and called on nations not to entertain diplomatic or economic relations . No country recognised Rhodesia as independent . Black nationalists in Rhodesia and their overseas backers , prominently the Organisation of African Unity ( OAU ) , clamoured for the UK to remove Smith 's government with a military invasion , but Britain dismissed this option , citing logistical issues , the risk of provoking a pre @-@ emptive Rhodesian strike on Zambia , and the psychological issues likely to accompany any confrontation between British and Rhodesian troops . Wilson instead resolved to end UDI through economic sanctions , banning the supply of oil to Rhodesia and the import of most Rhodesian goods to Britain . When Smith continued to receive oil through South Africa and Portuguese Mozambique , Wilson posted a Royal Navy squadron to the Mozambique Channel in March 1966 . This blockade , the Beira Patrol , was endorsed by UN Security Council Resolution 221 the following month .
Wilson predicted in January 1966 that the various boycotts would force Smith to give in " within a matter of weeks rather than months " , but the British ( and later UN ) sanctions had little effect on Rhodesia , largely because South Africa and Portugal went on trading with it , providing it with oil and other key resources . Clandestine trade with other nations also continued , initially at a reduced level , and the diminished presence of foreign competitors helped domestic industries to slowly mature and expand . Even many OAU states , while bombarding Rhodesia with opprobrium , continued importing Rhodesian food and other products . Rhodesia thus avoided the economic cataclysm predicted by Wilson and gradually became more self @-@ sufficient . " Rhodesia can not only take it , but she can also make it , " Smith said on 29 April 1966 , while opening the annual Central African Trade Fair in Bulawayo . " When I say take it , I use it in two ways . Firstly , when it comes to sanctions we have proved we can take it . Secondly , when it comes to independence , we have also proved we can take it . "
= = = Tiger and Fearless talks with Wilson = = =
Wilson told the British House of Commons in January 1966 that he would not enter any kind of dialogue with Smith 's post @-@ UDI government ( which he called " the illegal regime " ) until it gave up its claim of independence , but by mid @-@ 1966 British and Rhodesian civil servants were holding " talks about talks " in London and Salisbury . By November that year , Wilson had agreed to negotiate personally with Smith . Smith and Wilson subsequently held two rounds of direct negotiations , both of which were held aboard Royal Navy ships off Gibraltar . The first took place aboard HMS Tiger between 2 and 4 December 1966 , while the second , aboard HMS Fearless , was held between 8 and 13 October 1968 .
The British Prime Minister went to HMS Tiger in a belligerent mindset . Wilson 's political secretary Marcia Falkender later wrote of " apartheid ... on that ship " , with the British and Rhodesian delegations separated in all activities outside the conference room at Wilson 's orders . Despite the uneasy atmosphere — accounts from both sides describe Wilson dealing with the Rhodesians extremely tersely — talks progressed relatively smoothly until the subject turned to the manner of the transition . Wilson insisted on the abandonment of the 1965 constitution , the dissolution of the post @-@ UDI government in favour of a " broad @-@ based " multiracial interim administration and a period under a British Governor , conditions that Smith saw as tantamount to surrender , particularly as the British proposed to draft and introduce the new constitution only after a fresh test of opinion under UK control . When Smith asserted on 3 December that he could not settle without first consulting his Cabinet in Salisbury , Wilson was enraged , declaring that a central condition of the summit had been that he and Smith would have plenipotentiary powers to make a deal . According to J R T Wood , Wilson and his Attorney General Sir Elwyn Jones then " bullied Smith for two long days " to try to get him to settle , without success .
A working document was ultimately produced and signed by Smith , Wilson and Gibbs , to be accepted or rejected in its entirety by each Cabinet after the Prime Ministers returned home . Whitehall accepted the proposals , but Salisbury turned them down ; Smith announced on 5 December 1966 that while he and his ministers were largely satisfied with the terms , the Cabinet did not feel it could responsibly abandon the 1965 constitution while so much uncertainty surrounded the transition and the new " mythical constitution yet to be evolved " . Gondo , Rhodesia 's Leader of the Opposition , promptly demanded Smith 's resignation , reasoning that the Cabinet 's rejection of the working document he had helped to draft amounted to a vote of no confidence . The RF ignored him . Warning that " grave actions must follow " , Wilson took the Rhodesia problem to the United Nations , which proceeded to institute the first mandatory trade sanctions in its history with Security Council Resolutions 232 ( December 1966 ) and 253 ( April 1968 ) . These measures required UN member states to prevent all trade and economic links with Rhodesia .
State press censorship , introduced by the Smith administration on UDI , was lifted in early April 1968 , though according to the Glasgow Herald the government retained " considerable powers to control information . It may reflect no more than Mr Smith 's growing confidence that nothing — short of a sell @-@ out to Britain — can undermine his position in Rhodesia " . The series of Rhodesian High Court cases debating the legality of UDI came to a close five months later on 13 September . A panel of judges headed by Sir Hugh Beadle ruled UDI , the 1965 constitution and Smith 's government to be de jure , prompting the UK Commonwealth Secretary George Thomson to accuse them of breaching " the fundamental laws of the land " .
On HMS Fearless , the British reversed their confrontational approach of the Tiger talks and made a marked effort to appear genial and welcoming , mixing socially with the Rhodesians and accommodating Smith in the Admiral 's cabin on HMS Kent , which was moored alongside . Marked progress towards agreement was made — for example , Wilson dropped altogether the transition period under a colonial Governor — but the Rhodesian delegation now demurred on a new British proposal , the " double safeguard " . This would involve elected black Rhodesians controlling a blocking quarter in the Rhodesian parliament , and thereafter having the right to appeal passed legislation to the Privy Council in London . Smith 's team accepted the principle of the blocking quarter but agreement could not be reached on the technicalities of it ; the involvement of the UK Privy Council was rejected by Smith as a " ridiculous " provision that would prejudice Rhodesia 's sovereignty . The Fearless summit ended with a joint Anglo @-@ Rhodesian statement asserting that " both sides recognise that a very wide gulf still remains " , but were prepared to continue negotiations in Salisbury . This never occurred .
= = = A republic ; failed accord with Douglas @-@ Home = = =
With their hopes of Commonwealth realm status through a settlement with Britain dimming , Smith and the RF began to seriously consider the alternative of a republic as early as December 1966 , after the Tiger talks . Republicanism was presented as a means to clarify Rhodesia 's claimed constitutional status , end ambiguity regarding ties with Britain and elicit official foreign recognition and acceptance . Smith 's government began exploring a republican constitution in March 1967 . The Union Jack and Rhodesia 's Commonwealth @-@ style national flag — a defaced Sky Blue Ensign with the Union Jack in the canton — were formally superseded on 11 November 1968 , the third anniversary of UDI , by a new national flag : a green @-@ white @-@ green vertical triband , charged centrally with the Rhodesian coat of arms . After the electorate voted " yes " in a June 1969 referendum both to a new constitution and to the abandoning of symbolic ties to the Crown , Smith declared Rhodesia a republic on 2 March 1970 . The 1969 constitution introduced a President as head of state , a multiracial senate , separate black and white electoral rolls ( each with qualifications ) and a mechanism whereby the number of black MPs would increase in line with the proportion of income tax revenues paid by black citizens . This process would stop once blacks had the same number of seats as whites ; the declared goal was not majority rule , but rather " parity between the races " .
No country recognised the Rhodesian republic . The RF was decisively returned to power in the first election held as a republic , on 10 April 1970 , winning all 50 white seats . Hopes for an Anglo @-@ Rhodesian rapprochement were boosted two months later when the Conservatives won a surprise election victory in the UK . Edward Heath took over as Prime Minister while Douglas @-@ Home became Foreign Secretary . Talks between Douglas @-@ Home and Smith began with a lengthy meeting in Salisbury in April 1971 and continued until a tentative understanding was reached in early November . A UK delegation headed by Douglas @-@ Home and the Attorney General Sir Peter Rawlinson flew to Salisbury on 15 November for negotiations over a new constitution , and after six days of discussion an accord was signed on 21 November 1971 .
The constitution agreed upon was based largely on the one Rhodesia had just adopted , but would eventually bring about a black majority in parliament . Black representation in the House would be immediately increased , and a majority of both black and white MPs would have to approve retrogressive legislation ; blacks would thus wield an effective veto " as long as they voted solidly together " , Robert Blake comments . " The principle of majority rule was enshrined with safeguards ensuring that there could be no legislation which could impede this , " Smith wrote in his memoirs . " On the other hand , there would be no mad rush into one man , one vote with all the resultant corruption , nepotism , chaos and economic disaster which we had witnessed in all the countries around us . "
The UK announced a test of opinion in Rhodesia to be undertaken by a four @-@ man commission headed by the veteran judge Lord Pearce . All four population groups — black , white , coloured ( mixed ) and Asian — would have to approve the terms for Britain to proceed . ZANU and ZAPU supporters quickly formed the African National Council ( later the United African National Council , or UANC ) to organise and co @-@ ordinate black opposition to the deal . Bishop Abel Muzorewa , the first black man to have been ordained as such in Rhodesia , was installed as the movement 's leader . The Pearce Commission finished its work on 12 March 1972 and published its report two months later — it described white , coloured and Asian Rhodesians as in favour of the terms by 98 % , 97 % and 96 % respectively , and black citizens as against them by an unspecified large majority . This came as a great shock to the white community " and a deep disappointment to those in Britain who hoped to get rid of this tiresome albatross " , Blake records . Smith condemned the Pearce Commissioners as " naive and inept " . The UK withdrew from negotiations , but neither government abandoned the accord entirely . " I would ask them [ the black people of Rhodesia ] to look again very carefully at what they rejected , " Douglas @-@ Home told the House of Commons ; " the proposals are still available because Mr Smith has not withdrawn or modified them . "
= = = Bush War = = =
The Rhodesian Bush War ( or Second Chimurenga ) , which had been underway at a low level since before UDI , began in earnest in December 1972 when ZANLA attacked farms in north @-@ eastern Rhodesia . The Rhodesian Security Forces mounted a strong counter @-@ campaign over the next two years . Muzorewa re @-@ engaged with Smith in August 1973 , accepting the 1971 – 72 Douglas @-@ Home terms , and the two signed a statement to that effect on 17 August . The UANC executive repudiated this in May 1974 , but talks between Smith and Muzorewa continued sporadically . The RF again won a clean sweep of the 50 white seats in the July 1974 general election .
Rhodesia 's early counter @-@ insurgency successes were undone by political shifts in the guerrillas ' favour overseas . The April 1974 Carnation Revolution in Lisbon led to Mozambique 's transformation over the next year from a Portuguese territory friendly to Smith 's government into a communist state openly allied with ZANU . Wilson and Labour returned to power in Britain in March 1974 . Portugal 's withdrawal made Rhodesia hugely dependent on South Africa , but Smith still insisted that he held a strong position . " If it takes one year , five years , ten years , we 're prepared to ride it out , " he told the RF congress on 20 September 1974 . " Our stand is clear and unambiguous . Settlement is desirable , but only on our terms . "
The geopolitical situation tilted further against Smith in December 1974 when the South African Prime Minister B J Vorster pressured him into accepting a détente initiative involving the Frontline States of Zambia , Tanzania and Botswana ( Mozambique and Angola would join the following year ) . Vorster had concluded that Rhodesia 's position was untenable and that South African interests would be better served by collaborating with black African governments over a Rhodesian settlement ; he hoped that success in this might win South Africa some international legitimacy and allow it to retain apartheid . Détente forced a ceasefire , giving the guerrillas time to regroup , and required the Rhodesians to release the ZANU and ZAPU leaders so they could attend a conference in Rhodesia , united under the UANC banner and led by Muzorewa . When Rhodesia stopped releasing black nationalist prisoners on the grounds that ZANLA and ZIPRA were not observing the ceasefire , Vorster harried Smith further by withdrawing the South African Police , which had been helping the Rhodesians patrol the countryside . Smith remained stubborn , saying in the run @-@ up to the conference that " We have no policy in Rhodesia to hand over to a black majority government " and that his government instead favoured " a qualified franchise for all Rhodesians ... [ to ] ensure that government will be retained in responsible hands for all times " .
Nkomo remained unchallenged at the head of ZAPU , but the ZANU leadership had become contested between its founding president , the Reverend Ndabaningi Sithole , and Robert Mugabe , a former teacher from Mashonaland who had recently won an internal election in prison . When they were released in December 1974 under the détente terms , Mugabe went to Mozambique to consolidate his leadership of the guerrillas , while Sithole joined Muzorewa 's delegation . It had been agreed that the talks would take place within Rhodesia , but the black nationalists refused to meet on ground they perceived as not neutral . The Rhodesians insisted on abiding by the accord and negotiating inside the country . To please both camps the conference was held on a train halfway across the Victoria Falls Bridge on the border between Rhodesia and Zambia ; the delegations sat on opposite sides of the frontier . The conference , which took place on 26 August 1975 with Kaunda and Vorster as mediators , failed to produce a settlement ; each side accused the other of being unreasonable . Smith afterwards held direct talks with Nkomo and ZAPU in Salisbury , but these also led nowhere ; Nkomo proposed an immediate transition to an interim government headed by himself , which Smith rejected . Guerrilla incursions picked up strongly in the first months of 1976 .
On 20 March 1976 , Smith gave a televised speech including what became his most quoted utterance . " I don 't believe in majority rule ever in Rhodesia — not in 1 @,@ 000 years , " he said . " I repeat that I believe in blacks and whites working together . If one day it is white and the next day it is black , I believe we have failed and it will be a disaster for Rhodesia . " The first sentence of this statement became commonly quoted as evidence that Smith was a crude racist who would never compromise with the black nationalists , even though the speech was one in which Smith had said that power @-@ sharing with black Rhodesians was inevitable and that " we have got to accept that in the future Rhodesia is a country for black and white , not white as opposed to black and vice versa " . The " not in 1 @,@ 000 years " comment was , according to Peter Godwin , an attempt to reassure the RF 's right wing , which opposed any transition whatsoever , that white Rhodesians would not be sold out . In her 1978 biography of Smith , Berlyn comments that regardless of whether the statement was " taken out of context , or whether his actual intent was misinterpreted " , this was one of his greatest blunders as Prime Minister as it gave obvious ammunition to his detractors .
Henry Kissinger , the US Secretary of State , announced a formal interest in the Rhodesian situation in February 1976 , and over the next half @-@ year held discussions with Britain , South Africa and the Frontline States in what became the " Anglo @-@ American initiative " . Meeting Smith in Pretoria on 18 September 1976 , Kissinger proposed majority rule after a transition period of two years . According to Smith , Kissinger told him he considered his participation in the " demise of Rhodesia " to be " one of the great tragedies of my life " . He strongly encouraged Smith to accept his deal , though he knew it was unpalatable to him , as any future offer could only be worse from Smith 's standpoint — especially if , as expected , US President Gerald Ford lost the upcoming election to Jimmy Carter . Smith expressed great reluctance , but agreed on 24 September after Vorster intimated that South Africa might cut off financial and military aid if he refused . It was the first time Smith had publicly accepted the principles of unconditional majority rule and one man , one vote . However , the Frontline States then abruptly revised their stance and turned the Kissinger terms down , saying that any transition period was unacceptable . Britain quickly arranged an all @-@ party conference in Geneva , Switzerland to try to salvage a solution . ZANU and ZAPU announced that they would attend this and any summit thereafter as a joint " Patriotic Front " ( PF ) , including members of both parties under a combined leadership . The Geneva Conference , held between October and December 1976 under British mediation , also failed .
= = = Internal Settlement and Lancaster House ; becoming Zimbabwe = = =
Smith 's moves towards a settlement with black nationalist groups prompted outrage in sections of Rhodesian Front 's right wing , but he remained unassailable within the party as a whole , which had in late 1975 granted him a mandate to negotiate for the best possible settlement however he saw fit . The split in the party ultimately led to the defection in July 1977 of 12 RF MPs after Smith introduced legislation to remove racial criteria from the Land Tenure Act . The loss of these seats to the breakaway Rhodesian Action Party , which opposed any conciliation with black nationalists , meant that Smith now only barely had the two @-@ thirds majority in parliament he would need to change the constitution , as he would have to in the event of a settlement . He therefore called an early election , and on 31 August 1977 roundly defeated the defectors — " the dirty dozen " , the RF called them — as well as all other opposition ; for the third time in seven years , the RF had won all 50 white seats . The party revolt turned out to be a blessing in disguise for Smith , Berlyn comments , as it allowed him to " shed the dead wood of the right wing " , giving him more freedom in negotiations with the nationalists . The need for a settlement was becoming urgent — the war was escalating sharply , white emigration was climbing and the economy was starting to struggle as the UN sanctions finally began to have a serious effect .
In March 1978 , Smith and non @-@ militant nationalist groups headed by Muzorewa , Sithole and Chief Jeremiah Chirau agreed what became the " Internal Settlement " , under which the country would be reconstituted as Zimbabwe Rhodesia in June 1979 after multiracial elections . ZANU and ZAPU were invited to participate , but refused ; Nkomo sardonically dubbed Smith 's black colleagues " the blacksmiths " . The deal was badly received abroad , partly because it kept the police , the military , the judiciary and the civil service in white hands . There would be a senate of 20 blacks and 10 whites , and whites would be reserved 28 out of 100 seats in the new House of Assembly . Smith and Nkomo re @-@ entered negotiations in August 1978 , but these ended after ZIPRA shot down an Air Rhodesia passenger flight on 3 September and massacred survivors at the crash site . Smith cut off talks , introduced martial law across most of the country and ordered reprisal attacks on guerrilla positions . Smith , Muzorewa and Sithole toured the US in October 1978 to promote their settlement , and met Kissinger , Ford and others including the future President Ronald Reagan . On 11 December , ZANLA attacked Salisbury 's oil storage depot , causing a fire that lasted six days and destroyed a quarter of Rhodesia 's fuel . Two months later ZIPRA downed another civilian flight , this time killing all on board .
After whites endorsed the Internal Settlement by 85 % in a referendum on 30 January 1979 , Smith dissolved the Rhodesian parliament for the last time on 28 February . The RF won all the white seats in the April 1979 elections while Muzorewa and the UANC won a majority in the common roll seats with 67 % of the popular vote ; the PF rejected this , however , as did the UN , which passed a resolution branding it a " sham " . Sithole , astounded that his party had won only 12 seats to the UANC 's 51 , suddenly turned against the settlement and alleged that the polls had been stage @-@ managed in Muzorewa 's favour . Mugabe dismissed the bishop as a " neocolonial puppet " and pledged to continue ZANLA 's campaign " to the last man " ; Nkomo similarly committed ZIPRA . On 1 June 1979 , the day of the country 's official reconstitution as Zimbabwe Rhodesia , Muzorewa replaced Smith as Prime Minister , at the head of a UANC – RF coalition Cabinet made up of 12 blacks and five whites . Smith was included as Minister without portfolio ; Nkomo promptly dubbed him the " Minister with all the portfolios " .
An observer group from the UK Conservative Party did regard the April 1979 elections as fair , and Margaret Thatcher , the Conservative leader , was personally disposed to recognise Muzorewa 's government and lift sanctions . The potential significance of the Conservative victory in the May 1979 British general election was not lost on Smith , who wrote to Thatcher : " All Rhodesians thank God for your magnificent victory . " The US Senate passed a resolution urging President Carter to remove sanctions and declare Zimbabwe Rhodesia legitimate , but Carter and his Cabinet remained strongly opposed . Carter and Thatcher ultimately decided against accepting Zimbabwe Rhodesia , noting the continued international support for the guerrillas . After the Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting in Lusaka in August 1979 , the UK Foreign Secretary Lord Carrington invited the Zimbabwe Rhodesian government and the Patriotic Front to attend an all @-@ party constitutional conference at Lancaster House in London , starting on 10 September .
Smith was part of Muzorewa 's delegation at Lancaster House . Several aspects of the Internal Settlement constitution , such as a declaration of human rights and a guarantee that land redistributed by the government would be paid for , were retained ; it was also agreed to have 20 reserved white seats out of 100 for at least seven years . Fresh elections would be held during a brief period under a British Governor invested with full executive and legislative powers . The new constitution was agreed on 18 October , and on 12 December 1979 the House of Assembly voted to dissolve itself , ending UDI . Lord Soames arrived in Salisbury later the same day to become Southern Rhodesia 's last Governor ; among other things he announced that Smith would be granted amnesty for declaring independence . The final Lancaster House Agreement was signed on 21 December . Smith was the only member of any delegation to openly oppose the accords ; he refused to attend the signing ceremony and boycotted the post @-@ agreement party , instead having dinner with former RAF comrades and Group Captain Sir Douglas Bader .
The UK government and the international community ultimately declared the February 1980 general election free and fair , though many observers attested to widespread political violence and intimidation of voters , particularly by ZANU ( which added Patriotic Front to its name to become " ZANU – PF " ) . British monitors in the ZANU – PF @-@ dominated eastern provinces were strongly critical , reporting " brutal ' disciplinary murders ' as examples of the fate awaiting those who failed to conform " , name @-@ taking and " claims to the possession of machines which would reveal how individuals had voted " . The Commonwealth Observer Group acknowledged that irregularities were occurring but ruled that accounts were exaggerated . After the RF won all 20 white seats , Soames announced late on 4 March 1980 that Mugabe and ZANU – PF had won 57 of the 80 common roll seats , giving them a majority in the new House of Assembly . Mugabe invited Smith to his house that evening and according to Smith treated him " most courteously " ; Mugabe expressed joy at inheriting a " wonderful country " with modern infrastructure and a viable economy , outlined plans for gradual reform that Smith found reasonable , and said that he hoped to stay in regular contact . This meeting had a profound effect on the former Prime Minister . Having denounced Mugabe as an " apostle of Satan " before the election , Smith now publicly endorsed him as " sober and responsible " . " If this were a true picture , then there could be hope instead of despair , " he recalled in his autobiography . " When I got home I said to Janet that I hoped it was not an hallucination . "
= = Opposition = =
= = = First years under Mugabe = = =
The new Zimbabwean parliament opened on 15 May 1980 , a month after formal independence from Britain , with Smith as the reconstituted country 's first Leader of the Opposition . Continuing a long @-@ standing tradition from the Rhodesian era , the government and opposition entered the House in pairs — Mugabe and Smith walked in side by side with their respective MPs following , " aptly symbolis [ ing ] the mood of reconciliation " , Martin Meredith comments . With around 1 @,@ 000 whites leaving Zimbabwe each month , Smith took to the radio to urge them to stay and give Mugabe 's new order a chance , but over half of the country 's whites left within three years . As Meredith records , the 100 @,@ 000 or so who remained " retreated into their own world of clubs , sporting activities , and comfortable living " . Mugabe made great efforts when he first took power to endear himself to the white farming community , which accounted for at least 75 % of Zimbabwe 's agricultural output . Amid booming Zimbabwean commodity prices in the years immediately following 1980 , many white commercial farmers came to support Mugabe . The new Prime Minister continued cordially meeting Smith until the RF leader took him to task in 1981 for openly calling for a one @-@ party state ; Smith said this was putting off foreign investors . Mugabe was not impressed and , according to Smith , refused to ever meet him again .
As Mugabe 's main opponent in Parliament at the head of the Republican Front ( as the RF renamed itself in 1981 ) , Smith presented himself as the guardian of what he called Zimbabwe 's " white tribe " . He spoke gloomily about Zimbabwe 's future prospects , repeatedly accused the Mugabe administration of corruption , malevolence and general incompetence , and criticised Mugabe 's support for a one @-@ party system . The RF took an increasingly confrontational line in the House after Mugabe and other government ministers began regularly pouring scorn on the white community in national broadcasts and other media . Amid rising tensions with South Africa , various white Zimbabweans were arrested , accused of being South African agents , and tortured . When Smith complained about whites being imprisoned without trial under emergency powers , a number of ZANU – PF MPs pointed out that they themselves had been detained under that same legislation , and for far longer , by Smith 's government . Mugabe openly admitted torturing suspected spies , had some who were found not guilty by the High Court immediately rearrested on the street outside , and accused Western critics of caring only because the people in question were white .
Smith visited Britain and the United States in November 1982 , and spoke scathingly about Zimbabwe to reporters , claiming that Mugabe was turning the country into a totalitarian Marxist – Leninist dictatorship . Government retribution was immediate . On Smith 's return home , police raided an art exhibition hosting him as guest of honour in Harare ( as Salisbury had been renamed in April 1982 ) and took all the attendees in for questioning , ostensibly because of suspicions it might be an illegal political meeting . A week later , police seized his passport , according to a government statement because his criticism of Zimbabwe while abroad constituted " political bad manners and hooliganism " . Police meticulously searched his Harare house and Gwenoro over the next week , confiscating firearms , personal papers and a diary . Smith told reporters all this was " part of the game to intimidate me and so demoralise the whites " . Some RF MPs left the party to sit with ZANU – PF or as independents , feeling that constantly confronting Mugabe was ill @-@ advised and unnecessary . Smith , however , remained convinced that nobody would stand up for white Zimbabweans if they did not stick together and defend their interests in parliament .
Smith Hempstone later wrote that the former Prime Minister had resolved to " go down ... with all rhetorical guns blazing " . This was in spite of increasingly unstable health ; in June 1982 he collapsed in the House of Assembly , clutching at his side and shaking . Half a year later he had to arrange treatment in South Africa for a condition stemming from hardening of the arteries . The government 's confiscation of his passport and two refusals of its return prevented him from going , so in April 1983 Smith successfully applied for a British passport . " I 'll still try to get my Zimbabwean passport back , " he said . " I was born here and that is the passport I should travel on . " Smith regained his Zimbabwean papers after about a year . In 1984 he declared his intention to renounce his British nationality to abide by a new Zimbabwean law outlawing multiple citizenship . Britain did not recognise this legislation ; according to Smith , British officials refused to take his UK passport when he tried to return it .
= = = Gukurahundi ; last years in politics = = =
After the already tense relations between ZANU – PF and ZAPU disintegrated amid Mugabe 's wish to adopt a one @-@ party system in Zimbabwe , Mugabe expelled Nkomo from the government in February 1982 , accusing him and ZAPU of plotting a coup . About a year later , Mugabe deployed the North Korean @-@ trained 5 Brigade to Matabeleland , ZAPU 's heartland , where it massacred thousands of civilians accused of supporting " dissidents " in what became called Gukurahundi . Meredith asserts that this far exceeded anything that had occurred during the Bush War , an opinion shared by Geoff Hill . Some white farmers were also killed . Estimates for the number of deaths during the five @-@ year Gukurahundi campaign range from 10 @,@ 000 to 30 @,@ 000 . Mugabe concurrently took steps to marginalise the other main black nationalist leaders from the Chimurenga . Nkomo fled to the UK in March 1983 , fearing for his life ; Sithole similarly exiled himself in the United States . Muzorewa stayed in Zimbabwe and was detained in late 1983 for alleged " subversive links " with South Africa . On arriving in England , Nkomo accused Mugabe of genocide and asserted that " Things are worse now than they ever were under Ian Smith " . Mugabe denied that anything improper was happening and put reports to the contrary down to " reactionary foreign journalists " .
The Zimbabwean government publicly threatened Smith on a regular basis , but in practice left him and his property largely untouched — Mugabe frequently pointed to Smith 's freedom as evidence of Zimbabwe 's reconciliation policy . Smith renamed the RF the Conservative Alliance of Zimbabwe ( CAZ ) on 21 July 1984 , concurrently removing racial criteria for membership and inviting black Zimbabweans to join . The CAZ was very successful in the 1985 parliamentary election , winning 15 of the 20 white seats ; Smith won decisively in Bulawayo Central . Mugabe interpreted this as " the racists of this country " defying his government and rejecting reconciliation , and immediately pledged to abolish the white seats , which he said compromised " the sovereignty of our people " . After Smith described Mugabe 's government as " illiterate " on BBC television in November 1985 , Mugabe told the House of Assembly Smith was " an incorrigible racist " who " should long ago have been hanged and hanged publicly " . Later that month , Smith 's close friend and long @-@ standing political associate " Boss " Lilford , who had provided much of the finance to form the RF , was found beaten and shot to death on his ranch . Smith described Lilford afterwards as a man " who was prepared to die for [ his ] principles " , but refused to openly discuss any possible political motive , saying simply that " it would be premature to come to conclusions " .
Smith was by now in the twilight of his career , but his outspoken , confrontational stance continued to irritate the ZANU – PF government . He was declared a " fifth columnist " by the Information Minister Nathan Shamuyarira in February 1987 after he advised a group of South African businessmen that they could survive economic sanctions if white South Africans stood together . Three months later , after he was suspended from the Zimbabwean parliament for a year over his comments in South Africa and criticism of ZANU – PF , he resigned as leader of the CAZ . His four decades as an MP formally ended in September 1987 when , as allowed under the Lancaster House terms , ZANU – PF scrapped the white seats amid sweeping constitutional reforms . The office of Prime Minister was abolished in October ; Mugabe became the country 's first executive President two months later . Mugabe and Nkomo signed a unity accord at the same time merging ZAPU into ZANU – PF with the stated goal of a Marxist – Leninist one @-@ party state .
This marked the end of Smith 's front @-@ line political career — Gerald Smith ( no relation ) replaced him as leader of the CAZ — but he remained active in opposition at a reduced level . In July 1992 he chaired a meeting where the CAZ , Muzorewa 's UANC , Sithole 's ZANU – Ndonga party and Edgar Tekere 's Zimbabwe Unity Movement formed a coalition to challenge Mugabe and ZANU – PF in the next parliamentary election . The result was the short @-@ lived United Front , which Smith agreed to chair , saying he had no more political ambitions and could therefore be regarded as a neutral figurehead . The United Front quickly failed , largely due to the lack of common ground between the constituent parties , and never contested an election . Another brief collaboration between Smith , Muzorewa and Sithole in March 2000 also led to nothing .
= = Retirement = =
The elderly Ian Smith lived in an unassuming house in Harare where , according to David Blair , " the front gate always stood open and virtually anyone who walked up the drive would be invited in for tea " . He still owned Gwenoro , but employed a manager to run it after Janet 's death in 1994 . He insisted that he would never leave Zimbabwe . " Don 't get fazed by the riots , hold your head high , do not be afraid , " a friend reported him saying . " Show you are not budging and the government will leave you alone . " He dedicated much of his 1997 autobiography , The Great Betrayal , to criticising the Mugabe administration and a long succession of British figures he considered to have let him and Rhodesia down ; he also defended and attempted to justify his actions as Prime Minister , and praised Nelson Mandela , calling him Africa 's " first black statesman " . Smith 's enduring popularity among white Zimbabweans was evidenced by the long queues they formed to have him sign copies of the book on its release in Harare in December 1997 . " They were captured , hiding their faces and turning to the wall , as television cameras recorded their ' betrayal ' for the evening news , " Josephine Fisher records . Not all of the country 's whites admired Smith , however ; some felt that his obstinate refusal to acknowledge what they saw as past errors caused the whole white community to be resented and viewed with suspicion .
= = = Land reform programme ; Smith gains new popularity = = =
According to Meredith , governmental mismanagement and widespread corruption within the ZANU – PF order led to Mugabe and others enriching themselves considerably at the expense of the country as a whole . In Meredith 's view , the average Zimbabwean was worse off in 2000 than he had been in 1980 : " average wages were lower , unemployment had trebled , public services were crumbling , and life expectancy was falling " . Opposition to ZANU – PF grew , particularly in the towns and cities . In 2000 , hoping to win support from rural blacks , Mugabe introduced a fast @-@ track land reform programme under which groups of ZANU – PF activists , officially referred to as " war veterans " , were sent to take over white @-@ owned farms so the land could be split up , without compensation , and redistributed to black peasant farmers . White farmers and their black employees were violently forced out , food production plummeted , and the economy collapsed to half the size it had been in 1980 .
When a group of about 50 ZANU – PF activists briefly invaded Gwenoro in May 2000 , Smith played down the incident , saying the intruders were just bored and out of work . " There 's no politics on the farm , " he said . Five months later , in England to address the Oxford Union , Smith described Mugabe as " mentally deranged " . The President announced in response that Smith would be arrested and tried for genocide if he ever came back to Zimbabwe , a threat that Smith mocked . " I would love that . Let him try it , " he said — " It would give me the chance to tell the world the truth about this gangster ... I will give him the date and time of arrival of my plane so he can meet me at the airport . " A mass of reporters descended on Harare International Airport on 7 November 2000 to witness Smith 's arrest , but far from being detained , the former Prime Minister was greeted cheerily by immigration officers and allowed through without any obstruction . Telling the waiting pressmen that he was disappointed not to have met any confrontation , he commented : " We have a president here who is mentally unstable and makes statements that have no bearing on reality " , and went home unmolested .
In early September 2001 , ZANU – PF militants again attempted to force Smith off his farm . The former Prime Minister telephoned the provincial Governor , who promptly sent police to remove the invaders . According to Smith , the trespassers were shocked to hear the authorities were taking his side , and left before the police even arrived . Half a year later , Smith lost his Zimbabwean passport as a result of further tightening of the law regarding multiple citizenship . New legislation passed in 2001 required Zimbabwean citizens to disavow any claim to other nationalities , even if they did not hold foreign passports . Insisting that Mugabe 's government had no right to strip him of Zimbabwean citizenship , Smith refused to renounce his right to British nationality , though he had not held a UK passport for years . Zimbabwean authorities duly refused to renew Smith 's passport in March 2002 . State press reported that he had " automatically ceased to be a citizen of Zimbabwe " on the passport 's expiry , having failed to renounce British citizenship before a deadline on 8 January that year . Smith claimed that his Zimbabwean citizenship had been illegally revoked and that he was now stateless , an assertion disputed by the Minister of Home Affairs John Nkomo , who said that Smith could stay in the country , but would not receive a new Zimbabwean passport until he renounced his right to British nationality .
By 2002 , the white community in Zimbabwe had shrunk to no more than 50 @,@ 000 people , of whom many , like Smith , were elderly . Smith had by this time lost most of his former international prominence — his visit to the UK in 2004 to meet Conservative politicians was largely ignored by the British press — but he achieved new domestic popularity and eminence among Zimbabwean opposition supporters , who came to see him as an unbreakable , defiant symbol of resistance to the Mugabe government . According to R W Johnson , a speech he gave to students at the University of Zimbabwe condemning Mugabe and ZANU – PF as incompetent and corrupt " gangsters " earned him a standing ovation . In 2002 , Smith challenged Mugabe to come with him to a township to see who got the best welcome . " Only one of us will come out alive , " Smith said ; " I 'm ready to put that to the test right now . He 's not . "
= = = Final years and death = = =
Smith travelled to South Africa for medical treatment in 2005 , and moved into a retirement home overlooking the sea in St James , a southern suburb of Cape Town . He was reportedly devastated by the death of his son Alec from a heart attack at London Heathrow Airport in January 2006 . Despite some marked differences — Alec had used illegal drugs in his youth , and openly opposed his father 's policies while he was Prime Minister — they had been very close . The elder Smith had referred to his son as " my rock " . Smith 's stepdaughter Jean , who had married the prominent Rhodesian singer @-@ songwriter Clem Tholet in 1967 , was by this time also widowed . She and Robert Smith cared for their stepfather in his final years .
After some weeks of illness , Ian Smith died in Cape Town on 20 November 2007 at the age of 88 , having suffered a stroke . Jean was with him . His ashes were returned to Zimbabwe and scattered by his family at Gwenoro . The farm continued to operate under the ownership of Smith 's stepchildren until December 2012 , when it was expropriated by the Mugabe administration as part of the land reform programme and given to a technical college .
Investigations into alleged electoral fraud during the 2008 presidential and parliamentary elections in Zimbabwe , when ZANU – PF was accused of using dead " ghost voters " to counter Morgan Tsvangirai and the Movement for Democratic Change ( MDC ) , revealed that Smith and hundreds of thousands of other dead people were still on the electoral roll . According to the Zimbabwe Election Support Network 's audit report , published in 2011 , deceased " voters " made up 27 % of the registered electorate . Mugabe had insisted during his ultimately victorious campaign in 2008 that he would not allow the MDC to take power even if it won , asserting that " only God " could remove him from office . Smith was finally struck off the voters ' roll in April 2013 , along with 345 @,@ 000 other dead people .
= = Character , reputation and legacy = =
" Smith was a simple man , " Graham Boynton wrote soon after his death , " and it was his rather humourless , one @-@ dimensional Rhodesian @-@ ness that at once made him a hero among his own people and a figure of derision among his enemies " . As leader of the Rhodesian Front and its successors , he was the foremost figure of his country 's white community — a " symbol and father figure " , in Mordechai Tamarkin 's phrase , who as Prime Minister " personified white Rhodesia " . Supporters hailed him as " a political visionary ... who understood the uncomfortable truths of Africa " ; detractors , meanwhile , denounced him as " an unrepentant racist " . His determination to preserve the white minority 's position in Rhodesia caused many black Africans and others to perceive him as a symbol of iniquitous white rule and racism . Smith always denied being driven by racial prejudice — in a 1987 interview he asserted that he had been defending Western principles and that " it was Marxism I fought , not blacks " . Above all , he never expressed regret regarding his actions as Prime Minister ; he insisted to the end that the political and economic ruination of Zimbabwe under ZANU – PF had borne out his predictions and proven him right .
" The key to understanding Smith , " Johnson wrote , " was that , like other white Rhodesians , he clung to an almost Victorian view of the world both in moral values and in the easy assumptions of British primacy that characterised the empire . " Bill Schwarz took a similar line , writing that Smith and his supporters reacted to the British Empire 's demise by imagining white Rhodesians to be " the final survivors of a lost civilisation " , charged with " tak [ ing ] on the mantle of historic Britain " in the imperial power 's absence . " He spoke endlessly about how Rhodesians had been more British than the British , " Boynton reflected , " and how this small community of decent , fair @-@ minded whites had been betrayed by , well , just about everybody he could think of ... It was easy to mock Ian Smith , but he was right — both about the betrayals and about the quality of most African politicians " . Smith 's " not in 1 @,@ 000 years " quote dominated his obituaries , a development that Peter Godwin , despite his critical stance regarding Smith and his policies , considered " unfair and inaccurate " . " Over the years it has become shorn of all context and compressed into a free @-@ floating clip that has now become his epitaph , " Godwin wrote . " But there is more than enough for which to quite legitimately criticise Smith , without resorting to fabrication . "
Memories of his travails on Britain 's behalf during the Second World War — " undoubtedly the central experience of his life " , according to Johnson — were fundamental to the sense of profound betrayal Smith felt when the UK government proved one of his main adversaries as Prime Minister . The wartime plastic surgery that corrected the wounds to his face left its right side paralysed , giving him a crooked smile and a somewhat blank expression , while his bodily injuries gave him a stoop and a slight limp ; he also could not sit for long periods without pain . The post @-@ colonial UK Smith encountered as Prime Minister seemed to him " foreign and somewhat effete " , to quote Kenneth Young , while Smith was " a foreigner in all but language to most British politicians — a man of convictions so outdated , of tastes so naive , as to make mutual understanding almost impossible . " Smith held most of the British politicians he dealt with in extremely low esteem , considering them to have pushed him and his country into an impossible position where , he asserted in 1970 , the decision to take unilateral action was " forced upon us " .
In his prime , Smith was widely recognised by both contemporaries and rivals as a formidable negotiator . Hempstone considered him " a man too principled ( or short @-@ sighted ) to compromise with what he regards as wrong " , while Welensky compared dealing with him to " trying to nail jelly to a wall " . He had an " iron nerve " , to quote his RF colleague P K van der Byl , and a reputation for " icy calm " ; he almost never got angry or raised his voice . He spoke with " a nasal monologue " as Peter Younghusband described it — " uninspiring even by Rhodesian oratorical standards " . His open , informal association with the general public fostered the impression among white Rhodesians that their Prime Minister was still an " ordinary , decent fellow " , which Berlyn cites as a major factor in his enduring popularity . Welensky described him in 1978 as wielding an " almost hypnotic influence " over the Rhodesian electorate , which helped him to win " election after election ... hands down " . He also had the grudging respect of at least some of his black nationalist opponents during the Bush War ; one , quoted anonymously by People magazine in 1976 , asserted that " If we had a leader like Mr Smith , we would have won long ago . " Sithole , the long @-@ time ZANU leader , said : " Smith is a fighter . He put up a great fight for his people . We were like two bulls in there , the way we fought . He is a man . I respect him . "
Patrick Kombayi , an MDC politician and member of the Zimbabwean Senate , said after Smith 's death that Zimbabweans had much to thank him for . " The roads that we are using today were all built by Smith , " he said . " All the infrastructure is Smith 's . We never suffered the way we are suffering now because Smith took care of the economy that supported all people and they had enough to eat . When he left power the [ British ] pound was on a par with the Zimbabwean dollar , but President Mugabe has killed all that . " David Coltart , another MDC politician , issued a statement after Smith 's death praising him as a man of modesty and integrity , but criticising what Coltart felt to be " disastrous political decisions as Prime Minister " ; Coltart considered Smith 's policies to have radicalised black nationalists , fomented Mugabe 's rise to power and thereby " directly contributed to the trauma that Zimbabwe is suffering from today " . Godwin took a similar line , describing the emergency powers Smith used to combat black nationalists as " draconian " ; he also pointed out that these " levers of repression " had formed the base for much of what Mugabe later did . Lord Carrington spoke scathingly about Smith in a 2005 interview with Heidi Holland , saying he disliked both Smith and Mugabe but would choose the latter if he " absolutely had to choose " ; Smith was , in his opinion , " a bigoted , stupid man " responsible for all of Zimbabwe 's problems .
While acknowledging the privileged position whites had under Smith , several commentators have latterly agreed with his claims that many black Zimbabweans preferred him to Mugabe with hindsight . " Smith 's image improved inversely as Mugabe 's plummeted , " Johnson wrote . " When he walked the streets of Harare , Africans would almost queue up to grasp his hand and wish him well . " " If you were to go to Harare today [ in 2007 ] and ask ordinary black Zimbabweans who they would rather have as their leader — Smith or Mugabe — the answer would be almost unanimous , " Boynton asserted ; " And it would not be Mugabe . " Smith 's death prompted strongly condemnatory reports in Zimbabwe 's state media . The Deputy Minister of Information Bright Matonga accused Smith of being a racist , blamed him for the deaths of thousands and asserted that he would " not be mourned or missed here by any decent person " . Reactions from Zimbabweans on the street were mixed , however ; according to Western journalists , many expressed sadness .
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= Chinese Nü Yr =
Chinese Nü Yr is an extended play ( EP ) by Irish producer Seamus Malliagh , known by his stage name Iglooghost , released on the Brainfeeder label on 30 October 2015 . Containing elements of footwork , bass , grime and 2 @-@ step garage , the EP 's sound is represented by a worm who goes through several nonsensical lands . To make Chinese Nü Yr , Malliagh first designed the cover art and then developed songs with structures and sound to fit the artwork . Upon release , the EP garnered generally favorable reviews from critics , a common praise being its unique style .
= = Composition = =
Chinese Nü Yr is a Footwork album using elements of bass , grime and 2 @-@ step garage . Malliagh explained that Chinese Nü Yr is a story about Xiāngjiāo , a gelatinous worm who wears a witch hat and is voiced by pitch @-@ shifted recordings of his dad and little sister . Xiāngjiāo blasts through many colorful , nonsensical lands , having to dodge things such as peanuts , floating fruit , pink @-@ colored fog , and mountains growing out of the ground . Forced to visit uncountably many alien worlds , Xiāngjiāo fears both the unfamiliarity of future lands and the extreme speed at which he / she travels . In a December 2015 interview , Malliagh stated the fate of the worm will occur in a full @-@ length album .
A wobbly , stretchy synth sound representing the worm moving through worlds is used on all of the tracks . Pitch @-@ shifted recordings of Malliagh 's dad screaming signifies the worm porting through a hole to the next world , which , according to Malliagh , he was used to given that he was a member of a punk group . He described writing his story as if he was scoring a film , first making the cover art for the EP , and then coming up with the structures and sounds of the songs to fit it . He said in an interview with LA Weekly that " Marrying music and pictures is the funnest thing ever . There 's so many subconscious elements at play . Looking at a ' mega @-@ sick ' picture can make even the most crappy , uncool song sound awesome . Art has this incredible way of subconsciously enhancing music . "
= = Tracks = =
Chinese Nü Yr 's first two tracks , " Xiangjiao " and " Mametchi / Usohachi " , were compared by Resident Advisor journalist Andrew Ryce to the works of labels PC Music and Noumenal Loom ; the reason of the comparison for the former song is due to its " mush @-@ mouthed vocals " and sounds commonly found in trance music , the hip hop and uptempo " speedy chop @-@ up " of the latter for its vocals reminiscent of the song " Hard " by English producer Sophie . " Hard " ends with a rap verse from Japanese singer and producer Mr. Yote , whom Iglooghost said had " amazing taste in melodies " and that her work " sounds wide @-@ eyed and childlike but is also introspective , like a genius baby . " " Gold Coat " is the least frantic of all of the EP 's four tracks , and Ryce also called it his least favorite of the songs : " Mal 's strength comes from deftly juggling ideas , so " Gold Coat " ' s dubstep @-@ tempo diversion feels like a regression . " " Peach Rift " , the heaviest @-@ sounding and longest cut on the EP at over five minutes , was described by Ryce as a " Rubik 's Cube of heavy basslines , chirpy synths , and chattering vocals that never quite line up , which can be numbing by the end . "
= = Release and reception = =
" Gold Coat " was Chinese Nü Yr 's lead single , released on 7 October 2015 . Six days later , the label Brainfeeder announced they would release the EP on 30 October 2015 . Two days before the release of the EP , the music blog Pigeons & Planes premiered " Xiangjiao " . Iglooghost said the name of the record came from looking at the sky while flying back home from his gig in Rome : " The sky looked really weird and for some reason the word Chinese New Year came into my head . I was really happy , because everything seemed super cool , life just seemed really warm and nice . I think the word Chinese New Year sounds warm and cool . I imagine fireworks , red colours and Chinese lanterns . ” Upon its distribution , Chinese Nü Yr garnered positive reviews . Gary Suarez , reviewing for The Quietus , spotlighted the EP 's " mirthfully manic synthesis of garage , hip hop , footwork , and as @-@ yet undefined ( sub ) genres " that " makes him a beatmaker to watch . " Both Ryce and Exclaim ! critic Ashley Hampson praised Malliagh for making such a unique record while still fitting with the works of other acts on the Brainfeeder label .
= = Track listing = =
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= IndiGo =
IndiGo is a low @-@ cost airline headquartered at Gurgaon , India . It is the largest airline in India in terms of passengers carried with a 36 @.@ 8 % market share as of February 2016 . The airline operates 679 daily flights to 40 destinations and is the second largest low @-@ cost carrier in Asia . It has its primary hub at Indira Gandhi International Airport , Delhi .
The airline was founded as a private company by Rahul Bhatia of InterGlobe Enterprises and Rakesh Gangwal , a United States @-@ based NRI in 2006 . It took delivery of its first aircraft in July 2006 and commenced operations a month later in August 2006 . The airline became the largest Indian carrier in terms of passenger market share in 2012 . The company went public in November 2015 . The airline operates a single aircraft type of Airbus A320 with an all economy configuration .
= = History = =
IndiGo was founded in 2006 as a private company by Rahul Bhatia of InterGlobe Enterprises and Rakesh Gangwal , a United States @-@ based NRI . InterGlobe had a 51 @.@ 12 % stake in IndiGo and 47 @.@ 88 % was held by Gangwal 's Virginia The new owner of Indigo share as an 20 @.@ 2 % in Indigo She daughter of Shymacharan and Meena Devi Takhellambam . She is from Manipur State City Imphal . Langlen Takhellambam Bhatia . She from keishamthong Hodam Leirak , Leirembi Maning Street @-@ based company Caelum Investments . IndiGo placed a firm order for 100 Airbus A320 @-@ 200 aircraft in June 2005 with plans to commence operations in mid @-@ 2006 . IndiGo took delivery of its first Airbus aircraft on 28 July 2006 , nearly one year after placing the order . It commenced operations on 4 August 2006 with a service from New Delhi to Imphal via Guwahati . By the end of 2006 , the airline had six aircraft and nine more aircraft were acquired in 2007 . In December 2010 , IndiGo replaced state @-@ run carrier Air India as the third largest airline in India , behind Kingfisher Airlines and Jet Airways with a passenger market share of 17 @.@ 3 % .
In 2011 , IndiGo placed an order for 180 Airbus A320 aircraft in a deal worth US $ 15 billion . In January 2011 , after completing five years of operations , the airline got permission to launch international flights . The airline launched international services in September 2011 . In December 2011 , the DGCA expressed reservations that the rapid expansion could impact passenger safety .
In February 2012 , IndiGo took delivery of its 50th aircraft , less than six years after it began operations in 2006 . For the quarter ending March 2012 , IndiGo was the most profitable airline in India and became the second largest airline in India in terms of passenger market share . On 17 August 2012 , IndiGo became the largest airline in India in terms of market share surpassing Jet Airways , six years after commencing operations .
In January 2013 , IndiGo was the second fastest growing low @-@ cost carrier in Asia behind Indonesian airline Lion Air . In February 2013 , following the announcement of civil aviation ministry that it would be allow IndiGo to take delivery of only five aircraft that year , the airline planned to introduce low @-@ cost regional flights by setting up a subsidiary . Later , IndiGo announced that it plans to seek permission from the ministry to acquire four more aircraft , therefore taking delivery of nine aircraft in 2013 . As of March 2014 , IndiGo is the second largest low @-@ cost carrier in Asia in terms of seats flown .
In August 2015 , IndiGo placed an order of 250 Airbus A320neo aircraft worth $ 27 billion , making it the largest single order ever in Airbus history . IndiGo announced a ₹ 3 @,@ 200 crore ( US $ 480 million ) initial public offering on 19 October 2015 which opened on 27 October 2015 . As of February 2016 , it is the largest airline in India in terms of passengers carried with a 36 @.@ 8 % market share .
= = Corporate affairs and identity = =
IndiGo is headquartered in Gurgaon , India .
= = = Logo and livery = = =
Twenty round dots arranged in the shape of an aircraft serves as the logo of the airline . The airline uses a two tone blue livery on a white background with the belly of the aircraft painted in Indigo with the logo in white . The flight attendants wear a single @-@ piece navy @-@ blue tunic with a cap and a thin indigo belt designed by fashion designer Rajesh Pratap Singh and make @-@ up artist Ambika Pillai . The airline has the tagline on @-@ time focusing on punctuality .
= = Operations = =
IndiGo became one of the fastest growing low cost carriers in the world and was the largest profitable airline in India . The success of IndiGo has been attributed to its unique business model which reduces costs . The airline operates a single type of aircraft ( Airbus A320 ) in similar seating configuration which simplifies crew training and maintenance . The airline strikes bulk deals with Airbus reducing unit costs . The airline targets a quick turn @-@ around time of 20 minutes to get the aircraft ready for the next flight , ensuring planes fly about 12 hours every day . Employees share multiple roles with a check @-@ in staff doubling as a baggage handler .
= = Destinations = =
As of July 2016 , IndiGo operates 818 daily flights to 40 destinations , 35 in India and 5 abroad . Its main base is located at Delhi , with additional bases at Bangalore , Chennai , Hyderabad , Kolkata , Mumbai and Nagpur . In January 2011 , IndiGo received a license to operate international flights after completing five years of operations . IndiGo 's first international service was launched between New Delhi and Dubai on 1 September 2011 . International services were later expanded to serve Bangkok , Singapore , Muscat and Kathmandu . The airline is considering launch of flights to Kunming , China .
= = Fleet = =
In order to reduce operational overhead , IndiGo operates only the Airbus A320 family of aircraft in its fleet . As of April 2016 , IndiGo operates the following aircraft :
= = = Fleet Information = = =
IndiGo received its first A320 in July 2006 and planned to induct 100 aircraft by 2015 – 2016 . In 2012 , the airline took delivery of its 50th aircraft and the 100th aircraft was delivered on 4 November 2014 , completing its initial order ahead of schedule . The Airbus A320neo family aircraft ordered in 2011 were to be delivered starting 2015 . However , due to a delay in the production and delivery of these aircraft , IndiGo dry @-@ leased a total of 22 used aircraft to cope up with the demand . The first A320neo aircraft was delivered to IndiGo on 11 March 2016 .
= = = New aircraft orders = = =
IndiGo placed an order for 100 Airbus A320 @-@ 200 aircraft worth US $ 6 billion in June 2005 during the Paris Air Show with plans to commence operations in mid @-@ 2006 . IndiGo signed a memorandum of understanding for an additional 180 Airbus A320 aircraft including 150 with the New Engine Option ( NEO ) worth US $ 15 billion on 11 January 2011 and IndiGo will be one of the launch customers of the A320neo aircraft .
On 15 October 2014 , IndiGo expressed its intention to order a further 250 A320neo aircraft worth US $ 25 @.@ 7 billion at list prices . On 15 August 2015 , IndiGo confirmed the order for 250 A320neo aircraft for $ 26 @.@ 5 billion . The order also provides IndiGo the flexibility to convert some A320s to A321neo which can seat more passengers and fly on longer routes . The order of 250 jets is Airbus 's single largest order by number of aircraft .
= = Services = =
Being a low @-@ cost carrier , IndiGo offers only economy class seating accommodating 180 passengers per aircraft . To keep fares low , IndiGo does not provide complimentary meals in any of its flights , though it does have a buy @-@ on board in @-@ flight meal programme . No in @-@ flight entertainment is available and Hello 6E is the in @-@ flight magazine published by IndiGo . IndiGo offers premium services , where the passengers can avail additional benefits like a pre @-@ assigned seat , multiple cancellations and priority check @-@ in at a higher fare .
= = Awards and achievements = =
IndiGo has won the following awards :
Best low @-@ cost carrier by the Airline Passengers Association of India ( 2007 )
Best low @-@ cost carrier at the Galileo Express Travel Awards ( 2008 )
Best low cost airline by CNBC Awaaz ( 2009 , 2013 )
Best LCC Aviation award for excellence by Centre for Asia Pacific Aviation ( 2015 )
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= Kreutz sungrazer =
The Kreutz sungrazers ( / ˈkrɔɪts / , pronounced kroits ) are a family of sungrazing comets , characterized by orbits taking them extremely close to the Sun at perihelion . They are believed to be fragments of one large comet that broke up several centuries ago and are named for German astronomer Heinrich Kreutz , who first demonstrated that they were related . A Kreutz sungrazers 's aphelion is about 170 AU from the Sun ; these sungrazers make their way from the distant outer Solar System from a patch in the sky in Canis Major , to the inner Solar System , to their perihelion point near the Sun , and then leave the inner Solar System in their return trip to their aphelion .
Several members of the Kreutz family have become great comets , occasionally visible near the Sun in the daytime sky . The most recent of these was Comet Ikeya – Seki in 1965 , which may have been one of the brightest comets in the last millennium . It has been suggested that another cluster of bright Kreutz system comets may begin to arrive in the inner Solar System in the next few years to decades .
Many hundreds of smaller members of the family , some only a few meters across , have been discovered since the launch of the SOHO satellite in 1995 . None of these smaller comets have survived its perihelion passage . Larger sungrazers such as the Great Comet of 1843 and C / 2011 W3 ( Lovejoy ) have survived their perihelion passage . Amateur astronomers have been successful at discovering Kreutz comets in the data available in real time via the Internet .
= = Discovery and historical observations = =
The first comet whose orbit had been found to take it extremely close to the Sun was the Great Comet of 1680 . This comet was found to have passed just 200 @,@ 000 km ( 0 @.@ 0013 AU ) above the Sun 's surface , equivalent to about half the distance between the Earth and the Moon . It thus became the first known sungrazing comet . Its perihelion distance was just 1 @.@ 3 solar radii .
Astronomers at the time , including Edmond Halley , speculated that this comet was a return of a bright comet seen close to the Sun in the sky in 1106 . 163 years later , the Great Comet of 1843 appeared and also passed extremely close to the Sun . Despite orbital calculations showing that it had a period of several centuries , some astronomers wondered if it was a return of the 1680 comet . A bright comet seen in 1880 was found to be travelling on an almost identical orbit to that of 1843 , as was the subsequent Great Comet of 1882 . Some astronomers suggested that perhaps they were all one comet , whose orbital period was somehow being drastically shortened at each perihelion passage , perhaps by retardation by some dense material surrounding the Sun .
An alternative suggestion was that the comets were all fragments of an earlier Sun @-@ grazing comet . This idea was first proposed in 1880 , and its plausibility was amply demonstrated when the Great Comet of 1882 broke up into several fragments after its perihelion passage . In 1888 , Heinrich Kreutz published a paper showing that the comets of 1843 ( C / 1843 D1 , the Great March Comet ) , 1880 ( C / 1880 C1 , the Great Southern Comet ) , and 1882 ( C / 1882 R1 , Great September Comet ) were probably fragments of a giant comet that had broken up several orbits before . The comet of 1680 proved to be unrelated to this family of comets .
After another Kreutz sungrazer was seen in 1887 ( C / 1887 B1 , the Great Southern Comet of 1887 ) , the next one did not appear until 1945 . Two further sungrazers appeared in the 1960s , Comet Pereyra in 1963 and Comet Ikeya – Seki , which became extremely bright in 1965 , and broke into three pieces after its perihelion . The appearance of two Kreutz Sungrazers in quick succession inspired further study of the dynamics of the group .
The group generally has an Inclination of roughly 140 degrees , a perihelion distance of around 0 @.@ 01 AU , and a Longitude of ascending node of 340 – 10 ° .
= = Notable members = =
The brightest members of the Kreutz sungrazers have been spectacular , easily visible in the daytime sky . The three most impressive have been the Great Comet of 1843 , the Great Comet of 1882 and Comet Ikeya – Seki . Another notable Kreutz sungrazer was the Eclipse Comet of 1882 ( see further below ) .
= = = Great Comet of 1843 = = =
The Great Comet of 1843 was first noticed in early February of that year , just over three weeks before its perihelion passage . By February 27 it was easily visible in the daytime sky , and observers described seeing a tail 2 – 3 ° long stretching away from the Sun before being lost in the glare of the sky . After its perihelion passage , it reappeared in the morning sky , and developed an extremely long tail . It extended about 45 ° across the sky on March 11 and was more than 2 ° wide ; the tail was calculated to be more than 300 million kilometers ( 2 AU ) long . This held the record for the longest measured cometary tail until 2000 , when Comet Hyakutake 's tail was found to stretch to some 550 million kilometers in length . ( The Earth – Sun distance — 1 AU — is only 150 million kilometers . )
The comet was very prominent throughout early March , before fading away to almost below naked eye visibility by the beginning of April . It was last detected on April 20 . This comet apparently made a substantial impression on the public , inspiring in some a fear that judgement day was imminent .
= = = Eclipse Comet of 1882 = = =
A party of observers gathered in Egypt to watch a solar eclipse in May 1882 were greatly surprised when they observed a bright streak near to the Sun once totality began . By a remarkable coincidence , the eclipse had coincided with the perihelion passage of a Kreutz comet . The comet would otherwise have gone unnoticed — its sighting during the eclipse was the only observation of it . Photographs of the eclipse revealed that the comet had moved noticeably during the 1m50s eclipse , as would be expected for a comet racing past the Sun at almost 500 km / s . The comet is sometimes referred to as Tewfik , after Tewfik Pasha , the Khedive of Egypt at the time .
= = = Great Comet of 1882 = = =
The Great Comet of 1882 was discovered independently by many observers , as it was already easily visible to the naked eye when it appeared in early September 1882 , just a few days before perihelion . It grew rapidly brighter and was eventually so bright it was visible in the daytime for two days ( 16 – 17 September ) , even through light cloud .
After its perihelion passage , the comet remained bright for several weeks . During October , its nucleus was seen to fragment into first two and then four pieces . Some observers also reported seeing diffuse patches of light several degrees away from the nucleus . The rate of separation of the fragments of the nucleus was such that they will return about a century apart , between 670 and 960 years after the break @-@ up .
= = = Comet Ikeya – Seki = = =
Comet Ikeya – Seki is the most recent very bright Kreutz sungrazer . It was discovered independently by two Japanese amateur astronomers on September 18 , 1965 , within 15 minutes of each other , and quickly recognised as a Kreutz sungrazer . It brightened rapidly over the following four weeks as it approached the Sun , and reached apparent magnitude 2 by October 15 . Its perihelion passage occurred on October 21 , and observers across the world easily saw it in the daytime sky . A few hours before perihelion passage on October 21 it had a visible magnitude from − 10 to − 11 , comparable to the first quarter of the Moon and brighter than any other comet seen since 1106 . A day after perihelion its magnitude decreased to just − 4 .
Japanese astronomers using a coronagraph saw the comet break into three pieces 30 minutes before perihelion . When the comet reappeared in the morning sky in early November , two of these nuclei were definitely detected with the third suspected . The comet developed a very prominent tail , about 25 ° in length , before fading throughout November . It was last detected in January 1966 .
= = Dynamical history and evolution = =
A study by Brian G. Marsden in 1967 was the first attempt to trace back the orbital history of the group to identify the progenitor comet . All known members of the group up until 1965 had almost identical orbital inclinations at about 144 ° , as well as very similar values for the longitude of perihelion at 280 – 282 ° , with a couple of outlying points probably due to uncertain orbital calculations . A greater range of values existed for the argument of perihelion and longitude of the ascending node .
Marsden found that the Kreutz sungrazers could be split into two groups , with slightly different orbital elements , implying that the family resulted from fragmentations at more than one perihelion . Tracing back the orbits of Ikeya – Seki and the Great Comet of 1882 , Marsden found that at their previous perihelion passage , the difference between their orbital elements was of the same order of magnitude as the difference between the elements of the fragments of Ikeya – Seki after it broke up . This meant it was realistic to presume that they were two parts of the same comet which had broken up one orbit ago . By far the best candidate for the progenitor comet was that seen in 1106 ( Great Comet of 1106 ) : Ikeya – Seki 's derived orbital period gave a previous perihelion almost exactly at the right time , and while the Great Comet of 1882 's derived orbit implied a previous perihelion a few decades later , it would only require a small error in the orbital elements to bring it into agreement .
The Sun @-@ grazing comets of 1668 , 1689 , 1702 and 1945 seem to be closely related to those of 1882 and 1965 , although their orbits are not well enough determined to establish whether they broke off from the parent comet in 1106 , or the previous perihelion passage before that , some time in the 3 – 5th centuries AD . This subgroup of comets is known as Subgroup II . Comet White – Ortiz – Bolelli , which was seen in 1970 , is more closely related to this group than Subgroup I , but appears to have broken off during the previous orbit to the other fragments .
The Sun @-@ grazing comets observed in 1843 ( Great Comet of 1843 ) and 1963 ( Comet Pereyra ) seem to be closely related and belong to the subgroup I , although when their orbits are traced back to one previous perihelion , the differences between the orbital elements are still rather large , probably implying that they broke apart from each other one revolution before that . They may not be related to the comet of 1106 , but rather a comet that returned about 50 years before that . Subgroup I also includes comets seen in 1695 , 1880 ( Great Southern Comet of 1880 ) and in 1887 ( Great Southern Comet of 1887 ) , as well as the vast majority of comets detected by SOHO mission ( see below ) .
The distinction between the two sub @-@ groups is thought to imply that they result from two separate parent comets , which themselves were once part of a ' grandparent ' comet which fragmented several orbits previously . One possible candidate for the grandparent is a comet observed by Aristotle and Ephorus in 371 BC . Ephorus claimed to have seen this comet break into two . However modern astronomers are skeptical of the claims of Ephorus , because they were not confirmed by other sources . Instead comets that arrived between 3rd and 5th centuries AD ( comets of 214 , 426 and 467 ) are considered as possible progenitors of the Kreutz family . The original comet must certainly have been very large indeed , perhaps as large as 100 km across ( for comparison , the nucleus of Comet Hale – Bopp was about 40 km across ) .
Although its orbit is rather different from those of the main two groups , it is possible that the comet of 1680 is also related to the Kreutz sungrazers via a fragmentation many orbits ago .
The Kreutz sungrazers are probably not a unique phenomenon . Studies have shown that for comets with high orbital inclinations and perihelion distances of less than about 2 AU , the cumulative effect of gravitational perturbations tends to result in sungrazing orbits . One study has estimated that Comet Hale – Bopp has about a 15 % chance of eventually becoming a Sun @-@ grazing comet .
= = Recent observations = =
Until recently , it would have been possible for even a very bright member of the Kreutz sungrazers to pass through the inner Solar System unnoticed , if its perihelion had occurred between about May and August . At this time of year , as seen from Earth , the comet would approach and recede almost directly behind the Sun , and could only become visible extremely close to the Sun if it became very bright . Only a remarkable coincidence between the perihelion passage of the Eclipse Comet of 1882 and a total solar eclipse allowed its discovery .
However , during the 1980s , two Sun @-@ observing satellites serendipitously discovered several new members of the Kreutz family , and since the launch of the SOHO Sun @-@ observing satellite in 1995 , it has been possible to observe comets very close to the Sun at any time of year . The satellite provides a constant view of the immediate solar vicinity , and SOHO has now discovered hundreds of new Sun @-@ grazing comets , some just a few metres across . About 83 % of the sungrazers found by SOHO are members of the Kreutz group , with the other being referred to as ' non @-@ Kreutz ' or ' sporadic ' sungrazers ( Meyer , Marsden , and Kracht1 & 2 families ) . On average , a new member of the Kreutz family is discovered every three days . Apart from Comet Lovejoy , none of the sungrazers seen by SOHO has survived its perihelion passage ; some may have plunged into the Sun itself , but most are likely to have simply evaporated away completely .
More than 75 % of the SOHO sungrazers have been discovered by amateur astronomers analysing SOHO 's observations via the Internet . Some amateurs have managed remarkable numbers of discoveries , with Rainer Kracht of Germany having chalked up 211 , Michael Oates of the United Kingdom making 144 , and Zhou Bo of China spotting 97 . As of December 2011 , over 2 @,@ 000 Kreutz sungrazers have been identified using SOHO data .
SOHO observations have shown that Sungrazers frequently arrive in pairs separated by a few hours . These pairs are too frequent to occur by chance , and cannot be due to break @-@ ups on the previous orbit , because the fragments would have separated by a much greater distance . Instead , it is thought that the pairs result from fragmentations far away from the perihelion . Many comets have been observed to fragment far from perihelion , and it seems that in the case of the Kreutz sungrazers , an initial fragmentation near perihelion can be followed by an ongoing ' cascade ' of break @-@ ups throughout the rest of the orbit .
The number of Subgroup I Kreutz comets discovered is about four times the number of Subgroup II members . This suggests that the ' grandparent ' comet split into parent comets of unequal size .
= = Future = =
Dynamically , the Kreutz sungrazers might continue to be recognised as a distinct family for many thousands of years yet . Eventually their orbits will be dispersed by gravitational perturbations , although depending on the rate of fragmentation of the constituent parts , the group might be completely destroyed before it is gravitationally dispersed . The continuing discovery of large numbers of the smaller members of the family by SOHO will undoubtedly lead to a greater understanding of how comets break up to form families .
It is not possible to estimate the chances of another very bright Kreutz comet arriving in the near future , but given that at least 10 have reached naked eye visibility over the last 200 years , another great comet from the Kreutz family seems almost certain to arrive at some point . Comet White – Ortiz – Bolelli in 1970 reached an apparent magnitude of 1 . In December 2011 , Kreutz sungrazer C / 2011 W3 ( Lovejoy ) survived its perihelion passage and had an apparent magnitude of − 3 .
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= Pipe organ =
The pipe organ is a musical instrument that produces sound by driving pressurized air ( called wind ) through organ pipes selected via a keyboard . Because each pipe produces a single pitch , the pipes are provided in sets called ranks , each of which has a common timbre and volume throughout the keyboard compass . Most organs have multiple ranks of pipes of differing timbre , pitch , and volume that the player can employ singly or in combination through the use of controls called stops .
A pipe organ has one or more keyboards played by the hands ( called manuals ) , and a pedalboard played by the feet ; each keyboard has its own group of stops . The keyboard ( s ) , pedalboard , and stops are housed in the organ 's console . The organ 's continuous supply of wind allows it to sustain notes for as long as the corresponding keys are depressed , unlike the piano and harpsichord whose sound begins to dissipate immediately after it is played . The smallest portable pipe organs may have only one or two dozen pipes and one manual ; the largest may have over 20 @,@ 000 pipes and seven manuals . A list of some of the most notable and largest pipe organs in the world can be viewed at List of pipe organs .
The origins of the pipe organ can be traced back to the water organ in Ancient Greece , in the 3rd century BC , in which the wind supply was created with water pressure . By the 6th or 7th century AD , bellows were used to supply organs with wind . Beginning in the 12th century , the organ began to evolve into a complex instrument capable of producing different timbres . A pipe organ with " great leaden pipes " was sent to the West by the Byzantine emperor Constantine V as a gift to Pepin the Short , King of the Franks , in 757 . Pepin 's son Charlemagne requested a similar organ for his chapel in Aachen in 812 , beginning the pipe organ 's establishment in Western church music . By the 17th century , most of the sounds available on the modern classical organ had been developed . From that time , the pipe organ was the most complex man @-@ made device - a distinction it retained until it was displaced by the telephone exchange in the late 19th century .
Pipe organs are installed in churches , synagogues , concert halls , schools , and other public buildings . They are used in the performance of classical music , sacred music , secular music , and popular music . In the early 20th century , pipe organs were installed in theaters to accompany the screening of films during the silent movie era ; in municipal auditoria , where orchestral transcriptions were popular ; and in the homes of the wealthy . The beginning of the 21st century has seen a resurgence in installations in concert halls . The organ boasts a substantial repertoire , which spans over 500 years .
= = Construction = =
A pipe organ contains one or more sets of pipes , a wind system , and one or more keyboards . The pipes produce sound when pressurized air produced by the wind system passes through them . An action connects the keyboards to the pipes . Stops allow the organist to control which ranks of pipes sound at a given time . The organist operates the stops and the keyboards from the console .
= = = Pipes = = =
Organ pipes are made from either wood or metal and produce sound ( " speak " ) when air under pressure ( " wind " ) is directed through them . As one pipe produces a single pitch , multiple pipes are necessary to accommodate the musical scale . The greater the length of the pipe , the lower its resulting pitch will be . The timbre and volume of the sound produced by a pipe depends on the volume of air delivered to the pipe and the manner in which it is constructed and voiced , the latter adjusted by the builder to produce the desired tone and volume . Hence a pipe 's volume cannot be readily changed while playing .
Organ pipes are divided into flue pipes and reed pipes according to their design and timbre . Flue pipes produce sound by forcing air through a fipple , like that of a recorder , whereas reed pipes produce sound via a beating reed , like that of a clarinet or saxophone .
Pipes are arranged by timbre and pitch into ranks . A rank is a row of pipes mounted vertically onto a windchest . The stop mechanism admits air to each rank . For a given pipe to sound , the stop governing the pipe 's rank must be engaged , and the key corresponding to its pitch must be depressed . Ranks of pipes are organized into groups called divisions . Each division generally is played from its own keyboard and conceptually comprises an individual instrument within the organ .
= = = Action = = =
An organ contains two actions , or systems of moving parts . When a key is depressed , the key action admits wind into a pipe . The stop action allows the organist to control which ranks are engaged . An action may be mechanical , pneumatic , or electrical ( or some combination of these , such as electro @-@ pneumatic action ) . The key action is independent of the stop action , allowing an organ to combine a mechanical key action along with an electric stop action .
A key action which physically connects the keys and the windchests is a mechanical or tracker action . Connection is achieved through a series of rods called trackers . When the organist depresses a key , the corresponding tracker pulls open its pallet , allowing wind to enter the pipe .
In a mechanical stop action , each stop control operates a valve for a whole rank of pipes . When the organist selects a stop , the valve allows wind to reach the selected rank . This control was at first a draw stop knob , which the organist selects by pulling ( or drawing ) toward himself / herself . This is the origin of the idiom " to pull out all the stops " . More modern stop selectors , used for electric actions , are tilting tablets or rocker tabs .
Tracker action has been used from antiquity to modern times . Despite the extra effort needed in playing , many organists prefer tracker action because of a feel and a control of the pipe valve operation . Before the pallet opens , wind pressure augments tension of the pallet spring , but once the pallet opens , only the spring tension is felt at the key . This provides a " breakaway " feel .
A later development was the tubular @-@ pneumatic action , which uses changes of pressure within lead tubing to operate pneumatic valves throughout the instrument . This allowed a lighter touch , and more flexibility in the location of the console , within a 50 @-@ foot ( 15 @-@ m ) limit . This type of construction was used in the late 19th century to early 20th century , and has had only rare application since the 1920s .
A more recent development is the electric action which uses low voltage DC to control the key and / or stop mechanisms . Electricity may control the action indirectly through air pressure valves ( pneumatics ) , in which case the action is electro @-@ pneumatic . In such actions , an electromagnet attracts a small pilot valve which lets wind go to a bellows ( " pneumatic " ) which opens the pallet . When electricity operates the action directly without the assistance of pneumatics , it is commonly referred to as direct electric action . In this type , the electromagnet 's armature carries a disc pallet .
When electrical wiring alone is used to connect the console to the windchest , electric actions allow the console to be separated at any practical distance from the rest of the organ , and to be movable . Electric stop actions can be controlled at the console by stop knobs , by pivoted tilting tablets , or rocker tabs . These are simple switches , like wall switches for room lights . Some may include electromagnets for setting or resetting when combinations are selected .
The most modern actions are primarily electronic , which connect the console and windchests via narrow data cables instead of the larger multiconductor cables of electric actions . Boxes containing small embedded computers in the console and near the windchests translate console commands into fast serial data for the cable , and back into electrical commands at the windchest [ s ] .
= = = Wind system = = =
The wind system consists of the parts that produce , store , and deliver wind to the pipes . Pipe organ wind pressures are on the order of 0 @.@ 10 psi ( 0 @.@ 69 kPa ) . Organ builders often measure organ wind using a U @-@ tube manometer containing water , so commonly give its magnitude as the difference in water levels in the two legs of the manometer , rather than in units of pressure . The difference in water level is proportional to the difference in pressure between the wind being measured and the atmosphere . The 0 @.@ 10 psi above would register as 2 @.@ 75 inches of water ( 70 mmAq ) . An Italian organ from the Renaissance period may be on only 2 @.@ 2 inches ( 56 mm ) , while ( in the extreme ) solo stops in some large 20th @-@ century organs may require up to 50 inches ( 1 @,@ 300 mm ) . In isolated , extreme cases , some stops have been voiced on 100 inches ( 2 @,@ 500 mm ) .
Playing the organ before electricity required at least one person to operate the bellows . When signaled by the organist , a calcant would operate a set of bellows , supplying the organ with air . Because calcants were expensive , organists would usually practise on other instruments such as the clavichord or harpsichord . By the mid @-@ 19th @-@ century bellows were also being operated by water engines , steam engines or gasoline engines . Starting in the 1860s bellows were gradually replaced by wind turbines which were later directly connected to electrical motors . This made it possible for organists to practice regularly on the organ . Most organs , both new and historic , have electric blowers , although others can still be operated manually . The wind supplied is stored in one or more regulators to maintain a constant pressure in the windchests until the action allows it to flow into the pipes .
= = = Stops = = =
Each stop usually controls one rank of pipes , although mixtures and undulating stops ( such as the Voix céleste ) control multiple ranks . The name of the stop reflects not only the stop 's timbre and construction , but also the style of the organ in which it resides . For example , the names on an organ built in the north German Baroque style generally will be derived from the German language , while the names of similar stops on an organ in the French Romantic style will usually be French . Most countries tend to use only their own languages for stop nomenclature . English @-@ speaking nations as well as Japan are more receptive to foreign nomenclature . Stop names are not standardized : two otherwise identical stops from different organs may have different names .
To facilitate a large range of timbres , organ stops exist at different pitch levels . A stop that sounds at unison pitch when a key is depressed is referred to as being at 8 ′ ( pronounced " eight @-@ foot " ) pitch . This refers to the length of the lowest @-@ sounding pipe in that rank , which is approximately eight feet . For the same reason , a stop that sounds an octave higher is at 4 ′ pitch , and one that sounds two octaves higher is at 2 ′ pitch . Likewise , a stop that sounds an octave lower than unison pitch is at 16 ′ pitch , and one that sounds two octaves lower is at 32 ′ pitch . Stops of different pitch levels are designed to be played simultaneously .
The label on a stop knob or rocker tab indicates the stop ’ s name and its pitch in feet . Stops that control multiple ranks display a Roman numeral indicating the number of ranks present , instead of its pitch . Thus , a stop labelled " Open Diapason 8 ′ " is a single @-@ rank diapason stop sounding at 8 ′ pitch . A stop labelled " Mixture V " is a five @-@ rank mixture .
Sometimes , a single rank of pipes may be able to be controlled by several stops , allowing the rank to be played at multiple pitches or on multiple manuals . Such a rank is said to be unified or borrowed . For example , an 8 ′ Diapason rank may also be made available as a 4 ′ Octave . When both of these stops are selected and a key ( for example , c ′ ) is pressed , two pipes of the same rank will sound : the pipe normally corresponding to the key played ( c ′ ) , and the pipe one octave above that ( c ′ ′ ) . Because the 8 ′ rank does not have enough pipes to sound the top octave of the keyboard at 4 ′ pitch , it is common for an extra octave of pipes used only for the borrowed 4 ′ stop to be added . In this case , the full rank of pipes ( now an extended rank ) is one octave longer than the keyboard .
Special unpitched stops also appear in some organs . Among these are the Zimbelstern ( a wheel of rotating bells ) , the nightingale ( a pipe submerged in a small pool of water , creating the sound of a bird warbling when wind is admitted ) , and the effet d 'orage ( " thunder effect " , a device that sounds the lowest bass pipes simultaneously ) . Standard orchestral percussion instruments such as the drum , chimes , celesta , and harp have also been imitated in organ building .
= = = Console = = =
The controls available to the organist , including the keyboards , couplers , expression pedals , stops , and registration aids are accessed from the console . The console is either built into the organ case or detached from it .
= = = = Keyboards = = = =
Keyboards played by the hands are known as manuals ( from the Latin manus , meaning " hand " ) . The keyboard played by the feet is a pedalboard . Every organ has at least one manual ( most have two or more ) , and most have a pedalboard . Each keyboard is named for a particular division of the organ ( a group of ranks ) and generally controls only the stops from that division . The range of the keyboards has varied widely across time and between countries . Most current specifications call for two or more manuals with sixty @-@ one notes ( five octaves , from C to c ″ ″ ) and a pedalboard with thirty or thirty @-@ two notes ( two and a half octaves , from C to f ′ or g ′ ) .
= = = = Couplers = = = =
A coupler allows the stops of one division to be played from the keyboard of another division . For example , a coupler labelled " Swell to Great " allows the stops drawn in the Swell division to be played on the Great manual . This coupler is a unison coupler , because it causes the pipes of the Swell division to sound at the same pitch as the keys played on the Great manual . Coupling allows stops from different divisions to be combined to create various tonal effects . It also allows every stop of the organ to be played simultaneously from one manual .
Octave couplers , which add the pipes an octave above ( super @-@ octave ) or below ( sub @-@ octave ) each note that is played , may operate on one division only ( for example , the Swell super octave , which adds the octave above what is being played on the Swell to itself ) , or act as a coupler to another keyboard ( for example , the Swell super @-@ octave to Great , which adds to the Great manual the ranks of the Swell division an octave above what is being played ) .
In addition , larger organs may use unison off couplers , which prevent the stops pulled in a particular division from sounding at their normal pitch . These can be used in combination with octave couplers to create innovative aural effects , and can also be used to rearrange the order of the manuals to make specific pieces easier to play .
= = = = Enclosure and expression pedals = = = =
Enclosure refers to a system that allows for the control of volume without requiring the addition or subtraction of stops . In a two @-@ manual organ with Great and Swell divisions , the Swell will be enclosed . In larger organs , parts or all of the Choir and Solo divisions may also be enclosed . The pipes of an enclosed division are placed in a chamber generally called the swell box . At least one side of the box is constructed from horizontal or vertical palettes known as swell shades , which operate in a similar way to Venetian blinds ; their position can be adjusted from the console . When the swell shades are open , more sound is heard than when they are closed . Sometimes the shades are exposed , but they are often concealed behind a row of facade @-@ pipes or a grill .
The most common method of controlling the louvers is the balanced swell pedal . This device is usually placed above the centre of the pedalboard and is configured to rotate away from the organist from a near @-@ vertical position ( in which the shades are closed ) to a near @-@ horizontal position ( in which the shades are open ) . An organ may also have a similar @-@ looking crescendo pedal , found alongside any expression pedals . Pressing the crescendo pedal forward cumulatively activates the stops of the organ , starting with the softest and ending with the loudest ; pressing it backwards reverses this process .
= = = = Combination action = = = =
Organ stops can be combined in countless permutations , resulting in a great variety of sounds . A combination action can be used to switch instantly from one combination of stops ( called a registration ) to another . Combination actions feature small buttons called pistons that can be pressed by the organist , generally located beneath the keys of each manual ( thumb pistons ) or above the pedalboard ( toe pistons ) . The pistons may be divisional ( affecting only a single division ) or general ( affecting all the divisions ) , and are either preset by the organ builder or can be altered by the organist . Modern combination actions operate via computer memory , and can store several channels of registrations .
= = = Casing = = =
The pipes , action , and wind system are almost always contained in a case , the design of which also may incorporate the console . The case blends the organ 's sound and aids in projecting it into the room . The case often is designed to complement the building 's architectural style and it may contain ornamental carvings and other decorations . The visible portion of the case , called the façade , will most often contain pipes , which may be either sounding pipes or dummy pipes solely for decoration . The façade pipes may be plain , burnished , gilded , or painted and are usually referred to as ( en ) montre within the context of the French organ school .
Organ cases occasionally feature a few ranks of pipes protruding horizontally from the case in the manner of a row of trumpets . These are referred to as pipes en chamade and are particularly common in organs of the Iberian peninsula and large 20th @-@ century instruments .
Many organs , particularly those built in the early 20th century , are contained in one or more rooms called organ chambers . Because sound does not project from a chamber into the room as clearly as from a freestanding organ case , enchambered organs may sound muffled and distant . For this reason , some modern builders , particularly those building instruments specializing in polyphony rather than Romantic compositions , avoid this unless the architecture of the room makes it necessary .
= = = Tuning and regulation = = =
The goal of tuning a pipe organ is to adjust the pitch of each pipe so that they all sound in tune with each other . How the pitch of each pipe is adjusted depends on the type and construction of that pipe .
Regulation adjusts the action so that all pipes sound correctly . If the regulation is wrongly set , the keys may be at different heights , some pipes may sound when the keys are not pressed , or pipes may not sound when a key is pressed . Tracker action , for example in the organ of Cradley Heath Baptist Church , includes adjustment nuts on the wire ends of the wooden trackers , which have the effect of changing the effective length of each tracker .
= = History and development = =
= = = Antiquity and Medieval = = =
The organ is one of the oldest instruments still used in European classical music that has commonly been credited as having derived from Greece . Its earliest predecessors were built in Ancient Greece in the 3rd century BC . The word organ is derived from the Latin organum , an instrument similar to a portative organ used in ancient Roman circus games . Organum is derived in turn from the Greek όργανον ( organon ) , a generic term for an instrument or a tool .
The Greek engineer Ctesibius of Alexandria is credited with inventing the organ in the 3rd century BC . He devised an instrument called the hydraulis , which delivered a wind supply maintained through water pressure to a set of pipes . The hydraulis was played in the arenas of the Roman Empire . The pumps and water regulators of the hydraulis were replaced by an inflated leather bag in the 2nd century AD , and true bellows began to appear in the 6th or 7th century AD .
The 9th century Persian geographer Ibn Khurradadhbih ( d . 911 ) ; in his lexicographical discussion of instruments cited the urghun ( organ ) as one of the typical instruments of the Byzantine Empire . It was often used in the Hippodrome . The first Western pipe organ with " great leaden pipes " was sent to the West by the Byzantine emperor Constantine V as a gift to Pepin the Short King of the Franks in 757 . Pepin 's son Charlemagne requested a similar organ for his chapel in Aachen in 812 , beginning its establishment in Western church music .
Portable organs ( the portative and the positive organ ) were invented in the Middle Ages . Towards the middle of the 13th century , the portatives represented in the miniatures of illuminated manuscripts appear to have real keyboards with balanced keys , as in the Cantigas de Santa Maria . Its portability made the portative useful for the accompaniment of both sacred and secular music in a variety of settings .
Large organs such as the one installed in 1361 in Halberstadt , Germany , the first documented permanent organ installation , likely prompted Guillaume de Machaut to describe the organ as " the king of instruments " , a characterization still frequently applied . The Halberstadt organ was the first instrument to use a chromatic key layout across its three manuals and pedalboard , although the keys were wider than on modern instruments . It had twenty bellows operated by ten men , and the wind pressure was so high that the player had to use the full strength of his arm to hold down a key .
Until the mid @-@ 15th century , organs had no stop controls . Each manual controlled ranks at multiple pitches , known as the Blockwerk . Around 1450 , controls were designed that allowed the ranks of the Blockwerk to be played individually . These devices were the forerunners of modern stop actions . The higher @-@ pitched ranks of the Blockwerk remained grouped together under a single stop control ; these stops developed into mixtures .
= = = Renaissance and Baroque periods = = =
During the Renaissance and Baroque periods , the organ 's tonal colors became more varied . Organ builders fashioned stops that imitated various instruments , such as the krummhorn and the viola da gamba . The Baroque period is often thought of as organ building 's " golden age , " as virtually every important refinement was brought to a culminating art . Builders such as Arp Schnitger , Jasper Johannsen , Zacharias Hildebrandt and Gottfried Silbermann constructed instruments that were in themselves artistic masterpieces , displaying both exquisite craftsmanship and beautiful sound . These organs featured well @-@ balanced mechanical key actions , giving the organist precise control over the pipe speech . Schnitger 's organs featured particularly distinctive reed timbres and large Pedal and Rückpositiv divisions .
Different national styles of organ building began to develop , often due to changing political climates . In the Netherlands , the organ became a large instrument with several divisions , doubled ranks , and mounted cornets . The organs of northern Germany also had more divisions , and independent pedal divisions became increasingly common . The divisions of the organ became visibly discernible from the case design . 20th @-@ century musicologists labelled this the Werkprinzip .
In France , as in Italy , Spain and Portugal , organs were primarily designed to play alternatim verses rather than accompany congregational singing . The French Classical Organ , became remarkably consistent throughout France over the course of the Baroque era , more so than any other style of organ building in history , and standardized registrations developed . It was elaborately described by Dom Bédos de Celles in his treatise L 'art du facteur d 'orgues ( The Art of Organ Building ) . For example , in France , the organ at Notre @-@ Dame 's ( St. Etienne , Loire ) was built by Joseph and Claude @-@ Ignace Callinet in 1837 , at a time when their career was at its apex .
In England , many pipe organs were taken out of churches during the English Reformation of the 16th century and the Commonwealth period . Often these were relocated to private homes . At the Restoration , organ builders such as Renatus Harris and " Father " Bernard Smith brought new organ @-@ building ideas from continental Europe . English organs evolved from small one- or two @-@ manual instruments into three or more divisions disposed in the French manner with grander reeds and mixtures . The Echo division began to be enclosed in the early 18th century , and in 1712 Abraham Jordan claimed his " swelling organ " at St Magnus @-@ the @-@ Martyr to be a new invention . The swell box and the independent pedal division appeared in English organs beginning in the 18th century .
= = = Romantic period = = =
During the Romantic period , the organ became more symphonic , capable of creating a gradual crescendo . New technologies and the work of organ builders such as Eberhard Friedrich Walcker , Aristide Cavaillé @-@ Coll , and Henry Willis made it possible to build larger organs with more stops , more variation in sound and timbre , and more divisions . Enclosed divisions became common , and registration aids were developed to make it easier for the organist to manage the great number of stops . The desire for louder , grander organs required that the stops be voiced on a higher wind pressure than before . As a result , a greater force was required to overcome the wind pressure and depress the keys . To solve this problem , Cavaillé @-@ Coll configured the English " Barker lever " to assist in operating the key action .
Organ builders began to lean towards specifications with fewer mixtures and high @-@ pitched stops . They preferred to use more 8 ′ and 16 ′ stops in their specifications and wider pipe scales . These practices created a warmer , richer sound than was common in the 18th century . Organs began to be built in concert halls ( such as the organ at the Palais du Trocadéro in Paris ) , and composers such as Camille Saint @-@ Saëns and Gustav Mahler used the organ in their orchestral works .
= = = Modern development = = =
The development of pneumatic and electro @-@ pneumatic key actions in the late 19th century made it possible to locate the console independently of the pipes , greatly expanding the possibilities in organ design . Electric stop actions were also developed , which allowed sophisticated combination actions to be created .
In the mid @-@ 20th century , organ builders began to build historically inspired instruments modelled on Baroque organs . They returned to building mechanical key actions , voicing with lower wind pressures and thinner pipe scales , and designing specifications with more mixture stops . This became known as the Organ reform movement .
In the late 20th century , organ builders began to incorporate digital components into their key , stop , and combination actions . Besides making these mechanisms simpler and more reliable , this also makes it possible to record and play back an organist ’ s performance via the MIDI protocol . In addition , some organ builders have incorporated digital stops into their pipe organs .
The electronic organ developed throughout the 20th century . Some pipe organs were replaced by digital organs because of their lower purchase price , smaller physical size , and minimal maintenance requirements . In the early 1970s , Rodgers Instruments pioneered the hybrid organ , an electronic instrument that incorporates real pipes ; other builders such as Allen Organs and Johannus Orgelbouw have since built hybrid organs . It should be noted that electronic " organs " may have a lower purchase price but have demonstrated a higher cost of ownership as components fail and parts become obsolete . Pipe organs , made of metal , wood , leather , and felt can be maintained for centuries .
= = Repertoire = =
The main development of organ repertoire has progressed along with that of the organ itself , leading to distinctive national styles of composition . Because organs are commonly found in churches and synagogues , the organ repertoire includes a large amount of sacred music , which is accompanimental ( choral anthems , congregational hymns , liturgical elements , etc . ) as well as solo in nature ( chorale preludes , hymn versets designed for alternatim use , etc . ) . The organ 's secular repertoire includes preludes , fugues , sonatas , organ symphonies , suites , and transcriptions of orchestral works .
Although most countries whose music falls into the Western tradition have contributed to the organ repertoire , France and Germany in particular have produced exceptionally large amounts of organ music . There is also an extensive repertoire from the Netherlands , England , and the United States .
Before the Baroque era , keyboard music generally was not written for one instrument or another , but rather was written to be played on any keyboard instrument . For this reason , much of the organ 's repertoire through the Renaissance period is the same as that of the harpsichord . Pre @-@ Renaissance keyboard music is found in compiled manuscripts that may include compositions from a variety of regions . The oldest of these sources is the Robertsbridge Codex , dating from about 1360 . The Buxheimer Orgelbuch , which dates from about 1470 and was compiled in Germany , includes intabulations of vocal music by the English composer John Dunstaple . The earliest Italian organ music is found in the Faenza Codex , dating from 1420 .
In the Renaissance period , Dutch composers such as Jan Pieterszoon Sweelinck composed both fantasias and psalm settings . Sweelinck in particular developed a rich collection of keyboard figuration that influenced subsequent composers . The Italian composer Claudio Merulo wrote in the typical Italian genres of the toccata , the canzona , and the ricercar . In Spain , the works of Antonio de Cabezón began the most prolific period of Spanish organ composition , which culminated with Juan Cabanilles .
Early Baroque organ music in Germany was highly contrapuntal . Sacred organ music was based on chorales : composers such as Samuel Scheidt and Heinrich Scheidemann wrote chorale preludes , chorale fantasias , and chorale motets . Towards the end of the Baroque era , the chorale prelude and the partita became mixed , forming the chorale partita . This genre was developed by Georg Böhm , Johann Pachelbel , and Dieterich Buxtehude . The primary type of free @-@ form piece in this period was the praeludium , as exemplified in the works of Matthias Weckmann , Nicolaus Bruhns , Böhm , and Buxtehude . The organ music of Johann Sebastian Bach fused characteristics of every national tradition and historical style in his large @-@ scale preludes and fugues and chorale @-@ based works . Towards the end of the Baroque era , George Frideric Handel composed the first organ concertos .
In France , organ music developed during the Baroque era through the music of Jean Titelouze , François Couperin , and Nicolas de Grigny . Because the French organ of the 17th and early 18th centuries was very standardized , a conventional set of registrations developed for its repertoire . The music of French composers ( and Italian composers such as Girolamo Frescobaldi ) was written for use during the Mass . Very little secular organ music was composed in France and Italy during the Baroque period ; the written repertoire is almost exclusively intended for liturgical use . In England , composers such as John Blow and John Stanley wrote multi @-@ sectional free works for liturgical use called voluntaries through the 19th century .
Organ music was seldom written in the Classical era , as composers preferred the piano with its ability to create dynamics . In Germany , the six sonatas op . 65 of Felix Mendelssohn ( published 1845 ) marked the beginning of a renewed interest in composing for the organ . Inspired by the newly built Cavaillé @-@ Coll organs , the French organist @-@ composers César Franck , Alexandre Guilmant and Charles @-@ Marie Widor led organ music into the symphonic realm . The development of symphonic organ music continued with Louis Vierne and Charles Tournemire . Widor and Vierne wrote large @-@ scale , multi @-@ movement works called organ symphonies that exploited the full possibilities of the symphonic organ . Max Reger and Sigfrid Karg @-@ Elert 's symphonic works made use of the abilities of the large Romantic organs being built in Germany at the time .
In the 19th and 20th centuries , organ builders began to build instruments in concert halls and other large secular venues , allowing the organ to be used as part of an orchestra , as in Saint @-@ Saëns ' Symphony No. 3 . Frequently the organ is given a soloistic part , such as in Joseph Jongen 's Symphonie Concertante for Organ & Orchestra , Francis Poulenc 's Concerto for Organ , Strings and Tympani , and Frigyes Hidas ' Organ Concerto .
Other composers who have used the organ prominently in orchestral music include Gustav Holst , Richard Strauss , Ottorino Respighi , Gustav Mahler , Anton Bruckner , and Ralph Vaughan Williams . Because these concert hall instruments could approximate the sounds of symphony orchestras , transcriptions of orchestral works found a place in the organ repertoire . As silent films became popular , theatre organs were installed in theatres to provide accompaniment for the films .
In the 20th @-@ century symphonic repertoire , both sacred and secular , continued to progress through the music of Marcel Dupré , Maurice Duruflé , and Herbert Howells . Other composers , such as Olivier Messiaen , György Ligeti , Jehan Alain , Jean Langlais , Gerd Zacher , and Petr Eben , wrote post @-@ tonal organ music . Messiaen 's music in particular redefined many of the traditional notions of organ registration and technique .
= = = Online radio stations = = =
Organlive An online station of classical organ music .
Positively Baroque An online station dedicated to organ music of the Baroque period .
At the Organ An online station providing weekly programming about the classical organ .
Pipedreams A weekly 2 @-@ hour public radio program of organ music .
Sacred Classics , a radio program of organ and choral music
= = = Databases = = =
International Organ Foundation , an online pipe organ database with specifications of more than 8000 organs in over 80 countries
Organ Historical Society Pipe Organ Database
The Top 20 - The World 's Largest Pipe Organs
National Pipe Organ Register , featuring history and specifications of 28 @,@ 000 pipe organs in the United Kingdom
Die Orgelseite , photos and specifications of some of the world 's most interesting organs ( subscription required for some content )
Organ Database , stoplists , pictures and information about some 33 @,@ 500 pipe organs around the world
The New York City Organ Project documents organs present and past in the five boroughs of New York City
= = = Resources for pipe organ video recordings = = =
" TourBus to the King of Instruments " – video series with Carol Williams ( organist ) about the large & small , famous & unique pipe organs of the world . American Video & Audio Production Company
" The Joy of Music " – television series with Diane Bish about large pipe organs in USA and in Europe .
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= Barend Joseph Stokvis =
Barend Joseph Stokvis ( Dutch pronunciation : [ ˈbaːrənt ˈjoːsəf ˈstɔkfɪs ] ; 16 August 1834 – 28 September 1902 ) was a physician and professor of physiology and pharmacology at the University of Amsterdam . He is mainly remembered for his description of acute porphyria in 1889 . As a researcher in chemical pathology he made contributions to the understanding of a number of diseases , such as diabetes . He was also considered an expert in tropical medicine and a celebrated medical educator . He authored an influential pharmacology textbook . Stokvis was one of a number of prominent 19th century Jewish physicians in the Netherlands .
= = Early life and education = =
Stokvis was born to Rachel Wittering and Joseph Barend Stokvis , Jr . , a Jewish physician and obstetrician in Amsterdam . He studied medicine in Amsterdam and at the University of Utrecht under Franciscus Donders and Jacobus Schroeder van der Kolk , obtaining a doctorate on a dissertation on hepatic glucose production in diabetes in 1856 . His thesis appeared shortly after the publication of related work by the French physiologist Claude Bernard . Stokvis may also have been influenced by the chemist Gerardus Mulder in Amsterdam . Subsequently he travelled to Paris and Vienna ( and possibly Prague ) , before establishing himself in medical practice in Amsterdam . He continued his medical research under the physiologists Adriaan Heynsius , Wilhelm Kühne and Thomas Place . In 1867 , the Brussels Academy awarded a gold medal to Stokvis for an essay on the development of albuminuria , a kidney disorder in which the protein albumin can be detected in the urine .
= = Scientific career = =
In 1874 he was appointed as lecturer in medicine at the Athenaeum Illustre in medicine , pathology and pharmacodynamics , and became a professor when the Athenaeum received university status and became the Municipal University of Amsterdam . He served as rector magnificus ( dean ) of the university in the 1880s .
His prolific output , mainly in chemical pathology , included research into the metabolism of glycogen , uric acid , and urea ; studies into an epidemic of cholera in Amsterdam ; the toxicity of Atropa belladonna ( deadly nightshade ) ; various pigmented substances in the blood ( including porphyrins ) ; the nature of the heart sounds ; and several contributions in tropical medicine , in which he was considered an expert . He also described the blood disorder methaemoglobinaemia .
In 1889 , he reported on a case of acute illness provoked by the newly introduced hypnotic drug sulfonmethane , also known as sulfonal . Stokvis observed the unusual dark red urine , discovered that it contained porphyrins , and coined the name " porphyria " for the condition . The patient 's underlying condition was probably acute intermittent porphyria , which can be provoked by medicines . Similar reports by others followed shortly after , and it was soon found that other drugs could also induce porphyria attacks . The Swedish chemist Olof Hammarsten further analysed red compound found in the urine of the patients with sulfonal @-@ related porphyria attacks , labeling it " haematoporphyrin " . Porphyrins were first identified by the German chemist Felix Hoppe @-@ Seyler in 1871 , and derive their named from the Greek for purple — poxphuros — after to their purple color .
Stokvis ' most important work was judged by his contemporaries to be his three @-@ volume " Voordrachten over Geneesmiddelenleer " ( " Speeches on Pharmacology " , soon translated into the French " Leçons de Pharmacotherapie " ) , which appeared shortly before his death .
= = Other activities = =
Stokvis was close to the influential German pathologist Rudolf Virchow . In 1879 Stokvis was elected a member of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences , and he served as vice @-@ president of the Academy in 1896 . He was awarded received an honorary Doctorate of Laws by the University of Edinburgh in 1884 . Stokvis also chaired the 1883 International Colonial Medicine Congress in Amsterdam . He was one of the founders ( in 1896 ) of Janus , an international journal for the history of medicine . He is regarded as an illustrious member of Holland 's medical dynasty , and as a pioneer in the fields of chemical physiology and chemotherapy . Together with Samuel Siegmund Rosenstein , professor of medicine in Leiden , he was a supporter of Aletta Jacobs , the first woman to qualify as a doctor in the Netherlands .
In addition to his medical work , Stokvis also succeeded his father as president of the charitable Jewish Poor Board ( Nederlandsch Israëlitisch Armbestuur ) , was a member @-@ founder of the Dutch Jewish Institute for the Insane , and a board member of the Jewish Institute for the Aged and the Amsterdam Jewish Hospital ( Centraal Israëlitische Ziekenverpleging ) . He was also a patron of the arts .
= = Personal life = =
In 1865 he married Julia Elisabeth , the sister of his close friend , the banker and philanthropist A.C. Wertheim . They had two children . He was an ardent swimmer , and wrote poetry under several pseudonyms . He spoke several languages . He died in Amsterdam shortly after returning from a holiday in Ireland , from what was thought to be myocarditis .
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= Abe Mickal =
Ibrahim Khalil " Abe " Mickal ( c . 1912 / 1913 – September 20 , 2001 ) was a Lebanese American college football player and a doctor . Mickal played as a running back for the LSU Tigers of Louisiana State University , where he was notable for his passing skills and play @-@ making ability . He was also the team 's primary punter and placekicker . A three @-@ time All @-@ Southeastern Conference selection , Mickal led LSU to an undefeated season in 1933 , and a conference championship and Sugar Bowl in 1935 . In 1936 , Mickal played quarterback for a college all @-@ star team that became the first team of college players to defeat a National Football League ( NFL ) team . Although selected in the 1936 NFL Draft , he did not play professionally . Mickal was a charter member of the LSU Athletic Hall of Fame in 1937 and was inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame in 1967 .
In addition to football , Mickal was a cadet in LSU 's Reserve Officers ' Training Corps ( ROTC ) , was a member of the pre @-@ med club and debate team , and as a senior was president of the university 's student body . While a student at LSU , Mickal declined a seat in the Louisiana State Senate offered to him by U.S. Senator and noted LSU supporter , Huey P. Long . He earned his medical degree in 1940 , and after serving in World War II he began a lifelong career in obstetrics and gynecology . He served as head professor of the LSU Medical School OB / GYN department for over twenty years . Actively involved in various university affairs during and after his time as a student , Mickal was named LSU 's " Alumnus of the Year " in 1980 .
= = Early life = =
Ibrahim Khalil Mickal was born in Syria , in an area that is today part of Lebanon , and immigrated with his family to the United States in 1920 and arrived on Ellis Island . He settled in McComb , Mississippi and attended McComb High School , where he played football , baseball , and basketball and ran track . His father Kalil , who ran a local general store , was initially against his son playing sports . " It was an old Lebanese custom , " Mickal later explained , " that the eldest son take over the business . My father wasn 't aware that I was playing . " His father was eventually persuaded by the townspeople to let his son play . During his senior year he was recruited by LSU and Notre Dame to play football , and ultimately chose the Tigers after the death of Notre Dame head coach Knute Rockne .
= = College = =
Mickal was an all @-@ around player ; a triple @-@ threat running back who also played on defense . He was regarded as an excellent deep @-@ ball passer ; in the words of LSU coach Lawrence " Biff " Jones : " Mickal is a greater passer than Red Cagle — he 's the greatest I ever saw . " Jones was Cagle 's coach while at Army . One sportswriter referred to Mickal as " the Dizzy Dean of the nation 's forward passers . " He was also known for his play @-@ making ability during crucial moments of games , and LSU compiled a win – loss record of 23 – 4 – 5 in the three seasons Mickal played for the team .
= = = 1933 = = =
Mickal showed his versatility in the first game of the 1933 season against Rice , tossing a 40 @-@ yard pass on the first play from scrimmage to end Pete Burge and booting punts of 76 and 61 yards . In week four against Arkansas Mickal completed touchdown passes of 48 and 57 yards and ran for a 15 @-@ yard touchdown , as he was responsible for every score in the 20 – 0 win over the eventual Southwest Conference champion Razorbacks . He scored the only touchdown of LSU 's final game of the season , against Tennessee , with a goal line dive into the end zone . He also kicked the extra point for the 7 – 0 victory , and completed the season having successfully made every extra point he attempted . The Tigers finished undefeated with three ties in their first season as members of the Southeastern Conference ( SEC ) . After the season , Mickal was named to the United Press ( UP ) All @-@ SEC second team as a halfback .
= = = 1934 = = =
One of Mickal 's most notable games came in 1934 against the Mustangs of Southern Methodist . He threw two touchdown passes , the first one a 32 @-@ yarder to tie the game at 7 – 7 in the second quarter . Late in the fourth quarter and down by a touchdown , Mickal dropped back at his own 35 @-@ yard line and hurled a pass down the middle of the field . It was caught in stride at the Mustang 20 @-@ yard line by Gaynell Tinsley , who ran it into the end zone to tie the game at 14 – 14 , which was the final score . In week four against 13th @-@ ranked Arkansas , Mickal completed five of seven passes for 117 yards , which included a 52 @-@ yard bomb in the third quarter for the first score of the 16 – 0 win . He also averaged over 50 yards per punt on nine punts . The next week he threw a touchdown pass , kicked a field goal , and averaged over 40 yards per punt in a 29 – 0 win over previously undefeated Vanderbilt . Mickal was named a first @-@ team All @-@ SEC selection as a fullback by the Associated Press ( AP ) and as a halfback by the UP .
= = = = Senatorship = = = =
During the season , Mickal was acclaimed an honorary Louisiana State Senator by U.S. Senator Huey P. Long , whom he had befriended , at a burlesque campus meeting . Long was a noted LSU supporter and was highly involved in operations of the football program . When it came time for his ceremonial " seating " Mickal refused to appear for the ceremony , despite the urging of Long . After Long reasoned with the senate and spectators that Mickal " had to study , " Mickal was granted a five @-@ day leave of absence by senator Harvey Peltier to " do his work at school and go forward with his preparation for his football duties . " Mickal remained silent on the matter , however ; he did not give a reason for his refusal of the honor . The day he was to be inducted , Mickal said in a telegram to Long that if he accepted the senatorship he would introduce a joint resolution that made it " unlawful " for any Tulane player to cross the LSU goal line in 1934 .
= = = 1935 = = =
Mickal had a slow start to 1935 while he recovered from a broken ankle he suffered over the summer . In week three , he threw two touchdown passes against Manhattan College , and a game @-@ winning touchdown pass against Vanderbilt two weeks later . In the regular season finale , Mickal was responsible for three touchdowns in a 41 – 0 win over rival Tulane . LSU played TCU at the end of the season in the Sugar Bowl , in a game that was a highly anticipated match @-@ up between Mickal and the Horned Frogs ' Sammy Baugh . The offenses were unable to do much , however , as rain throughout the day had muddied the field . TCU won the game , 3 – 2 . LSU finished the season undefeated in conference play for its first SEC championship . Mickal was named to the AP All @-@ SEC second @-@ team as a fullback after the season , and earned second @-@ team All @-@ America honors from Liberty magazine .
= = = 1936 All @-@ Stars vs. Bears = = =
In September 1936 , Mickal played quarterback for the Centennial College All @-@ Stars , a team composed of college players from southern schools to play against the National Football League 's Chicago Bears at Cotton Bowl stadium . He scored the All @-@ Stars ' only touchdown with a dive into the end zone from the one @-@ foot line in the third quarter . The Bears scored their only touchdown later that quarter on a 5 @-@ yard run by Bronko Nagurski . Mickal had a chance to tackle Nagurski before the goal line . " A lot of things flashed through my mind , " explained Mickal . " There was nothing between him and the goal line but me . I thought about making the perfect tackle and reading about being the All @-@ Stars ' hero . Then I thought about Nagurski 's size . I thought about the Nagurski legend . I thought about going to med school . I thought about possible brain damage . " He decided to step aside and let Nagurski score . The extra point , however , was blocked by Bob Reynolds , and the game ended 7 – 6 in favor of the All @-@ Stars . It was the first time a team of college players defeated a professional American football team .
= = = Extracurricular = = =
Mickal was actively involved in the university 's Reserve Officers ' Training Corps . He received the Outstanding Cadet Award as a freshman and was regimental sergeant major as a junior . As a senior he attained the rank of Cadet Colonel and earned the Kemper Williams Sabre as the school 's outstanding cadet . Additionally , he was a member of the pre @-@ med club and debate team , and in 1936 was president of the school 's Interfraternity Council , college of arts and sciences , and student body . Mickal was a member of the Theta Kappa Nu fraternity .
= = Later life = =
= = = Medical career = = =
Mickal was selected in the sixth round of the 1936 NFL Draft by the Detroit Lions . However , he did not play in the NFL . He instead chose to complete his medical degree at the Louisiana State University School of Medicine , where he graduated from in 1940 . He served as a major in the U.S. Army Medical Corps during World War II . After the war , he worked in obstetrics and gynecology at New Orleans Charity Hospital from 1946 to 1949 , shortly after which he was named to the LSU medical faculty . In 1959 he became the head professor of the LSU Medical School , a position he served in until his retirement in 1980 . He helped found the Society of Gynecologic Oncology and the Infectious Disease Society for Obstetrics and Gynecology , and served as president of the Society of Gynecologic Surgeons from 1981 to 1982 . From 1985 until his death in 2001 he was vice president for medical affairs at Kenner Regional Medical Center .
= = = Honors = = =
Mickal was a charter member of the LSU Athletic Hall of Fame in 1937 . In 1967 , the National Football Foundation named Mickal to the College Football Hall of Fame . He was inducted into the Louisiana Sports Hall of Fame in 1969 and the Mississippi Sports Hall of Fame in 1985 . Mickal was named LSU 's " Alumnus of the Year " in 1980 and its " Medical Alumnus of the Year " in 1985 . " It 's been a beautiful marriage — and I 've had all the better of it , " said Mickal of his involvement with the university . The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists gave Mickal its Distinguished Service Award in 1991 .
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= Ernest Hemingway =
Ernest Miller Hemingway ( July 21 , 1899 – July 2 , 1961 ) was an American novelist , short story writer , and journalist . His economical and understated style had a strong influence on 20th @-@ century fiction , while his life of adventure and his public image influenced later generations . Hemingway produced most of his work between the mid @-@ 1920s and the mid @-@ 1950s , and won the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1954 . He published seven novels , six short story collections , and two non @-@ fiction works . Additional works , including three novels , four short story collections , and three non @-@ fiction works , were published posthumously . Many of his works are considered classics of American literature .
Hemingway was raised in Oak Park , Illinois . After high school , he reported for a few months for The Kansas City Star , before leaving for the Italian front to enlist with the World War I ambulance drivers . In 1918 , he was seriously wounded and returned home . His wartime experiences formed the basis for his novel A Farewell to Arms ( 1929 ) .
In 1921 , he married Hadley Richardson , the first of his four wives . The couple moved to Paris , where he worked as a foreign correspondent and fell under the influence of the modernist writers and artists of the 1920s " Lost Generation " expatriate community . He published his first novel , The Sun Also Rises , in 1926 . After his 1927 divorce from Hadley Richardson , Hemingway married Pauline Pfeiffer ; they divorced after he returned from the Spanish Civil War where he had been a journalist , and after which he wrote For Whom the Bell Tolls ( 1940 ) . Martha Gellhorn became his third wife in 1940 ; they separated when he met Mary Welsh in London during World War II . He was present at the Normandy landings and the liberation of Paris .
Shortly after the publication of The Old Man and the Sea ( 1952 ) , Hemingway went on safari to Africa , where he was almost killed in two successive plane crashes that left him in pain or ill health for much of his remaining life . Hemingway maintained permanent residences in Key West , Florida ( 1930s ) and Cuba ( 1940s and 1950s ) , and in 1959 , he bought a house in Ketchum , Idaho , where he committed suicide in the summer of 1961 .
= = Life = =
= = = Early life = = =
Ernest Miller Hemingway was born on July 21 , 1899 , in Oak Park , Illinois , a suburb of Chicago . His father , Clarence Edmonds Hemingway , was a physician , and his mother , Grace Hall @-@ Hemingway , was a musician . Both were well @-@ educated and well @-@ respected in the conservative community of Oak Park , a community about which resident Frank Lloyd Wright said , " So many churches for so many good people to go to " . For a short period after their marriage , Clarence and Grace Hemingway lived with Grace 's father , Ernest Hall , who eventually became their first son 's namesake . Later Ernest Hemingway would say that he disliked his name , which he " associated with the naive , even foolish hero of Oscar Wilde 's play The Importance of Being Earnest " . The family eventually moved into a seven @-@ bedroom home in a respectable neighborhood with a music studio for Grace and a medical office for Clarence .
Hemingway 's mother frequently performed in concerts around the village . As an adult , Hemingway professed to hate his mother , although biographer Michael S. Reynolds points out that Hemingway mirrored her energy and enthusiasm . Her insistence that he learn to play the cello became a " source of conflict " , but he later admitted the music lessons were useful to his writing , as is evident in the " contrapuntal structure " of For Whom the Bell Tolls . The family owned a summer home called Windemere on Walloon Lake , near Petoskey , Michigan , where as a four @-@ year @-@ old he learned from his father to hunt , fish , and camp in the woods and lakes of Northern Michigan . His early experiences in nature instilled a passion for outdoor adventure and living in remote or isolated areas .
From 1913 until 1917 , Hemingway attended Oak Park and River Forest High School where he took part in a number of sports , namely boxing , track and field , water polo , and football . He excelled in English classes and performed in the school orchestra with his sister Marcelline for two years . In his junior year , he took a journalism class , taught by Fannie Biggs , which was structured " as though the classroom were a newspaper office " . The better writers in class submitted pieces to The Trapeze , the school newspaper . Hemingway and Marcelline both had pieces submitted to The Trapeze ; Hemingway 's first piece , published in January 1916 , was about a local performance by the Chicago Symphony Orchestra . He continued to contribute to and to edit the Trapeze and the Tabula ( the school 's newspaper and yearbook ) , for which he imitated the language of sportswriters , and used the pen name Ring Lardner , Jr . — a nod to Ring Lardner of the Chicago Tribune whose byline was " Line O 'Type " . Like Mark Twain , Stephen Crane , Theodore Dreiser and Sinclair Lewis , Hemingway was a journalist before becoming a novelist ; after leaving high school he went to work for The Kansas City Star as a cub reporter . Although he stayed there for only six months , he relied on the Star 's style guide as a foundation for his writing : " Use short sentences . Use short first paragraphs . Use vigorous English . Be positive , not negative . "
= = = World War I = = =
Early in 1918 , Hemingway responded to a Red Cross recruitment effort in Kansas City and signed on to become an ambulance driver in Italy . He left New York in May and arrived in Paris as the city was under bombardment from German artillery . By June , he was at the Italian Front . It was probably around this time that he first met John Dos Passos , with whom he had a rocky relationship for decades . On his first day in Milan , he was sent to the scene of a munitions factory explosion , where rescuers retrieved the shredded remains of female workers . He described the incident in his non @-@ fiction book Death in the Afternoon : " I remember that after we searched quite thoroughly for the complete dead we collected fragments " . A few days later , he was stationed at Fossalta di Piave .
On July 8 , he was seriously wounded by mortar fire , having just returned from the canteen bringing chocolate and cigarettes for the men at the front line . Despite his wounds , Hemingway assisted Italian soldiers to safety , for which he received the Italian Silver Medal of Bravery . Still only 18 , Hemingway said of the incident : " When you go to war as a boy you have a great illusion of immortality . Other people get killed ; not you ... Then when you are badly wounded the first time you lose that illusion and you know it can happen to you . " He sustained severe shrapnel wounds to both legs , underwent an immediate operation at a distribution center , and spent five days at a field hospital before he was transferred for recuperation to the Red Cross hospital in Milan . He spent six months at the hospital , where he met and formed a strong friendship with " Chink " Dorman @-@ Smith that lasted for decades and shared a room with future American foreign service officer , ambassador , and author Henry Serrano Villard .
While recuperating , he fell in love , for the first time , with Agnes von Kurowsky , a Red Cross nurse seven years his senior . By the time of his release and return to the United States in January 1919 , Agnes and Hemingway had decided to marry within a few months in America . However , in March , she wrote that she had become engaged to an Italian officer . Biographer Jeffrey Meyers states in his book Hemingway : A Biography that Hemingway was devastated by Agnes ' rejection , and in future relationships , he followed a pattern of abandoning a wife before she abandoned him .
= = = Toronto and Chicago = = =
Hemingway returned home early in 1919 to a time of readjustment . Not yet 20 years old , he had gained from the war a maturity that was at odds with living at home without a job and with the need for recuperation . As Reynolds explains , " Hemingway could not really tell his parents what he thought when he saw his bloody knee . He could not say how scared he was in another country with surgeons who could not tell him in English if his leg was coming off or not . " In September , he took a fishing and camping trip with high school friends to the back @-@ country of Michigan 's Upper Peninsula . The trip became the inspiration for his short story " Big Two @-@ Hearted River " , in which the semi @-@ autobiographical character Nick Adams takes to the country to find solitude after returning from war . A family friend offered him a job in Toronto , and with nothing else to do , he accepted . Late that year he began as a freelancer , staff writer , and foreign correspondent for the Toronto Star Weekly . He returned to Michigan the following June and then moved to Chicago in September 1920 to live with friends , while still filing stories for the Toronto Star .
In Chicago , he worked as an associate editor of the monthly journal Cooperative Commonwealth , where he met novelist Sherwood Anderson . When St. Louis native Hadley Richardson came to Chicago to visit the sister of Hemingway 's roommate , he became infatuated and later claimed , " I knew she was the girl I was going to marry " . Hadley was red @-@ haired , with a " nurturing instinct " , and eight years older than Hemingway . Despite being older than Hemingway , Hadley , who had grown up with an overprotective mother , seemed less mature than usual for a young woman her age . Bernice Kert , author of The Hemingway Women , claims Hadley was " evocative " of Agnes , but that Hadley had a childishness that Agnes lacked . The two corresponded for a few months and then decided to marry and travel to Europe . They wanted to visit Rome , but Sherwood Anderson convinced them to visit Paris instead , writing letters of introduction for the young couple . They were married on September 3 , 1921 ; two months later , Hemingway was hired as foreign correspondent for the Toronto Star , and the couple left for Paris . Of Hemingway 's marriage to Hadley , Meyers claims : " With Hadley , Hemingway achieved everything he had hoped for with Agnes : the love of a beautiful woman , a comfortable income , a life in Europe . "
= = = Paris = = =
Carlos Baker , Hemingway 's first biographer , believes that while Anderson suggested Paris because " the monetary exchange rate " made it an inexpensive place to live , more importantly it was where " the most interesting people in the world " lived . In Paris , Hemingway met writers such as Gertrude Stein , James Joyce , and Ezra Pound who " could help a young writer up the rungs of a career " . The Hemingway of the early Paris years was a " tall , handsome , muscular , broad @-@ shouldered , brown @-@ eyed , rosy @-@ cheeked , square @-@ jawed , soft @-@ voiced young man . " He and Hadley lived in a small walk @-@ up at 74 rue du Cardinal Lemoine in the Latin Quarter , and he worked in a rented room in a nearby building . Stein , who was the bastion of modernism in Paris , became Hemingway 's mentor and godmother to his son Jack ; she introduced him to the expatriate artists and writers of the Montparnasse Quarter , whom she referred to as the " Lost Generation " — a term Hemingway popularized with the publication of The Sun Also Rises . A regular at Stein 's salon , Hemingway met influential painters such as Pablo Picasso , Joan Miró , and Juan Gris . He eventually withdrew from Stein 's influence and their relationship deteriorated into a literary quarrel that spanned decades . The American poet Ezra Pound met Hemingway by chance at Sylvia Beach 's bookshop Shakespeare and Company in 1922 . The two toured Italy in 1923 and lived on the same street in 1924 . They forged a strong friendship , and in Hemingway , Pound recognized and fostered a young talent . Pound introduced Hemingway to the Irish writer James Joyce , with whom Hemingway frequently embarked on " alcoholic sprees " .
During his first 20 months in Paris , Hemingway filed 88 stories for the Toronto Star newspaper . He covered the Greco @-@ Turkish War , where he witnessed the burning of Smyrna , and wrote travel pieces such as " Tuna Fishing in Spain " and " Trout Fishing All Across Europe : Spain Has the Best , Then Germany " . Hemingway was devastated on learning that Hadley had lost a suitcase filled with his manuscripts at the Gare de Lyon as she was traveling to Geneva to meet him in December 1922 . The following September , the couple returned to Toronto , where their son John Hadley Nicanor was born on October 10 , 1923 . During their absence , Hemingway 's first book , Three Stories and Ten Poems , was published . Two of the stories it contained were all that remained after the loss of the suitcase , and the third had been written the previous spring in Italy . Within months a second volume , in our time ( without capitals ) , was published . The small volume included six vignettes and a dozen stories Hemingway had written the previous summer during his first visit to Spain , where he discovered the thrill of the corrida . He missed Paris , considered Toronto boring , and wanted to return to the life of a writer , rather than live the life of a journalist .
Hemingway , Hadley and their son ( nicknamed Bumby ) returned to Paris in January 1924 and moved into a new apartment on the rue Notre @-@ Dame des Champs . Hemingway helped Ford Madox Ford edit the The Transatlantic Review , which published works by Pound , John Dos Passos , Baroness Elsa von Freytag @-@ Loringhoven , and Stein , as well as some of Hemingway 's own early stories such as " Indian Camp " . When In Our Time ( with capital letters ) was published in 1925 , the dust jacket bore comments from Ford . " Indian Camp " received considerable praise ; Ford saw it as an important early story by a young writer , and critics in the United States praised Hemingway for reinvigorating the short story genre with his crisp style and use of declarative sentences . Six months earlier , Hemingway had met F. Scott Fitzgerald , and the pair formed a friendship of " admiration and hostility " . Fitzgerald had published The Great Gatsby the same year : Hemingway read it , liked it , and decided his next work had to be a novel .
With his wife Hadley , Hemingway first visited the Festival of San Fermín in Pamplona , Spain , in 1923 , where he became fascinated by bullfighting . It is at this time that he began to be referred to as " Papa . " The Hemingways returned to Pamplona in 1924 and a third time in June 1925 ; that year they brought with them a group of American and British expatriates : Hemingway 's Michigan boyhood friend Bill Smith , Donald Ogden Stewart , Lady Duff Twysden ( recently divorced ) , her lover Pat Guthrie , and Harold Loeb . A few days after the fiesta ended , on his birthday ( July 21 ) , he began to write the draft of what would become The Sun Also Rises , finishing eight weeks later . A few months later , in December 1925 , the Hemingways left to spend the winter in Schruns , Austria , where Hemingway began revising the manuscript extensively . Pauline Pfeiffer joined them in January and against Hadley 's advice , urged Hemingway to sign a contract with Scribner 's . He left Austria for a quick trip to New York to meet with the publishers , and on his return , during a stop in Paris , began an affair with Pfeiffer , before returning to Schruns to finish the revisions in March . The manuscript arrived in New York in April ; he corrected the final proof in Paris in August 1926 , and Scribner 's published the novel in October .
The Sun Also Rises epitomized the post @-@ war expatriate generation , received good reviews , and is " recognized as Hemingway 's greatest work " . Hemingway himself later wrote to his editor Max Perkins that the " point of the book " was not so much about a generation being lost , but that " the earth abideth forever " ; he believed the characters in The Sun Also Rises may have been " battered " but were not lost .
Hemingway 's marriage to Hadley deteriorated as he was working on The Sun Also Rises . In the spring of 1926 , Hadley became aware of his affair with Pfeiffer , who came to Pamplona with them that July . On their return to Paris , Hadley asked for a separation ; in November she formally requested a divorce . They split their possessions while Hadley accepted Hemingway 's offer of the proceeds from The Sun Also Rises . The couple were divorced in January 1927 , and Hemingway married Pfeiffer in May .
Pfeiffer , who was from a wealthy Catholic Arkansas family , had moved to Paris to work for Vogue magazine . Before their marriage , Hemingway converted to Catholicism . They honeymooned in Le Grau @-@ du @-@ Roi , where he contracted anthrax , and he planned his next collection of short stories , Men Without Women , which was published in October 1927 , and included his boxing story " Fifty Grand " . Cosmopolitan magazine editor @-@ in @-@ chief Ray Long praised " Fifty Grand " , calling it , " one of the best short stories that ever came to my hands ... the best prize @-@ fight story I ever read ... a remarkable piece of realism . "
By the end of the year Pauline , who was pregnant , wanted to move back to America . John Dos Passos recommended Key West , and they left Paris in March 1928 . That spring , Hemingway suffered a severe injury in their Paris bathroom , when he pulled a skylight down on his head thinking he was pulling on a toilet chain . This left him with a prominent forehead scar , which he carried for the rest of his life . When Hemingway was asked about the scar , he was reluctant to answer . After his departure from Paris , Hemingway " never again lived in a big city " .
= = = Key West and the Caribbean = = =
In the late spring , Hemingway and Pauline traveled to Kansas City , where their son Patrick was born on June 28 , 1928 . Pauline had a difficult delivery , which Hemingway fictionalized in A Farewell to Arms . After Patrick 's birth , Pauline and Hemingway traveled to Wyoming , Massachusetts , and New York . In the winter , he was in New York with Bumby , about to board a train to Florida , when he received a cable telling him that his father had committed suicide . Hemingway was devastated , having earlier written his father telling him not to worry about financial difficulties ; the letter arrived minutes after the suicide . He realized how Hadley must have felt after her own father 's suicide in 1903 , and he commented , " I 'll probably go the same way . "
Upon his return to Key West in December , Hemingway worked on the draft of A Farewell to Arms before leaving for France in January . He had finished it in August but delayed the revision . The serialization in Scribner 's Magazine was scheduled to begin in May , but as late as April , Hemingway was still working on the ending , which he may have rewritten as many as seventeen times . The completed novel was published on September 27 . Biographer James Mellow believes A Farewell to Arms established Hemingway 's stature as a major American writer and displayed a level of complexity not apparent in The Sun Also Rises . In Spain during the summer of 1929 , Hemingway researched his next work , Death in the Afternoon . He wanted to write a comprehensive treatise on bullfighting , explaining the toreros and corridas complete with glossaries and appendices , because he believed bullfighting was " of great tragic interest , being literally of life and death . "
During the early 1930s , Hemingway spent his winters in Key West and summers in Wyoming , where he found " the most beautiful country he had seen in the American West " and hunted deer , elk , and grizzly bear . He was joined there by Dos Passos and in November 1930 , after bringing Dos Passos to the train station in Billings , Montana , Hemingway broke his arm in a car accident . The surgeon tended the compound spiral fracture and bound the bone with kangaroo tendon . Hemingway was hospitalized for seven weeks , with Pauline tending to him ; the nerves in his writing hand took as long as a year to heal , during which time he suffered intense pain .
His third son , Gregory Hancock Hemingway , was born a year later on November 12 , 1931 , in Kansas City . Pauline 's uncle bought the couple a house in Key West with a carriage house , the second floor of which was converted into a writing studio . Its location across the street from the lighthouse made it easy for Hemingway to find after a long night of drinking . While in Key West , Hemingway frequented the local bar Sloppy Joe 's . He invited friends — including Waldo Peirce , Dos Passos , and Max Perkins — to join him on fishing trips and on an all @-@ male expedition to the Dry Tortugas . Meanwhile , he continued to travel to Europe and to Cuba , and — although in 1933 he wrote of Key West , " We have a fine house here , and kids are all well " — Mellow believes he " was plainly restless " .
In 1933 , Hemingway and Pauline went on safari to East Africa . The 10 @-@ week trip provided material for Green Hills of Africa , as well as for the short stories " The Snows of Kilimanjaro " and " The Short Happy Life of Francis Macomber " . The couple visited Mombasa , Nairobi , and Machakos in Kenya ; then moved on to Tanganyika Territory , where they hunted in the Serengeti , around Lake Manyara , and west and southeast of present @-@ day Tarangire National Park . Their guide was the noted " white hunter " Philip Hope Percival who had guided Theodore Roosevelt on his 1909 safari . During these travels , Hemingway contracted amoebic dysentery that caused a prolapsed intestine , and he was evacuated by plane to Nairobi , an experience reflected in " The Snows of Kilimanjaro " . On Hemingway 's return to Key West in early 1934 , he began work on Green Hills of Africa , which he published in 1935 to mixed reviews .
Hemingway bought a boat in 1934 , named it the Pilar , and began sailing the Caribbean . In 1935 he first arrived at Bimini , where he spent a considerable amount of time . During this period he also worked on To Have and Have Not , published in 1937 while he was in Spain , the only novel he wrote during the 1930s .
= = = Spanish Civil War = = =
In 1937 , Hemingway agreed to report on the Spanish Civil War for the North American Newspaper Alliance ( NANA ) , arriving in Spain in March with Dutch filmmaker Joris Ivens . Ivens , who was filming The Spanish Earth , wanted Hemingway to replace John Dos Passos as screenwriter , since Dos Passos had left the project when his friend José Robles was arrested and later executed . The incident changed Dos Passos ' opinion of the leftist republicans , creating a rift between him and Hemingway , who later spread a rumor that Dos Passos left Spain out of cowardice .
Journalist and writer Martha Gellhorn , whom Hemingway had met in Key West the previous Christmas ( 1936 ) , joined him in Spain . Like Hadley , Martha was a St. Louis native , and like Pauline , she had worked for Vogue in Paris . Of Martha , Kert explains , " she never catered to him the way other women did " . Late in 1937 , while in Madrid with Martha , Hemingway wrote his only play , The Fifth Column , as the city was being bombarded . He returned to Key West for a few months , then back to Spain twice in 1938 , where he was present at the Battle of the Ebro , the last republican stand , and he was among the British and American journalists who were some of the last to leave the battle as they crossed the river .
= = = Cuba = = =
In the spring of 1939 , Hemingway crossed to Cuba in his boat to live in the Hotel Ambos Mundos in Havana . This was the separation phase of a slow and painful split from Pauline , which had begun when Hemingway met Martha Gellhorn . Martha soon joined him in Cuba , and they almost immediately rented " Finca Vigia " ( " Lookout Farm " ) , a 15 @-@ acre ( 61 @,@ 000 m2 ) property 15 miles ( 24 km ) from Havana . Pauline and the children left Hemingway that summer , after the family was reunited during a visit to Wyoming , and when Hemingway 's divorce from Pauline was finalized , he and Martha were married November 20 , 1940 , in Cheyenne , Wyoming .
As he had after his divorce from Hadley , he changed locations , moving his primary summer residence to Ketchum , Idaho , just outside the newly built resort of Sun Valley , and his winter residence to Cuba . Hemingway , who had been disgusted when a Parisian friend allowed his cats to eat from the table , became enamored of cats in Cuba , keeping dozens of them on the property .
Gellhorn inspired him to write his most famous novel , For Whom the Bell Tolls , which he started in March 1939 and finished in July 1940 . It was published in October 1940 . Consistent with his pattern of moving around while working on a manuscript , he wrote For Whom the Bell Tolls in Cuba , Wyoming , and Sun Valley . For Whom the Bell Tolls became a Book @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Month Club choice , sold half a million copies within months , was nominated for a Pulitzer Prize , and as Meyers describes it , " triumphantly re @-@ established Hemingway 's literary reputation " .
In January 1941 , Martha was sent to China on assignment for Collier 's magazine . Hemingway went with her , sending in dispatches for the newspaper PM , but in general he disliked China . A 2009 book suggests during that period he may have been recruited to work for Soviet intelligence agents under the name " Agent Argo " . They returned to Cuba before the declaration of war by the United States that December , when he convinced the Cuban government to help him refit the Pilar , which he intended to use to ambush German submarines off the coast of Cuba .
= = = World War II = = =
From May 1944 to March 1945 , Hemingway was in London and Europe . When Hemingway first arrived in London , he met TIME magazine correspondent Mary Welsh , with whom he became infatuated . Martha had been forced to cross the Atlantic in a ship filled with explosives because Hemingway refused to help her get a press pass on a plane , and she arrived in London to find Hemingway hospitalized with a concussion from a car accident . Unsympathetic to his plight , she accused him of being a bully and told him that she was " through , absolutely finished " . The last time that Hemingway saw Martha was in March 1945 as he was preparing to return to Cuba , and their divorce was finalized later that same year . Meanwhile , he had asked Mary Welsh to marry him on their third meeting .
Hemingway was present at the Normandy Landings wearing a large head bandage but , according to Meyers , he was considered " precious cargo " and not allowed ashore . The landing craft came within sight of Omaha Beach before coming under enemy fire and turning back . Hemingway later wrote in Collier 's that he could see " the first , second , third , fourth and fifth waves of [ landing troops ] lay where they had fallen , looking like so many heavily laden bundles on the flat pebbly stretch between the sea and first cover . " Mellow explains that , on that first day , none of the correspondents were allowed to land and Hemingway was returned to the Dorothea Dix .
Late in July , he attached himself to " the 22nd Infantry Regiment commanded by Col. Charles ' Buck ' Lanham , as it drove toward Paris " , and Hemingway became de facto leader to a small band of village militia in Rambouillet outside of Paris . Of Hemingway 's exploits , World War II historian Paul Fussell remarks : " Hemingway got into considerable trouble playing infantry captain to a group of Resistance people that he gathered because a correspondent is not supposed to lead troops , even if he does it well " . This was in fact in contravention of the Geneva Convention , and Hemingway was brought up on formal charges ; he said that he " beat the rap " by claiming that he only offered advice .
On August 25 , he was present at the liberation of Paris although , contrary to the Hemingway legend , he was not the first into the city , nor did he liberate the Ritz . In Paris , he visited Sylvia Beach and Pablo Picasso with Mary Welsh , who joined him there , ; in a spirit of happiness , he forgave Gertrude Stein . Later that year , he was present at heavy fighting in the Battle of Hürtgen Forest . On December 17 , 1944 , a feverish and ill Hemingway had himself driven to Luxembourg to cover what was later called The Battle of the Bulge . As soon as he arrived , however , Lanham handed him to the doctors , who hospitalized him with pneumonia ; by the time that he recovered a week later , most of the fighting in this battle was over .
In 1947 , Hemingway was awarded a Bronze Star for his bravery during World War II . He was recognized for his valor , having been " under fire in combat areas in order to obtain an accurate picture of conditions " , with the commendation that " through his talent of expression , Mr. Hemingway enabled readers to obtain a vivid picture of the difficulties and triumphs of the front @-@ line soldier and his organization in combat " .
= = = Cuba and the Nobel Prize = = =
Hemingway said he " was out of business as a writer " from 1942 to 1945 during his residence in Cuba . In 1946 he married Mary , who had an ectopic pregnancy five months later . The Hemingway family suffered a series of accidents and health problems in the years following the war : in a 1945 car accident , he " smashed his knee " and sustained another " deep wound on his forehead " ; Mary broke first her right ankle and then her left in successive skiing accidents . A 1947 car accident left Patrick with a head wound and severely ill . Hemingway sank into depression as his literary friends began to die : in 1939 William Butler Yeats and Ford Madox Ford ; in 1940 Scott Fitzgerald ; in 1941 Sherwood Anderson and James Joyce ; in 1946 Gertrude Stein ; and the following year in 1947 , Max Perkins , Hemingway 's long @-@ time Scribner 's editor and friend . During this period , he suffered from severe headaches , high blood pressure , weight problems , and eventually diabetes — much of which was the result of previous accidents and many years of heavy drinking . Nonetheless , in January 1946 , he began work on The Garden of Eden , finishing 800 pages by June . During the post – war years , he also began work on a trilogy tentatively titled " The Land " , " The Sea " and " The Air " , which he wanted to combine in one novel titled The Sea Book . However , both projects stalled , and Mellow says that Hemingway 's inability to continue was " a symptom of his troubles " during these years .
In 1948 , Hemingway and Mary traveled to Europe , staying in Venice for several months . While there , Hemingway fell in love with the then 19 @-@ year @-@ old Adriana Ivancich . The platonic love affair inspired the novel Across the River and into the Trees , written in Cuba during a time of strife with Mary , and published in 1950 to negative reviews . The following year , furious at the critical reception of Across the River and Into the Trees , he wrote the draft of The Old Man and the Sea in eight weeks , saying that it was " the best I can write ever for all of my life " . The Old Man and the Sea became a book @-@ of @-@ the @-@ month selection , made Hemingway an international celebrity , and won the Pulitzer Prize in May 1952 , a month before he left for his second trip to Africa .
In 1954 , while in Africa , Hemingway was almost fatally injured in two successive plane crashes . He chartered a sightseeing flight over the Belgian Congo as a Christmas present to Mary . On their way to photograph Murchison Falls from the air , the plane struck an abandoned utility pole and " crash landed in heavy brush " . Hemingway 's injuries included a head wound , while Mary broke two ribs . The next day , attempting to reach medical care in Entebbe , they boarded a second plane that exploded at take @-@ off , with Hemingway suffering burns and another concussion , this one serious enough to cause leaking of cerebral fluid . They eventually arrived in Entebbe to find reporters covering the story of Hemingway 's death . He briefed the reporters and spent the next few weeks recuperating and reading his erroneous obituaries . Despite his injuries , Hemingway accompanied Patrick and his wife on a planned fishing expedition in February , but pain caused him to be irascible and difficult to get along with . When a bushfire broke out , he was again injured , sustaining second degree burns on his legs , front torso , lips , left hand and right forearm . Months later in Venice , Mary reported to friends the full extent of Hemingway 's injuries : two cracked discs , a kidney and liver rupture , a dislocated shoulder and a broken skull . The accidents may have precipitated the physical deterioration that was to follow . After the plane crashes , Hemingway , who had been " a thinly controlled alcoholic throughout much of his life , drank more heavily than usual to combat the pain of his injuries . "
In October 1954 , Hemingway received the Nobel Prize in Literature . He modestly told the press that Carl Sandburg , Isak Dinesen and Bernard Berenson deserved the prize , but he gladly accepted the prize money . Mellow claims Hemingway " had coveted the Nobel Prize " , but when he won it , months after his plane accidents and the ensuing world @-@ wide press coverage , " there must have been a lingering suspicion in Hemingway 's mind that his obituary notices had played a part in the academy 's decision . " Because he was suffering pain from the African accidents , he decided against traveling to Stockholm . Instead he sent a speech to be read , defining the writer 's life :
Writing , at its best , is a lonely life . Organizations for writers palliate the writer 's loneliness but I doubt if they improve his writing . He grows in public stature as he sheds his loneliness and often his work deteriorates . For he does his work alone and if he is a good enough writer he must face eternity , or the lack of it , each day .
From the end of the year in 1955 to early 1956 , Hemingway was bedridden . He was told to stop drinking to mitigate liver damage , advice he initially followed but then disregarded . In October 1956 , he returned to Europe and met Basque writer Pio Baroja , who was seriously ill and died weeks later . During the trip , Hemingway became sick again and was treated for " high blood pressure , liver disease , and arteriosclerosis " .
In November 1956 , while staying in Paris , he was reminded of trunks he had stored in the Ritz Hotel in 1928 and never retrieved . Upon re @-@ claiming and opening the trunks , Hemingway discovered that the trunks were filled with notebooks and writing from his Paris years . Excited about the discovery , when he returned to Cuba in 1957 , he began to shape the recovered work into his memoir A Moveable Feast . By 1959 he ended a period of intense activity : he finished A Moveable Feast ( scheduled to be released the following year ) ; brought True at First Light to 200 @,@ 000 words ; added chapters to The Garden of Eden ; and worked on Islands in the Stream . The last three were stored in a safe deposit box in Havana , as he focused on the finishing touches for A Moveable Feast . Author Michael Reynolds claims it was during this period that Hemingway slid into depression , from which he was unable to recover .
The Finca Vigia became crowded with guests and tourists , as Hemingway , beginning to become unhappy with life there , considered a permanent move to Idaho . In 1959 he bought a home overlooking the Big Wood River , outside Ketchum , and left Cuba — although he apparently remained on easy terms with the Castro government , telling The New York Times he was " delighted " with Castro 's overthrow of Batista . He was in Cuba in November 1959 , between returning from Pamplona and traveling west to Idaho , and the following year for his 60th birthday ; however , that year he and Mary decided to leave after hearing the news that Castro wanted to nationalize property owned by Americans and other foreign nationals . In July 1960 , the Hemingways left Cuba for the last time , leaving art and manuscripts in a bank vault in Havana . After the 1961 Bay of Pigs Invasion , the Finca Vigia was expropriated by the Cuban government , complete with Hemingway 's collection of " four to six thousand books " .
= = = Idaho and suicide = = =
Through the end of the 1950s , Hemingway continued to rework the material that would be published as A Moveable Feast . In the summer of 1959 , he visited Spain to research a series of bullfighting articles commissioned by Life magazine , returning to Cuba in January 1960 to work on the manuscript . Life wanted only 10 @,@ 000 words , but the manuscript grew out of control . For the first time in his life unable to organize his writing , he asked A. E. Hotchner to travel to Cuba to help . Hotchner helped him trim the Life piece to 40 @,@ 000 words , and Scribner 's agreed to a full @-@ length book version ( The Dangerous Summer ) of almost 130 @,@ 000 words . Hotchner found Hemingway to be " unusually hesitant , disorganized , and confused " , and suffering badly from failing eyesight .
On July 25 , 1960 , Hemingway and Mary left Cuba , never to return . Hemingway then traveled alone to Spain to be photographed for the front cover for the Life magazine piece . A few days later , he was reported in the news to be seriously ill and on the verge of dying , which panicked Mary until she received a cable from him telling her , " Reports false . Enroute Madrid . Love Papa . " However , he was seriously ill , and believed himself to be on the verge of a breakdown . He was lonely and took to his bed for days , retreating into silence , despite having had the first installments of The Dangerous Summer published in Life in September 1960 to good reviews . In October , he left Spain for New York , where he refused to leave Mary 's apartment on the pretext that he was being watched . She quickly took him to Idaho , where George Saviers ( a Sun Valley physician ) met them at the train .
At this time , Hemingway was constantly worried about money and his safety . He worried about his taxes , and that he would never return to Cuba to retrieve the manuscripts he had left there in a bank vault . He became paranoid , thinking the FBI was actively monitoring his movements in Ketchum . The FBI had , in fact , opened a file on him during World War II , when he used the Pilar to patrol the waters off Cuba , and J. Edgar Hoover had an agent in Havana watch Hemingway during the 1950s . By the end of November , Mary was at wits ' end , and Saviers suggested Hemingway go to the Mayo Clinic in Minnesota , where he may have believed he was to be treated for hypertension . The FBI knew Hemingway was at the Mayo Clinic , as an agent later documented in a letter written in January 1961 . In an attempt at anonymity , Hemingway was checked in at the Mayo Clinic under Saviers ' name . Meyers writes that " an aura of secrecy surrounds Hemingway 's treatment at the Mayo " , but confirms he was treated with electroconvulsive therapy as many as 15 times in December 1960 , and in January 1961 was " released in ruins " . Reynolds was able to access Hemingway 's records at the Mayo , which indicated that the combination of medications given Hemingway may have created the depressive state for which he was treated .
Three months later back in Ketchum , in April 1961 , one morning in the kitchen Mary " found Hemingway holding a shotgun " . She called Saviers who sedated him and admitted him to the Sun Valley hospital ; from there he was returned to the Mayo Clinic for more electro shock treatments . He was released in late June , and arrived home in Ketchum on June 30 . Two days later , in the early morning hours of July 2 , 1961 , Hemingway " quite deliberately " shot himself with his favorite shotgun . He had unlocked the basement storeroom where his guns were kept , gone upstairs to the front entrance foyer of their Ketchum home , and according to Mellow , with the " double @-@ barreled shotgun that he had used so often it might have been a friend " , he shot himself . Mary called the Sun Valley Hospital , and a doctor quickly arrived at the house . Despite his finding that Hemingway " had died of a self @-@ inflicted wound to the head " , the initial story told to the press was that the death had been " accidental " .
During his final years , Hemingway 's behavior had been similar to his father 's before he committed suicide ; his father may have had the genetic disease hemochromatosis , in which the inability to metabolize iron culminates in mental and physical deterioration . Medical records made available in 1991 confirm that Hemingway had also been diagnosed with hemochromatosis in early 1961 . Both his sister Ursula , and his brother Leicester also committed suicide . Added to Hemingway 's physical ailments was the additional problem that he had been a heavy drinker for most of his life .
Family and friends flew to Ketchum for the funeral , officiated by the local Catholic priest who believed Hemingway 's death accidental . Of the funeral ( during which an altar boy fainted at the head of the casket ) , Hemingway 's brother Leicester wrote : " It seemed to me Ernest would have approved of it all . "
In a press interview five years later , Mary Hemingway admitted that her husband had committed suicide .
= = Writing style = =
The New York Times wrote in 1926 of Hemingway 's first novel , " No amount of analysis can convey the quality of The Sun Also Rises . It is a truly gripping story , told in a lean , hard , athletic narrative prose that puts more literary English to shame . " The Sun Also Rises is written in the spare , tight prose that made Hemingway famous , and , according to James Nagel , " changed the nature of American writing . " In 1954 , when Hemingway was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature , it was for " his mastery of the art of narrative , most recently demonstrated in The Old Man and the Sea , and for the influence that he has exerted on contemporary style . " Paul Smith writes that Hemingway 's first stories , collected as In Our Time , showed he was still experimenting with his writing style . He avoided complicated syntax . About 70 percent of the sentences are simple sentences — a childlike syntax without subordination .
Henry Louis Gates believes Hemingway 's style was fundamentally shaped " in reaction to [ his ] experience of world war " . After World War I , he and other modernists " lost faith in the central institutions of Western civilization " by reacting against the elaborate style of 19th @-@ century writers and by creating a style " in which meaning is established through dialogue , through action , and silences — a fiction in which nothing crucial — or at least very little — is stated explicitly . "
Developing this connection between Hemingway and other modernist writers , Irene Gammel believes his style was carefully cultivated and honed with an eye toward the avant @-@ garde of the era . Hungry for " vanguard experimentation " and rebelling against Ford Madox Ford 's " staid modernism " , Hemingway published the work of Gertrude Stein and Elsa von Freytag @-@ Loringhoven in The Transatlantic Review . As Gammel notes , Hemingway was " introduced to the Baroness 's experimental style during a time when he was actively trimming the verbal ' fat ' off his own style , as well as flexing his writer 's muscles in assaulting conventional taste . "
Because he began as a writer of short stories , Baker believes Hemingway learned to " get the most from the least , how to prune language , how to multiply intensities and how to tell nothing but the truth in a way that allowed for telling more than the truth . " Hemingway called his style the Iceberg Theory : the facts float above water ; the supporting structure and symbolism operate out of sight . The concept of the iceberg theory is sometimes referred to as the " theory of omission " . Hemingway believed the writer could describe one thing ( such as Nick Adams fishing in " The Big Two @-@ Hearted River " ) though an entirely different thing occurs below the surface ( Nick Adams concentrating on fishing to the extent that he does not have to think about anything else ) .
Jackson Benson believes Hemingway used autobiographical details as framing devices about life in general — not only about his life . For example , Benson postulates that Hemingway used his experiences and drew them out with " what if " scenarios : " what if I were wounded in such a way that I could not sleep at night ? What if I were wounded and made crazy , what would happen if I were sent back to the front ? " Writing in " The Art of the Short Story " , Hemingway explains : " A few things I have found to be true . If you leave out important things or events that you know about , the story is strengthened . If you leave or skip something because you do not know it , the story will be worthless . The test of any story is how very good the stuff that you , not your editors , omit . "
The simplicity of the prose is deceptive . Zoe Trodd believes Hemingway crafted skeletal sentences in response to Henry James 's observation that World War I had " used up words " . Hemingway offers a " multi @-@ focal " photographic reality . His iceberg theory of omission is the foundation on which he builds . The syntax , which lacks subordinating conjunctions , creates static sentences . The photographic " snapshot " style creates a collage of images . Many types of internal punctuation ( colons , semicolons , dashes , parentheses ) are omitted in favor of short declarative sentences . The sentences build on each other , as events build to create a sense of the whole . Multiple strands exist in one story ; an " embedded text " bridges to a different angle . He also uses other cinematic techniques of " cutting " quickly from one scene to the next ; or of " splicing " a scene into another . Intentional omissions allow the reader to fill the gap , as though responding to instructions from the author , and create three @-@ dimensional prose .
In his literature , and in his personal writing , Hemingway habitually used the word " and " in place of commas . This use of polysyndeton may serve to convey immediacy . Hemingway 's polysyndetonic sentence — or in later works his use of subordinate clauses — uses conjunctions to juxtapose startling visions and images ; Jackson Benson compares them to haikus . Many of Hemingway 's followers misinterpreted his lead and frowned upon all expression of emotion ; Saul Bellow satirized this style as " Do you have emotions ? Strangle them . " However , Hemingway 's intent was not to eliminate emotion , but to portray it more scientifically . Hemingway thought it would be easy , and pointless , to describe emotions ; he sculpted collages of images in order to grasp " the real thing , the sequence of motion and fact which made the emotion and which would be as valid in a year or in ten years or , with luck and if you stated it purely enough , always " . This use of an image as an objective correlative is characteristic of Ezra Pound , T. S. Eliot , James Joyce , and Proust . Hemingway 's letters refer to Proust 's Remembrance of Things Past several times over the years , and indicate he read the book at least twice .
= = Themes = =
The popularity of Hemingway 's work to a great extent is based on the themes , which according to scholar Frederic Svoboda are love , war , wilderness and loss , all of which are strongly evident in the body of work . These are recurring themes of American literature , which are clearly evident in Hemingway 's work . Critic Leslie Fiedler sees the theme he defines as " The Sacred Land " — the American West — extended in Hemingway 's work to include mountains in Spain , Switzerland and Africa , and to the streams of Michigan . The American West is given a symbolic nod with the naming of the " Hotel Montana " in The Sun Also Rises and For Whom the Bell Tolls . According to Stoltzfus and Fiedler , Hemingway 's nature is a place for rebirth , for therapy , and the hunter or fisherman has a moment of transcendence when the prey is killed . Nature is where men are without women : men fish ; men hunt ; men find redemption in nature . Although Hemingway writes about sports , Carlos Baker believes the emphasis is more on the athlete than the sport , while Beegel sees the essence of Hemingway as an American naturalist , as reflected in such detailed descriptions as can be found in " Big Two @-@ Hearted River " .
Fiedler believes Hemingway inverts the American literary theme of the evil " Dark Woman " versus the good " Light Woman " . The dark woman — Brett Ashley of The Sun Also Rises — is a goddess ; the light woman — Margot Macomber of " The Short Happy Life of Francis Macomber " — is a murderess . Robert Scholes admits that early Hemingway stories , such as " A Very Short Story " , present " a male character favorably and a female unfavorably " . According to Rena Sanderson , early Hemingway critics lauded his male @-@ centric world of masculine pursuits , and the fiction divided women into " castrators or love @-@ slaves " . Feminist critics attacked Hemingway as " public enemy number one " , although more recent re @-@ evaluations of his work " have given new visibility to Hemingway 's female characters ( and their strengths ) and have revealed his own sensitivity to gender issues , thus casting doubts on the old assumption that his writings were one @-@ sidedly masculine . " Nina Baym believes that Brett Ashley and Margot Macomber " are the two outstanding examples of Hemingway 's ' bitch women . ' "
The theme of women and death is evident in stories as early as " Indian Camp " . The theme of death permeates Hemingway 's work . Young believes the emphasis in " Indian Camp " was not so much on the woman who gives birth or the father who commits suicide , but on Nick Adams who witnesses these events as a child , and becomes a " badly scarred and nervous young man " . Hemingway sets the events in " Indian Camp " that shape the Adams persona . Young believes " Indian Camp " holds the " master key " to " what its author was up to for some thirty @-@ five years of his writing career " . Stoltzfus considers Hemingway 's work to be more complex with a representation of the truth inherent in existentialism : if " nothingness " is embraced , then redemption is achieved at the moment of death . Those who face death with dignity and courage live an authentic life . Francis Macomber dies happy because the last hours of his life are authentic ; the bullfighter in the corrida represents the pinnacle of a life lived with authenticity . In his paper The Uses of Authenticity : Hemingway and the Literary Field , Timo Müller writes that Hemingway 's fiction is successful because the characters live an " authentic life " , and the " soldiers , fishers , boxers and backwoodsmen are among the archetypes of authenticity in modern literature " .
The theme of emasculation is prevalent in Hemingway 's work , most notably in The Sun Also Rises . Emasculation , according to Fiedler , is a result of a generation of wounded soldiers ; and of a generation in which women such as Brett gained emancipation . This also applies to the minor character , Frances Clyne , Cohn 's girlfriend in the beginning in the book . Her character supports the theme not only because the idea was presented early on in the novel but also the impact she had on Cohn in the start of the book while only appearing a small number of times . Baker believes Hemingway 's work emphasizes the " natural " versus the " unnatural " . In " Alpine Idyll " the " unnaturalness " of skiing in the high country late spring snow is juxtaposed against the " unnaturalness " of the peasant who allowed his wife 's dead body to linger too long in the shed during the winter . The skiers and peasant retreat to the valley to the " natural " spring for redemption .
Susan Beegel has written that some more recent critics — writing through the lens of a more modern social and cultural context several decades after Hemingway 's death , and more than half a century after his novels were first published — have characterized the social era portrayed in his fiction as misogynistic and homophobic . In her 1996 essay , " Critical Reception " , Beegel analyzed four decades of Hemingway criticism and found that " critics interested in multiculturalism " , particularly in the 1980s , simply ignored Hemingway , although some " apologetics " have been written . Typical , according to Beegel , is an analysis of Hemingway 's 1926 novel , The Sun Also Rises , in which a critic contended : " Hemingway never lets the reader forget that Cohn is a Jew , not an unattractive character who happens to be a Jew but a character who is unattractive because he is a Jew . " Also during the 1980s , according to Beegel , criticism was published that focused on investigating the " horror of homosexuality " and the " racism " typical of the social era portrayed in Hemingway 's fiction . In an overall assessment of Hemingway 's work Beegel has written : " Throughout his remarkable body of fiction , he tells the truth about human fear , guilt , betrayal , violence , cruelty , drunkenness , hunger , greed , apathy , ecstasy , tenderness , love and lust . "
= = Influence and legacy = =
Hemingway 's legacy to American literature is his style : writers who came after him emulated it or avoided it . After his reputation was established with the publication of The Sun Also Rises , he became the spokesperson for the post – World War I generation , having established a style to follow . His books were burned in Berlin in 1933 , " as being a monument of modern decadence " , and disavowed by his parents as " filth " . Reynolds asserts the legacy is that " [ Hemingway ] left stories and novels so starkly moving that some have become part of our cultural heritage . "
Benson believes the details of Hemingway 's life have become a " prime vehicle for exploitation " , resulting in a Hemingway industry . Hemingway scholar Hallengren believes the " hard boiled style " and the machismo must be separated from the author himself . Benson agrees , describing him as introverted and private as J. D. Salinger , although Hemingway masked his nature with braggadocio . In fact , during World War II , Salinger met and corresponded with Hemingway , whom he acknowledged as an influence . In a letter to Hemingway , Salinger claimed their talks " had given him his only hopeful minutes of the entire war " and jokingly " named himself national chairman of the Hemingway Fan Clubs . "
The extent of Hemingway 's influence is seen in the tributes and echoes of his fiction in popular culture . A minor planet , discovered in 1978 by Soviet astronomer Nikolai Chernykh , was named for him ( 3656 Hemingway ) ; Ray Bradbury wrote The Kilimanjaro Device , with Hemingway transported to the top of Mount Kilimanjaro ; the 1993 motion picture Wrestling Ernest Hemingway , about the friendship of two retired men , Irish and Cuban , in a seaside town in Florida , starred Robert Duvall , Richard Harris , Shirley MacLaine , Sandra Bullock , and Piper Laurie . The influence is evident with the many restaurants named " Hemingway " ; and the proliferation of bars called " Harry 's " ( a nod to the bar in Across the River and Into the Trees ) . A line of Hemingway furniture , promoted by Hemingway 's son Jack ( Bumby ) , has pieces such as the " Kilimanjaro " bedside table , and a " Catherine " slip @-@ covered sofa . Montblanc offers a Hemingway fountain pen , and a line of Hemingway safari clothes has been created . The International Imitation Hemingway Competition was created in 1977 to publicly acknowledge his influence and the comically misplaced efforts of lesser authors to imitate his style . Entrants are encouraged to submit one " really good page of really bad Hemingway " and winners are flown to Italy to Harry 's Bar .
In 1965 , Mary Hemingway established the Hemingway Foundation and in the 1970s she donated her husband 's papers to the John F. Kennedy Library . In 1980 , a group of Hemingway scholars gathered to assess the donated papers , subsequently forming the Hemingway Society , " committed to supporting and fostering Hemingway scholarship . "
Almost exactly 35 years after Hemingway 's death , on July 1 , 1996 , his granddaughter Margaux Hemingway died in Santa Monica , California . Margaux was a supermodel and actress , co @-@ starring with her younger sister Mariel in the 1976 movie Lipstick . Her death was later ruled a suicide , making her " the fifth person in four generations of her family to commit suicide . "
= = Selected list of works = =
" Indian Camp " ( 1924 )
The Sun Also Rises ( 1926 )
A Farewell to Arms ( 1929 )
Death in the Afternoon ( 1932 )
Green Hills of Africa ( 1935 )
For Whom the Bell Tolls ( 1940 )
The Old Man and the Sea ( 1951 )
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= Great Stink =
The Great Stink was an event in central London in July and August 1858 during which the hot weather exacerbated the smell of untreated human waste and industrial effluent that was present on the banks of the River Thames . The problem had been mounting for some years , with an ageing and inadequate sewer system that emptied directly into the Thames . The miasma from the effluent was thought to transmit contagious diseases , and three outbreaks of cholera prior to the Great Stink were blamed on the ongoing problems with the river .
The smell , and people 's fears of its possible effects , prompted action from the local and national administrators who had been considering possible solutions for the problem . The authorities accepted a proposal from the civil engineer Joseph Bazalgette to move the effluent eastwards along a series of interconnecting sewers that sloped towards outfalls beyond the metropolitan area . Work on high- , mid- and low @-@ level systems for the new Northern and Southern Outfall Sewers started at the beginning of 1859 and lasted until 1875 . To aid the drainage , pumping stations were placed to lift the sewage from lower levels into higher pipes . Two of the more ornate stations , Abbey Mills in Stratford and Crossness on the Erith Marshes , are listed for protection by English Heritage . Bazalgette 's plan introduced the three embankments to London in which the sewers ran — the Victoria , Chelsea and Albert Embankments .
Bazalgette 's work ensured that sewage was no longer dumped onto the shores of the Thames and brought an end to the cholera outbreaks ; his actions probably saved more lives than any other Victorian official . His sewer system operates into the 21st century , servicing a city that has grown to over eight million . The historian Peter Ackroyd argues that Bazalgette should be considered a hero of London .
= = Background = =
Brick sewers had been built in London from the 17th century when sections of the Fleet and Walbrook rivers were covered for that purpose . In the century preceding 1856 , over a hundred sewers were constructed in London , and at that date the city had around 200 @,@ 000 cesspits and 360 sewers . Some cesspits leaked methane and other gases , which often caught fire and exploded , leading to loss of life , while many of the sewers were in a poor state of repair . During the early 19th century improvements had been undertaken in the supply of water to Londoners , and by 1858 many of the city 's medieval wooden water pipes were being replaced with iron ones . This , combined with the introduction of flushing toilets and the rising of the city 's population from just under one million to three million , led to more water being flushed into the sewers , along with the associated effluent . The outfalls from factories , slaughterhouses and other industrial activities put further strain on the already failing system . Much of this outflow either overflowed , or was discharged directly , into the Thames .
The scientist Michael Faraday described the situation in a letter to The Times in July 1855 : shocked at the state of the Thames , he dropped pieces of white paper into the river to " test the degree of opacity " . His conclusion was that " Near the bridges the feculence rolled up in clouds so dense that they were visible at the surface , even in water of this kind . ... The smell was very bad , and common to the whole of the water ; it was the same as that which now comes up from the gully @-@ holes in the streets ; the whole river was for the time a real sewer . " The smell from the river was so bad that in 1857 the government poured chalk lime , chloride of lime and carbolic acid into the waterway to ease the stench .
The prevailing thought in Victorian healthcare concerning the transmission of contagious diseases was the miasma theory , which held that most communicable diseases were caused by the inhalation of contaminated air . This contamination could take the form of the odour of rotting corpses or sewage , but also rotting vegetation , or the exhaled breath of someone already diseased . Miasma was believed by most to be the vector of transmission of cholera , which was on the rise in 19th @-@ century Europe . The disease was deeply feared by all , because of the speed with which it could spread , and its high fatality rates .
London 's first major cholera epidemic struck in 1831 , when the disease claimed 6 @,@ 536 victims . In 1848 – 49 there was a second outbreak in which 14 @,@ 137 London residents died , and this was followed by a further outbreak in 1853 – 54 in which 10 @,@ 738 died . During the second outbreak , John Snow , a London @-@ based physician , noticed that the rates of death were higher in those areas supplied by the Lambeth and the Southwark and Vauxhall water companies . In 1849 he published a paper , On the Mode of Communication of Cholera , which posited the theory of the water @-@ borne transmission of disease , rather than the miasma theory ; little attention was paid to the paper . Following the third cholera outbreak in 1854 , Snow published an update to his treatise , after he focused on the effects in Broad Street , Soho . Snow had removed the handle from the local water pump , thus preventing access to the contaminated water , with a resulting fall in deaths . It was later established that the well from which the water was drawn had a leaking sewer running nearby .
= = Local government = =
The civic infrastructure overseeing the management of London 's sewers had gone through several changes in the 19th century . In 1848 the Metropolitan Commission of Sewers ( MCS ) was established at the urging of the social reformer Edwin Chadwick and a Royal Commission . The Commission superseded seven of the eight authorities that had managed London 's sewers since the time of Henry VIII ; it was the first time that a unitary power had full control over the capital 's sanitation facilities . The Building Act 1844 had ensured that all new buildings had to be connected to a sewer , not a cesspool , and the commission set about connecting cesspools to sewers , or removing them altogether . Because of the fear that the miasma from the sewers would cause the spread of disease , Chadwick and his successor , the pathologist John Simon , ensured that the sewers were regularly flushed through , a policy that resulted in more sewage being discharged into the Thames .
In August 1849 the MCS appointed Joseph Bazalgette to the position of assistant surveyor . He had been working as a consultant engineer in the railway industry until overwork had brought about a serious breakdown in his health ; his appointment to the commission was his first position on his return to employment . Working under the Chief Engineer , Frank Foster , he began to develop a more systematic plan for the city 's sewers . The stress of his position was too much for Foster , and he died in 1852 ; Bazalgette was promoted into his position , and continued refining and developing the plans for the development of the sewerage system . The Metropolis Management Act 1855 replaced the commission with the Metropolitan Board of Works ( MBW ) , which took control of the sewers .
By June 1856 Bazalgette completed his definitive plans , which provided for small , local sewers about 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 9 m ) in diameter to feed into a series of larger sewers until they drained into main outflow pipes 11 feet ( 3 @.@ 4 m ) high . A Northern and Southern Outfall Sewer were planned to manage the waste for each side of the river . London was mapped into high- , middle- and low @-@ level areas , with a main sewer servicing each ; a series of pumping stations was planned to remove the waste towards the east of the city . Bazalgette 's plan was based on that of Foster , but was larger in scale , and allowed for more of a rise in population than Foster 's – from 3 to 4 @.@ 5 million . Bazalgette submitted his plans to Sir Benjamin Hall , the First Commissioner of Works . Hall had reservations about the outfalls — the discharge points of waste outlets into other bodies of water — from the sewers , which he said were still within the bounds of the capital , and were therefore unacceptable . During the ongoing discussions Bazalgette refined and modified his plans , in line with Hall 's demands . In December 1856 Hall submitted the plans to a group of three consultant engineers , Captain Douglas Strutt Galton of the Royal Engineers , James Simpson , an engineer with two water companies , and Thomas Blackwood , the chief engineer on the Kennet and Avon Canal . The trio reported back to Hall in July 1857 with proposed changes to the positions of the outfall , which he passed on to the MBW in October . The new proposed discharge points were to be open sewers , running 15 miles ( 24 km ) beyond the positions proposed by the Board ; the cost of their plans was to be over £ 5 @.@ 4 million , considerably more than the maximum estimate of Bazalgette 's plan , which was £ 2 @.@ 4 million . In February 1858 a general election saw the fall of Lord Palmerston 's first government , which was replaced by Lord Derby 's second ministry ; Lord John Manners replaced Hall , and Benjamin Disraeli was appointed Leader of the House of Commons and Chancellor of the Exchequer .
= = June to August 1858 = =
By mid @-@ 1858 the problems with the Thames had been building for several years . In his novel Little Dorrit — published as a serial between 1855 and 1857 — Charles Dickens wrote that the Thames was " a deadly sewer ... in the place of a fine , fresh river " . In a letter to a friend , Dickens said : " I can certify that the offensive smells , even in that short whiff , have been of a most head @-@ and @-@ stomach @-@ distending nature " , while the social scientist and journalist George Godwin wrote that " in parts the deposit is more than six feet deep " on the Thames foreshore , and that " the whole of this is thickly impregnated with impure matter " . In June 1858 the temperatures in the shade in London averaged in the mid @-@ 30s ° C ( 93 – 97 ° F ) — rising to 48 ° C ( 118 ° F ) in the sun . Combined with an extended spell of dry weather , the level of the Thames dropped and raw effluent from the sewers remained on the banks of the river . Queen Victoria and Prince Albert attempted to take a pleasure cruise on the Thames , but returned to shore within a few minutes because the smell was so terrible . The press soon began calling the event " The Great Stink " ; the leading article in the City Press observed that " Gentility of speech is at an end — it stinks , and whoso once inhales the stink can never forget it and can count himself lucky if he lives to remember it " . A writer for The Standard concurred with the opinion . One of its reporters described the river as a " pestiferous and typhus breeding abomination " , while a second wrote that " the amount of poisonous gases which is thrown off is proportionate to the increase of the sewage which is passed into the stream " . The leading article in The Illustrated London News commented that :
We can colonise the remotest ends of the earth ; we can conquer India ; we can pay the interest of the most enormous debt ever contracted ; we can spread our name , and our fame , and our fructifying wealth to every part of the world ; but we cannot clean the River Thames .
By June the stench from the river had become so bad that business in Parliament was affected , and the curtains on the river side of the building were soaked in lime chloride to overcome the smell . The measure was not successful , and discussions were held about possibly moving the business of government to Oxford or St Albans . The Examiner reported that Disraeli , on attending one of the committee rooms , left shortly afterwards with the other members of the committee , " with a mass of papers in one hand , and with his pocket handkerchief applied to his nose " because the smell was so bad . The disruption to its legislative work led to questions being raised in the House of Commons . According to Hansard , the Member of Parliament ( MP ) John Brady informed Manners that members were unable to use either the Committee Rooms or the Library because of the stench , and asked the minister " if the noble Lord has taken any measures for mitigating the effluvium and discontinuing the nuisance " . Manners replied that the Thames was not under his jurisdiction . Four days later a second MP said to Manners that " By a perverse ingenuity , one of the noblest of rivers has been changed into a cesspool , and I wish to ask whether Her Majesty 's Government intend to take any steps to remedy the evil ? " Manners pointed out " that Her Majesty 's Government have nothing whatever to do with the state of the Thames " . The satirical magazine Punch commented that " The one absorbing topic in both Houses of Parliament ... was the Conspiracy to Poison question . Of the guilt of that old offender , Father Thames , there was the most ample evidence " .
At the height of the stink , between 200 and 250 tons of lime were being used near the mouths of the sewers that discharged into the Thames , and men were employed spreading lime onto the Thames foreshore at low tide ; the cost was £ 1 @,@ 500 per week . On 15 June Disraeli tabled the Metropolis Local Management Amendment Bill , a proposed amendment to the 1855 Act ; in the opening debate he called the Thames " a Stygian pool , reeking with ineffable and intolerable horrors " . The Bill put the responsibility to clear up the Thames on the MBW , and stated that " as far as may be possible " the sewerage outlets should not be within the boundaries of London ; it also allowed the Board to borrow £ 3 million , which was to be repaid from a 3 pence levy on all London households for the next forty years . The terms favoured Bazalgette 's original 1856 plan , and overcame Hall 's objection to it . The leading article in The Times observed that " Parliament was all but compelled to legislate upon the great London nuisance by the force of sheer stench " . The bill was debated in late July and was passed into law on 2 August .
= = Construction = =
Bazalgette 's plans for the 1 @,@ 100 miles ( 1 @,@ 800 km ) of additional street sewers ( collecting both effluent and rainwater ) , which would feed into 82 miles ( 132 km ) of main interconnecting sewers , were put out to tender between 1859 and 1865 . Four hundred draftsmen worked on the detailed plans and sectional views for the first phase of the building process . There were several engineering challenges to be overcome , particularly the fact that parts of London — including the area around Lambeth and Pimlico — lie below the high @-@ water mark . Bazalgette 's plan for the low @-@ level areas was to lift the sewage from low @-@ lying sewers at key points into the mid- and high @-@ level sewers , which would then drain with the aid of gravity , out towards the eastern outfalls at a gradient of 2 feet per mile ( 38 cm / km ) .
Bazalgette was a proponent of the use of Portland cement , a material stronger than standard cement , but with a weakness when over @-@ heated . To overcome the problem he instituted a quality control system to test batches of cement , that is described by the historian Stephen Halliday as both " elaborate " and " draconian " . The results were fed back to the manufacturers , who altered their production processes to further improve the product . One of the cement manufacturers commented that the MBW were the first public body to use such testing processes . The progress of Bazalgette 's works was reported favourably in the press . Paul Dobraszczyk , the architectural historian , describes the coverage as presenting many of the workers " in a positive , even heroic , light " , and in 1861 The Observer described the progress on the sewers as " the most expensive and wonderful work of modern times " . Construction costs were so high that in July 1863 an additional £ 1 @.@ 2 million was loaned to the MBW to cover the cost of the work .
= = = Southern drainage system = = =
The southern system , across the less @-@ populated suburbs of London , was the smaller and easier part of the system to build . Three main sewers ran from Putney , Wandsworth and Norwood until they linked together in Deptford . At that point a pumping station lifted the effluent 21 feet ( 6 @.@ 4 m ) into the main outflow sewer , which ran to the Crossness Pumping Station on the Erith Marshes , where it was discharged into the Thames at high tide . The newly @-@ built station at Crossness was designed by Bazalgette and Charles Henry Driver , a consultant engineer and a proponent of the use of cast iron as a building material . The building was in a Romanesque style and the interior contains architectural cast @-@ ironwork which English Heritage describe as important . The power for pumping the large amounts of sewage was provided by four massive beam engines , named Victoria , Prince Consort , Albert Edward and Alexandra , which were manufactured by James Watt and Co .
The station was opened in April 1865 by the Prince of Wales — the future King Edward VII — who officially started the engines . The ceremony , which was attended by other members of royalty , MPs , the Lord Mayor of London and the Archbishops of Canterbury and York , was followed by a dinner for 500 within the building . The ceremony marked the completion of construction of the Southern Outfall Sewers , and the beginning of their operation .
With the successful completion of the southern outflow , one of the board members of the MBW , an MP named Miller , proposed a bonus for Bazalgette . The board agreed , and were prepared to pay the engineer £ 6 @,@ 000 — three times his annual salary — with an additional £ 4 @,@ 000 to be shared among his three assistants . Although the idea was subsequently dropped following criticism , Halliday observes that the large amounts discussed " at a time when parsimony was the dominant characteristic of public expenditure is a firm indication of the depth of public interest and approval that appears to have characterised the work . "
= = = Northern drainage system = = =
The northern side of the Thames was the more populous , housing two @-@ thirds of London 's population , and the works had to proceed through congested streets and overcome such urban hurdles as canals , bridges and railway lines . Work began on the system on 31 January 1859 , but the builders encountered numerous problems in construction , including a labourers ' strike in 1859 – 60 , hard frosts in winter , and heavier than normal rainfall . The rain was so heavy in June 1862 that an accident occurred at the works re @-@ building the Fleet sewer . The deep excavations were running parallel to the excavation of a cutting at Clerkenwell for the Metropolitan Railway ( now the Metropolitan line ) , and the 8 1 ⁄ 2 ft ( 2 @.@ 6 m ) wall dividing the two trenches collapsed , spilling the waters of the Fleet onto Victoria Street , damaging the gas and water mains .
The high @-@ level sewer — the most northern of the works — ran from Hampstead Heath to Stoke Newington and across Victoria Park , where it joined with the eastern end of the mid @-@ level sewer . The mid @-@ level sewer began in the west at Bayswater and ran along Oxford Street , through Clerkenwell and Bethnal Green , before the connection . This combined main sewer ran to the Abbey Mills Pumping Station in Stratford , where it was joined by the eastern end of the low @-@ level sewer . The pumps at Abbey Mills lifted the effluent from the low @-@ level sewer 36 feet ( 11 m ) into the main sewer . This main sewer ran 5 miles ( 8 km ) — along what is now known as the Greenway — to the outfall at Beckton .
Like the Crossness Pumping Station , Abbey Mills was a joint design by Bazalgette and Driver . Above the centre of the engine @-@ house was an ornate dome that , Dobraszczyk considers , gives the building a " superficial resemblance ... to a Byzantine church " . The architectural historian Nikolaus Pevsner , in his Buildings of England , thought the building showed " exciting architecture applied to the most foul purposes " ; he went on to describe it as " an unorthodox mix , vaguely Italian Gothic in style but with tiers of Byzantine windows and a central octagonal lantern that adds a gracious Russian flavour " .
To provide the drainage for the low @-@ level sewers , in February 1864 Bazalgette began building three embankments along the shores of the Thames . On the northern side he built the Victoria Embankment , which runs from Westminster to Blackfriars Bridge , and the Chelsea Embankment , running from Millbank to the Cadogan Pier at Chelsea . The southern side contains the Albert Embankment , from the Lambeth end of Westminster Bridge to Vauxhall . He ran the sewers along the banks of the Thames , building up walls on the foreshore , running the sewer pipes inside and infilling around them . The works claimed over 52 acres ( 21 ha ) of land from the Thames ; the Victoria Embankment had the added benefit of relieving the congestion on the pre @-@ existing roads between Westminster and the City of London . The cost of building the embankments was estimated at £ 1 @.@ 71 million , of which £ 450 @,@ 000 was used for purchasing the necessary river @-@ front properties , which had tended to be in light @-@ industrial use . The Embankment project was seen as being nationally important and , with the Queen unable to attend because of illness , the Victoria Embankment was opened by the Prince of Wales in July 1870 . The Albert Embankment had been completed in November 1869 , while the Chelsea Embankment was opened in July 1874 .
Bazalgette considered the Embankment project " one of the most difficult and intricate things the ... [ MBW ] have had to do " , and shortly after the Chelsea Embankment was opened , he was knighted . In 1875 the work on the western drainage was completed , and the system became operational . The building work had required 318 million bricks and 880 @,@ 000 cubic yards ( 670 @,@ 000 m3 ) of concrete and mortar ; the final cost was approximately £ 6 @.@ 5 million .
= = Legacy = =
In 1866 there was a further cholera outbreak in London that claimed 5 @,@ 596 lives , although it was confined to an area of the East End between Aldgate and Bow . At the time that was a part of London which had not been connected to Bazalgette 's system , and 93 per cent of the fatalities occurred within the region . The fault lay with the East London Water Company , who discharged their sewage half a mile ( 805 m ) downstream from their reservoir : the sewage was being carried upstream into the reservoir on the incoming tide , contaminating the area 's drinking water . The outbreak , and the diagnosis of its causes , led to the acceptance that cholera was water @-@ borne , not transmitted by miasma . The Lancet , relating details of the investigation into the incident by Dr William Farr , stated that his report " will render irresistible the conclusions at which he has arrived in regard to the influence of the water @-@ supply in causation of the epidemic . " It was the last outbreak of the disease in the capital .
In 1878 a Thames pleasure @-@ steamer , the SS Princess Alice , collided with the collier Bywell Castle and sank , causing over 650 deaths . The accident took place close to the outfalls and questions were raised in the British press over whether the sewage was responsible for some of the deaths . In the 1880s further fears over possible health concerns because of the outfalls led to the MBW purifying sewage at Crossness and Beckton , rather than dumping the untreated waste into the river , and a series of six sludge boats were ordered to ship effluent into the North Sea for dumping . The first boat commissioned was named the SS Bazalgette , which remained in service until December 1998 , when the dumping stopped , and an incinerator was used to dispose of the waste . The sewers were expanded in the late 19th century and again in the early 20th century . The drainage network is , as of 2015 , managed by Thames Water , and is used by up to eight million people a day . The company states that " the system is struggling to cope with the demands of 21st @-@ century London " .
Crossness Pumping Station remained in use until the mid @-@ 1950s when it was replaced . The engines were too large to remove and were left in situ , although they fell into a state of disrepair . The station itself became a grade I listed building with the Ministry of Public Building and Works in June 1970 ( since replaced by English Heritage ) . The building and its engines are , as of 2015 , under restoration by the Crossness Engines Trust . The president of the trust is the British television producer Peter Bazalgette , the great @-@ great @-@ grandson of Joseph . As of 2015 part of the Abbey Mill facility continues to operate as a sewage pumping station . The building 's large double chimneys were removed during the Second World War following fears that they could be used by the Luftwaffe as landmarks for navigation , and the building became a grade II * listed building with the Ministry of Works in November 1974 .
The provision of an integrated and fully functioning sewer system for the capital , together with the associated drop in cholera cases , led the historian John Doxat to state that Bazalgette " probably did more good , and saved more lives , than any single Victorian official " . Bazalgette continued to work at the MBW until 1889 , during which time he replaced three of London 's bridges : Putney in 1886 , Hammersmith in 1887 and Battersea in 1890 . He was appointed president of the Institution of Civil Engineers ( ICE ) in 1884 , and in 1901 a monument commemorating his life was opened on the Victoria Embankment . When he died in March 1891 , his obituarist in The Illustrated London News wrote that Bazalgette 's " two great titles to fame are that he beautified London and drained it " , while Sir John Coode , the president of ICE at the time , said that Bazalgette 's work " will ever remain as monuments to his skill and professional ability " . The obituarist for The Times opined that " when the New Zealander comes to London a thousand years hence ... the magnificent solidity and the faultless symmetry of the great granite blocks which form the wall of the Thames @-@ embankment will still remain . " He continued , " the great sewer that runs beneath Londoners ... has added some 20 years to their chance of life " . The historian Peter Ackroyd , in his history of subterranean London , considers that " with [ John ] Nash and [ Christopher ] Wren , Bazalgette enters the pantheon of London heroes " because of his work , particularly the building of the Victoria and Albert Embankments .
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= Hurricane Elida ( 2008 ) =
Hurricane Elida was the sixth tropical cyclone , fifth named storm , and second hurricane of the 2008 Pacific hurricane season . Elida formed out of a weak tropical wave which formed off the western coast of Central America on July 8 . The wave remained poorly organized over the next two days before developing a surface low . The low was declared Tropical Depression Six @-@ E on July 11 while located to the south of Guatemala . The depression intensified into Tropical Storm Elida the next morning . It intensified steadily over the next two days before being upgraded to a hurricane . The storm fluctuated in intensity over the next several days before reaching its peak intensity on July 16 with winds of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) . Elida slowly weakened as it passed over cooling waters and was downgraded to a tropical storm on July 18 and further downgraded to a tropical depression on July 19 . The cyclone degenerated into a remnant low shortly after , and completely dissipated on July 21 over open waters .
= = Meteorological history = =
Hurricane Elida developed out of a weak tropical wave which formed off the western coast of Central America on July 8 . It is possible that the wave formed in the Atlantic Ocean , but there is little evidence to support this theory . The system remained poorly organized for two days before gaining enough convection to be classified using the Dvorak technique on July 10 , while located 290 mi ( 465 km ) south of Guatemala . Later that day , a surface low developed but convection remained minimal . During the night and through the morning of July 11 , convection increased sufficiently and a tropical cyclone formation alert was issued . By the end of the day , the storm had become Tropical Depression Six @-@ E , six hours earlier than the operational data . At the time of the upgrade , the depression was located 360 mi ( 580 km ) south @-@ southeast of Puerto Angel , Mexico . The depression was moving towards the west @-@ northwest at 16 mph ( 26 km / h ) due to a low to mid @-@ level ridge located to the north of the storm .
The depression was upgraded to Tropical Storm Elida early on July 12 while located 200 mi ( 370 km ) south of Puerto Angel , Mexico . Elida 's forward motion slowed somewhat as it neared the southwestern edge of the mid @-@ level ridge . Deep convection developed around the center of circulation and a strong banding feature formed along the western side of the storm . Slow strengthening took place throughout the morning as the center remained underneath the deep convection . Outflow to the north of the storm was slightly restricted , indicating that there was some easterly wind shear . During the afternoon , a well defined banding feature appeared , but the outflow to the north remained highly constricted . Elida began to move slightly faster , still being influenced by the mid @-@ level ridge . The foreword motion was forecast to slow down in the two- to three @-@ day range as it moved away from the ridge . Overnight , wind shear began to weaken and outflow to the north of Elida was established . By the morning of July 13 , banding features and outflow were present all around the storm , but wind shear managed to keep the center of Elida slightly displaced from the deepest convection . The movement of a weakening mid to upper @-@ level trough would allow Elida to make a westerly turn . Later in the morning , the wind shear lessened and in the early afternoon , a burst of convection near the center of Elida had formed , but subsequently weakened .
Although Elida initially failed to develop an eyewall. in the early afternoon hours , satellite indicated the formation of an eye . Based on this , Elida was upgraded into a hurricane . In the late morning hours , Elida intensified slightly. and a ragged eye appeared in the afternoon as the structure of the storm improved . At this point , forecasters thought the Elida had peaked in intensity or was near its peak . Elida 's direction shifted from a west @-@ northwest to west as the ridge located to the north of the storm began influencing the trajectory . The eye disappeared shortly afterwords. as easterly wind shear began to increase . Elida slowly weakened and by the afternoon , Elida was barely holding onto hurricane status . Despite this , Elida became better organized overnight as convection wrapped around the eye .
On the morning of July 16 , the eye appeared on infrared satellite and cirrus outflow improved all around the system ; however , Elida was nearing cooler waters . The mid @-@ level ridge to the north of Elida was now forecast to move with the storm , ensuring westward motion and slightly increasing the foreword speed to 12 mph ( 19 km / h ) . Elida accelerated slightly and maintained a westerly motion . The eye quickly disappeared from infrared satellite later in the morning , but deep convection persisted on the eastern side of the center of circulation . In the afternoon , an eye appeared embedded in the deep convection and Elida intensified into a category two hurricane with winds of 105 mph ( 165 km / ) while located 630 mi ( 1015 km ) southwest of Cabo San Lucas , Mexico . By the nighttime hours , thunderstorm activity in the northern semicircle of Elida waned and cold waters began to take their toll on Elida as the eye became cloud filled and less distinct . In the late morning , Elida weakened to a category one hurricane as determined in the tropical cyclone report . Despite continuing deep convection near the center of Elida and even an embedded eye , the center was lagging behind , making the storm slightly tilted . Elida produced a large amount of deep convection overnight , but the winds continued to lessen . The storm continued to move over colder waters , but wind shear was forecast to lessen , leading to slow , steady weakening .
By the morning of July 18 , thunderstorm activity associated with Elida diminished further and the storm was downgraded to a tropical storm . Despite being over very cool waters , Elida managed to maintain a small area of deep convection as it slowly weakened . By the afternoon , most of the convection had dissipated and all that remained . The small area of convection shifted to the east side of the center overnight , allowing Elida to remain a tropical storm with winds barely at 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) . By the morning of July 19 , Elida was traversing waters of 23 ° C ( 73 ° F ) and all the deep convection had dissipated . Due to the lack of convection , Elida was downgraded to a tropical depression . Cold waters prevented any convection from redeveloping in the late morning , and it was unlikely that any convection would form . Elida was later declared a remnant low that afternoon as the system had been devoid of convection for hours . The remnant low continued moving towards the west @-@ southwest before dissipating into an open trough on July 21 while located 690 mi ( 1 @,@ 110 km ) east @-@ southeast of the Hawaiian Islands .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Due to the proximity of Elida to Mexico , the Government of Mexico warned residents about the possibility of heavy rains from the outer edges of the storm . Thunderstorms related to Elida developed over Oaxaca , Guerrero , Michoacán , Colima and Jalisco . In Nayarit , Elida produced storms that dropped torrential rainfall and hail that injured at least one person . The rainfall resulted in the formation of a lake roughly 45 cm ( 18 in ) deep . Several trees feel , blocking streets for several hours . Street flooding reached a depth of 20 cm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) , inundating shops and some homes . Indirect effects , such as large swells , were felt along the Mexican coastline as the storm produced waves up to 4 m ( 13 ft ) . However , as trade winds increased during the middle of July , the remnants of Elida brought rainfall to east @-@ facing slopes of the Island of Hawaii and Maui . Frequent rain showers produced 2 to 6 inches ( 51 to 152 mm ) of precipitation in those regions , but no significant flooding occurred .
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= Operation Slapstick =
Operation Slapstick was the code name for a British landing from the sea at the Italian port of Taranto during the Second World War . The operation , one of three landings during the Allied invasion of Italy in September 1943 , was undertaken by airborne troops of the British 1st Airborne Division , commanded by Major @-@ General George Hopkinson .
Planned at short notice , the mission followed an offer by the Italian government to open the ports of Taranto and Brindisi on the heel of Italy to the Allies . The airborne division was selected to undertake the mission , but at the time they were located in North Africa . A shortage of transport aircraft meant the division could not land in their traditional way by parachute and glider , and all the landing craft in the area were already allocated to the other landings : Operation Avalanche at Salerno on the western coast , and Operation Baytown at Calabria . Instead , the division had to be transported across the Mediterranean by ships of the Royal Navy . The landing was unopposed and the airborne division successfully captured the ports of Taranto , and later Brindisi on the Adriatic coast in working order .
The only German forces in the area were elements of the 1st Parachute Division ( 1 . Fallschirmjäger Division ) , which engaged the advancing British in ambushes and at roadblocks during a fighting withdrawal north . Eventually , by the end of September , the British 1st Airborne Division advanced 125 miles ( 201 km ) to Foggia . Reinforcements from two infantry divisions had by then been landed behind them , which allowed the airborne troops to be withdrawn to Taranto . Soon after , the division , minus the 2nd Parachute Brigade , sailed for England in preparation for Operation Overlord , the invasion of Normandy .
= = Background = =
In May 1943 , the Axis powers of Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy were defeated in the North African Campaign . Two months later , the Allied powers of Great Britain and the United States , successfully launched their invasion of Sicily , codenamed Operation Husky . The island being completely occupied by the end of August , the Allies next turned their attention to the invasion of Italy .
On 3 September 1943 , the British Eighth Army , under the command of General Bernard Montgomery , crossed the Straits of Messina from Sicily and landed in Calabria during Operation Baytown to seize the ports of Reggio and San Giovanni . The main invasion was planned for 9 September , with the U.S. Fifth Army , commanded by Lieutenant General Mark Clark , landing at Salerno on the western coast in Operation Avalanche , with Naples as their immediate objective . The Allies hoped that the invasion would persuade the Italian forces to surrender . If they did , the five Italian divisions in France and the twenty @-@ nine in the Balkans would have to be replaced by German formations . Also , if the Germans then decided to continue the fight in Italy , they would have to redeploy some of their divisions engaged on the Eastern Front or on occupation duties in France .
During secret surrender negotiations with the Allies in early September , the Italian government offered to open the ports of Taranto and Brindisi on the eastern coast . German forces in that area were very weak and would be expected to withdraw rather than fight if the Allies landed there . General Dwight D. Eisenhower , the Supreme Allied Commander in the Mediterranean , quickly planned a third landing , codenamed Slapstick , to take advantage of the offer .
Slapstick was in part an operation of deception , to divert German forces away from the main Allied landings at Salerno on the same day , while also attempting to capture Taranto and Brindisi intact . The main value of Taranto was its large port . Its seizure would , with the expected capture of Naples in the west by the Americans , give the Allies supply points on both Italian coasts .
The military operation played a major political role , since the King Vittorio Emanuele III of Italy , the queen Elena , the crown prince and future king Umberto , the Prime Minister , Generale Badoglio , and other high ranking Italian officers hastily escaped from Rome to Ortona , where they embarked aboard the corvette Baionetta early in the morning of 9 September . Later on the same day they arrived at the port of Brindisi . The town of Brindisi was at the time controlled only by the Italian Army , but it was soon to be protected by the British forces , supporting the diplomatic , political and military contacts between the Italian government and the Allied forces , leading to the declaration of war by Italy against Germany .
= = = Taranto = = =
First founded by the Spartans almost 3 @,@ 000 years before , Taranto had been fought over numerous times . Combatants had ranged from the Arab and Byzantine empires to the Normans in the Middle Ages . It later became part of the Kingdom of Sicily and the Kingdom of Naples . After the unification of Italy , Taranto became the home of the Italian Navy .
Taranto is also the capital city of the Province of Taranto in the region of Apulia and has a large dock area . It includes the two islets of St. Peter and St. Paul , which protect the bay , called the Mar Grande ( Big Sea ) , where the commercial port is located . The military port was located in another bay , the Mar Piccolo .
As it was the base of the Italian Navy , in November 1940 Taranto was attacked by the British Royal Navy in what became known as the Battle of Taranto . During the attack by carrier @-@ borne aircraft , in one night , the Italian fleet lost around half its strength ; the next day , their undamaged ships were transferred from Taranto to Naples to try to protect them from similar attacks .
= = Prelude = =
= = = German forces = = =
The German High Command fully expected Italy to surrender and , in preparation , had secretly established a new Army group headquarters commanded by Generalfeldmarschall Erwin Rommel at Munich . Rommel would have six divisions transferred from the Eastern Front , two divisions from France that had just been reformed , and two parachute divisions based in Germany in his new command . However , a Russian offensive in the east prevented the release of all the units promised . Adolf Hitler came to the conclusion that , without the backing of the Italian Army , it would be impossible for the Germans to defend the whole of Italy .
In Italy , German Generalfeldmarschall Albert Kesselring , unaware of what was happening in Germany , had been building up the strength of his forces . He was aided in this by the escape from Sicily of three divisions , which managed to cross the Straits of Messina without serious loss of men or equipment . In August , five infantry and two panzer divisions moved into northern Italy . After the loss of Sicily , Hitler amended the German plans , deciding to hold the Salerno @-@ Naples area with five infantry divisions , while the 1st Parachute Division was ordered to the Apulia region .
Commanded by Generalmajor Richard Heidrich , the 1st Parachute Division consisted of the 1st , 3rd and 4th Parachute Regiments , with an artillery regiment , tank @-@ destroyer , anti @-@ aircraft , and engineer battalions , and other support units . The division was the successor of the original German airborne force , the 7th Air Division , and was highly experienced . It had spearheaded the German invasion in the west in 1940 , and fought in the battles of Greece and Crete , and in the Soviet Union . Withdrawn from the Soviet Union in 1943 , the division had already fought against British paratroops during operations in Sicily . However , on 9 September only three combat battalions and the headquarters were in Apulia .
= = = British forces = = =
Plans were formulated on 6 September to transport the British 1st Airborne Division to Taranto from their base in North Africa . They would take advantage of the Italian surrender to capture the port and establish anti @-@ aircraft defences . What was left of the Italian fleet still using the harbour was expected to have left beforehand . The Allies believed that the division would face only minimal opposition and would be able to overcome any resistance with the limited naval support available , as Taranto was outside the range of Allied fighter aircraft based in Sicily .
Although it had been formed in October 1941 , the British 1st Airborne Division , commanded by Major @-@ General George Hopkinson , had never before fought as a complete division . The only units with any combat experience were the 1st Parachute Brigade , which had fought with distinction as an independent brigade in North Africa and in Operation Fustian during the Allied invasion of Sicily , and the 1st Airlanding Brigade , understrength with only two battalions , which had also fought in Sicily during Operation Ladbroke . Both brigades had suffered heavy casualties in Sicily and were in no condition to undertake any further assault landings . Of the division 's other brigades , the 2nd and 4th Para Brigades , were untried in battle . Also , the 2nd Parachute Brigade was the only full strength unit , as the 4th Parachute Brigade had only two battalions , with its third battalion still forming in Palestine .
There was only sufficient troop transport aircraft to support one division @-@ sized operation , and that was allocated to the U.S. 82nd Airborne Division , under Major General Matthew Ridgway , as part of the Salerno landings . As a result , the 1st Airborne Division had to be carried to Italy by sea . With no landing craft available on such short notice , the division was carried across the Mediterranean by four cruisers , HMS Aurora , HMS Penelope , HMS Dido and HMS Sirius of the Royal Navy 's 12th Cruiser Squadron , accompanied by the minelayer HMS Abdiel and the American cruiser USS Boise , all commanded by Commodore W.G. Agnew . If the landing was successful , the British 78th Infantry Division in Sicily and the 8th Indian Infantry Division in the Middle East , would be sent to reinforce the airborne division , under the command of V Corps .
= = Landing = =
Before leaving Tunisia , the 1st Airborne Division was divided into two halves . The first half , consisting of the divisional headquarters , the 1st and 4th Parachute Brigade groups and the 9th Field Company , Royal Engineers , boarded the Royal Navy ships at Bizerta . The ships departed at 17 : 00 on 8 September , their decks loaded with the division 's vehicles and stores . Admiral of the Fleet Sir Andrew Cunningham was concerned that the Italian battle fleet based at Taranto might sortie and attack the cruisers which would be unable to defend themselves adequately , overloaded as they were with troops and equipment . He therefore ordered the battleships HMS Howe and HMS King George V and their six escorting destroyers , commanded by Vice Admiral Arthur Power , to leave their base in Malta and join the flotilla . At 18 : 30 8 September , while the convoy was at sea , General Eisenhower broadcast the details of the Italian surrender .
To support the British landings early on 9 September , Scanzano was attacked by American B @-@ 26 Marauders from the 17th and 310th Bombardment Groups . Then , just as the Allied flotilla approached Taranto , the Italian battleships Andrea Doria and Caio Duilio and three cruisers were observed leaving the harbour . The flotilla went to action stations , but the Italian ships just sailed past them en route to Malta to surrender in accordance with the agreement between the Allies and the Italian government . At 15 : 00 , the flotilla reached the minefield guarding the entrance to Taranto . The destroyer HMS Javelin negotiated the minefield and entered the harbour . Two hours later , Javelin returned with an Italian harbour pilot on board . HMS Penelope and USS Boise were guided safely into the harbour and alongside the jetty , where they disembarked the troops they were carrying , while the other ships in the flotilla remained outside the port and used small ship 's boats to take their soldiers ashore . The port 's facilities were all in working order and were soon unloading the ships .
The first units ashore were the headquarters of the 4th Parachute Brigade and the 10th Parachute Battalion , which were directed to move inland to guard against a German attack . When the airborne division troops entered the city , they were welcomed by the Italian defenders and informed that the German forces had already departed . When the two brigades were offloaded , they passed through the city and set up defensive positions to the north . At the same time , Major @-@ General George F. Hopkinson , established his divisional headquarters in the Albergo Europa Hotel and accepted the Italian surrender from the military governor .
After safely landing the first half of the division , the 12th Cruiser Squadron returned to Bizerta to collect the remaining troops , consisting of the 2nd Parachute Brigade , the 1st Airlanding Brigade and the Glider Pilot Regiment . The only casualties in the landing occurred on 10 September when HMS Abdiel , while manoeuvring alongside the dock , struck a mine and sank . Casualties totaled 58 killed and 154 wounded from the 6th ( Royal Welch ) Parachute Battalion , and 48 dead among Abdiel 's crew . Abdiel was also carrying twelve 6 pounder anti @-@ tank guns of the 2nd Anti @-@ tank Battery , and the division 's reserve ammunition supply .
Overnight , the 4th Parachute Brigade led the advance inland . By daybreak on 10 September , they had reached Massafra , where they were welcomed by the population . The next town they reached was Mottola , which was still occupied by the Germans . The Germans put up some resistance to the 156th Parachute Battalion 's assault , but withdrew soon after . The division 's first combat casualties resulted from this action . The wounded were evacuated to Taranto , where the 133rd ( Parachute ) Field Ambulance had established an 80 @-@ bed main dressing station at the Rendinella hospital .
The German paratroop rearguard tried to delay the British advance with several ambushes and roadblocks . At a roadblock beside the town of Castellaneta , Major @-@ General Hopkinton , the GOC , was hit by a burst of German machine gun fire while observing the 10th Parachute Battalion 's attack . He died of his wounds the following day . Hopkinson was replaced as the divisional commander by Brigadier Ernest Down , previously the commander of the 2nd Parachute Brigade .
Within 48 hours of landing at Taranto , the airborne division reached and occupied the port of Brindisi and Bari on the Adriatic coast without opposition from the Italian defenders . On 11 September on the division 's left , contact was made with the 1st Canadian Infantry Division , the leading unit of the British Eighth Army which had arrived in the area from Calabria . By the evening of 12 September , the 1st Airborne Division had advanced 20 miles ( 32 km ) inland on foot .
The airborne division 's next objective was now the airfield at Gioia del Colle . The Royal Air Force needed the airfield to bring in fighter aircraft from Sicily and support the landings at Salerno , which had not gone as expected . The Germans continued their withdrawal , and Gioia was reached over the night of the 16 / 17 September , by the 10th and 156th Parachute battalions . The Royal Air Force took over the airfield and 48 hours later , six squadrons were flying from the base in support of Allied operations . Between 20 and 24 September , the 1st Airborne Division was ordered to halt and construct defences on the approaches to Taranto , due to concerns that the Germans might launch a counterattack against the overextended unit .
The V Corps headquarters landed at Taranto on 18 September and prepared for the arrival of its two divisions . The first was the British 78th Infantry Division , which started arriving at Bari on 22 September , followed by the 8th Indian Infantry Division at Taranto the next day . On 24 September , the 1st Parachute and 1st Airlanding brigades took over the advance for the airborne division . By 27 September , they and the 78th Division reached Foggia , 125 miles ( 201 km ) from Taranto . From there , the airborne division was withdrawn to Taranto . By November , most of the 1st Airborne Division had left for England .
= = Aftermath = =
Operation Slapstick did not provide the diversion General Eisenhower had hoped for . The decision by Heidrich not to oppose the landings was made without reference to Kesselring 's headquarters . Heidrich had expected to be confronted by an overwhelming Allied force and had withdrawn his units north , although he endeavoured to delay the Allied advance where possible by ambushes and roadblocks . The German division went on to frustrate the Allied attempt to advance on Rome during the Battle of Monte Cassino in 1944 .
The British 1st Airborne Division only fought in one other battle during the war . Almost a year to the day , on 17 September 1944 , they took part in Operation Market Garden , the airborne assault crossing of the River Rhine in the Netherlands . Trapped behind German lines with their backs to the river and surrounded by parts of two panzer divisions , the division was virtually destroyed in the Battle of Arnhem ; only 2 @,@ 100 men of the 10 @,@ 000 that had started the mission were evacuated south of the Rhine . The 1st Airborne Division was also flown into Norway towards the end of the war in May 1945 to accept the surrender of German forces and occupy formerly German held positions in Operation Doomsday .
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= Tropical Storm Agatha ( 1992 ) =
Tropical Storm Agatha was the deadliest tropical cyclone to form during the 1992 Pacific hurricane season . Developing as a tropical depression off the Pacific coast of Mexico on June 1 , the storm gradually organized over the next several hours . As it moved northward , the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Agatha later that day . After reaching its peak winds as a strong tropical storm , Agatha steadily weakened while turning to the west . The system was downgraded to a tropical depression on June 5 , and subsequently lost its tropical characteristics the next day . Although Agatha never made landfall , the storm 's outer rainbands triggered widespread flooding that killed ten people .
= = Meteorological history = =
On May 26 , a tropical wave — or a quasi @-@ equatorward area of low pressure — moved off the Central American coast into the east Pacific . Over the subsequent days the system produced a broad area of convection , which began to show signs of organization on May 29 . Early on June 1 , the disturbance became better defined , and shortly thereafter the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) classified it as a tropical depression while located 460 mi ( 740 km ) southwest of Acapulco . At the time , the depression maintained good outflow aloft ; it was forecast to strengthen into a minimal hurricane after three days . Based on a combination of ship data and Dvorak intensity estimates , the system was upgraded into Tropical Storm Agatha on June 2 .
For the first two days of its duration , Agatha steered toward the north while embedded within a deep southerly flow . Steady intensification continued , and the storm reached winds of 50 mph ( 90 km / h ) six hours after being upgraded as it neared the coast of Mexico . By the afternoon of June 2 , the center exhibited an elongated appearance within its associated central dense overcast , a large area of organized mid @-@ tropospheric convection . Around 1800 UTC that same day , the storm peaked in intensity with winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) and a minimum pressure of 990 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 23 inHg ) .
Maintaining its peak intensity for 30 hours , Agatha gradually decelerated as it passed within 100 mi ( 160 km ) southwest of the Mexican coast . Although specialists at the NHC had anticipated a Category 1 @-@ hurricane landfall on the territory , the storm defied predictions and stayed at sea . The center of the storm promptly became ill @-@ defined on infrared satellite imagery , simultaneously recurving to the west . Agatha continued to degenerate quickly into the morning of June 4 , with a ragged appearance observed on satellite imagery . By 0600 UTC June 5 , the storm was downgraded back into tropical depression status prior to dissipating the next day .
= = Preparations and Impact = =
On June 2 , forecasters at the National Hurricane Center anticipated Agatha to make landfall in Mexico near hurricane strength . In light of this , a tropical storm warning and hurricane watch were issued for the Pacific coast of Mexico between Tenexpa to Cabo Corrites around 2100 UTC that day . Additionally , heavy rains from the system prompted concerns over mudslides and flash floods . Following Agatha 's turn towards the west early on June 3 , the watches and warnings were discontinued . Roughly 1 @,@ 500 people evacuated from coastal areas of Michoacán due to the threat of damaging winds and flooding .
Although the center of Agatha remained offshore , heavy rains within the system 's outer rainbands impacted southwestern and central Mexico . Widespread flooding and mudslides killed ten people and left thousands homeless . Along the coast , waves reportedly reached heights of 16 ft ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) .
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= New York State Route 391 =
New York State Route 391 ( NY 391 ) is a short state highway in Erie County , New York , in the United States . The route is signed as north – south ; however , it follows more of a southeast – northwest alignment between NY 277 in the hamlet of North Boston and U.S. Route 62 ( US 62 ) in the village of Hamburg . NY 391 meets the Southern Expressway ( US 219 ) just north of North Boston . Both ends of NY 391 are located in residential areas ; however , the middle section of the route passes through more rural areas of the towns of Boston and Hamburg .
The routing of NY 391 has been part of several routes over the years , beginning with NY 62 in 1930 . NY 62 was mostly renumbered to NY 75 c . 1932 , and all of NY 75 south of Hamburg became concurrent to US 219 when it was extended into New York c . 1935 . NY 75 was cut back to Hamburg by 1940 , leaving just US 219 on modern NY 391 . US 219 was realigned north of North Boston in the early 1970s to follow other routes north to meet the first completed piece of the Southern Expressway near Orchard Park . NY 391 was assigned to US 219 's former routing into Hamburg at this time . The route originally ended two blocks to the west at the junction of NY 75 and US 62 ; however , this extension was eliminated c . 2004 .
= = Route description = =
NY 391 begins at an intersection with NY 277 ( Herman Hill Road ) in North Boston , a hamlet within the town of Boston . It heads to the northwest as Boston State Road , passing by suburban homes as it approaches the Southern Expressway ( US 219 ) . The two highways meet by way of a diamond interchange . West of the exit , NY 391 's surroundings become more rural as it enters the town of Hamburg , where it passes by open fields and a handful of houses .
The route follows Eighteen Mile Creek northwest and west toward the village of Hamburg , where the amount of development along the highway increases significantly . At McKinley Parkway ( County Route 204 ) , NY 391 becomes East Main Street and begins to pass through the outskirts of the village . It officially enters Hamburg upon intersecting Sunnyside Drive two blocks to the west . The route continues into the village center , passing by commercial and residential buildings on its way to a roundabout at Buffalo Street , where it meets US 62 . At this point , NY 391 comes to an end while US 62 turns west onto Main Street from Buffalo Street .
= = History = =
What is now NY 391 was originally designated as part of NY 62 , a highway extending from Great Valley north to Buffalo , in the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York . US 62 was extended into New York c . 1932 ; as a result , all of NY 62 south of Athol Springs was redesignated as NY 75 to eliminate numerical duplication with the U.S. Highway . US 219 was extended into New York c . 1935 , overlapping NY 75 between Great Valley and Hamburg . The overlap was eliminated by 1940 following the truncation of NY 75 to what had been the west end of its overlap with US 62 through Hamburg .
In the early 1970s , construction began on the Southern Expressway , a limited @-@ access highway connecting Buffalo to Springville . The first segment of the expressway — between the New York State Thruway east of Lackawanna and US 20A west of Orchard Park — opened to traffic by 1973 as a realignment of US 219 . In between the end of the expressway and North Boston , US 219 temporarily overlapped US 20A and NY 277 . The former routing of US 219 from North Boston to Hamburg was redesignated as NY 391 .
An extension of the freeway south to NY 391 near North Boston opened in the mid @-@ 1970s , resulting in a slight , temporary truncation of NY 391 to the end of the freeway . Another extension of the expressway south to Springville was completed in the early 1980s . It became part of US 219 upon opening ; at the same time , NY 391 was reextended to NY 277 in North Boston . The remainder of US 219 's former routing south to Springville was transferred to Erie County upon the completion of the Springville – Buffalo segment of the Southern Expressway . Originally , NY 391 terminated at NY 75 in Hamburg , resulting in an extraneous overlap with US 62 for two blocks along Main Street . NY 391 was truncated to the eastern end of the concurrency c . 2004 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Erie County .
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= The Hitchhiker 's Guide to the Galaxy ( radio series ) =
The Hitchhiker 's Guide to the Galaxy is a science fiction comedy radio series written by Douglas Adams ( with some material in the first series provided by John Lloyd ) . It was originally broadcast in the United Kingdom by BBC Radio 4 in 1978 , and afterwards the BBC World Service , National Public Radio in the U.S. and CBC Radio in Canada . The series was the first radio comedy programme to be produced in stereo , and was innovative in its use of music and sound effects , winning a number of awards .
The series follows the adventures of hapless Englishman Arthur Dent and his friend Ford Prefect , an alien who writes for The Hitchhiker 's Guide to the Galaxy , a pan @-@ galactic encyclopedia and travel guide . After Earth is destroyed in the first episode , Arthur and Ford find themselves aboard a stolen spaceship piloted by a motley crew including Zaphod Beeblebrox ( Ford 's semi @-@ cousin and Galactic President ) , the depressed robot Marvin and Trillian , the only other human survivor of Earth 's destruction .
A pilot programme was commissioned in March 1977 , and was recorded by the end of the following June . A second series was commissioned in 1979 , transmitted in 1980 . Episodes of the first series were specially re @-@ recorded for release on LP records and audio cassettes and Adams adapted the first series into a best @-@ selling novel in 1979 . After the 1980 transmissions of the second radio series , a second novel was published and the first series was adapted for television . This was followed in turn by three further novels , a computer game , and various other media formats .
Adams had considered writing a third radio series to be based on his novel Life , the Universe and Everything in 1993 , but the project did not begin for another ten years . Adams had died in May 2001 . Dirk Maggs , with whom Adams had discussed the new series , eventually directed and co @-@ produced radio series adaptations of that novel , as well as So Long , and Thanks for All the Fish and Mostly Harmless . These became the third , fourth and fifth radio series transmitted in 2004 and 2005 .
A sixth series will be aired in 2017 .
= = Development = =
= = = Early development = = =
Douglas Adams had contributed comedy sketches for BBC radio programmes produced by Simon Brett ( including The Burkiss Way and Week Ending ) , and was asked to pitch a radio sitcom in February 1977 . Adams initially pitched a " bedsit comedy " because that " seemed to be what most situation comedies tended to be about . " Adams said in an interview that when Simon Brett proposed a radio science fiction comedy series , he " fell off his chair ... because it was what I 'd been fighting for all these years " . Adams wrote his first outlines in February 1977 .
Originally to be called The Ends of the Earth , each episode would have ended with the planet Earth meeting its demise in a different way . While writing the first episode , Adams realised that he needed a character who knew what was going to happen to Earth before the other characters . He decided to make this character an alien and , remembering an idea he supposedly had had while lying drunk in a field in Innsbruck , Austria in 1971 , decided that this character would be a " roving reporter " for The Hitchhiker 's Guide to the Galaxy . Later recollections by his friends at the time indicate that Adams first spoke openly of the idea of " hitch @-@ hiking around the galaxy " while on holiday in Greece in 1973 .
As the first radio episode 's writing progressed , the Guide became the central focus of his story , and he decided to base the whole series around it , with the initial destruction of Earth being the only hold @-@ over from the " Ends of the Earth " proposal . In Adams ' February 1977 outline , the character of Arthur Dent was initially called " Aleric B " , the joke being that the audience initially assume the character is also an alien rather than a human . Adams later renamed the character for the pilot to " Arthur Dent " . It has been proposed by Adams ' biographer M. J. Simpson that the character was almost certainly named after the 17th century puritan writer Arthur Dent , author of The Plain Man 's Pathway to Heaven first published in 1601 , although Adams himself claimed no recollection of consciously choosing the name .
= = = Pilot and commissioning = = =
A pilot episode was commissioned on 1 March 1977 and the recording was completed on 28 June 1977 . Brett and Adams both later recounted different parts of the pilot episode 's genesis , including convincing the BBC that such a programme could not be recorded with a studio audience , and insisting that the programme be recorded in stereo sound . To win this latter argument , Hitchhiker 's was briefly classified internally as a drama instead of a comedy , as in 1977 BBC Radio Drama programmes were allowed to be recorded in stereo , and BBC Radio Comedy programmes were not .
A full series of six episodes ( five new episodes , plus the pilot ) was commissioned on 31 August 1977 . However , Adams had in the meantime sent a copy of the Hitchhiker 's pilot episode to the BBC 's Doctor Who production office , and was thus commissioned to write a four @-@ part Doctor Who serial ( " The Pirate Planet " ) a few weeks later . In addition , Simon Brett had left the BBC , and the final five episodes in the first series were produced by Geoffrey Perkins .
With conflicting writing commitments , Adams engaged his friend and flat @-@ mate John Lloyd to assist in writing what became known as " Fit the Fifth " and " Fit the Sixth " . The second episode was produced in November 1977 . The script of the last episode of the first series ( which was later retitled " The Primary Phase " ) was completed in February 1978 , and production ( including sound mixing and effects ) was completed on 3 March 1978 .
= = = Casting = = =
Adams wrote both of the main parts of Arthur Dent and Ford Prefect with actors Simon Jones and Geoffrey McGivern in mind . According to Jones , Adams telephoned him when he was writing the pilot to ask whether he would essentially play himself ; Adams later stated that although Arthur Dent was not a portrayal of Simon Jones , he wrote the part to play to Jones 's strengths as an actor .
The radio series ( and the LP and TV versions ) featured a narration by comedy actor Peter Jones as " The Book " . He was cast after it was decided that a " Peter @-@ Jonesy " sort of voice was required . This led to a three @-@ month search for an actor with sonorous , avuncular tones who sounded exactly like Peter Jones , after which the producers eventually hired Peter Jones himself . Following another actor dropping out of the production , Bill Wallis was called in at short notice to play two parts ; Mr Prosser and Vogon Jeltz . One character appearing in the pilot who was dropped from subsequent incarnations of the story was Lady Cynthia , an aristocrat who helps demolish Dent 's house , who was played by another ex @-@ Cambridge Footlights actress , Jo Kendall .
The pilot featured only a small cast of characters , and following its commission into a series there was a need for additional characters . Many were picked for their roles in previous series , for example according to Adams , Mark Wing @-@ Davey had played a character in The Glittering Prizes " who took advantage of people and was very trendy " making him suitable for the role of Zaphod . Meanwhile , Richard Vernon , who was noted for his portrayal of " grandfatherly types " , was chosen to be Slartibartfast . Other main characters included Susan Sheridan as Trillian and Stephen Moore as Marvin .
= = First and second radio series = =
= = = Plot = = =
In the first series , Earthman Arthur Dent is going to have his house demolished to make way for a new road , but before work can start his friend Ford Prefect informs him that the world is going to be demolished by a Vogon constructor fleet " to make way for a hyperspace bypass " and that he is in fact an alien writer for " The Hitchhiker 's Guide to the Galaxy " . Hitching a ride aboard the Vogon ship which has just destroyed Earth , the pair eventually find themselves aboard a stolen spaceship called The Heart of Gold . On board is Ford 's semi @-@ cousin and President of the Galaxy , Zaphod Beeblebrox , a woman Dent once met at a party called Trisha MacMillan ( who has styled herself " Trillian " ) and a depressed robot called Marvin . Beeblebrox is searching for the mythical planet of Magrathea and the answer to the " Ultimate Question of Life , the Universe and Everything " , which it turns out is " 42 " . Dent and the others later find themselves at The Restaurant at the End of the Universe and ultimately held captive aboard a Golgafrincham ship which is just about to crash @-@ land on Prehistoric Earth .
In series two , Zaphod , wanted for stealing the Heart of Gold amongst other misdemeanors , is attempting to contact the editor of The Guide while escaping mercenaries from Frogstar , " the most totally evil place in the Galaxy " . Arthur and Ford are eventually rescued after being stranded on prehistoric Earth for years and eventually reunited aboard the Heart of Gold , where they are pursued by Vogons . Finding themselves on the planet of Brontitall , populated by a race of bird @-@ people , they hear about the rudest word in the universe and the Shoe Event Horizon . Escaping from this planet using a 900 @-@ year @-@ old spaceship , the three eventually find themselves in the offices of the Guide editor , Zarniwoop , and we discover that it was Zaphod who accidentally signed off the Earth for destruction .
= = = Production = = =
One of Adams 's stated goals was to be experimental in the use of sound . Being a fan of Pink Floyd and The Beatles ( and especially the experimental concept albums both bands produced in the late 1960s and early 1970s ) , Adams wanted the programme to have the feel of a " rock album ... to convey the idea that you actually were on a spaceship or an alien planet — that sense of a huge aural landscape " .
The first series was therefore the first BBC radio comedy to use stereophonic techniques . Adams later said that before Hitchhiker 's , stereo was deemed impossible for radio comedy and after it was made compulsory . Producer Geoffrey Perkins recalled that the technology available in 1978 for mixing sound effects at the BBC 's Paris Theatre radio studio was limited . The production had one eight track tape recorder at their disposal and so many of the effects in the programme were mixed " live " with tape loops of background sound effects strung around the recording studio . Actors whose speech needed to be modified in post @-@ production by Radiophonic technicians , such as Stephen Moore 's performance as Marvin the Android , were recorded in isolation from the main " humanoid " characters . Allegedly , Moore recorded most of his performance in a cupboard and met the other actors only after the first session was complete .
Sound and effects were created by Paddy Kingsland , Dick Mills and Harry Parker of the BBC Radiophonic Workshop . Several of the sound effects recorded by Dick Mills for the first series were released on the album BBC Sound Effects No. 26 - Sci @-@ Fi Sound Effects . Other BBC staff members who worked on the first two radio series included Alick Hale @-@ Munro ( chief sound engineer ) and Anne Ling ( production secretary ) and the " Technical Team " is given as : Paul Hawdon , Lisa Braun ( studio manager ) , Colin Duff ( studio manager ) , Eric Young , Martha Knight , Max Alcock and John Whitehall .
The first radio series ( first six episodes ) was broadcast on BBC Radio 4 in March and April , 1978 . A seventh episode was broadcast on 24 December 1978 . This seventh episode was commonly known as the Christmas Episode . This had nothing to do with Christmas except in an early draft ( which would have had Marvin the Paranoid Android as the " star " that was followed by the Three Wise Men ) ; it was called the Christmas Episode because it was first broadcast on Christmas Eve .
Production on the second series was delayed several times . While Adams was meant to be working on scripts for a stage adaptation of Hitchhiker 's in April 1979 , he was also employed as the Script Editor for Doctor Who and turned down an offer from John Lloyd to submit material for Not the Nine O 'Clock News . The recording on the first day scheduled for the second radio series , 19 May 1979 , was left incomplete because Adams had not yet finished the script . Further scheduled recordings on 11 July and 1 August of that year were also cancelled , this time due in part to Adams trying to work on the LP re @-@ recordings of the first series , as well as its novelisation .
Further recording attempts were made on 23 October and 3 December . The recording of the final episode in the second series was completed on 13 January 1980 : the audio mixing of the episode was not finished until 25 January , the day it was transmitted . The tape " arrived just a few minutes before transmission " . The final five episodes , completing the second radio series , were broadcast in January 1980 .
= = = Music = = =
The theme tune used for the radio series ( and all subsequent adaptations ) is " Journey of the Sorcerer " , an instrumental piece composed by Bernie Leadon and recorded by The Eagles on their album One of These Nights . Adams chose this song for its futuristic @-@ sounding nature , but also for the fact that it had a banjo in it , which , as Geoffrey Perkins recalls , Adams said would give it an " on the road , hitch @-@ hiking feel " .
Adams also wanted to incorporate music from a variety of pop , rock and classical artists . Series one ( " The Primary Phase " ) included an eclectic range of modern classical , experimental rock and electronic music . The Hitchhiker 's Guide to the Galaxy : The Original Radio Scripts lists works including A Modern Mass for the Dead ( Requiem ) by György Ligeti , A Rainbow in Curved Air by Terry Riley , Volumina by György Ligeti , Wind on Water by Robert Fripp and Brian Eno , Poppy Nogood and the Phantom Band by Terry Riley , Cachaca by Patrick Moraz , Shine On You Crazy Diamond ( intro ) by Pink Floyd , Rock and Roll Music by The Beatles , Also sprach Zarathustra ( intro ) by Richard Strauss , Katakomben by Gruppe Between , Space Theme by Stomu Yamashta , Oxygène by Jean Michel Jarre , That 's Entertainment by Howard Dietz and Arthur Schwartz , Over Fire Island by Eno ( with Fripp ) , Miracles of the Gods by Absolute Elsewhere , Mikrophoniet by Karlheinz Stockhausen , Melodien by György Ligeti , The Engulfed Cathedral by Isao Tomita , Volkstanz by Gruppe Between and What a Wonderful World by Louis Armstrong .
This diverse range of music was only featured during the first series due to the difficulty in obtaining rights for commercial releases ( leading to episodes of the first series being remade as an LP album without the proprietary background music in 1979 ) . For series two Paddy Kingsland was commissioned to provide background music and for the third to fifth series Paul ' Wix ' Wickens was chosen .
= = = International broadcasts and repeats = = =
The series was first broadcast on BBC Radio 4 at 10.30pm on Wednesday 8 March 1978 . Simon Jones recalled that Adams was initially disappointed at the scheduling as the timeslot was allegedly guaranteed to turn a programme into a " cult " ( i.e. a small but dedicated listenership ) . As it happened , the programme gained listeners through the lack of any competition elsewhere on television or radio , but primarily through word of mouth ; several Sunday newspapers included reviews and it was mentioned in Radio 4 's Pick of the Week . As a result of its exposure through these reviews , the BBC received numerous requests for a repeat from people who had missed the initial episodes . A repeat of the series was broadcast on 23 April , only two weeks after the last episode had aired .
In the end , the complete first series was rebroadcast twice by the BBC in 1978 and once in 1979 , as well as on the BBC World Service . The complete second series was rebroadcast once in 1980 , and the complete original run of 12 episodes was broadcast twice over a twelve @-@ week period , once from April to June 1981 and the second time from the end of March to the start of June , 1983 .
Broadcasting by National Public Radio in the United States followed in March 1981 with a repeat broadcast in September . This was one of their first transmissions in stereo . The following year , 1982 , the series was carried by CBC Radio ( Canadian Broadcasting Corporation ) . A German radio version of the first six radio episodes , Per Anhalter ins All was transmitted in 1981 and the twelve original radio episodes have been translated and transmitted in Finland , France , The Netherlands and Sweden .
All of the episodes , including those completed after Adams 's death , are referred to as " Fits " after Lewis Carroll 's " The Hunting of the Snark : an Agony in Eight Fits " . In 1981 , upon a rebroadcast of the twelve episodes of the first two series , it was decided that the Christmas episode , which previously had no episode number , would be called " Fit the Seventh " and the episodes in the second series , which had first been billed as Fit the First to Fit the Fifth ( representing five parts of the second series ) would become Fit the Eighth to Fit the Twelfth .
= = Reception and awards = =
The first series was noted for its unusual concept , out @-@ of @-@ context parodies , " semantic and philosophical jokes " , compressed prose and " groundbreaking deployment of sound effects and voice techniques " .
The programme was a hit with listeners , although a BBC World Service listener in India allegedly " strongly objected to ' Robots taking part in a comedy show ' " and another in Sierra Leone thought that " as a source of information it is misleading " . One listener complained to the Radio Times that " In just about 50 years of radio and latterly TV listening and watching , this strikes me as the most fatuous , inane , childish , pointless , codswallopping drivel ... It is not even remotely funny " .
BBC Radio 3 's Critics Forum thought the show had " the sort of effect that a Monty Python programme actually has , of making everything that appears immediately after it on radio or television or whatever , seem absolutely ludicrous " . By the time the sixth episode was broadcast , the show had become a cult hit .
The success of the series encouraged Adams to adapt it into a novel , which was based on the first four Fits and released in the second week of October 1979 . While the second radio series was being recorded in 1979 , Adams was commissioned to deliver a pilot script for a television adaptation , which , after a number of delays , was delivered by 1981 . The storyline set out by the initial radio series has since appeared in numerous formats including a 1984 video game and a 2005 feature film .
The original series was the recipient of a number of awards including the Imperial Tobacco Award ( 1978 ) , The Sony Award ( 1979 ) , The Society of Authors / Pye Awards ' Best Programme for Young People ' ( 1980 ) and the Mark Time Awards ' Grand Master Award ' ( Adams ) and ' Hall of Fame ' ( 1998 ) . It was the only radio show ever to be nominated for the Hugo science fiction awards , in 1979 , in the ' Best Dramatic Presentation ' category . As a result of the series , Douglas Adams was inducted into the Radio Academy 's Hall of Fame .
= = Third , fourth and fifth radio series = =
= = = Announcement = = =
In November 2003 , two years after Adams 's death and 23 years after the production on the Secondary Phase had ceased , a new radio adaptation of Adams ' unadapted novel Life , the Universe and Everything was announced . This would become the third series of the Hitchhiker 's Guide to the Galaxy on radio . Dirk Maggs , a friend of Adams , was chosen to create , direct and co @-@ produce the adaptations . Maggs had previously consulted with Adams on potential radio adaptations for the final three books in 1993 and 1997 . The project was restarted in September 2001 by Maggs , Helen Chattwell and Bruce Hyman , with help from Jane Belson and Ed Victor .
At the time of the announcement , it was stated that the original goal was to transmit the six part adaptation of the third novel starting in February 2004 , with the remaining eight episodes comprising the final two novels . A fourth and fifth series based on So Long , and Thanks For All the Fish and Mostly Harmless were to have been transmitted in September 2004 .
However , soon after the six episodes comprising the third series had been recorded by Above the Title Productions , a minor legal dispute over the online availability of episodes arose between the production company and The Walt Disney Company , which had started production on the Hitchhiker 's movie , also in 2003 . This led to a delay in transmitting the third series and an immediate cessation in the production of series four and five . Eventually a deal was worked out , and the Tertiary Phase was first broadcast on BBC Radio 4 on 21 September 2004 .
= = = Adaptation = = =
Maggs stated in the series ' script book that he felt bound by his promise to Douglas Adams to allow the scripts of the Tertiary Phase to closely follow the plot of the third book ; " I myself was willing to give the Tertiary Phase 7 out of 10 on the grounds that I was a little too reverential to the text and the pace suffered as a result . " But in adapting the final two novels , the only instructions Maggs got from Adams was " They don 't need more than four episodes each . " Thus Maggs was able to use many of the major plot elements of the final two books ( though not necessarily in the same order ) , and attempt to reconnect plot threads from all five radio series .
The new episodes reunited most of the living original cast . The parts of The Book , Eddie the Computer and Slartibartfast were recast to replace actors now deceased , with William Franklyn , Roger Gregg and Richard Griffiths taking over these three roles , respectively . Peter Jones , the original narrator , had died in 2000 ; Richard Vernon , the original Slartibartfast , had died in 1997 ; and David Tate , who had voiced Eddie the Computer ( among many other roles ) , had died in 1996 .
Bill Wallis , who played Mr. Prosser and Prostetnic Vogon Jeltz in the original series , was unavailable , and Toby Longworth took the role of Jeltz in the new series . John Marsh , who had been the continuity announcer for Fits Two to Twelve , was rehired to reprise this role . There was also a posthumous cameo role by Adams as Agrajag , edited from his BBC audiobook recording of the novel .
= = = Plot = = =
In series 3 , after the events of series 2 are revealed to be a hallucination , Arthur Dent and Ford Prefect find themselves again stuck on prehistoric Earth . After being rescued , they find themselves transported to Lord 's Cricket Ground just before it is destroyed by 11 white robots . Slartibartfast teaches Dent how cricket is based on the history of the worst wars in the galaxy , and the pair travel to Krikkit in order to prevent another war . In the final part , Dent and Trillian meet the computer behind the Supernova Bomb and there is another attempt to find the Ultimate Question to Life , the Universe and Everything .
In the fourth series , Dent discovers that Earth has been recreated again and meets Fenchurch , the woman of his dreams . Meanwhile , a spaceship lands in Knightsbridge , God 's Last Message to his Creation is discovered , and Marvin makes his last appearance . In the fifth series , a tenth planet in the solar system is discovered and Ford discovers that The Guide has become a much more sinister place to work . Arthur Dent discovers that he is a father and his new daughter , Random , flies to Earth to meet him . There are three potential endings to the series .
= = = Broadcast = = =
The third series ran on BBC Radio 4 from Tuesday 21 September to 26 October 2004 , with repeats on the following Thursdays . The series was also streamed in RealPlayer and Windows Media formats ( including versions in a 5 @.@ 1 surround mix ) were made available on Radio 4 's website until the following Thursday . In another continuity nod , the term " Fit " is still used in place of " episode " ; episodes of the third series were subtitled Fits the Thirteenth to Eighteenth .
The six @-@ part " Tertiary Phase " was broadcast in September and October 2004 . The four @-@ part " Quandary Phase " was broadcast in May 2005 , and the four @-@ part " Quintessential Phase " was broadcast immediately following , in May and June 2005 . The names for these series were chosen because they sound " less daunting , more memorable and are a bit easier to spell " than the standard terms quaternary and quinary .
= = Media releases = =
The first two series were first released on audio cassette and CD in 1988 , marking the tenth anniversary of the first broadcast of the first episode . These were the first programmes of any kind released on CD by the BBC Radio Collection . The two radio series were known simply as " the first series " and " the second series " until 1992 when the BBC made its first re @-@ release in separate boxes as " The Primary Phase " and " The Secondary Phase " . The episodes were released with those titles in 1993 , and again in 1998 , for the series ' twentieth anniversary . In 2001 , they became the first programmes of any kind re @-@ released by the BBC Radio Collection in an MP3 @-@ CD format .
A 3 @-@ CD set of the Tertiary Phase was released in mid @-@ October 2004 , before the final episodes were broadcast . These CDs contain extended material , previously cut to make 27 @-@ minute episodes for radio . A 2 @-@ CD set of the Quandary Phase was released at the end of May 2005 , and a 2 @-@ CD set of the Quintessential Phase was released at the end of June 2005 . Both sets again include material that was originally cut for reasons of timing .
A script book for the final fourteen episodes was released in July 2005 . The book is entitled The Hitchhiker 's Guide to the Galaxy Radio Scripts : The Tertiary , Quandary and Quintessential Phases . Dirk Maggs writes in his introduction that the " book is a companion volume to The Original Radio Scripts .... "
A box set entitled The Hitchhiker 's Guide to the Galaxy : The Complete Radio Series was released on 3 October 2005 . It contains fifteen CDs , subdivided per radio series , and bonus material exclusive to the box set . BBC Audio released a DVD version of the Tertiary Phase , featuring that series in 5 @.@ 1 surround sound , in October 2006 . Contrary to previous announcements , this was merely a DVD @-@ Video disc with Dolby Digital sound and other features , rather than a DVD @-@ Audio disc . While it had been stated that BBC Audio plans on also releasing the fourth and fifth radio series on DVD , no dates have been set .
= = = Special editions = = =
Special editions of the Primary and Secondary Phases were released in November 2008 . These have , according to the BBC , been given " a thorough clean @-@ up and remaster " by Dirk Maggs . This includes using the new Philip Pope signature tune , so the material can be released worldwide , which has required John Marsh to re @-@ record his announcements so they could be mixed in . Cleaning up the recordings aims to reduce the hiss produced by the overdubbing in the original and also re @-@ levelling the episodes to produce a greater clarity in the sound .
According to the inlay which comes with the Special Edition , all previous CD editions of the Primary & Secondary Phases played back slightly fast due to capstan wear on the mastering tape machine , with the result that the audio was pitch @-@ shifted up by half a semitone . That was corrected for the special editions and has the effect of making the episodes nearly a minute longer .
= = = Commercial rights issues = = =
A number of scenes from Fit the Third were cut from commercially released recordings of the radio series because they featured copyrighted music . For example , in one scene Marvin " hums " like Pink Floyd , using the opening to " Shine On You Crazy Diamond " , then " sings " " Rock and Roll Music " by The Beatles , and finally the theme music from 2001 : A Space Odyssey , the opening " Sunrise " movement from Richard Strauss 's Also sprach Zarathustra . It would have been very cost prohibitive in the 1980s to get clearances to release a recording of Fit the Third with this music , though agreements were reached on most of the rest of the copyrighted music used during the first series . As a result , all commercial recordings of Fit the Third are about two minutes shorter than other episodes . Recordings of the original radio broadcasts still contain it .
For the CD and cassette releases of the Tertiary Phase in the United States , and all CD and cassette releases of the Quandary and Quintessential Phases , the instrumental title theme , " Journey of the Sorcerer , " composed by Bernie Leadon and originally recorded by US rock band the Eagles , was re @-@ interpreted by The Illegal Eagles , a tribute band , using an arrangement by Philip Pope . This was done for licensing reasons ( though the original track was used for the original radio transmissions and the on @-@ demand downloads ) . In a 2005 interview with Simon Jones , the use of this song was mentioned as a major cause for the delay in releasing recordings of the new series in the United States .
= = Live tours = =
In June and July 2012 The Hitchhiker 's Guide To The Galaxy Radio Show embarked on a live tour of the UK , directed by Dirk Maggs and starring the original radio cast recreating their roles : Simon Jones as Arthur Dent , Geoffrey McGivern as Ford Prefect , Susan Sheridan as Trillian , Mark Wing @-@ Davey as Zaphod Beeblebrox , the voice of Stephen Moore as Marvin The Paranoid Android ( Moore being unavailable to perform in person , as he was touring with Cameron Mackintosh 's production of Oliver ! )
Actors from the Tertiary to Quintessential Phases who appeared were Toby Longworth ( Prostetnic Vogon Jeltz ) , Samantha Béart ( Random Dent ) , Andy Secombe ( Colin the Security Robot ) , Philip Pope ( Krikkit song ) and a recording of the voice of Douglas Adams as Agrajag .
The production featured a series of " VIP guests " as the voice of The Book including Billy Boyd , Phill Jupitus , Rory McGrath , Roger McGough , Jon Culshaw , Christopher Timothy , Andrew Sachs , John Challis , Hugh Dennis , John Lloyd , Terry Jones and Neil Gaiman .
This production was based on the first four Fits in the first act , with the second act covering material from the rest of the series . The show also featured a band , who performed the songs Share and Enjoy , the Krikkit song Under the Ink Black Sky , Marvin 's song How I Hate The Night , and Marvin , which was a minor hit in 1981 .
Each performance was recorded and was available for download for seven days after each show .
The tour started on 8 June 2012 at the Theatre Royal , Glasgow and continued through the summer until 21 July when the final performance was at Playhouse Theatre , Edinburgh .
The production started touring again in September 2013 , and had been due to visit 49 towns and cities across England , Scotland , Wales and Northern Ireland . The main cast was the same as the 2012 tour , with the exception of Zaphod , who was played by Mitch Benn . In October the remaining dates of the tour were cancelled due to poor ticket sales .
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= Solar eclipse =
As seen from the Earth , a solar eclipse is a type of eclipse that occurs when the Moon passes between the Sun and Earth , and the Moon fully or partially blocks ( " occults " ) the Sun . This can happen only at new moon , when the Sun and the Moon are in conjunction as seen from Earth in an alignment referred to as syzygy . In a total eclipse , the disk of the Sun is fully obscured by the Moon . In partial and annular eclipses , only part of the Sun is obscured .
If the Moon were in a perfectly circular orbit , a little closer to the Earth , and in the same orbital plane , there would be total solar eclipses every month . However , the Moon 's orbit is inclined ( tilted ) at more than 5 degrees to the Earth 's orbit around the Sun ( see ecliptic ) , so its shadow at new moon usually misses Earth . Earth 's orbit is called the ecliptic plane as the Moon 's orbit must cross this plane in order for an eclipse ( both solar as well as lunar ) to occur . In addition , the Moon 's actual orbit is elliptical , often taking it far enough away from Earth that its apparent size is not large enough to block the Sun totally . The orbital planes cross each other at a line of nodes resulting in at least two , and up to five , solar eclipses occurring each year ; no more than two of which can be total eclipses . However , total solar eclipses are rare at any particular location because totality exists only along a narrow path on the Earth 's surface traced by the Moon 's shadow or umbra .
An eclipse is a natural phenomenon . Nevertheless , in some ancient and modern cultures , solar eclipses have been attributed to supernatural causes or regarded as bad omens . A total solar eclipse can be frightening to people who are unaware of its astronomical explanation , as the Sun seems to disappear during the day and the sky darkens in a matter of minutes .
Since looking directly at the Sun can lead to permanent eye damage or blindness , special eye protection or indirect viewing techniques are used when viewing a solar eclipse . It is technically safe to view only the total phase of a total solar eclipse with the unaided eye and without protection ; however , this is a dangerous practice , as most people are not trained to recognize the phases of an eclipse , which can span over two hours while the total phase can only last up to 7 @.@ 5 minutes for any one location . People referred to as eclipse chasers or umbraphiles will travel to remote locations to observe or witness predicted central solar eclipses .
For the date of the next eclipse see the section Recent and forthcoming solar eclipses .
= = Types = =
There are four types of solar eclipses :
A total eclipse occurs when the dark silhouette of the Moon completely obscures the intensely bright light of the Sun , allowing the much fainter solar corona to be visible . During any one eclipse , totality occurs at best only in a narrow track on the surface of Earth .
An annular eclipse occurs when the Sun and Moon are exactly in line , but the apparent size of the Moon is smaller than that of the Sun . Hence the Sun appears as a very bright ring , or annulus , surrounding the dark disk of the Moon .
A hybrid eclipse ( also called annular / total eclipse ) shifts between a total and annular eclipse . At certain points on the surface of Earth it appears as a total eclipse , whereas at other points it appears as annular . Hybrid eclipses are comparatively rare .
A partial eclipse occurs when the Sun and Moon are not exactly in line and the Moon only partially obscures the Sun . This phenomenon can usually be seen from a large part of the Earth outside of the track of an annular or total eclipse . However , some eclipses can only be seen as a partial eclipse , because the umbra passes above the Earth 's polar regions and never intersects the Earth 's surface . Partial eclipses are virtually unnoticeable , as it takes well over 90 % coverage to notice any darkening at all . Even at 99 % it would be no darker than civil twilight .
The Sun 's distance from Earth is about 400 times the Moon 's distance , and the Sun 's diameter is about 400 times the Moon 's diameter . Because these ratios are approximately the same , the Sun and the Moon as seen from Earth appear to be approximately the same size : about 0 @.@ 5 degree of arc in angular measure .
A separate category of solar eclipses is that of the Sun being occluded by a body other than the Earth 's moon , as can be observed at points in space away from the Earth 's surface . Two examples are when the crew of Apollo 12 observed the Earth eclipse the Sun in 1969 and when the Cassini probe observed Saturn eclipsing the Sun in 2006 .
The Moon 's orbit around the Earth is an ellipse , as is the Earth 's orbit around the Sun . The apparent sizes of the Sun and Moon therefore vary . The magnitude of an eclipse is the ratio of the apparent size of the Moon to the apparent size of the Sun during an eclipse . An eclipse that occurs when the Moon is near its closest distance to Earth ( i.e. , near its perigee ) can be a total eclipse because the Moon will appear to be large enough to completely cover the Sun 's bright disk , or photosphere ; a total eclipse has a magnitude greater than 1 . Conversely , an eclipse that occurs when the Moon is near its farthest distance from Earth ( i.e. , near its apogee ) can only be an annular eclipse because the Moon will appear to be slightly smaller than the Sun ; the magnitude of an annular eclipse is less than 1 . Slightly more solar eclipses are annular than total because , on average , the Moon lies too far from Earth to cover the Sun completely . A hybrid eclipse occurs when the magnitude of an eclipse changes during the event from less to greater than one , so the eclipse appears to be total at some locations on Earth and annular at other locations .
Because the Earth 's orbit around the Sun is also elliptical , the Earth 's distance from the Sun similarly varies throughout the year . This affects the apparent size of the Sun in the same way , but not as much as does the Moon 's varying distance from Earth . When Earth approaches its farthest distance from the Sun in July , a total eclipse is somewhat more likely , whereas conditions favour an annular eclipse when Earth approaches its closest distance to the Sun in January .
= = = Terminology for central eclipse = = =
Central eclipse is often used as a generic term for a total , annular , or hybrid eclipse . This is , however , not completely correct : the definition of a central eclipse is an eclipse during which the central line of the umbra touches the Earth 's surface . It is possible , though extremely rare , that part of the umbra intersects with the Earth ( thus creating an annular or total eclipse ) , but not its central line . This is then called a non @-@ central total or annular eclipse . The last non @-@ central solar eclipse was on April 29 , 2014 . This was an annular eclipse . The next non @-@ central total solar eclipse will be on April 9 , 2043 .
The phases observed during a total eclipse are called :
First contact — when the Moon 's limb ( edge ) is exactly tangential to the Sun 's limb .
Second contact — starting with Baily 's Beads ( caused by light shining through valleys on the Moon 's surface ) and the diamond ring effect . Almost the entire disk is covered .
Totality — the Moon obscures the entire disk of the Sun and only the solar corona is visible .
Third contact — when the first bright light becomes visible and the Moon 's shadow is moving away from the observer . Again a diamond ring may be observed .
Fourth contact — when the trailing edge of the Moon ceases to overlap with the solar disk and the eclipse ends .
= = Predictions = =
= = = Geometry = = =
The diagrams to the right show the alignment of the Sun , Moon and Earth during a solar eclipse . The dark gray region between the Moon and Earth is the umbra , where the Sun is completely obscured by the Moon . The small area where the umbra touches Earth 's surface is where a total eclipse can be seen . The larger light gray area is the penumbra , in which a partial eclipse can be seen . An observer in the antumbra , the area of shadow beyond the umbra , will see an annular eclipse .
The Moon 's orbit around the Earth is inclined at an angle of just over 5 degrees to the plane of the Earth 's orbit around the Sun ( the ecliptic ) . Because of this , at the time of a new moon , the Moon will usually pass to the north or south of the Sun . A solar eclipse can occur only when new moon occurs close to one of the points ( known as nodes ) where the Moon 's orbit crosses the ecliptic .
As noted above , the Moon 's orbit is also elliptical . The Moon 's distance from the Earth can vary by about 6 % from its average value . Therefore , the Moon 's apparent size varies with its distance from the Earth , and it is this effect that leads to the difference between total and annular eclipses . The distance of the Earth from the Sun also varies during the year , but this is a smaller effect . On average , the Moon appears to be slightly smaller than the Sun as seen from the Earth , so the majority ( about 60 % ) of central eclipses are annular . It is only when the Moon is closer to the Earth than average ( near its perigee ) that a total eclipse occurs .
The Moon orbits the Earth in approximately 27 @.@ 3 days , relative to a fixed frame of reference . This is known as the sidereal month . However , during one sidereal month , Earth has revolved part way around the Sun , making the average time between one new moon and the next longer than the sidereal month : it is approximately 29 @.@ 5 days . This is known as the synodic month , and corresponds to what is commonly called the lunar month .
The Moon crosses from south to north of the ecliptic at its ascending node , and vice versa at its descending node . However , the nodes of the Moon 's orbit are gradually moving in a retrograde motion , due to the action of the Sun 's gravity on the Moon 's motion , and they make a complete circuit every 18 @.@ 6 years . This regression means that the time between each passage of the Moon through the ascending node is slightly shorter than the sidereal month . This period is called the nodical or draconic month .
Finally , the Moon 's perigee is moving forwards or precessing in its orbit , and makes a complete circuit in 8 @.@ 85 years . The time between one perigee and the next is slightly longer than the sidereal month and known as the anomalistic month .
The Moon 's orbit intersects with the ecliptic at the two nodes that are 180 degrees apart . Therefore , the new moon occurs close to the nodes at two periods of the year approximately six months ( 173 @.@ 3 days ) apart , known as eclipse seasons , and there will always be at least one solar eclipse during these periods . Sometimes the new moon occurs close enough to a node during two consecutive months to eclipse the Sun on both occasions in two partial eclipses . This means that , in any given year , there will always be at least two solar eclipses , and there can be as many as five .
Eclipses can occur only when the Sun is within about 15 to 18 degrees of a node , ( 10 to 12 degrees for central eclipses ) . This is referred to as an eclipse limit . In the time it takes for the Moon to return to a node ( draconic month ) , the apparent position of the Sun has moved about 29 degrees , relative to the nodes . Since the eclipse limit creates a window of opportunity of up to 36 degrees ( 24 degrees for central eclipses ) , it is possible for partial eclipses ( or rarely a partial and a central eclipse ) to occur in consecutive months .
= = = Path = = =
During a central eclipse , the Moon 's umbra ( or antumbra , in the case of an annular eclipse ) moves rapidly from west to east across the Earth . The Earth is also rotating from west to east , at about 28 km / min at the Equator , but as the Moon is moving in the same direction as the Earth 's spin at about 61 km / min , the umbra almost always appears to move in a roughly west @-@ east direction across a map of the Earth at the speed of the Moon 's orbital velocity minus the Earth 's rotational velocity .
The width of the track of a central eclipse varies according to the relative apparent diameters of the Sun and Moon . In the most favourable circumstances , when a total eclipse occurs very close to perigee , the track can be up to 267 km ( 166 mi ) wide and the duration of totality may be over 7 minutes . Outside of the central track , a partial eclipse is seen over a much larger area of the Earth . Typically , the umbra is 100 – 160 km wide , while the penumbral diameter is in excess of 6400 km .
= = = Duration = = =
The following factors determine the duration of a total solar eclipse ( in order of decreasing importance ) :
The moon being almost exactly at perigee ( making its angular diameter as large as possible ) .
The earth being very near aphelion ( furthest away from the sun in its elliptical orbit , making its angular diameter nearly as small as possible ) .
The midpoint of the eclipse being very close to the earth 's equator , where the orbital velocity is greatest .
The vector of the eclipse path at the midpoint of the eclipse aligning with the vector of the earth 's rotation ( i.e. not diagonal but due east ) .
The midpoint of the eclipse being near the subsolar point ( the part of the earth closest to the sun ) .
The longest eclipse that has been calculated thus far is the eclipse of July 16 , 2186 ( with a maximum duration of 7 minutes 4 seconds over northern Guyana ) .
= = Occurrence and cycles = =
Total solar eclipses are rare events . Although they occur somewhere on Earth every 18 months on average , it is estimated that they recur at any given place only once every 360 to 410 years , on average . The total eclipse lasts for only a maximum of a few minutes at any location , because the Moon 's umbra moves eastward at over 1700 km / h . Totality currently can never last more than 7 min 32 s . This value changes over the millennia and is currently decreasing . By the 8th millennium , the longest theoretically possible total eclipse will be less than 7 min 2 s . The last time an eclipse longer than 7 minutes occurred was June 30 , 1973 ( 7 min 3 sec ) . Observers aboard a Concorde supersonic aircraft were able to stretch totality for this eclipse to about 74 minutes by flying along the path of the Moon 's umbra . The next total eclipse exceeding seven minutes in duration will not occur until June 25 , 2150 . The longest total solar eclipse during the 11 @,@ 000 year period from 3000 BC to at least 8000 AD will occur on July 16 , 2186 , when totality will last 7 min 29 s . For comparison , the longest total eclipse of the 20th century at 7 min 8 s occurred on June 20 , 1955 and there are no total solar eclipses over 7 min in duration in the 21st century .
If the date and time of any solar eclipse are known , it is possible to predict other eclipses using eclipse cycles . The saros is probably the best known and one of the most accurate . A saros lasts 6 @,@ 585 @.@ 3 days ( a little over 18 years ) , which means that , after this period , a practically identical eclipse will occur . The most notable difference will be a westward shift of about 120 ° in longitude ( due to the 0 @.@ 3 days ) and a little in latitude ( north @-@ south for odd @-@ numbered cycles , the reverse for even @-@ numbered ones ) . A saros series always starts with a partial eclipse near one of Earth 's polar regions , then shifts over the globe through a series of annular or total eclipses , and ends with a partial eclipse at the opposite polar region . A saros series lasts 1226 to 1550 years and 69 to 87 eclipses , with about 40 to 60 of them being central .
= = = Frequency per year = = =
Between two and five solar eclipses occur every year , with at least one per eclipse season . Since the Gregorian calendar was instituted in 1582 , years that have had five solar eclipses were 1693 , 1758 , 1805 , 1823 , 1870 , and 1935 . The next occurrence will be 2206 . On average , there are about 240 solar eclipses each century .
= = = Final totality = = =
Total solar eclipses are seen on Earth because of a fortuitous combination of circumstances . Even on Earth , eclipses of the type familiar to people today are a temporary ( on a geological time scale ) phenomenon . Hundreds of millions of years in the past , the Moon was too close to the Earth to precisely occlude the Sun as it does during eclipses today ; and over a billion years in the future , it will be too far away to do so .
Due to tidal acceleration , the orbit of the Moon around the Earth becomes about 2 @.@ 2 cm more distant each year . It is estimated that , in slightly less than 1 @.@ 4 billion years , the distance from the Earth to the Moon will have increased by 30 @,@ 400 km . During that period , the apparent angular diameter of the Moon will decrease in size , meaning that it will no longer be able to completely cover the Sun 's disk as seen from the Earth . This will be true even when the Moon is at perigee , and the Earth at aphelion . Moreover , the Sun is increasing in diameter by about 5 % per billion years . Therefore , the last total solar eclipse on Earth will occur about six hundred million years from now .
= = Historical eclipses = =
Historical eclipses are a very valuable resource for historians , in that they allow a few historical events to be dated precisely , from which other dates and ancient calendars may be deduced . A solar eclipse of June 15 , 763 BC mentioned in an Assyrian text is important for the Chronology of the Ancient Orient . There have been other claims to date earlier eclipses . The King Zhong Kang supposedly beheaded two astronomers , Hsi and Ho , who failed to predict an eclipse 4 @,@ 000 years ago . Perhaps the earliest still @-@ unproven claim is that of archaeologist Bruce Masse , who putatively links an eclipse that occurred on May 10 , 2807 BC with a possible meteor impact in the Indian Ocean on the basis of several ancient flood myths that mention a total solar eclipse .
Eclipses have been interpreted as omens , or portents . The ancient Greek historian Herodotus wrote that Thales of Miletus predicted an eclipse that occurred during a battle between the Medes and the Lydians . Both sides put down their weapons and declared peace as a result of the eclipse . The exact eclipse involved remains uncertain , although the issue has been studied by hundreds of ancient and modern authorities . One likely candidate took place on May 28 , 585 BC , probably near the Halys river in Asia Minor . An eclipse recorded by Herodotus before Xerxes departed for his expedition against Greece , which is traditionally dated to 480 BC , was matched by John Russell Hind to an annular eclipse of the Sun at Sardis on February 17 , 478 BC . Alternatively , a partial eclipse was visible from Persia on October 2 , 480 BC . Herodotus also reports a solar eclipse at Sparta during the Second Persian invasion of Greece . The date of the eclipse ( August 1 , 477 BC ) does not match exactly the conventional dates for the invasion accepted by historians .
Chinese records of eclipses begin at around 720 BC . The 4th century BC astronomer Shi Shen described the prediction of eclipses by using the relative positions of the Moon and Sun . The " radiating influence " theory ( i.e. , the Moon 's light was reflection from the Sun ) was existent in Chinese thought from about the sixth century BC ( in the Zhi Ran of Zhi Ni Zi ) , though it was opposed by the 1st century AD philosopher Wang Chong , who made clear in his writing that this theory was nothing new . Ancient Greeks , such as Parmenides and Aristotle , also supported the theory of the Moon shining because of reflected light .
Attempts have been made to establish the exact date of Good Friday by assuming that the darkness described at Jesus 's crucifixion was a solar eclipse . This research has not yielded conclusive results , and Good Friday is recorded as being at Passover , which is held at the time of a full moon . Further , the darkness lasted from the sixth hour to the ninth , or three hours , which is much , much longer than the eight @-@ minute upper limit for any solar eclipse 's totality . In the Western hemisphere , there are few reliable records of eclipses before 800 AD , until the advent of Arab and monastic observations in the early medieval period . The first recorded observation of the corona was made in Constantinople in 968 AD .
The first known telescopic observation of a total solar eclipse was made in France in 1706 . Nine years later , English astronomer Edmund Halley observed the solar eclipse of May 3 , 1715 . By the mid @-@ 19th century , scientific understanding of the Sun was improving through observations of the Sun 's corona during solar eclipses . The corona was identified as part of the Sun 's atmosphere in 1842 , and the first photograph ( or daguerreotype ) of a total eclipse was taken of the solar eclipse of July 28 , 1851 . Spectroscope observations were made of the solar eclipse of August 18 , 1868 , which helped to determine the chemical composition of the Sun .
= = Viewing = =
Looking directly at the photosphere of the Sun ( the bright disk of the Sun itself ) , even for just a few seconds , can cause permanent damage to the retina of the eye , because of the intense visible and invisible radiation that the photosphere emits . This damage can result in impairment of vision , up to and including blindness . The retina has no sensitivity to pain , and the effects of retinal damage may not appear for hours , so there is no warning that injury is occurring .
Under normal conditions , the Sun is so bright that it is difficult to stare at it directly . However , during an eclipse , with so much of the Sun covered , it is easier and more tempting to stare at it . Looking at the Sun during an eclipse is as dangerous as looking at it outside an eclipse , except during the brief period of totality , when the Sun 's disk is completely covered ( totality occurs only during a total eclipse and only very briefly ; it does not occur during a partial or annular eclipse ) . Viewing the Sun 's disk through any kind of optical aid ( binoculars , a telescope , or even an optical camera viewfinder ) is extremely hazardous and can cause irreversible eye damage within a fraction of a second .
= = = Partial and annular eclipses = = =
Viewing the Sun during partial and annular eclipses ( and during total eclipses outside the brief period of totality ) requires special eye protection , or indirect viewing methods , if eye damage is to be avoided . The Sun 's disk can be viewed using appropriate filtration to block the harmful part of the Sun 's radiation . Sunglasses do not make viewing the Sun safe . Only properly designed and certified solar filters should be used for direct viewing of the Sun 's disk . Especially , self @-@ made filters using common objects such as a floppy disk removed from its case , a Compact Disc , a black colour slide film , smoked glass , etc. must be avoided .
The safest way to view the Sun 's disk is by indirect projection . This can be done by projecting an image of the disk onto a white piece of paper or card using a pair of binoculars ( with one of the lenses covered ) , a telescope , or another piece of cardboard with a small hole in it ( about 1 mm diameter ) , often called a pinhole camera . The projected image of the Sun can then be safely viewed ; this technique can be used to observe sunspots , as well as eclipses . Care must be taken , however , to ensure that no one looks through the projector ( telescope , pinhole , etc . ) directly . Viewing the Sun 's disk on a video display screen ( provided by a video camera or digital camera ) is safe , although the camera itself may be damaged by direct exposure to the Sun . The optical viewfinders provided with some video and digital cameras are not safe . Securely mounting # 14 welder 's glass in front of the lens and viewfinder protects the equipment and makes viewing possible . Professional workmanship is essential because of the dire consequences any gaps or detaching mountings will have . In the partial eclipse path , one will not be able to see the corona or nearly complete darkening of the sky , however , depending on how much of the Sun 's disk is obscured , some darkening may be noticeable . If three @-@ quarters or more of the sun is obscured , then an effect can be observed by which the daylight appears to be dim , as if the sky were overcast , yet objects still cast sharp shadows .
= = = Totality = = =
When the shrinking visible part of the photosphere becomes very small , Baily 's beads will occur . These are caused by the sunlight still being able to reach the Earth through lunar valleys . Totality then begins with the diamond ring effect , the last bright flash of sunlight .
It is safe to observe the total phase of a solar eclipse directly only when the Sun 's photosphere is completely covered by the Moon , and not before or after totality . During this period , the Sun is too dim to be seen through filters . The Sun 's faint corona will be visible , and the chromosphere , solar prominences , and possibly even a solar flare may be seen . At the end of totality , the same effects will occur in reverse order , and on the opposite side of the Moon .
= = = Photography = = =
Photographing an eclipse is possible with fairly common camera equipment . In order for the disk of the Sun / Moon to be easily visible , a fairly high magnification long focus lens is needed ( at least 200 mm for a 35 mm camera ) , and for the disk to fill most of the frame , a longer lens is needed ( over 500 mm ) . As with viewing the Sun directly , looking at it through the viewfinder of a camera can produce damage to the retina , so care is recommended .
= = Other observations = =
A total solar eclipse provides a rare opportunity to observe the corona ( the outer layer of the Sun 's atmosphere ) . Normally this is not visible because the photosphere is much brighter than the corona . According to the point reached in the solar cycle , the corona may appear small and symmetric , or large and fuzzy . It is very hard to predict this in advance .
Phenomena associated with eclipses include shadow bands ( also known as flying shadows ) , which are similar to shadows on the bottom of a swimming pool . They only occur just prior to and after totality , when a narrow solar crescent acts as an anisotropic light source .
= = = 1919 observations = = =
The observation of a total solar eclipse of May 29 , 1919 helped to confirm Einstein 's theory of general relativity . By comparing the apparent distance between stars in the constellation Taurus , with and without the Sun between them , Arthur Eddington stated that the theoretical predictions about gravitational lenses were confirmed . The observation with the Sun between the stars was only possible during totality , since the stars are then visible . Though Eddington 's observations were near the experimental limits of accuracy at the time , work in the later half of the 20th century confirmed his results .
= = = Gravity anomalies = = =
There is a long history of observations of gravity @-@ related phenomena during solar eclipses , especially around totality . In 1954 , and again in 1959 , Maurice Allais reported observations of strange and unexplained movement during solar eclipses . This phenomenon is now called the Allais effect . Similarly , in 1970 , Saxl and Allen observed the sudden change in motion of a torsion pendulum ; this phenomenon is called the Saxl effect .
A recent published observation during the 1997 solar eclipse by Wang et al. suggested a possible gravitational shielding effect , which generated debate . Later in 2002 , Yang and Wang published detailed data analysis , which suggested that the phenomenon still remains unexplained .
= = = Eclipses and transits = = =
In principle , the simultaneous occurrence of a Solar eclipse and a transit of a planet is possible . But these events are extremely rare because of their short durations . The next anticipated simultaneous occurrence of a Solar eclipse and a transit of Mercury will be on July 5 , 6757 , and a Solar eclipse and a transit of Venus is expected on April 5 , 15232 .
More common , but still infrequent , is a conjunction of a planet ( especially , but not only , Mercury or Venus ) at the time of a total solar eclipse , in which event the planet will be visible very near the eclipsed Sun , when without the eclipse it would have been lost in the Sun 's glare . At one time , some scientists hypothesized that there may be a planet ( often given the name Vulcan ) even closer to the Sun than Mercury ; the only way to confirm its existence would have been to observe it in transit or during a total solar eclipse . No such planet was ever found , and general relativity has since explained the observations that led astronomers to suggest that Vulcan might exist .
= = = Earthshine = = =
During a total solar eclipse , the Moon 's shadow covers only a small fraction of the Earth . The Earth continues to receive at least 92 percent of the amount of sunlight it receives without an eclipse – more if the penumbra of the Moon 's shadow partly misses the Earth . Seen from the Moon , the Earth during a total solar eclipse is mostly brilliantly illuminated , with only a small dark patch showing the Moon 's shadow . The brilliantly @-@ lit Earth reflects a lot of light to the Moon . If the corona of the eclipsed Sun were not present , the Moon , illuminated by earthlight , would be easily visible from Earth . This would be essentially the same as the earthshine which can frequently be seen when the Moon 's phase is a narrow crescent . In reality , the corona , though much less brilliant than the Sun 's photosphere , is much brighter than the Moon illuminated by earthlight . Therefore , by contrast , the Moon during a total solar eclipse appears to be black , with the corona surrounding it .
= = = Artificial satellites = = =
Artificial satellites can also pass in front of the Sun as seen from the Earth , but none is large enough to cause an eclipse . At the altitude of the International Space Station , for example , an object would need to be about 3 @.@ 35 km ( 2 @.@ 08 mi ) across to blot the Sun out entirely . These transits are difficult to watch , because the zone of visibility is very small . The satellite passes over the face of the Sun in about a second , typically . As with a transit of a planet , it will not get dark .
Observations of eclipses from spacecraft or artificial satellites orbiting above the Earth 's atmosphere are not subject to weather conditions . The crew of Gemini 12 observed a total solar eclipse from space in 1966 . The partial phase of the 1999 total eclipse was visible from Mir .
During the Apollo – Soyuz Test Project conducted in July 1975 , the Apollo spacecraft was positioned to create an artificial solar eclipse giving the Soyuz crew an opportunity to photograph the solar corona .
= = = Impact = = =
The Solar eclipse of March 20 , 2015 , was the first occurrence of an eclipse estimated to potentially have a significant impact on the power system , with the electricity sector taking measures to mitigate any impact . The continental Europe and Great Britain synchronous areas were estimated to have about 90 Gigawatts of solar power and it was estimated that production would temporarily decrease by up to 34 GW compared to a clear sky day . The temperature may decrease by 3 ° C , and wind power potentially decrease as winds are reduced by 0 @.@ 7 m / s .
= = Recent and forthcoming solar eclipses = =
Eclipses only occur in the eclipse season , when the Sun is close to either the ascending or descending node of the Moon . Each eclipse is separated by one , five or six lunations ( synodic months ) , and the midpoint of each season is separated by 173 @.@ 3 days , which is the mean time for the Sun to travel from one node to the next . The period is a little less than half a calendar year because the lunar nodes slowly regress . Because 223 synodic months is roughly equal to 239 anomalistic months and 242 draconic months , eclipses with similar geometry recur 223 synodic months ( about 6 @,@ 585 @.@ 3 days ) apart . This period ( 18 years 11 @.@ 3 days ) is a saros . Because 223 synodic months is not identical to 239 anomalistic months or 242 draconic months , saros cycles do not endlessly repeat . Each cycle begins with the Moon 's shadow crossing the earth near the north or south pole , and subsequent events progress toward the other pole until the Moon 's shadow misses the earth and the series ends . Saros cycles are numbered ; currently , cycles 117 to 156 are active .
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= Ach wie flüchtig , ach wie nichtig , BWV 26 =
Ach wie flüchtig , ach wie nichtig ( Ah , how fleeting , ah how insignificant ) , BWV 26 , is a church cantata by Johann Sebastian Bach . He composed the chorale cantata in Leipzig for the 24th Sunday after Trinity and first performed it on 19 November 1724 .
The cantata is based upon Michael Franck 's hymn " Schmücke dich , o liebe Seele " , with a melody by Johann Crüger ( 1652 ) . It is the only time that Bach used this hymn . Its theme , the transience of human life , is the only connection to the prescribed gospel reading . The first and last stanza are used unchanged in both text and tune : the former is treated as a chorale fantasia , the latter as a four @-@ part closing chorale . An unknown librettist paraphrased the inner stanzas as arias and recitatives . Bach scored the cantata for four vocal soloists , a four @-@ part choir , and a Baroque instrumental ensemble of horn , flute , three oboes , strings and continuo .
= = History and words = =
Bach wrote the cantata in 1724 in his second year in Leipzig for the 24th Sunday after Trinity . That year , Bach composed a cycle of chorale cantatas , begun on the first Sunday after Trinity . The prescribed readings for the Sunday were from the Epistle to the Colossians , a prayer for the Colossians ( Colossians 1 : 9 – 14 ) , and from the Gospel of Matthew , the story of the Raising of Jairus ' daughter ( Matthew 9 : 18 – 26 ) . The cantata is based on the hymn in 13 stanzas by Michael Franck ( 1652 ) , to a melody by Johann Crüger ( 1661 ) , " a meditation on the transience of human life and of all earthly goods " . This aspect is the only connection to the gospel . An unknown poet retained the first and the last stanza unchanged as movements 1 and 6 of the cantata . He derived the inner movements as a sequence of alternating arias and recitatives from the inner stanzas . John Eliot Gardiner points out that " several of Bach 's late Trinity season cantatas " concentrate on " the brevity of human life and the futility of earthly hopes " .
Bach first performed the cantata on 19 November 1724 . It is the only time that he used this hymn .
= = Scoring and structure = =
Bach structured the cantata in six movements . The text and tune of the hymn appear unchanged in the outer choral movements , a chorale fantasia and a four @-@ part closing chorale , which frame a sequence of alternating arias and recitatives . Bach scored the work for four vocal soloists ( soprano , alto , tenor , bass ) , a four @-@ part choir and a Baroque instrumental ensemble of a horn ( Co ) doubling the soprano in the chorale , flauto traverso ( Ft ) , three oboes ( Ob ) , two violins ( Vl ) , viola ( Va ) , organ ( Org ) and basso continuo .
In the following table of the movements , the scoring follows the Neue Bach @-@ Ausgabe . The keys and time signatures are taken from Alfred Dürr , using the symbol for common time ( 4 / 4 ) .
= = Music = =
= = = 1 = = =
The opening chorus , " Ach wie flüchtig , ach wie nichtig " ( Ah , how fleeting , ah how insignificant ) , is a chorale fantasia . The instruments play concertante music , to which the soprano sings the cantus firmus line by line . The lower voices act as a " self @-@ contained group " , mostly in homophony , and " declaim the individual lines of text in unison at the end of each choral passage , using a melodic formula derived from the beginning of the hymn . " Bach illustrates the imagery of the text , " fleetingness and insubstantiality " in motifs such as " abrupt chords separated by pauses and ... hurrying scale figures " . Gardiner comments :
Long before the first statement of Franck 's hymn ( sopranos doubled by cornetto ) Bach establishes the simile of man 's life to a rising mist which will soon disperse . Fleet @-@ footed scales , crossing and recrossing , joining and dividing , create a mood of phantasmal vapour .
The Musicologist Julian Mincham compares the instrumental music to " mist and fog , images which imply movements of wind and air " and hears the lower voices as " evincing a feeling of primeval power and solidarity " .
= = = 2 = = =
In the first aria , the text " So schnell ein rauschend Wasser schießt " ( As quickly as rushing water ) is illustrated in the flute , the violin and the tenor voice by " fast @-@ flowing " music , " each musician required to keep changing functions – to respond , imitate , echo or double one another – while variously contributing to the insistent onwardness of the tumbling torrent " .
= = = 3 = = =
In a recitative for alto , " Die Freude wird zur Traurigkeit " ( Joy becomes sadness ) , images such as flowers speak of transience until the grave . The Bach scholar Klaus Hofmann describes it as a " far @-@ reaching coloratura [ which ] culminates in an uneasy dissonance " .
= = = 4 = = =
In the last aria , an " unusual oboe trio " accompanies the bass boice in " An irdische Schätze das Herze zu hängen " ( To hang one 's heart on earthly treasures ) . Gardiner comments : " He scores this Totentanz ( Dance of the dead ) for three oboes and continuo supporting his bass soloist in a mock bourrée " , the oboes undermining in " throbbing accompaniment ... those earthly pleasures by which men are seduced " , then representing " through jagged figures ... the tongues of flame which will soon reduce them to ashes , and finally in hurtling semiquaver scales of 6 / 4 chords ... surging waves which will tear all worldly things apart " . Mincham sees a connection of the runs to those of movement 1 , but points out how different their function is here :
now depicting thunder flames , stormy seas and the destruction of the world . The descending scales played in unison by the three oboes have great force . The vocalist has several prominent images , notably the long melisma on the word " zerschmettert " ( shatter ) and the weird , descending chromatic phrase towards the end , suggestive of a world of chaos and foolishness .
= = = 5 = = =
A recitative for soprano , " Die höchste Herrlichkeit und Pracht " ( The highest glory and magnificence ) , expresses that even highest power will not escape death .
= = = 6 = = =
The closing chorale , " Ach wie flüchtig , ach wie nichtig " ( Ah , how fleeting , ah how insignificant ) , is a four @-@ part setting .
= = Selected recordings = =
The listing is taken from the selection on the Bach @-@ Cantatas website . Choirs and orchestras are roughly marked as large by red background ; instrumental groups playing period instruments in historically informed performances are highlighted green under the header Instr ..
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= Egmont Prinz zur Lippe @-@ Weißenfeld =
Egmont Prinz zur Lippe @-@ Weißenfeld ( 14 July 1918 – 12 March 1944 ) was a Luftwaffe night fighter flying ace of royal descent during World War II . A flying ace or fighter ace is a military aviator credited with shooting down five or more enemy aircraft during aerial combat . Prinz zur Lippe @-@ Weißenfeld was credited with 51 aerial victories , all of them claimed in nocturnal combat missions .
Prinz zur Lippe @-@ Weißenfeld was born on 14 July 1918 in Salzburg , Austria and joined the infantry of the Austrian Bundesheer in 1936 . He transferred to the emerging Luftwaffe , initially serving as a reconnaissance pilot in the Zerstörergeschwader 76 ( ZG 76 ) , before he transferred to the night fighter force . He claimed his first aerial victory on the night of 16 to 17 November 1940 . By the end of March , he had accumulated 21 aerial victories for which he was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes ) on 16 April 1942 . He received the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes mit Eichenlaub ) on 2 August 1943 , for 45 aerial victories . He was promoted to Major and tasked with leading Nachtjagdgeschwader 5 ( NJG 5 ) in January 1944 , before he and his crew were killed in a flight accident on 12 March 1944 .
= = Personal life = =
Egmont Prinz zur Lippe @-@ Weißenfeld was born on 14 July 1918 in Salzburg , Austria as a member of a cadet branch of the ruling House of Lippe . His father was Prince Alfred of Lippe @-@ Weißenfeld and his mother was born Countess Anna von Goëß . Egmont was the only son of four children . His sisters Carola , Sophie and Dora were all younger than Egmont . The family lived in an old castle in Upper Austria called Alt Wartenburg . At birth he had a remote chance of succeeding to the throne of the Principality of Lippe , a small state within the German Empire . However , only months after his birth , Germany became a republic and all the German royal houses were forced to abdicate .
Prinz zur Lippe @-@ Weißenfeld in his younger years was very enthusiastic about the mountains and wildlife . From his fourteenth year he participated in hunting . At the same time he was also very much interested in music and sports and discovered his love for flying at the Gaisberg near Salzburg . Here he attended the glider flying school of the Austrian Aëro Club . He attended a basic flying course with the second air regiment in Graz and Wiener Neustadt even before he joined the military service .
Prinz zur Lippe @-@ Weißenfeld never married or had children . In January 1941 he became acquainted with Hannelore Ide , nicknamed Idelein . She was a secretary for a Luftgau . The two shared a close relationship and spent as much time together as the war permitted , listening to music and sailing on the IJsselmeer until his death in 1944 .
= = Military service = =
Prinz zur Lippe @-@ Weißenfeld joined the Austrian Bundesheer in 1936 at the age of 18 , initially serving in the infantry . In the aftermaths of the 1938 Anschluss , the incorporation of Austria into Greater Germany by Nazi Germany , he transferred to the German Luftwaffe and was promoted to Leutnant in 1939 . He had earned his Luftwaffe Pilots Badge on 5 October 1938 and underwent further training at Fürstenfeldbruck , Schleißheim and Vienna @-@ Aspern . His Luftwaffe career started with the II . Gruppe ( 2nd group ) of the Zerstörergeschwader 76 ( ZG 76 ) before he was transferred to the night fighter wing Nachtjagdgeschwader 1 ( NJG 1 ) on 4 August 1940 . The unit was based at Gütersloh where he familiarised himself with the methods of the night fighters .
By the summer of 1940 , the first night fighters were transferred to Leeuwarden in the Netherlands . Prinz zur Lippe @-@ Weißenfeld was one of the pilots included in this small detachment . As early as 20 October 1940 , he had taken over command of an independent night fighter commando at Schiphol and later at Bergen . On his first encounter with the Royal Air Force ( RAF ) bomber , in the night of 16 to 17 November 1940 , he claimed a Vickers Wellington bomber from No. 115 Squadron RAF shot down at 0205 hours . His second victory was claimed on the night of 15 January 1941 , when he shot down an Armstrong Whitworth Whitley N1521 of the Linton @-@ on @-@ Ouse based No. 58 Squadron RAF over the northern Netherlands , near the Dutch coast in the Zwanenwater at a nature reserve at Callantsoog . He was wounded in action on 13 March 1941 , while flying Bf 110 D @-@ 2 ( W.Nr. 3376 – factory number ) of the 4 . / NJG1 with his radio operator Josef Renette when he made an emergency landing at Bergen after their aircraft was hit by the defence fire , wounding them both . Shortly after midnight on 10 April 1941 , Prinz zur Lippe @-@ Weißenfeld claimed a No. 12 Squadron RAF Wellington over the IJsselmeer , raising NJG 1 's victory score to 100 . This achievement was celebrated at the Amstel Hotel in Amsterdam with General Josef Kammhuber , Wolfgang Falck , Werner Streib , Helmut Lent and others attending . On 30 June 1941 while flying Bf 110 C @-@ 4 ( W.Nr. 3273 ) on a practice intercept mission over Noord Holland , he collided with Bf 110 C @-@ 7 ( W.Nr. 2075 ) piloted by Leutnant Rudolf Schoenert of the 4 . / NJG 1 and crashed near Bergen aan Zee . On 19 June 1941 he earned his first of four references in the daily Wehrmachtbericht , a daily radio report made by the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht ( High Command of the Armed Forces ) regarding the military situation on all fronts . By July 1941 his number of aerial victory claims stood at 10 . Promoted to Oberleutnant he became Staffelkapitän of the 5th Staffel of Nachtjagdgeschwader 2 ( NJG 2 ) on 15 November 1941 . By the end of 1941 he had claimed a total of 15 aerial victories .
He was awarded the German Cross in Gold ( Deutsches Kreuz in Gold ) on 25 January 1942 and the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes ) on 16 April 1942 after he had shot down 4 RAF bombers in the night of 26 to 27 March 1942 , his score standing at 21 aerial victories . This feat earned him his third reference in the Wehrmachtbericht on 27 March 1942 . In July 1942 he was one of the leading German night fighter aces with 37 aerial victories .
Promoted to Hauptmann , Prinz zur Lippe @-@ Weißenfeld was made Gruppenkommandeur of the I. Gruppe ( 1st group ) of Nachtjagdgeschwader 3 on 1 October 1942 , where he claimed 3 further aerial victories . He was transferred again , taking command of the III . Gruppe ( 3rd group ) of NJG 1 on 31 May 1943 . One month later he claimed his 45th aerial victory for which he was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes mit Eichenlaub ) on 2 August 1943 .
After a one @-@ month hospital stay , Prinz zur Lippe @-@ Weißenfeld was promoted to Major and made Geschwaderkommodore of Nachtjagdgeschwader 5 ( NJG 5 ) on 20 February 1944 . He and his crew , Oberfeldwebel Josef Renette and Unteroffizier Kurt Röber , were killed in a flying accident on 12 March 1944 on a routine flight from Parchim to Athies @-@ sous @-@ Laon . Above Belgium , they seem to have encountered a bad weather zone with low clouds and a dense snowstorm and it was assumed that the aircraft hit the high Ardennes ground after being forced to fly lower because of ice forming on the wings . The exact circumstances of this flight may never be known , the Bf 110 G @-@ 4 C9 + CD ( Werknummer 720 010 — factory number ) crashed into the Ardennes mountains near St. Hubert where the completely burned @-@ out wreck was found the following day . The funeral service was held in the city church of Linz on 15 March 1944 . Prinz Egmont zur Lippe @-@ Weißenfeld and Prinz Heinrich zu Sayn @-@ Wittgenstein are buried side by side at Ysselsteyn in the Netherlands .
= = Awards = =
Front Flying Clasp of the Luftwaffe in Gold
Iron Cross ( 1939 )
2nd Class ( 17 December 1940 )
1st Class ( 17 January 1941 )
Wound Badge in Black
German Cross in Gold on 25 January 1942 as Oberleutnant in the 5 . / NJG 2
Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves
Knight 's Cross on 16 April 1942 as Oberleutnant and Staffelkapitän of the 5 . / NJG 2
263rd Oak Leaves on 2 August 1943 as Hauptmann and Gruppenkommandeur of the III . / NJG 1
Mentioned four times in the Wehrmachtbericht
= = = Wehrmachtbericht references = = =
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= Tropical Storm Chantal ( 2001 ) =
Tropical Storm Chantal was a North Atlantic tropical cyclone that moved across the Caribbean Sea in August 2001 . Chantal developed from a tropical wave on August 14 in the tropical Atlantic Ocean . It tracked rapidly westward for much of its duration , and after degenerating into a tropical wave it passed through the Windward Islands . Chantal reached a peak intensity of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) twice in the Caribbean Sea , and each time it was anticipated to attain hurricane status ; however , wind shear and later land interaction prevented strengthening to hurricane status . On August 21 Chantal moved ashore near the border of Mexico and Belize , and the next day it dissipated .
In the Windward Islands , lightning caused two indirect deaths in Trinidad . Chantal dropped light to moderate rainfall across its path , most significantly in Quintana Roo in Mexico where it caused widespread mudslides . Damage in Belize totaled $ 4 million ( 2001 USD ; $ 5 @.@ 35 million 2016 USD ) , due to the combined impact of high waves , moderate winds , and rainfall . Overall damage was minor .
= = Meteorological history = =
A tropical wave moved off the coast of Africa on August 11 . Associated deep convection quickly decreased after tracking westward through the tropical Atlantic Ocean , although by August 13 a broad low pressure area and closed circulation developed along the wave . Environmental conditions favored tropical development , and the system gradually became better organized , although convection was initially limited near the center . On August 14 , convection increased northwest of the center and became sufficiently well @-@ organized for the system to be considered a tropical depression ; at the time , it was located about 1500 miles ( 2400 km ) east of the southern Windward Islands .
Situated to the south of a strong subtropical ridge , the depression tracked rapidly westward . With easterly wind shear , the structure was initially disorganized , although the system was forecast to attain tropical storm status within 48 hours of developing , due to anticipated favorable conditions . One computer model predicted the depression would reach winds of around 115 miles per hour ( 185 km / h ) by four days after development . Banding features increased while the satellite presentation continued to improve , and at 1200 UTC on August 16 the depression was upgraded to Tropical Storm Chantal about 370 miles ( 595 km ) east of Barbados . At the same time however , a QuikSCAT pass suggested the system did not contain a low @-@ level circulation , and in post @-@ season analysis , the National Hurricane Center estimated the system degenerated into a tropical wave rather than attain tropical storm status . This was confirmed by a Hurricane Hunters flight into the system .
Despite lacking a closed circulation , the overall structure remained well @-@ organized , and with a favorable upper @-@ level environment the possibility of regeneration into a tropical cyclone was noted . Early on August 17 , the remnants of Chantal passed over the Windward Islands with winds of tropical storm force . After entering the Caribbean Sea , the system slowed while its convective pattern expanded and became more symmetric . Hurricane Hunters confirmed that a small circulation developed about 290 miles ( 265 km ) south of Saint Croix , and accordingly the system developed into a tropical storm . Forecasters described the upper @-@ level environment as " ideal for [ a ] tropical cyclone to intensify " , with winds of 80 miles per hour ( 130 km / h ) forecast within a few days . The cyclone was predicted to maintain a west @-@ northwestward track toward the northwestern Caribbean and Gulf of Mexico . On August 18 , the winds increased to 65 miles per hour ( 105 km / h ) , although an increase in forward motion caused the low @-@ level circulation to become separated from the deep convection . The storm again decelerated on August 19 , allowing re @-@ organization and for Chantal to attain peak sustained winds of 70 miles per hour ( 110 km / h ) about 185 miles ( 295 km ) south of Kingston , Jamaica .
After reaching peak winds , Tropical Storm Chantal became disorganized while the center became ill @-@ defined and situated to the west @-@ southwest of the main area of convection ; this was due to unfavorable upper @-@ level winds , although computer models continued to forecast a more favorable upper @-@ level environment . By early on August 20 , Hurricane Hunters reported several low @-@ level circulations embedded within a large low pressure area . Later that day , wind shear decreased when the storm moved into the Gulf of Honduras . Chantal became much better organized , again reaching peak winds of 70 miles per hour ( 110 km / h ) before making landfall early on August 21 near the border of Mexico and Belize . Initially , the storm was forecast to cross the Yucatán Peninsula and Bay of Campeche and make a second landfall in the state of Veracruz . Chantal slowly weakened over land while moving slowly across northern Belize . Convection decreased markedly late on August 21 , and early the next day Chantal weakened to tropical depression status . The upper- and middle @-@ level circulations turned to the northeast while the low @-@ level circulation turned to the west @-@ southwest further inland . Weakening continued , and late on August 22 Chantal dissipated over the Mexican state of Tabasco .
= = Preparations = =
The National Hurricane Center issued a tropical storm watch for Barbados , St. Vincent , and Saint Lucia on August 15 . The following day the watches were changed to warnings , since forecasters predicted that the system would reach tropical storm status . Additional watches and warnings were also issued for the rest of Windward Islands .
Late on August 17 , the government of Jamaica issued a hurricane watch for the island , due to anticipated strengthening . The next day , it was upgraded to a hurricane warning briefly before being amended to a tropical storm warning , due to the storm 's weakening in the central Caribbean . In the country , officials advised fishermen to return to harbor , while some flights into Norman Manley International Airport were canceled . A tropical storm warning was also issued for the Cayman Islands , where an emergency shelter was opened . There , tourists were recommended to temporarily leave the islands .
About 50 hours before landfall , a tropical storm watch was issued for Belize and the eastern Yucatán Peninsula , and about 12 hours later it was upgraded to a hurricane watch . When the lack of significant intensification became apparent , a tropical storm warning was added for much of the Yucatán Peninsula and later for a portion of the Mexican coast along the Bay of Campeche . As the storm approached , nearly 2 @,@ 500 people in vulnerable areas of eastern Mexico evacuated to safer areas . About 8 @,@ 000 people evacuated in Belize , primarily on offshore islands . The government of Belize opened its emergency operation center and evacuated several hospitals . About 250 airline flights were canceled , and some cruise ship paths were diverted to safer locations .
= = Impact = =
As a strong tropical wave , Chantal passed through the Windward Islands . The island of Martinique reported sustained winds of 39 miles per hour ( 63 km / h ) with gusts to 56 miles per hour ( 91 km / h ) . On August 16 , lightning from the system killed two brothers in southern Trinidad . Also on the island , heavy rainfall caused flooding and road washouts .
While tracking across the eastern Caribbean Sea , the outer rainbands of Chantal produced light to moderate rainfall across Puerto Rico and the United States Virgin Islands . In Puerto Rico , the highest rainfall total was 2 @.@ 4 inches ( 61 mm ) in Rio Piedras . Passing to the south of Jamaica , the storm produced light rainfall and gusty winds . The outer rainbands also affected the Cayman Islands .
In Belize , the tropical storm produced a wind gust of 71 miles per hour ( 115 km / h ) in Caye Caulker , although stronger winds were possible in a convective band to the north . Moderate rainfall was reported across the country , peaking at 9 @.@ 81 inches ( 249 mm ) at Towerhill station . Along the coast , high waves damaged seawalls and piers . Further inland , the combination of winds and flooding caused agriculture and infrastructure damage ; overall damage in the country totaled $ 4 million ( 2001 USD ; $ 5 @.@ 35 million 2016 USD ) .
Tropical Storm Chantal also produced gusty winds in the Yucatán Peninsula , peaking at 62 miles per hour ( 100 km / h ) in Chetumal , Quintana Roo . Dropping moderate to heavy rainfall along its path , a station near Chetumal reported a peak total of 20 @.@ 03 inches ( 509 mm ) . The remnants of Chantal also produced rainfall along the Bay of Campeche coast . The storm resulted in downed trees and power lines , as well as damaged buildings . Heavy rainfall led to mudslides across Quintana Roo , leaving some areas isolated . Initially , there were reports of two missing fishermen off the southeastern coast , although it was not later confirmed . Overall damage was minor .
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= New Jersey Route 20 =
Route 20 , known locally as McLean Boulevard , is a state highway that runs 4 @.@ 15 miles ( 6 @.@ 68 km ) in New Jersey , United States . It runs along the east side of Paterson , Passaic County , following the west bank of the Passaic River between U.S. Route 46 and River Street ( County Route 504 ) , at which point County Route 504 begins . It is a four- to six @-@ lane divided highway most of its length that runs through residential and commercial areas of Paterson , intersecting with Interstate 80 and Route 4 at interchanges . The northernmost part of the route is a county @-@ maintained one @-@ way pair that follows 1st and 2nd Avenues .
= = Route description = =
Route 20 begins at an interchange with U.S. Route 46 and County Route 630 ( Crooks Avenue ) just north of the Garden State Parkway on the border of Clifton and Paterson . The road follows the bend of the Passaic River directly north of Dundee Lake , heading to the north into Paterson as McLean Boulevard , a four @-@ lane divided highway with a 45 mph ( 72 km / h ) speed limit . The route runs in between the Passaic River to the east and two large cemeteries to the west before coming to an interchange with Interstate 80 and Market Street . Past Interstate 80 , Route 20 becomes a six @-@ lane divided highway that heads through a mix of residential and commercial areas .
The next interchange along the route is for Route 4 ( Broadway ) , with access to both eastbound Route 4 and westbound Broadway from both directions . The road continues further north as a four @-@ lane divided highway with a speed limit of 35 mph ( 56 km / h ) , heading through more urbanized areas of Paterson . It crosses County Route 651 ( East 33rd Street / Morlot Avenue ) , which crosses the Passaic River to become County Route 78 ( Morlot Avenue ) in Bergen County .
Route 20 continues to follow the Passaic River as a 45 mph ( 72 km / h ) road through commercial areas , featuring an intersection with County Route 652 ( 5th Avenue ) . Past this intersection , the route proceeds through urban areas , turning west and splitting into a one @-@ way pair . Here , the route becomes county maintained , with the northbound direction following 1st Avenue and the southbound direction following 2nd Avenue before coming to an end at County Route 504 ( River Street ) .
= = History = =
The present @-@ day routing of Route 20 north of Market Street was legislated in 1927 as part of Route 3 , which was to run from the New York border at Greenwood Lake to Secaucus . In addition , the present day routing south of Route 4 was also legislated as part of that route , which was to run from the George Washington Bridge to Cape May . In 1929 , the western terminus of Route 3 was moved to Paterson as Route S4B ( now Route 208 ) was planned to replace the alignment of Route 3 from Paterson to the New York border . McLean Boulevard through Paterson was built by the 1930s . In the 1953 New Jersey state highway renumbering , Route 20 was legislated to follow the former alignment of Route 3 between Paterson and East Rutherford as Route 3 was moved to the Route S3 freeway that was built between East Rutherford and Clifton .
Another freeway routing of Route 20 was planned in 1959 . This road , which was to be a six @-@ lane freeway called the Paterson Peripheral , was to run from Clifton north to the existing Route 20 in downtown Paterson . This road was completed between the Garden State Parkway and Valley Road by 1969 and north to Interstate 80 in 1975 . Upon completion , this road received the Route 20 designation . In 1972 , the state took over maintenance of the Paterson Plank Road from Route 3 to Route 17 in East Rutherford and made it a part of the route . As these three sections of Route 20 were not connected , they received three different route designations by the 1990s . The freeway section of Route 20 from the Garden State Parkway to Interstate 80 was designated Route 19 , the section between Route 3 and Route 17 was designated Route 120 , and the Route 20 designation was retained along McLean Boulevard through Paterson . The unfinished section of Route 20 that was to connect McLean Boulevard to Paterson Plank Road was built as a northern extension of the Route 21 freeway in 2000 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Passaic County .
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= Shukri al @-@ Quwatli =
Shukri al @-@ Quwatli ( 1891 – 30 June 1967 ; Arabic : شكري القوتلي ) was the first president of post @-@ independence Syria . He began his career as a dissident working towards the independence and unity of the Ottoman Empire 's Arab territories and was consequently imprisoned and tortured for his activism . When the Kingdom of Syria was established , Quwatli became a government official , though he was disillusioned with monarchism and co @-@ founded the republican Independence Party . Quwatli was immediately sentenced to death by the French who took control over Syria in 1920 . Afterward , he based himself in Cairo where he served as the chief ambassador of the Syrian @-@ Palestinian Congress , cultivating particularly strong ties with Saudi Arabia . He used these connections to help finance the Great Syrian Revolt ( 1925 – 1927 ) . In 1930 , the French authorities pardoned Quwatli and thereafter , he returned to Syria , where he gradually became a principal leader of the National Bloc . He was elected president of Syria in 1943 and oversaw the country 's independence three years later .
Quwatli was reelected in 1948 , but was toppled in a military coup in 1949 . He subsequently went into exile in Egypt , returning to Syria in 1955 to participate in the presidential election , which he won . A conservative presiding over an increasingly leftist @-@ dominated government , Quwatli officially adopted neutralism amid the Cold War . After his request for aid from the United States was denied , he drew closer to the Eastern bloc . He also entered Syria into a defense arrangement with Egypt and Saudi Arabia to confront the influence of the Baghdad Pact . In 1957 , Quwatli , who the US and the Pact countries attempted but failed to oust , sought to stem the leftist tide in Syria , but to no avail . By then , his political authority had receded as the military increasingly bypassed Quwatli 's jurisdiction by separately coordinating with Quwatli 's erstwhile backer , Egyptian president Gamal Abdel Nasser .
In 1958 , after months of unity talks , Quwatli merged Syria with Egypt to form the United Arab Republic and stepped down for Nasser to serve as president . In gratitude , Nasser awarded Quwatli the honorary title of " First Arab Citizen " . Quwatli grew disenchanted with the union , believing it had reduced Syria to a police state subordinate to Egypt . He supported Syria 's secession in 1961 , but plans for him to finish his presidential term afterward did not materialize . Quwatli left Syria following the 1963 Ba 'athist coup , an he died of a heart attack in Lebanon weeks after Syria 's defeat in the 1967 Six Day War . He was buried in Damascus on 1 July .
= = Personal life = =
= = = Family = = =
The Quwatli 's were a family of merchants , who became wealthy from trading with Arabia , and moved to Damascus from Baghdad in the 18th @-@ century . The family established itself in the district of al @-@ Shaghour in Damascus , and by 1860 , some of the family 's wealth was invested in buying large tracts of land in the Ghouta farms surrounding Damascus . The family 's notable status was owed to their wealth , rather than an aristocratic or religious lineage , and their traditional spheres of activity were commerce and the Ottoman civil service .
Shukri 's grandfather , Abd al @-@ Ghani was involved in finance , as well as his great @-@ uncle , Ahmad , who was the president of the Agricultural Bank of Damascus . His other great @-@ uncle , Murad , was a member of the Administrative Council for the city . His father 's wealth rested on the highly @-@ fertile lands he owned , and later bequeathed to Shukri and his siblings , in the Ghouta . His older brother , Hasan , was elected President of the Damascus Chamber of Commerce and Agriculture .
In 1928 , Shukri al @-@ Quwatli married Bahira al @-@ Dalati , the 19 @-@ year @-@ old daughter of nationalist Said al @-@ Dalati , whom Quwatli met while in jail in 1916 . Shukri and Bahira had five children ; Hassan ( the oldest , born in 1935 ) , Mahmud , Huda , Hana and Hala . Bahira al @-@ Dalati died in 1989 .
= = = Childhood and education = = =
Shukri Quwatli was born in Damascus in 1891 . He received his elementary education at a Jesuit school in the city , then studied at the preparatory high school of Maktab Anbar in the Jewish quarter of Damascus . He obtained his baccalauréat in 1908 . He then moved to Istanbul where he studied political science and public administration . Quwatli graduated from the Mekteb @-@ i Mülkiye in 1913 . He returned to Damascus in 1913 after receiving his diploma , and started working for the Ottoman civil service .
= = = = Early influences = = = =
Quwatli was initially brought up in a pro @-@ Ottoman environment , owing to his family 's connections in Istanbul . The restrictions of the Abdul Hamid II era , however , started to be felt around the Ottoman Empire , and discontent was brewing even among the empire 's elite . Following the Young Turk Revolution against Abdul Hamid II in 1908 , parliamentary elections were called in all provinces , and liberal Arab intellectuals like Shukri al @-@ Asali , Shafiq Muayyad al @-@ Azm , and Rushdi al @-@ Shama 'a secured seats as deputies ( members of the legislature ) representing Damascus . The liberal current that established itself through these figures , and the political dailies they established including al @-@ Qabas ( " The Firebrand " ) and al @-@ Ikha ' al @-@ Arabi ( " Arab Brotherhood " ) , greatly influenced Quwatli and other Arab youths .
During the Ottoman countercoup of 1909 , Quwatli strongly supported the Committee of Union and Progress ( CUP ) against Abdul Hamid II . Nevertheless , after the failed countercoup , the CUP accused Arab provinces of supporting Abdul Hamid II and initiated a policy of Turkification , whereby all local officials were substituted by Turkish ones . Soon after , the parliament was dissolved , and the liberal Arab politicians were forced out in the following elections .
= = Early nationalist activities = =
Quwatli 's early involvement in the Arab nationalist movement came through the Arab Congress of 1913 . Shortly after starting his career at the Ottoman civil service in Damascus , he received an invitation to attend the conference in Paris . However , the conference was strongly condemned by the Ottoman authorities , and Arab notables were forbidden from attending . Nevertheless , the congress had succeeded in rousing nationalist feelings in Arab provinces . Quwatli 's first confrontation with the Ottoman authorities came in February 1914 during a visit by Jamal Pasha , the governor of Syria at the time , to the offices of the Governorate of Damascus , where Quwatli worked . During the visit , Quwatli refused to follow the normal protocol — bending over and kissing Jamal Pasha 's right hand — and was promptly thrown in prison at the Citadel of Damascus . He was bailed out of prison a few days later through his family 's connections , but he lost his job at the civil service .
= = = Al @-@ Fatat = = =
The growing hardships in the country during the early years of World War I pushed Quwatli to join the secret society of al @-@ Fatat , which was facilitated by his childhood friend and co @-@ founder , Nasib al @-@ Bakri . Al @-@ Fatat was an underground organization established in Paris in 1911 by Arab nationalists with the aim of gaining independence and unity of the various Arab territories in the Ottoman Empire . In 1913 , the society established its main branch in Damascus , and was successful in attracting the Syrian elite into its ranks .
In 1915 , Sharif Hussein , trying to garner support for his planned uprising against the Ottomans , sent his son Faisal to Damascus to lobby the Syrian notables on his behalf . Faisal , a member of al @-@ Fatat himself , met secretly with other members of the society , including Quwatli , in the house of Nasib al @-@ Bakri . When the Ottoman authorities learned of the meeting , they ordered the arrest of al @-@ Bakri and his two brothers , Fawzi and Sami , accusing them of treason . Quwatli was charged by the al @-@ Fatat leadership with the task of facilitating their escape , in which he succeeded . In retaliation , Ottoman authorities placed him under arrest , in which he was subjected to torture and humiliation . Nevertheless , Quwatli refused to confess to anything , and his captors failed to implicate him in the operation so they released him a month later . The tremendous pressure of that experience , however , took its toll on the young Quwatli , and upon his release he retired to his country house in Saidnaya and stopped all contacts with members of al @-@ Fatat and the opposition .
In late 1916 he was approached by Fasih al @-@ Ayyubi in hope that Quwatli could help him secure an escape route for his ailing father , Shukri al @-@ Ayyubi , who was arrested by the Ottomans , like he did for Nasib al @-@ Bakri . However , despite Quwatli 's refusal to help , Ottoman authorities tracked down the contact and arrested both men . Quwatli was subjected to further torture to coerce him to reveal the names of his al @-@ Fatat colleagues . In an attempt to prevent himself from surrendering the names , Quwatli tried to commit suicide . After cutting his wrists , Quwatli 's life was saved at the last minute by fellow inmate , al @-@ Fatat member and practicing doctor , Ahmad Qadri . He spent four more months in jail , before being released on bail by his relative , Shafiq al @-@ Quwatli , who served as a deputy at the Ottoman Parliament , on 28 January 1917 . His experience in jail and the story about his attempted suicide turned Quwatli into a nationalist hero in Syria .
= = Kingdom of Syria = =
On 1 October 1918 , an Arab army under the leadership of Emir Faisal and British general T. E. Lawrence entered Damascus , and by the end of October the rest of Ottoman Syria fell to the Allied Forces . Emir Faisal became in charge of administering the liberated territory . He appointed Rida al @-@ Rikabi as prime minister , and Quwatli 's friend , Nasib al @-@ Bakri became a personal adviser to the Emir . Quwatli , at the age of twenty @-@ six , was appointed assistant to the governor of Damascus , Alaa al @-@ Din al @-@ Durubi .
However , many of Quwatli 's generation were unimpressed with Faisal 's leadership skills , and were drawn to a republican , rather than monarchist , view of governance . Furthermore , they were suspicious of Faisal , and his brother Abdullah 's ties with the British . On 15 April 1919 they founded a loose coalition under the name of al @-@ Istiqlal Party ( " Independence Party " ) . The party had a pan @-@ Arab , secular , anti @-@ British and anti @-@ Hashemite outlook and attracted mostly youth activists from the elite classes . Well @-@ known members , other than Quwatli , included Adil Arslan , Nabih al @-@ Azmeh , Riad al @-@ Sulh , Saadallah al @-@ Jabiri , Ahmad Qadri , Izzat Darwaza and Awni Abd al @-@ Hadi . Although ostensibly working for the government , Quwatli devoted his efforts to nationalist activities outside the government 's auspices . In addition to al @-@ Istiqlal , he was also a member of the Palestinian @-@ led Arab Club 's Damascus branch .
In a meeting with the 1919 King – Crane Commission , sent by the United States ( US ) to gauge national sentiment in greater Syria , Quwatli rejected the notion of an American military presence in Syria , telling Crane that " Reduction of sovereignty is non @-@ negotiable " and instead suggesting that the US help Syrians to " build their state and live in peace on their land . " Nevertheless , French forces had already started landing on the Syrian coast in 1919 to enforce the Sykes – Picot Agreement whereby France and the UK would divide up the former Arab territories of the Ottoman Empire between themselves . In March 1920 , the League of Nations granted France a mandate over Syria and Lebanon , and in response Emir Faisal declared himself king of Syria on 8 March 1920 . When King Faisal refused to accept the mandate , the French marched on Damascus . Yusuf al- ' Azma , minister of defense at the time , led a small force and met the French at the Battle of Maysalun on 23 July 1920 . The battle ended in a decisive victory for the French , and the next day French forces occupied Damascus . King Faisal was deported to Europe , and the French Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon was officially declared .
= = Leader in Syrian independence movement = =
= = = Emissary of the Syrian @-@ Palestinian Congress = = =
The French started their rule by sentencing 21 nationalist leaders , including Quwatli , to death on 1 August 1920 . Quwatli managed to flee only hours before a warrant for his arrest was issued . From Damascus he fled by car to Haifa in British @-@ mandated Palestine , and soon after to Cairo in Egypt . From there , Quwatli spent the bulk of his time traveling throughout the Arab world and Europe serving as the virtual ambassador of the Syrian @-@ Palestinian Congress . He became the chief link between Arab nationalist activists in Europe and in the Arab world .
In Europe , he particularly frequented Berlin where he worked with the prominent Arab nationalist intellectual Shakib Arslan to proliferate anti @-@ French sentiment , leading the French Mandatory authorities to label Quwatli one of the " most dangerous " Syrian exiles . He developed close ties with Ibn Saud , who by 1925 ruled much of Arabia , having overrun the Hashemites in the Hejaz . Quwatli had a prior relationship with the House of Saud , stemming from his own family 's commercial links with the Saudis and Quwatli 's friendship with Sheikh Yusuf Yasin , a Syrian adviser to Ibn Saud , who Quwatli had dispatched to Arabia during Faisal 's rule . Quwatli , strongly distrustful of the Hashemites , was impressed by Ibn Saud 's relatively quick conquest over much of Arabia and saw in the Saudis a strong potential ally against British and French imperialism in the Middle East . By 1925 , Quwatli had solidified his position as the intermediary between Ibn Saud and the Syrian @-@ Palestinian Congress . His acquisition of Saudi funding put him at odds with the Congress 's chief financier Michel Lutfallah , however .
= = = Financing the Great Syrian Revolt = = =
In the summer of 1925 tensions between the Druze chiefs of the Hauran led by Sultan Pasha al @-@ Atrash and the French authorities culminated with the Great Syrian Revolt , which spread throughout Syria within months . While Quwatli 's Istiqlal Party lobbied the Grand Mufti of Jerusalem , Amin al @-@ Husseini to set up a financial support network for the rebellion , Quwatli had already secured the funneling of funds and arms from the Hejaz and also diverted some of the military aid to the Jerusalem @-@ based committee . As the revolt 's initial momentum began to recede in mid @-@ 1926 , bickering between opposition leaders , inside and outside of Syria , increased significantly . Quwatli was accused by his rivals in Cairo of pocketing some money he raised and paying off rebels to prevent rebel raids against his family 's extensive apricot orchards in the Ghouta . Tensions between Istiqlalists like Quwatli and Arslan and other Syrian nationalist leaders like al @-@ Bakri and Shahbandar , were particularly sharp , with the latter accusing Quwatli of being out of touch from the realities of the revolt , and Quwatli accusing Shahbandar of treason for attempting to stop the insurrection .
= = = Role in the National Bloc = = =
In late 1927 , Quwatli headed the Istiqlal @-@ dominated Executive Committee of the Syrian @-@ Palestinian Congress , although Lutfallah headed a separate rival committee that also called itself the Congress 's Executive Committee . Both were based in Cairo . In 1930 , Quwatli was allowed to return to Syria under a general amnesty . Thereafter , he joined the National Bloc , the preeminent opposition movement in Syria — though tolerated by the French . Although he opposed the moderate stances of the Bloc 's Damascene leaders , he determined he could only remain a major political player by joining the group . He sought to steer it towards a more determined nationalist course and worked to expand his support base , relying on his relationships with residents in some of Damascus ' traditionally nationalist neighborhoods ( al @-@ Midan and al @-@ Shaghour ) and among the city 's merchant and emerging industrialist classes . He also worked to draw support from the staunch pan @-@ Arabists of the League of National Action ( LNA ) beginning in 1933 . He managed to co @-@ opt much of the LNA 's members by 1935 – 36 by financing its land development company ( which aimed to prevent land sales to Zionist organizations in Palestine ) and assigning some of its leaders to the director boards of companies affiliated with the Bloc .
In 1936 , as a general strike was underway in the country to demand a renegotiation of the French role in Syria , Quwatli was appointed the Bloc 's vice president of internal affairs , but was not part of the treaty negotiation committee which led talks with the French in Paris in March . A new treaty was established by the end of the month , although the French did not ratify it . Between then and fall , Quwatli spearheaded efforts to unify nationalists ranks in Syria , convincing LNA leader Sabri al @-@ Asali to join the Bloc 's highest governing body . By enlisting the support of many prominent pan @-@ Arabists like himself , Quwatli strengthened his position within the Bloc , particularly in regards to his chief nationalist rival Jamil Mardam Bey .
On 20 March 1941 , during World War II , when the Vichy French were in control of Syria , Quwatli called for immediate Syrian independence amid a period of food shortages , high unemployment and widespread nationalist rioting in the country . Vichy troops in the country were defeated by the Allied forces in July and Quwatli left Syria during the campaign . He returned in 1942 . France officially recognized Syria 's independence on 27 September . However , French troops were not withdrawn and national elections were postponed by the French Mandatory authorities .
= = First presidential term = =
= = = Election of 1943 = = =
Prior to the 1943 national elections in French Mandatory Syria , the French authorities attempted to negotiate with Quwatli as head of the National Bloc to issue a treaty that guaranteed an independent Syria 's alignment and close military cooperation with France , in return for French help in securing Quwatli 's election to the presidency . Quwatli refused , believing the Syrian people would view such negotiations negatively . He was also confident that the National Bloc would win the elections regardless of French support . Quwatli did win the vote , becoming Syria 's president on 17 August 1943 .
= = = Syrian independence = = =
As president , Quwatli continued to press for Syrian independence from France . In a bid to garner American and British support for his government , he declared war against the Axis Powers , aligning Syria with the Allies . Growing countrywide unrest in response to French Mandatory rule led to military assaults against Damascus and other Syrian cities in May 1945 . More French troops were scheduled to land in Syria to aid the authorities , but at Quwatli 's request for intervention , British troops invaded Syria from Transjordan , entering Damascus on 1 June . The French military campaign came to an immediate halt as a consequence . The UK and the US had viewed the French military action in Syria as a potential catalyst for further unrest throughout the Middle East and a detriment to British and American lines of communication in the region .
As French troops began a partial withdrawal from the country , Quwatli instructed Fares al @-@ Khoury , his envoy to the US and head of the Syrian mission to the United Nations , to bring the issue of Syria 's independence to the United Nations Security Council ( UNSC ) , cabling Khoury to " Go to [ US President Harry ] Truman and tell him the French have ploughed the land in Syria , over our heads ! " Khoury proceeded to petition the UNSC to force France 's withdrawal from Syria . The US and UK backed Syria 's request and informed Quwatli that British troops were in control of Syria , requesting Quwatli 's cooperation in enforcing an evening curfew in the country . Quwatli complied and expressed his gratitude to the British government . At a summit between France , the UK , the US , Russia and China , France agreed to withdraw from both Syria and Lebanon in return for British promises to withdraw its military from the Levant region as well . Quwatli was angered that Syria was left out of the conference and requested a summit with Truman and Winston Churchill , which was rebuffed .
The transfer of administrative powers to the Syrian government began on 1 August , the day in which Quwatli announced the establishment of the Syrian Army and his position as the commander in chief . Quwatli also asked Khoury to form a cabinet , which was established on 24 August . The French finished their withdrawal from Syria on 15 April 1946 and Quwatli declared Syria 's independence day on 17 April .
= = = Post @-@ independence politics = = =
Following Syria 's independence , the National Bloc was dissolved and replaced by the National Party . Quwatli 's leadership , while supported by older politicians like Asali , Jabiri and Haffar , became increasingly challenged by emerging leaders such as Nazim al @-@ Qudsi of the People 's Party and Akram al @-@ Hawrani of the Arab Socialist Party as well as the Baath Party , the Syrian Socialist Nationalist Party ( SSNP ) , the Muslim Brotherhood and the Syrian Communist Party ( SCP ) . Antagonistic relations between Quwatli and the Hashemite kings of Iraq and Jordan , Abdullah I and Faisal II , respectively , increased with the latter two seeking to unite Syria , Iraq and Jordan under Hashemite monarchical rule , and Quwatli countering that Iraq and Jordan join a republican Syria under his leadership instead . The Hashemites found support in the People 's Party , which became an influential force in Aleppo , a major city and economic hub of Syria , particularly after the 1947 death of Jabiri , Quwatli 's Aleppo @-@ based ally .
In early 1947 , Quwatli and the National Party , the largest party in parliament , made an amendment to the constitution to enable Quwatli to seek re @-@ election . The move was met by strong disapproval from rival Syrian parties and opposition politicians , and a campaign to unseat Quwatli in the next presidential election was commenced . Quwatli 's allies won 24 out of 127 seats during the 1947 parliamentary election , the first in post @-@ independence Syria , while the opposition won 53 seats and independents unaffiliated with any political party won 50 . A number of Quwatli 's allies defected from the National Party and former president Atassi retired from politics because of his frustration at Quwatli 's handling of Syrian internal affairs . Quwatli tasked Jamil Mardam Bey to form a new cabinet in October , which included mostly pro @-@ Western politicians .
Despite the heavy presence of pro @-@ American figures in the cabinet and Quwatli 's initially warm ties with the US , relations between the two countries began to unravel amid the nascent Cold War and the view that Quwatli was becoming a detriment to US interests in the region . Quwatli developed close relations with the SCP and its head Khalid Bakdash , which was a contributing factor to the US Congress 's rejection of Quwatli 's arms request for the Syrian Army in late 1947 . Quwatli also rejected the construction of the Trans @-@ Arabian Pipeline in Syria ( to connect the oilfields of Saudi Arabia to Lebanon ) . Quwatli feared construction of the pipeline would threaten the mostly British @-@ owned Iraq Petroleum Company and upset the UK , as well as the Syrian public , who he believed would view the project " as a new form of indirect foreign economic control " , according to Moubayed . US support for Israel , particularly under Truman , and Quwatli 's adamant opposition to Zionism was a further source of tension .
= = Second presidential term = =
= = = Election of 1948 = = =
With the constitution amended to allow for a president to seek more than one term , Quwatli ran against Khalid al @-@ Azm for another five @-@ year term and won by a slim majority on 18 April 1948 .
= = = 1948 Arab @-@ Israeli War = = =
Quwatli opposed the proposed partition of the British Mandate of Palestine into separate Jewish and Arab states , arguing that the plan , which would allocate 56 % of Palestine to the Jewish state , violated the rights of the Palestinian Arab majority . The proposal passed the UN vote and Syria made war preparations soon afterward , including co @-@ founding the Arab Liberation Army ( ALA ) . Quwatli had proposed the creation of the ALA as a volunteer force to attract fighters from throughout the Arab world and to take the place of Arab regular armies . The ALA 's establishment was sponsored by the Arab League following the UN partition vote and Fawzi al @-@ Qawuqji , a Syrian commander who played leading roles in the Great Syrian Revolt and the 1936 revolt in Palestine , was appointed its commander . Quwatli did not believe the armies of Syria and the Arab world were ready to successfully confront Jewish forces and as war drew near in early 1948 , he petitioned Abdel Rahman Azzam , head of the Arab League , to not enter Arab armies into Palestine . Instead , Quwatli offered to provide local Palestinian Arab fighters arms and funding . Azzam was not swayed and continued his effort of rallying Arab governments to dispatch their armies . On 15 May , after the establishment of Israel was announced , Quwatli ordered the Syrian Army to enter Palestine immediately .
The Syrian Army , which consisted of 4 @,@ 500 soldiers , had been mostly repelled in their offensive during the first few days of the war , gaining control over a small area along the Syrian border . As a result of the army 's poor showing , Quwatli pressed defense minister Ahmad al @-@ Sharabati to resign his post , which Sharabati did on 24 May . He then replaced chief of staff Abdullah Atfeh with Husni al @-@ Zaim during that same period of the war . Following the war , Quwatli accused Zaim of military incompetence and his officers of profiteering . In turn , Zaim accused Quwatli of mismanagement during the conflict . The Syrian public did not spare Quwatli blame for the army 's poor performance , causing his popularity , built on his nationalist reputation , to erode further . The Syrian press was also sharply critical of Quwatli and Prime Minister Mardam Bey , urging them to leave their positions . Mardam Bey resigned on 22 August 1948 and was replaced by Khalid al @-@ Azm .
Mass demonstrations took place in Syria condemning US President Harry Truman for recognizing Israel . Synagogues were attacked in Damascus as were the offices of General Motors . US officials were frustrated at Quwatli for not attempting to stop the demonstrations . When Egypt , Jordan and Lebanon signed armistice agreements with Israel between February and April 1949 , Syria under Quwatli did not do so and refused to send a delegation to attend truce negotiations in Rhodes in March .
= = = Coup d 'état of 1949 = = =
On 29 March 1949 , Zaim launched a coup d 'état , overthrowing Quwatli . Zaim 's troops entered Damascus and raided Quwatli 's home . They disarmed his guard and confronted Quwatli in his night clothes before army officer Ibrahim al @-@ Husseini arrested him . After being allowed to change his clothes , Quwatli was taken by the authorities to the city 's Mezzeh Prison . Prime Minister al @-@ Azm was also arrested . The coup had been backed and allegedly co @-@ planned with the US Central Intelligence Agency . The US was the first country to recognize Zaim 's government , followed by the UK , France , and the Hashemite kingdoms of Iraq and Jordan .
= = Exile in Egypt = =
As a result of pressure from the Egyptian and Saudi governments to spare the life of their ally Quwatli , al @-@ Zaim agreed to release Quwatli from prison in mid @-@ April 1949 . After officially resigning as President , Quwatli was exiled to Alexandria , Egypt . In Egypt he was respected as a guest of honor by King Farouk and after the July 1952 revolution , by the Free Officers who gained power . Despite his positive relationship with the ousted King Farouk , Quwatli developed a close friendship with the founder of the Free Officers , Gamal Abdel Nasser , who became Egypt 's leader in 1954 .
= = Third presidential term = =
= = = Elections of 1955 = = =
Quwatli returned to Syria in 1955 , following the ouster of President Adib al @-@ Shishakli and during the presidency of Hashim al @-@ Atassi . Quwatli entered his candidacy in the August 1955 presidential elections , at the age of 63 . Required to secure a two @-@ thirds majority in the 142 @-@ member Syrian Parliament in order to win , Quwatli defeated his main opponent Khalid al @-@ Azm 89 to 42 ( a further six votes were cast as invalid ) in the first round . This prompted a second round of voting , in which Quwatli won the presidency with 91 votes against Azm 's 41 ( a further five votes were blank and two invalid . ) Quwatli 's bid for the presidency was supported by the governments of Egypt and Saudi Arabia , both of which were allied in their opposition to the Baghdad Pact as was Quwatli .
Prime Minister Sabri al @-@ Asali resigned from his post on 6 September following the Ba 'ath Party 's withdrawal from the cabinet . As a result , Quwatli attempted to nominate Lutfi al @-@ Haffar as Prime Minister , but reneged after opposition from the Ba 'athists . Afterward , Quwatli asked Rushdi al @-@ Kikhiya to form a cabinet , but the latter refused , citing that influence from the Syrian Army would deprive his government of real power . President Nasser of Egypt recommended the reappointment of Asali , but Quwatli refused , instead opting for Said al @-@ Ghazzi , an independent . Ghazzi agreed and subsequently presided over a national unity government .
= = = Adoption of neutralism = = =
Under Quwatli 's leadership , Syria increasingly moved towards neutralism , despite the conservative views held by Quwatli . However , on 10 September , Quwatli first opted to make an official request for arms from the United States , but was eventually rebuffed despite support from US Secretary of State John Foster Dulles . Starting in 1956 , Quwatli began to look towards the Eastern bloc for economic and military assistance . During the tenure of his administration , Quwatli furthered Syria 's relations with other neutralist countries such as Yugoslavia , India and Egypt , but also with the Soviet Union ( USSR ) and the Eastern bloc . The pursuit of this policy was partially due to the support afforded to the leftist movements in Syria by the Saudi and Egyptian governments who viewed them as strong opponents of the Baghdad Pact , and the highly influential leftist factions of the Syrian Army . Quwatli and Nasser initiated the Egyptian @-@ Syrian Agreement , a defense arrangement that would serve as a counterweight to the Baghdad Pact , in March 1955 . The agreement stipulated that each country would assist the other in case of an attack , the establishment of numerous committees to coordinate joint military activities and the creation of a joint military command headed by Egyptian officer Abdel Hakim Amer . The agreement was concluded 20 October .
Increasingly concerned at the growing leftist trend in the country , Quwatli called for a national unity government that would include parties from across the political spectrum on 15 February 1956 . Despite opposition from the Ba 'athists , Quwatli managed to preside over a " national covenant " which entailed a foreign policy of opposition to Zionism and imperialism as well as the adoption of neutralism amid the Cold War . Nonetheless , and against Quwatli 's advice , Ghazzi resigned from his post in June 1956 as a result of pressure from the Ba 'athists and the communists who had been leading protests against Ghazzi 's decision to lift the ban on wheat sales to Western Europe . Faced with few options , Quwatli reappointed Asali as Prime Minister . Asali moved to further strengthen ties with Egypt , including a pledge to start unity talks , and appointed Ba 'athists to the ministerial positions of economy and foreign affairs .
Following the tripartite invasion of the Sinai Peninsula and the Suez Canal by British , French and Israeli forces in October 1956 , Quwatli severed ties with Britain . Quwatli sent hundreds of army recruits to aid the Egyptian defense and made an emergency visit to Moscow to request Soviet backing for Nasser from Premier Nikita Khrushchev , telling the latter that the tripartite forces " want to destroy Egypt ! " In response to public pressure , in late December Prime Minister Asali reshuffled his cabinet , removing several fellow conservatives and strengthening leftist influence in the government .
= = = Confronting leftist influence = = =
In July 1957 , relations between Quwatli 's ally Saudi Arabia and the governments of Iraq and Jordan , rivals of Syria , warmed considerably to the protestations of the leftist current in Syria , which viewed the growing ties between the region 's conservative monarchies with distress . After a series of public criticisms of King Saud by an array of Syrian political figures , including al @-@ Azm , Michel Aflaq and Akram al @-@ Hawrani , Saud froze Syrian assets in Saudi Arabia and withdrew his ambassador from Syria in protest . In response to the crisis between the two countries , an alarmed Quwatli ordered Asali to publicly distance his government from the anti @-@ Saudi views of some in the Syrian Parliament and press , and to publicly apologize to Saud . In addition , Quwatli personally issued a government order to shut down the communist newspaper Al Sarkha .
On 6 August , Quwatli established a long @-@ term agreement with the USSR , entailing a long @-@ term Soviet loan to fund development works in Syria and the Soviet purchase of a large portion of Syrian agricultural and textile surpluses . US fears that Syria was approaching a communist takeover had prompted an attempted CIA @-@ sponsored coup to replace the Quwatli government with former president Shishakli . However , the coup plot was foiled by the head of Syrian intelligence , Abdel Hamid al @-@ Sarraj , on 12 August and Syria consequently expelled the US military attaché from Damascus . The US , which denied the coup plot , responded by expelling the Syrian ambassador from Washington and recalling its ambassador from Syria .
Leftist influence in Syria grew further in the immediate wake of the crisis ; on 15 August , a high @-@ ranking officer from Sidon , Lebanon with Marxist leanings , Afif Bizri , was appointed army chief of staff , and several mid @-@ level officers were replaced with communist officers . Quwatli flew to Egypt amid apparent plans to resign from the presidency in favor of the Soviet @-@ leaning Azm . However , he returned to Syria on 26 August . Tensions had been rising as rumors swept the region regarding a US @-@ backed Turkish or joint Iraqi @-@ Jordanian invasion of Syria to prevent a potential communist takeover . Quwatli 's earlier success in repairing ties between Syria and Saudi Arabia proved particularly useful during this period . Saud immediately lent his full support to Quwatli , whom he viewed as a significant counterweight to the leftist movement , by rebuffing President Dwight D. Eisenhower 's appeal to endorse the Eisenhower Doctrine , a policy aimed at containing communist and Arab nationalist influence in the Middle East . He also accepted an invitation to Damascus by Quwatli on 25 August , publicly stating that Saudi Arabia would support Syria in any aggression against it . Iraqi Prime Minister Ali Jawdat also proclaimed support for Syria when he visited on 26 August , in spite of support for an attack by the Iraqi monarchy . Both Saud and Jawdat privately criticized Syria 's leadership for increasing dependence on the Eastern bloc .
Nonetheless , the US and its allies in the Baghdad Pact genuinely feared that Syria was becoming a satellite of the Soviets and decided in a September meeting that Quwatli 's government had to be removed . That same month Turkish troops massed along the border with Syria . On 13 October , Nasser , who had launched a radio campaign denouncing the Baghdad Pact countries , dispatched 1 @,@ 500 Egyptian troops , a mostly symbolic force , to the port of Latakia in northern Syria in a show of Arab strength against Turkey , to the acclaim of the Syrian and pan @-@ Arab public . The leaders of Jordan and Iraq promptly reassured Quwatli that they had no intention to interfere in Syria 's internal affairs . Nasser had apparently bypassed his ally Quwatli , coordinating the deployment with officers Sarraj and Bizri instead . Quwatli related this fact to Saud , who had complained of not being consulted of the Egyptian move beforehand , an " admission ... of Quwatli 's political irrelevance , " according to contemporary historian Salim Yaqub .
Sarraj and Bizri wielded substantial influence in Syrian politics , checking the power of the political factions and purging Nasser 's opponents from the officer corps . This was a source of concern for Quwatli , but he kept both men in their posts , partially due to pressure from Nasser . Quwatli further solidified his ties with the latter by appointing Akram al @-@ Hawrani , the prominent Arab socialist leader , as speaker of parliament , and Salah al @-@ Din Bitar , the co @-@ founder of the pan @-@ Arabist Ba 'ath Party , as foreign affairs minister .
= = = Unity with Egypt = = =
Amid the euphoria generated by Egypt 's military intervention , serious unity discussions commenced between Syria and Egypt . Towards the end of October , Anwar al @-@ Sadat , the Egyptian speaker of parliament , visited the Syrian parliament in Damascus in a gesture of solidarity , only for the visit to end with the Syrian parliament voting unanimously to enter into a union with Egypt without delay . A Syrian delegation then headed for Cairo to persuade Nasser to accept unity with Syria , but Nasser expressed his reservations regarding unity to the delegates and Quwatli , who was in Damascus . Nasser was wary of the Syrian military 's habitual interference in the country 's political affairs and the stark difference in the countries ' economies and political systems . The Syrian political and military leadership continued to press Nasser out of both sincere commitment to Arab nationalism and a realization that only unification with Egypt could prevent impending strife in the country due to increasing communist influence .
In December , the Ba 'ath Party composed a proposal entailing federal unity with Egypt , prompting their communist rivals to propose a total union . While the communists were less eager to merge with Egypt , they sought to appear before the Syrian public as the group most dedicated to unity , privately believing Nasser would reject the offer as he had the first time . According to historian Adeed Dawisha , " the communists ended up outmaneuvering themselves ... unprepared for the unfolding events spearheaded by a public driven to frenzy by all talk and promises of union . " On 11 January 1958 , the communist chief @-@ of @-@ staff , Bizri , led an officers delegation to press for unity with Cairo without consulting Quwatli beforehand . Instead , the Egyptian ambassador , Mahmud Riad , met and notified Quwatli of Bizri 's move . Quwatli was angered at the military 's move , telling Riad that it amounted to a coup and Egypt was complicit .
To his assert his influence over the unity talks , Quwatli sent Foreign Minister al @-@ Bitar to Cairo on 16 January to join the discussions . Nasser , while still hesitant at the Syrian proposal and discouraged by members of his inner circle , became increasingly concerned with the communists ' power in Syria as testified by Bizri 's leadership and autonomy from Quwatli . He was further pressured by the Arab nationalist members of the delegation , including al @-@ Bitar , who alluded to an impending communist takeover and urgently appealed to him not to " abandon " Syria .
Nasser ultimately agreed to the union , but insisted that it be formed strictly on his terms , stipulating a one @-@ party system , a merged economy , and Syria 's adoption of Egyptian social institutions ; in effect a full @-@ blown union . Syria 's political leaders , particularly the communists , the Ba 'athists and the conservatives , viewed Nasser 's terms unfavorably , but nonetheless accepted them in response to mounting popular pressure . Quwatli left for Cairo in mid @-@ February to conclude the agreement with Nasser and on 22 February the United Arab Republic ( UAR ) was established . Quwatli resigned from the presidency and Nasser became the president of the new union . To honor Quwatli for his gesture and his longtime struggle in the Arab nationalist cause , Nasser accorded him the title of " First Arab Citizen . "
The announcement of the UAR was met with widespread jubilation and celebration throughout the Arab world , most prominently in Syria . Nasser arrived in Damascus on an unannounced visit on 24 February and went directly to Quwatli 's home . According to al @-@ Hawrani , as Nasser met with Quwatli , " a sea of colliding humanity gathered with astonishing speed " as residents left their workplaces and homes to meet the leaders at Quwatli 's house . When the two decided to leave for the official guesthouse in an open @-@ top automobile , it took them two hours to reach the destination , where it normally would have taken about five minutes . The commotion of the growing crowds surrounding the car caused Quwatli to nearly faint . Following the union 's establishment , Quwatli retired from politics .
= = Later life = =
By 1960 , Quwatli had quarreled with Nasser and criticized his policies in Syria . In particular , he condemned the institution of land distribution and industrial nationalization in July 1961 , stating it would harm the economy severely . He was also personally affronted that his son @-@ in @-@ law Fayez al @-@ Ujl had much of his property seized by the government as part of the socialist measures . Resentment towards the union across the spectrum of Syria 's political class , social elite and officer corps was on the rise , with these key groups chafing at the centralization of authority into Nasser 's hands , domination by a vastly larger Egypt at the political , social and economic levels and the sidelining of these groups in the governance of Syria . The Syrian public also grew wary of the virtual police state set up in the country by Sarraj . A coup by secessionist officers was undertaken in Syria on 28 September , effectively breaking up the UAR . Quwatli lent his support toward the coup , aligning himself with the secessionist officers .
On 23 October , he made a televised speech condemning the UAR and expressing his disappointment with Nasser , saying " unity does not mean annexation and the presidential system does not mean the separation of the ruler from the ruled . " He also accused the Egyptian authorities of establishing a system of rule dependent on " 1 @,@ 001 spies " and responsible for sowing division in the republic . Quwatli told the Syrian people they controlled their own destiny , saying " Ranks and titles come and go , but you the people are immortal ! " He concluded his speech with self @-@ criticism , stating " I was able to serve your struggle as an ordinary citizen more than I was able to serve you when I was president . "
The secessionist officers , pleased at Quwatli 's statements , discussed whether or not to have Quwatli serve another term as president or to finish the term he began in 1955 , which was cut about one year short as a result of the UAR 's establishment . The proposal did not manifest , largely due to Quwatli 's relatively old age at the time . On 8 March 1963 a coalition of unionist officers consisting of Ba 'athists , Nasserists and independent Arab nationalists overthrew the secessionist government of President Nazim al @-@ Qudsi and Prime Minister Khalid al @-@ Azm . Quwatli left Syria shortly after and moved to Beirut , Lebanon .
= = Death = =
Quwatli had a heart attack shortly after the Six Day War ( 5 – 10 June 1967 ) . Feeling a pain in his chest he was taken to a hospital on 29 June . He died in Beirut on 30 June . According to Syrian historian Sami Moubayed , Quwatli died after learning of the defeat of the Syrian and Arab armies . The Ba 'athist @-@ dominated government refused to allow Quwatli 's body to be buried in Damascus and only relented after diplomatic pressure from King Faisal of Saudi Arabia . An honorary funeral organized by the state was held for him on 1 July .
On the day of his funeral , Radio Damascus called Quwatli " one of the sons of this homeland who has sacrificed and struggled for the advancement , liberation and unity of the Arab nation . " He was proclaimed a founding father of the Syrian Arab Republic . Historians and the Syrian population generally consider Quwatli to be one of the most " renowned Syrian leaders of the twentieth century , " according to Moubayed .
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= Sunol Water Temple =
The Sunol Water Temple is located at 505 Paloma Way in Sunol , California . Designed by Willis Polk , the 59 foot high classical pavilion is made up of twelve concrete Corinthian columns and a concrete ring girder that supports the conical wood and tile roof . Inside the temple , water originally from the Pleasanton well fields and Arroyo de la Laguna flowed into a white tiled cistern before plunging into a deeper water channel carrying water from the filter galleries to the Niles Aqueduct in Niles Canyon and across San Francisco Bay near the Dumbarton Bridge . The roof covering the cistern has paintings depicting Indian maidens carrying water vessels . The temple is open to the public Monday to Friday , 9 a.m. to 3 p.m.
= = History = =
Since the mid @-@ 19th century a private company , the Spring Valley Water Company ( SVWC ) , owned much of the Alameda Creek Watershed and had held a monopoly on water service to San Francisco . In 1906 , William Bowers Bourn II , a major stockholder in the SVWC , and owner of the giant Empire gold mine , hired Willis Polk to design a " water temple " atop the spot where three subterranean water sources converge ( a pipe from the Arroyo de la Laguna , Alameda Creek , through the Sunol infiltration galleries , and a 30 @-@ inch pipeline from the artesian well field of Pleasanton ) Some sources claim Bourn wanted to sell the water company to the City of San Francisco and saw the temple as a way to appeal to San Francisco voters , who would have to approve the purchase ( municipal efforts to buy out the SVWC had been a source of constant controversy from as early as 1873 , when the first attempt to purchase it was turned down by the voters because the price was too high ) . Other sources claim that as one born into wealth and classically educated , Bourn was partially motivated by a sense of civic responsibility .
Polk 's design , modeled after the ancient Temple of Vesta in Tivoli , Italy , was constructed in 1910 ( Tivoli is where many of the waters that fed Rome converged in the foothills of the Apennines ) . Prior to the construction of the Hetch Hetchy Aqueduct , half of San Francisco 's water supply ( 6 million gallons a day ) passed through the Sunol temple . The SVWC , including the temple , was purchased by San Francisco in 1930 for $ 40 million .
For decades the Water Temple received many visitors and was a popular location for picnickers . By the 1980s the water temple had badly deteriorated , and was severely damaged in 1989 's Loma Prieta earthquake , leading some community leaders to call for its demolition . The site was closed to the public because of safety concerns . A community effort led to the temple 's restoration from 1997 to 2001 , at a cost of $ 1 @.@ 2 million , including seismic and accessibility upgrades . Following its restoration the temple opened again to the public . Today any water that flows through the temple is not part of the potable water supply .
Fields adjacent to the temple belong to the city of San Francisco which has authorized the digging of a gravel quarry on the site . Local residents concerned about the temple 's future brought a lawsuit to attempt block the quarry project , but eventually ran out of funds and dropped the suit .
In June 2006 , a new facility named the Sunol Agricultural Park was opened on a site adjacent to the temple . The park provides space for small businesses and nonprofit groups to grow produce and is a project of a non @-@ profit called Sustainable Agriculture Education ( SAGE ) . The park serves a platform for service and educational programs related to sustainable agriculture and environmental conservation .
= = Inscription = =
" I will make the wilderness a pool of water and the dry lands springs of water . [ Isaiah 41 : 18b ] The streams whereof shall make glad the city . [ Psalms 46 : 4 ] S.V.W.C. MCMX [ Spring Valley Water Company 1910 ] "
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= Machine Head ( band ) =
Machine Head is an American heavy metal band from Oakland , California . Formed on October 12 , 1991 , the group was founded by vocalist and guitarist Robb Flynn and bassist Adam Duce . The current lineup of the band comprises Flynn , drummer Dave McClain , guitarist Phil Demmel , and bassist Jared MacEachern . Machine Head is one of the pioneering bands in the New Wave of American Heavy Metal .
Machine Head was formed by member Robb Flynn , previously part of the bands Forbidden and Vio @-@ lence . Flynn felt musically unfulfilled with Vio @-@ lence and requested to start a side project . When his request was denied , he left the band and formed Machine Head in 1991 with Adam Duce , Logan Mader and Tony Constanza . The band 's first album Burn My Eyes , was a big success in Europe where it garnered attention on MTV 's Headbangers Ball . In America ( with HBB taken off the air during the grunge movement ) Machine Head would not have success until later albums .
The band nearly disbanded in 2002 after negotiating off its label Roadrunner Records , when controversy surrounding Machine Head 's fourth album Supercharger ( released 3 weeks after September 11 , 2001 ) resulted in their songs and music video for the song " Crashing Around You " ( which featured burning buildings ) being pulled from all media outlets . The band re @-@ signed with Roadrunner soon after and has released four albums since , 2003 's Through the Ashes of Empires , 2007 's The Blackening ( which earned Machine Head its first Grammy Award nomination ) and 2011 's Unto the Locust . Their most recent album , Bloodstone & Diamonds , was released in 2014 . Machine Head have sold over 3 million records worldwide .
= = History = =
= = = Formation and Burn My Eyes ( 1991 – 96 ) = = =
Machine Head were formed on October 12 , 1991 , in Oakland , California by vocalist / guitarist Robb Flynn and bassist Adam Duce . Flynn had recently parted ways with Vio @-@ lence after a physical fight between the band members and a local gang . He still had a desire to write music and along with Duce recruited guitarist Logan Mader and drummer Tony Costanza to form Machine Head . The band 's name was thought of by Flynn because it " sounded cool " , despite the popular belief that it came from the Deep Purple album of the same name . The band started jamming in a local warehouse shared with four punk rock bands . Machine Head recorded a demo in a friend 's bedroom , funded with US $ 800 . A record executive representing Roadrunner Records listened to the demo and signed the band .
Machine Head entered Fantasy Studios in Berkeley , California to record its debut album Burn My Eyes . Not long into production , Constanza left the band and was replaced by Chris Kontos . Most of the songs on the album were songs written by Flynn and Duce during the time Flynn was not in a band , about " being pissed off " from his previous struggles in Vio @-@ lence , as well as both of their battles with illegal drugs . Produced by Colin Richardson , the album was released on August 9 , 1994 . The album shipped nearly 400 @,@ 000 copies worldwide , becoming Roadrunner Records ' best selling debut album . Allmusic reviewer John Franck stated " Burn My Eyes is a bone @-@ shattering exercise in brutality " .
Not long after Burn My Eyes 's release Machine Head started touring heavily in support of the album , opening for Slayer in Europe in the latter half of 1994 , a tour which ended with their own headline show at the London Astoria . Following the success of the support tour the band returned to Europe for a headline tour in early 1995 , performing in the same venues they opened for Slayer . The band would return to Europe for the summer festival season but Kontos refused to tour and the band drafted Walter Ryan for the festival dates . On the band 's return to the US Kontos was fired because he was not keeping to touring commitments . Kontos went on to play drums with Testament , and was replaced by Dave McClain .
= = = The More Things Change ... and The Burning Red ( 1997 – 2000 ) = = =
After touring for Burn My Eyes , Machine Head entered the studio to record its second studio album , The More Things Change ... , with Richardson producing and mixing for a second time . The album was released on March 25 , 1997 , and debuted at number 138 on the Billboard 200 albums chart . Machine Head toured in Europe with Napalm Death , Coal Chamber and Skinlab , then went on the first Ozzfest for the first tours in support of the album . Mader showed up to a practice session late , high on methamphetamine , cursing at and insulting the band members ; and quit the band later that day . Ahrue Luster replaced him and finished touring , while Mader toured with Soulfly in support of their self @-@ titled debut album .
After three years of touring and working with producer Ross Robinson , Machine Head released its third studio album , The Burning Red , on August 10 , 1999 . The band added new elements to its music , including rapping vocals , a move which some believe to have been influenced by Ahrue Luster himself . This album and the band 's change in image / musical direction ( nu metal / alternative metal ) was highly criticized , with critics and fans alike accusing the band of " selling out " . Nevertheless , McClain stated they weren 't trying to sound like popular bands but " wanted to sound different " . Rick Anderson of Allmusic stated Machine Head was " sounding a bit looser and less constricted musically than they have in the past " . The Burning Red became Machine Head 's top selling album for a number of years , and debuted at number 88 on the Billboard 200 .
= = = Supercharger and Through the Ashes of Empires ( 2001 – 05 ) = = =
Machine Head finished touring for The Burning Red , and entered a studio with producer Johnny K to record Supercharger . Debuting at number 115 on the Billboard 200 , the album was released on October 2 , 2001 . The album met the same criticism as The Burning Red , especially for the ever @-@ present rapping vocals . Blabbermouth.net reviewer Borivoj Krgin stated Supercharger " is likely to disappoint everyone who is expecting the Bay Area quartet to return to the ultra @-@ testosterone @-@ charged sounds of their first two albums " .
Machine Head released a single for " Crashing Around You " as well as a music video . The video was released several weeks after the September 11 , 2001 attacks , and was banned from MTV for the depictions of falling buildings . Roadrunner Records , expecting to make a fair profit from album promotions , dropped the band 's funding , causing Machine Head to leave the label . At the same time the band was leaving Roadrunner , Luster departed from the band for musical differences .
By 2002 , Machine Head had sold over 1 @.@ 3 million albums worldwide , and overall Supercharger ( mixed by Colin Richardson ) would go on to sell 250 @,@ 000 copies worldwide , which was their lowest selling album to date . Once the tour for the album had been completed , Machine Head and Roadrunner Records mutually decided to sever ties with regards to distribution in North America and around the world , however to fill the ties , the band released Hellalive ( also mixed by Colin Richardson ) which was a recording of a Brixton Academy , London set .
In 2002 Ahrue Luster left the band and was temporarily replaced by Phil Demmel , who played in thrash band Vio @-@ lence alongside Flynn . Demmel played some festival shows with Machine Head ( including a headlining slot at the With Full Force festival in Germany ) . Then with Phil not being able to commit to the band , he and Machine Head parted ways . The remainder of the band starting writing songs for the next album ( eventually Through the Ashes ... ) , and hoping to get signed to a record label . They recorded a short demo , including a radio @-@ style song called " Pins and Needles " , and an Electronic Press Kit for the companies , also hoping they can get signed on the strength of their previous efforts . Nearly every record label in the music industry rejected the four track demo .
After Machine Head 's European tour , Ahrue Luster returned to his family business and the band started writing together as a three @-@ piece , while leaving a position open for Demmel . In March 2003 , Demmel joined Machine Head as a full @-@ time guitarist and started writing with the band . By June 2003 , Machine Head entered a studio with Flynn producing . On October 27 , 2003 , Machine Head released Through the Ashes of Empires in Europe .
The band was turned down by multiple record labels in the United States , until Roadrunner USA , interested in the new album , offered Machine Head another record contract . Machine Head accepted the offer on the grounds that the band owns 100 % of the music . On April 20 , 2004 , Through the Ashes of Empires was released in the United States with a bonus track for the Americans ' long wait for the album 's release . The album debuted at number 88 on the Billboard 200 . The band released a single for " Imperium " , the video for which received heavy rotation on MTV . Eduardo Rivadavia of AllMusic stated Through the Ashes of Empires " marked a return to form in no uncertain terms " .
Machine Head headlined the True Metal stage at the 2005 Wacken Open Air festival to 40 @,@ 000 fans — the band 's largest headlining crowd at the time . The band released a DVD containing a full sold @-@ out concert held at the Brixton Academy in December 2004 , a documentary , and music videos . The DVD debuted at number 13 on the U.S. music video charts . They also played in Dubai for the annual Dubai Desert Rock Festival in 2005 . This was their first show in the Middle East . The band also played at the farewell concert of Böhse Onkelz on the Euro Speedway Lausitz .
= = = The Blackening ( 2006 – 09 ) = = =
Machine Head 's sixth studio album , titled The Blackening , was released in North America on March 27 , 2007 . It entered the Billboard 200 at number 53 , the highest charting position for the band at that time , with first @-@ week sales of 15 @,@ 000 . It also made the top 20 in several European countries . Robb Flynn stated during an interview that the band are fans of Rush and received a great deal of influence from their album A Farewell to Kings while creating The Blackening .
The album received positive reviews from music critics , with some labeling it the best metal album of 2007 . Blabbermouth.net reviewer Don Kaye awarded the album a 9 @.@ 5 out of 10 , saying The Blackening is " one of the purest , finest , most powerful expressions of modern heavy metal released " and compared it to the 1986 Metallica album Master of Puppets , while Allmusic editor Thom Jurek described the album as " an over the top rage and pummelfest with all the qualities that earned the group its enormous fan base by touring and recording " , praising the songs " Beautiful Mourning " , " Halo " , and " Now I Lay Thee Down " . Rolling Stone reviewer Andy Greene , however , responded negatively as he was displeased with the songs running over ten minutes .
Machine Head toured North America with Lamb of God , Trivium and Gojira in early 2007 to promote The Blackening , and opened for Megadeth and Heaven & Hell in April 2007 . A European tour saw the band make an appearance at the Download Festival in Donington Park . Shortly after , the band announced a co @-@ headlining tour of Japan , Europe , and Australia titled The Black Crusade from October to December . Other bands on the bill included Trivium , Arch Enemy , DragonForce ( Europe only ) and Shadows Fall ( Europe only ) . On June 12 , 2007 , at the Metal Hammer Golden Gods Awards , the band won the award for " Best Album " , and Flynn won the " Golden God " award . Machine Head also won Best Album at the Kerrang ! Awards 2007 . The band replaced Bullet For My Valentine supporting Metallica 's Wembley Stadium show on Sunday July 8 , 2007 , as Bullet For My Valentine 's vocalist Matt Tuck required a tonsillectomy . Machine Head also toured North America with Hellyeah , Nonpoint and Bury Your Dead in early 2008 . Machine Head recently completed a world tour where they played Bengaluru , India , Israel and Dubai , U.A.E. in March 2008 .
In October 2008 the band toured in Australia with Slipknot . The band then toured Europe with Slipknot and Children of Bodom in November and December . The band recorded a version of Iron Maiden 's classic , " Hallowed Be Thy Name " for a Kerrang ! tribute compilation album , entitled Maiden Heaven : A Tribute to Iron Maiden ; this song was played live multiple times since its release and has become a permanent in their current touring setlists . Amongst other bands who appeared on the album were label mates , Dream Theater and Trivium .
It was announced on August 10 , 2008 that Machine Head and Austin , Texas based band The Sword would be opening for Metallica at ten shows in January 2009 . In a recent interview conducted with Phil Demmel , he revealed that with Machine Head 's upcoming touring commitments , the band would not have chance to write a follow up album until at least 2010 , for an expected 2011 release date . Machine Head toured with The Sword in Metallica 's World Magnetic Tour for the Death Magnetic album from 2008 to 2009 . Machine Head also opened for Megadeth , Slayer and Suicide Silence on the Canadian Carnage tour in late June . Machine Head reportedly cancelled their appearance at Sonisphere Festival in the UK because they had disagreements with the staff over their slot . They thought they should play after Limp Bizkit . However , a week before the Sonisphere festival took place on August 1 and 2 , Machine Head agreed to take back their slot below Limp Bizkit . Their appearance was kept secret until the day they played . In August 2009 , they won the Inspiration Award at the 2009 Kerrang ! Awards . It was announced on the August 31 that Machine Head would tour through Europe and UK in 2010 with Hatebreed , Bleeding Through , and All Shall Perish in what will be known as " The Black Procession " , as well as adding dates for an Australian and New Zealand tour cycle in March . This will be the last time the band tour in support of The Blackening before writing the next album , as Dave McClain described in an interview , before their Belfast show in Northern Ireland .
= = = Unto the Locust ( 2010 – 12 ) = = =
In November 2010 , Machine Head began writing and demoing new material for their seventh studio album , Unto the Locust . With Robb Flynn acting as producer , Machine Head officially began recording the album on April 16 , 2011 at Green Day 's Jingletown Studios in Oakland , California .
In the summer of 2011 , Machine Head toured as a part of the Rockstar Mayhem Festival . During the tour , the band debuted a new song off of Unto the Locust , entitled " Locust " . The song was later released on Amazon and iTunes on June 14 , 2011 . Unto the Locust was released on September 27 , 2011 , to critical acclaim . The album charted in several countries , including number 22 in the US ( the first time the band had ever cracked the top 25 in US ) and at number 5 in Germany .
After the release of Unto the Locust , Machine Head began its Eight Plague Tour and during the first European leg , the band was supported by Bring Me the Horizon , DevilDriver and Darkest Hour . On the North American leg , Machine Head was supported by Suicide Silence , Darkest Hour , and Rise to Remain ( although Rise to Remain was later forced to drop out ) .
In 2012 , Machine Head headlined the Soundwave Festival in Australia . The band also played at the 2012 Download Festival , Metalcamp , Graspop festivals , as well as headlined both Bloodstock Open Air and the Wacken Festival . Machine Head were also scheduled to be part of the first @-@ ever Mayhem Festival cruise , until it was cancelled .
On September 10 , Machine Head announced a North American tour with Dethklok , All That Remains and Black Dahlia Murder , beginning with a " Warm Up " show on October 24 , the tour starts on October 30 and ends on December 8 . On September 14 , Machine Head won the " Best International Band " award at the 2012 Metal Hammer awards in Berlin , Germany . On October 1 , Machine Head announced the release of " Machine Fucking Head Live " , the band 's first live album since 2003 's Hellalive . The album will feature 15 live recordings from the band 's various 2011 @-@ 2012 tours and is to be released on November 13 on a two disc set or download with 4 bonus tracks , with pre @-@ orders of the album having a six track rarities & B @-@ sides EP .
On November 13 , Machine Head announced cancellation of their North American tour dates from the 13th to the 23rd due to Robb Flynn requiring emergency surgery to treat an inguinal hernia .
In a November 2012 interview , Machine Head guitarist Phil Demmel revealed that the band planned to begin writing new material for their eighth studio album in 2013 and hopes that they will begin recording it before the end of that year .
= = = Bloodstone & Diamonds ( 2013 – present ) = = =
On February 22 , 2013 , the band announced that bassist / founding member Adam Duce left the band , albeit on friendly terms . 4 days later , Robb Flynn revealed in his online blog that he fired Adam Duce because of ongoing differences . His departure makes Flynn the only remaining original member . As of March 2013 , Unto the Locust has sold 100 @,@ 000 copies in the United States , making it their third quickest @-@ selling album behind The Blackening and Supercharger which have sold 260 @,@ 000 in two weeks and 250 @,@ 000 copies in 4 months in the United States respectively . The band began the process of searching for a temporary bassist for the 2013 Rockstar Energy Drink Mayhem Festival in the U.S. For a limited time , the band accepted and reviewed YouTube submissions . On June 24 , 2013 the band announced that former Sanctity rhythm guitarist and vocalist Jared MacEachern has joined the band as their new bassist . Robb Flynn said of MacEachern : " Monte Conner recommended Jared since he was already on the tour , and that ended up being a great call . Jared flew out a few days before the tour and rehearsed with us and did great . " Phil Demmel continued : — " There were dozens of amazing players , and it was interesting to watch each one take on our tunes . One of our biggest criteria for this gig was to be able to sing the high harmonies . That was our litmus test . And Jared passed with flying colors . " .
On October 2 , 2013 the band announced that it signed to Nuclear Blast . In February 2014 , the band entered the studio to record their new album , Bloodstone & Diamonds , for a late summer release .
In early 2014 , Duce filed a lawsuit against his former band and manager in federal court " for trademark infringement , breach of fiduciary duty , breach of partnership agreement , intentional and negligent interference with prospective economic relations , negligence , defamation and unfair competition , and he wants the band enjoined from using the Machine Head marks . " The lawsuit was settled out of court on July 2 with undisclosed terms . In August 2014 , Robb Flynn announced the track listing for Bloodstone & Diamonds , consisting of 12 tracks along with its artwork .
Bloodstone & Diamonds was released in November 2014 to positive reviews from fans and critics alike , with many saying how the addition of MacEachern brought a sense of rejuvenation to the band . The band embarked on a lengthy world tour in support of the album , including a leg of European shows , two American legs and various others in Japan , Australia and New Zealand .
On June 1 , 2016 , a stand @-@ alone single titled " Is There Anybody Out There ? " premiered on Sirius XM Octane , and on June 3 the single was available for digital download .
= = Musical style , Influences and Legacy = =
Machine Head 's music crosses multiple genres such as thrash metal , groove metal , and heavy metal . The band is influenced by Californian thrash metal bands such as Vio @-@ lence , Metallica , Exodus , Slayer and Testament , crossover thrash bands Suicidal Tendencies and Cro @-@ Mags , groove metal bands Pantera and Exhorder , and grunge bands Nirvana , Soundgarden and Alice in Chains , but they also have influences from 70 's / early 80 's metal acts such as Judas Priest , Iron Maiden , Rush and Black Sabbath .
Their early albums Burn My Eyes and The More Things Change ... show a groove metal and thrash metal approach , similar to bands like Pantera and Exhorder . The albums also featured brutal and technical drumming by Chris Kontos and Dave McClain . The band changed their musical direction for the albums The Burning Red ( 1999 ) and Supercharger ( 2001 ) , which have been described as displaying a nu metal sound . These albums featured rapping by Robb Flynn and simpler guitar riffs , but retaining part of their aggressive sound . This change in direction resulted in criticism from many fans because of the popularity of nu metal at the time .
Machine Head returned to the groove metal and thrash metal sound of the first two albums with the album Through the Ashes of Empires , which proved a success .
Machine Head increased the complexity and technicality in their sound for the next album , The Blackening , which partially changes the sound of their first 5 albums in favor of a more classic heavy metal and thrash metal oriented sound , with fully complex song structures and guitar riffs . Unto the Locust features heavier , faster and more complex riffs by both Robb Flynn and Phil Demmel , influenced by classical music , and supported by fast and complex drum patterns by Dave McClain . This is also the first Machine Head 's record to include blast beats .
Robb Flynn makes use of different vocal styles including clean vocals , screams and death growls .
Machine Head is one of the bands that support the New Wave of American Heavy Metal and influenced bands such as Slipknot , Hatebreed , Lamb of God , Shadows Fall , Bullet for My Valentine , DevilDriver , Gojira , Trivium , Avenged Sevenfold , Hatriot , Killswitch Engage , Chimaira , The Black Dahlia Murder , Throwdown , Suicide Silence .
= = Band members = =
= = = Timeline = = =
= = Discography = =
Burn My Eyes ( 1994 )
The More Things Change ... ( 1997 )
The Burning Red ( 1999 )
Supercharger ( 2001 )
Through the Ashes of Empires ( 2003 )
The Blackening ( 2007 )
Unto the Locust ( 2011 )
Bloodstone & Diamonds ( 2014 )
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= Jonathan Belcher =
Jonathan Belcher ( 8 January 1681 / 2 – 31 August 1757 ) was a merchant , businessman , and politician from the Province of Massachusetts Bay during the American colonial period . Belcher served simultaneously for over a decade as colonial governor of the British colonies of New Hampshire ( 1729 – 1741 ) and Massachusetts ( 1730 – 1741 ) and later for ten years as governor of New Jersey ( 1747 – 1757 ) .
Born into a wealthy Massachusetts merchant family , Belcher attended Harvard College and then entered into the family business and local politics . He was instrumental in promoting Samuel Shute as governor of Massachusetts in 1715 , and sat on the colony 's council , but became disenchanted with Shute over time and eventually joined the populist faction of Elisha Cooke , Jr . After the sudden death of Governor William Burnet in 1729 Belcher successfully acquired the governorships of Massachusetts and New Hampshire . During his tenure , Belcher politically marginalized those who he perceived as opposition and made many powerful enemies in both provinces . In a long @-@ running border dispute between Massachusetts and New Hampshire , Belcher sided with Massachusetts interests despite openly proclaiming neutrality in the matter . It was later discovered that he allowed illegal logging on Crown lands by political allies . His opponents , led by William Shirley and Samuel Waldo , eventually convinced the Board of Trade to replace Belcher ( with Shirley in Massachusetts and Benning Wentworth in New Hampshire ) , and the border dispute was resolved in New Hampshire 's favor .
Belcher was appointed governor of New Jersey in 1747 with support from its Quaker community . He unsuccessfully attempted to mediate the partisan conflicts between New Jersey 's Quakers and large landowners , and promoted the establishment of the College of New Jersey , now Princeton University . Through most of his tenure as royal governor , Belcher was ill with a progressive nervous disorder , and died in office in 1757 . Belchertown , Massachusetts is named for him .
= = Early life = =
= = = Youth and education = = =
Jonathan Belcher was born in Cambridge , Province of Massachusetts Bay , on 8 January 1681 / 2 . The fifth of seven children , his father Andrew was an adventurer and businessman , and his mother , Sarah Gilbert Belcher , was the daughter of a politically well connected Connecticut merchant and Indian trader . His mother died when he was seven , and his father sent him to live with relatives in the country while he expanded his trading business . Andrew Belcher was highly successful in trade , although some of it was in violation of the Navigation Acts , and some was supposedly conducted with pirates . However he made his money , he became one of the wealthiest men in Massachusetts in the 1680s and 1690s . To promote the family 's status , he sent his son to the Boston Latin School in 1691 , and then Harvard College in 1695 , where Belcher was listed second ( the order of listing being a rough indication of a family 's importance ) behind Jeremiah Dummer . Belcher and Dummer both went on to political careers in the province , sometimes as allies , but also as opponents . Belcher 's five sisters all married into politically or economically prominent families , forging important connections that would further his career .
In January 1705 / 6 Belcher married Mary Partridge , the daughter of former New Hampshire Lieutenant Governor William Partridge , an occasional business partner of his father 's . The couple had three children ( Andrew , Sarah , and Jonathan ) before she died in 1736 . His brother @-@ in @-@ law through this marriage was the painter Nehemiah Partridge .
= = = Agent for his father 's commercial empire = = =
Belcher graduated from Harvard at the age of 17 , and then entered into his father 's business . The trading empire his father built encompassed trade from the West Indies to Europe , and included shares or outright ownership of more than 15 ships . In the spring of 1704 Belcher 's father sent him to London to cultivate business contacts of his own , and to secure military supply contracts . After forging relations based on his father 's letters of introduction in London , Belcher traveled to the Netherlands to do the same with Dutch merchants , and to begin a tour of western Europe . After seeing the sights of Rotterdam and Amsterdam he traveled to Hanover , where he was received by Electress Sophia and met the future King of Great Britain , George , Duke of Brunswick @-@ Lüneburg . After calling on the Prussian court in Berlin , he returned to New England . During these travels he was exposed to a variety of religious practices , but found regular comfort in Christian services most similar to the Calvinist @-@ leaning New England Congregational Church . He eventually came to see himself as a defender of that faith practice , which permeated his political life .
During the years of the War of the Spanish Succession ( whose North American theater is also known as Queen Anne 's War , 1702 – 13 ) , Belcher 's father was retained as a major supplier to the provincial militia and served as the province 's commissary general . Belcher was involved in the management of the family 's trading activities . In 1708 he traveled again to London , where he secured a major contract with The Admiralty . Before returning to Massachusetts he once again traveled to Hanover , where he was well received at court . The war effort caused economic upheavals in Massachusetts , and the Belchers , who stockpiled grain and other supplies for military use , became a focus for popular discontent when food shortages arose late in the war . The family 's warehouses were the targets of mob action , and Belcher was beaten by a mob on one occasion .
= = = His own investments = = =
Belcher 's merchant interests included the occasional trafficking in slaves . He is known to have owned slaves , ordering them from his friend , Isaac Royall , Sr. He presented an enslaved Indian to Electress Sophia on his second visit to Hanover in 1708 . Despite this , he expressed a distaste for slavery , writing in 1739 , " We have but few in these parts , and I wish there were less . "
In addition to the mercantile trade , the Belcher family also had extensive land holdings in New England . Due to errors in early surveys of the line between Massachusetts and neighboring Connecticut , Massachusetts in the early 1700s gave lands in the central portion of the province to Connecticut as compensation for the survey errors , which were in its favor . When Connecticut auctioned off these " Equivalent Lands " in 1716 , Belcher was one of the buyers . The lands he was allocated were eventually incorporated as Belchertown .
Belcher also inherited property from his father that was located in what is now Wallingford and Meriden , Connecticut . He spent a significant amount of money in an unsuccessful attempt to profitably mine the property for metal ores , particularly copper . In 1714 Belcher expanded his mining interests , acquiring a stake in a mine in Simsbury ( now East Granby , Connecticut ) . In 1735 he reported having invested £ 15 @,@ 000 in these ventures , which failed in part because under British law at the time it was illegal to smelt copper in the colonies , necessitating the costly shipment of ores to England . He eventually established a technically illegal smelting operation . ( The Simsbury site , later used by the state as a prison , is now a National Historic Landmark . )
Upon the accession of King George I in 1714 , Andrew Belcher sent Jonathan to London , seeking to capitalize on the existing connection to the new king . During this trip Belcher engaged in recruiting for his properties in Connecticut . In addition to hiring an experienced metal refiner in England , he also recruited German miners ; the area near the Simsbury mine became known as " Hanover " as a consequence of their presence . ( Belcher had previously toured mines in the Harz mountains on his first visit to the Hanover . )
= = Agent and councilor = =
Colonel Elizeus Burges was commissioned as governor of Massachusetts and New Hampshire by the new king . Belcher , along with compatriot Jeremiah Dummer , representing opponents of a land bank proposal that Burges had promised to support , bribed him £ 1 @,@ 000 to resign before he left England . Dummer and Belcher were then instrumental in promoting Samuel Shute as an alternative to Burges , believing among other things that he was likely to be well received in New England because he was from a prominent Dissenting family . They also coached Shute on the political situation in the province after he won the appointment . Shute arrived in Boston on 4 October 1716 , where he began a difficult and contentious tenure in office . He signaled his partisanship by first taking up residence with Paul Dudley , son of the last @-@ appointed governor Joseph Dudley and a land bank opponent , rather than Acting Governor William Tailer .
Belcher was elected to the Massachusetts Governor 's Council in 1718 . During Shute 's tenure Belcher was seen as part of a political faction that generally supported the governor . He was consequently on and off the council several times , blocked by the efforts of populist leader Elisha Cooke , Jr . This struggle continued after Shute left the province at the end of 1722 to prosecute his differences with the assembly with the Privy Council in London . Belcher , however , became increasingly unhappy that Paul Dudley wielded more influence than he did during the administration of William Dummer ( who was Dudley 's brother @-@ in @-@ law ) that followed .
When William Burnet arrived in 1728 as governor Belcher was unexpectedly elected moderator of Boston 's town meeting in an election apparently engineered by Cooke . In Burnet 's dispute with the assembly over his salary ( which exceeded that of Shute in its acrimony and occupied most of Burnet 's brief tenure ) , Cooke and Belcher made common cause over the issue . Belcher was elected by the assembly as an agent to London to explain the colonial position on the governor 's salary , and Cooke helped raise the funds needed for the trip .
= = Governor of Massachusetts and New Hampshire = =
In 1729 , while Belcher was in London , news arrived that Governor Burnet had died quite suddenly . Belcher lobbied for and was awarded the job of governor of both Massachusetts and New Hampshire . This was accomplished in part by bypassing the Board of Trade and appealing directly to higher level ministers in the government , earning him the enmity of the powerful board secretary , Martin Bladen , who opposed his nomination . In accepting the appointment he was effectively promising to argue in the colony in favor of the position he had been sent to London to argue against . During Belcher 's long tenure ( he served from 1730 to 1741 , one of the longer tenures of a Massachusetts provincial governor ) he would argue with the colonial politicians that he was acting in their interest , while also working to convince London colonial administrators he was implementing their policies . Historian William Pencak writes that as a consequence , " By trying to keep on good terms with the province and the administration he lost the respect of both . "
= = = Massachusetts = = =
While he was in London Belcher arranged for Lieutenant Governor Dummer to be replaced by William Tailer ( whose appointment to that post in 1715 he had ironically managed to supersede by lobbying for Dummer 's appointment ) , and recommended that Jeremiah Dummer ( with whom his relations had become seriously strained ) be dismissed as colonial agent . He was well received in Massachusetts upon his arrival in 1731 , but immediately began to purge opponents and their supporters from positions over which he had control . This immediately put all on notice that he would freely use patronage power as a political weapon .
One early issue Belcher took on was that of defending the established church . As an ardent Congregationalist ( which was the establishment in Massachusetts ) he perceived as dangerous the attempts of adherents of the Church of England in particular to gain exemptions from church taxes . He was willing to countenance such an exemption for the relatively modest number of Quakers , but refused to support one for the more numerous and politically connected Anglicans until it was apparent in 1735 that he would be instructed to do so . His support of the Quaker exemption brought him a potent support base in that community in London . In 1735 Belcher presided over a meeting in Deerfield at which the Stockbridge Indians agreed to accept Congregationalist missionaries and authorized the erection of a mission house . ( The Mission House , built c . 1742 pursuant to this agreement , still stands , and is a National Historic Landmark . )
Belcher also sought to improve business conditions in Boston . While on his tours of Europe he had opportunity to witness the comparatively orderly markets in Dutch cities ; he used what he learned from those experiences to significantly reform the previously chaotic markets of Boston . ( His positive feelings towards the Hanovers prompted him to name Boston 's Hanover Street in their honor . )
= = = New Hampshire = = =
Belcher 's administration of New Hampshire started out friendly but rapidly turned sour . He learned that Lieutenant Governor John Wentworth had offered his support to Samuel Shute when the governorship became available , and consequently turned on the entire Wentworth clan in retaliation . He took on as an ally and confidant Richard Waldron , a bitter opponent of the Wentworths and a relative by marriage . Because John Wentworth had , during his long tenure as lieutenant governor , established a large power base with both the province 's land owners and merchants , this made him many powerful enemies . Biographer Michael Batinski theorizes that it was Waldron 's influence that drove Belcher to strip many Wentworths and their allies from patronage positions . The Wentworth power base was also generally unhappy that New Hampshire was tied to Massachusetts with the shared governorship , and many resented the fact that a Massachusetts man occupied the post . Because of their influence , New Hampshire 's assembly was hostile to Belcher , and his opponents were able to convince the Board of Trade to appoint some of their number to the provincial council over his objections . Belcher made repeated unsuccessful attempts to get sympathetic assemblies , calling for elections ten times during his tenure . The intransigent legislatures refused to enact his legislative proposals .
Belcher was disheartened when David Dunbar was appointed lieutenant governor of New Hampshire after John Wentworth died in December 1730 . Dunbar , who was friendly with the Wentworths , was also the king 's surveyor , responsible for identifying trees suitable for use as ship masts and ensuring no illegal logging was taking place on ungranted lands in all of northern New England . This work was in opposition to a significant number of Belcher 's supporters , who engaged in illegal logging on those lands , behavior explicitly countenanced by the governor . Belcher took all steps possible to ensure Dunbar could not exercise any significant powers , refusing to seat him on the council , and making frequent trips from Boston to Portsmouth to exercise his authority personally . The two men disliked one another , and Dunbar began moving supporters in London to lobby for Belcher 's replacement not long after his appointment in 1731 . The illegal logging activity by Belcher 's allies eventually came to the attention of William Shirley , the crown advocate of the provincial admiralty court whose patron was the powerful Duke of Newcastle .
= = = Boundary dispute = = =
Belcher was unwilling to resolve longstanding boundary disputes between New Hampshire and Massachusetts . The disputed territory included areas west of the Merrimack River from its great bend near present @-@ day Chelmsford , Massachusetts to present @-@ day Concord , New Hampshire . Competing grantees from the two provinces were by the 1730s engaging in increasingly tense legal action and petty violence against each other . Despite claims that he was neutral on the matter , Belcher orchestrated affairs to prefer the settlement of lands north and west of the Merrimack River by Massachusetts residents . The dispute eventually reached the highest levels of government and court in England . New Hampshire 's advocates for separation from Massachusetts found an able spokesman in John Thomlinson , a London merchant with logging interests , who in 1737 convinced the Board of Trade to establish a commission on the boundary issue . Despite Belcher 's attempts to orchestrate legislative proceedings to the advantage of Massachusetts ( for example , allowing the New Hampshire assembly only one day to prepare a case on the dispute while that of Massachusetts had several months ) , the final ruling on the boundary , issued in 1739 , went significantly in New Hampshire 's favor .
= = = United opposition = = =
By 1736 representatives of Belcher 's many political enemies began to coalesce into a unified opposition in London . William Shirley , who sought a more lucrative position , sent his wife to London to lobby on his behalf , making common cause with Samuel Waldo , a wealthy lumber baron whose supply contracts with the Royal Navy were harmed by Belcher 's support of illegal logging . David Dunbar resigned as lieutenant governor in 1737 and went to London , where he provided documentation of the logging practices . These forces united with Thomlinson in an effort to orchestrate the replacement of Belcher , preferably with Shirley in Massachusetts and Benning Wentworth in New Hampshire .
Matters became more complicated in 1739 due to London politics and a currency crisis in Massachusetts . Belcher had been ordered to effect the retirement of a large amount of Massachusetts paper currency by 1741 , and the legislation to accomplish this was rejected by the Board of Trade , leading to the introduction of competing banking proposals in the province . One faction dominated by landowners proposed a land bank , while merchants proposed a bank that would issue silver @-@ backed paper . The proposals polarized the Massachusetts political establishment , and Belcher was unable to take sides for fear of alienating supporters on either side . He instead sought without success to browbeat the assembly into passing a currency retirement scheme acceptable to London . In 1740 elections land bank supporters swept into office , and the bank began issuing notes . Merchant interests opposed to the land bank began widespread lobbying in London for Parliamentary relief ( which came in 1741 , when it passed legislation extending the 1720 Bubble Act , which disallowed unchartered companies , to the colonies ) likely abetted by John Thomlinson .
While this crisis brewed in Massachusetts , the ascendant Duke of Newcastle successfully pressured Prime Minister Robert Walpole to declare war on Spain in 1739 . Part of the war strategy involved the raising of provincial forces to assist in operations against Spanish holdings in the West Indies . Belcher , who was expected to raise about 400 men , promised to raise 1 @,@ 000 , but was only able to raise about 500 in Massachusetts , and not even the 100 he had promised from New Hampshire . This was due in part on the reluctance of the extra companies to travel to the Caribbean without assurances of pay and supply . Belcher also , in pursuit of the financial agenda , vetoed bills to issue currency with which to fund the militia that were raised .
The exact reasons for Belcher 's dismissal have been a recurring subject of scholarly interest , due to the many colonial , imperial , and political factors at play . Two principal themes within these analyses are Belcher 's acquisition of many local enemies , and the idea that good imperial governance in London eventually required his replacement . Before the issues of 1739 most of the efforts to unseat Belcher had failed : Belcher himself noted that year that " the warr I am ingag 'd in is carrying on in much the same manner as for 9 years past . " Historian Stephen Foster further notes that someone as powerful as Newcastle was at the time generally had much weightier issues to deal with than arbitrating colonial politics . In this instance , however , imperial and colonial considerations coincided over the need for Massachusetts to provide a significant number of troops for Newcastle 's proposed West Indies expedition . In April 1740 Newcastle in effect offered Shirley the opportunity to prove , in the light of Belcher 's political difficulties , that he could more effectively raise troops than the governor could . Shirley consequently engaged in recruiting , principally outside Massachusetts ( where Belcher had refused his offers of assistance , understanding what was going on ) , and deluged Newcastle with documentation of his successes while Belcher was preoccupied with the banking crisis . Newcastle handed the issue off to Martin Bladen , secretary to the Board of Trade and a known Belcher opponent . The Board of Trade then apparently decided , based on the weight of the evidence , that Belcher needed to be replaced . In April 1741 the Privy Council approved William Shirley 's commission as governor of Massachusetts , and Benning Wentworth 's commission as governor of New Hampshire was issued the following June .
= = Governor of New Jersey = =
The fact that he had been supplanted by Shirley came as a surprise to Belcher . He had expected to lose the New Hampshire governorship , but was shocked when news of Shirley 's commissioning arrived . Following Shirley 's inauguration Belcher retired to his Milton estate . Seemingly restless and in some financial need , he expressed weak interest in the possibility of holding another colonial appointment , and in 1743 traveled to England , stopping in Dublin to visit his son Jonathan Jr . When he arrived in London he joined the social circles of the Congregationalist and Quaker communities ( the latter including among its influential members his brother @-@ in @-@ law Richard Partridge ) , and called on colonial administrators in the hopes of acquiring a new posting . There he remained for three years , until in 1746 word arrived that the governor of New Jersey , Lewis Morris , had died . Since New Jersey had a strong Quaker political establishment , Belcher immediately began mobilizing supporters in the London Quaker community to assist in securing the post . Due to this alacrity he was able to get the posting before agents for Morris ' son Robert Hunter Morris had time to organize their effort .
He served as governor of New Jersey from 1747 until his death in 1757 . About a year after his arrival in Burlington ( then the provincial capital ) , he married ( for the second time ) Louise Teale , a widow he met in London , in September 1748 . The political situation he arrive in was highly acrimonious , and there had been riots in the previous year over widespread disagreements on land titles between land owners , who controlled the provincial council , and farmers and tenants , who controlled the assembly . Most legislation had been stalled since 1744 due to the inability of assembly , council , and governor to resolve differences on these issues . Governor Morris ' high @-@ handed actions in support of the proprietors had united previously divided populist factions against him and the council . The province was also a rural patchwork quilt of different cultures and religions , unlike predominantly English and Congregationalist New England . Elizabethtown , near New York , was heavily populated by evangelical Christians , among them Reverend Aaron Burr , and Belcher found himself welcome there . He regularly attended services there , and was particularly influenced by preachers including George Whitefield and Jonathan Edwards , leaders of the Great Awakening with whom he corresponded .
Although Belcher 's arrival prompted some goodwill , resulting in the passage of bills to fund the government and deal with ongoing counterfeiting of the colonial paper currency , divisions soon resurface along the same sectional lines . Belcher believed that the land issues should be resolved by negotiation between the parties , and sought to maintain a position as a neutral arbiter of the dispute . Because he had been propelled into the office by antiproprietary interests , he refused to unconditionally support the council in moves to advance proprietary interests , but also received little support from the assembly . Because the assembly and council divided over the issue of how to tax undeveloped lands ( which the proprietors owned in large amounts ) , the government was short of funds between 1748 and 1751 .
One controversial matter that Belcher was able to finesse was the establishment of the College of New Jersey ( now known as Princeton University ) . The college was proposed by New Jersey 's evangelical Presbyterians , with whom Belcher found religious agreement . However , Quaker leaders and the proprietors had expressed great reservations about the Presbyterians ' drive to gain a charter for the school ( on the grounds that it would be used as a vehicle for converting their children ) , and Governor Morris had refused to grant one . After his death , council president John Hamilton , acting prior to Belcher 's appointment , granted the charter . The college 's opponents pressured Belcher to withdraw the charter ; he instead adopted the college as a cause to support , and expanded its board to include a diversity of religious views . When its first building was constructed in 1754 , the college 's board wanted to name it after Belcher , but he demurred , preferring it to be named in honor of King William , who hailed from the Dutch House of Orange @-@ Nassau . As a result , the building ( which still stands ) is known as Nassau Hall . He also supported the establishment of the college 's library , to which he bequeathed his personal library .
The legislature remained divided until after the French and Indian War broke out in 1754 , when the demands for support of military action brought some unity . The assembly objected to increased funding of the militia in 1755 because Belcher refused to authorize the emission of additional paper currency . It later acceded to demands for increased security , but was reluctant to support militia for action outside the province 's boundaries . Legislators also complained that its meetings were too frequently held at Elizabethtown , primarily because of Belcher 's poor health .
For much of his New Jersey administration Belcher was ill , suffering from a type of progressive paralytic disorder . In the summer of 1751 he moved from Burlington to Elizabethtown in the hopes that his health would improve ; it did not . Eventually his hands became paralyzed , and his wife was employed to write for him . He died at his home in Elizabethtown on 31 August 1757 ; His body was transported to Massachusetts , where he was buried at Cambridge .
= = Personal = =
Belcher 's youngest son Jonathan was appointed as Chief Justice of the Nova Scotia Supreme Court and as Lieutenant Governor of Nova Scotia . His other son , Andrew , continued in the family business ( although not to his father 's exacting standards ) , and also served on the Massachusetts Governor 's Council . Belcher had no children with his second wife Louise , although he did prevail on his son Andrew to marry her daughter from her first marriage . Belcher was also the uncle of future Massachusetts Lieutenant Governor Andrew Oliver and Massachusetts Superior Court of Judicature Chief Justice Peter Oliver , and was the great @-@ grandfather of British Admiral Edward Belcher .
Belcher had a reputation for exhibiting an abrasive personality — something that was said by contemporaries to heighten divisions in New Jersey . Historian Robert Zemsky wrote of Belcher , " [ He ] was almost a caricature of a New England Yankee : arrogant , vindictive , often impetuous despite a most solemn belief in rational action and calculated maneuver . " Once he acquired the governorship , he took potential assaults on his power personally , and reacted vindictively in attempts to destroy or marginalize his enemies . In personal correspondence with friends , family , and supporters , he used condescending names to refer to his opponents , and he applied pressure to the press in Boston to ensure reasonably favorable coverage of him .
= = Legacy = =
Belchertown , Massachusetts is named for him . His home in Elizabethtown survives , and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places as the Belcher @-@ Ogden House . It is also a contributing property to the Belcher @-@ Ogden Mansion @-@ Price , Benjamin @-@ Price @-@ Brittan Houses District . Belcher 's summer home in Milton , Massachusetts was destroyed by fire in 1776 , but portions of it may have survived in its replacement , built by his widow and now known as the Belcher @-@ Rowe House , also listed on the National Register . ( The Jonathan Belcher House in Randolph , Massachusetts is named in recognition of someone from a different time and lineage in the Belcher family genealogy . )
= = Burial = =
At his death Gov. Belcher left instructions that he be buried with his ardent friend and cousin , Judge Jonathan Remington ( 1667 @-@ 1745 , father @-@ in @-@ law of William Ellery , a signer of the Declaration of Independence ) . The body of Judge Jonathan Remington was disinterred and placed by his side . The monument which the governor had directed to be raised over his resting @-@ place was never erected . The tomb became the family vault of Jennisons ( Gov. Belcher 's granddaughter married Dr. Timothy Lindall Jennison ) . The site of their grave was forgotten and long search has been made for it . In the late 1800s , local historians found that Gov. Jonathan Belcher and Judge Jonathan Remington were buried in one grave in Old Burying Ground , Cambridge , Ma . Their tomb is contiguous to that of Judge Edmund Trowbridge and Edmund Trowbridge Dana . In that of Judge Trowbridge rest the remains of Washington Allston ; of Chief Justice Francis Dana ; of the poet Richard Henry Dana and others of the family .
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= Kirkenes Airport , Høybuktmoen =
Kirkenes Airport , Høybuktmoen ( Norwegian : Kirkenes lufthavn , Høybuktmoen ; IATA : KKN , ICAO : ENKR ) is an international airport located at Høybuktmoen , 15 kilometers ( 9 mi ) west of the town of Kirkenes , in the municipality of Sør @-@ Varanger , Finnmark county , Norway . Operated by the state @-@ owned Avinor , the airport has a single 2 @,@ 115 @-@ by @-@ 45 @-@ meter ( 6 @,@ 939 by 148 ft ) asphalt runway numbered 06 – 24 . Scandinavian Airlines and Norwegian Air Shuttle operate Boeing 737 @-@ services to Oslo Airport , Gardermoen , in part generated by Høybuktmoen 's function as a hub for Widerøe 's regional services to other airports in eastern Finnmark . There are also summer charter flights to Central Europe to bring tourists to the Hurtigruten cruises . The airport had 297 @,@ 149 passengers in 2013 .
Høybuktmoen was built as a military air station by the Luftwaffe during World War II . Civilian services were introduced after the war , but abandoned in 1948 . The airport reopened in 1963 with a new terminal and an extended runway . Originally the airport was served by Scandinavian Airlines System and Finnair , and from the 1970s also Widerøe and Norving . Since 1990 , five airlines have attempted to provide services to Murmansk , Russia . Originally the airport had two runways , 1 @,@ 600 and 1 @,@ 200 meters ( 5 @,@ 200 and 3 @,@ 900 ft ) long , respectively , but the smaller was closed in 1996 when the longer was extended . A new terminal building was put into use in 2006 . Because of the terrain the runway 's length cannot be exploited under some wind conditions , so there is a proposal to level some of the land .
= = History = =
= = = Construction = = =
The first aircraft to land in Sør @-@ Varanger was part of a trial undertaken in 1922 by the Royal Norwegian Navy Air Service to test the flight time from Horten to Kirkenes . The mission was awarded to Hjalmar Riiser @-@ Larsen and Finn Lützow @-@ Holm , who chose to fly the 45 @-@ hour trip along the coast . The next landing was a military Fokker which landed on the iced lake of Andrevann in 1934 . Widerøe undertook several flights within the municipality in 1937 , offering sightseeing and undertaking aerial photography . The first scheduled service started to Kirkenes the following summer with postal flights to Tromsø flown by Widerøe on behalf of Norwegian Air Lines ( DNL ) . The flight allowed post to be sent from Oslo to Kirkenes in one day and was continued the next season . The route was flown from Tromsø with intermediate stops at Vadsø and Hammerfest . There were public demands for passenger services be started .
Instead , in 1940 the German occupation of Norway terminated all civilian aviation until 1945 . A limited service was kept in Northern Norway during the resistance , but these were terminated after the German forces took control of the whole country . From 26 September 1940 , three weekly services were operated from Trondheim to Tromsø , with two of these continuing to Kirkenes , using a 16 @-@ passenger Junkers Ju @-@ 52 . This was terminated on 20 March 1941 , after most of the airline 's pilots had fled to the United Kingdom to support the Allied forces .
Høybuktmoen was selected by the Luftwaffe as one of three air stations in Northern Norway , along with Bardufoss Airport and Lakselv Airport , Banak . They built two runways , 1 @,@ 000 and 1 @,@ 200 meters ( 3 @,@ 300 and 3 @,@ 900 ft ) long , respectively . Høybuktmoen was primarily used for attacks against the Arctic convoys . With the German withdrawal in Operation Nordlicht in October 1944 , the runways were blasted at several points . The damage proved easy to repair and by January 1945 , both troops of Norwegian police officers from Sweden led by Bernt Balchen and the Soviet Air Forces could land at Høybuktmoen .
= = = Reopening = = =
The first service after the war was started by DNL on 13 October 1945 and flew to Tromsø , with onwards connection to Trondheim and Oslo . The service only lasted until 1948 , when it was replaced with a Ju @-@ 52 seaplane route with intermediate stops at Vadsø and Hammerfest to Tromsø . The route flew one direction each day , was only operated during the summer and was plagued with poor regularity . The original water aerodrome was located at Soldatbukta at Prestøya . Later it was moved to the quay on the north side of Langfjorden , on the other side as Kirkenes . Passengers were therefore freighted across the fjord by boat to the aircraft . The air traffic control moved from Høybuktmoen to Haganes in 1949 , but returned in 1963 .
The route had doubled its patronage since its introduction by 1953 — the last year it was operated by DNL . From 1954 the route was taken over by Widerøe , who introduced smaller Noorduyn Norseman and de Havilland Canada DHC @-@ 3 Otter aircraft . The Widerøe seaplane service was flown on behalf of DNL and later Scandinavian Airlines System ( SAS ) and remained until 1963 . Varangfly — based in Kirkenes — was established in 1959 by general aviation enthusiasts from Kirkenes Flyklubb . The airline originally had two seaplanes , a two @-@ seat Piper J @-@ 3 Cub and a five @-@ seat Norsk Flyindustri C @-@ 5 Polar . Operations started on 17 June 1960 . The company gradually developed services within scheduled , charter and air ambulance services . Varangfly later also bought an eight @-@ seat land aircraft which was operated to Lakselv and Bardufoss , and to Ivalo Airport in Finland , where i corresponded with Finnair 's service to Helsinki .
Planning for a new airport at Høybunktmoen was initiated by a committee established by the Ministry of Transport and Communications in 1947 , and resulted in the National Plan of 1952 . Although Kirkenes was included in the plan construction was placed on hold , both because of high costs and because other airports further south had to be completed before or at the same time . Construction at Høybuktmoen started in 1961 and the airport opened on 4 May 1963 . Work consisted of expanding the east – west runway to 1 @,@ 600 meters ( 5 @,@ 200 ft ) and building a new passenger terminal and control tower ; the latter two were not completed in time for the opening . Alta Airport and Lakselv Airport , Banak opened the same year , and Tromsø Airport followed suit the following year .
= = = Operational history = = =
SAS introduced the 52 @-@ passenger Convair Metropolitan on their domestic services , while Finnair served the airport with the 30 @-@ seat Douglas DC @-@ 3 on their flights to Finland . In the first month the two airlines had 88 aircraft movements , while the Royal Norwegian Air Force had 44 and Varangfly 60 . Both SAS and Finnair replaced Varangfly 's routes , which did not operate scheduled flights from the new airport . Varangfly therefore sold its land aircraft and instead became a seaplane operator . SAS introduced the 122 @-@ passenger Douglas DC @-@ 9 jet aircraft at Kirkenes from 1969 . Helikopter Service flew a civilian helicopter to Høybuktmoen for the first time the same year . Kirkenes Airport served 20 @,@ 638 passengers in 1964 and 40 @,@ 477 in 1970 .
Busy Bee was contracted by the Norwegian Armed Forces to fly military charters in June 1968 . They had two 50 @-@ passenger Fokker F27 Friendships stationed at Høybuktmoen and flew two daily services from Kirkenes and other locations in Northern Norway to Bodø , with onwards connection to Stavanger and Oslo on Fridays . This arrangement continued until Busy Bee 's bankruptcy in 1992 .
Varangfly merged with two other airlines in 1970 to create the Kirkenes @-@ based Norving . The new airline bought an eight @-@ passenger Britten Norman Islander and started round trips between Kirkenes and the newly upgraded Berlevåg Airport and Mehamn Airport . This was later followed up with routes to Hasvik Airport and Kjøllefjord Airport , and in 1975 to Båtsfjord Airport and Vadsø Airport . On the other hand , Widerøe received the concessions to operate to Hammerfest Airport , which opened on 1 August 1973 , and Honningsvåg Airport , which opened in 1977 . To serve the regional services Widerøe originally operated twenty @-@ passenger de Havilland Canada aircraft .
Finnair terminated their services to Kirkenes in 1975 . At the same time the ministry and SAS started looking at the airport structure in Finnmark , as all the services in the county were in need of subsidies . The proposals were either for a hike in the ticket prices or a reduction of Kirkenes to a regional @-@ only airport . SAS was flying a 90 @-@ seat aircraft two to three times per day between Kirkenes and Alta with only ten to fifteen passengers . The airport structure was kept , but ticket prices continued to rise . The airport served 110 @,@ 000 passengers in 1983 . Norving continued Varangfly 's air ambulance contract until 1987 , when the service was taken over by Air Express . Later the contract was awarded to Lufttransport , who operated the Beechcraft Super King Air . Norving filed for bankruptcy in 1992 and their routes were taken over by Widerøe .
SAS Commuter was established in 1988 and started operations in Northern Norway in May 1990 . This involved a change to the operations so that all DC @-@ 9 services from Kirkenes to Oslo were terminated and instead Fokker 50 services were introduced to Alta and Tromsø . SAS was able to reduce costs by no longer operating local routes with the DC @-@ 9 and instead increased the number of flights . The new system was met with massive opposition in Kirkenes . Emergency meetings were being held between SAS Commuter and the ministry by June 1990 because of low regularity and many cancellations . Non @-@ transfer flights from Kirkenes to Oslo were reintroduced on 1 April 1992 , albeit with the services stopping at Tromsø .
Service between Kirkenes and Murmansk Airport were initiated by SAS Commuter in 1990 , but the airline quickly terminated the service . Aeroflot started two weekly services between Kirkenes and Murmansk and onwards to Arkhangelsk Airport in June 1990 . The service was summer @-@ only until 1992 , when they increased to an all @-@ year service . Norving also started a service from Kirkenes to Murmansk , but their service terminated with the airline failing . Widerøe started two weekly services between Kirkenes and Murmansk in 1994 , using Twin Otter aircraft . Aeroflot terminated their service in 1998 and Widerøe followed suit in 2000 .
The runway was extended eastwards by 290 meters ( 950 ft ) in the late 1990s . The first expansion took place in 1996 and the second in 2000 . The extensions never received operating permit from the Civil Aviation Authority of Norway as there are two hills which hinder aircraft landing from the east to follow a safe final approach .
Arctic Air took over Widerøe 's flights to Vardø in 2000 , using a 19 @-@ passenger Dornier Do 228 . They also flew a service to Murmansk in 2001 and 2002 . They lost the Vardø – Kirkenes contract back to Widerøe in 2003 . SAS bought Braathens in 2002 , resulting in the latter taking over the service and increasing to two daily flights to Oslo . SAS and Braathens merged in 2004 to form SAS Braathens . The airline changed its name back to Scandinavian Airlines in 2007 . Norwegian Air Shuttle started flights from Kirkenes to Oslo in 2004 , at first with four weekly services . The terminal building was almost unchanged since 1963 , although it had seem some smaller upgrades . Avinor decided in 2004 that the terminal would be upgraded , consisting a new road to the airport , parking lot , tarmac and terminal . The investments cost NOK 180 million and opened on 4 May 2006 . Widerøe reopened its Murmansk service in August 2007 , but low patronage caused the airline to terminate the route from December 2008 . SAS reduced from two to one daily trip to Oslo in 2008 .
= = Facilities = =
The airport is located at Høybuktmoen in Sør @-@ Varanger , about 15 kilometers ( 9 mi ) west of Kirkenes . The terminal has room for six category C aircraft ( Airbus A320 / Boeing 737 ) . During summer the airport experiences a very high traffic peak with both scheduled and charter aircraft arriving at the same time , as both intend to correspond with Hurtigruten ; this causes patronage to rise beyond the airport 's capacity . Kirkenes Airport had a revenue of NOK 26 @.@ 4 million in 2009 , of which commercial income made up fifteen percent , and an operating deficit of NOK 45 @.@ 4 million . The deficit is cross subsidized by profits at Avinor 's largest airports . In 2013 , the airport had 297 @,@ 149 passengers , 8 @,@ 643 aircraft movements and 367 tonnes of cargo .
The runway is located southwest – northeast ( 06 – 24 ) and is 2 @,@ 015 by 45 meters ( 6 @,@ 611 ft × 148 ft ) . The touchdown zone from the west is 60 meters ( 200 ft ) from the start of the runway , while it is 420 meters ( 1 @,@ 380 ft ) from the east . There are no parallel taxiways , but two taxiways run from the runway to the tarmac . Because of the terrain to the east the maximum take @-@ off lengths on the runway vary depending on the direction : it is only 1 @,@ 605 meters ( 5 @,@ 266 ft ) from the east compared to 1 @,@ 755 meters ( 5 @,@ 758 ft ) from the west . Runway 24 is equipped with instrument landing system . There is also a closed runway located normally to the main runway ( 14 – 32 ) . It is 1 @,@ 270 meters ( 4 @,@ 170 ft ) long and gravel ; part of the length has been paved and is used as a taxiway .
The airport is located next to European Road E6 . Boreal Transport operates an airport coach service from Kirkenes to the airport in connection with all arrivals and departures . The company also serves the airport with coach services from Kirkenes to other parts of Finnmark . Parking , taxis and car rental is available at the airport .
= = Airlines and destinations = =
Three airlines serve the airport with scheduled flights . Scandinavian Airlines ( SAS ) and Norwegian Air Shuttle both operate a daily flight to Oslo , with SAS operating two services per day during summer ; both airlines use the Boeing 737 . Widerøe flies to various regional airports in Finnmark and Troms , and uses Kirkenes as a hub to feed regional passengers to Oslo flights . Widerøe operates its eight daily services with de Havilland Canada Dash 8 aircraft . Hamburg International operates charter services from Germany from May to September on behalf of Hurtigruten Group with tourist transferring to the Hurtigruten coastal voyage . There are sporadic charters of fishermen operated by Atlantic Airways .
= = Future = =
In the period 2015 to 2020 , Avinor plans to build a new control tower and a new fire- and rescue station . The former is located too close to the runway while the latter is too small and out of date . There are also plans to expand the terminal building to allow the simultaneous handling of two large and two small aircraft . Finnmark County Municipality is considering establishing a fast ferry service between Kirkenes and Vadsø which would have a service time of 45 minutes . There is a possibility of marketing Kirkenes as an alternative airport for Murmansk as Kirkenes can offer cheaper flights to Oslo than what is available from Murmansk to Moscow .
Avinor has also proposed lowering the terrain east of the airport . The terrain is actually flatter to the east , but because the runway was expanded in that direction , the extension cannot be used without removing all ground in the twelve @-@ degree slope . Although it has no impact on smaller aircraft , the reduced runway length has a severe impact on the performance of Boeing 737 aircraft , which are used by both Norwegian and SAS . For instance , during winter a 180 @-@ seat 737 @-@ 800 can only utilize 71 percent of its permitted take @-@ off weight ; this would hinder fully loaded aircraft flying further than Oslo . The impacts for 150 @-@ seat 737 @-@ 700 aircraft are smaller , as they can reach Oslo during winter and Berlin during summer . The airport served 169 @,@ 428 passengers in 1996 and 216 @,@ 000 passengers in 2000 .
The project was estimated to cost 267 million Norwegian krone . Estimates show that the benefit for society would be lower than the investment costs ( a negative net present value ) , giving an average estimated NOK 124 million deficit . Norwegian Air Shuttle is building a unified fleet of 737 @-@ 800 aircraft and will only be able to serve the airport during winter if the investments are carried out . The extension would allow increased charter traffic to Central Europe and increased regularity with existing flights . Avinor has stated that it cannot finance the investments without direct subsidies from the state .
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= The Finale ( Will & Grace ) =
" The Finale " is the series finale of Will & Grace and the twenty @-@ third episode of the show 's eighth season . It originally aired on the National Broadcasting Company ( NBC ) in the United States on May 18 , 2006 , when it was watched by an average of eighteen million viewers , making it the most watched episode of the final two seasons of Will & Grace . In the finale , Will and Grace have a falling @-@ out that lasts for years . They each have a child with their respective partners , and eventually reconcile when their children ( Laila and Ben ) meet at college . Meanwhile , Karen 's arch @-@ enemy Beverley Leslie makes an offer to Jack which ultimately leads to Jack inheriting Beverley 's fortune .
The episode was written by series creators and executive producers David Kohan and Max Mutchnick , and directed by James Burrows . Filming took place at CBS Studio Center in Studio City , California in April 2006 . The cast members took the news about the show ending well , but they became emotional as the final scene was being filmed . NBC heavily promoted the finale , and the main cast members appeared on The Oprah Winfrey Show and The Today Show to bid farewell . An hour @-@ long series retrospective , " Say Goodnight Gracie " , featuring interviews with the cast , crew , and guest stars , preceded the hour @-@ long series finale . Since airing , the finale has received mixed reviews from television critics .
= = Plot = =
Grace Adler ( Debra Messing ) , heavily pregnant , is having bizarre dreams of the future in which she and her gay friend and roommate Will Truman ( Eric McCormack ) are an old couple , raising their child . In her dream , Jack McFarland ( Sean Hayes ) is married to actor Kevin Bacon , and Karen Walker ( Megan Mullally ) — who has not aged ( her explanation : " Money " ) — is now in a relationship with her maid Rosario Salazar ( Shelley Morrison ) . In Grace 's real life , however , her and Will 's relationship is complicated . Grace is not sure if she wants to spend the rest of her life living with Will . So , when her ex @-@ husband Marvin " Leo " Markus ( Harry Connick , Jr . ) shows up and proposes to her — not even aware that she is pregnant with his child — she immediately accepts .
Two years later , Grace moves with Leo to Rome and lives there for a year . They then move back to New York City , where they raise their daughter Laila . Will and Vince D 'Angelo ( Bobby Cannavale ) have since reconciled , and are raising a son , Ben . Karen and Jack grow tired of the fact that Will and Grace are not speaking with each other , so they lure them to the same place and force them to make up . The four meet at Will and Vince 's apartment , and even though Will and Grace have a pleasant evening together , their relationship is tentative and somewhat awkward . They realize a lot has changed since the last time they met , and thus their relationship is not rekindled . Meanwhile , Karen learns that in her divorce from Stan , she will have no money as Stan 's money was all loaned to him , and he is now bankrupt . When learning that Beverley Leslie ( Leslie Jordan ) and his " business associate " Benji ( Brian A. Setzer ) have broken up , Karen plots to have Jack take Benji 's place , after Jack confesses that Beverly offered to share his entire fortune with him . When Beverly dies after being blown off a balcony from high winds , Jack inherits all of his money .
Around twenty years later , Laila meets Ben as they both move into college . Will and Grace are reunited under these circumstances , and their children eventually marry . Jack and Karen , meanwhile , are now living comfortably with each other and Rosario . While everyone else is older , Karen — just like in Grace 's dream — has not aged due to extensive plastic surgery , and she and Jack perform a duet of the song " Unforgettable " . The show ends with Will and Grace watching ER together , reminiscing about how their children are to be wed . Feeling uplifted by the good old times the four friends gather at a bar to toast to their friendship , which then flashes back to the four as their younger selves .
= = Production = =
Will & Grace creators and executive producers David Kohan and Max Mutchnick , who had not served as writers since the season four season finale , wrote the script for the series finale . Regarding the finale , Mutchnick stated : " We wrote about what you want to have happen with people you love . I think Will and Grace end up very fleshed out . They end up as full adults . All the things that matter in life , they end up having . " Three years before the series finale was created , Mutchnick was asked on his opinion regarding how he would like to see the character 's story come to a conclusion , " The truth is that [ Will and Grace ] serve each other 's dysfunction . And the best way for their story to end is to find love . "
The episode was shot in Studio City , California on Stage 17 at CBS Studio Center . It was filmed on April 10 , 11 , and 13 , 2006 . The make @-@ up effects used in Grace 's dream and the scenes fifteen years into the future were done by Academy Award @-@ winning make @-@ up artists . Kohan and Mutchnick joined long @-@ time director James Burrows on the set as filming began . The cast and crew tried to remain cheerful in front of the live audience between takes while the writers gathered in a room to rework lines for potentially larger laughs . However , " there were a lot of snotty , tearful faces all around the set . When we got to the very , very last scene , everybody was just a mess . We started sobbing and hugging each other , " said Megan Mullally , who plays Karen . Eric McCormack , who portrays Will , commented that his saddest moment was " the last time I stood in Will 's kitchen . That was the most colorful position for me , standing there and stirring something . It was my pulpit , the place where I delivered my best jokes . "
The set was already being broken down the day after filming finished . Debra Messing , who plays Grace , said it was " cordoned off like an accident scene . It was a shock to see parts of it gone already . " Each cast member was allowed to keep their favorite souvenir from the set . Messing took the door to Grace 's office ; she wanted to lean it up against the wall at her house as a piece of modern art . Sean Hayes was given a couple of pieces from Will 's apartment : " There 's a leather box that was on Will ’ s desk that I want to find a place for . " Mullally chose a simple portrait from one of the walls , and McCormack took a small ceramic dog , though he said he would have taken everything if he could .
The cast members of the show took the news about the show ending well . Hayes said : " I 'm proud of being a part of something in history and I 'm proud to have been given a platform to make people laugh . " McCormack added , " We have never taken ourselves or this show too seriously but now that it 's over I take our collective achievement very , very seriously . " The actors were satisfied with the episode and thought the viewers would find it satisfying as well . " It 's daring and ambitious and more far @-@ reaching than most finales go . I think people will be quite surprised , " McCormack said . Messing added : " I think Will & Grace fans will be satisfied . Ultimately , [ the episode ] was done beautifully and it ties up loose ends for all of the characters in a way that 's wonderful . "
= = Broadcast and reception = =
The series finale was heavily promoted by NBC , and the main cast members appeared on The Oprah Winfrey Show , The Today Show , and Live with Regis and Kelly to bid farewell . NBC devoted a two @-@ hour block in its primetime schedule on May 18 , 2006 , for the Will & Grace send @-@ off . An hour @-@ long series retrospective , " Say Goodnight Gracie " , featuring interviews with the cast , crew , and guest stars , preceded the hour @-@ long series finale . The retrospective was viewed by an estimated 12 @.@ 7 million viewers , while the finale drew 18 @.@ 43 million viewers and a Nielsen rating of 11 @.@ 5 / 18 , making it the most watched episode of the final two seasons of Will & Grace .
Since airing , the episode has received mixed reviews from television critics . Richard Keller of TV Squad thought the finale 's theme of Will and Grace 's connection to each other was well @-@ presented by director James Burrows . Keller added , " While not as satisfying as , say , the Friends finale or as crushing as the Seinfeld finale , the series finale to Will & Grace did have its moments and came back to the original concept of friendship among a close group of people . There were some moments where I did laugh out loud , but they were few . " CHUD.com 's David Oliver praised the finale for not having characters " go on wild tangents that betray who they were during the entirety of the show 's run . " He also commented that Messing and McCormack are " affecting in their performances " and the episode " nicely summarizes [ Will and Grace 's ] friendship over the course of the entire show . "
Setting the finale in several different time periods was criticized by some critics . Jennifer Armstrong of Entertainment Weekly said " we endure a swirl of confusing , unnecessary sequences , from Grace 's dream to current reality to two years later to their kids ' first day of college to their kids ' impending wedding . By the end , instead of being sad to bid adieu , we 're just relieved not to have yet another disbelief @-@ suspending flash @-@ forward thrust upon us . " Jim Schembri of The Sydney Morning Herald wrote : " The time @-@ jumping device is overused and a tad awkward but , by and large , it ’ s a noble finale to one of the better standard three @-@ wall sitcoms from America . " Amy Amatangelo of Zap2it commented that Will & Grace " is a show that spent eight seasons predicated on the lasting friendship of Will and Grace , and we 're supposed to believe that they spent over 20 years not talking to each other just because their lives went in different directions ? That there is no way their friendship could have been sustained once they both found the love of their life ? " Amatangelo enjoyed Jack and Karen 's performance of " Unforgettable " , however , but the rest of the finale she " could have done without . "
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= Ruff =
The ruff ( Philomachus pugnax ) is a medium @-@ sized wading bird that breeds in marshes and wet meadows across northern Eurasia . This highly gregarious sandpiper is migratory and sometimes forms huge flocks in its winter grounds , which include southern and western Europe , Africa , southern Asia and Australia . It is usually considered to be the only member of its genus , and the broad @-@ billed and sharp @-@ tailed sandpipers are its closest relatives .
The ruff is a long @-@ necked , pot @-@ bellied bird . This species shows marked sexual dimorphism ; the male is much larger than the female ( the reeve ) , and has a breeding plumage that includes brightly coloured head tufts , bare orange facial skin , extensive black on the breast , and the large collar of ornamental feathers that inspired this bird 's English name . The female and the non @-@ breeding male have grey @-@ brown upperparts and mainly white underparts . Three differently plumaged types of male , including a rare form that mimics the female , use a variety of strategies to obtain mating opportunities at a lek , and the colourful head and neck feathers are erected as part of the elaborate main courting display . The female has one brood per year and lays four eggs in a well @-@ hidden ground nest , incubating the eggs and rearing the chicks , which are mobile soon after hatching , on her own . Predators of wader chicks and eggs include mammals such as foxes , feral cats and stoats , and birds such as large gulls , corvids and skuas .
The ruff forages in wet grassland and soft mud , probing or searching by sight for edible items . It primarily feeds on insects , especially in the breeding season , but it will consume plant material , including rice and maize , on migration and in winter . Classified as " least concern " on the IUCN Red List criteria , the global conservation concerns are relatively low because of the large numbers that breed in Scandinavia and the Arctic . However , the range in much of Europe is contracting because of land drainage , increased fertiliser use , the loss of mown or grazed breeding sites , and over @-@ hunting . This decline has seen it listed in the Agreement on the Conservation of African @-@ Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds ( AEWA ) .
= = Taxonomy and nomenclature = =
The ruff is a wader in the large family Scolopacidae , the typical shorebirds . It is the sole member of the genus Philomachus , and recent research suggests that its closest relatives are the broad @-@ billed sandpiper , Limicola falcinellus , and the sharp @-@ tailed sandpiper , Calidris acuminata . It has no recognised subspecies or geographical variants .
This species was first described by Carl Linnaeus in his Systema Naturae in 1758 as Tringa pugnax . It was moved into its current genus by German naturalist Blasius Merrem in 1804 . Both parts of the binomial name refer to the aggressive behaviour of the bird at its mating arenas ; Philomachus is derived from Ancient Greek philo- " loving " and machē " battle " , and pugnax from the Latin term for " combative " .
The original English name for this bird , dating back to at least 1465 , is the ree , perhaps derived from a dialectical term meaning " frenzied " ; a later name reeve , which is still used for the female , is of unknown origin , but may be derived from the shire @-@ reeve , a feudal officer , likening the male 's flamboyant plumage to the official 's robes . The current name was first recorded in 1634 , and is derived from the ruff , an exaggerated collar fashionable from the mid @-@ sixteenth century to the mid @-@ seventeenth century , since the male bird 's neck ornamental feathers resemble the neck @-@ wear .
= = Description = =
The ruff has a distinctive gravy boat appearance , with a small head , medium @-@ length bill , longish neck and pot @-@ bellied body . It has long legs that are variable in colour but usually yellow or orange . In flight , it has a deeper , slower wing stroke than other waders of a similar size , and displays a thin , indistinct white bar on the wing , and white ovals on the sides of the tail . This species shows sexual dimorphism . Although a small percentage of males resemble females , the typical male is much larger than the female and has an elaborate breeding plumage . He is 29 – 32 cm ( 11 – 13 in ) long with a 54 – 60 cm ( 21 – 24 in ) wingspan , and weighs about 180 g ( 6 @.@ 3 oz ) . In the May @-@ to @-@ June breeding season , the typical male 's legs , bill and warty bare facial skin are orange , and he has distinctive head tufts and a neck ruff . These ornaments vary on individual birds , being black , chestnut or white , with the colouring solid , barred or irregular . The grey @-@ brown back has a scale @-@ like pattern , often with black or chestnut feathers , and the underparts are white with extensive black on the breast . The extreme variability of the main breeding plumage is thought to have developed to aid individual recognition in a species that has communal breeding displays , but is usually mute .
Outside the breeding season , the typical male 's head and neck decorations and the bare facial skin are lost and the legs and bill become duller . The upperparts are grey @-@ brown , and the underparts are white with grey mottling on the breast and flanks .
The female , or " reeve " , is 22 – 26 cm ( 8 @.@ 7 – 10 @.@ 2 in ) long with a 46 – 49 cm ( 18 – 19 in ) wingspan , and weighs about 110 g ( 3 @.@ 9 oz ) . In breeding plumage , she has grey @-@ brown upperparts with white @-@ fringed , dark @-@ centred feathers . The breast and flanks are variably blotched with black . In winter , her plumage is similar to that of the male , but the sexes are distinguishable on size . The plumage of the juvenile ruff resembles the non @-@ breeding adult , but has upperparts with a neat , scale @-@ like pattern with dark feather centres , and a strong buff tinge to the underparts .
Typical adult male ruffs start to moult into the main display plumage before their return to the breeding areas , and the proportion of birds with head and neck decorations gradually increases through the spring . Second @-@ year birds lag behind full adults in developing breeding plumage . They have a lower body mass and a slower weight increase than full adults , and perhaps the demands made on their energy reserves during the migration flight are the main reason of the delayed moult .
Ruffs of both sexes have an additional moult stage between the winter and final summer plumages , a phenomenon also seen in the bar @-@ tailed godwit . Before developing the full display finery with coloured ruff and tufts , the males replace part of their winter plumage with striped feathers . Females also develop a mix of winter and striped feathers before reaching their summer appearance . The final male breeding plumage results from the replacement of both winter and striped feathers , but the female retains the striped feathers and replaces only the winter feathers to reach her summer plumage . The striped prenuptial plumages may represent the original breeding appearance of this species , the male 's showy nuptial feathers evolving later under strong sexual selection pressures .
Adult males and most adult females start their pre @-@ winter moult before returning south , but complete most feather replacement on the wintering grounds . In Kenya , males moult 3 – 4 weeks ahead of the females , finishing before December , whereas females typically complete feather replacement during December and early January . Juveniles moult from their first summer body plumage into winter plumage during late September to November , and later undergo a pre @-@ breeding moult similar in timing and duration to that of the adults , and often producing as brightly coloured an appearance .
Two other waders can be confused with the ruff . The juvenile sharp @-@ tailed sandpiper is a little smaller than a juvenile female ruff and has a similar rich orange @-@ buff breast , but the ruff is slimmer with a longer neck and legs , a rounder head , and a much plainer face . The buff @-@ breasted sandpiper also resembles a small juvenile ruff , but even the female ruff is noticeably larger than the sandpiper , with a longer bill , more rotund body and scaly @-@ patterned upperparts .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The ruff is a migratory species , breeding in wetlands in colder regions of northern Eurasia , and spends the northern winter in the tropics , mainly in Africa . Some Siberian breeders undertake an annual round trip of up to 30 @,@ 000 km ( 19 @,@ 000 mi ) to the West African wintering grounds . There is a limited overlap of the summer and winter ranges in western Europe . The ruff breeds in extensive lowland freshwater marshes and damp grasslands . It avoids barren tundra and areas badly affected by severe weather , preferring hummocky marshes and deltas with shallow water . The wetter areas provide a source of food , the mounds and slopes may be used for leks , and dry areas with sedge or low scrub offer nesting sites . A Hungarian study showed that moderately intensive grazing of grassland , with more than one cow per hectare ( 2 @.@ 5 acres ) , was found to attract more nesting pairs . When not breeding , the birds use a wider range of shallow wetlands , such as irrigated fields , lake margins , and mining subsidence and other floodlands . Dry grassland , tidal mudflats and the seashore are less frequently used . The density can reach 129 individuals per square kilometre ( 334 per square mile ) , but is usually much lower .
The ruff breeds in Europe and Asia from Scandinavia and Great Britain almost to the Pacific . In Europe it is found in cool temperate areas , but over its Russian range it is an Arctic species , occurring mainly north of about 65 ° N. The largest numbers breed in Russia ( more than 1 million pairs ) , Sweden ( 61 @,@ 000 pairs ) , Finland ( 39 @,@ 000 pairs ) and Norway ( 14 @,@ 000 pairs ) . Although it also breeds from Britain east through the Low Countries to Poland , Germany and Denmark , there are fewer than 2 @,@ 000 pairs in these more southerly areas .
It is highly gregarious on migration , travelling in large flocks that can contain hundreds or thousands of individuals . Huge dense groups form on the wintering grounds ; one flock in Senegal contained a million birds . A minority winter further east to Burma , south China , New Guinea and scattered parts of southern Australia , or on the Atlantic and Mediterranean coasts of Europe . In Great Britain and parts of coastal western Europe , where the breeding and wintering ranges overlap , birds may be present throughout the year . Non @-@ breeding birds may also remain year round in the tropical wintering quarters . The Ruff is an uncommon visitor to Alaska ( where it has occasionally bred ) , Canada and the contiguous states of the US , and has wandered to Iceland , Middle America , northern South America , Madagascar and New Zealand . It has been recorded as breeding well south of its main range in northern Kazakhstan , a major migration stopover area .
The male , which plays no part in nesting or chick care , leaves the breeding grounds in late June or early July , followed later in July by the female and juveniles . Males typically make shorter flights and winter further north than females ; for example , virtually all wintering ruffs in Britain are males , whereas in Kenya most are females . Many migratory species use this differential wintering strategy , since it reduces feeding competition between the sexes and enables territorial males to reach the breeding grounds as early as possible , improving their chances of successful mating . Male ruffs may also be able to tolerate colder winter conditions because they are larger than females .
Birds returning north in spring across the central Mediterranean appear to follow a well @-@ defined route . Large concentrations of ruffs form every year at particular stopover sites to feed , and individuals marked with rings or dye reappear in subsequent years . The refuelling sites are closer together than the theoretical maximum travel distance calculated from the mean body mass , and provide evidence of a migration strategy using favoured intermediate sites . The ruff stores fat as a fuel , but unlike mammals , uses lipids as the main energy source for exercise ( including migration ) and , when necessary , keeps warm by shivering ; however , little research has been conducted on the mechanisms by which they oxidise lipids .
= = Behaviour = =
= = = Mating = = =
Males display during the breeding season at a lek in a traditional open grassy arena . The ruff is one of the few lekking species in which the display is primarily directed at other males rather than to the females , and it is among the small percentage of birds in which the males have well @-@ marked and inherited variations in plumage and mating behaviour . There are three male forms : the typical territorial males , satellite males which have a white neck ruff , and a very rare variant with female @-@ like plumage . The behaviour and appearance for an individual male remain constant through its adult life , and are determined by its genes ( see § Biology of variation among males ) .
The territorial males , about 84 % of the total , have strongly coloured black or chestnut ruffs and stake out and occupy small mating territories in the lek . They actively court females and display a high degree of aggression towards other resident males ; 5 – 20 territorial males each hold an area of the lek about 1 m ( 1 @.@ 1 yd ) across , usually with bare soil in the centre . They perform an elaborate display that includes wing fluttering , jumping , standing upright , crouching with ruff erect , or lunging at rivals . They are typically silent even when displaying , although a soft gue @-@ gue @-@ gue may occasionally be given .
Territorial males are very site @-@ faithful ; 90 % return to the same lekking sites in subsequent seasons , the most dominant males being the most likely to reappear . Site @-@ faithful males can acquire accurate information about the competitive abilities of other males , leading to well @-@ developed dominance relationships . Such stable relationships reduce conflict and the risk of injury , and the consequent lower levels of male aggression are less likely to scare off females . Lower @-@ ranked territorial males also benefit from site fidelity since they can remain on the leks while waiting for the top males eventually to drop out .
Satellite males , about 16 % of the total number , have white or mottled ruffs and do not occupy territories ; they enter leks and attempt to mate with the females visiting the territories occupied by the resident males . Resident males tolerate the satellite birds because , although they are competitors for mating with the females , the presence of both types of male on a territory attracts additional females . Females also prefer larger leks , and leks surrounded by taller plants , which give better nesting habitat .
Although satellite males are on average slightly smaller and lighter than residents , the nutrition of the chicks does not , as previously thought , influence mating strategy ; rather , the inherited mating strategy influences body size . Resident @-@ type chicks will , if provided with the same amount of food , grow heavier than satellite @-@ type chicks . Satellite males do not have to expend energy to defend a territory , and can spend more time foraging , so they do not need to be as bulky as the residents ; indeed , since they fly more , there would be a physiological cost to additional weight .
A third type of male was first described in 2006 ; this is a permanent female mimic , the first such reported for a bird . About 1 % of males are small , intermediate in size between males and females , and do not grow the elaborate breeding plumage of the territorial and satellite males , although they have much larger internal testes than the ruffed males . This cryptic male , or " faeder " ( Old English " father " ) obtains access to mating territories together with the females , and " steals " matings when the females crouch to solicit copulation . The faeder moults into the prenuptial male plumage with striped feathers , but does not go on to develop the ornamental feathers of the normal male . As described above , this stage is thought to show the original male breeding plumage , before other male types evolved . A faeder can be distinguished in the hand by its wing length , which is intermediate between those of displaying males and females . Despite their feminine appearance , the faeders migrate with the larger ' normal ' lekking males and spend the winter with them .
The faeders are sometimes mounted by independent or satellite males , but are as often " on top " in homosexual mountings as the ruffed males , suggesting that their true identity is known by the other males . Females never mount males . Preliminary research results suggest that the faeder characteristics are genetically controlled by a single dominant gene . Females often seem to prefer mating with faeders to copulation with normal males , and normal males also copulate with faeders ( and vice versa ) relatively more often than with females . The homosexual copulations may attract females to the lek , like the presence of satellite males .
Not all mating takes place at the lek , since only a minority of the males attend an active lek . As alternative strategies , males can also directly pursue females ( " following " ) or wait for them as they approached good feeding sites ( " intercepting " ) . Males switched between the three tactics , being more likely to attend a lek when the copulation rate the previous day was high or when fewer females were available after nesting had started . Lekking rates were low in cold weather early in the season when off @-@ lek males spent most of their time feeding .
The level of polyandry in the ruff is the highest known for any avian lekking species and for any shorebird . More than half of female ruffs mate with , and have clutches fertilised by , more than one male , and individual females mate with males of both main behavioural morphs more often than expected by chance . In lekking species , females can choose mates without risking the loss of support from males in nesting and rearing chicks , since the males take no part in raising the brood anyway . In the absence of this cost , if polyandry is advantageous , it would be expected to occur at a higher rate in lekking than among pair @-@ bonded species .
= = = Nesting and survival = = =
The nest is a shallow ground scrape lined with grass leaves and stems , and concealed in marsh plants or tall grass up to 400 m ( 440 yd ) from the lek . Nesting is solitary , although several females may lay in the general vicinity of a lek . The eggs are slightly glossy , green or olive , and marked with dark blotches ; they are laid from mid @-@ March to early June depending on latitude .
The typical clutch is four eggs , each egg measuring 44 mm × 31 mm ( 1 @.@ 7 in × 1 @.@ 2 in ) in size and weighing 21 @.@ 0 g ( 0 @.@ 74 oz ) of which 5 % is shell . Incubation is by the female alone , and the time to hatching is 20 – 23 days , with a further 25 – 28 days to fledging . The precocial chicks have buff and chestnut down , streaked and barred with black , and frosted with white ; they feed themselves on a variety of small invertebrates , but are brooded by the female . One brood is raised each year .
Predators of waders breeding in wet grasslands include birds such as large gulls , common raven , carrion and hooded crows , and great and Arctic skuas ; foxes occasionally take waders , and the impact of feral cats and stoats is unknown . Overgrazing can increase predation by making nests easier to find . In captivity , the main causes of chick mortality were stress @-@ related sudden death and twisted neck syndrome . Adults seem to show little evidence of external parasites , but may have significant levels of disease on their tropical wintering grounds , including avian malaria in their inland freshwater habitats , and so they might be expected to invest strongly in their immune systems ; however , a 2006 study that analysed the blood of migrating ruffs intercepted in Friesland showed that this bird actually has unexplained low levels of immune responses on at least one measure of resistance . The ruff can breed from its second year , and the average lifespan for birds that have passed the chick stage is about 4 @.@ 4 years , although a Finnish bird lived to a record 13 years and 11 months .
= = = Feeding = = =
The ruff normally feeds using a steady walk and pecking action , selecting food items by sight , but it will also wade deeply and submerge its head . On saline lakes in East Africa it often swims like a phalarope , picking items off the surface . It will feed at night as well as during the day . When feeding , the ruff frequently raises its back feathers , producing a loose pointed peak on the back ; this habit is shared only by the black @-@ tailed godwit .
During the breeding season , the ruff ’ s diet consists almost exclusively of the adults and larva of terrestrial and aquatic insects such as beetles and flies . On migration and during the winter , the ruff eats insects ( including caddis flies , water @-@ beetles , mayflies and grasshoppers ) , crustaceans , spiders , molluscs , worms , frogs , small fish , and also the seeds of rice and other cereals , sedges , grasses and aquatic plants . Migrating birds in Italy varied their diet according to what was available at each stopover site . Green aquatic plant material , spilt rice and maize , flies and beetles were found , along with varying amounts of grit . On the main wintering grounds in West Africa , rice is a favoured food during the later part of the season as the ricefields dry out .
Just before migration , the ruff increases its body mass at a rate of about 1 % a day , much slower than the bar @-@ tailed godwits breeding in Alaska , which fatten at four times that rate . This is thought to be because the godwit cannot use refuelling areas to feed on its trans @-@ Pacific flight , whereas the ruff is able to make regular stops and take in food during overland migration . For the same reason , the ruff does not physiologically shrink its digestive organs to reduce bodyweight before migrating , unlike the godwit .
= = Relationship with humans = =
Ruffs were formerly trapped for food in England in large numbers ; on one occasion , 2 @,@ 400 were served at Archbishop Neville 's enthronement banquet in 1465 . The birds were netted while lekking , sometimes being fattened with bread , milk and seed in holding pens before preparation for the table .
... if expedition is required , sugar is added , which will make them in a fortnight 's time a lump of fat : they then sell for two Shillings or half @-@ a @-@ crown a piece … The method of killing them is by cutting off their head with a pair of scissars [ sic ] , the quantity of blood that issues is very great , considering the size of the bird . They are dressed like the Woodcock , with their intestines ; and , when killed at the critical time , say the Epicures , are reckoned the most delicious of all morsels .
The heavy toll on breeding birds , together with loss of habitat through drainage and collection by nineteenth @-@ century trophy hunters and egg collectors , meant that the species became almost extinct in England by the 1880s , although recolonisation in small numbers has occurred since 1963 . The draining of wetlands from the 1800s onwards in southern Sweden has resulted in the ruff 's disappearance from many areas there , although it remains common in the north of the country . The use of insecticides and draining of wetlands has led to a decrease in the number of ruff in Denmark since the early 1900s . There are still areas where the ruff and other wetland birds are hunted legally or otherwise for food . A large @-@ scale example is the capture of more than one million waterbirds ( including ruffs ) in a single year from Lake Chilwa in Malawi .
Although this bird eats rice on the wintering grounds , where it can make up nearly 40 % of its diet , it takes mainly waste and residues from cropping and threshing , not harvestable grain . It has sometimes been viewed as a pest , but the deeper water and presence of invertebrate prey in the economically important early winter period means that the wader has little effect on crop yield .
= = Conservation status = =
The ruff has a large range , estimated at 1 – 10 million square kilometres ( 0 @.@ 38 – 3 @.@ 8 million square miles ) and a population of at least 2 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 birds . The European population of 200 @,@ 000 – 510 @,@ 000 pairs , occupying more than half of the total breeding range , seems to have declined by up to 30 % over ten years , but this may reflect geographical changes in breeding populations . Numbers in Asia do not appear to be declining , and more ruffs are wintering in Africa . The species as a whole is therefore not believed to approach the thresholds for the population decline criterion of the IUCN Red List ( that is , declining more than 30 percent in ten years or three generations ) . For these reasons , the ruff is classified as " least concern " .
The most important breeding populations in Europe , in Russia and Sweden are stable , and the breeding range in Norway has expanded to the south , but populations have more than halved in Finland , Poland , Latvia and The Netherlands . Although the small populations in these countries are of limited overall significance , the decline is a continuation of trend towards range contraction that has occurred over the last two centuries . The drop in numbers in Europe has been attributed to drainage , increased fertiliser use , the loss of formerly mown or grazed breeding sites and over @-@ hunting .
Fossils from the Pleistocene suggest that this species bred further south in Europe in the cool periods between glaciations than it does now . Its sensitivity to changing climate as well as to water table levels and the speed of vegetation growth has led to suggestions that its range is affected by global warming , and the ruff might act as an indicator species for monitoring climate change . Potential threats to this species may also include outbreaks of diseases to which it is susceptible such as influenza , botulism and avian malaria .
The ruff is one of the species to which the Agreement on the Conservation of African @-@ Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds ( AEWA ) applies , where it is allocated to category 2c ; that is , the populations in need of special attention as they are showing " significant long @-@ term decline " in much of its range . This commits signatories to regulate the taking of listed species or their eggs , to establish protected areas to conserve habitats for the listed species , to regulate hunting and to monitor the populations of the birds concerned .
= = Biology of variation among males = =
The ruff has three male forms , which differ in mating behaviour and in appearance : the typical territorial males which have a dark neck ruff , satellite males which have a white neck ruff , and the very rare cryptic males known as " faeders " which have female @-@ like plumage . The behaviour and appearance of each individual male remain constant through its adult life , and are determined by a simple genetic polymorphism . Territorial behaviour and appearance is recessive to satellite behaviour and appearance . It was originally thought that the difference between the two types of males was due to a sex @-@ linked genetic factor , but in fact the genetic locus relevant for the mating strategy is located on an autosome , or non @-@ sex chromosome . That means that both sexes can carry the two different forms of the gene , not just males . The female does not normally show evidence of its genetic type , but when females are given testosterone implants , they display the male behaviour corresponding to their genotype .
Recently two studies further pinpointed the responsible region to chromosome 11 and a 4 @.@ 5 @-@ Mb covering chromosomal rearrangement . The scientists were able to show that the first genetic change happened 3 @.@ 8 million years ago on the resident chromosome , when a part of it broke off and was reintroduced in the wrong direction . This inversion created the faeder allele . About 500 @,@ 000 years ago an other rare recombination event of faeder and resident allele in the very same inverted region lead to the satellite allele . The 4 @.@ 5 Mb inversion covers 90 genes , one of them is the centromere coding gene N- CENPN- , which is located exactly at one of the inversion breakpoints . The inactivation of the gene has severe deleterious effects and pedigree data of a captive ruff colony suggests that the inversion is homozygous lethal . Over the course of the past 3 @.@ 8 million years , further mutations have accumulated within the inversion i.e. three deletions ranging from 3 @.@ 3 to 17 @.@ 6 kb . Two of these deletions remove evolutionary highly conserved elements close to two genes- HSD17B2 and SDR42E1 @-@ both holding important roles in metabolism of steroid hormones . Hormone measurements around mating time showed that whereas residents have a sharp increase of testosterone , faeders and satellites only experience higher androstenedione levels , as substance which is consider an intermediate in the testosterone biosynthesis . The authors conclude , that one or more of the deletions act as a cis @-@ acting regulatory mutation which is altering the expression of one or both genes and eventually contribute to the different male phenotypes and behaviour .
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= Homme by David Beckham =
Homme by David Beckham is a men 's eau de toilette fragrance endorsed by English footballer David Beckham . The scent , which was released by Coty , Inc. in September 2011 , joined his existing scents David Beckham Instinct ( 2005 ) and Intimately Beckham ( 2006 ) , a his @-@ and @-@ hers collection with his wife Victoria Beckham . The fragrance was launched as part of a new branding venture with business partner Simon Fuller , which also included a men 's bodywear line and a number of other projects to capitalize on Beckham 's worldwide commercial appeal .
The fragrance is based on wooden and spicy notes , while still giving off a fresh and clean smell . It includes top notes of citrus , ginger , pine and pepper ; heart notes of cashmere wood , leather and rosemary and base notes of mahogany wood , patchouli and skin musk .
= = Conception = =
It was announced on 19 May 2011 that David Beckham and his business partner , Simon Fuller , would be launching a men 's bodywear line , a men 's fragrance ( with licensing partner Coty , Inc . ) , and a number of other projects to capitalize on Beckham 's worldwide commercial appeal . The fragrance , entitled Homme by David Beckham , would join existing scents David Beckham Instinct ( 2005 ) and Intimately Beckham ( 2006 ) , a his @-@ and @-@ hers collection with his wife Victoria Beckham . Steve Mormoris , senior vice president of global marketing for Coty Beauty , told Women 's Wear Daily that the fragrance is a strategic launch for Coty that represents " a key new orientation for the David Beckham fragrance brand — getting back to the male roots of the brand , enhancing David as an athlete and an aspirational man and building a new pillar to the David Beckham franchise . " Speaking of the new venture , Beckham said :
It 's not my natural inclination to see myself as a brand , I 'm just a person who has been fortunate to explore other interests and passions outside of the game I love . I will always be associated with my sport but I am now working across other areas that will continue long after my career has finished .
A new logo was created for all of Beckham 's commercial ventures in order to create a " uniform visual identity " for the brand . The mark , which was created by Alasdhair Willis , features the David Beckham name in the Replica Pro font , with a circular hole " punched out of the script " . The hole represents a football and a lens or viewfinder , which can " spotlight a product detail or visual flourish on various marketing materials " . Willis stated that the major challenge when creating the brand identity for Beckham was : " How do you convey through a brand mark the sheer diversity of the David Beckham world ? " . He expanded his comment , stating that the identity needed to represent " the future of the man as well as being true to his core DNA as one of the world 's most respected and talented sportsmen . The identity needed to deliver against all these elements and at the same time be cool , relevant , desirable , versatile and accessible " . Fuller added that the brand should also be aspirational , optimistic and inclusive .
= = Development = =
For Homme by David Beckham , Beckham wanted to create a modern , masculine fragrance that reflected his own personal style . Additionally , he designed the scent with Victoria 's preferences in mind , as the scent is something that she has to " put up with " being on him . He tested the fragrance out on his three sons , stating that : " That 's the good thing about having three boys , they are so honest and they said it was amazing " .
Homme by David Beckham features a " super masculine scent " that is based on wooden and spicy notes , while still giving off a fresh and clean smell . It includes top notes of citrus , ginger , pine and pepper ; heart notes of cashmere wood , leather and rosemary and base notes of mahogany wood , patchouli and skin musk . Beckham has cited rosewood , pink grapefruit and pepper as being three of his favourite scents . According to Beckham , the scents " gives it a kind of leather , cashmere , woody feel " ; something that he has liked in the scents he has worn " over the years " .
According to Beckham , Homme by David Beckham is for a man who opts for a " cool , rugged look and one who prefers a clean @-@ cut , sharp aesthetic . " The scent is said to " encapsulate the spirit " of Beckham , which , according to Rebecca Twomey of Digital Spy , is a concept " sure to appeal as much to women as the men it is aimed at . " The fragrance is intended to be a more manly fragrance than Beckham 's previous releases . According to Twomey , the fragrance 's bottle is " refreshingly different " to Beckham 's previous six scents .
= = Marketing and reception = =
The print campaign for Homme by David Beckham was shot by fashion photographer Alasdair McLellan in March 2011 . The photographs feature Beckham against a dark background , wearing a sleek charcoal gray suit . According to Erin Donnelly of Fashion Etc . , the styling gives Don Draper " a run for his money " . A behind @-@ the @-@ scenes video of the photo shoot was released in on 19 July by British GQ . In the video , he discusses the inspiration behind the scent , poses in a " razor @-@ sharp " suit and " runs around with his shirt off " .
The television advert for Homme by David Beckham , which was directed by Anthony Mandler , opens to see Beckham " showing off his physical prowess " as he runs topless along a platform . As he reaches the edge of the platform , Beckham dives into a vat of the fragrance . In the next scene he is fully dressed in one of his trademark tailored suits . Beckham appeared in a sketch on The Ellen DeGeneres Show to promote the fragrance . In the sketch he is " almost unrecognisable " as he stood in the cosmetics aisle at a Target store , offering passing customers a sample spray of the scent . Homme by David Beckham was included in Esquire 's list of the best colognes for men in 2011 . Digital Spy included the fragrance in their 2012 Christmas gift guide , commenting that : " The man in your life may not look like Mr Beckham – but at least he can smell like him " .
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= Burzahom archaeological site =
The Burzahom archaeological site is located in the Kashmir Valley of the Jammu and Kashmir state . Archaeological excavations have revealed four phases of cultural significance between 3000 BC and 1000 BC . Periods I and II represent the Neolithic era ; Period IlI the Megalithic era ( of massive stone menhirs and wheel turned red pottery ) ; and Period IV relates to the early Historical Period ( Post @-@ megalithic period ) . The findings , recorded in stratified cultural deposits representing prehistoric human activity in Kashmir , are based on detailed investigations that cover all aspects of the physical evidence of the site , including the ancient flora and fauna .
The Burzahom site revealed the transition from the subterranean and ground level housing features of the Neolithic people to the mudbrick structures of the Megalithic people . The large cache of tools and implements made of bone and stone found at the site shows that the inhabitants were hunting and farming .
The unearthed Antiquities ( of art , architecture , customs and rituals ) indicate that the prehistoric people of the Burzahom established contact with Central Asia and South West Asia and also had links to the Gangetic plains and peninsular India . The interaction of local and foreign influences is demonstrated by the art , architecture , customs , rituals and language demonstrated by some engravings on pottery and other artifacts . Some historians have stated that the Vedic Aryan culture extended into Kashmir , but archaeological investigation at Burzahom does not support the theory .
= = Location = =
The Burzahom site is a prehistoric settlement in the village of the same name in the Srinagar District . It is 16 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 9 mi ) to the northeast of Srinagar on the Naseem @-@ Shalimar road . The elevation of the site is 1 @,@ 800 metres ( 5 @,@ 900 ft ) above sea @-@ level . It is the northernmost excavated Neolithic site of India . The site is on an ancient Pleistocene lake bed . The location is in a high terrace which is part of the floodplain of the Jhelum river and has Karewa soil ( clay ) formation . The site has a commanding view of the Dal lake which is about 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) away . In the Kashmiri language ' Burzahom ' means " birch " , a tree species ( that generally grows in the elevation range of 3 @,@ 000 to 4 @,@ 200 metres ( 9 @,@ 800 to 13 @,@ 800 ft ) in the Himalayas ) , which is found in the excavated housing area in the form of roofing material , and thus confirming the existence of the tree even in the pre @-@ historic Neolithic times .
= = History = =
The first excavation at the Burzahom site was a limited exercise in 1936 , carried out by the Yale – Cambridge Expedition headed by Helmut de Terra and Dr. Thomson Paterson . The Frontier Circle of the Archaeological Survey of India made detailed investigations of the site between 1960 and 1971 ; these were carried out by T.N. Khazanchi and his associates .
The extensive excavations done at this site , unearthing stratified cultural deposits , were the first of their type in Kashmir . In 1944 , Mortimer Wheeler , Director General of the Archaeological Survey of India had conducted the first stratified archaeological excavations on the lines of geological model at other sites . Based on a similar model the Burzahom site has been named as the Northern Neolithic Culture in view of its distinctive structural features with profusion of tools made of bones and stones and tools representing the ritualistic practices .
Gufkral represents another related site in the area , near the town of Tral . Also , Hariparigam , and Awantipura , in the same area , are related .
Skeletal remains of Neolithic people found at Burzahom are similar to those found in Harappa of the Indus Valley Civilization . Some historians have stated that the Vedic Aryan culture extended into Kashmir , but archaeological investigation at Burzahom does not support the " Aryans in Kashmir " theory
The management and protection of the Burzahom site , including the buffer zones , are under the jurisdiction of the Archaeological Survey of India and the State Department of Archaeology conforming to the Ancient Monuments and Sites Remains Act 1958 ( Amended in 2010 ) .
This site was nominated on 15 April 2014 for inscription as a UNESCO World Heritage Site , and is yet to be approved .
= = Discovery = =
The excavation at Burzahom was carried out in both vertical ( depth wise ) and horizontal directions ; the depth provided the stratification features while the phasing of each stratification was provided by the horizontal excavations . Four periods of continuous occupational sequence at the site were documented over a period of 11 years of investigations from 1960 to 1971 . These are : Periods I and II of the Neolithic ( Period I is called aceramic and Period II is called ceramic ) origin , particularly characterized by dwelling pits ( the largest measuring 2 @.@ 74 metres ( 9 ft 0 in ) at the top to 4 @.@ 75 metres ( 15 @.@ 6 ft ) at the base at a depth of 3 @.@ 95 metres ( 13 @.@ 0 ft ) ) ; Period III of the Megalithic sequence noted by the free standing large stone Menhirs installed at the site by shifting boulders manually from the hills ; and Period IV of the early Modern Period . The skeletal remains of the Neolithic humans found at Burzahom are similar to those found in Harappa of the Indus Valley Civilization .
Burzahom 's ceramic industry was mostly of hunting based culture and is different from the Chinese Neolithic pottery . The economy of the people was found to be based on hunting and gathering with a nascent stage of cultivation practices . Pottery made in Burzahom showed close affinity to those found in the Swat valley in Pakistan , particularly in respect of its shapes and decorations of the black ware pottery . The burial practices and type of tools recovered from the site were inferred as having close resemblance to those found in the North Chinese Neolithic culture .
= = = Period I = = =
The remarkable find during this period was of pits which were inferred as dwelling units ; these were in circular or oval shape dug in compact natural Karewa soil formation . Some of the deep pits had steps and ladder access to the bottom level . In some of the pits the stratification revealed ash and charcoal layers , which denoted human occupancy . Post holes on the sides of pits at the surface level denoted the presence of superstructures covered with thatch made of birch . Shallow pits of circular shape of 60 – 91 centimetres ( 24 – 36 in ) diameter adjoining the housing pits were found to contain bones of animals and also tools made of bones ( of antlers used for making tools ) and stones ( harpoons , needles with or without eyes , awls ) .
Carbon dating established that the Neolithic culture of this site was traceable to the 3rd millennium BC , the earliest occupation at the site was dated to before 2 @,@ 357 BC .
The pottery found at the site were in an early stage of hand crafting , of the coarse variety , in steel @-@ grey , dull red , brown , and buff colours with mat prints at the bottom ; they were in the shape of bowl , vase and stem . The antiquities did not reveal any signs of burials sites .
Late Kot @-@ Diji type pots were found belonging to Period Ib .
= = = Period II = = =
In the Period II , the finds excavated revealed that people had moved out from pit dwelling to structures built at the ground level . However , the pits and its associated chambers formed the base floor of the superstructure , which was made up by filling the pits and covering it with mud plaster , and occasionally painted in red ochre . Post @-@ holes around the pits revealed that the superstructures were made of wood built over compacted Karewa soil floors .
This period also brought out , for the first time , the burial customs of the Neolithic people . Both human and animal skeletons were found in deep oval shaped pits , located either below the floors of the dwelling units or in its precincts . These pits were filled with ash , stones and potsherds . Some of the human skulls found here had trepanning ( bored hole ) marks . In many pits , bones of dogs and antlered deer were found along with human skeletons . The skeletons of humans were found in the burial pits in a sitting position along with bones of animals .
Pottery finds showed better finish compared to the earlier Period I. The pots were of polished black ware , mostly handmade , in the form of a dish with stand , a high @-@ necked jar , and so forth . Also found was a wheel turned red ware pot which contained 950 beads made from carnelian and agate ( inferred as items for sale ) , which was thought to belong to the later part of this period . A very impressive painted pottery ware recovered from this period was a globular red ware pot made on a turntable ; the painting on the pot was of a wild goat of black colour with long horns and hanging ears . Another pottery item which is of interest is a polished black ware in globular shape jar with a long neck and flaring mouth .
An interesting find of this period is of two standalone finished flat stone slabs . The carving on one is not distinct . The other stone slab is 48 – 27 centimetres ( 19 – 11 in ) which depicts , on one polished side , sketches of hunting scenes such as a hunter spearing ( with a Ker ) an antlered deer and another hunter in the process of releasing an arrow , and a sketch of the movement of the Sun , at two levels . The carved figures are distinctly visible .
Agricultural practices were noted during the Periods I and II and crops grown were inferred as wheat , barley and lentil ; finding lentils established a link of the Neolithic people with Central Asia , crossing over the Himalayas .
The people who resided here were characterized as " long headed dolichocranic " . Two female skulls , different from the male skulls , were also reported . The finds did not indicate of any external ethnic intrusions during the entire Neolithic period but showed more affinity to the Harappan people .
Burzahom represents the southernmost extent of what is known as Northern Neolithic culture of Asia .
= = = Period III = = =
Some Megalithic Period Menhirs are next to Neolithic pits , suggesting a gradual transition between the two phases . The Menhirs , boulders formed due the varying temperatures , were brought down from the hills with great effort by the people and installed to mark notable events of the community . These are rough in shape , huge and of considerable weight and height , and are " free @-@ standing " . Craftsmanship was superior during this period with finds of wheel made durable hard red ware , copper objects , and tools made of bone and stone . Structures made of rubble were also found . Finds of a few copper arrowheads indicated knowledge of metallurgy .
= = = Period IV = = =
Period IV ( dated to the 3rd – 4th century AD ) , the last phase of human occupation at Burzahom , was related to the early Historical Period . The structures built were superior compared to the earlier period , and were made from mud @-@ bricks . Pottery was also superior , of red ware type with slips and wheel turned . Some iron antiquaries were also found .
= = Preservation = =
The site is maintained in the form that has been excavated , representing the natural setting of the Neolithic people . The exposed pits and the layout are well protected .
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= Deuces ( song ) =
" Deuces " is a song written and performed by American recording artist Chris Brown and American rappers Tyga and Kevin McCall . Produced by McCall , " Deuces " was released digitally on June 25 , 2010 , as the lead single from Brown 's first collaborative effort with Tyga , titled Fan of a Fan ( 2010 ) . The song is a slow , down @-@ tempo R & B ballad featuring elements from the genres of house and pop music , while the song is lyrically about " breaking it off with a girl after failed attempts to make the relationship work " . " Deuces " was later included on Brown 's fourth studio album , F.A.M.E. ( 2011 ) .
" Deuces " received positive reviews from music critics , most of whom praised the production . Following its release , critics speculated that the lyrics of the song were about Brown 's former relationship with Barbadian singer Rihanna . " Deuces " earned Brown two award nominations for Best Rap / Sung Collaboration at the 53rd Grammy Awards and Best Collaboration at the 2011 BET Awards . The song was a commercial success in the United States , reaching number 14 on the Billboard Hot 100 and number one on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart , becoming Brown 's first number @-@ one single on the chart since " Say Goodbye " ( 2006 ) . Additionally , it peaked inside the top @-@ thirty in New Zealand and the top @-@ seventy in the United Kingdom .
The accompanying music video was directed by Colin Tilley and shot in black and white at the Los Angeles River . Brown performed " Deuces " live on the television show 106 & Park , during his F.A.M.E. Tour ( 2011 ) , and at Supafest ( 2012 ) in Australia . The song 's official remix , featuring rappers Kanye West , T.I. , Drake , Fabolous , Rick Ross and André 3000 , was released as a digital EP on November 2 , 2010 . Recording artists Ciara and Teairra Marí also recorded their own remixes of the song .
= = Background and composition = =
" Deuces " was written by Chris Brown , Michael " Tyga " Stevenson and Kevin McCall , who also produced the track . Vocals were recorded by Michael Congdon at the In Your Ear Studios in Richmond , Virginia , with assistance by Dustin Faltz . The recordings were later mixed by Brian Springer at The Record Plant in Los Angeles , California , with assistance by Anthony Taglianett . " Deuces " leaked online on May 20 , 2010 , and was later released digitally on June 25 , 2010 as the first single from Brown 's collaborative mixtape with Tyga , Fan of a Fan ( 2010 ) . In an interview with MTV News , Tyga elaborated on " Deuces " and its theme , stating : " Basically it 's about you getting rid of this girl , you tried to make it work , but you got to move on . So you put up one finger , put up another , and then ' Deuces ' " . The song appeared as the opening track on Brown 's fourth studio album , F.A.M.E. ( 2011 ) .
Musically , " Deuces " is a slow , down @-@ tempo R & B ballad that displays elements of house and pop music . The song has a length of four minutes and thirty @-@ six seconds . It is backed by synth chords and " eerie harmonies " , with Brown 's " smooth vocals " making use of auto @-@ tune effects . According to Sara D. Anderson of AOL Radio , the song contains lyrical content about " breaking it off with a girl after failed attempts to make the relationship work " . In the first verse , Brown sings : " All that bullshit is for the birds , you ain 't nothing but a vulture / Always hoping for the worst , waiting for me to fuck up / You 'll regret the day when I find another girl , that knows just what I need / She knows just what I mean . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
" Deuces " received positive reviews from music critics . Joanne Dorken of MTV UK wrote that the song was " a good platform for Brown to show off his silky @-@ smooth vocals " . Hannah Ash of The Harber Herald called it " a great rap track " with " fantastic beats " . In an album review for F.A.M.E. , Mark Edward Nero of About.com wrote that " Deuces " was one of " the album 's best material " . A reviewer for Girlfriend magazine wrote that " Deuces " along with " Yeah 3x " and " Beautiful People " , were the only tracks on the album " worth listening to " . Mesfin Fekadu of the Associated Press labeled " Deuces " as one of the " best songs " of 2010 , while August Brown of Los Angeles Times called it his " favorite single " of 2010 . According to Steve Jones of USA Today , the song shows that " Brown is taking it to the next phase " . Sean Fennessey of The Washington Post characterised " Deuces " as " the effervescent kiss @-@ off " track . Shahryar Rizvi of Dallas Observer was critical of the song , writing that it " sounds minimally produced and quiet . As a result , it sounds kind of boring " .
Critics also speculated that the lyrics of the song were about Brown 's former relationship with pop singer Rihanna . Becky Bain of Idolator described " Deuces " as a " bitter , women @-@ hating track " that could be " about Rihanna or just females in general " , and wrote that " as damning as some of the lyrics are , this emotional jam is actually a step in the right direction for Brown " . Anthony Benigno of The Faster Times observed that the song could be a reference to " the Rihanna incident " , writing " is it about RiRi ? Maybe , maybe not . He ain 't telling , in any case " . Jayson Rodriguez of MTV News wrote that " Deuces " was indeed a " standout " track from the Fan of a Fan mixtape , and that it " appears to be a dig at Rihanna " . The song was nominated for Best Rap / Sung Collaboration at the 53rd Grammy Awards , and Best Collaboration at the 2011 BET Awards .
= = = Chart performance = = =
In the United States , " Deuces " debuted on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart at number 72 on the issue dated July 17 , 2010 . It peaked at number one in its ninth week on the chart , becoming Brown 's first number @-@ one single on the chart since " Say Goodbye " ( 2006 ) . " Deuces " was tied with Monica 's single " Everything to Me " ( 2010 ) , for both being the fastest songs in 2010 to climb to the number one spot in nine weeks . " Deuces " peaked at number 14 on the Billboard Hot 100 and spent 19 weeks on the chart . As of January 2011 , the song has sold 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 digital copies in the US . On the New Zealand Singles Chart , " Deuces " debuted and peaked at number 23 on July 26 , 2010 . It spent six weeks on the chart . In the United Kingdom , " Deuces " debuted and peaked at number 68 on November 20 , 2010 , and appeared on the chart for one week . It also charted on the UK R & B Singles Chart at number 14 .
= = Music video = =
The accompanying music videos for " Deuces " and " No Bullshit " premiered simultaneously online on May 24 , 2010 , and both were directed by Colin Tilley . The video was shot in black @-@ and @-@ white , and is set at the Los Angeles River . It begins with a woman walking down the river 's culvert . As the song begins , Brown , wearing a dark sleeveless jacket , sunglasses , and light @-@ colored pants , sings his verse while standing against a car with Tyga and Kevin McCall . This scene is intercut with scenes of Brown singing alone at the culvert , wearing a hooded jumper and skinny jeans . During the chorus , Brown is seen dancing in an underground tunnel . As Tyga raps his verse , he is sitting on a graffitied concrete barrier , while Brown appears in the background . This scene is intercut with scenes of Tyga , Brown and McCall walking down a street with a lowrider driving slowly behind them . As the second chorus begins , earlier scenes from the video are intercut with each other . McCall then begins to rap his verse while leaning against a wall , which is then intercut with scenes of him rapping from previous settings of the video . During the final chorus of the song , more scenes of Brown dancing in the underground tunnel are shown .
= = Live performances and remixes = =
On May 15 , 2010 , Brown performed " Deuces " with Tyga at the " Virginia Stand Up ! A Call to Action " benefit concert as part of a set list , which included " Say Goodbye " , " Yo ( Excuse Me Miss ) " , " Gimme That " , " Kiss Kiss " , " Take You Down " and " Forever " . The concert was organized by Brown to help with continued relief efforts in Haiti following the January 2010 earthquake . Jayson Rodriguez of MTV News wrote that " the superstar singer couldn 't have been more giving , doing his best to please the packed house " . On December 3 , 2010 , Brown , wearing a charcoal grey suit with Adidas sneakers , performed the song with Tyga and Kevin McCall as part of his set list at the Cali Christmas concert . In March 2011 , Brown and Tyga performed " Deuces " on the television music show , 106 & Park . " Deuces " was also added to the set list of Brown 's F.A.M.E. Tour . In his review of the tour , Jeremy Trucker of The Baltimore Sun criticized Brown for lip syncing his performances , and remained unconvinced that Brown 's " talent was special enough to warrant his continued , well , fame " . In April 2012 , Brown performed " Deuces " at the Supafest tour in Australia as part of a set list , which included " Run It ! " , " Yeah 3x " , " Look at Me Now " , " She Ain 't You " , " Wet the Bed " and " Turn Up the Music " , among others . A reviewer for Rap @-@ Up magazine praised his set , writing " A tatted Chris Brown thrilled with his chart @-@ topping hits " .
In September 2010 , during a Ustream session with fans , Brown announced plans of releasing an " all @-@ star " remix to " Deuces " , which would feature rappers Kanye West , T.I. , Drake , Fabolous , Rick Ross , and André 3000 , . " The remix appeared online on October 1 , 2010 , and was released as a digital EP on November 2 , 2010 . A day after the " all @-@ star " remix premiered online , American R & B singer Ciara released her own remix of the song , which was supposed to be included on her Basic Instinct mixtape . American R & B singer Teairra Marí also recorded her own remix of " Deuces " for her mixtape , The Night Before X @-@ Mas ( 2010 ) .
= = Track listing = =
Digital download
" Deuces " ( feat . Tyga & Kevin McCall ) – 4 : 36
" No Bullshit " – 4 : 07
Digital Remix EP
" Deuces " ( feat . Drake & Kanye West ) – 4 : 34
" Deuces " ( feat . T.I. & Rick Ross ) – 3 : 42
" Deuces " ( feat . Fabolous & André 3000 ) – 4 : 34
" Deuces " ( feat . Drake , Kanye West & André 3000 ) – 5 : 38
" Deuces " ( feat . Drake , T.I. , Kanye West , Fabolous , Rick Ross , & André 3000 ) – 6 : 43
= = Credits and personnel = =
Chris Brown – songwriter , lead vocals
Kevin McCall – songwriter , producer , featured vocals
Brian Springer – audio mixing
Anthony Taglianett – assistant audio mixing
Michael Stevenson – songwriter , featured vocals
Credits adapted from the liner notes for F.A.M.E.
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
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= Norfolk Spaniel =
The Norfolk Spaniel or Shropshire Spaniel is an extinct breed of dog since the early 20th century . It was originally thought to have originated from the work of one of the Dukes of Norfolk , but this theory was disproven after being in doubt during the later part of the 19th century . The term was used to designate springer type spaniels that were neither Sussex nor Clumber Spaniels , and attempts were made to use it to specify a breed that would later become known as the English Springer Spaniel .
With a liver @-@ and @-@ white or black @-@ and @-@ white coat , the Norfolk Spaniel was described as being a large cocker spaniel . The Spaniel Club set out a breed standard for Norfolk Spaniels , but specimens of the breed varied greatly across England . Members of the breed were difficult to train , but formed a strong attachment with their owners and were useful for hunting both on land and in water . The breed ceased to exist after 1903 , when it was rolled into the new English Springer Spaniel breed created by The Kennel Club to contain all spaniels of this type .
= = History = =
The Norfolk Spaniel was believed to have come about from a cross of spaniels with the Black and Tan Terrier , which was cultivated by an unspecified Duke of Norfolk . However , later historians disagree with this theory , saying that the Duke of Norfolk 's spaniels were of the King Charles type and that terrier stock had nothing to do with the origins of the Norfolk Spaniel . The theory of the Duke of Norfolk @-@ based origins of the Norfolk Spaniel was thought disproved by the investigation of James Farrow , a 19th @-@ century spaniel breeder , who wrote to Henry Fitzalan @-@ Howard , 15th Duke of Norfolk in order to find out the truth about the origins of the breed . The Duke responded , denying any connection to the breed , although he did state that his grandfather , Henry Howard , 13th Duke of Norfolk , owned Sussex Spaniels . The letter from the Duke was printed in The Kennel Gazette in 1899 . An alternative origin was proposed by Rawdon Briggs Lee in volume two of his 1897 work A History and Description of the Modern Dogs of Great Britain and Ireland . Lee argued that the Norfolk Spaniel was descended from a crossing of a curly @-@ coated water spaniel and a Sussex Spaniel or another strain of land spaniel .
In the 18th century , spaniels were split into three categories : land spaniels , water spaniels and toy spaniels . The land spaniels were split into two further types , the cocker spaniel and the springer spaniel . It was within the springer spaniel type that the Norfolk Spaniel was placed , along with the Sussex Spaniel and the Clumber Spaniel . By the 1860s , the breed was described as the " commonest breed in England " , but with a description that varies so much that the only standard point is that they averaged 16 inches ( 41 cm ) in height at the withers .
The Spaniel Club was formed in 1885 , and issued a breed standard for the Norfolk Spaniel , recognising it as a variety of spaniel . However , the general public saw it only as a generic land spaniel . By the 1890s , the breed had become common throughout the counties of England , leading dog writers such as Rawdon Briggs Lee to question the authenticity of its origins , or that the various liver and white spaniels from around England constituted a single breed ; " Personally , I do not consider the liver and white spaniel any particular variety at all , nor do I believe that it has ever been indigenous to Norfolk . " He states that similar dogs exist in Devonshire that do not trace ancestry to Norfolk , and that liver and white spaniels pre @-@ date the breeding of the Black and Tan Terrier with an ordinary spaniel . F.H.F. Mercer described the breed in 1890 as being " virtually extinct in its purity " , with its liver and white colours running through any numbers of miscellaneous spaniels , and he too discredits the origins involving the Duke of Norfolk .
The Kennel Club ( UK ) designated all medium legged spaniels which were not Clumber nor Sussex Spaniels as English Springer Spaniels in 1902 . The Norfolk Spaniel was included under this designation , with the term " Norfolk Spaniel " considered for use to cover these types of spaniels , but ultimately rejected as the Club believed that the breed was always liver and white in colour . The change in terminology was not smooth or immediate , with James Watson in his 1905 work , The Dog Book , still referring to the Norfolk Spaniel as a breed name . In the modern era , the Norfolk Spaniel is thought to be the previous name for the English Springer Spaniel , prior to recognition by The Kennel Club ( UK ) .
= = Temperament = =
The Norfolk Spaniel would typically be unhappy when they were separated from their owners , as they formed a strong attachment . Compared to the springer spaniels of the 19th century , they were more ill @-@ tempered , and could be headstrong and wilful if not successfully broken . Some members of the breed could be noisy , and were described as " babbling " and making noise on the hunt in a similar fashion to hounds , while others were far quieter .
Its use in hunting was varied , and the breed was useful both on land and in the water . In particular , it became successful in America and towards the beginning of the 20th century were popular in the area around Boston . They were described by the Spaniel Club of America as being as good in the water as the Chesapeake Bay Retriever .
= = Appearance = =
The breed was a freckled white dog with either liver or black markings , the breed standard in 1859 set their measurements at 17 – 18 inches ( 43 – 46 cm ) in height at the withers . It had long legs , feathered ears , a white area on forehead , which was said to " [ add ] a great deal to his beauty " , but there were differences from the English Springer , including a broader skull and shorter neck . It was also compared to the English Setter in its build , shape , and proportions , although it was a much smaller size . While other field spaniels of this era displayed colours other than liver and white or liver and black , the Norfolk did not . The breed @-@ specific qualities varied greatly as in some places the breeding lines were not kept particularly pure , those lines having had stock from Sussex and Clumber Spaniels bred into them .
By the end of the 19th century the description of a Norfolk Spaniel had changed slightly , The Spaniel Club breed standard for a Norfolk Spaniel in 1897 was for the animal to have a coat of either black and white or liver and white which was not curly , a reasonably heavy body and legs which are longer than other field spaniels but shorter than the Irish Water Spaniel , a deep chest with long sloping shoulders and strength in the back and loins , as well as features typical of a spaniel such as lobular ears . This standard also included the requirement for the tail to be docked . In brief , the standard described the Norfolk as simply looking like a large cocker spaniel .
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= Asperger syndrome =
Asperger syndrome ( AS ) , also known as Asperger 's , is a developmental disorder characterized by significant difficulties in social interaction and nonverbal communication , along with restricted and repetitive patterns of behavior and interests . As a milder autism spectrum disorder ( ASD ) , it differs from other ASDs by relatively normal language and intelligence . Although not required for diagnosis , physical clumsiness and unusual use of language are common . Symptoms usually begin before two years old and typically last for a person 's entire life .
The exact cause of Asperger 's is unknown . While it is likely partly inherited , the underlying genetics have not been determined conclusively . Environmental factors are also believed to play a role . Brain imaging has not identified a common underlying problem . The diagnosis of Asperger 's was removed in the 2013 fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders ( DSM @-@ 5 ) , and people with these symptoms are now included within the autism spectrum disorder along with autism and pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified . It remains within the tenth edition of the International Classification of Diseases ( ICD @-@ 10 ) as of 2015 .
There is no single treatment , and the effectiveness of particular interventions is supported by only limited data . Treatment is aimed at improving poor communication skills , obsessive or repetitive routines , and physical clumsiness . Interventions may include social skills training , cognitive behavioral therapy , physical therapy , speech therapy , parent training , and medications for associated problems such as mood or anxiety . Most children improve as they grow up , but social and communication difficulties usually persist . Some researchers and people on the autism spectrum have advocated a shift in attitudes toward the view that autism spectrum disorder is a difference , rather than a disease that must be treated or cured .
In 2013 , Asperger 's was estimated to affect 31 million people globally . The syndrome is named after the Austrian pediatrician Hans Asperger who , in 1944 , described children in his practice who lacked nonverbal communication , had limited understanding of others ' feelings , and were physically clumsy . The modern conception of Asperger syndrome came into existence in 1981 and went through a period of popularization . It became a standardized diagnosis in the early 1990s . Many questions and controversies remain about aspects of the disorder . There is doubt about whether it is distinct from high @-@ functioning autism ( HFA ) . Partly because of this , the percentage of people affected is not firmly established .
= = Classification = =
The extent of the overlap between AS and high @-@ functioning autism ( HFA — autism unaccompanied by intellectual disability ) is unclear . The ASD classification is to some extent an artifact of how autism was discovered , and may not reflect the true nature of the spectrum ; methodological problems have beset Asperger syndrome as a valid diagnosis from the outset . In the fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders ( DSM @-@ 5 ) , published in May 2013 , AS , as a separate diagnosis , was eliminated and folded into autism spectrum disorder . Like the diagnosis of Asperger syndrome , the change was controversial and AS was not removed from the WHO 's ICD @-@ 10 .
The World Health Organization ( WHO ) defines Asperger syndrome ( AS ) as one of the autism spectrum disorders ( ASD ) or pervasive developmental disorders ( PDD ) , which are a spectrum of psychological conditions that are characterized by abnormalities of social interaction and communication that pervade the individual 's functioning , and by restricted and repetitive interests and behavior . Like other psychological development disorders , ASD begins in infancy or childhood , has a steady course without remission or relapse , and has impairments that result from maturation @-@ related changes in various systems of the brain . ASD , in turn , is a subset of the broader autism phenotype , which describes individuals who may not have ASD but do have autistic @-@ like traits , such as social deficits . Of the other four ASD forms , autism is the most similar to AS in signs and likely causes , but its diagnosis requires impaired communication and allows delay in cognitive development ; Rett syndrome and childhood disintegrative disorder share several signs with autism but may have unrelated causes ; and pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified ( PDD @-@ NOS ) is diagnosed when the criteria for a more specific disorder are unmet .
= = Characteristics = =
As a pervasive developmental disorder , Asperger syndrome is distinguished by a pattern of symptoms rather than a single symptom . It is characterized by qualitative impairment in social interaction , by stereotyped and restricted patterns of behavior , activities and interests , and by no clinically significant delay in cognitive development or general delay in language . Intense preoccupation with a narrow subject , one @-@ sided verbosity , restricted prosody , and physical clumsiness are typical of the condition , but are not required for diagnosis . Suicidal behavior appears to occur at rates similar to those without ASD .
= = = Social interaction = = =
A lack of demonstrated empathy affects aspects of communal living for persons with Asperger syndrome . Individuals with AS experience difficulties in basic elements of social interaction , which may include a failure to develop friendships or to seek shared enjoyments or achievements with others ( for example , showing others objects of interest ) , a lack of social or emotional reciprocity ( social " games " give @-@ and @-@ take mechanic ) , and impaired nonverbal behaviors in areas such as eye contact , facial expression , posture , and gesture .
People with AS may not be as withdrawn around others , compared with those with other , more debilitating forms of autism ; they approach others , even if awkwardly . For example , a person with AS may engage in a one @-@ sided , long @-@ winded speech about a favorite topic , while misunderstanding or not recognizing the listener 's feelings or reactions , such as a wish to change the topic of talk or end the interaction . This social awkwardness has been called " active but odd " . This failure to react appropriately to social interaction may appear as disregard for other people 's feelings , and may come across as insensitive . However , not all individuals with AS will approach others . Some of them may even display selective mutism , speaking not at all to most people and excessively to specific people . Some may choose only to talk to people they like .
The cognitive ability of children with AS often allows them to articulate social norms in a laboratory context , where they may be able to show a theoretical understanding of other people 's emotions ; however , they typically have difficulty acting on this knowledge in fluid , real @-@ life situations . People with AS may analyze and distill their observations of social interaction into rigid behavioral guidelines , and apply these rules in awkward ways , such as forced eye contact , resulting in a demeanor that appears rigid or socially naive . Childhood desire for companionship can become numbed through a history of failed social encounters .
The hypothesis that individuals with AS are predisposed to violent or criminal behavior has been investigated , but is not supported by data . More evidence suggests children with AS are victims rather than victimizers . A 2008 review found that an overwhelming number of reported violent criminals with AS had coexisting psychiatric disorders such as schizoaffective disorder .
= = = Restricted and repetitive interests and behavior = = =
People with Asperger syndrome display behavior , interests , and activities that are restricted and repetitive and are sometimes abnormally intense or focused . They may stick to inflexible routines , move in stereotyped and repetitive ways , preoccupy themselves with parts of objects or compulsive behaviors like lining thing up in patterns .
Pursuit of specific and narrow areas of interest is one of the most striking possible features of AS . Individuals with AS may collect volumes of detailed information on a relatively narrow topic such as weather data or star names , without necessarily having a genuine understanding of the broader topic . For example , a child might memorize camera model numbers while caring little about photography . This behavior is usually apparent by age 5 or 6 . Although these special interests may change from time to time , they typically become more unusual and narrowly focused , and often dominate social interaction so much that the entire family may become immersed . Because narrow topics often capture the interest of children , this symptom may go unrecognized .
Stereotyped and repetitive motor behaviors are a core part of the diagnosis of AS and other ASDs . They include hand movements such as flapping or twisting , and complex whole @-@ body movements . These are typically repeated in longer bursts and look more voluntary or ritualistic than tics , which are usually faster , less rhythmical and less often symmetrical .
According to the Adult Asperger Assessment ( AAA ) diagnostic test , a lack of interest in fiction and a positive preference towards non @-@ fiction is common among adults with AS .
= = = Speech and language = = =
Although individuals with Asperger syndrome acquire language skills without significant general delay and their speech typically lacks significant abnormalities , language acquisition and use is often atypical . Abnormalities include verbosity , abrupt transitions , literal interpretations and miscomprehension of nuance , use of metaphor meaningful only to the speaker , auditory perception deficits , unusually pedantic , formal or idiosyncratic speech , and oddities in loudness , pitch , intonation , prosody , and rhythm . Echolalia has also been observed in individuals with AS .
Three aspects of communication patterns are of clinical interest : poor prosody , tangential and circumstantial speech , and marked verbosity . Although inflection and intonation may be less rigid or monotonic than in classic autism , people with AS often have a limited range of intonation : speech may be unusually fast , jerky or loud . Speech may convey a sense of incoherence ; the conversational style often includes monologues about topics that bore the listener , fails to provide context for comments , or fails to suppress internal thoughts . Individuals with AS may fail to detect whether the listener is interested or engaged in the conversation . The speaker 's conclusion or point may never be made , and attempts by the listener to elaborate on the speech 's content or logic , or to shift to related topics , are often unsuccessful .
Children with AS may have an unusually sophisticated vocabulary at a young age and have been colloquially called " little professors " , but have difficulty understanding figurative language and tend to use language literally . Children with AS appear to have particular weaknesses in areas of nonliteral language that include humor , irony , teasing , and sarcasm . Although individuals with AS usually understand the cognitive basis of humor , they seem to lack understanding of the intent of humor to share enjoyment with others . Despite strong evidence of impaired humor appreciation , anecdotal reports of humor in individuals with AS seem to challenge some psychological theories of AS and autism .
= = = Motor and sensory perception = = =
Individuals with Asperger syndrome may have signs or symptoms that are independent of the diagnosis , but can affect the individual or the family . These include differences in perception and problems with motor skills , sleep , and emotions .
Individuals with AS often have excellent auditory and visual perception . Children with ASD often demonstrate enhanced perception of small changes in patterns such as arrangements of objects or well @-@ known images ; typically this is domain @-@ specific and involves processing of fine @-@ grained features . Conversely , compared with individuals with high @-@ functioning autism , individuals with AS have deficits in some tasks involving visual @-@ spatial perception , auditory perception , or visual memory . Many accounts of individuals with AS and ASD report other unusual sensory and perceptual skills and experiences . They may be unusually sensitive or insensitive to sound , light , and other stimuli ; these sensory responses are found in other developmental disorders and are not specific to AS or to ASD . There is little support for increased fight @-@ or @-@ flight response or failure of habituation in autism ; there is more evidence of decreased responsiveness to sensory stimuli , although several studies show no differences .
Hans Asperger 's initial accounts and other diagnostic schemes include descriptions of physical clumsiness . Children with AS may be delayed in acquiring skills requiring motor dexterity , such as riding a bicycle or opening a jar , and may seem to move awkwardly or feel " uncomfortable in their own skin " . They may be poorly coordinated , or have an odd or bouncy gait or posture , poor handwriting , or problems with visual @-@ motor integration . They may show problems with proprioception ( sensation of body position ) on measures of developmental coordination disorder ( motor planning disorder ) , balance , tandem gait , and finger @-@ thumb apposition . There is no evidence that these motor skills problems differentiate AS from other high @-@ functioning ASDs .
Children with AS are more likely to have sleep problems , including difficulty in falling asleep , frequent nocturnal awakenings , and early morning awakenings . AS is also associated with high levels of alexithymia , which is difficulty in identifying and describing one 's emotions . Although AS , lower sleep quality , and alexithymia are associated , their causal relationship is unclear .
= = Causes = =
Hans Asperger described common symptoms among his patients ' family members , especially fathers , and research supports this observation and suggests a genetic contribution to Asperger syndrome . Although no specific gene has yet been identified , multiple factors are believed to play a role in the expression of autism , given the phenotypic variability seen in children with AS . Evidence for a genetic link is the tendency for AS to run in families and an observed higher incidence of family members who have behavioral symptoms similar to AS but in a more limited form ( for example , slight difficulties with social interaction , language , or reading ) . Most research suggests that all autism spectrum disorders have shared genetic mechanisms , but AS may have a stronger genetic component than autism . There is probably a common group of genes where particular alleles render an individual vulnerable to developing AS ; if this is the case , the particular combination of alleles would determine the severity and symptoms for each individual with AS .
A few ASD cases have been linked to exposure to teratogens ( agents that cause birth defects ) during the first eight weeks from conception . Although this does not exclude the possibility that ASD can be initiated or affected later , it is strong evidence that it arises very early in development . Many environmental factors have been hypothesized to act after birth , but none has been confirmed by scientific investigation .
= = Mechanism = =
Asperger syndrome appears to result from developmental factors that affect many or all functional brain systems , as opposed to localized effects . Although the specific underpinnings of AS or factors that distinguish it from other ASDs are unknown , and no clear pathology common to individuals with AS has emerged , it is still possible that AS 's mechanism is separate from other ASDs . Neuroanatomical studies and the associations with teratogens strongly suggest that the mechanism includes alteration of brain development soon after conception . Abnormal migration of embryonic cells during fetal development may affect the final structure and connectivity of the brain , resulting in alterations in the neural circuits that control thought and behavior . Several theories of mechanism are available ; none are likely to provide a complete explanation .
The underconnectivity theory hypothesizes underfunctioning high @-@ level neural connections and synchronization , along with an excess of low @-@ level processes . It maps well to general @-@ processing theories such as weak central coherence theory , which hypothesizes that a limited ability to see the big picture underlies the central disturbance in ASD . A related theory — enhanced perceptual functioning — focuses more on the superiority of locally oriented and perceptual operations in autistic individuals .
The mirror neuron system ( MNS ) theory hypothesizes that alterations to the development of the MNS interfere with imitation and lead to Asperger 's core feature of social impairment . For example , one study found that activation is delayed in the core circuit for imitation in individuals with AS . This theory maps well to social cognition theories like the theory of mind , which hypothesizes that autistic behavior arises from impairments in ascribing mental states to oneself and others , or hyper @-@ systemizing , which hypothesizes that autistic individuals can systematize internal operation to handle internal events but are less effective at empathizing by handling events generated by other agents .
= = Diagnosis = =
Standard diagnostic criteria require impairment in social interaction and repetitive and stereotyped patterns of behavior , activities and interests , without significant delay in language or cognitive development . Unlike the international standard , the DSM @-@ IV @-@ TR criteria also required significant impairment in day @-@ to @-@ day functioning ; DSM @-@ 5 eliminated AS as a separate diagnosis in 2013 , and folded it into the umbrella of autism spectrum disorders . Other sets of diagnostic criteria have been proposed by Szatmari et al. and by Gillberg and Gillberg .
Diagnosis is most commonly made between the ages of four and eleven . A comprehensive assessment involves a multidisciplinary team that observes across multiple settings , and includes neurological and genetic assessment as well as tests for cognition , psychomotor function , verbal and nonverbal strengths and weaknesses , style of learning , and skills for independent living . The " gold standard " in diagnosing ASDs combines clinical judgment with the Autism Diagnostic Interview @-@ Revised ( ADI @-@ R ) — a semistructured parent interview — and the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule ( ADOS ) — a conversation and play @-@ based interview with the child . Delayed or mistaken diagnosis can be traumatic for individuals and families ; for example , misdiagnosis can lead to medications that worsen behavior .
Underdiagnosis and overdiagnosis may be problems . The cost and difficulty of screening and assessment can delay diagnosis . Conversely , the increasing popularity of drug treatment options and the expansion of benefits has motivated providers to overdiagnose ASD . There are indications AS has been diagnosed more frequently in recent years , partly as a residual diagnosis for children of normal intelligence who are not autistic but have social difficulties .
There are questions about the external validity of the AS diagnosis . That is , it is unclear whether there is a practical benefit in distinguishing AS from HFA and from PDD @-@ NOS ; the same child can receive different diagnoses depending on the screening tool . The debate about distinguishing AS from HFA is partly due to a tautological dilemma where disorders are defined based on severity of impairment , so that studies that appear to confirm differences based on severity are to be expected .
= = = Differential diagnosis = = =
Many children with AS are initially misdiagnosed with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder ( ADHD ) . Diagnosing adults is more challenging , as standard diagnostic criteria are designed for children and the expression of AS changes with age . Adult diagnosis requires painstaking clinical examination and thorough medical history gained from both the individual and other people who know the person , focusing on childhood behavior . Conditions that must be considered in a differential diagnosis include other ASDs , the schizophrenia spectrum , ADHD , obsessive – compulsive disorder , major depressive disorder , semantic pragmatic disorder , nonverbal learning disorder , Tourette syndrome , stereotypic movement disorder , bipolar disorder , and social @-@ cognitive deficits due to brain damage from alcohol abuse .
There are considerable similarities and overlap between Asperger 's syndrome and obsessive – compulsive personality disorder ( OCPD ) , such as list @-@ making , inflexible adherence to rules , and obsessive aspects of Asperger 's syndrome , though the former may be distinguished from OCPD especially regarding affective behaviors , worse social skills , difficulties with theory of mind and intense intellectual interests , e.g. an ability to recall every aspect of a hobby .
= = Screening = =
Parents of children with Asperger syndrome can typically trace differences in their children 's development to as early as 30 months of age . Developmental screening during a routine check @-@ up by a general practitioner or pediatrician may identify signs that warrant further investigation . The United States Preventative Services Task Force in 2016 found it was unclear if screening was beneficial or harmful among children in whom there is no concerns .
The diagnosis of AS is complicated by the use of several different screening instruments , including the Asperger Syndrome Diagnostic Scale ( ASDS ) , Autism Spectrum Screening Questionnaire ( ASSQ ) , Childhood Autism Spectrum Test ( CAST ) ( previously called the Childhood Asperger Syndrome Test ) , Gilliam Asperger 's disorder scale ( GADS ) , Krug Asperger 's Disorder Index ( KADI ) , and the Autism @-@ spectrum quotient ( AQ ; with versions for children , adolescents and adults ) . None have been shown to reliably differentiate between AS and other ASDs .
= = Management = =
Asperger syndrome treatment attempts to manage distressing symptoms and to teach age @-@ appropriate social , communication and vocational skills that are not naturally acquired during development , with intervention tailored to the needs of the individual based on multidisciplinary assessment . Although progress has been made , data supporting the efficacy of particular interventions are limited .
= = = Therapies = = =
The ideal treatment for AS coordinates therapies that address core symptoms of the disorder , including poor communication skills and obsessive or repetitive routines . While most professionals agree that the earlier the intervention , the better , there is no single best treatment package . AS treatment resembles that of other high @-@ functioning ASDs , except that it takes into account the linguistic capabilities , verbal strengths , and nonverbal vulnerabilities of individuals with AS . A typical program generally includes :
A positive behavior support procedure includes training and support of parents and school faculty in behavior management strategies to use in the home and school ;
An applied behavior analysis ( ABA ) technique called social skills training for more effective interpersonal interactions ;
Cognitive behavioral therapy to improve stress management relating to anxiety or explosive emotions and to cut back on obsessive interests and repetitive routines ;
Medication , for coexisting conditions such as major depressive disorder and anxiety disorder ;
Occupational or physical therapy to assist with poor sensory processing and motor coordination ;
Social communication intervention , which is specialized speech therapy to help with the pragmatics of the give and take of normal conversation .
Of the many studies on behavior @-@ based early intervention programs , most are case reports of up to five participants and typically examine a few problem behaviors such as self @-@ injury , aggression , noncompliance , stereotypies , or spontaneous language ; unintended side effects are largely ignored . Despite the popularity of social skills training , its effectiveness is not firmly established . A randomized controlled study of a model for training parents in problem behaviors in their children with AS showed that parents attending a one @-@ day workshop or six individual lessons reported fewer behavioral problems , while parents receiving the individual lessons reported less intense behavioral problems in their AS children . Vocational training is important to teach job interview etiquette and workplace behavior to older children and adults with AS , and organization software and personal data assistants can improve the work and life management of people with AS .
= = = Medications = = =
No medications directly treat the core symptoms of AS . Although research into the efficacy of pharmaceutical intervention for AS is limited , it is essential to diagnose and treat comorbid conditions . Deficits in self @-@ identifying emotions or in observing effects of one 's behavior on others can make it difficult for individuals with AS to see why medication may be appropriate . Medication can be effective in combination with behavioral interventions and environmental accommodations in treating comorbid symptoms such as anxiety disorder , major depressive disorder , inattention and aggression . The atypical antipsychotic medications risperidone and olanzapine have been shown to reduce the associated symptoms of AS ; risperidone can reduce repetitive and self @-@ injurious behaviors , aggressive outbursts and impulsivity , and improve stereotypical patterns of behavior and social relatedness . The selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors ( SSRIs ) fluoxetine , fluvoxamine , and sertraline have been effective in treating restricted and repetitive interests and behaviors .
Care must be taken with medications , as side effects may be more common and harder to evaluate in individuals with AS , and tests of drugs ' effectiveness against comorbid conditions routinely exclude individuals from the autism spectrum . Abnormalities in metabolism , cardiac conduction times , and an increased risk of type 2 diabetes have been raised as concerns with these medications , along with serious long @-@ term neurological side effects . SSRIs can lead to manifestations of behavioral activation such as increased impulsivity , aggression , and sleep disturbance . Weight gain and fatigue are commonly reported side effects of risperidone , which may also lead to increased risk for extrapyramidal symptoms such as restlessness and dystonia and increased serum prolactin levels . Sedation and weight gain are more common with olanzapine , which has also been linked with diabetes . Sedative side @-@ effects in school @-@ age children have ramifications for classroom learning . Individuals with AS may be unable to identify and communicate their internal moods and emotions or to tolerate side effects that for most people would not be problematic .
= = Prognosis = =
There is some evidence that children with AS may see a lessening of symptoms ; up to 20 % of children may no longer meet the diagnostic criteria as adults , although social and communication difficulties may persist . As of 2006 , no studies addressing the long @-@ term outcome of individuals with Asperger syndrome are available and there are no systematic long @-@ term follow @-@ up studies of children with AS . Individuals with AS appear to have normal life expectancy , but have an increased prevalence of comorbid psychiatric conditions , such as major depressive disorder and anxiety disorder that may significantly affect prognosis . Although social impairment may be lifelong , the outcome is generally more positive than with individuals with lower functioning autism spectrum disorders ; for example , ASD symptoms are more likely to diminish with time in children with AS or HFA . Most students with AS / HFA have average mathematical ability and test slightly worse in mathematics than in general intelligence , but some are gifted in mathematics . AS has potentially been linked to some accomplishments , such as Vernon L. Smith winning the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences ; however , Smith is self @-@ diagnosed .
Although many attend regular education classes , some children with AS may utilize special education services because of their social and behavioral difficulties . Adolescents with AS may exhibit ongoing difficulty with self care or organization , and disturbances in social and romantic relationships . Despite high cognitive potential , most young adults with AS remain at home , yet some do marry and work independently . The " different @-@ ness " adolescents experience can be traumatic . Anxiety may stem from preoccupation over possible violations of routines and rituals , from being placed in a situation without a clear schedule or expectations , or from concern with failing in social encounters ; the resulting stress may manifest as inattention , withdrawal , reliance on obsessions , hyperactivity , or aggressive or oppositional behavior . Depression is often the result of chronic frustration from repeated failure to engage others socially , and mood disorders requiring treatment may develop . Clinical experience suggests the rate of suicide may be higher among those with AS , but this has not been confirmed by systematic empirical studies .
Education of families is critical in developing strategies for understanding strengths and weaknesses ; helping the family to cope improves outcomes in children . Prognosis may be improved by diagnosis at a younger age that allows for early interventions , while interventions in adulthood are valuable but less beneficial . There are legal implications for individuals with AS as they run the risk of exploitation by others and may be unable to comprehend the societal implications of their actions .
= = Epidemiology = =
Prevalence estimates vary enormously . A 2003 review of epidemiological studies of children found autism prevalence rates ranging from 0 @.@ 03 to 4 @.@ 84 per 1 @,@ 000 , with the ratio of autism to Asperger syndrome ranging from 1 @.@ 5 : 1 to 16 : 1 ; combining the geometric mean ratio of 5 : 1 with a conservative prevalence estimate for autism of 1 @.@ 3 per 1 @,@ 000 suggests indirectly that the prevalence of AS might be around 0 @.@ 26 per 1 @,@ 000 . Part of the variance in estimates arises from differences in diagnostic criteria . For example , a relatively small 2007 study of 5 @,@ 484 eight @-@ year @-@ old children in Finland found 2 @.@ 9 children per 1 @,@ 000 met the ICD @-@ 10 criteria for an AS diagnosis , 2 @.@ 7 per 1 @,@ 000 for Gillberg and Gillberg criteria , 2 @.@ 5 for DSM @-@ IV , 1 @.@ 6 for Szatmari et al . , and 4 @.@ 3 per 1 @,@ 000 for the union of the four criteria . Boys seem to be more likely to have AS than girls ; estimates of the sex ratio range from 1 @.@ 6 : 1 to 4 : 1 , using the Gillberg and Gillberg criteria . Females with autism spectrum disorders may be underdiagnosed .
Anxiety disorder and major depressive disorder are the most common conditions seen at the same time ; comorbidity of these in persons with AS is estimated at 65 % . Reports have associated AS with medical conditions such as aminoaciduria and ligamentous laxity , but these have been case reports or small studies and no factors have been associated with AS across studies . One study of males with AS found an increased rate of epilepsy and a high rate ( 51 % ) of nonverbal learning disorder . AS is associated with tics , Tourette syndrome , and bipolar disorder , and the repetitive behaviors of AS have many similarities with the symptoms of obsessive – compulsive disorder and obsessive – compulsive personality disorder . However many of these studies are based on clinical samples or lack standardized measures ; nonetheless , comorbid conditions are relatively common .
= = History = =
Named after the Austrian pediatrician Hans Asperger ( 1906 – 1980 ) , Asperger syndrome is a relatively new diagnosis in the field of autism . As a child , Asperger appears to have exhibited some features of the very condition named after him , such as remoteness and talent in language . In 1944 , Asperger described four children in his practice who had difficulty in integrating themselves socially . The children lacked nonverbal communication skills , failed to demonstrate empathy with their peers , and were physically clumsy . Asperger called the condition " autistic psychopathy " and described it as primarily marked by social isolation . Fifty years later , several standardizations of AS as a diagnosis were tentatively proposed , many of which diverge significantly from Asperger 's original work .
Unlike today 's AS , autistic psychopathy could be found in people of all levels of intelligence , including those with intellectual disability . Asperger defended the value of high @-@ functioning autistic individuals , writing " We are convinced , then , that autistic people have their place in the organism of the social community . They fulfill their role well , perhaps better than anyone else could , and we are talking of people who as children had the greatest difficulties and caused untold worries to their care @-@ givers . " Asperger also believed some would be capable of exceptional achievement and original thought later in life . His paper was published during wartime and in German , so it was not widely read elsewhere .
Lorna Wing popularized the term Asperger syndrome in the English @-@ speaking medical community in her 1981 publication of a series of case studies of children showing similar symptoms , and Uta Frith translated Asperger 's paper to English in 1991 . Sets of diagnostic criteria were outlined by Gillberg and Gillberg in 1989 and by Szatmari et al. in the same year . AS became a standard diagnosis in 1992 , when it was included in the tenth edition of the World Health Organization 's diagnostic manual , International Classification of Diseases ( ICD @-@ 10 ) ; in 1994 , it was added to the fourth edition of the American Psychiatric Association 's diagnostic reference , Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders ( DSM @-@ IV ) .
Hundreds of books , articles and websites now describe AS , and prevalence estimates have increased dramatically for ASD , with AS recognized as an important subgroup . Whether it should be seen as distinct from high @-@ functioning autism is a fundamental issue requiring further study , and there are questions about the empirical validation of the DSM @-@ IV and ICD @-@ 10 criteria . In 2013 , DSM @-@ 5 eliminated AS as a separate diagnosis , folding it into the autism spectrum on a severity scale .
= = Society and culture = =
People identifying with Asperger syndrome may refer to themselves in casual conversation as aspies ( a term first used in print by Liane Holliday Willey in 1999 ) . The word neurotypical ( abbreviated NT ) describes a person whose neurological development and state are typical , and is often used to refer to non @-@ autistic people . The Internet has allowed individuals with AS to communicate with each other in a way that was not previously possible because of their rarity and geographic dispersal , forming a subculture composed of people with Asperger 's . Internet sites like Wrong Planet have made it easier for individuals to connect .
Some autistic people have advocated a shift in perception of autism spectrum disorders as complex syndromes rather than diseases that must be cured . Proponents of this view reject the notion that there is an " ideal " brain configuration and that any deviation from the norm is pathological ; they promote tolerance for what they call neurodiversity . These views are the basis for the autistic rights and autistic pride movements . There is a contrast between the attitude of adults with self @-@ identified AS , who typically do not want to be cured and are proud of their identity , and parents of children with AS , who typically seek assistance and a cure for their children .
Some researchers have argued that AS can be viewed as a different cognitive style , not a disorder , and that it should be removed from the standard Diagnostic and Statistical Manual , much as homosexuality was removed . In a 2002 paper , Simon Baron @-@ Cohen wrote of those with AS , " In the social world , there is no great benefit to a precise eye for detail , but in the worlds of maths , computing , cataloging , music , linguistics , engineering , and science , such an eye for detail can lead to success rather than failure . " Baron @-@ Cohen cited two reasons why it might still be useful to consider AS to be a disability : to ensure provision for legally required special support , and to recognize emotional difficulties from reduced empathy . Baron @-@ Cohen argues that the genes for Asperger 's combination of abilities have operated throughout recent human evolution and have made remarkable contributions to human history .
By contrast , Pier Jaarsma and Welin wrote in 2011 that the " broad version of the neurodiversity claim , covering low @-@ functioning as well as high @-@ functioning autism , is problematic . Only a narrow conception of neurodiversity , referring exclusively to high @-@ functioning autists , is reasonable . " They say that " higher functioning " individuals with autism may " not [ be ] benefited with such a psychiatric defect @-@ based diagnosis ... some of them are being harmed by it , because of the disrespect the diagnosis displays for their natural way of being " , but " think that it is still reasonable to include other categories of autism in the psychiatric diagnostics . The narrow conception of the neurodiversity claim should be accepted but the broader claim should not . " Jonathan Mitchell , an autistic author and blogger who advocates a cure for autism , has described autism as having " prevented me from making a living or ever having a girlfriend . It 's given me bad fine motor coordination problems where I can hardly write . I have an impaired ability to relate to people . I can 't concentrate or get things done . " He describes neurodiversity as a " tempting escape valve " .
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= Brush with Greatness =
" Brush with Greatness " is the eighteenth episode of The Simpsons ' second season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on April 11 , 1991 . In the episode , Marge revives her high school @-@ era interest in painting by enrolling in an art class after getting encouraged by Lisa . When she wins first prize in a local art competition for a portrait of Homer on the couch in his underwear , Mr. Burns commissions her to paint a portrait of him . Meanwhile , Homer is determined to lose weight after becoming stuck in a water slide at an amusement park .
The episode was written by Brian K. Roberts and directed by Jim Reardon . Beatles member Ringo Starr guest starred as himself , while Jon Lovitz starred as Marge 's art teacher , Professor Lombardo . The episode features cultural references to films such as Rocky and Gone with the Wind . Since airing , the episode has received mostly positive reviews from television critics , who praised the use of Starr and the central focus on Marge . It acquired a Nielsen rating of 12 @.@ 0 , and was the second highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network the week it aired .
= = Plot = =
After Bart and Lisa see Krusty the Clown do his show at the Mt . Splashmore water park on TV , they consistently irritate and supplicate Homer about going there . Homer gets annoyed , but reluctantly decides to take them there . The family goes to Mt . Splashmore , where Bart , Lisa and Homer ride an intense water slide named H2WHOA ! . Due to his weight , Homer gets lodged in a section of the slide and the park 's rescue crew are forced to shut down the ride and remove him with the help of a large crane . Homer is made a fool of on the news for his massive size and admits that he needs to lose weight .
Once home , Homer announces to his family that he will go on a diet and exercise more . While Homer is looking for his weights in the attic , Bart stumbles upon several old paintings of Ringo Starr that Marge made as a student in high school , when she had a crush on Starr . Marge tells Lisa that she was scolded by her art teacher for doing those paintings ; she also recalls sending a painting to Starr for an " honest opinion " , but she never got a response . Lisa suggests that Marge take a painting class at Springfield Community College , which she does . She makes a painting of Homer on the couch in his underwear , which her professor , Lombardo , praises . The painting wins the college art show , thus gaining her fame and the headlines of the newspapers .
Mr. Burns wants Marge to paint his portrait for the Burns Wing of the Springfield Art Museum . She reluctantly agrees , as long as Burns insists that the painting portray him as a beautiful man . While Burns heckles Marge as she does the painting , Homer finds out that he weighs 239 pounds , which is twenty @-@ one pounds less than what it had been . After Burns insults Homer 's weight , Lisa and Maggie , Marge throws him out and is ready to quit until Homer encourages her to finish the painting : She also gets a reply from Starr , who is decades behind on answering his fanmail , praising her artwork . After working until well into the night , she finishes the painting and then it is unveiled at the opening of the Burns Wing . The painting depicts a naked , frail , and weak Burns . The people are shocked , until Marge explains that it depicts what Burns actually is : a vulnerable human being which will , one day , be no more . Burns is outraged at first , but then , like everyone else , accepts his new glory , praises Marge 's painting and thanks Marge " for not making fun of [ his ] genitalia " , to which Marge replies , " I thought I did . "
= = Production = =
The episode was written by Brian K. Roberts and directed by Jim Reardon . Prior to writing the episode , Roberts had been an audio and visual editor on the show . Musician Ringo Starr made a guest appearance in the episode as himself . He was the first Beatle to appear on the show ; both George Harrison and Paul McCartney would later guest star on the show in the season five episode " Homer 's Barbershop Quartet " and the season seven episode " Lisa the Vegetarian " respectively . When the story of Marge having a crush on Starr was pitched out , Roberts took the opportunity to write Starr into the script because he had always wanted to meet a Beatle . He then sent the script to Starr , who was then in Southern France . Starr agreed to do the guest appearance after only reading two lines , and he told Roberts that he would be able to do it when he visited Los Angeles a few weeks later . The staff of the show was thrilled when Roberts revealed that Starr had agreed to do it , and they immediately decided to expand Starr 's role in the script . The Simpsons creator Matt Groening said of the guest appearance : " We were so excited that we got Ringo Starr coming in to do the show and we recorded him over at the Complex in West Los Angeles . We were given a list of rules about what we couldn 't do to Ringo , such as ' Don 't touch him ' , ' Don 't approach him ' , and ' Don 't ask for his autograph ' . But of course when he shows up in this big limo , Brian brings out a big poster and asks him to sign it ! " Roberts explained that he had not received the memo with the rules so he showed up with a copy of the script cover and asked Starr to sign it . Groening asked Starr if he wanted to be animated the way he was in Yellow Submarine or the way he was in the cartoon series The Beatles . Starr chose Yellow Submarine because he did not like his appearance in the cartoon . In addition to Starr , the episode features a guest appearance by Jon Lovitz as Lombardo and the doughnut delivery man that delivers doughnuts to the nuclear power plant . Lombardo 's physical appearance was based on an art teacher Reardon had in art school .
= = Cultural references = =
The line for the H2WHOA ! ride reproduces the staircases in the lithograph Ascending and Descending by M. C. Escher . The way Krusty removes the clown make @-@ up from his face resembles the way the Joker removes his make @-@ up in the 1989 film Batman . When Homer announces he is going on a diet , he says : " As God is my witness , I 'll always be hungry again ! " , a reference to the famous line " As God is my witness ... I 'll never be hungry again ! " from the film Gone with the Wind . Homer exercises in a way similar to how Rocky exercises in the 1976 film Rocky . The music that plays as Homer approaches the scale is the main theme from the film The Good , the Bad and the Ugly . A copy of Andy Warhol 's painting Campbell 's Soup Cans is visible at the art gallery .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast , " Brush with Greatness " finished thirty @-@ seventh in the ratings for the week of April 8 – 14 , 1991 , with a Nielsen rating of 12 @.@ 0 , equivalent to approximately eleven million viewing households . It was the second highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , following Married ... with Children .
The episode received positive reviews from television critics . Many lauded the use of Starr ; for instance , IGN ranked his performance in the episode , along with Paul McCartney 's performance in " Lisa the Vegetarian " and George Harrison 's performance in " Homer 's Barbershop Quartet " , as the tenth best guest appearance in The Simpsons ' history . They added that " Although none of these appearances were really large , the fact that the most popular band of all time appeared on The Simpsons is a large statement on the popularity and importance of the show . " Doug Pratt , a DVD reviewer and Rolling Stone contributor , wrote that " Brush with Greatness " has a " well thought @-@ out " plot and he enjoyed the use of Starr and Marge 's previously undiscovered talents . Paul A. Cantor , the author of the book Gilligan Unbound : Pop Culture in the Age of Globalization , said the " once again Brian K. Roberts proves his genius with ' Brush with Greatness ' in a superb work where Marge cultivates her wonderful artistic side . " DVD Movie Guide 's Colin Jacobson wrote : " From the opening at Mt . Splashmore through Homer ’ s diet and the unveiling of Mr. Burns ’ controversial portrait , the episode packed a lot of great material . It also expanded Marge ’ s character in a pleasing way , as it avoided any semblance of sappiness ; we needed a break from sentiment after ' Old Money ' . Overall , ' Brush with Greatness ' provided a terrific episode . " The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , wrote : " A superb episode , with Marge rightfully centre stage . Despite his general unpleasantness , Mr Burns ' gratitude to Marge is both welcome and unexpected . And the dig at Water Parks is spot on . "
In October 2008 , Ringo Starr posted a video on his website in which he said he was too busy to answer fan mail and that all mail sent to him after October 20 would be thrown out . Although Starr did not mention " Brush with Greatness " in the video , several media sources compared his announcement to his portrayal in the episode .
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= 1904 Tour de France =
The 1904 Tour de France was the second Tour de France , held from 2 to 24 July . With a route similar to its previous edition , 1903 Tour de France winner Maurice Garin seemed to have repeated his win by a small margin over Lucien Pothier , while Hippolyte Aucouturier won four of the six stages . But the race became a victim of its own success , plagued by scandals ; cyclists were accused of having taken trains during the race . Twelve cyclists , including the first four of the final classification and all stage winners , were disqualified by the Union Vélocipédique Française ( UVF ) . Henri Cornet , originally the fifth @-@ place finisher , was awarded the victory four months after the race . The problems caused the Tour de France to be provisionally cancelled , and subsequently the 1905 Tour de France was run with different rules from the 1903 and 1904 edition .
= = Background = =
The initial Tour de France of 1903 had been a large success , and it was quickly decided to organize it again in 1904 . The route was identical , with the same six stages . The rules were the same as in 1903 , with one exception : cyclists could not enter in just one stage , but had to join for the entire race . The favourites for the victory were Garin , Pothier and Aucouturier , who had performed well in the 1903 Tour de France . Among the competitors was Henri Paret who , at 50 years old , still holds the record of oldest Tour de France cyclist .
In the 1903 Tour de France , the organisation guaranteed that the first 50 cyclists in the final general classification would earn at least 5 francs per day . In 1904 , if not more than 50 cyclists would finish , also cyclists who dropped out during the race would still get 5 francs for the days they had been in the race . This rule was added to attract cyclists who otherwise would not enter , because the Tour needed enough competitors to remain credible .
= = Participants = =
= = Race incidents = =
In the first stage , the riders fell after only a few kilometres . Lipman broke a finger , and became the first rider to abandon this Tour . Around 100 km in the race , Lucien Pothier lost ten minutes to the main group , led by Maurice Garin , because of a broken bicycle . In Cosne , at 174 km , Pothier had reached the leading group . Aucouturier had lost more than one hour at that point . Just before the next control post in Nevers , Aucouturier fell on his face , and continued the race covered in blood . In the last part of the race , Maurice Garin and Lucien Pothier rode away from the others . They were attacked by four masked men in a car , but still finished as the first two , with Garin beating Pothier by 50 m . The many flat tires and crashes of Aucouturier , seemingly the results of sabotage , gave him a time loss of several hours .
After the stage , three cyclists were punished : Aucouturier and Samson received fines of 500 and 250 francs , Aucouturier for having a cyclist not in the race following him , Samson for riding in the slipstream of a car . Chevallier , who had finished third , was disqualified for resting in a car for 45 minutes . During the stage , Ferdinand Payan had been disqualified . Some sources indicate he was helped by a motor , other that he was helped by riders not in the race . In that first stage , Garin had asked the race official Lefèvre for food , which was illegal . Lefèvre , who knew that Garin was the star of the race , broke the rules and gave him the food , because he did not want to be responsible for Garin leaving the race because of hunger . The news that Garin had received illegal help quickly spread , and caused the fanatical crowd to take action .
For the second stage , the organisers had made the option to postpone the start by two hours , in case the mistral wind was making cycling difficult . This was not necessary , so the riders started at midnight as planned . During this stage , Antoine Fauré lead close to his hometown , and 200 fans tried to stop the rest of the cyclists from following him . Garin hurt his hand during the incident , and Giovanni Gerbi was knocked unconscious , and had to give up with broken fingers . The situation was only solved after race officials fired shots in the air . Further on , nails and broken glass had been spread along the road , which caused many flat tires . Because of this help , Fauré was the first on top of the Col de la République , but was taken over by the favourites later . Aucouturier won the sprint . When the riders reached Marseille , they complained that there had been too many incidents in this stage , and the stage results should be cancelled . In the last part , they had been stopped by a large group of cyclists . Maurice Garin had been attacked , and his arm had been injured : he finished the stage steering with only one hand . There was so much confusion at the last controle post , that the exact arrival times of the cyclists were not recorded .
In the third stage , the Tour reached Nîmes , near the home town of Payan , whose fans were angry because of his disqualification . They threw rocks at the riders , and barricaded the road . The cyclists had troubles passing through Nîmes , and several were injured . The most important event for the general classification was when César Garin 's bicycle was broken by attackers ; he had to find a new bicycle , which took him 15 minutes . Further on , nails and broken glass were spread along the road . Many riders punctured , but there were no serious falls . The cyclists passed this part walking . After Nîmes , a leading group of five cyclists was formed : Maurice Garin , Pothier , Aucouturier , Cornet and Beaugendre . Aucouturier and Cornet escaped , and Aucouturier won , beating Cornet in the sprint .
The fourth stage was run without the incidents that plagued the first three stages . Pothier , Maurice and César Garin and Beaugendre reached Bordeaux together , and the stage was decided by the final kilometre in the velodrome , where Pothier recorded the fastest time .
In the fifth stage , nails on the road again causing punctures . As mechanical assistance was not allowed , Cornet had to ride the last 40 km on two flat tires . Aucouturier won this stage , his third one , but was way behind in the general classification , which Garin lead , with only 28 seconds margin to Pothier .
In the sixth stage , Aucouturier , Garin and Dortignac escaped in the last kilometres . Aucouturier signed first at the control post in Ville @-@ d 'Avray . From that point , the race was neutralised until the velodrome Parc @-@ des @-@ Princes , where the riders would ride the final kilometre . At the moment that the riders arrived in Paris , it started to rain . The organisers decided together with the cyclists to exclude the final kilometre from the race , and make the control post in Ville @-@ d 'Avray the end of the race . This made Aucouturier the winner of the stage . Maurice Garin finished second , which made him the overall winner .
= = Initial results before disqualifications = =
Initially , Maurice Garin was the winner , having led the race from start to end . Hippolyte Aucouturier won four stages . In total , 27 cyclists finished . For each cyclist , the times they had needed in each stage was added up for the general classification . The cyclist with the least accumulated time after the last stage was the winner .
= = Disqualification = =
During the race , nine riders were excluded because of , among other actions , illegal use of cars or trains . The Tour organizers were happy with the result , but the Union Vélocipédique Française ( UVF ) started an investigation after complaints from other cyclists . Their investigative committee heard testimony from dozens of competitors and witnesses , and , in December 1904 , disqualified all the stage winners and the first four finishers ( Maurice Garin , Pothier , César Garin , and Aucouturier ) . Ten of those disqualified were banned for one year , Garin for two years and the remaining two for life . In total , 29 riders were punished . The reasons for the disqualification were never made public .
Fifth @-@ placed Henri Cornet , aged 19 , then became the youngest ever winner of the Tour . Cornet had also been warned after he had received a lift by a car . Only 15 cyclists from the original 27 that finished were not disqualified .
Following the disqualifications , the Tour de France came nearest in history to being permanently cancelled . The race organiser Henri Desgrange , said he would never run the race again because it had been overtaken by the " blind emotions " of those who attacked or helped riders as they passed . Desgrange was also upset that the UVF had imposed judgement on his race when he had already disciplined riders as he saw fit .
An angry exchange ensued between Desgrange and the UVF but the letters and the detailed complaints that led to the UVF 's actions were lost when the Tour de France archives were transported south in 1940 to avoid the German invasion and were never seen again .
Until the end of his life , Garin always said that he was the rightful winner of the 1904 Tour de France , but according to Les Woodland , Garin confessed to a friend that he had cheated .
= = Final results = =
After the disqualifications , the first four cyclists of the initial classification were disqualified . In the new classification , only 15 cyclists had finished :
= = Aftermath = =
Because of the scandals associated with this Tour , Desgrange wanted to stop the race . He however changed his mind , and the rules were changed to prevent cyclists from cheating : the 1905 Tour de France would be decided with a points system . Tour de France 1904 winner Cornet would enter the Tour de France for seven more times , but would never again play an important role .
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= International Mathematical Olympiad =
The International Mathematical Olympiad ( IMO ) is an annual six @-@ problem mathematical olympiad for pre @-@ college students , and is the oldest of the International Science Olympiads . The first IMO was held in Romania in 1959 . It has since been held annually , except in 1980 . About 100 countries send teams of up to six students , plus one team leader , one deputy leader , and observers .
The content ranges from extremely difficult algebra and pre @-@ calculus problems to problems on branches of mathematics not conventionally covered at school and often not at university level either , such as projective and complex geometry , functional equations and well @-@ grounded number theory , of which extensive knowledge of theorems is required . Calculus , though allowed in solutions , is never required , as there is a principle that anyone with a basic understanding of mathematics should understand the problems , even if the solutions require a great deal more knowledge . Supporters of this principle claim that this allows more universality and creates an incentive to find elegant , deceptively simple @-@ looking problems which nevertheless require a certain level of ingenuity .
The selection process differs by country , but it often consists of a series of tests which admit fewer students at each progressing test . Awards are given to the lowest percentage of the individual contestants . Teams are not officially recognized — all scores are given only to individual contestants , but team scoring is unofficially compared more than individual scores . Contestants must be under the age of 20 and must not be registered at any tertiary institution . Subject to these conditions , an individual may participate any number of times in the IMO .
= = History = =
The first IMO was held in Romania in 1959 . Since then it has been held every year except in 1980 . That year , it was cancelled due to internal strife in Mongolia . It was initially founded for eastern European member countries of the Warsaw Pact , under the Soviet bloc of influence , but later other countries participated as well . Because of this eastern origin , the IMOs were first hosted only in eastern European countries , and gradually spread to other nations .
Sources differ about the cities hosting some of the early IMOs . This may be partly because leaders are generally housed well away from the students , and partly because after the competition the students did not always stay based in one city for the rest of the IMO . The exact dates cited may also differ , because of leaders arriving before the students , and at more recent IMOs the IMO Advisory Board arriving before the leaders .
Several students , such as Zhuoqun Alex Song , Teodor von Burg , Lisa Sauermann , and Christian Reiher , have performed exceptionally well in the IMO , winning multiple gold medals . Others , such as Grigory Margulis , Jean @-@ Christophe Yoccoz , Laurent Lafforgue , Stanislav Smirnov , Terence Tao , Sucharit Sarkar , Grigori Perelman , Ngô Bảo Châu and Maryam Mirzakhani have gone on to become notable mathematicians . Several former participants have won awards such as the Fields Medal .
In January 2011 , Google gave € 1 million to the International Mathematical Olympiad organization . The donation helped the organization cover the costs of the next five global events ( 2011 – 2015 ) .
= = Scoring and format = =
The examination consists of six problems . Each problem is worth seven points , so the maximum total score is 42 points . No calculators are allowed . The examination is held over two consecutive days ; each day the contestants have four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half hours to solve three problems . The problems chosen are from various areas of secondary school mathematics , broadly classifiable as geometry , number theory , algebra , and combinatorics . They require no knowledge of higher mathematics such as calculus and analysis , and solutions are often short and elementary . However , they are usually disguised so as to make the solutions difficult . Prominently featured are algebraic inequalities , complex numbers , and construction @-@ oriented geometrical problems , though in recent years the latter has not been as popular as before .
Each participating country , other than the host country , may submit suggested problems to a Problem Selection Committee provided by the host country , which reduces the submitted problems to a shortlist . The team leaders arrive at the IMO a few days in advance of the contestants and form the IMO Jury which is responsible for all the formal decisions relating to the contest , starting with selecting the six problems from the shortlist . The Jury aims to order the problems so that the order in increasing difficulty is Q1 , Q4 , Q2 , Q5 , Q3 and Q6 . As the leaders know the problems in advance of the contestants , they are kept strictly separated and observed .
Each country 's marks are agreed between that country 's leader and deputy leader and coordinators provided by the host country ( the leader of the team whose country submitted the problem in the case of the marks of the host country ) , subject to the decisions of the chief coordinator and ultimately a jury if any disputes cannot be resolved .
= = Selection process = =
The selection process for the IMO varies greatly by country . In some countries , especially those in east Asia , the selection process involves several tests of a difficulty comparable to the IMO itself . The Chinese contestants go through a camp . In others , such as the USA , possible participants go through a series of easier standalone competitions that gradually increase in difficulty . In the USA , the tests include the American Mathematics Competitions , the American Invitational Mathematics Examination , and the United States of America Mathematical Olympiad , each of which is a competition in its own right . For high scorers in the final competition for the team selection , there also is a summer camp , like that of China .
In countries of the former Soviet Union and other eastern European countries , a team has in the past been chosen several years beforehand , and they are given special training specifically for the event . However , such methods have been discontinued in some countries . In Ukraine , for instance , selection tests consist of four olympiads comparable to the IMO by difficulty and schedule . While identifying the winners , only the results of the current selection olympiads are considered .
= = Awards = =
The participants are ranked based on their individual scores . Medals are awarded to the highest ranked participants ; slightly fewer than half of them receive a medal . The cutoffs ( minimum scores required to receive a gold , silver or bronze medal respectively ) are then chosen so that the numbers of gold , silver and bronze medals awarded are approximately in the ratios 1 : 2 : 3 . Participants who do not win a medal but who score seven points on at least one problem receive an honorable mention .
Special prizes may be awarded for solutions of outstanding elegance or involving good generalisations of a problem . This last happened in 1995 ( Nikolay Nikolov , Bulgaria ) and 2005 ( Iurie Boreico ) , but was more frequent up to the early 1980s . The special prize in 2005 was awarded to Iurie Boreico , a student from Moldova , who came up with a brilliant solution to question 3 , which was an inequality involving three variables .
The rule that at most half the contestants win a medal is sometimes broken if it would cause the total number of medals to deviate too much from half the number of contestants . This last happened in 2010 ( when the choice was to give either 226 ( 43 @.@ 71 % ) or 266 ( 51 @.@ 45 % ) of the 517 contestants ( excluding the 6 from North Korea — see below ) a medal ) , 2012 ( when the choice was to give either 226 ( 46 @.@ 35 % ) or 277 ( 50 @.@ 55 % ) of the 548 contestants a medal ) , and 2013 , when the choice was to give either 249 ( 47 @.@ 16 % ) or 278 ( 52 @.@ 65 % ) of the 528 contestants a medal .
= = Penalties = =
North Korea was disqualified for cheating at the 32nd IMO in 1991 and again at the 51st IMO in 2010 . It is the only country to have been accused of cheating . There is some debate as to whether North Korea was actually cheating , especially in the 51st IMO .
= = Recent and future IMOs = =
The 51st IMO was held in Astana , Kazakhstan , July 2 – 15 , 2010 .
The 52nd IMO was held in Amsterdam , Netherlands , July 13 – 24 , 2011 .
The 53rd IMO was held in Mar del Plata , Argentina , July 4 – 16 , 2012 .
The 54th IMO was held in Santa Marta , Colombia , July 18 – 28 , 2013 .
The 55th IMO was held in Cape Town , South Africa , July 3 – 13 , 2014 .
The 56th IMO was held in Chiang Mai , Thailand in 2015 .
The 57th IMO was held in Hong Kong in 2016 .
The 58th IMO will be held in Brazil in 2017 .
The 59th IMO will be held in Romania in 2018 .
The 60th IMO will be held in UK in 2019 .
The 61st IMO will be held in St. Petersburg , Russia in 2020 .
= = Notable achievements = =
The following nations have achieved the highest team score in the respective competition :
China , 19 times ( from the first participation in 1985 until 2014 ) : in every year from 1989 to 2014 except 1991 , 1994 , 1996 , 1998 , 2003 , 2007 ;
Soviet Union , 14 times : in 1963 , 1964 , 1965 , 1966 , 1967 , 1972 , 1973 , 1974 , 1976 , 1979 , 1984 , 1986 , 1988 , 1991 ;
Hungary , 6 times : in 1961 , 1962 , 1969 , 1970 , 1971 , 1975 ;
United States , 6 times : in 1977 , 1981 , 1986 , 1994 , 2015 , 2016 ;
Romania , 5 times : in 1959 , 1978 , 1985 , 1987 , 1996 ;
West Germany , 2 times : in 1982 and 1983 ;
Russia , 2 times : in 1999 and 2007 ;
Bulgaria , once : in 2003 ;
Iran , once : in 1998 ;
South Korea , once : in 2012 .
East Germany , once : in 1968
The following nations have achieved an all @-@ members @-@ gold IMO with a full team :
China , 11 times : in 1992 , 1993 , 1997 , 2000 , 2001 , 2002 , 2004 , 2006 , 2009 , 2010 and 2011 .
United States , 3 times : in 1994 , 2011 , and 2016 .
Russia , 2 times : in 2002 and 2008 .
South Korea , once : in 2012 .
Bulgaria , once : in 2003 .
The only countries to have their entire team score perfectly in the IMO were the United States in 1994 ( they were coached by Paul Zeitz ) ; and Luxembourg , whose 1 @-@ member team had a perfect score in 1981 . The US 's success earned a mention in TIME Magazine . Hungary won IMO 1975 in an unorthodox way when none of the eight team members received a gold medal ( five silver , three bronze ) . Second place team East Germany also did not have a single gold medal winner ( four silver , four bronze ) .
Several individuals have consistently scored highly and / or earned medals on the IMO : As of July 2015 , Zhuoqun Alex Song ( Canada ) is the most successful participant with five gold medals ( including one perfect score in 2015 ) and one bronze medal . Reid Barton ( United States ) was the first participant to win a gold medal four times ( 1998 @-@ 2001 ) . Barton is also one of only eight four @-@ time Putnam Fellow ( 2001 – 04 ) . Christian Reiher ( Germany ) , Lisa Sauermann ( Germany ) , Teodor von Burg ( Serbia ) , and Nipun Pitimanaaree ( Thailand ) are the only other participants to have won four gold medals ( 2000 – 03 , 2008 – 11 , 2009 – 12 , 2010 – 13 , and 2011 – 14 respectively ) ; Reiher also received a bronze medal ( 1999 ) , Sauermann a silver medal ( 2007 ) , von Burg a silver medal ( 2008 ) and a bronze medal ( 2007 ) , and Pitimanaaree a silver medal ( 2009 ) . Wolfgang Burmeister ( East Germany ) , Martin Härterich ( West Germany ) , Iurie Boreico ( Moldova ) , and Jeck Lim ( Singapore ) are the only other participants besides Reiher , Sauermann , von Burg , and Pitimanaaree to win five medals with at least three of them gold . Ciprian Manolescu ( Romania ) managed to write a perfect paper ( 42 points ) for gold medal more times than anybody else in the history of the competition , doing it all three times he participated in the IMO ( 1995 , 1996 , 1997 ) . Manolescu is also a three @-@ time Putnam Fellow ( 1997 , 1998 , 2000 ) . Evgenia Malinnikova ( Soviet Union ) is the highest @-@ scoring female contestant in IMO history . She has 3 gold medals in IMO 1989 ( 41 points ) , IMO 1990 ( 42 ) and IMO 1991 ( 42 ) , missing only 1 point in 1989 to precede Manolescu 's achievement .
Terence Tao ( Australia ) participated in IMO 1986 , 1987 and 1988 , winning bronze , silver and gold medals respectively . He won a gold medal when he just turned thirteen in IMO 1988 , becoming the youngest person at that time to receive a gold medal ( a feat matched in 2011 by Zhuoqun Alex Song of Canada ) . Tao also holds the distinction of being the youngest medalist with his 1986 bronze medal , alongside 2009 bronze medalist Raúl Chávez Sarmiento ( Peru ) , at the age of 10 and 11 respectively . Representing the United States , Noam Elkies won a gold medal with a perfect paper at the age of 14 in 1981 . Note that both Elkies and Tao could have participated in the IMO multiple times following their success , but entered university and therefore became ineligible .
The top 10 countries with the best all @-@ time results are as follows :
= = Media coverage = =
A documentary , " Hard Problems : The Road To The World 's Toughest Math Contest " was made about the United States 2006 IMO team .
A BBC documentary titled Beautiful Young Minds aired July 2007 about the IMO .
A BBC fictional film titled X + Y released in September 2014 tells the story of an autistic boy who took part in the Olympiad .
= = = Official = = =
Official IMO web site
Old central IMO web site
= = = Resources = = =
MathLinks Olympiad resources - IMO problems and solutions , IMO Shortlists , IMO Longlists and one of the largest collection of Olympiad problems in the world .
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= Perl =
Perl is a family of high @-@ level , general @-@ purpose , interpreted , dynamic programming languages . The languages in this family include Perl 5 and Perl 6 .
Though Perl is not officially an acronym , there are various backronyms in use , the most well @-@ known being " Practical Extraction and Reporting Language " . Perl was originally developed by Larry Wall in 1987 as a general @-@ purpose Unix scripting language to make report processing easier . Since then , it has undergone many changes and revisions . Perl 6 , which began as a redesign of Perl 5 in 2000 , eventually evolved into a separate language . Both languages continue to be developed independently by different development teams and liberally borrow ideas from one another .
The Perl languages borrow features from other programming languages including C , shell script ( sh ) , AWK , and sed . They provide powerful text processing facilities without the arbitrary data @-@ length limits of many contemporary Unix commandline tools , facilitating easy manipulation of text files . Perl 5 gained widespread popularity in the late 1990s as a CGI scripting language , in part due to its unsurpassed regular expression and string parsing abilities .
In addition to CGI , Perl 5 is used for graphics programming , system administration , network programming , finance , bioinformatics , and other applications . It has been nicknamed " the Swiss Army chainsaw of scripting languages " because of its flexibility and power , and possibly also because of its " ugliness " . In 1998 , it was also referred to as the " duct tape that holds the Internet together " , in reference to both its ubiquitous use as a glue language and its perceived inelegance .
= = History = =
= = = Early versions = = =
Larry Wall began work on Perl in 1987 , while working as a programmer at Unisys , and released version 1 @.@ 0 to the comp.sources.misc newsgroup on December 18 , 1987 . The language expanded rapidly over the next few years .
Perl 2 , released in 1988 , featured a better regular expression engine . Perl 3 , released in 1989 , added support for binary data streams .
Originally the only documentation for Perl was a single ( increasingly lengthy ) man page . In 1991 , Programming Perl , known to many Perl programmers as the " Camel Book " because of its cover , was published and became the de facto reference for the language . At the same time , the Perl version number was bumped to 4 , not to mark a major change in the language but to identify the version that was well documented by the book .
= = = Early Perl 5 = = =
Perl 4 went through a series of maintenance releases , culminating in Perl 4 @.@ 036 in 1993 . At that point , Wall abandoned Perl 4 to begin work on Perl 5 . Initial design of Perl 5 continued into 1994 . The perl5 @-@ porters mailing list was established in May 1994 to coordinate work on porting Perl 5 to different platforms . It remains the primary forum for development , maintenance , and porting of Perl 5 .
Perl 5 @.@ 000 was released on October 17 , 1994 . It was a nearly complete rewrite of the interpreter , and it added many new features to the language , including objects , references , lexical ( my ) variables , and modules . Importantly , modules provided a mechanism for extending the language without modifying the interpreter . This allowed the core interpreter to stabilize , even as it enabled ordinary Perl programmers to add new language features . Perl 5 has been in active development since then .
Perl 5 @.@ 001 was released on March 13 , 1995 . Perl 5 @.@ 002 was released on February 29 , 1996 with the new prototypes feature . This allowed module authors to make subroutines that behaved like Perl builtins . Perl 5 @.@ 003 was released June 25 , 1996 , as a security release .
One of the most important events in Perl 5 history took place outside of the language proper and was a consequence of its module support . On October 26 , 1995 , the Comprehensive Perl Archive Network ( CPAN ) was established as a repository for Perl modules and Perl itself ; as of June 2015 , it carries over 150 @,@ 775 modules in 31 @,@ 896 distributions , written by more than 12 @,@ 219 authors , and is mirrored worldwide at more than 253 locations .
Perl 5 @.@ 004 was released on May 15 , 1997 , and included among other things the UNIVERSAL package , giving Perl a base object to which all classes were automatically derived and the ability to require versions of modules . Another significant development was the inclusion of the CGI.pm module , which contributed to Perl 's popularity as a CGI scripting language .
Perl is also now supported running under Microsoft Windows and several other operating systems .
Perl 5 @.@ 005 was released on July 22 , 1998 . This release included several enhancements to the regex engine , new hooks into the backend through the B : : * modules , the qr / / regex quote operator , a large selection of other new core modules , and added support for several more operating systems , including BeOS .
= = = 2000 – present = = =
Perl 5 @.@ 6 was released on March 22 , 2000 . Major changes included 64 @-@ bit support , Unicode string representation , large file support ( i.e. files over 2 GiB ) and the " our " keyword . When developing Perl 5 @.@ 6 , the decision was made to switch the versioning scheme to one more similar to other open source projects ; after 5 @.@ 005 _ 63 , the next version became 5 @.@ 5 @.@ 640 , with plans for development versions to have odd numbers and stable versions to have even numbers .
In 2000 , Wall put forth a call for suggestions for a new version of Perl from the community . The process resulted in 361 RFC ( request for comments ) documents that were to be used in guiding development of Perl 6 . In 2001 , work began on the apocalypses for Perl 6 , a series of documents meant to summarize the change requests and present the design of the next generation of Perl . They were presented as a digest of the RFCs , rather than a formal document . At this point , Perl 6 existed only as a description of a language .
Perl 5 @.@ 8 was first released on July 18 , 2002 , and had nearly yearly updates since then . Perl 5 @.@ 8 improved Unicode support , added a new I / O implementation , added a new thread implementation , improved numeric accuracy , and added several new modules . As of 2013 this version still remains the most popular version of Perl and is used by Red Hat 5 , Suse 10 , Solaris 10 , HP @-@ UX 11 @.@ 31 and AIX 5 .
In 2004 , work began on the Synopses – documents that originally summarized the Apocalypses , but which became the specification for the Perl 6 language . In February 2005 , Audrey Tang began work on Pugs , a Perl 6 interpreter written in Haskell . This was the first concerted effort towards making Perl 6 a reality . This effort stalled in 2006 .
On December 18 , 2007 , the 20th anniversary of Perl 1 @.@ 0 , Perl 5 @.@ 10 @.@ 0 was released . Perl 5 @.@ 10 @.@ 0 included notable new features , which brought it closer to Perl 6 . These included a switch statement ( called " given " / " when " ) , regular expressions updates , and the smart match operator , " ~ ~ " . Around this same time , development began in earnest on another implementation of Perl 6 known as Rakudo Perl , developed in tandem with the Parrot virtual machine . As of November 2009 , Rakudo Perl has had regular monthly releases and now is the most complete implementation of Perl 6 .
A major change in the development process of Perl 5 occurred with Perl 5 @.@ 11 ; the development community has switched to a monthly release cycle of development releases , with a yearly schedule of stable releases . By that plan , bugfix point releases will follow the stable releases every three months .
On April 12 , 2010 , Perl 5 @.@ 12 @.@ 0 was released . Notable core enhancements include new package NAME VERSION syntax , the Yada Yada operator ( intended to mark placeholder code that is not yet implemented ) , implicit strictures , full Y2038 compliance , regex conversion overloading , DTrace support , and Unicode 5 @.@ 2 . On January 21 , 2011 , Perl 5 @.@ 12 @.@ 3 was released ; it contains updated modules and some documentation changes . Version 5 @.@ 12 @.@ 4 was released on June 20 , 2011 . The latest version of that branch , 5 @.@ 12 @.@ 5 , was released on November 10 , 2012 .
On May 14 , 2011 , Perl 5 @.@ 14 was released . JSON support is built @-@ in as of 5 @.@ 14 @.@ 2 . The latest version of that branch , 5 @.@ 14 @.@ 4 , was released on March 10 , 2013 .
On May 20 , 2012 , Perl 5 @.@ 16 was released . Notable new features include the ability to specify a given version of Perl that one wishes to emulate , allowing users to upgrade their version of Perl , but still run old scripts that would normally be incompatible . Perl 5 @.@ 16 also updates the core to support Unicode 6 @.@ 1 .
On May 18 , 2013 , Perl 5 @.@ 18 was released . Notable new features include the new dtrace hooks , lexical subs , more CORE : : subs , overhaul of the hash for security reasons , support for Unicode 6 @.@ 2 .
On May 27 , 2014 , Perl 5 @.@ 20 was released . Notable new features include subroutine signatures , hash slices / new slice syntax , postfix dereferencing ( experimental ) , Unicode 6 @.@ 3 , rand ( ) using consistent random number generator .
Some observers credit the release of Perl 5 @.@ 10 with the start of the Modern Perl movement . In particular , this phrase describes a style of development that embraces the use of the CPAN , takes advantage of recent developments in the language , and is rigorous about creating high quality code . While the book " Modern Perl " may be the most visible standard @-@ bearer of this idea , other groups such as the Enlightened Perl Organization have taken up the cause .
In late 2012 and 2013 several projects for alternative implementations for Perl 5 started : Perl5 in Perl6 by the Rakudo Perl team , moe by Stevan Little and friends , p2 by the Perl11 team under Reini Urban , gperl by goccy , and rperl a kickstarter project led by Will Braswell and affiliated with the Perll11 project .
= = = PONIE = = =
PONIE is an acronym for Perl On New Internal Engine . The PONIE Project existed from 2003 until 2006 and was to be a bridge between Perl 5 and Perl 6 . It was an effort to rewrite the Perl 5 interpreter to run on Parrot , the Perl 6 virtual machine . The goal was to ensure the future of the millions of lines of Perl 5 code at thousands of companies around the world .
The PONIE project ended in 2006 and is no longer being actively developed . Some of the improvements made to the Perl 5 interpreter as part of PONIE were folded into that project .
= = = Name = = =
Perl was originally named " Pearl " . Wall wanted to give the language a short name with positive connotations ; he claims that he considered ( and rejected ) every three- and four @-@ letter word in the dictionary . He also considered naming it after his wife Gloria . Wall discovered the existing PEARL programming language before Perl 's official release and changed the spelling of the name .
When referring to the language , the name is normally capitalized ( Perl ) as a proper noun . When referring to the interpreter program itself , the name is often uncapitalized ( perl ) because most Unix @-@ like file systems are case @-@ sensitive . Before the release of the first edition of Programming Perl , it was common to refer to the language as perl ; Randal L. Schwartz , however , capitalized the language 's name in the book to make it stand out better when typeset . This case distinction was subsequently documented as canonical .
The name is occasionally expanded as Practical Extraction and Report Language , but this is a backronym . Other expansions have been suggested as equally canonical , including Wall 's own humorous Pathologically Eclectic Rubbish Lister . Indeed , Wall claims that the name was intended to inspire many different expansions .
= = = Camel symbol = = =
Programming Perl , published by O 'Reilly Media , features a picture of a dromedary camel on the cover and is commonly called the " Camel Book " . This image of a camel has become an unofficial symbol of Perl as well as a general hacker emblem , appearing on T @-@ shirts and other clothing items .
O 'Reilly owns the image as a trademark but licenses it for non @-@ commercial use , requiring only an acknowledgement and a link to www.perl.com. Licensing for commercial use is decided on a case by case basis . O 'Reilly also provides " Programming Republic of Perl " logos for non @-@ commercial sites and " Powered by Perl " buttons for any site that uses Perl .
= = = Onion symbol = = =
The Perl Foundation owns an alternative symbol , an onion , which it licenses to its subsidiaries , Perl Mongers , PerlMonks , Perl.org , and others . The symbol is a visual pun on pearl onion .
= = Overview = =
According to Wall , Perl has two slogans . The first is " There 's more than one way to do it " , commonly known as TMTOWTDI . The second slogan is " Easy things should be easy and hard things should be possible " .
= = = Features = = =
The overall structure of Perl derives broadly from C. Perl is procedural in nature , with variables , expressions , assignment statements , brace @-@ delimited blocks , control structures , and subroutines .
Perl also takes features from shell programming . All variables are marked with leading sigils , which allow variables to be interpolated directly into strings . However , unlike the shell , Perl uses sigils on all accesses to variables , and unlike most other programming languages that use sigils , the sigil doesn 't denote the type of the variable but the type of the expression . So for example , to access a list of values in a hash , the sigil for an array ( " @ " ) is used , not the sigil for a hash ( " % " ) . Perl also has many built @-@ in functions that provide tools often used in shell programming ( although many of these tools are implemented by programs external to the shell ) such as sorting , and calling operating system facilities .
Perl takes lists from Lisp , hashes ( " associative arrays " ) from AWK , and regular expressions from sed . These simplify and facilitate many parsing , text @-@ handling , and data @-@ management tasks . Also shared with Lisp are the implicit return of the last value in a block , and the fact that all statements have a value , and thus are also expressions and can be used in larger expressions themselves .
Perl 5 added features that support complex data structures , first @-@ class functions ( that is , closures as values ) , and an object @-@ oriented programming model . These include references , packages , class @-@ based method dispatch , and lexically scoped variables , along with compiler directives ( for example , the strict pragma ) . A major additional feature introduced with Perl 5 was the ability to package code as reusable modules . Wall later stated that " The whole intent of Perl 5 's module system was to encourage the growth of Perl culture rather than the Perl core . "
All versions of Perl do automatic data @-@ typing and automatic memory management . The interpreter knows the type and storage requirements of every data object in the program ; it allocates and frees storage for them as necessary using reference counting ( so it cannot deallocate circular data structures without manual intervention ) . Legal type conversions — for example , conversions from number to string — are done automatically at run time ; illegal type conversions are fatal errors .
= = = Design = = =
The design of Perl can be understood as a response to three broad trends in the computer industry : falling hardware costs , rising labor costs , and improvements in compiler technology . Many earlier computer languages , such as Fortran and C , aimed to make efficient use of expensive computer hardware . In contrast , Perl was designed so that computer programmers could write programs more quickly and easily .
Perl has many features that ease the task of the programmer at the expense of greater CPU and memory requirements . These include automatic memory management ; dynamic typing ; strings , lists , and hashes ; regular expressions ; introspection ; and an eval ( ) function . Perl follows the theory of " no built @-@ in limits " , an idea similar to the Zero One Infinity rule .
Wall was trained as a linguist , and the design of Perl is very much informed by linguistic principles . Examples include Huffman coding ( common constructions should be short ) , good end @-@ weighting ( the important information should come first ) , and a large collection of language primitives . Perl favors language constructs that are concise and natural for humans to write , even where they complicate the Perl interpreter .
Perl 's syntax reflects the idea that " things that are different should look different . " For example , scalars , arrays , and hashes have different leading sigils . Array indices and hash keys use different kinds of braces . Strings and regular expressions have different standard delimiters . This approach can be contrasted with languages such as Lisp , where the same S @-@ expression construct and basic syntax are used for many different purposes .
Perl does not enforce any particular programming paradigm ( procedural , object @-@ oriented , functional , or others ) or even require the programmer to choose among them .
There is a broad practical bent to both the Perl language and the community and culture that surround it . The preface to Programming Perl begins : " Perl is a language for getting your job done . " One consequence of this is that Perl is not a tidy language . It includes many features , tolerates exceptions to its rules , and employs heuristics to resolve syntactical ambiguities . Because of the forgiving nature of the compiler , bugs can sometimes be hard to find . Perl 's function documentation remarks on the variant behavior of built @-@ in functions in list and scalar contexts by saying , " In general , they do what you want , unless you want consistency . "
No written specification or standard for the Perl language exists for Perl versions through Perl 5 , and there are no plans to create one for the current version of Perl . There has been only one implementation of the interpreter , and the language has evolved along with it . That interpreter , together with its functional tests , stands as a de facto specification of the language . Perl 6 , however , started with a specification , and several projects aim to implement some or all of the specification .
= = = Applications = = =
Perl has many and varied applications , compounded by the availability of many standard and third @-@ party modules .
Perl has chiefly been used to write CGI scripts : large projects written in Perl include cPanel , Slash , Bugzilla , RT , TWiki , and Movable Type ; high @-@ traffic websites that use Perl extensively include Priceline.com , Craigslist , IMDb , LiveJournal , DuckDuckGo , Slashdot and Ticketmaster . It is also an optional component of the popular LAMP technology stack for Web development , in lieu of PHP or Python .
Perl is often used as a glue language , tying together systems and interfaces that were not specifically designed to interoperate , and for " data munging " , that is , converting or processing large amounts of data for tasks such as creating reports . In fact , these strengths are intimately linked . The combination makes Perl a popular all @-@ purpose language for system administrators , particularly because short programs , often called " one @-@ liner programs " , can be entered and run on a single command line .
Perl code can be made portable across Windows and Unix ; such code is often used by suppliers of software ( both COTS and bespoke ) to simplify packaging and maintenance of software build- and deployment @-@ scripts .
Graphical user interfaces ( GUIs ) may be developed using Perl . For example , Perl / Tk and WxPerl are commonly used to enable user interaction with Perl scripts . Such interaction may be synchronous or asynchronous , using callbacks to update the GUI .
= = = Implementation = = =
Perl is implemented as a core interpreter , written in C , together with a large collection of modules , written in Perl and C. As of 2010 . The interpreter is 150 @,@ 000 lines of C code and compiles to a 1 MB executable on typical machine architectures . Alternatively , the interpreter can be compiled to a link library and embedded in other programs . There are nearly 500 modules in the distribution , comprising 200 @,@ 000 lines of Perl and an additional 350 @,@ 000 lines of C code ( much of the C code in the modules consists of character encoding tables ) .
The interpreter has an object @-@ oriented architecture . All of the elements of the Perl language — scalars , arrays , hashes , coderefs , file handles — are represented in the interpreter by C structs . Operations on these structs are defined by a large collection of macros , typedefs , and functions ; these constitute the Perl C API . The Perl API can be bewildering to the uninitiated , but its entry points follow a consistent naming scheme , which provides guidance to those who use it .
The life of a Perl interpreter divides broadly into a compile phase and a run phase . In Perl , the phases are the major stages in the interpreter 's life @-@ cycle . Each interpreter goes through each phase only once , and the phases follow in a fixed sequence .
Most of what happens in Perl 's compile phase is compilation , and most of what happens in Perl 's run phase is execution , but there are significant exceptions . Perl makes important use of its capability to execute Perl code during the compile phase . Perl will also delay compilation into the run phase . The terms that indicate the kind of processing that is actually occurring at any moment are compile time and run time . Perl is in compile time at most points during the compile phase , but compile time may also be entered during the run phase . The compile time for code in a string argument passed to the eval built @-@ in occurs during the run phase . Perl is often in run time during the compile phase and spends most of the run phase in run time . Code in BEGIN blocks executes at run time but in the compile phase .
At compile time , the interpreter parses Perl code into a syntax tree . At run time , it executes the program by walking the tree . Text is parsed only once , and the syntax tree is subject to optimization before it is executed , so that execution is relatively efficient . Compile @-@ time optimizations on the syntax tree include constant folding and context propagation , but peephole optimization is also performed .
Perl has a Turing @-@ complete grammar because parsing can be affected by run @-@ time code executed during the compile phase . Therefore , Perl cannot be parsed by a straight Lex / Yacc lexer / parser combination . Instead , the interpreter implements its own lexer , which coordinates with a modified GNU bison parser to resolve ambiguities in the language .
It is often said that " Only perl can parse Perl " , meaning that only the Perl interpreter ( perl ) can parse the Perl language ( Perl ) , but even this is not , in general , true . Because the Perl interpreter can simulate a Turing machine during its compile phase , it would need to decide the halting problem in order to complete parsing in every case . It is a long @-@ standing result that the halting problem is undecidable , and therefore not even perl can always parse Perl . Perl makes the unusual choice of giving the user access to its full programming power in its own compile phase . The cost in terms of theoretical purity is high , but practical inconvenience seems to be rare .
Other programs that undertake to parse Perl , such as source @-@ code analyzers and auto @-@ indenters , have to contend not only with ambiguous syntactic constructs but also with the undecidability of Perl parsing in the general case . Adam Kennedy 's PPI project focused on parsing Perl code as a document ( retaining its integrity as a document ) , instead of parsing Perl as executable code ( that not even Perl itself can always do ) . It was Kennedy who first conjectured that " parsing Perl suffers from the ' halting problem ' " , which was later proved .
Perl is distributed with over 250 @,@ 000 functional tests for core Perl language and over 250 @,@ 000 functional tests for core modules . These run as part of the normal build process and extensively exercise the interpreter and its core modules . Perl developers rely on the functional tests to ensure that changes to the interpreter do not introduce software bugs ; additionally , Perl users who see that the interpreter passes its functional tests on their system can have a high degree of confidence that it is working properly .
= = = Availability = = =
Perl is dual licensed under both the Artistic License 1 @.@ 0 and the GNU General Public License . Distributions are available for most operating systems . It is particularly prevalent on Unix and Unix @-@ like systems , but it has been ported to most modern ( and many obsolete ) platforms . With only six reported exceptions , Perl can be compiled from source code on all POSIX @-@ compliant , or otherwise @-@ Unix @-@ compatible platforms .
Because of unusual changes required for the Mac OS Classic environment , a special port called MacPerl was shipped independently .
The Comprehensive Perl Archive Network carries a complete list of supported platforms with links to the distributions available on each . CPAN is also the source for publicly available Perl modules that are not part of the core Perl distribution .
= = = = Windows = = = =
Users of Microsoft Windows typically install one of the native binary distributions of Perl for Win32 , most commonly Strawberry Perl or ActivePerl . Compiling Perl from source code under Windows is possible , but most installations lack the requisite C compiler and build tools . This also makes it difficult to install modules from the CPAN , particularly those that are partially written in C.
ActivePerl is a closed source distribution from ActiveState that has regular releases that track the core Perl releases . The distribution also includes the Perl package manager ( PPM ) , a popular tool for installing , removing , upgrading , and managing the use of common Perl modules . Included also is PerlScript , a Windows Script Host ( WSH ) engine implementing the Perl language . Visual Perl is an ActiveState tool that adds Perl to the Visual Studio .NET development suite .
Strawberry Perl is an open source distribution for Windows . It has had regular , quarterly releases since January 2008 , including new modules as feedback and requests come in . Strawberry Perl aims to be able to install modules like standard Perl distributions on other platforms , including compiling XS modules .
The Cygwin emulation layer is another way of running Perl under Windows . Cygwin provides a Unix @-@ like environment on Windows , and both Perl and CPAN are available as standard pre @-@ compiled packages in the Cygwin setup program . Since Cygwin also includes gcc , compiling Perl from source is also possible .
A perl executable is included in several Windows Resource kits in the directory with other scripting tools .
Implementations of Perl come with the MKS Toolkit and UWIN .
= = Database interfaces = =
Perl 's text @-@ handling capabilities can be used for generating SQL queries ; arrays , hashes , and automatic memory management make it easy to collect and process the returned data . For example , in Tim Bunce 's Perl DBI application programming interface ( API ) , the arguments to the API can be the text of SQL queries ; thus it is possible to program in multiple languages at the same time ( e.g. , for generating a Web page using HTML , JavaScript , and SQL in a here document ) . The use of Perl variable interpolation to programmatically customize each of the SQL queries , and the specification of Perl arrays or hashes as the structures to programmatically hold the resulting data sets from each SQL query , allows a high @-@ level mechanism for handling large amounts of data for post @-@ processing by a Perl subprogram . In early versions of Perl , database interfaces were created by relinking the interpreter with a client @-@ side database library . This was sufficiently difficult that it was done for only a few of the most @-@ important and most widely used databases , and it restricted the resulting perl executable to using just one database interface at a time .
In Perl 5 , database interfaces are implemented by Perl DBI modules . The DBI ( Database Interface ) module presents a single , database @-@ independent interface to Perl applications , while the DBD ( Database Driver ) modules handle the details of accessing some 50 different databases ; there are DBD drivers for most ANSI SQL databases .
DBI provides caching for database handles and queries , which can greatly improve performance in long @-@ lived execution environments such as mod perl , helping high @-@ volume systems avert load spikes as in the Slashdot effect .
In modern Perl applications , especially those written using web frameworks such as Catalyst , the DBI module is often used indirectly via object @-@ relational mappers such as DBIx : : Class , Class : : DBI or Rose : : DB : : Object that generate SQL queries and handle data transparently to the application author .
= = Comparative performance = =
The Computer Language Benchmarks Game , a project hosted by Alioth , compares the performance of implementations of typical programming problems in several programming languages . The submitted Perl implementations typically perform toward the high end of the memory @-@ usage spectrum and give varied speed results . Perl 's performance in the benchmarks game is typical for interpreted languages .
Large Perl programs start more slowly than similar programs in compiled languages because perl has to compile the source every time it runs . In a talk at the YAPC : : Europe 2005 conference and subsequent article " A Timely Start " , Jean @-@ Louis Leroy found that his Perl programs took much longer to run than expected because the perl interpreter spent significant time finding modules within his over @-@ large include path . Unlike Java , Python , and Ruby , Perl has only experimental support for pre @-@ compiling . Therefore , Perl programs pay this overhead penalty on every execution . The run phase of typical programs is long enough that amortized startup time is not substantial , but benchmarks that measure very short execution times are likely to be skewed due to this overhead .
A number of tools have been introduced to improve this situation . The first such tool was Apache 's mod perl , which sought to address one of the most @-@ common reasons that small Perl programs were invoked rapidly : CGI Web development . ActivePerl , via Microsoft ISAPI , provides similar performance improvements .
Once Perl code is compiled , there is additional overhead during the execution phase that typically isn 't present for programs written in compiled languages such as C or C + + . Examples of such overhead include bytecode interpretation , reference @-@ counting memory management , and dynamic type @-@ checking .
= = = Optimizing = = =
Because Perl is an interpreted language , it can give problems when efficiency is critical ; in such situations , the most critical routines can be written in other languages ( such as C ) , which can be connected to Perl via simple Inline modules or the more complex but flexible XS mechanism .
= = Perl 6 = =
At the 2000 Perl Conference , Jon Orwant made a case for a major new language @-@ initiative . This led to a decision to begin work on a redesign of the language , to be called Perl 6 . Proposals for new language features were solicited from the Perl community at large , which submitted more than 300 RFCs .
Wall spent the next few years digesting the RFCs and synthesizing them into a coherent framework for Perl 6 . He has presented his design for Perl 6 in a series of documents called " apocalypses " - numbered to correspond to chapters in Programming Perl . As of January 2011 , the developing specification of Perl 6 is encapsulated in design documents called Synopses - numbered to correspond to Apocalypses .
Perl 6 is not intended to be backward compatible , although there will be a compatibility mode . Perl 6 and Perl 5 are distinct languages with a common ancestry .
Thesis work by Bradley M. Kuhn , overseen by Wall , considered the possible use of the Java virtual machine as a runtime for Perl . Kuhn 's thesis showed this approach to be problematic . In 2001 , it was decided that Perl 6 would run on a cross @-@ language virtual machine called Parrot . This will mean that other languages targeting the Parrot will gain native access to CPAN , allowing some level of cross @-@ language development .
In 2005 , Audrey Tang created the pugs project , an implementation of Perl 6 in Haskell . This acted as , and continues to act as , a test platform for the Perl 6 language ( separate from the development of the actual implementation ) - allowing the language designers to explore . The pugs project spawned an active Perl / Haskell cross @-@ language community centered around the freenode # perl6 IRC channel .
As of 2012 , a number of features in the Perl 6 language show similarities to Haskell .
As of 2012 , Perl 6 development centers primarily around two compilers :
Rakudo Perl 6 , an implementation running on the Parrot virtual machine and the Java virtual machine . Developers are also working on MoarVM , a C language @-@ based virtual machine designed specifically for Rakudo .
Niecza , which targets the Common Language Runtime .
= = Future of Perl 5 = =
Development of Perl 5 is also continuing . Perl 5 @.@ 12 @.@ 0 was released in April 2010 with some new features influenced by the design of Perl 6 , followed by Perl 5 @.@ 14 @.@ 1 ( released on June 17 , 2011 ) , Perl 5 @.@ 16 @.@ 1 ( released on August 9 , 2012 . ) , and Perl 5 @.@ 18 @.@ 0 ( released on May 18 , 2013 ) . Perl 5 development versions are released on a monthly basis , with major releases coming out once per year .
Future plans for Perl 5 include making the core language easier to extend from modules , and providing a small , extensible meta @-@ object protocol in core .
The relative proportion of Internet searches for ' Perl programming ' , as compared with similar searches for other programming languages , steadily declined from about 10 % in 2005 to about 2 % in 2011 , and has remained around the 2 % level since .
= = Perl community = =
Perl 's culture and community has developed alongside the language itself . Usenet was the first public venue in which Perl was introduced , but over the course of its evolution , Perl 's community was shaped by the growth of broadening Internet @-@ based services including the introduction of the World Wide Web . The community that surrounds Perl was , in fact , the topic of Wall 's first " State of the Onion " talk .
= = = State of the Onion = = =
State of the Onion is the name for Wall ’ s yearly keynote @-@ style summaries on the progress of Perl and its community . They are characterized by his hallmark humor , employing references to Perl ’ s culture , the wider hacker culture , Wall ’ s linguistic background , sometimes his family life , and occasionally even his Christian background .
Each talk is first given at various Perl conferences and is eventually also published online .
= = = Perl pastimes = = =
JAPHs
In email , Usenet , and message board postings , " Just another Perl hacker " ( JAPH ) programs are a common trend , originated by Randal L. Schwartz , one of the earliest professional Perl trainers . In the parlance of Perl culture , Perl programmers are known as Perl hackers , and from this derives the practice of writing short programs to print out the phrase " Just another Perl hacker " . In the spirit of the original concept , these programs are moderately obfuscated and short enough to fit into the signature of an email or Usenet message . The " canonical " JAPH as developed by Schwartz includes the comma at the end , although this is often omitted .
Perl golf
Perl " golf " is the pastime of reducing the number of characters ( key " strokes " ) used in a Perl program to the bare minimum , much in the same way that golf players seek to take as few shots as possible in a round . The phrase 's first use emphasized the difference between pedestrian code meant to teach a newcomer and terse hacks likely to amuse experienced Perl programmers , an example of the latter being JAPHs that were already used in signatures in Usenet postings and elsewhere . Similar stunts had been an unnamed pastime in the language APL in previous decades . The use of Perl to write a program that performed RSA encryption prompted a widespread and practical interest in this pastime . In subsequent years , the term " code golf " has been applied to the pastime in other languages . A Perl Golf Apocalypse was held at Perl Conference 4 @.@ 0 in Monterey , California in July 2000 .
Obfuscation
As with C , obfuscated code competitions were a well known pastime in the late 1990s . The Obfuscated Perl Contest was a competition held by The Perl Journal from 1996 to 2000 that made an arch virtue of Perl 's syntactic flexibility . Awards were given for categories such as " most powerful " — programs that made efficient use of space — and " best four @-@ line signature " for programs that fit into four lines of 76 characters in the style of a Usenet signature block .
Poetry
Perl poetry is the practice of writing poems that can be compiled as legal Perl code , for example the piece known as Black Perl . Perl poetry is made possible by the large number of English words that are used in the Perl language . New poems are regularly submitted to the community at PerlMonks .
= = = Perl on IRC = = =
There are a number of IRC channels that offer support for the language and some modules .
= = = CPAN Acme = = =
There are also many examples of code written purely for entertainment on the CPAN . Lingua : : Romana : : Perligata , for example , allows writing programs in Latin . Upon execution of such a program , the module translates its source code into regular Perl and runs it .
The Perl community has set aside the " Acme " namespace for modules that are fun in nature ( but its scope has widened to include exploratory or experimental code or any other module that is not meant to ever be used in production ) . Some of the Acme modules are deliberately implemented in amusing ways . This includes Acme : : Bleach , one of the first modules in the Acme : : namespace , which allows the program 's source code to be " whitened " ( i.e. , all characters replaced with whitespace ) and yet still work .
= = Example code = =
In older versions of Perl , one would write the Hello World program as :
In later versions , which support the say statement , one can also write it as :
Good Perl practices require more complex programs to add the use strict ; and use warnings ; pragmas , leading into something like :
Here is a more complex Perl program , that counts down the seconds up to a given threshold :
The perl interpreter can also be used for one @-@ off scripts on the command line . The following example ( as invoked from an sh @-@ compatible shell , such as Bash ) translates the string " Bob " in all files ending with .txt in the current directory to " Robert " :
= = Criticism = =
Perl has been referred to as " line noise " by some programmers who claim its syntax makes it a write @-@ only language . The earliest such mention was in the first edition of the book Learning Perl , a Perl 5 tutorial book written by Randal L. Schwartz , in the first chapter of which he states : " Yes , sometimes Perl looks like line noise to the uninitiated , but to the seasoned Perl programmer , it looks like checksummed line noise with a mission in life . " He also stated that the accusation that Perl is a write @-@ only language could be avoided by coding with " proper care " . The Perl overview document perlintro states that the names of built @-@ in " magic " scalar variables " look like punctuation or line noise " . The perlstyle document states that line noise in regular expressions could be mitigated using the / x modifier to add whitespace .
According to the Perl 6 FAQ , Perl 6 was designed to mitigate " the usual suspects " that elicit the " line noise " claim from Perl 5 critics , including the removal of " the majority of the punctuation variables " and the sanitization of the regex syntax . The Perl 6 FAQ also states that what is sometimes referred to as Perl 's line noise is " the actual syntax of the language " just as gerunds and prepositions are a part of the English language . In a December 2012 blog posting , despite claiming that " Rakudo Perl 6 has failed and will continue to fail unless it gets some adult supervision " , chromatic stated that the design of Perl 6 has a " well @-@ defined grammar " as well as an " improved type system , a unified object system with an intelligent metamodel , metaoperators , and a clearer system of context that provides for such niceties as pervasive laziness " . He also stated that " Perl 6 has a coherence and a consistency that Perl 5 lacks . "
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= Battle of Tigranocerta =
The Battle of Tigranocerta ( Armenian : Տիգրանակերտի ճակատամարտը , Tigranakerti tchakatamartə ) was fought on October 6 , 69 BC between the forces of the Roman Republic and the army of the Kingdom of Armenia led by King Tigranes the Great . The Roman force was led by Consul Lucius Licinius Lucullus , and Tigranes was defeated . His capital city of Tigranocerta was lost to Rome as a result .
The battle arose from the Third Mithridatic War being fought between Roman Republic and Mithridates VI of Pontus , whose daughter Cleopatra was married to Tigranes . Mithridates fled to seek shelter with his son @-@ in @-@ law , and Rome invaded the Kingdom of Armenia . Having laid siege to Tigranocerta , the Roman forces fell back behind a nearby river when the large Armenian army approached . Feigning retreat , the Romans crossed at a ford and fell on the right flank of the Armenian army . After the Romans defeated the Armenian cataphracts , the balance of Tigranes ' army , which was mostly made up of raw levies and peasant troops from his extensive empire , panicked and fled , and the Romans remained in charge of the field .
= = Background = =
Tigranes ' expansion into the Near East led to the creation of an Armenian empire that stretched almost across the entire region . With his father @-@ in @-@ law and ally securing the empire 's western flank , Tigranes was able to conquer territories in Parthia and Mesopotamia and annex the lands of the Levant . In Syria , he began the construction of the city of Tigranocerta ( also written Tigranakert ) , which he named after himself , and imported a multitude of peoples , including Arabs , Greeks , and Jews , to populate it . The city soon became the king 's headquarters in Syria and flourished as a great center for Hellenistic culture , complete with theaters , parks and hunting grounds .
This period of Armenian hegemony in the region , however , was coming close to an end with a series of Roman victories in the Roman – Mithridatic Wars . Friction between the two had existed for several decades , although it was during the Third Mithridatic War that the Roman armies under Lucullus made significant progress against Mithridates , forcing him to take refuge with Tigranes . Lucullus sent an ambassador named Appius Claudius to Antioch to demand that Tigranes surrender his father @-@ in @-@ law ; should he refuse , Armenia would face war with Rome . Tigranes refused Appius Claudius ' demands , stating that he would prepare for war against the Republic .
Lucullus was astonished upon hearing this in the year 70 , and he began to prepare for an immediate invasion of Armenia . Although he had no mandate from the Senate to authorize such a move , he attempted to justify his invasion by distinguishing as his enemy king Tigranes and not his subjects . In the summer of 69 , he marched his troops across Cappodocia and the Euphrates river and entered the Armenian province of Tsop 'k ' , where Tigranocerta was located .
= = The siege of Tigranocerta = =
Tigranes , who was residing at Tigranocerta in the summer of 69 , was not only astonished by the speed of Lucullus ' rapid advance into Armenia but by the fact that he had even launched such an operation in the first place . Unable to reconcile with this reality for a certain period of time , he belatedly sent a general named Mithrobarzanes with 2 @,@ 000 to 3 @,@ 000 cavalrymen to slow down Lucullus ' advance but his forces were cut to pieces and routed by the 1 @,@ 600 cavalry led by Sextilius , one of the legates serving under Lucullus . Learning of Mithrobarzanes ' defeat , Tigranes entrusted the defense of his namesake city to Mancaeus and left to recruit a fighting force in the Taurus Mountains . Nevertheless , Lucullus ' legates were able to disrupt two separate detachments coming to the aid of Tigranes and even located and engaged the king 's forces in a canyon in the Taurus . Lucullus , nevertheless , chose not to pursue Tigranes while he had an unimpeded path towards Tigranocerta ; he advanced and began to lay siege to it .
Tigranocerta was still an unfinished city when Lucullus laid siege to it in the late summer of 69 . The city was heavily fortified and according to the Greek historian Appian , had thick and towering walls that stood 25 meters high , providing a formidable defense against a prolonged siege . The Roman siege engines that were employed at Tigranocerta were effectively repelled by the defenders by the use of naphtha , making Tigranocerta , according to one scholar , the site of " perhaps the world 's first use of chemical warfare . "
However , the loyalty of the city 's population was untested : since Tigranes had forcibly removed many of its inhabitants from their native lands and brought them to Tigranocerta , their allegiance to the king was cast into doubt . They soon proved their unreliability : when Tigranes and his army appeared on a hill overlooking the city , the inhabitants " greeted his [ Lucullus ] appearance with shouts and din , and standing on the walls , threateningly pointed out the Armenians to the Romans . "
= = Forces = =
Appian claims that Lucullus had embarked from Rome with only a single legion ; upon entering Anatolia to make war against Mithridates , he added four more legions to his army . The overall size of this force consisted of 30 @,@ 000 infantry and 1 @,@ 600 cavalry . Following Mithridates ' retreat to Armenia , Appian estimates Lucullus ' invading force to be only two legions and 500 horsemen , although it is highly improbable that he would have undertaken the invasion of Armenia with such a small army . Historian Adrian Sherwin @-@ White places the size of Lucullus ' force to 12 @,@ 000 seasoned legionaries ( composed of three legions ) , and 4 @,@ 000 provincial cavalry and light infantry . The Roman army was further bolstered by several thousand allied Gallic , Thracian , and Bithynian infantry and cavalry .
Tigranes ' army clearly held a numerical superiority over that of Lucullus ' . According to Appian , it numbered 250 @,@ 000 infantry and 50 @,@ 000 cavalry . Many scholars , however , doubt these figures accurately reflect the true number of Tigranes ' army and believe they are highly inflated . Some historians , most notably Plutarch , wrote that Tigranes considered Lucullus ' army far too small , and upon seeing it , is quoted to have said that " If they come as ambassadors , they are too many ; if they are soldiers , too few , " although some have expressed doubt on the veracity of this quote . Tigranes also possessed several thousand cataphracts , formidable heavily armored cavalry that were clad in mail armor and armed with lances , spears or bows .
= = Disposition and engagement = =
The two armies converged toward the Batman @-@ Su river slightly to the southwest to Tigranocerta .
Tigranes ' army was positioned on the east bank of the river while Lucullus , who had left a rear guard to continue the siege of the city , met the Armenian army on the river 's west bank . The Armenian army was formed of three sections . Two of Tigranes ' vassal kings led the left and right flanks , while Tigranes led his cataphracts in the center . The rest of his army stood in front of a hill , a position Lucullus soon exploited .
Roman troops at first attempted to dissuade Lucullus from engaging in battle since October 6 marked the day of the disastrous battle of Arausio , where the general Quintus Servilius Caepio and his Roman army were delivered a crushing defeat by the Germanic Cimbri and Teuton tribes . Ignoring his troops ' superstitious beliefs , Lucullus is said to have responded , " Verily , I will make this day , too , a lucky one for the Romans . "
Cowan and Hook suggest that Lucullus would have deployed the Romans in a simplex acies , that is to say a single line , so making the frontage of the army as wide as possible as a counter to the cavalry . He took several of his troops downriver , where the river was the easiest to ford , and at one moment , Tigranes believed that this move meant Lucullus was withdrawing from the battlefield .
Lucullus had initially decided to make a running charge with his infantry , a Roman military tactic that minimized the amount of time an enemy could utilize its archers and sling infantry prior to close combat engagement . However , he decided against this at the last moment when he realized that the Armenian cataphracts posed the greatest threat to his men , ordering instead a diversionary attack with his Gallic and Thracian cavalry against the cataphracts .
With the cataphracts ' attention fixated elsewhere , Lucullus formed two cohorts into maniples and then ordered them to ford across the river . His objective was to outflank Tigranes ' cataphracts by circling counterclockwise around the hill and attacking them from the rear .
Lucullus personally led the charge on foot and upon reaching the top of the hill , he yelled to his soldiers in an effort to buoy their morale : " The day is ours , the day is ours , my fellow soldiers ! " With this , he gave special instructions to the cohorts to attack the horses ' legs and thighs , since these were the only areas of the cataphracts which were not armored . Lucullus charged downwards along with his cohorts and his orders soon proved fatal : the lumbering cataphracts were caught by surprise and , in their attempts to break free from their attackers , careened into the ranks of their own men as the lines began to collapse .
The infantry , which was also made up of many non @-@ Armenians , began to break rank and confusion spread to the rest of the body of Tigranes ' army . While the great king himself took to flight with his baggage train northwards , the entire line of his army gave way . The casualties reported for Tigranes ' army are immense , with estimates given from 10 @,@ 000 to as many as 100 @,@ 000 men .
Plutarch says that on the Roman side , " only a hundred were wounded , and only five killed , " although such low figures are highly unrealistic . Cowan and Hook , while considering these losses ridiculous , think it 's clear that the battle was won with disproportionate losses .
= = Aftermath and legacy = =
With no army left to defend Tigranocerta , and a foreign populace that gleefully opened the gates to the Romans , Lucullus ' army began the wholesale looting and plunder of the city . The city was literally deconstructed piece by piece . The king 's treasury , estimated to be worth 8 @,@ 000 talents , was looted and each soldier in the army was awarded 800 drachma . The battle also resulted in severe territorial losses : most of the lands in Tigranes ' empire to the south of the Taurus fell under the sway of Rome .
Despite the heavy losses Tigranes suffered , the battle was not decisive in ending the war . In retreating northwards , Tigranes and Mithridates were able to elude Lucullus ' forces , though losing again against the Romans during the battle of Artashat . In 68 , Lucullus ' forces ' began to mutiny , longing to return home , and he withdrew his forces from Armenia the following year .
The battle is highlighted by many historians specifically because Lucullus overcame the numerical odds facing his army . The Italian philosopher Niccolò Machiavelli remarked upon the battle in his book , The Art of War , where he critiqued Tigranes ' heavy reliance on his cavalry over his infantry .
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= German Eastern Marches Society =
German Eastern Marches Society ( German : Deutscher Ostmarkenverein , also known in German as Verein zur Förderung des Deutschtums in den Ostmarken ) was a German radical , extremely nationalist xenophobic organization founded in 1894 . Mainly among Poles , it was sometimes known acronymically as Hakata or H @-@ K @-@ T after its founders von Hansemann , Kennemann and von Tiedemann . Its main aims were the promotion of Germanization of Poles living in Prussia and destruction of Polish national identity in German eastern provinces . Contrary to many similar nationalist organizations created in that period , the Ostmarkenverein had relatively close ties with the government and local administration , which made it largely successful , even though it opposed both the policy of seeking some modo vivendi with the Poles pursued by Chancellor Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg and Leo von Caprivi 's policies of relaxation of anti @-@ Polish measures . While of limited significance and often overrated , the organization formed a notable part of German anti @-@ democratic pluralist part of the political landscape of the Wilhelmine era .
Initially formed in Posen , in 1896 its main headquarters was moved to Berlin . In 1901 it had roughly 21 @,@ 000 members , the number rose to 48 @,@ 000 in 1913 , though some authors claim the membership was as high as 220 @,@ 000 . After Poland was re @-@ established following World War I in 1918 , the society continued its rump activities in the Weimar Republic until it was closed down by the Nazis in 1934 who created the new organisation with similar activity Bund Deutscher Osten .
= = Background = =
Following the Partitions of Poland in late 18th century , a large part of the former Polish @-@ Lithuanian Commonwealth ( namely the regions of Greater Poland and Royal , the later West Prussia ) was annexed by the Kingdom of Prussia , the predecessor of the German Empire , which was formed in 1871 . Primarily inhabited by Poles , Greater Poland initially was formed into a semi @-@ autonomous Grand Duchy of Posen , granted with a certain level of self @-@ governance . However , under Otto von Bismarck 's government , the ethnic and cultural tensions in the region began to rise . This was paired by growing tendencies of nationalism , imperialism , and chauvinism within the German society . The tendencies went in two different directions , but were linked to each other . On one hand , a new world order was demanded with desires of creating a German colonial empire . And on the other , feelings of hostility towards other national groups within the German state were growing .
The situation was further aggravated by Bismarck 's policies of Kulturkampf that in Posen Province took on a much more nationalistic character than in other parts of Germany and included a number of specifically anti @-@ Polish laws that resulted in the Polish and German communities living in a virtual apartheid . Many observers believed these policies only further stoked the Polish independence movement . There is also a question regarding possible personal antipathy towards Poles behind Bismarck 's motivation in pursuing the Kulturkampf . Unlike in other parts of the German Empire , in Greater Poland — then known under the German name of Provinz Posen — the Kulturkampf did not cease after the end of the decade . Although Bismarck finally signed an informal alliance with the Catholic Church against the socialists , the policies of Germanization did continue in Polish @-@ inhabited parts of the country . However , with the end of von Bismarck 's rule and the advent of Leo von Caprivi , the pressure for Germanisation was lessened and many German landowners feared that this would lead to lessening the German control over the Polish areas and in the end deprive Germany of what they saw as a natural reservoir of workforce and land . Although the actual extent of von Caprivi 's concessions towards the Poles was very limited , the German minority of Greater Poland feared that this was a step too far , and that von Caprivi 's government would cede the power in Greater Poland to the Polish clergy and nobility . The Hakata slogan was : " You are standing opposite to the most dangerous , fanatic enemy of German existence , German honour and German reputation in the world : The Poles . "
= = Society = =
Under such circumstances a number of nationalist organizations and pressure groups was formed , all collectively known as the nationale Verbände . Among them were the Pan @-@ German League , German Navy League , German Colonial Society , German Anti @-@ Semitic Organization , and the Defence League . Many landowners feared that their interests would not be properly represented by those organizations and decided to form their own society . It was officially launched November 3 , 1894 in Poznań , then referred to under its German name of Posen . The opening meeting elected an assembly and a general committee composed of 227 members , among them 104 from the Province of Posen and Province of West Prussia , and additional 113 from other parts of German Empire . The social base of the newly founded society was wide and included a large spectrum of people . Some 60 % of the representatives of areas of Germany primarily inhabited by Poles were the Junkers , the landed aristocracy , mostly with ancient feudal roots . The rest were all groups of middle class Germans , that is civil servants ( 30 % ) , teachers ( 25 % ) , merchants , craftsmen , Protestant priests , and clerks .
The official aims of the society was " strengthening and rallying of Germandom in the Eastern Marches through the revival and consolidation of German national feeling and the economic strengthening of the German people " in the area . This was seen as justified due to alleged passivity of Germans in the eastern territories . Officially it was to work for the Germans rather than against the Poles . However , in reality the aims of the society were anti @-@ Polish and aimed at ousting the Polish landowners and peasants from their land at all cost . It was argued that the Poles were an insidious threat to German national and cultural integrity and domination in the east . The propagandistic rationale behind formation of the H @-@ K @-@ T was presented as a national Polish @-@ German struggle to assimilate one group into the other . It was argued that either the Poles would be successfully Germanized , or the Germans living in the east would face the Polonization themselves . This conflict was often portrayed as a constant biological struggle between the " eastern barbarity " and " European culture " . To counter the alleged threat , the Society promoted the destruction of Polish national identity in the Polish lands held by Germany , and prevention of polonization of the Eastern Marches , that is the growing national sentiment amongst local Poles paired with migration of Poles from rural areas to the cities of the region .
In accordance with the views of Chancellor von Bismarck himself , the Society saw the language question as a key factor in determining one 's loyalty towards the state . Because of this view , it insisted on extending the ban on usage of the Polish language in schools , to other instances of everyday life , including public meetings , books , and newspapers . During a 1902 meeting in Danzig ( modern Gdańsk ) , the Society demanded from the government that the Polish language be banned even from voluntary classes in schools and universities , that the language be banned from public usage and that the Polish language newspapers be either liquidated or forced to be printed in bilingual versions .
With limited local success and support , the Ostmarkenverein functioned primarily as a nationwide propaganda and pressure group . Its press organ , the Die Ostmark ( Eastern March ) was one of the primary sources of information on the Polish Question for the German public and shaped the national @-@ conservative views towards the ethnic conflict in the eastern territories of Germany . The Society also opened a number of libraries in the Polish @-@ dominated areas , where it supported the literary production of books and novels promoting an aggressive stance against the Poles . The popular Ostmarkenromane ( Ostmark novels ) depicted Poles as non @-@ white and struggled to portray a two race dichotomy between " black " Poles and " white " Germans
However , it did not limit itself to mere cultural struggle for domination but also promoted a physical removal of the Poles from their lands in order to make space for the German colonization . The pressure of the H @-@ K @-@ T indeed made the government of von Caprivi adopt a firmer stance against the Poles . The ban on Polish schools was reintroduced and all teaching was to be done in German language . The ban was also used by the German police to harass the Polish trade union movement as they interpreted all public meetings as educational undertakings .
An important issue was the colonisation of Polish territory : the organisation actively supported the nationalist policy of Germanisation through removal of Polish population and promoting settlement of ethnic Germans in the eastern regions of the German Empire . It was among the main supporters of creation of the Settlement Commission , an official authority with a fund to buy up the land from the Poles and redistribute it among German settlers . Since 1905 the organisation also proposed and lobbied for a law that would allow forced eviction of Polish owners of land , and succeed in 1908 when the law was eventually passed . However , it remained on paper in the following years , to which the H @-@ K @-@ T responded with large scale propaganda campaign in the press . The campaign proved to be successful and on October 12 , 1912 the Prussian government issued a decision allowing eviction of Polish property owners in Greater Poland .
= = Social base = =
Interestingly , although the H @-@ K @-@ T is to this day primarily associated with the Junkers , it was one of the groups to oppose the Society 's goals the most . Initially treated with reserve by most of the conservative Prussian aristocracy , with time it became actively opposed by many of them . The Society opposed any immigration of Poles from the Russian Poland to the area , while the Junkers gained large profits from seasonal workers migrating there every year , mostly from other parts of Poland . Also the German colonists brought to formerly Polish lands by the Settlement Commission or the German government largely benefited from the cooperation with their Polish neighbours and mostly either ignored the Hakatisten or even actively opposed their ideas . This made the Ostmarkenverein an organization formed mostly by the German bourgeoisie and settlers , that is middle class members of the local administration , and not the Prussian Junkers . Other notable group of supporters included the local artisans and businessmen , whose interests were endangered by the organic work , that is the Polish response to the economical competition promoted by the Settlement Commission and other similar organizations . In a sample probe of H @-@ K @-@ T 's members , the social classes represented were as follows :
26 @.@ 6 % of civil servants and members of German administration
17 @.@ 6 % of artisans
15 @.@ 7 % of businessmen
14 @.@ 0 % of teachers
10 @.@ 7 % of landowners
4 @.@ 2 % of clergymen
2 @.@ 7 % of army officers
0 @.@ 7 % of rentiers
6 @.@ 5 % of other professions
1 @.@ 3 % of people with no designation
= = Effects and after @-@ life = =
= = = In Poland = = =
By 1913 the Society had roughly 48 @,@ 000 members . Despite its fierce rhetoric , support from the local administration and certain popularity of its goals , the Society proved to be largely unsuccessful as were the projects it promoted . Much like other similar organizations , the H @-@ K @-@ T not only managed to incite some public awareness to the Polish Question within German public and radicalise the German policies in the area , but also sparked a Polish reaction . As an effect of the external pressure , the Poles living in the German Empire started to organize themselves in order to prevent the plans of Germanisation . In addition , the main opposition centre on the Polish side became the middle class rather than aristocracy , which strengthened the Polish resistance and intensified the national sentiment within the Polish society . Also , the pressure from the German nationalists resulted in strengthening the Polish national @-@ democrats , particularly the Polish National @-@ Democratic Party of Roman Dmowski and Wojciech Korfanty .
For instance , the Settlement Commission throughout the 27 years of its existence managed to plant about 25 @,@ 000 German families on 1 @,@ 240 km ² ( 479 mi ² ) of land in Greater Poland and Pomerania . However , at the same time the reaction of Polish societies resulted in about 35 @,@ 000 new Polish farmers being settled in the area of roughly 1 @,@ 500 km ² ( 579 mi ² ) of land . Similarly , the attempts at banning the teaching of religion in Polish language met with a nationwide resistance and several school strikes that sparked a campaign in foreign media .
= = = In Germany = = =
All in all , even though the H @-@ K @-@ T Society was not the most influential and its exact influence on the German governments is disputable , it was among the best @-@ heard and for the Polish people became one of the symbols of oppression , chauvinism , and national discrimination , thus poisoning the Polish @-@ German relations both in the borderland and in entire Germany . On the eve of World War I the nationalisms on both sides ran high and the liberal politicians who were seeking some compromise with the German Empire were seen as traitors , while German politicians trying to tone down the aggressive rhetoric on both sides were under attack from the Hakatisten . This situation proved vital to the failure of German plans of creation of Mitteleuropa during the Great War , as the Polish political scene was taken over mostly by politicians hostile to Germany .
= = = Post @-@ war organisation = = =
The works of the Ostmarkenverein practically ceased during the war . At its end , some of its members joined the Deutsche Vereinigung ( German Association ) , a society that aimed at preventing newly restored Poland from acquiring the lands that were formerly in Prussia . Many more of its members feared possible Polish reprisals after the take @-@ over of Greater Poland , Pomerania and Silesia , and were among the first to pack their belongings and head westwards after the armistice , while others stayed in the lands that were taken over by Poland , protected by the Minority Treaty . Even though the Ostmarkenverein had lost its main rationale as Germany had no influence over the lands of the Republic of Poland , it continued to exist in a rump form . Headed from Berlin , it tried to force the government of the Weimar Republic to use the threat of reprisals against the remaining Polish minority in Germany in order to win further concessions for the German minority in Poland . However , the post @-@ war government of Gustav Stresemann mostly rejected the pleas as there were many more Germans in Poland than Poles in Germany , and such a tit @-@ for @-@ tat tactics would harm the German side more . The Society continued to exist in Berlin , limiting its activities mostly to a press campaign and rhetoric , but its meaning was seriously limited . Finally , after the advent of Adolf Hitler 's rule in Germany , it was disbanded by the Nazis . Some of its former members , now living in Poland , remained members of other German societies and organizations , and formed the core of the German Fifth column during the German Invasion of Poland of 1939 .
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= Darren Aronofsky =
Darren Aronofsky ( born February 12 , 1969 ) is an American film director , screenwriter , film producer and environmentalist . He has received acclaim for his often surreal , disturbing films and has been noted for frequent collaborations with cinematographer Matthew Libatique , film editor Andrew Weisblum and composer Clint Mansell . His films have generated controversy and are known for their often violent , bleak subject matter . " The themes in the six Aronofsky ’ s films from 1998 to 2014 include the search for perfection , the search for happiness , longing for love , intoxication with publicity , the pain of alienation , and the burden of responsibility . "
Aronofsky attended Harvard University , where he studied film and social anthropology , and the American Film Institute where he studied directing . He won several film awards after completing his senior thesis film , Supermarket Sweep , which went on to become a National Student Academy Award finalist . Aronofsky 's feature debut , the surrealist psychological thriller Pi , was shot in November 1997 . The low @-@ budget , $ 60 @,@ 000 production , starring Sean Gullette , was sold to Artisan Entertainment for $ 1 million , and grossed over $ 3 million ; Aronofsky won the Directing Award at the 1998 Sundance Film Festival and an Independent Spirit Award for best first screenplay .
Aronofsky 's followup , the psychological drama Requiem for a Dream , was based on the novel of the same name by Hubert Selby , Jr . The film garnered strong reviews and received an Academy Award nomination for Ellen Burstyn 's performance . After turning down an opportunity to direct an entry in the Batman film series and writing the World War II horror film Below , Aronofsky began production on his third film , the romantic fantasy sci @-@ fi drama The Fountain . The film received mixed reviews and performed poorly at the box @-@ office , but has since garnered a cult following .
His fourth film , the sports drama The Wrestler , was released to critical acclaim and both of the film 's stars , Mickey Rourke and Marisa Tomei , received Academy Award nominations . In 2010 Aronofsky was an executive producer on The Fighter and his fifth feature film , the psychological horror film Black Swan , received further critical acclaim and many accolades , being nominated for five Academy Awards including Best Picture and Best Director and winning Best Actress for Natalie Portman 's performance in the film . Aronofsky received nominations for Best Director at the Golden Globes , and a Directors Guild of America Award nomination . His sixth film , the biblically inspired epic Noah , was released in theaters on March 28 , 2014 .
= = Early life and education = =
Aronofsky was born in Brooklyn , New York , in 1969 , the son of public school teachers Charlotte and Abraham Aronofsky . He grew up in the borough 's Manhattan Beach neighborhood , where " I was raised culturally Jewish , but there was very little spiritual attendance in temple . It was a cultural thing — celebrating the holidays , knowing where you came from , knowing your history , having respect for what your people have been through . " He graduated from Edward R. Murrow High School . He has one sister , Patti , who attended a professional ballet school through high school . His parents would often take him to Broadway theater performances , which sparked his keen interest in show business .
During his youth , he trained as a field biologist with The School for Field Studies in Kenya in 1985 and Alaska in 1986 . He attended school in Kenya to pursue an interest in learning about ungulates . He later said , " [ T ] he School for Field Studies changed the way I perceived the world " . Aronofsky 's interest in the outdoors led him to backpack his way through Europe and the Middle East . In 1987 he entered Harvard University , where he majored in social anthropology and studied filmmaking ; he graduated in 1991 .
He became seriously interested in film while attending Harvard after befriending Dan Schrecker , an aspiring animator . He met Sean Gullette at Harvard , who would go on to star in Aronofsky 's first film , Pi . His other cinematic influences included Akira Kurosawa , Roman Polanski , Terry Gilliam , Shinya Tsukamoto , Hubert Selby , Jr . Spike Lee , and Jim Jarmusch .
Aronofsky 's senior thesis film , Supermarket Sweep , was a finalist in the 1991 Student Academy Awards . In 1992 , Aronofsky received his MFA degree in directing from the AFI Conservatory , where his classmates included Todd Field , Doug Ellin , Scott Silver and Mark Waters . He won the institute 's Franklin J. Schaffner Alumni Medal .
= = Career = =
= = = Early work = = =
Aronofsky 's debut feature , Pi ( also known as π ) , was shot in November 1997 . The film was financed entirely from $ 100 donations from friends and family . In return , he promised to pay each back $ 150 if the film made money , and they would at least get screen credit if the film lost money . While visiting Israel as a youth he spent a couple days in an Orthodox yeshiva , an experience that later informed the movie . Producing the film with an initial budget of $ 60 @,@ 000 , Aronofsky premiered Pi at the 1998 Sundance Film Festival , where he won the Best Director award . The film itself was nominated for a special Jury Award . Artisan Entertainment bought distribution rights for $ 1 million . The film was released to the public later that year to critical acclaim and it grossed a total of $ 3 @,@ 221 @,@ 152 at the box @-@ office .
Aronofsky followed his debut with Requiem for a Dream , a film based on Hubert Selby , Jr . ' s novel of the same name . He was paid $ 50 @,@ 000 , and worked for three years with nearly the same production team as his previous film . Following the financial breakout of Pi , he was capable of hiring established stars , including Ellen Burstyn and Jared Leto , and received a budget of $ 3 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 to produce the film . Production of the film occurred over the period of one year , with the film being released in October 2000 . The film went on to gross $ 7 @,@ 390 @,@ 108 worldwide . Aronofsky received acclaim for his stylish direction , and was nominated for another Independent Spirit Award , this time for Best Director . The film itself was nominated for five awards in total , winning two , for Best Actress and Cinematography . Clint Mansell 's soundtrack for the film was also well @-@ regarded , and since their first collaboration in 1996 , Mansell has composed the music to every Aronofsky film . Ellen Burstyn was nominated for numerous awards , including for an Academy Award for Best Actress , and ultimately won the Independent Spirit Award . Aronofsky was awarded the PRISM Award from the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation with the National Institute on Drug Abuse for the film ’ s depiction of drug abuse .
In May 2000 , Aronofsky was briefly attached to make an adaptation of David Wiesner 's 1999 children 's book Sector 7 for Nickelodeon Movies , the project remains unmade . In mid @-@ 2000 , Warner Bros. hired Aronofsky to write and direct Batman : Year One , which was to be the fifth film in the Batman franchise . Aronofsky , who collaborated with Frank Miller on an unproduced script for Ronin , brought Miller to co @-@ write Year One with him , intending to reboot the series . " It 's somewhat based on the comic book , " Aronofsky later said . " Toss out everything you can imagine about Batman ! Everything ! We 're starting completely anew . " Regular Aronofsky collaborator Matthew Libatique was set as cinematographer , and Aronofsky had also approached Christian Bale for the role of Batman . Bale later would be cast in the role for Batman Begins . After that project failed to develop , Aronofsky declined the opportunity to direct an entry in the Batman franchise .
In March 2001 , he helped write the screenplay to the horror film Below , which he also produced . In April 2001 , Aronofsky entered negotiations with Warner Bros. and Village Roadshow to direct a then @-@ untitled science fiction film , with Brad Pitt in the lead role . In June 2001 , actress Cate Blanchett entered talks to join the film , which Aronofsky , wanting the title to remain secret , had given the working title of The Last Man . Production was postponed to wait for a pregnant Blanchett to give birth to her child in December 2001 . Production was ultimately set for late October 2002 in Queensland and Sydney . By now officially titled The Fountain , the film had a budget of $ 70 million , co @-@ financed by Warner Bros. and New Regency , which had filled the gap after Village Roadshow withdrew . Pitt left the project seven weeks before the first day of shooting , halting production . In February 2004 , Warner Bros. resurrected it on a $ 35 million budget with Hugh Jackman in the lead role . In August , actress Rachel Weisz filled the vacancy left by Blanchett . The Fountain was released on November 22 , 2006 , a day before the American Thanksgiving holiday ; ultimately it grossed $ 15 @,@ 978 @,@ 422 in theaters worldwide . Audiences and critics were divided in their responses to it .
= = = Breakthrough = = =
In 2007 , Aronofsky hired writer Scott Silver to develop The Fighter with him . He had approached actor Christian Bale for the film , but Aronofsky dropped out because of its similarities to The Wrestler and to work on MGM 's RoboCop remake . In July 2010 , Aronofsky had left the project due to uncertainty over the financially distressed studio 's future . When asked about the film , he said , " I think I 'm still attached . I don 't know . I haven 't heard from anyone in a while . " Later during 2007 , Aronofsky said he was planning to film a movie about Noah 's Ark .
Aronofsky had the idea for The Wrestler for over a decade . He hired Robert D. Siegal to turn his idea into a script . The actor Nicolas Cage entered negotiations in October 2007 to star as Randy , the film 's protagonist . The following month Cage left the project , and Mickey Rourke replaced him in the lead role . Aronofsky said that Cage pulled out of the movie because the director wanted Rourke to star ; Aronofsky said , stating that Cage was " a complete gentleman , and he understood that my heart was with Mickey and he stepped aside . I have so much respect for Nic Cage as an actor and I think it really could have worked with Nic but , you know , Nic was incredibly supportive of Mickey and he is old friends with Mickey and really wanted to help with this opportunity , so he pulled himself out of the race . " Cage responded , " I wasn 't quote ' dropped ' from the movie . I resigned from the movie because I didn 't think I had enough time to achieve the look of the wrestler who was on steroids , which I would never do . " The roughly 40 @-@ day shoot began in January 2008 .
The Wrestler premiered at the 65th Venice International Film Festival . Initially flying under the radar , the film wound up winning the Golden Lion , the highest award at the world 's oldest film festival . The Wrestler received great critical acclaim , and both Rourke and co @-@ star Marisa Tomei received Academy Award , Golden Globe , SAG , and BAFTA nominations for their performances . Rourke won a Golden Globe , as did Bruce Springsteen for his original song written for the film . The Wrestler grossed $ 44 @,@ 674 @,@ 354 worldwide on a budget of $ 6 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 making it Aronofsky 's highest grossing film to that point .
Aronofsky 's next film was Black Swan , which had been in development since 2001 , a psychological thriller horror film about a New York City ballerina . The film starred actress Natalie Portman , whom Aronofsky had known since 2000 . She introduced Aronofsky to Mila Kunis , who joined the cast in 2009 . Black Swan had its world premiere as the opening film at the 67th Venice Film Festival on October 2010 . It received a standing ovation whose length Variety said made it " one of the strongest Venice openers in recent memory " .
Black Swan has received high praise from film critics , and received a record 12 Broadcast Film Critics Association nominations , four Independent Spirit Award nominations , four Golden Globe nominations , three SAG nominations , and many more accolades . Aronofsky received a Golden Globe nomination for Best Director . The film broke limited @-@ release box @-@ office records and grossed an unexpectedly high $ 329 @,@ 398 @,@ 046 . On January 25 , 2011 , the film was nominated for a total of five Academy Awards ; Best Picture , Best Director , Best Actress , Best Cinematography and Best Film Editing and in March , Portman won as Best Actress . The film was awarded the PRISM Award from the Substance Abuse & Mental Health Services Administration for its depiction of mental health issues . Aronofsky served as an executive producer on The Fighter , which was also nominated for Best Picture at the Oscars .
= = = Larger budget production = = =
Aronofsky was attached to The Wolverine , which was scheduled to begin production in March 2011 , but he left the project due to scheduling issues . The film was set to be sixth entry of the X @-@ Men film series , featuring a story revolving around Wolverine 's adventures in Japan . In December 2011 , Aronofsky directed the music video for Lou Reed and Metallica 's " The View " from their album Lulu .
In 2011 , Aronofsky tried to launch production on Noah , a retelling of the Bible story of Noah 's Ark , projected for a $ 115 million budget . By the following year , the film had secured funding and distribution from New Regency and Paramount Pictures , with Russell Crowe hired for the title role . The film adapted a serialized graphic novel written by Aronofsky and Ari Handel , published in French in October 2011 by the Belgian publisher Le Lombard . By July 2012 , Aronofsky 's crews were building an ark set in Oyster Bay , Long Island , New York . Aronofsky announced the start of filming on Noah on Twitter in the same month , tweeting shots of the filming in Iceland . The film featured Emma Watson , Anthony Hopkins , Logan Lerman , and Jennifer Connelly , with the latter having also starred in Requiem for a Dream . During its opening weekend , Noah held the largest non @-@ sequel opening within Russia and Brazil , and the fourth @-@ largest opening of all time . Aronofsky did not use live animals for the film , saying in a PETA video that " There 's really no reason to do it anymore because the technology has arrived . " The HSUS gave him their inaugural Humane Filmmaker Award in honor of his use of computer @-@ generated animals .
Aronofsky was set to direct an HBO series pilot called Hobgoblin . Announced on June 16 , 2011 , the series would have depicted a group of magicians and con artists who use their powers of deception to defeat Hitler during World War II . He was set to work on this project with Pulitzer Prize winning author Michael Chabon and his wife Ayelet Waldman . In June , 2013 , it was announced that HBO had dropped the show and Aronofsky had pulled out , as well . It was also announced that Aronofsky will produce an upcoming horror film , XOXO , written by Black Swan writer Mark Heyman . George Nolfi of the The Adjustment Bureau is set to direct the project , which will be overseen by Aronofsky .
On October 13 , 2015 , Variety reported that he was eyeing a spring start of his next directional untitled project based on his own script , and Jennifer Lawrence was in talks to join the film while there were no greenlit on any of her other projects . The project was not yet attached with any studio but it would probably go to New Regency under the first @-@ look deal with Aronofsky . Domhnall Gleeson , Michelle Pfeiffer & Ed Harris were added to the cast in April 2016 . On May 25 , 2016 the title was revealed as Day 6 and that the film would begin shooting in June in Montreal . The film began shooting on June 27 , 2016 .
= = Directing style = =
Aronofsky 's first two films , Pi and Requiem for a Dream , were low @-@ budget and used montages of extremely short shots , also known as hip hop montages . While an average 100 @-@ minute film has 600 to 700 cuts Requiem features more than 2 @,@ 000 . Split @-@ screen is used extensively , along with extremely tight closeups . Long tracking shots ( including those shot with an apparatus strapping a camera to an actor , called the Snorricam ) and time @-@ lapse photography are also prominent stylistic devices . Often with his films , Aronofsky alternates between extreme closeups and extreme distance shots to create a sense of isolation .
With The Fountain , Aronofsky restricted the use of computer @-@ generated imagery . Henrik Fett , the visual effects supervisor of Look Effects , said , " Darren was quite clear on what he wanted and his intent to greatly minimize the use of computer graphics ... [ and ] I think the results are outstanding . " He used more subtle directing in The Wrestler and Black Swan , which less visceral directing style showcases the acting and narratives . Aronofsky filmed both works with a muted palette and a grainy style . The cinematographer Matthew Libatique has collaborated with Aronofsky on five films , and film composer Clint Mansell has worked with him on all six films . Mansell 's music is an often important element of the films .
= = = Themes and influences = = =
Pi features several references to mathematics and mathematical theories . In a 1998 interview , Aronofsky acknowledged several influences for " Pi " :
" I 'm a big fan of Kurosawa and Fellini . In this film in particular I think there 's a lot of Roman Polanski influence and Terry Gilliam influence as well as a Japanese director named Shinya Tsukamoto — he directed The Iron Man , Tetsuo . "
The visual style of " Pi " ( and even " Requiem for a Dream " ) features numerous similarities to the Japanese film Tetsuo : The Iron Man .
The majority of reviewers characterized Requiem for a Dream in the genre of " drug movies " , along with films like The Basketball Diaries , Trainspotting , Spun , and Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas . But , Aronofsky placed his movie in a wider context , saying :
Requiem for a Dream is not about heroin or about drugs ... The Harry @-@ Tyrone @-@ Marion story is a very traditional heroin story . But putting it side by side with the Sara story , we suddenly say , ' Oh , my God , what is a drug ? ' The idea that the same inner monologue goes through a person 's head when they 're trying to quit drugs , as with cigarettes , as when they 're trying to not eat food so they can lose 20 pounds , was really fascinating to me . I thought it was an idea that we hadn 't seen on film and I wanted to bring it up on the screen .
With his friend Ari Handel , Aronofsky developed the plot for The Fountain ; the director wrote the screenplay . In 1999 , Aronofsky thought that The Matrix redefined the science fiction genre in film . He sought to make a science fiction film that explored new territory , as did The Matrix and its predecessors Star Wars and 2001 : A Space Odyssey . He wanted to go beyond science fiction films with plots driven by technology and science .
In the Toronto International Film Festival interview conducted by James Rocchi , Aronofsky credited the 1957 Charles Mingus song " The Clown " as a major influence on The Wrestler . It 's an instrumental piece , with a poem read over the music about a clown who accidentally discovers the bloodlust of the crowds and eventually kills himself in performance .
Aronofsky called Black Swan a companion piece to The Wrestler , recalling one of his early projects about a love affair between a wrestler and a ballerina . He eventually separated the wrestling and the ballet worlds , considering them as " too much for one movie " . He compared the two films : " Wrestling some consider the lowest art — if they would even call it art — and ballet some people consider the highest art . But what was amazing to me was how similar the performers in both of these worlds are . They both make incredible use of their bodies to express themselves . " About the psychological thriller nature of Black Swan , actress Natalie Portman compared the film 's tone to Polanski 's 1968 film Rosemary 's Baby , while Aronofsky said Polanski 's Repulsion ( 1965 ) and The Tenant ( 1976 ) were " big influences " on the final film . Actor Vincent Cassel also compared Black Swan to Polanski 's early films , commenting that it was also influenced by Alejandro Jodorowsky ' movies and David Cronenberg 's early work .
= = Controversy = =
Several aspects of Aronofsky 's films have been controversial , most notably Requiem for a Dream , The Wrestler and Black Swan . Requiem for a Dream was originally set for release in 2000 , but it met with controversy in the United States , being rated NC @-@ 17 by the MPAA due to a graphic sex scene . Aronofsky appealed the rating , claiming that cutting any portion of the film would dilute its message . The appeal was denied and Artisan decided to release the film unrated .
The Wrestler has been condemned as an " anti @-@ Iranian " film in many Iran newspapers and websites , in response to a scene in which Mickey Rourke violently breaks a pole bearing an Iranian flag in half across his knee . Borna News , a state @-@ run Iranian newspaper , also criticized the heel ( bad @-@ guy ) wrestler character " The Ayatollah . " Portrayed as a villain , he wears Arabic items of clothing ( keffiyeh and bisht ) , which the newspaper believed was intended to lead audiences to associate Iranians with Arabs . In the wrestling ring , he wears a skimpy leotard in the pattern of an Iranian flag with the alef character , representing the first letter of the word Ayatollah .
Some Iranian newspapers avoided mentioning the character , presumably to avoid offending Iran 's clerical rulers . On March 2009 , Javad Shamaqdari , cultural adviser to President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad , demanded an apology from a delegation of Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences actors and producers visiting Iran for what he characterized as negative and unfair portrayals of the Islamic republic in The Wrestler and other Hollywood films .
The question of who had designed 40 ballet costumes for Portman and the dancers in Black Swan was one publicized controversy related to the film . The media gave substantial coverage to the dance double controversy : how much credit for the dancing in the film was being given to Portman and how much to her " dance double " , Sarah Lane , an American Ballet Theatre soloist . Lane claimed to have danced more than she was credited . The director and Fox Searchlight disputed Lane 's claim . Their released statements said , " We were fortunate to have Sarah there to cover the more complicated dance sequences and we have nothing but praise for the hard work she did . However , Natalie herself did most of the dancing featured in the final film . "
Aronofsky said in an interview with Entertainment Weekly :
" I had my editor count shots . There are 139 dance shots in the film . 111 are Natalie Portman untouched . 28 are her dance double Sarah Lane . If you do the math , that 's 80 % Natalie Portman . What about duration ? The shots that feature the double are wide shots and rarely play for longer than one second . There are two complicated longer dance sequences that we used face replacement . Even so , if we were judging by time , over 90 % would be Natalie Portman . And to be clear , Natalie did dance en pointe in pointe shoes . If you look at the final shot of the opening prologue , which lasts 85 seconds , and was danced completely by Natalie , she exits the scene on pointe . That is completely her without any digital magic . "
= = Personal life = =
Aronofsky began dating English actress Rachel Weisz in the summer of 2001 , and in 2005 they were engaged . Their son , Henry Chance Aronofsky , was born on May 31 , 2006 , in New York City . The couple resided in the East Village in Manhattan . In November 2010 , Weisz and Aronofsky announced that they had been apart for months , but remain close friends and are committed to raising their son together in New York . In 2012 , he began dating Canadian film and television producer Brandi @-@ Ann Milbradt . They were engaged but separated in 2015 .
He said of his spiritual beliefs in 2014 , " I think I definitely believe . My biggest expression of what I believe is in The Fountain " .
In April 2011 , Aronofsky was announced as the President of the Jury for the 68th Venice International Film Festival .
In November 2014 , Aronofsky was announced as the President of the Jury for the 65th Berlin International Film Festival , for February 2015 .
= = = Environmental activism = = =
Aronofsky is known for his environmental activism . In 2014 he traveled to the Alberta Tar Sands with the Sierra Club ’ s Michael Brune and Leonardo DiCaprio . In 2015 he traveled to Alaska 's Arctic National Wildlife Refuge with Brune , Kerri Russell , and the leaders of several veterans groups .
He has received the Humanitarian Award from both the Humane Society of the United States and PETA .
In 2015 , he collaborated with the artist JR on “ The Standing March , ” a public art installation in Paris encouraging diplomats at COP21 to take action against climate change .
He is a board member of The Sierra Club Foundation and The School of Field Studies .
= = Filmography = =
= = = Feature films = = =
= = = Unreleased short films = = =
= = = Television = = =
One Strange Rock
= = Accolades = =
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= Woohoo ( Christina Aguilera song ) =
" Woohoo " is a song by American recording artist Christina Aguilera , featuring American rapper Nicki Minaj . The song was written by Aguilera , Onika Maraj , Claude Kelly , Ester Dean and Jamal " Polow da Don " Jones , and produced by Polow da Don , for Aguilera 's sixth studio album , Bionic ( 2010 ) . " Woohoo " was serviced to rhythmic contemporary crossover airplay as the album 's second radio single on May 25 , 2010 . The song , which contains a sample of the 1972 song " Add már uram az esőt " by Kati Kovács , lyrically speaks about the act of oral sex .
" Woohoo " has been described as an electro @-@ R & B and dancehall track . The song received mixed to positive reviews from critics , some of whom praised Minaj 's appearance and Aguilera 's vocals . Many noted its similarities to Kelis 's " Milkshake " . However , others expressed distaste for the song 's sexual nature . " Woohoo " debuted and peaked at 46 and 79 in Canada and the United States , respectively . Aguilera performed the song in a medley with " Bionic " and " Not Myself Tonight " at the 2010 MTV Movie Awards .
= = Composition = =
" Woohoo " was written by Aguilera , Maraj , Claude Kelly , Ester Dean and Polow da Don . The song is an electro , R & B and dancehall track . Aguilera 's vocals are distorted in parts . " Woohoo " contains a sample from the Hungarian song " Add már uram az esőt " , originally sung by the Hungarian singer Kati Kovács in 1972 . The song 's chorus has been described as " shouty " and " sing @-@ song " . Rob Harvilla of The Village Voice noted that the song sounded like a mix of " Milkshake " and " Lip Gloss " with " electro synths " . Lyrically , the song is about the act of oral sex .
= = Critical reception = =
" Woohoo " received mixed to positive reviews from critics , most of them commended Aguilera 's vocals and praising Minaj 's appearance . However , the others were not impressed with the song 's sexual nature . Sara D. Anderson of AOL Music said the " provocative , dancehall track nicely fuses Aguilera 's powerful voice with Minaj 's MC tactics " . Benjamin Boles of Now Magazine called the track the top track on Bionic , commenting that Minaj 's cameo " rescues " the song . Alexis Petridis of The Guardian , said , " If you 're going to do a five @-@ minute song about cunnilingus , it 's a good idea to enlist foul @-@ mouthed rapper Nicki Minaj , whose bug @-@ eyed contribution lends the proceedings an air of gripping abandon . " Chris Ryan of MTV Buzzworthy called the song " sexually explicit , funky club pop " , saying " In Nicki Minaj , Aguilera has found the perfect partner for her erotic @-@ pop adventures " . He also called the song a " dirtier cousin of Rihanna 's ' Rude Boy ' or ' Hollaback Girl ' " , and commended Minaj 's verse .
Becky Bain of Idolator said the song 's " catchiness " was " miles ahead " of " Not Myself Tonight " , also compared it to " Hollaback Girl " . Bain also said , " If there 's one person who can match Christina Aguilera 's naughtiness , it 's Nicki Minaj , so these two pretty much make a perfect pair for this type of song . " Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic said the track had an " incessant title loop piercing like a dental drill " and said it " doesn 't work as temptation " . He also commented " her crassness is no longer alienating as it was on Stripped " . Michael Cragg of musicOMH also compared the song to dental work , commenting that the song , " which is about oral sex but is about as sexy as going to the dentist . " Genevieve Koski of The A.V. Club called the song along with the " meat " of Bionic , " already @-@ passé electro trash . "
= = Chart performance = =
In its first week of release , " Woohoo " debuted at 46 on the Canadian Hot 100 , and 79 on the Billboard Hot 100 . The song became Aguilera 's 15th straight single to hit both charts , keeping her streak of having all of her singles chart on the Billboard Hot 100 . The song fell off both charts the following week . However , due to increased digital sales after her performance at the 2010 MTV Movie Awards and the release of Bionic , the song re @-@ entered the Billboard Hot 100 at number 99 . The song also charted at number 148 on the UK Singles Chart after the release of Bionic .
= = Live performance = =
Aguilera sang a portion of the song , alongside " Bionic " and " Not Myself Tonight " , at the 2010 MTV Movie Awards . During " Woohoo " , the last of the set , Aguilera and her backup dancers removed their leather capes and revealing painted red hearts on their groins , ending with Aguilera 's LED heart glowing . James Montgomery of MTV News referred to the song as a " seriously sexy dance number . " Montgomery described the performance 's ending , stating , " Not to be outdone , Aguilera ended things by standing tall at center stage , the camera zooming in on her midsection , which now bore a beating heart of its own . "
Most critics were not impressed with the medley , comparing it to Aguilera 's identity during the Bionic era . Tamar Anitai , also of MTV Buzzworthy summarized the performance saying it " was all about her " I @-@ I 'm @-@ still @-@ a @-@ diva " vocals , frenzied stage show , and adult @-@ only innuendo ... And then this happened . " She went on to comment also sarcastically , " This is so just Christina Aguilera 's way of saying she loves you ! And that the diminutive diva still has a sense of humor .... It 's like a little knowing wink that assures you that when she 's not changing diapers and doing mommy stuff , Mamaguilera 's hanging out at dance party sex dungeons and wailing from the bottom of her light @-@ up hoo @-@ ha . She is DEFINITELY not the same girl who once bopped around on the Disney Channel in a Scrunchie . "
= = Track listing = =
Digital download
" Woohoo " – 5 : 29
= = Credits and personnel = =
Songwriting – Christina Aguilera , Onika Maraj , Claude Kelly , Ester Dean , Polow da Don
Production – Polow da Don
Vocal production — additional by Claude Kelly
Mixing – Jaycen Joshua , assisted by Giancarlo Lino
Engineering – assistant , Matt Benefield
Recording — Josh Mosser and Jeremy Stevenson
Vocal recording — Oscar Ramirez
Source
= = Charts = =
= = Radio and release history = =
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= Pornography ( album ) =
Pornography is the fourth studio album by English rock band the Cure , released on 4 May 1982 by the record label Fiction . Preceded by the non @-@ album single " Charlotte Sometimes " late the previous year , Pornography was the band 's first album with a new producer , Phil Thornalley , and was recorded at RAK Studios from January to April . The sessions saw the group on the brink of collapse , with heavy drug use , band in @-@ fighting and group leader Robert Smith 's depression fuelling the album 's musical and lyrical content . Pornography represents the conclusion of the group 's early dark , gloomy musical phase which began with Seventeen Seconds in 1980 .
Following its release , bass guitarist Simon Gallup left the band and the Cure switched to a much brighter and more radio @-@ friendly new wave sound . While poorly received by critics at the time of release , Pornography was their most popular album to date , reaching No. 8 in the UK charts . Pornography has since gone on to gain acclaim from critics , and is now considered an important milestone in the development of the gothic rock genre . The band has performed the album live in its entirety as part of the Trilogy concerts .
= = Background and recording = =
Following the band 's previous album , 1981 's Faith , the non @-@ album single " Charlotte Sometimes " was released . The single , in particular its nightmarish and hallucinatory B @-@ side " Splintered in Her Head " , would hint at what was to come in Pornography .
In the words of Robert Smith , regarding the album 's conception , " I had two choices at the time , which were either completely giving in [ committing suicide ] or making a record of it and getting it out of me " . He also claims he " really thought that was it for the group . I had every intention of signing off . I wanted to make the ultimate ' fuck off ' record , and then sign off [ the band ] " . Smith was mentally exhausted during that period of time : " I was in a really depressed frame of mind between 1981 and 1982 " . The band " had been touring for about 200 days a year and it all got a bit too much because there was never any time to do anything else " .
The band , Smith in particular , wanted to make the album with a different producer than Mike Hedges , who had produced Seventeen Seconds and Faith . The group settled on Phil Thornalley . Pornography is the last Cure album to feature founding band member Lol Tolhurst as the band 's drummer ( he then became the band 's keyboardist ) , and also marked the first time he played keyboards on a Cure release . The album was recorded at RAK Studios from January to April 1982 .
On the album 's recording sessions , Smith noted " there was a lot of drugs involved " . The band took LSD and drank a lot of alcohol , and to save money , they slept in the office of their record label . The musicians usually turned up at eight , and left at midday looking " fairly deranged " . Smith related : " We had an arrangement with the off @-@ licence up the road , every night they would bring in supplies . We decided we weren ’ t going to throw anything out . We built this mountain of empties in the corner , a gigantic pile of debris in the corner . It just grew and grew " . According to Tolhurst , " we wanted to make the ultimate , intense album . I can 't remember exactly why , but we did " . The recording sessions commenced and concluded in three weeks . Smith noted , " At the time , I lost every friend I had , everyone , without exception , because I was incredibly obnoxious , appalling , self @-@ centered " . He also noted that with the album , he " channeled all the self @-@ destructive elements of my personality into doing something " .
Polydor Records , the company in charge of Fiction Records , the label on which the album was released , was initially displeased with the album 's title , which it saw as being potentially offensive . Following the album 's release , Simon Gallup left the group .
= = Content = =
Regarding the album 's musical style , NME reviewer Dave Hill wrote , " The drums , guitars , voice and production style are pressed scrupulously together in a murderous unity of surging , textured mood " . Hill further described it as " Phil Spector in Hell " . Trouser Press said about the track " A Short Term Effect " : It " stresses ephemeralness with Smith 's echo @-@ laden voice decelerating at the end of each phrase " . Ira Robbins observed that " the song closest to basic pop " is " A Strange Day " : It " has overdubbed backing vocals plus a delineated verse and chorus wrapped in some strangely consonant guitar figures " . The journalist also commented : the song " Cold " " gets the full gothic treatment " , with " grandiose minor @-@ mode organ swells " . Describing the title track , writer Dave McCullough said that it " tries to copy Cabaret Voltaire , all shuddering tape noise " .
= = Release and reception = =
Pornography was released on 3 May 1982 . The album debuted and peaked at No. 8 in the UK Albums Chart , staying in the chart for nine weeks . Fiction owner Chris Parry found " The Hanging Garden " to be the album 's only potential single , and after being " polished " by Thornally and Smith , was released as a single on 12 July , reaching No. 32 in the UK Singles Chart .
Despite the commercial performance of the album , Pornography was not well received by most music critics upon its release . Rolling Stone initially gave the album 1 @.@ 5 stars out of 5 , with reviewer J. D. Considine commenting that the Cure 's lyrics " [ seem ] stuck in the terminal malaise of adolescent existentialism " . Considine concluded , " Pornography comes off as the aural equivalent of a bad toothache . It isn 't the pain that irks , it 's the persistent dullness " . Robert Christgau , writing in The Village Voice , derided Smith 's " glum " lyrics and felt that he should " cheer up " . NME reviewer Dave Hill was ambivalent towards the album : " The Cure have collected the very purest feelings endemic to their age , and [ hold ] them right on the spot in their most unpleasantly real form [ ... ] This record portrays and parades its currency of exposed futility and naked fear with so few distractions or adornments , and so little sense of shame . It really piles it on " . Melody Maker 's Adam Sweeting shared a similar point of view , saying : " It 's downhill all the way , into ever @-@ darkening shadows ... passing through chilly marbled archways to the final rendezvous with the cold comfort of the slab " . Sounds wrote that despite a " genuine talent still at work " , the album " has too much music too cluttered a backing for Smith 's well @-@ intended observance [ ... ] Robert Smith seems locked in himself , a spiralling nightmare that leaves The Cure making a pompous sounding music that is , when all 's said and done , dryly meaningless " . At the opposite , Trouser Press was one of the very few magazines to write a favourable review . Writer Charles McCardell observed that " The Cure imposes an order that at first seems contrary to the basic preconceptions of rock ' n ' roll . For them , lyrics are everything . Instruments may set the scene , but they seldom stray from merely creating atmosphere " . McCardell finally hailed Pornography as a " uncompromising and challenging " work .
Retrospective views of the album have been favourable . Uncut called the album " a masterpiece of claustrophobic self @-@ loathing " . In their 2004 review , BBC opined , " Indeed , were it not for its sonic depth and sheer relentless conviction , Pornography 's extraordinary misanthropy would be laughable " . Rolling Stone gave the album a higher rating , 3 out of 5 stars , in The Rolling Stone Album Guide than the initial 1982 review .
In his biography of the Cure , Never Enough : The Story of the Cure , Jeff Apter explained : " Pornography turned out to be the kind of album — just like Lou Reed 's Berlin or Bowie 's coke @-@ fueled Low — that required some distance and a good few years of music history to be really appreciated " . Mark Coleman of Rolling Stone opined in 1995 : " Though Pornography is revered by Cureheads as a masterstroke , normal listeners will probably find it impenetrable " .
= = Legacy = =
In 2005 , Spin cited the album as a " high @-@ water mark for goth 's musical evolution " . NME described Pornography as " arguably the album that invented goth " . Slant Magazine listed the album at No. 79 on its list of the best albums of the 1980s . In 2011 , NME listed Pornography at No. 6 on its " 50 Darkest Albums Ever " list . Mojo placed it at No. 83 in their list " 100 Records That Changed the World " . AllMusic critic Stewart Mason also described the record as " as one of the key goth rock albums of the ' 80s " .
According to Apter , Pornography would prove to be " enormously influential " , and has been cited as an influence by bands such as Deftones and System of a Down .
= = Live performances = =
In the period preceding and following the release of Pornography , the band started to develop their trademark image of big hair , smudged makeup and black clothes . Smith applied lipstick smeared around the eyes and the mouth . Under the lights , the lipstick melted , making it look , as Smith later put it " like we 'd been smacked in the face " . It was supposed to symbolise the violence of the new material but backstage , another kind of violence had begun to surface from the first dates of the tour .
The band performed in the UK in April 1982 . NME considered that the show " was all very skillfully deployed : a bruisingly clear sound of scathing force , a clockwork , Pavlovian lightshow , a variegation of light and shade in the song order that builds to the unmitigating force of ' Pornography ' itself as the climax " . However , the mood on stage was not good : The journalist noted that Smith looked " dejected and tired " for his birthday . Behind the scene , Smith 's relationship with Gallup was deteriorating . When the tour reached Europe , tension was so high between the two musicians that they had a fight after a concert in Strasbourg . Tolhurst found out the next day that his two partners " had both gone back to England " . At home , Smith heard his father telling him : " Get right back out on that tour ! People have bought tickets ! " After two more weeks of touring , the band played their final show in Brussels . Tolhurst later related : " I remember sitting in the dressing room thinking , ' oh well , that 's the end of the band , then ' [ ... ] I went off to France for a bit . I guess I ran away . Escaping from the reality of The Cure " . Back in England , Smith took a rest with a month 's camping holiday to the Lake District to " clean up " .
In 2002 , 20 years after the release of Pornography , The Cure performed the album live in its entirety , along with Disintegration and Bloodflowers , as part of the Trilogy concerts .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written by the Cure ( Robert Smith , Simon Gallup and Lol Tolhurst )
Side A
One Hundred Years – 6 : 40
A Short Term Effect – 4 : 22
The Hanging Garden – 4 : 33
Siamese Twins – 5 : 29
Side B
The Figurehead – 6 : 15
A Strange Day – 5 : 04
Cold – 4 : 26
Pornography – 6 : 27
= = Personnel = =
The Cure
Robert Smith – vocals , guitar , keyboards ( " One Hundred Years " , " The Hanging Garden " , " Cold " , " Pornography " ) , cello ( " Cold " ) , production , engineering
Simon Gallup – bass guitar , keyboards ( " A Strange Day " , " Cold " , " Pornography " ) , production
Lol Tolhurst – drums , keyboards ( " One Hundred Years " ) , production
Technical
Phil Thornalley – production , engineering assistance
Mike Nocito – engineering
Michael Kostiff – sleeve photography
Ben Kelly – sleeve design
= = Charts = =
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= United Airlines Flight 232 =
United Airlines Flight 232 was a DC @-@ 10 ( registered N1819U ) that on July 19 , 1989 crash @-@ landed in Sioux City , Iowa after suffering catastrophic failure of its tail @-@ mounted engine , which led to the loss of all flight controls . The flight was en route from Stapleton International Airport in Denver , Colorado to O 'Hare International Airport in Chicago . Of the 296 people on board , 111 died in the accident and 185 survived . Despite the deaths , the accident is considered a prime example of successful crew resource management due to the large number of survivors and the manner in which the flight crew handled the emergency and landed the airplane without conventional control . The flight crew became well known as a result of their actions , in particular the captain , Alfred C. Haynes , and a DC @-@ 10 instructor on board who offered his assistance , Dennis E. Fitch .
= = General = =
The National Transportation Safety Board determined that the probable cause of this accident was the inadequate consideration given to human factors limitations in the inspection and quality control procedures used by United Airlines ' engine overhaul facility . These resulted in the failure to detect a fatigue crack originating from a previously undetected metallurgical defect located in a critical area of the stage 1 fan disk that was manufactured by General Electric Aircraft Engines . The uncontained manner in which the engine failed resulted in high @-@ speed metal fragments being hurled from the engine ; these fragments penetrated the hydraulic lines of all three independent hydraulic systems on board the aircraft , which rapidly lost their hydraulic fluid . The subsequent catastrophic disintegration of the disk resulted in the liberation of debris in a pattern of distribution and with energy levels that exceeded the level of protection provided by design features of the hydraulic systems that operate the DC @-@ 10 's flight controls ; the flight crew lost its ability to operate nearly all of them . Despite these losses , the crew was able to attain and then maintain limited control by using the throttles to adjust thrust to the remaining wing @-@ mounted engines . By using each engine independently , the crew made rough steering adjustments , and by using the engines together they were able to roughly adjust altitude . The crew guided the crippled jet to Sioux Gateway Airport and lined it up for landing on one of the runways . Without the use of flaps and slats , they were unable to slow down for landing , and were forced to attempt landing at a very high ground speed . The aircraft also landed at an extremely high rate of descent due to the inability to flare ( reduce the rate of descent before touchdown by increasing pitch ) . As a result , upon touchdown the aircraft broke apart , rolled over and caught fire . The largest section came to rest in a cornfield next to the runway . Despite the ferocity of the accident , 185 ( 62 @.@ 5 % ) passengers and crew survived owing to a variety of factors including the relatively controlled manner of the crash and the early notification of emergency services .
= = Involved = =
= = = Aircraft = = =
The accident airplane , a McDonnell Douglas DC @-@ 10 @-@ 10 ( registration N1819U ) , was delivered in 1971 and had been owned by UAL since then . Before departure on the flight from Denver on July 19 , 1989 , the airplane had been operated for a total of 43 @,@ 401 hours and 16 @,@ 997 cycles . The airplane was powered by General Electric Aircraft Engines ( GEAE ) CF6 @-@ 6D high bypass ratio turbofan engines .
= = = Flight crew = = =
Captain Alfred C. Haynes , 57 , was hired by United Airlines on February 23 , 1956 . He had 29 @,@ 967 hours of total flight time with United Airlines , of which 7 @,@ 190 was in the DC @-@ 10 . He held Airline Transport Pilot Certificate , latest issue September 21 , 1985 , with type ratings in the DC @-@ 10 and B727 . He was type rated in the DC @-@ 10 on May 11 , 1983 . On April 6 , 1987 , he was requalified as a DC @-@ 10 captain after having served as a B @-@ 727 captain since September 1985 . His most recent proficiency check in the DC @-@ 10 was completed on April 26 , 1989 .
First Officer William R. Records , 48 , was hired by National Airlines on August 25 , 1969 . He subsequently worked for Pan American World Airways . His first pilot activity at United Airlines was completion of the United Airlines indoctrination course ( PAA Pilots to UAL ) on December 26 , 1985 . He estimated that he had accumulated approximately 20 @,@ 000 hours of total flight time . United 's records indicate that he has accrued 665 hours of flight time as a DC @-@ 10 first officer . Records completed United 's DC @-@ 10 transition course on August 8 , 1988 . This was also the date of his last proficiency check .
Second Officer Dudley J. Dvorak , 51 , was hired by United Airlines on May 19 , 1986 . He estimated that he had approximately 15 @,@ 000 hours of total flying time . United 's records indicate that he had accumulated 1 @,@ 903 hours as a second officer in the B @-@ 727 and 33 hours as a second officer in the DC @-@ 10 . Dvorak completed DC @-@ 10 transition training on June 8 , 1989 . This was also the date of his last check ride .
Training Check Airman Captain Dennis E. Fitch , 46 , was hired by United Airlines on January 2 , 1968 . He estimated that prior to his employment with United he had accrued between 1 @,@ 400 and 1 @,@ 500 hours of flight time with the Air National Guard . His total DC @-@ 10 time with United was 2 @,@ 987 hours , of which 1 @,@ 943 hours were accrued as a second officer , 965 hours as a first officer , and 79 hours as a captain . He was assigned as a DC @-@ 10 training check airman ( TCA ) at United 's Training Center in Denver , Colorado .
= = Events of crash = =
= = = Take off , engine failure , hydraulic system unresponsive = = =
Flight 232 took off at 14 : 09 ( CDT ) from Stapleton International Airport , Denver , Colorado , bound for O 'Hare International Airport in Chicago with continuing service to Philadelphia International Airport .
At 15 : 16 , while the plane was in a shallow right turn at 37 @,@ 000 feet , the fan disk of its tail @-@ mounted General Electric CF6 @-@ 6 engine failed and disintegrated . The debris from the failed disk was not contained by the engine 's nacelle , a housing that protects the engine . Pieces of the disk penetrated the aircraft 's tail section structure in numerous places , including the horizontal stabilizer . This fragmentation punctured the lines of all three hydraulic systems , allowing the fluid to rapidly drain away .
The pilots felt a jolt go through the aircraft . Warning lights illuminated that indicated that the autopilot had disengaged and the tail @-@ mounted number two engine was malfunctioning . Captain Haynes watched First Officer Records place his hands on the flight controls in response to the autopilot disconnecting and therefore focused his attention on the malfunctioning engine . Second Officer Dvorak obtained the engine failure checklist and read the first item : throttle power must be reduced to idle . Haynes was unable to move the throttle ; the linkage had been jammed as a result of the engine failure . The second item called for the fuel supply lever to be pulled to shutoff , but it would not move either . At this point , at Dvorak 's suggestion , the firewall shutoff valve was actuated , and the fuel flow to the engine was shut off . This part of the emergency took 14 seconds .
Meanwhile , First Officer Records noticed that the airliner was off @-@ course , and moved his control column to correct this , but the plane did not respond . Records reported to Captain Haynes that he could not control the airplane . Haynes , having just shut off the fuel supply to the malfunctioning engine , looked at Records and was surprised by what he saw : Records had the control column turned all the way to the left , commanding maximum left aileron , and pulled all the way back , commanding maximum up elevator . These inputs would never be utilized simultaneously in normal flight . What was more , despite these inputs , which command a roll to the left and the aircraft 's nose to rise , the aircraft was instead banking to the right with the nose dropping . Haynes took the flight controls and attempted to level the aircraft with his own control column . When this was ineffective , both Haynes and Records utilized their control columns at the same time in an attempt to recover from the steepening bank . The aircraft still did not respond . Out of options , and in danger of the aircraft rolling into a completely inverted position ( an unrecoverable situation which would result in a crash ) , the crew took the throttle for the left wing @-@ mounted number 1 engine and reduced the power to idle , while also taking the throttle for the right wing @-@ mounted number 3 engine and commanding maximum power . The resulting differential thrust ( no power on the left side and maximum power on the right side ) caused the airplane to slowly level out .
With the imminent danger over , the crew began to diagnose the situation on the flight deck . Dvorak discovered that the pressure gauges and quantity gauges on his instrument panel for the three hydraulic systems were registering zero , and reported this to Haynes . The three hydraulic systems were separate ; a single event in one system would not disable the other systems , but lines for all three systems shared the same 10 @-@ inch @-@ wide ( 250 mm ) route through the tail where the engine debris had penetrated . There was no additional backup system . The flight crew quickly realized that the initial failure had left all hydraulic systems , and therefore all control surfaces , inoperative . The crew called United Airlines ' maintenance base using one of their radios , but as a total loss of hydraulics on the DC @-@ 10 was considered " virtually impossible " , there were no procedures or guidelines for dealing with such an event .
= = = Help from Fitch , emergency landing and crash = = =
Due to the damage in the tail , the plane had a continual tendency to turn right , and without flight controls it was difficult to maintain a stable course . The plane began to slowly oscillate vertically in a phugoid cycle , which is characteristic of planes in which control surface command is lost . With each iteration of the cycle the aircraft lost approximately 1 @,@ 500 feet ( 460 m ) of altitude . Dennis E. Fitch , an off @-@ duty United Airlines DC @-@ 10 flight instructor , was seated in the first class section and , noticing the crew was having trouble controlling the airplane , offered his assistance to the flight attendants . Upon being informed that there was a DC @-@ 10 instructor on board , Haynes immediately invited him to the cockpit , hoping his instructional knowledge of the aircraft would help them regain control .
When he entered the cockpit and looked at the hydraulic gauges , Fitch concluded that the situation was beyond anything he had ever faced . The flight crew , while using the engines to control the airplane , were also still trying to fly the airplane using their control columns . Haynes asked Fitch to go into the passenger cabin and see if their control inputs were having any effect on the ailerons . Fitch reported back that the ailerons were not moving at all . Despite this news , the crew would continue trying to fly the airplane with their control columns for the remainder of the flight , hopeful that it was at least having some effect . Fitch , his first task concluded , asked how he might be of further assistance . Haynes , still trying to fly the airplane with his control column while simultaneously working the throttles , asked Fitch to work the throttles instead . With one throttle in each hand , Fitch was able to mitigate the phugoid cycle and make rough steering adjustments .
Air traffic control ( ATC ) was contacted and an emergency landing at nearby Sioux Gateway Airport was organized . Haynes kept his sense of humor during the emergency , as recorded on the plane 's cockpit voice recorder ( CVR ) :
Fitch : " I 'll tell you what , we 'll have a beer when this is all done . "
Haynes : " Well I don 't drink , but I 'll sure as shit have one . "
and later :
Sioux City Approach : " United Two Thirty @-@ Two Heavy , the wind 's currently three six zero at one one ; three sixty at eleven . You 're cleared to land on any runway . "
Haynes : " [ laughter ] Roger . [ laughter ] You want to be particular and make it a runway , huh ? " ( Haynes was alluding to the extreme difficulty in controlling the aircraft and their low chances of making it to a runway at all . )
A more serious remark often quoted from Haynes was made when ATC asked the crew to make a left turn to keep them clear of the city :
Haynes : " Whatever you do , keep us away from the city . "
Haynes later noted that " We were too busy [ to be scared ] . You must maintain your composure in the airplane or you will die . You learn that from your first day flying . "
As the crew began to prepare for arrival at Sioux City , they questioned whether they should deploy the landing gear or belly @-@ land the aircraft with the gear retracted . They decided that having the landing gear down would provide some shock absorption on impact . The complete hydraulic failure left the landing gear lowering mechanism inoperative . Two options were available to the flight crew . The DC @-@ 10 is designed such that if hydraulic pressure to the landing gear is lost , the gear will fall down slightly and rest on the landing gear doors . Placing the regular landing gear handle in the down position will unlock the doors mechanically , and the doors and landing gear will then fall down into place and lock due to gravity . An alternative system is also available using a lever in the cockpit floor to cause the landing gear to fall into position . This lever has the added benefit of unlocking the outboard ailerons , which are not used in high @-@ speed flight and are locked in a neutral position . The crew hoped that there might be some trapped hydraulic fluid in the outboard ailerons and that they might regain some use of flight controls by unlocking them . They elected to extend the gear with the alternative system . Although the gear deployed successfully , there was no change in the controllability of the aircraft .
Landing was originally planned on the 9 @,@ 000 @-@ foot ( 2 @,@ 700 m ) Runway 31 . Difficulties in controlling the aircraft made lining up almost impossible . While dumping some of the excess fuel , the plane executed a series of mostly right @-@ hand turns ( it was easier to turn the plane in this direction ) with the intention of lining up with Runway 31 . When they came out they were instead lined up with the shorter ( 6 @,@ 888 ft ) and closed Runway 22 , and had little capacity to maneuver . Fire trucks had been placed on Runway 22 , anticipating a landing on nearby Runway 31 , so all the vehicles were quickly moved out of the way before the plane touched down . Runway 22 had been permanently closed a year earlier in 1988 .
ATC also advised that I @-@ 29 ran North and South just East of the airport they could land on if they didn 't think they could make the runway . The pilot opted to try for the runway instead .
Fitch continued to control the aircraft 's descent by adjusting engine thrust . With the loss of all hydraulics , the crew were unable to control airspeed independent from sink rate . On final descent , the aircraft was going 220 knots and sinking at 1 @,@ 850 feet per minute ( approximately 440 km / h forward and 34 km / h downward speed ) , while a safe landing would require 140 knots and 300 feet per minute ( approximately 260 and 5 km / h respectively ) . Fitch needed a seat for landing ; Dvorak offered up his own , as it could be moved to a position behind the throttles . Dvorak sat in the cockpit 's jump seat for landing . Fitch noticed the high sink rate , and pushed the throttles forward . The left engine spooled up faster than the right engine , causing it to bank sharply to the right . The flight crew had no time to react . The tip of the right wing hit the runway first , spilling fuel , which ignited immediately . The tail section broke off from the force of the impact , and the rest of the aircraft bounced several times , shedding the landing gear and engine nacelles and breaking the fuselage into several main pieces . On the final impact , the right wing was shorn off and the main part of the aircraft skidded sideways , rolled over onto its back , and slid to a stop upside @-@ down in a corn field to the right of Runway 22 . Witnesses reported that the aircraft " cartwheeled " end @-@ over @-@ end , but the investigation did not confirm this . The reports were due to misinterpretation of the video of the crash that showed the flaming right wing tumbling end @-@ over @-@ end and the intact left wing , still attached to the fuselage , rolling up and over as the fuselage flipped over .
= = Post @-@ crash response = =
= = = Injuries to persons = = =
Of the 296 people on board , 111 died in the crash . Most were killed by injuries sustained in the multiple impacts , but 35 people in the middle fuselage section directly above the fuel tanks died from smoke inhalation in the post @-@ crash fire . Of those , 24 had no traumatic blunt @-@ force injuries . The majority of the 185 survivors were seated behind first class and ahead of the wings . Many passengers were able to walk out through the ruptures to the structure , and in many cases got lost in the high field of corn adjacent to the runway until rescue workers arrived on the scene and escorted them to safety .
Of all of the passengers :
35 died due to smoke inhalation ( none were in first class )
76 died for reasons other than smoke inhalation ( 17 in first class )
47 were seriously injured ( eight in first class )
125 had minor injuries ( one in first class )
13 had no injuries ( none in first class )
The passengers who died for reasons other than smoke inhalation were seated in rows 1 – 4 , 24 – 25 and 28 – 38 . Passengers who died due to smoke inhalation were seated in rows 14 , 16 and 22 – 30 . The person assigned to 20H moved to an unknown seat and died of smoke inhalation .
One crash survivor died 31 days after the accident ; he was classified according to NTSB regulations as a survivor with serious injuries .
Fifty @-@ two children , including four " lap children " without their own seats , were on board the flight due to the United Airlines " Children 's Day " promotion . Eleven children , including one lap child , died . Many of the children had traveled alone .
Rescuers initially ignored the cockpit , as it had been compressed in the crash to approximately waist high and was completely unrecognizable . It was not until 35 minutes after the crash that rescuers discovered that the debris was the cockpit and that the four pilots were still alive inside . All four recovered from their injuries and returned to work : Haynes , Records and Dvorak returned in three months , while Fitch , more seriously injured than the others , returned in 11 months .
= = Investigation = =
National Transportation Safety Board officials were on scene within hours of the accident . N1819U had been in service since 1972 and was 17 years old , about mid @-@ life for a DC @-@ 10 , when the accident occurred . The rear section of the aircraft containing the number two engine was intact . Because of this , investigators were easily able to see inside engine number 2 . As the investigation unfolded , it became apparent that the entire fan disk and blade assembly from engine number 2 , a component approximately 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) in diameter and made of titanium alloy , was missing from the accident scene . Despite an extensive search in the weeks following the crash , the missing disk and blade assembly could not be located . Realizing that that disk potentially held the key to understanding the reasons for the engine failure , the engine 's manufacturer , General Electric , offered a $ 50 @,@ 000 reward to whoever located the disk , and $ 1 @,@ 000 for each fan blade . On October 10 , 1989 , three months after the crash , Janice Sorenson , a farmer harvesting corn near Alta , Iowa , felt resistance on her combine , and after getting out to investigate , discovered most of the fan disk with a number of blades still attached partially buried in her cornfield . The rest of the fan disk and most of the additional blades were located later in the harvest .
Investigators discovered an impurity and fatigue crack in the disk . Titanium reacts with air when melted , which creates impurities which can initiate fatigue cracks like that found in the crash disk . To prevent this , the ingot that would become the fan disk was formed using a " double vacuum " process : the raw materials were melted together in a vacuum , allowed to cool and solidify , then melted in a vacuum once more . After the double vacuum process , the ingot was shaped into a billet , a sausage @-@ like form about 16 inches in diameter , and tested using ultrasound to look for defects . Defects were located and the ingot was further processed to remove them , but some contamination remained . ( GE later changed to an improved triple @-@ vacuum process because of their investigation into failing rotating titanium engine parts . )
The contamination caused what is known as a hard alpha inclusion , a brittle part of the metal , which cracked during forging and then fell out during final machining . This formed a cavity with microscopic cracks at the edges . For the next 18 years , the crack grew slightly each time the engine was powered up and brought to operating temperature . Eventually the crack grew large enough to cause structural failure of the disk .
Significant irregularities and gaps in GE Aircraft engines ’ and its suppliers ’ manufacturing records of the crash disk noted in the NTSB report leave doubts about the origins of the crash disk . Records found after the accident indicated that two rough @-@ machined forgings having the serial number of the crash disk had been routed through GEAE manufacturing . Records indicated that Alcoa supplied GE with TIMET titanium forgings for one disk with the serial number of the crash disk . Some records show that this disk “ was rejected for an unsatisfactory ultrasonic indication ” , that an outside lab performed an ultrasound inspection of this disk , that this disk was subsequently returned to GE , and that this disk should have been scrapped . The FAA report stated “ There is no record of warranty claim by GEAE for defective material and no record of any credit for GEAE processed by Alcoa or TIMET ” .
GE records of the second disk having the serial number of the crash disk indicate that it was made with an RMI titanium billet supplied by Alcoa . Research of GE records showed no other titanium parts were manufactured at GE from this RMI titanium billet during the period of 1969 to 1990 . GE records indicate that final finishing and inspection of the crash disk were completed on December 11 , 1971 . Alcoa records indicate that this RMI titanium billet was first cut in 1972 and that all forgings made from this material were for airframe parts . If the Alcoa records were accurate , the RMI titanium could not have been used to manufacture the crash disk , indicating that the initially rejected TIMET disk with “ an unsatisfactory ultrasonic indication ” was the crash disk .
CF6 engines like that containing the crash disk were used to power many civilian and military aircraft at the time of the crash . Due to concerns that the accident could recur , a large number of disks that were in service were examined by ultrasound for indications of defects . At least two “ sister disks ” were found to have defects like that of the crash disk . Prioritization and efficiency of inspections of the many engines under suspicion would have been aided by determination of the titanium source of the crash disk . Chemical analyses of the crash disk intended to determine its source were inconclusive . The NTSB report stated that if examined disks were not from the same source , “ the records on a large number of GEAE disks are suspect . It also means that any AD action that is based on the serial number of a disk could fail to have its intended effect because suspect disks could remain in service . ” The FAA report did not explicitly address the impact of these uncertainties on operations of military aircraft that might have contained a suspect disk .
= = Cause = =
The investigation , while praising the actions of the flight crew for saving lives , would later identify the cause of the accident as a failure by United Airlines maintenance processes and personnel to detect an existing fatigue crack . The Probable Cause in the report by the NTSB read as follows :
The National Transportation Safety Board determines that the probable cause of this accident was the inadequate consideration given to human factors limitations in the inspection and quality control procedures used by United Airlines ' engine overhaul facility which resulted in the failure to detect a fatigue crack originating from a previously undetected metallurgical defect located in a critical area of the stage 1 fan disk that was manufactured by General Electric Aircraft Engines . The subsequent catastrophic disintegration of the disk resulted in the liberation of debris in a pattern of distribution and with energy levels that exceeded the level of protection provided by design features of the hydraulic systems that operate the DC @-@ 10 's flight controls .
Post @-@ crash analysis of the crack surfaces showed the presence of a penetrating fluorescent dye used to detect cracks during maintenance . The presence of the dye indicated that the crack was present and should have been detected at a prior inspection . The detection failure arose from poor attention to human factors in United Airlines ' specification of maintenance processes .
= = Influence on the industry = =
The National Transportation Safety Board ( NTSB ) investigation , after subsequent reconstructions of the accident in flight simulators , deemed that training for such an event involved too many factors to be practical . While some level of control was possible , no precision could be achieved , and a landing under these conditions was stated to be " a highly random event " . The NTSB further noted that " under the circumstances the UAL flight crew performance was highly commendable and greatly exceeded reasonable expectations . "
The manufacturing process for titanium was changed in order to eliminate the type of gaseous anomaly that served as the starting point for the crack . Newer batches of titanium use much higher melting temperatures and a " triple vacuum " process in an attempt to eliminate such impurities .
Because this type of aircraft control ( with loss of control surfaces ) is difficult for humans to achieve , some researchers have attempted to integrate this control ability into the computers of fly @-@ by @-@ wire aircraft . Early attempts to add the ability to real airplanes were not very successful ; the software was based on experiments conducted in flight simulators where jet engines are usually modeled as " perfect " devices with exactly the same thrust on each engine , a linear relationship between throttle setting and thrust , and instantaneous response to input . Later , computer models were updated to account for these factors , and planes have been successfully flown with this software installed .
Newer aircraft designs such as the McDonnell Douglas MD @-@ 11 have incorporated hydraulic fuses to isolate a punctured section and prevent a total loss of hydraulic fluid . Following the UAL 232 accident , such fuses were installed in the number 3 hydraulic system in the area below the number 2 engine on all DC @-@ 10 aircraft to ensure sufficient control capability remained if all three hydraulic system lines should be damaged in the tail area . Although elevator and rudder control would be lost , the aircrew would still be able to control the aircraft 's pitch ( up and down ) with stabilizer trim , and would be able to control roll ( left and right ) with some of the aircraft 's ailerons and spoilers . Although not an ideal situation , the system provides a greater measure of control than was available to the crew of United 232 .
It is still possible to lose all three hydraulic systems if serious damage occurs elsewhere , as nearly happened to a cargo airliner in 2002 during takeoff when a main gear tire exploded in the wheel well area . The damage in the left wing area caused total fluid loss from the number 1 and the number 2 hydraulic systems . The number 3 system was dented but not penetrated . DC @-@ 10s still have no fuse protection for any of the three hydraulic systems in the event of an exploding main gear tire .
Of the four children deemed too young to require seats of their own ( " lap children " ) , one died from smoke inhalation . The NTSB added a safety recommendation to the FAA on its " List of Most Wanted Safety Improvements " in May 1999 suggesting a requirement for children under 2 to be safely restrained , which was removed in November 2006 . The accident sparked a campaign led by United Flight 232 's senior flight attendant , Jan Brown Lohr , for all children to have seats on aircraft . Though it is no longer on the " most wanted " list , aircraft restraints for children under 2 is still recommended practice by the NTSB and FAA , though it is not required by the FAA as of May 2016 . The NTSB asked the International Civil Aviation Organization to make this a requirement in September 2013 .
The accident has since become a prime example of successful crew resource management . For much of aviation 's history , the captain was considered the final authority , and crews were to respect the captain 's expertise and not question him . This began to change in the 1970s , especially after the Tenerife airport disaster . Crew Resource Management , while still considering the captain the final authority , instructs crewmembers to speak up when they detect a problem , and instructs captains to listen to their concerns . United Airlines instituted a Crew Resource Management class in the early 1980s . The NTSB would later credit this training as valuable toward the success of United 232 's crew in handling their emergency . The FAA made Crew Resource Training mandatory in the aftermath of the accident .
= = Factors contributing to survival rate = =
Of the 296 people aboard , 111 were killed in the crash , while 185 survived . Captain Haynes later told of three contributing factors regarding the time of day that allowed for a greater number of passengers surviving :
The accident occurred during daylight hours in good weather ;
The accident occurred as a shift change was occurring at both a regional trauma center and a regional burn center in Sioux City , allowing for more medical personnel to treat the injured ;
The accident occurred when the Iowa Air National Guard was on duty at Sioux Gateway Airport , allowing for 285 trained personnel to assist with triage and evacuation of the injured .
" Had any of those things not been there , " Haynes said , " I 'm sure the fatality rate would have been a lot higher . "
Captain Haynes also credited Crew Resource Management as being one of the factors that saved his own life , and many others .
… the preparation that paid off for the crew was something … called Cockpit Resource Management … Up until 1980 , we kind of worked on the concept that the captain was THE authority on the aircraft . What he said , goes . And we lost a few airplanes because of that . Sometimes the captain isn 't as smart as we thought he was . And we would listen to him , and do what he said , and we wouldn 't know what he 's talking about . And we had 103 years of flying experience there in the cockpit , trying to get that airplane on the ground , not one minute of which we had actually practised , any one of us . So why would I know more about getting that airplane on the ground under those conditions than the other three . So if I hadn 't used CRM , if we had not let everybody put their input in , it 's a cinch we wouldn 't have made it .
As with the Eastern Air Lines Flight 401 crash of a similarly @-@ sized Lockheed L @-@ 1011 in 1972 , the relatively shallow angle of descent likely played a large part in the relatively high survival rate . The National Transportation Safety Board concluded that under the circumstances , " a safe landing was virtually impossible . "
= = Notable survivors = =
Spencer Bailey – subject of a famous photograph showing Lt. Colonel Dennis Nielsen carrying the three @-@ year @-@ old survivor to safety . His brother Brandon also survived the crash , but their mother , Francie , did not . A statue in part of Sioux City 's riverfront development is based on the picture . The 1994 memorial commemorates the rescue efforts by the Sioux City community following the crash , and features contemplative areas and a tree @-@ lined approach with plaques describing the accident . Bailey is now the editor @-@ in @-@ chief of Surface magazine and has been a contributor to The New York Times Magazine and Bloomberg Businessweek . He is a graduate of Columbia University Graduate School of Journalism and a trustee of the Noguchi Museum . He lives in New York City .
Jerry Schemmel – radio announcer for the Colorado Rockies , Denver 's Major League Baseball team , and a former radio announcer for the Denver Nuggets , Denver 's National Basketball Association basketball team . He wrote a book about United Airlines Flight 232 titled Chosen to Live , and was credited with saving the life of a child in the crash .
Michael R. Matz – trainer of the 2006 Kentucky Derby favorite and winner Barbaro and the 2012 Belmont Stakes winner Union Rags . He was credited with saving the lives of four children in the crash , three from the same family . Matz competed for the US in equestrian show jumping in several Summer Olympics , winning silver in the team show jumping event at the 1996 games .
Alfred C. Haynes – the captain of United Airlines flight 232 . His actions , along with the actions of the flight crew , are credited for saving the lives of the survivors . He returned to flying after recovering from his injuries and would continue to fly DC @-@ 10s as captain until reaching mandatory retirement age in 1991 . Several rescuers , crew members and passengers from flight 232 flew with Haynes on his final flight . Haynes became a public speaker soon after the accident , giving speeches about what happened aboard flight 232 . He continued these after retirement , and credits this work with helping his own healing process .
Dennis E. Fitch – a DC @-@ 10 pilot and instructor , he helped Captain Haynes fly United Airlines Flight 232 . " For the 30 minutes I was up there , " Fitch said , " I was the most alive I 've ever been . That is the only way I can describe it to you . " Fitch died at the age of 69 on May 7 , 2012 , after a battle with brain cancer .
Pete Wernick – banjo player with the Hot Rize bluegrass band and instructor , he was on his way to a festival in the Albany , New York , area . Wernick walked away from the crash with his young son , and along with his wife , they took a later flight to go to the festival . He gave his personal account of the day 's events in the song " A Day in ' 89 ( You Never Know ) " . Wernick has yet to release a recording of the song , but has published the lyrics on his website .
Jan Brown Lohr – United 232 's Senior Flight Attendant . She was forced by regulation to ask parents with " lap children " aboard flight 232 to place their children on the cabin floor during the flight 's final moments before impact . One of four children died from smoke inhalation . The dead child 's mother confronted Lohr at the crash scene . Since then , Lohr has lobbied in Washington D.C. for new federal regulations requiring all children to have a seat belt on every flight .
= = Depictions = =
The accident was the subject of the 1992 television movie A Thousand Heroes , also known as Crash Landing : The Rescue of Flight 232 .
It was featured in an episode of Seconds From Disaster on the National Geographic Channel and MSNBC Investigates on the MSNBC news channel .
The History Channel distributed a documentary named Shockwave ; a portion of Episode 7 ( originally aired January 25 , 2008 ) detailed the events of the crash .
The episode " A Wing and a Prayer " of Survival in the Sky ( UK title : Black Box ) featured the accident .
The Biography Channel series I Survived ... explained in detail the events of the crash through passenger Jerry , flight attendant Jan Brown Lohr , and pilot Alfred Haynes .
Mayday ( also known as Air Crash Investigation in the UK , Australia and Asia and Air Emergency or Air Disasters in the United States ) produced a one @-@ hour docudrama about the crash entitled " Impossible Landing " .
The episode " Crisis in the Cockpit " ( Season 2 , Episode 1 ) of " Why Planes Crash " on The Weather Channel featured the accident .
The 1999 play Charlie Victor Romeo ( made into a film in 2013 ) dramatically reenacted the incident using transcripts from the flight deck voice recorder .
The 1991 novel Cold Fire , by Dean Koontz , includes a fictional crash based on Flight 232 .
The 1993 film Fearless portrayed a fictional air crash based in part on the crash of Flight 232 .
= = Survivor accounts = =
Dennis Fitch described his experiences in Errol Morris 's television show First Person .
Martha Conant told her story of survival to her daughter @-@ in @-@ law , Brittany Conant , on " Storycorps " during NPR 's Morning Edition of January 11 , 2008 .
Flight 232 : A Story of Disaster and Survival by Laurence Gonzales ( 2014 , W. W. Norton & Company ; ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 393 @-@ 24002 @-@ 3 ) .
Miracle in the Cornfield – an inside survivor narrative by Joseph Trombello ( 1999 , PrintSource Plus , Appleton , WI ; ISBN 0966981502 ) .
When the World Breaks Your Heart : Spiritual Ways of Living With Tragedy by Gregory S. Clapper , a chaplain in the National Guard who relates the stories of some of the survivors he aided in the aftermath of the crash ( 1999 ; 2016 , Wipf and Stock ; ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 498 @-@ 28428 @-@ 8 ) .
= = Similar accidents = =
The odds against all three hydraulic systems failing simultaneously had previously been calculated as high as a billion to one . Yet such calculations assume that multiple failures must have independent causes , an unrealistic assumption , and similar flight control failures have indeed occurred :
In 1971 a Pan American 747 struck approach light structures for the reciprocal runway as it lifted off the runway at San Francisco Airport . Major damage to the belly and landing gear resulted , which caused the loss of hydraulic fluid from three of its four flight control systems . The fluid which remained in the fourth system gave the captain very limited control of some of the spoilers , ailerons , and one inboard elevator . That was sufficient to circle the plane while fuel was dumped and then to make a hard landing . There were no fatalities , but there were some injuries .
In 1981 , a Lockheed L @-@ 1011 , operating as Eastern Airlines Flight 935 , suffered a similar failure of its tail @-@ mounted number two engine . The shrapnel from that engine inflicted damage on all four of its hydraulic systems , which were also close together in the tail structure . Fluid was lost in three of the four systems . The fourth hydraulic system was impacted with shrapnel , but not punctured . The hydraulic pressure remaining in that fourth system enabled the captain to land the plane safely with some limited use of the outboard spoilers , the inboard ailerons , and the horizontal stabilizer , plus differential engine power of the remaining two engines . There were no injuries .
On August 12 , 1985 , Japan Airlines Flight 123 , a Boeing 747 @-@ 146SR , suffered a rupture of the pressure bulkhead in its tail section , caused by undetected damage during a faulty repair to the rear bulkhead after a tailstrike seven years earlier . Pressurized air subsequently rushed out of the bulkhead and blew off the plane 's vertical stabilizer , also severing all four of its hydraulic control systems . The pilots were able to keep the plane airborne for almost 30 minutes using differential engine power , but without any hydraulics or the stabilizing force of the vertical stabilizer , the plane eventually crashed in mountainous terrain . There were only 4 survivors among the 524 on board . This accident is the deadliest single @-@ aircraft accident in history .
In 1994 , RA85656 , a Tupolev Tu @-@ 154 operating as Baikal Airlines Flight 130 , crashed near Irkutsk shortly after departing from Irkutsk Airport , Russia . Damage to the starter caused a fire in engine number two ( located in the rear fuselage ) . High temperatures during the fire destroyed the tanks and pipes of all three hydraulic systems . The crew lost control of the aircraft . The unmanageable plane , at a speed of 275 knots , hit the ground at a dairy farm and burned . All passengers and crew , as well as a dairyman on the ground , died .
In 2003 , OO @-@ DLL , a DHL Airbus A300 , was struck by a surface @-@ to @-@ air missile shortly after departing from Baghdad International Airport , Iraq . The missile struck the port @-@ side wing , rupturing a fuel tank and causing the loss of all three hydraulic systems . With the flight controls disabled , the crew used differential thrust to execute a safe landing at Baghdad .
The disintegration of a turbine disc , leading to loss of control , was a direct cause of two major aircraft disasters in Poland :
On March 14 , 1980 , LOT Polish Airlines Flight 007 , an Ilyushin Il @-@ 62 , attempted a go @-@ around when the crew experienced troubles with a gear indicator . When thrust was applied , the low pressure turbine disc in engine number 2 disintegrated because of material fatigue ; parts of the disc damaged engines number 1 and 3 and severed control pushers for both horizontal and vertical stabilizers . After 26 seconds of uncontrolled descent , the aircraft crashed , killing all 87 people on board .
On May 9 , 1987 , improperly assembled bearings in Il @-@ 62M engine number 2 on LOT Polish Airlines Flight 5055 overheated and exploded during cruise over the village of Lipinki , causing the shaft to break in two ; this caused the low @-@ pressure turbine disc to spin to enormous speeds and disintegrate , damaging engine number 1 and cutting the control pushers . The crew managed to return to Warsaw , using nothing but trim tabs to control the crippled aircraft , but on the final approach , the trim controlling links burned and the crew completely lost control over the aircraft . Soon after , it crashed on the outskirts of Warsaw ; all 183 on board perished . Had the plane stayed airborne for 40 seconds more , it would have been able to reach the runway .
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= Distinguished Warfare Medal =
The Distinguished Warfare Medal was a planned United States military decoration announced by former U.S. Secretary of Defense Leon Panetta on 13 February 2013 . It would have been the first American combat @-@ related award to be created since the Bronze Star Medal in 1944 . The blue , red and white @-@ ribboned medal was to be awarded to individuals for " extraordinary achievement " related to a military operation occurring after 11 September 2001 . It was intended to recognize military achievement in cyberwarfare or combat drone operations for actions that did not include valor in combat .
Reception for the medal was mixed , with veterans criticizing the placement of the medal in the order of precedence . Production of the medal was halted on 12 March 2013 , pending a review of its precedence as ordered by Secretary of Defense , Chuck Hagel . It was subsequently cancelled by Secretary Hagel on 15 April 2013 who made the decision to instead create and offer a new distinguishing device to existing medals . On January 8 , 2016 , the DoD presented two new award devices .
= = Criteria = =
The intention of the Distinguished Warfare Medal involved recognizing - in the name of the Secretary of Defense - extraordinary achievement by members of the United States Armed Forces . Such achievement would have taken place after 11 September 2001 , and need not have involved acts of valor . The criteria required that the qualifying achievement must have had a direct impact , through any domain , on combat or other military operations . These operations must have occurred under one of the following circumstances :
engaged in military operations against enemies of the United States
engaged in operations in conflict against an opposing foreign force
while serving with friendly foreign forces engaged in operations with an opposing armed force where the United States is not a belligerent party
The achievement would have had to have had such an outstanding or exceptional nature as to set the individual apart from peers serving in similar duties or situations . The medal was only to be awarded for single exemplary acts and would not have been awarded for sustained operational service . The Distinguished Warfare Medal could have been awarded posthumously .
Additional awards of the Distinguished Warfare Medal would be shown with oak leaf clusters for U.S. Army and U.S. Air Force awardees , and with 5 / 16 inch stars for U.S. Navy , U.S. Marine Corps , and U.S. Coast Guard awardees .
Prior to cancellation , the service secretaries had not completed developing the criteria for the medal for each of their military services . The awarding criteria would have been included in the next Manual of Military Decorations and Awards .
= = Appearance = =
The Distinguished Warfare Medal was to consist of a 1 7 / 8 inch bronze medallion . The obverse would have depicted a grid lined globe surrounded by a laurel wreath . Superimposed over the globe is the eagle from the Seal of the United States Department of Defense in front of a lozenge . The top of the medallion is surmounted by a six @-@ pointed star . The reverse continues the laurel wreath design surmounted by a six @-@ pointed star . In the center is a blank space for engraving the recipients name . Above the space is the inscription DISTINGUISHED WARFARE , below is the inscription DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE .
The medallion would have been borne by a light blue ribbon with dark blue edges . In the center would have been two white stripes bordered by red on their outsides and dark blue on the inside .
The symbolism of the medal would have stated as the following :
The wreath honors the recipient 's significant meritorious achievement to battlefield operations . The globe and gridlines signify that the operational support or other military engagement may be performed remotely . The diamond shape symbolizes the four corners of the globe , representing the operational reach of our armed forces in the defense of liberty and justice . The DoD Eagle indicates that the medal is presented in the name of the Secretary of Defense . Operational magnitude and mission success are denoted by the six pointed star , symbolizing an ordinance burst and target neutralization .
Designed by the United States Army Institute of Heraldry , it was reviewed by the United States Commission of Fine Arts .
= = Reception = =
The medal 's order of precedence was criticized by the Veterans of Foreign Wars . The commander of this organization , John Hamilton , explained , " It is very important to properly recognize all who faithfully serve and excel , but this new medal – no matter how well intended – could quickly deteriorate into a morale issue . Medals that can only be earned in direct combat must mean more than medals awarded in the rear . " The Military Order of the Purple Heart joined in condemnation , stating " To rank what is basically an award for meritorious service higher than any award for heroism is degrading and insulting to every American Combat Soldier , Airman , Sailor or Marine who risks his or her life and endures the daily rigors of combat in a hostile environment . The Military Order of the Purple Heart strongly urges the newly appointed Secretary of Defense and the Joint Chiefs of Staff to either reconsider the precedence of the Distinguished Warfare Medal or develop another way to recognize the achievements of those whose indirect actions contribute greatly to the accomplishment of the mission without diminishing the sacrifice of life and limb by those who confront the enemy firsthand on the battlefield . " The Association of the United States Navy also expressed criticism of the medal 's placement , stating " While AUSN supports the medal itself , as well as the achievements and importance of the cyber warfare community , the concern lies with the ranking of the medal . " Doug Sterner , military medals expert and curator of the Military Times Hall of Valor , expressed confusion , saying , " I understand the need to recognize the guys at the console who are doing some pretty important things . But to see it ranking above the Bronze Star ( with ) V ? " Nick McDowell , a member of the Orders and Medals Society of America said that an alternative to adding a new medal could be adding a new ribbon device to an existing medal , and said that " The problem is that we 're adding another non @-@ valor personal decoration into a system that is already crowded with non @-@ valor personal decorations . "
Outgoing Secretary of Defense Leon Panetta defended the award 's precedence , saying " Our military reserves its highest decorations obviously for those who display gallantry and valor in actions when their lives are on the line and we will continue to do so . But we should also have the ability to honor the extraordinary actions that make a true difference in combat operations . The contribution they make does contribute to the success of combat operations , particularly when they remove the enemy from the field of battle , even if those actions are physically removed from the fight . " Pentagon spokesman , Lieutenant Commander Nate Christensen , added , " Extraordinary achievement directly impacting combat operations at this level deserves to be recognized with a distinctive medal , not a device on an existing medal . The DWM is visionary in that it fills a need for a non @-@ valorous combat impact medal . "
On 26 February , three military veteran congressmen ( Duncan D. Hunter , Tom Rooney , and Tim Murphy ) introduced legislation in the House of Representatives to reduce the precedence of the medal , by banning it from being rated equal to , or above , the Purple Heart . At the time of the medal 's cancellation , that bill had gained 124 cosponsors , while a corresponding bill introduced in the Senate on 6 March had gained 31 cosponsors .
= = Cancellation = =
On 12 March 2013 , it was reported that the Secretary of Defense , Chuck Hagel , ordered a review of the medal and its initial place in the order of precedence . On 15 April , he announced its cancellation , noting that it would be an " unnecessary " medal . Initially , it was speculated that the precedence order of the medal would be lowered from its current position above the Purple Heart and Bronze Star Medal . Instead , Hagel announced that the medal would be replaced by a new " distinguishing " device that could be attached to an existing medal or service ribbon .
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= Who 's That Girl ( Madonna song ) =
" Who 's That Girl " is a song by American singer Madonna from the soundtrack album to the 1987 film Who 's That Girl . It was released on June 30 , 1987 , by Sire Records as the first album single . The song was later included on the two @-@ disc edition of Madonna 's 2009 greatest hits album Celebration . While shooting for the film , then called Slammer , Madonna had requested Patrick Leonard to develop an uptempo song that captured the nature of her film persona . She later added the lyrics and vocals to the demo tape developed by Leonard , and decided to rename the song as well as the film to " Who 's That Girl " .
Featuring instrumentation from drums , bass , and stringed instruments , " Who 's That Girl " continued Madonna 's fascination with Hispanic culture by incorporating Spanish lyrics and using the effect of double vocals . Although it received mixed reactions from reviewers , the song became Madonna 's sixth single to top the Billboard Hot 100 , while peaking atop the charts in countries like the United Kingdom , Canada , Netherlands , Ireland and Belgium . It was also nominated for " Best Song From A Motion Picture " at the 1988 Grammy Awards and " Best Original Song " at the 1988 Golden Globe Awards .
The music video portrayed a different persona of Madonna , rather than her film character for which it was released . Like the song , it incorporated Hispanic culture and portrayed her dressed in Spanish style as a young lady in search of a treasure . Madonna has performed the song on her Who 's That Girl World Tour ( 1987 ) and on the Rebel Heart Tour ( 2015 – 16 ) . The song has been covered by many artists and has appeared in compilations and tribute albums .
= = Background = =
In 1986 , Madonna was shooting for her third motion picture Who 's That Girl , known at the time as Slammer . Needing songs for the soundtrack of the movie , she contacted Patrick Leonard and Stephen Bray , who had written and produced her third studio album True Blue in 1986 . Madonna explained to them that she needed an uptempo song and a downtempo song . She came to the studio one Thursday as Leonard developed the chorus of the song . He handed over that cassette to Madonna , who went to the backroom and finished the melody and the lyrics of the song , while Leonard worked on the other parts of the song .
After finishing the lyrics , Madonna declared that she wanted the song to be named " Who 's That Girl " and changed the movie to the same , rather than Slammer , considering it to be a better title . In Fred Bronson 's The Billboard Book of Number 1 Hits book , Leonard explained that the song was recorded in one day with Madonna adding her vocals only once . Additional instrumental tracks with guitars and percussion were included by Leonard and Bray later . Regarding the development of the music for the film , Madonna further explained
" I had some very specific ideas in mind , music that would stand on its own as well as support and enhance what was happening on screen and the only way to make that a reality was to have a hand in writing the tunes myself . [ ... ] The songs aren 't necessarily about Nikki [ her character name in the movie ] or written to be sung by someone like her , but there 's a spirit to this music that captures both what the film and the characters are about , I think . "
= = Composition = =
The song is composed in Madonna 's typical style — mingling the drum machine , a bubbling bass synth line , and the sound of stringed instruments . The three parts of the song , namely the bridge , where Madonna sings " what can help me now " , the chorus and the verse flow together strongly . The chorus has a haunting effect in it . According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com , the song is composed in the time signature of common time , with a key of A minor and a medium tempo of 104 beats per minute . Madonna 's vocals span from the notes of G3 to B4 . The song follows a basic sequence of Am9 – G – Csus2 – Am9 – G – Dm as its chord progression .
The song epitomizes Madonna 's interest with Hispanic culture that continued after the release of " La Isla Bonita " , by adding Spanish phrases in the chorus and over the trumpets of the second verse , and also by the added instrumental break in the middle . It also uses the sonic effect brought about by the combination of multiple vocal lines , which had been previously used by groups like The Beach Boys in their singles " God Only Knows " ( 1966 ) and " I Get Around " ( 1964 ) as well as R.E.M. ' s singles " Fall on Me " ( 1986 ) and " Near Wild Heaven " ( 1991 ) . " Who 's That Girl " employs this effect on the last chorus where three or four different vocal hooks are intertwined .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Critical reaction to the song has been mixed . In his book The Complete Guide to the Music of Madonna , author Rikky Rooksby explained that the song was Madonna 's best take on her original music style . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic commented that " Who 's That Girl " along with " Causing a Commotion " were not amongst Madonna 's best singles . Biographer J. Randy Taraborrelli , in his book Madonna : An Intimate Biography called the song " quintessential Madonna music " and went on to describe it as " funky , sassy and melodic , with a Latin accent . "
Noah Robischon from Entertainment Weekly opined that with both the song and the movie , Madonna had pushed " synergy over the borderline . " Enio Chiola of PopMatters.com listed " Who 's That Girl " as one of the top @-@ fifteen singles of Madonna 's career , stating that it is an " insta @-@ party from the moment in begins . " The song was nominated for " Best Song From A Motion Picture " at the 1988 Grammy Awards and " Best Original Song " at the 1988 Golden Globe Awards .
= = = Chart performance = = =
" Who 's That Girl " was released in the United States in June 1987 . It debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 at number 43 , reached the top of the chart in its seventh week , maintained the top position for one week , and spent 16 weeks on the chart . It became Madonna 's sixth number @-@ one single in the United States , making her the first artist to accumulate six number @-@ one singles in the 1980s , and the first female performer to get that many number @-@ ones as a solo act . The song peaked at number 44 on the Hot Dance Club Play chart . In 2000 , the song came tenth in a vote conducted to determine the favourite Madonna song . In Canada , the song debuted at number 83 on the RPM singles chart on July 11 , 1987 , reached the top for one week on August 29 , 1987 , and stayed on the chart for 23 weeks . It placed at number 12 on the RPM Year @-@ end chart for 1987 .
In the United Kingdom , " Who 's That Girl " was released on July 14 , 1987 , and debuted at number three on the UK Singles Chart , climbing to number one the next week to become Madonna 's fifth number @-@ one single in the United Kingdom . According to the Official Charts Company , the song has sold 380 @,@ 000 copies there . It received a silver certification from the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) . Across Europe , " Who 's That Girl " also topped the singles charts in Belgium , Italy , Ireland , and the Netherlands , as well as peaking in the top five in Austria , France , Germany , Norway , Sweden , and Switzerland . It was certified gold by the Syndicat National de l 'Édition Phonographique for shipment of 500 @,@ 000 copies in France .
= = Music video = =
The music video was shot over two days , at A & M Soundstages in Hollywood , California . Madonna had adopted a garish , platinum blond hairstyle for the Who 's That Girl movie which she used in the music video ; it was her way of reviving the comedy heroine of the 1930s Hollywood screwball comedies . She continued with her Hispanic look from the " La Isla Bonita " music video , this time she appeared dressed boyishly in a wide @-@ brimmed Spanish hat and bolero jacket — a combination which would later become a fashion trend .
The music video , directed by Peter Rosenthal , begins with Madonna entering a park . After meeting two children and a teenage boy , they start roaming around the park , with Madonna singing the song . These scenes are interchanged with scenes from the motion picture , which show Madonna as the movie character Nikki Fynn . As the music video progresses , Madonna is shown to be in search of an Egyptian treasure casket . After being directed to it by a version of the High Priestess tarot card displaying her cartoon impersonation , Madonna opens it to find a huge diamond . She looks up happily to the children . The video ends with them continuing dancing and Madonna carrying away the casket .
The video portrayed a different image of Madonna rather than her real self . According to Vincent Canby of The New York Times , Madonna at that time was shrewdly pragmatic about her persona and appearance — resembling Marilyn Monroe , but with the " comic tartness " of Jean Harlow . This persona was reflected in the second half of the Who 's That Girl film . However , the music video chose not to capture her real self and qualities , or to promote the movie for which it was specifically created . Instead , it concentrated on the humorous off @-@ putting personality of Madonna 's film character depicted in the first half of the film .
= = Live performances and covers = =
Madonna performed the song on two of her tours . On her 1987 Who 's That Girl World Tour where it was performed as a part of the encore . Madonna came out on the stage in a bright red flamenco dress and performed the song , assisted by her backup singers Niki Haris , Donna De Lory and Debra Parson . Two different performances of the song on this tour can be found on the videos : Who 's That Girl : Live in Japan , filmed in Tokyo , Japan , on June 22 , 1987 , and Ciao Italia : Live from Italy , filmed in Turin , Italy , on September 4 , 1987 . Almost 30 years later , Madonna performed an acoustic , guitar @-@ driven version of the song during the Rebel Heart Tour ( 2015 – 16 ) . The wardrobe for the performance consisted of a gypsy inspired ensemble , made up of shawl , lace gloves , long black skirt with silk fringes , a hat with silk flowers on it , and high @-@ heeled knee @-@ high lace @-@ up leather boots . After the song , the singer admitted that it took her " a hell of a long time " to answer who the titular girl was in the song .
The song has been covered many times , mostly on tribute albums . In 1999 , The Countdown Singers made a sound @-@ alike cover version for the album Hit Parade of 80 's , Vol . 2 . The Royal Philharmonic Orchestra ( RPO ) made an instrumental version of the song for the 1998 album Material Girl : RPO Plays Music of Madonna . German actress Eva Mattes covered the song for her 2006 album Language of Love . In 2007 , The Bubonic Plague recorded a cover of the song that was included on the tribute album Through the Wilderness .
= = Formats and track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Madonna – lyrics , producer , vocals
Patrick Leonard – lyrics , producer
Michael Barbiero – additional production , audio mixing
Steve Thompson – additional production , audio mixing
Credits adapted from the album 's liner notes .
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = Certifications = =
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= Terri Schiavo case =
The Terri Schiavo case was a legal struggle over end @-@ of @-@ life care in the United States from 1990 to 2005 , involving Theresa Marie " Terri " Schiavo , a woman in an irreversible persistent vegetative state . Schiavo 's husband and legal guardian argued that Schiavo would not have wanted prolonged artificial life support without the prospect of recovery , and elected to remove her feeding tube . Schiavo 's parents argued in favor of continuing artificial nutrition and hydration and challenged Schiavo 's medical diagnosis . The highly publicized and prolonged series of legal challenges presented by her parents , which ultimately involved state and federal politicians up to the level of President George W. Bush , caused a seven @-@ year delay before Schiavo 's feeding tube was ultimately removed .
Schiavo suffered a cardiac arrest in her St. Petersburg , Florida , home on February 25 , 1990 . She was resuscitated , but suffered massive brain damage due to lack of oxygen to her brain and was left comatose . After two and a half months without improvement , her diagnosis was changed to that of a persistent vegetative state . For the next two years , doctors attempted speech and physical therapy and other experimental therapy , hoping to return her to a state of awareness , without success . In 1998 , Schiavo 's husband , Michael , petitioned the Sixth Circuit Court of Florida to remove her feeding tube pursuant to Florida law . He was opposed by Terri 's parents , Robert and Mary Schindler , who argued that she was conscious . The court determined that Schiavo would not have wished to continue life @-@ prolonging measures , and on April 24 , 2001 , her feeding tube was removed for the first time , only to be reinserted several days later . On February 25 , 2005 , a Pinellas County judge again ordered the removal of Terri Schiavo 's feeding tube . Several appeals and federal government intervention followed , which included U.S. President George W. Bush returning to Washington D.C. to sign legislation designed to keep her alive . After appeals through the federal court system upheld the original decision to remove the feeding tube , staff at the Pinellas Park hospice facility disconnected the feeding tube on March 18 , 2005 , and Schiavo died on March 31 , 2005 .
In all , the Schiavo case involved 14 appeals and numerous motions , petitions , and hearings in the Florida courts ; five suits in federal district court ; extensive political intervention at the levels of the Florida state legislature , then @-@ governor Jeb Bush , the U.S. Congress , and President George W. Bush ; and four denials of certiorari from the Supreme Court of the United States . The case also spurred highly visible activism from the pro @-@ life movement , the right @-@ to @-@ die movement , and disability rights groups . Since Schiavo 's death , both her husband and her family have written books on their sides of the case , and both have also been involved in activism over its larger issues .
= = Background = =
= = = Early life = = =
Terri Schiavo was born Theresa Marie Schindler on December 3 , 1963 , in Lower Moreland Township , Montgomery County , Pennsylvania , a suburb of Philadelphia . Overweight throughout her childhood , as a teenager Terri stood 5 ' 3 " ( 160 cm ) tall and weighed 200 pounds ( 91 kg ) . She attended Brebeuf Jesuit High School . Through dieting she had lost 65 pounds ( 29 kg ) by the time she attended college . She attended Bucks County Community College , where she met Michael Schiavo in 1982 . The two began dating and were married on November 10 , 1984 . They moved to Florida in 1986 , following Terri 's parents . Michael worked as a restaurant manager , while Terri took up a job with an insurance company .
= = = Initial medical crisis : 1990 = = =
In the early morning of February 25 , 1990 , Terri Schiavo collapsed in a hallway of her St. Petersburg , Florida , apartment . Firefighters and paramedics arriving in response to her husband Michael 's 9 @-@ 1 @-@ 1 call found her face @-@ down and unconscious . She was not breathing and had no pulse . They attempted to resuscitate her and she was transported to the Humana Northside Hospital . Paramedics had her intubated and ventilated .
= = = = Initial medical assessments = = = =
Her medical chart contained a note that " she apparently has been trying to keep her weight down with dieting by herself , drinking liquids most of the time during the day and drinking about 10 – 15 glasses of iced tea . " Upon admission to the hospital , she was noted as suffering from hypokalemia ( low potassium levels ) : her serum potassium level was an abnormally low 2 @.@ 0 mEq / L ( the normal range for adults is 3 @.@ 5 – 5 @.@ 0 mEq / L ) . Her sodium and calcium levels were normal . Electrolyte imbalance is often caused by drinking excessive fluids . A serious consequence of hypokalemia can be heart rhythm abnormalities , including sudden arrhythmia death syndrome . Vomiting , a self @-@ induced act for many bulimic patients , is another cause of low potassium levels . Terri was eventually switched from being fed by a nasogastric feeding tube to a percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy ( PEG ) feeding tube .
Dr. Garcia J. DeSousa , board @-@ certified neurologist in St. Petersburg , Florida , who previously treated Terri Schiavo , cared for her during her initial admission to Humana Northside ; both he and Dr. Victor Gambone , an internist and Schiavo family physician , independently made the diagnosis of persistent vegetative state ( PVS ) within approximately one year after her sudden cardiac arrest .
= = = Relationship between Terri 's husband and parents = = =
From 1990 to 1993 , Michael Schiavo and the Schindlers ( Terri Schiavo 's parents ) enjoyed an amicable relationship , with the Schindlers allowing Michael to live rent @-@ free in their condominium for several months .
= = = Rehabilitation efforts : 1990 – 1993 = = =
In November 1990 , Michael Schiavo took Terri to the University of California , San Francisco for experimental nerve stimulation with a thalamic stimulator . The treatment took several months and was unsuccessful . He returned to Florida with her in January 1991 and admitted her as an inpatient to the Mediplex Rehabilitation Center in Bradenton , Florida . On July 19 , 1991 , Terri Schiavo was transferred to the Sabal Palms Skilled Care Facility , where she received neurological testing and regular speech and occupational therapy until 1994 . In mid @-@ 1993 , Michael Schiavo requested a do not resuscitate order for her after she contracted a urinary tract infection . The court @-@ appointed guardian ad litem , Jay Wolfson , later wrote a report stating that Michael Schiavo 's decision was " predicated on his reasoned belief that there was no longer any hope for Terri 's recovery . "
= = Legal cases 1992 – 2002 = =
= = = Malpractice = = =
In 1992 Michael filed a malpractice suit against Terri 's obstetrician on the basis that he failed to diagnose bulimia as the cause of her infertility . Terri had gone to the doctor because she had stopped menstruating but the doctor had failed to take her medical history into account which might have revealed an eating disorder . During the case , one of Terri 's friends testified that she knew Schiavo was bulimic . In November 1992 , Michael won the case and was awarded $ 6 @.@ 8 million by the jury , later reduced to $ 2 million as Terri was found partly at fault for her condition . After attorneys ' fees and other expenses , Michael received $ 300 @,@ 000 and $ 750 @,@ 000 was put in a trust fund for Terri 's medical care . According to Michael , in early 2003 the Schindlers demanded that he share the malpractice money with them .
= = = Petition to remove feeding tube = = =
On June 18 , 1990 , the court appointed Michael Schiavo as Terri Schiavo 's legal guardian ; this appointment was not disputed by the Schindlers at the time . In May 1998 , Michael Schiavo filed a petition to remove Terri Schiavo 's feeding tube , which her parents opposed . Richard Pearse was appointed by the court as a second guardian ad litem ( GAL ) , and on December 29 , 1998 , reported " Dr. Jeffrey Karp 's opinion of the ward 's condition and prognosis is substantially shared among those physicians who have recently been involved in her treatment . " Pearse concluded from Karp 's and Dr. Vincent Gambone 's diagnosis of PVS that Schiavo was legally in a persistent vegetative state as defined by Florida Statutes , Title XLIV , Chapter 765 , § 101 ( 12 ) . This includes the " absence of voluntary action " and an " inability to communicate or interact purposefully . "
Pearse found that there was no possibility of improvement but that Michael Schiavo 's decisions might have been influenced by the potential to inherit what remained of Terri Schiavo 's estate as long as he remained married to her . Due to a lack of a living will and questions regarding Michael 's credibility , Pearse recommended denying his petition to remove her feeding tube . Pearse reported that the issue of conflict of interest applied to the Schindlers as well since , had Michael divorced Terri as they wanted him to , they would have inherited the remainder of Mrs. Schiavo 's estate upon her death .
= = = Schiavo end @-@ of @-@ life wishes = = =
Given the lack of a living will , a trial was held before Pinellas County Judge George Greer during the week of January 24 , 2000 , to determine what Terri Schiavo 's wishes would have been regarding life @-@ prolonging procedures . Michael Schiavo was represented by attorney George Felos , who had won a landmark right @-@ to @-@ die case before the Florida Supreme Court in 1990 .
The trial included testimony from eighteen witnesses regarding her medical condition and her end @-@ of @-@ life wishes . Michael Schiavo claimed that his wife would not want to be kept on a machine where her chance for recovery was minuscule . According to Abstract Appeal Trial Order , her parents " claimed that Terri was a devout Roman Catholic who would not wish to violate the Church 's teachings on euthanasia by refusing nutrition and hydration . " Judge Greer issued his order granting the petition for authorization to discontinue artificial life support for Terri Schiavo in February 2000 . In this decision , the court found that Terri Schiavo was in a persistent vegetative state and that she had made reliable oral declarations that she would have wanted the feeding tube removed . This decision was upheld by the Florida Second District Court of Appeal ( 2nd DCA ) and came to be known by the court as Schiavo I in its later rulings .
= = = Oral feeding and the Second Guardianship Challenge = = =
In March 2000 , the Schindlers filed a motion to permit assisted feeding of Terri , which is not considered a life @-@ prolonging procedure under Florida law . Since clinical records indicated that Terri Schiavo was not responsive to swallowing tests and required a feeding tube , Judge Greer ruled that she was not capable of orally ingesting sufficient nutrition and hydration to sustain life , and denied the request . The Medical Examiner in his postmortem report was more definitive and reaffirmed that Schiavo could not have swallowed .
In 2000 , the Schindlers again challenged Michael Schiavo 's guardianship . The Schindlers suggested that he was wasting the assets within the guardianship account by transferring Terri Schiavo to a Pinellas Park , Florida hospice " after it was clear that she was not ' terminal ' within Medicare guidelines " for hospices . By this time , while still legally married to Terri Schiavo , Michael Schiavo was in a relationship with Jodi Centonze , and had fathered their first child . He said he chose not to divorce his wife and relinquish guardianship because he wanted to ensure her final wishes ( not to be kept alive in a PVS ) were carried out . The court denied the motion to remove the guardian , allowing that the evidence was not sufficient and in some instances , not relevant . It set April 24 , 2001 as the date on which the tube was to be removed .
= = = Schiavo II = = =
In April 2001 , the Schindlers filed a motion for relief from judgment citing new evidence of Terri Schiavo 's wishes . Judge Greer denied the motion as untimely under Rule 1 @.@ 540 ( b ) ( 5 ) of the Florida Rules of Civil Procedure . The Second District Court of Appeal upheld Greer 's decision but remanded the issue in order to give the Schindlers an opportunity to file a new motion . On April 24 , 2001 Terri 's feeding tube was removed for the first time . The Schindlers filed a civil suit against Michael Schiavo alleging perjury , which was assigned to another court . The judge , Frank Quesada , issued an injunction against the removal of feeding tube until this was settled . The feeding tube was reinserted on April 26 , 2001 . On appeal by Michael Schiavo , the Second District Court of Appeal reversed Judge Quesada 's order . In the same time frame , Michael Schiavo filed a motion to enforce the mandate of the guardianship court ( that the feeding tube be removed ) . The Second District Court of Appeal denied the motion . ( These three decisions , all published in a single order by Florida 's Second District Court of Appeal , came to be known by the court as Schiavo II in its later rulings . )
= = = Schiavo III & IV : PVS diagnosis challenge = = =
On August 10 , 2001 , on remand from the Florida Second District Court of Appeal , Judge Greer heard a motion from the Schindlers claiming that new medical treatment could restore sufficient cognitive ability such that Terri Schiavo herself would be able to decide to continue life @-@ prolonging measures . The court also heard motions from the Schindlers to remove the guardian ( Michael Schiavo ) and to require Judge Greer to recuse himself . Judge Greer denied the motions and the Schindlers appealed to the Second District Court of Appeals . On October 17 , 2001 the Court of Appeal affirmed the denials of the motions to remove and recuse . The Court of Appeals acknowledged that their opinion misled the trial court , and they remanded the question of Terri Schiavo 's wishes back to the trial court and required an evidentiary hearing to be held . The court specified that five board certified neurologists were to testify . The Schindlers were allowed to choose two doctors to present findings at an evidentiary hearing while Michael Schiavo could introduce two rebuttal experts . Finally , the trial court itself would appoint a new independent physician to examine and evaluate Terri Schiavo 's condition . ( These decisions , all published in a single order by the Florida Second District Court of Appeal , came to be known by the court as Schiavo III in its later rulings . ) In October 2002 , on remand by the Second District Court of Appeal , an evidentiary hearing was held in Judge Greer 's court to determine whether new therapy treatments could help Terri Schiavo restore any cognitive function . In preparation for the trial , a new computed axial tomography scan ( CAT scan ) was performed , which showed severe cerebral atrophy . An EEG showed no measurable brain activity . The five physicians chosen were Dr. William Maxfield , a radiologist , and four neurologists : Dr. William Hammesfahr , Dr. Ronald Cranford , Dr. Melvin Greer and Dr. Peter Bambakidis .
The five doctors examined Terri Schiavo 's medical records , brain scans , the videos , and Terri herself . Drs. Cranford , Greer , and Bambakidis testified that Terri Schiavo was in a persistent vegetative state . Drs. Maxfield and Hammesfahr testified that she was in a minimally conscious state . As part of the court @-@ ordered medical exam , six hours of video of Terri Schiavo were taped and filed at the Pinellas County courthouse . The tape included Terri Schiavo with her mother and neurologist William Hammesfahr . The entire tape was viewed by Judge Greer , who wrote , Terri " clearly does not consistently respond to her mother " . From that six hours of video , the Schindlers and their supporters produced six clips showing reactions and emotions , totaling less than six minutes , and released those clips to public websites . Judge Greer ruled that Terri Schiavo was in a PVS , and was beyond hope of significant improvement . The trial court order was particularly critical of Hammesfahr 's testimony , which claimed positive results in similar cases by use of vasodilation therapy , the success of which is unsupported in the medical literature . This ruling was later affirmed by Florida 's Second District Court of Appeal , which stated that " this court has closely examined all of the evidence in the record , " and " we have ... carefully observed the video tapes in their entirety . " The court concluded that " ... if we were called upon to review the guardianship court 's decision de novo , we would still affirm it . " ( This decision by the Second District Court of Appeals came to be known as Schiavo IV in later rulings . )
Around the start of 2003 , the Schindlers began to create more publicity by lobbying for their case to keep their daughter alive . They selected pro @-@ life activist Randall Terry as their spokesman and continued to pursue their available legal options . On September 11 , 2003 , the Schindlers petitioned the court to forestall removal of the feeding tube to provide for " eight weeks ' therapy " . Accompanying the petition were four affidavits from members of the Schindler family and one from Dr. Alexander T. Gimon . At the hearing , the Schindlers ' counsel read into the record additional affidavits from three speech professionals and two nurses .
On September 17 , 2003 Judge George Greer denied the petition , and wrote that " the Petition is an attempt by Mr. and Mrs. Schindler to re @-@ litigate the entire case . It is not even a veiled or disguised attempt . The exhibits relied upon by them clearly demonstrate this to be true . " Regarding ( Nurse ) Iyer 's statements , Greer wrote that they were " incredible to say the least " and that " Ms. Iyer details what amounts to a 15 @-@ month cover @-@ up April 1995 through July 1996 which include the staff of Palm Garden of Largo Convalescent Center , the Guardian of the Person , the guardian ad litem , the medical professionals , the police and , believe it or not , Mr. and Mrs. Schindler ... It is impossible to believe that Mr. and Mrs. Schindler would not have subpoenaed Ms. Iyer for the January 2000 evidentiary hearing had Iyer contacted them in 1996 as her affidavit alleges " .
= = Terri 's Law and other government delays = =
On October 15 , 2003 , Schiavo 's feeding tube was removed . Within a week , when the Schindlers ' final appeal was exhausted , State Rep. Frank Attkisson and the Florida Legislature hastily passed " Terri 's Law , " giving Governor Jeb Bush the authority to intervene in the case . Governor Bush immediately ordered the feeding tube reinserted . Governor Bush sent the Florida Department of Law Enforcement ( FDLE ) to remove Schiavo from the hospice . She was taken to Morton Plant Rehabilitation Hospital in Clearwater , where her feeding tube was surgically reinserted . She was then returned to the hospice . Part of the legislation required the appointment of a guardian ad litem ( GAL ) , Dr. Jay Wolfson , to " deduce and represent the best wishes and best interests " of Schiavo , and report them to Governor Bush . Wolfson 's report did not change Michael 's role as her legal guardian and did not otherwise obstruct him legally .
Michael Schiavo opposed the Governor 's intervention in Schiavo 's case , and was represented , in part , by the American Civil Liberties Union ( ACLU ) . At the same time , Robert and Mary Schindler , her parents , attempted to intervene and participate in the " Terri 's Law " case but were denied by Judge W. Douglas Baird , a Circuit Judge in the Florida Sixth Circuit , the same circuit as for Judge George W. Greer . They appealed , and , on February 13 , the Florida Second District Court of Appeal ( Second District Court of Appeals ) reversed Baird 's ruling , allowing them to participate . On March 17 , Baird denied the Schindlers the right to intervene a second time , and the Schindlers , represented by the American Center for Law and Justice ( ACLJ ) , appealed the right to participate in the " Terri 's Law " case , with the court scheduling an oral argument date for June 14 . The Schindlers ' other attorney , Pat Anderson , was concurrently challenging Michael Schiavo 's right to be her guardian , and , on June 16 , she made a petition for writ of Quo Warranto .
On May 5 , 2004 , Baird found " Terri 's Law " unconstitutional , and struck it down . Bush appealed this order to the Second District Court of Appeals , but on May 12 , the court issued an " Order Relinquishing Case for Entry of Final Judgment and Order to Show Cause Why this Proceeding Should Not be Certified to the Supreme Court As Requiring Immediate Resolution . " The Second District Court of Appeals , in sending it directly to the Florida Supreme Court , invoked " pass through " jurisdiction .
The Florida Supreme Court then overturned the law as unconstitutional .
= = Final feeding tube removal and federal involvement = =
= = = Early 2005 motions = = =
On February 23 , 2005 , the Schindlers filed a motion for relief from judgment pending medical evaluations . The Schindlers wanted Schiavo to be tested with an fMRI and given a swallowing therapy called VitalStim . The motion was accompanied by thirty @-@ three affidavits from doctors in several specialties , speech @-@ language pathologists and therapists , and a few neuropsychologists , all urging that new tests be undertaken . Patricia Fields Anderson , the Schindler family attorney , still held out hope " that Terri might be able to take nourishment orally , despite past findings that she is incapable . " Judge Greer formally denied the motion and ordered the " removal of nutrition and hydration from the ward " and set the time and date for the removal of the feeding tube as , " 1 : 00 p.m. on Friday , March 18 , 2005 . "
On February 28 , 2005 the Schindlers filed a motion , asking for permission to attempt to provide Schiavo with " Food and Water by Natural Means . " This second motion asked for permission to " attempt to feed " Schiavo by mouth . Judge Greer denied the second motion on March 8 , saying " it has become clear that the second motion is part and parcel of the previous motion on medical evaluations . The same declarations are being used for both motions and the motion appears to be an alternative pleading to the previous motion . Both are asking for an experimental procedure . " The following day , Greer denied the first motion as well , citing that an affiant doctor for Michael cautioned that fMRI was an experimental procedure that should be conducted in an academic setting , because Schiavo had already undergone swallowing tests and failed , and because VitalStim had only been performed on patients who were not in a PVS . Greer noted that " most of the doctor affidavits submitted are based on their understanding of Schiavo 's condition from news reports or video clips they have seen . Many are obviously not aware of the medical exams undertaken for the 2002 trial . ... "
Following Greer 's order on March 18 , 2005 to remove the feeding tube , Republicans in the United States Congress subpoenaed both Michael and Terri Schiavo to testify at a congressional hearing . Greer told congressional attorneys , " I have had no cogent reason why the ( congressional ) committee should intervene . " He also stated that last @-@ minute action by Congress does not invalidate years of court rulings .
= = = Palm Sunday Compromise = = =
President Bush and Congressional Republicans anticipated Greer 's adverse ruling well before it was delivered and worked on a daily basis to find an alternative means of overturning the legal process by utilizing the authority of the United States Congress . On March 20 , 2005 , the Senate , by unanimous consent , passed their version of a relief bill ; since the vote was taken by voice vote , there was no official tally of those voting in favor and those opposed . Soon after Senate approval , the House of Representatives passed an identical version of the bill S.686 , which came to be called the " Palm Sunday Compromise " and transferred jurisdiction of the Schiavo case to the federal courts . The bill passed the House on March 21 , 2005 at 12 : 41 a.m. ( UTC @-@ 5 ) . U.S. President George W. Bush flew to Washington , D.C. from his vacation in Texas in order to sign the bill into law at 1 : 11 a.m.
While the bill had been proposed by Republican Senators Rick Santorum and Mel Martinez , it also had the support of Democratic Senator Tom Harkin due to disability rights concerns in the Schiavo case . Harkin had worked with disability rights groups for years and co @-@ authored the 1990 Americans with Disabilities Act . American disability rights groups traditionally tend to ally themselves with Democrats and the political left ; however , in the Schiavo case they joined pro @-@ life organizations in opposing the removal of her feeding tube and supporting the Palm Sunday Compromise . According to Marilyn Golden , Harkin 's support was necessary for passage of the bill , as any voice opposition by Democrats would have delayed it .
As in the state courts , all of the Schindlers ' federal petitions and appeals were denied , and the U.S. Supreme Court declined to grant certiorari , effectively ending the Schindlers ' judicial options . At the same time , the so @-@ called Schiavo memo surfaced , causing a political firestorm . The memo was written by Brian Darling , the legal counsel to Florida Republican senator Mel Martinez . It suggested the Schiavo case offered " a great political issue " that would appeal to the party 's base ( core supporters ) and could be used against Senator Bill Nelson , a Democrat from Florida , because he had refused to co @-@ sponsor the bill . Nelson easily won re @-@ election in 2006 .
Senator and physician Bill Frist opposed the removal of her feeding tube and in a speech delivered on the Senate Floor , challenged the diagnosis of Schiavo 's physicians of Schiavo being in a persistent vegetative state ( PVS ) : " I question it based on a review of the video footage which I spent an hour or so looking at last night in my office " . Frist was criticized by a medical ethicist at Northwestern University for making a diagnosis without personally examining the patient and for questioning the diagnosis when he was not a neurologist . After her death , the autopsy showed signs of long @-@ term and irreversible damage to her brain consistent with PVS . Frist defended his actions after the autopsy .
= = Final local motions , death , autopsy , and burial = =
On March 24 , 2005 , Judge Greer denied a petition for intervention by the Department of Children & Families ( DCF ) and signed an order forbidding the department from " taking possession of Theresa Marie Schiavo or removing her " from the hospice and directed " each and every and singular sheriff of the state of Florida " to enforce his order . The order was appealed to the Second District Court of Appeals the following day , which resulted in an automatic stay under state law . While the stay was in effect , Florida Department of Law Enforcement personnel prepared to take custody of Terri and transfer her to a local hospital for reinsertion of the feeding tube . Once Greer was made aware of the stay , he ordered it lifted and all parties stood down . Governor Bush decided to obey the court order despite enormous pressure from the political right . If Bush ( or the Florida Legislature ) had ignored Greer 's order by attempting to remove her from the hospice , a confrontation between the Pinellas Park Police Department and the FDLE agents could have ensued . In jest , one official said local police discussed " ... whether we had enough officers to hold off the National Guard . "
Terri Schiavo died at a Pinellas Park hospice on March 31 , 2005 . Although there was concern that Schiavo would experience significant symptoms from dehydration with the removal of the feeding tube , studies have shown that patients who have their feeding tubes removed , such as the case of Schiavo , usually have a peaceful death .
After her death , Schiavo 's body was taken to the Office of the District 6 Medical Examiner for Pinellas and Pasco counties , based in Largo , Florida . The autopsy occurred on April 1 , 2005 . It revealed extensive brain damage . The manner of death was certified as " undetermined " . The autopsy was led by Chief Medical Examiner Jon R. Thogmartin , M.D. In addition to consultation with a neuropathologist ( Stephen J. Nelson , M.D. ) , Dr. Thogmartin also arranged for specialized cardiac and genetic examinations to be made . The official autopsy report was released on June 15 , 2005 . In addition to studying Terri Schiavo 's remains , Thogmartin scoured court , medical and other records and interviewed her family members , doctors and other relevant parties . Examination of Schiavo 's nervous system by neuropathologist Stephen J. Nelson , M.D. , revealed extensive injury . The brain itself weighed only 615 g ( 21 @.@ 7 oz ) , only half the weight expected for a female of her age , height , and weight , an effect caused by the loss of a massive number of neurons . Microscopic examination revealed extensive damage to nearly all brain regions , including the cerebral cortex , the thalami , the basal ganglia , the hippocampus , the cerebellum , and the midbrain . The neuropathologic changes in her brain were precisely of the type seen in patients who enter a PVS following cardiac arrest . Throughout the cerebral cortex , the large pyramidal neurons that comprise some 70 % of cortical cells – critical to the functioning of the cortex – were completely lost . The pattern of damage to the cortex , with injury tending to worsen from the front of the cortex to the back , was also typical . There was marked damage to important relay circuits deep in the brain ( the thalami ) – another common pathologic finding in cases of PVS . The damage was , in the words of Thogmartin , " irreversible , and no amount of therapy or treatment would have regenerated the massive loss of neurons . "
The cardiac pathologist who studied Schiavo 's heart found it and the coronary vessels to be healthy , which excludes the possibility that her initial collapse was the result of myocardial infarction , although there was a localized area of healed inflammation ( opening the possibility of myocarditis ) . Thogmartin found that " there was no proof that Terri Schiavo ever had an eating disorder such as bulimia . " Regarding the possibility of strangulation or domestic violence as a cause of Schiavo 's initial collapse , the report states : " No trauma was noted on any of the numerous physical exams or radiographs performed on Mrs. Schiavo on the day of , in the days after , or in the months after her initial collapse . Indeed , within an hour of her initial hospital admission , radiographic examination of her cervical spine was negative . Specifically , external signs of strangulation including cutaneous or deep neck injury , facial / conjunctival petechiae , and other blunt trauma were not observed or recorded during her initial hospital admission . Autopsy examination of her neck structures 15 years after her initial collapse did not detect any signs of remote trauma , but , with such a delay , the exam was unlikely to show any residual neck findings . "
Regarding the cause and manner of Schiavo 's death , Thogmartin wrote , " Mrs. Schiavo suffered severe anoxic brain injury . The cause of which cannot be determined with reasonable medical certainty . The manner of death will therefore be certified as undetermined . "
" We were not surprised the medical examiner said Terri 's brain was damaged , " said Bobby Schindler , Jr . , her brother , in an interview hours after the autopsy report was released . " The fact that the medical examiner ruled out bulimia and ruled out a heart attack , without a doubt , adds more questions . "
= = = Burial = = =
Schiavo 's body was cremated following the autopsy . Her parents offered a memorial Mass for her at the Holy Name of Jesus Catholic Church in Gulfport on April 5 . Father Frank Pavone , founder of Priests for Life , delivered the main homily ( Audio : MP3 Format ) .
On May 7 , Schiavo 's parents made public a complaint that they had not been informed of when and where the ashes of their daughter had been ( or were to be ) buried by Michael Schiavo . He was under court order to provide this information to them .
On June 20 , the cremated remains of Terri Schiavo were buried . The Schindlers ' attorney stated that the family was notified by fax only after the memorial service ; by then , the family had already started getting calls from reporters . The ashes were interred at Sylvan Abbey Memorial Park in Clearwater , Florida .
The epitaph ( pictured ) reads :
= = Ethical and legal issues = =
= = = Right @-@ to @-@ die = = =
The Schiavo case has often been compared to those of Karen Ann Quinlan and Nancy Cruzan , two other highly influential right @-@ to @-@ die cases . Quinlan entered a persistent vegetative state in 1975 , and her family was allowed to remove her from a ventilator in 1976 after a ruling by the New Jersey Supreme Court . She died of pneumonia in 1985 . Cruzan was diagnosed with PVS in 1983 and her legal case reached the Supreme Court , which ruled that " clear and convincing evidence " of her wishes to die under such circumstances was needed . Cruzan 's family did not have enough evidence of that , but later produced more . She died after being removed from life support in 1990 .
The Schiavo case differed from the Quinlan and Cruzan cases by involving settled law rather than breaking new legal ground on the right @-@ to @-@ die issue . The case instead involved a dispute between family members over what Schiavo 's wishes would have been for such a situation . According to medical ethicist Matthew Stonecipher , " The movement to challenge the decisions made for Terri Schiavo threatened to destabilize end @-@ of @-@ life law that had developed over the last quarter of the 20th century , principally through the cases of Karen Ann Quinlan and Nancy Cruzan . "
The outcome of the Schiavo case was also in part determined by a 1990 Florida case , Guardianship of Estelle Browning . In that case , George Felos , the attorney for Michael Schiavo in the Schiavo case , represented a Browning relative . Felos successfully argued before the Florida Supreme Court that Browning 's feeding tube should be removed . The elderly Browning had expressed in a living will her wish not to be kept alive by any artificial means , including receiving food and water " by a gastric tube or intravenously . " At that time it was common to remove people from ventilators , but the law in Florida wasn 't clear on removing them from feeding tubes . In a landmark ruling , the Florida Supreme Court decided that Browning had " the constitutional right to choose or refuse medical treatment , and that right extends to all relevant decisions concerning one 's health . "
= = = Disability rights = = =
During the years of legal proceedings , disability rights groups and activists closely monitored and involved themselves in the case . In March 2003 , twelve disability rights groups , led by Not Dead Yet , along with four other amici , filed an amicus curiae brief in which they opposed the removal of Schiavo 's feeding tube . They also used the Schiavo case to advocate for federal review in cases where third parties decide to withdraw life support from patients unable to give consent . They argued that persistent vegetative state is frequently misdiagnosed , and that the reasons for withdrawal of life support from a patient should be scrutinized since even family member surrogates can have conflicts of interest . The Palm Sunday Compromise granted the federal review they sought , but it was limited to only the Schiavo case .
= = Public opinion and activism = =
The seven @-@ year case generated a great deal of public attention and activism . There was extensive media coverage and both sides courted public opinion . In 2000 , the Schindlers created the Terri Schindler @-@ Schiavo Foundation to garner support . During the weeks when Schiavo 's feeding tube was removed in 2005 , activists kept up an around @-@ the @-@ clock vigil outside her hospice . The protests were described as loud but non @-@ violent . There were dozens of arrests , with most being for crossing a police line with water for Schiavo .
Two polls conducted shortly after Schiavo 's feeding tube was removed for the final time in 2005 showed that a large majority of Americans believed that Michael Schiavo should have had the authority to make decisions on behalf of his wife , Terri , and that the United States Congress overstepped its bounds with its intervention in the case . However , other polls seemed to favor the Schindler family 's position , and questions were raised about the wording of all the polls .
= = Developments since Schiavo 's death = =
Since Terri Schiavo 's death in March 2005 , her family and Michael Schiavo have clashed a number of times . Each side has also worked to promote their own causes related to the case . In April 2005 , the families disagreed over Schiavo 's burial . The Schindlers had wanted her body to be buried in Florida , while Michael Schiavo said at the time that he would cremate her body and then have her ashes buried in her home state of Pennsylvania . In June 2005 , however , Schiavo 's ashes were buried in Florida instead . The words " I kept my promise " were included on the marker , referring to his promise to follow what he said was her wish not to be kept alive artificially . The statement angered the Schindlers .
In December 2005 , Michael Schiavo created a political action committee , TerriPAC . It was formed to raise money to support right @-@ to @-@ die candidates and oppose candidates who had voted for government involvement in the Schiavo case . In 2007 , TerriPAC paid a $ 1 @,@ 350 fine to the Federal Election Commission for failing to file complete and timely records . Schiavo shut down the PAC later that year .
The Schindlers continued operation of the Terri Schindler Schiavo Foundation , with a new goal of helping individuals in situations similar to Terri 's . In April 2010 , Michael Schiavo charged that the Schindlers were improperly using Terri 's name , as he held the rights to it , and that the family was using the foundation in order to make money . A Florida television station looked at the foundation 's tax records and found that for 2008 , it paid 64 % of the $ 91 @,@ 568 it raised in salaries to Terri 's father , Robert Schindler , Sr. , her sister , Suzanne Vitadamo , and her brother , Robert Schindler , Jr . Their attorney said the foundation does its work effectively and that the high percentage for salaries was due to the small amount of money the foundation raises . He also said that the Schindlers had the right to use Terri 's name as she is a public figure . The foundation had been fined $ 1 @,@ 000 shortly before Schiavo 's death for failing to file timely paperwork . In September 2010 , the Schindlers renamed the organization the " Terri Schiavo Life and Hope Network . "
In 2006 , both Michael Schiavo and the Schindlers released books telling their sides of the story . Schiavo 's was called Terri : The Truth , while the Schindlers ' was titled A Life that Matters : The Legacy of Terri Schiavo – A Lesson for Us All .
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= Stone Sour ( album ) =
Stone Sour is the debut studio album by American heavy metal band Stone Sour . It was recorded and produced by the band and Tom Tatman at Catamount Studios in Cedar Falls , Iowa , and was released on August 27 , 2002 , through Roadrunner Records . Writing for the album began in 2000 while vocalist Corey Taylor and guitarist Jim Root were still actively involved in their other band , Slipknot . Work began on the album after Slipknot had gone on hiatus following touring in support of their second album Iowa .
Following the release of the album , Stone Sour went on to promote it for almost a year ; releasing three singles and touring in several regions , including the United States and several countries in Europe . The album received generally positive reviews . It was praised for showing a diversity in Taylor 's vocals , which was not presented in Slipknot 's early albums . It was also certified Gold in the United States and two singles from the album received Grammy Award nominations for Best Metal Performance in consecutive years .
= = Development = =
In 2000 , Josh Rand contacted Corey Taylor after Taylor had returned from touring in Japan with his other band Slipknot about material he had been working on . Speaking about the experience , Taylor said , " we just started writing stuff and it started to happen " . The duo wrote 14 songs and began working in a studio on some demos . Taylor added that it got to a point where he said to Rand , " I think we 're going to have to put a real band together , because this is just too serious ! " After further enlisting the help of Joel Ekman and previous Stone Sour members Shawn Economaki and Jim Root , the band began working on the album at Catamount Studios in Cedar Falls , Iowa . Before the release of the album , the band went through several different names , most notably Superego , before later announcing that they would use their original name Stone Sour .
= = Marketing = =
Prior to the release of the album , the track " Bother " was featured on the soundtrack for the film Spider @-@ Man ; however , it was only credited to Corey Taylor . In support of the album , Stone Sour released two singles in quick succession ; " Get Inside " was the band 's first music video and it included live footage . Released shortly after , " Bother " also featured a music video .
Throughout October and November 2002 , Stone Sour toured the United States in support of the album with Chevelle and Sinch . In 2003 , the band continued to tour in support of the album ; including a European tour with Saliva , an American tour with Powerman 5000 , several appearances at European festivals , a UK tour with Murderdolls , amongst others .
The third single from the album , " Inhale , " was released in early 2003 , shortly after the previously unreleased track " Inside the Cynic " was featured on the soundtrack for Freddy vs. Jason . On October 21 , 2003 , a special edition version of Stone Sour was released which included " Inside the Cynic " , four additional unreleased tracks , a DVD which featured all three music videos and alternative cover artwork .
= = Musical style = =
Corey Taylor touted Stone Sour as " melodic hard rock with content and initiative . " Jason D. Taylor of Allmusic noted that although it is not displayed on early Slipknot releases , " [ Corey ] Taylor has the ability to actually sing , " citing Alice in Chains and Soundgarden as influences . Jason Taylor went on to state the album gets better after multiple listens . Jeff Modzelewski of 411mania wrote the album mixed " hostility , reservation , brutality and melody . " According to Modzelewski , the album has a " mainstream sound " with each of the band 's members standing out during one song or another . Don Kaye of Blabbermouth.net felt the message of " Bother " did not differ from Slipknot tracks , but was " presented in an utterly different musical vein " . Kaye also felt the album " holds its own ... in terms of heaviness and power . " " The band knows how to put together an energetic rocker , " wrote NY Rock ; elements such as the " melodic twist to the songs ... will please hardcore and metal fans . "
= = Critical reception = =
Stone Sour received generally positive reviews . Most reviewers offered some comparison to that of vocalist Taylor and guitarist Root 's other band Slipknot . While reviewing the album , Don Kaye wrote that " it 's rare that a musician offers up another venue for their talents that proves to be equal to their fulltime outfit , " stating that Stone Sour is one such case . While Rowan Shaeffer of Counterculture states that " Get Inside " is " the closest to Slipknot that Stone Sour get , " even comparing it to the Slipknot single " Left Behind " . Citing " the chugging rhythm , manic kick @-@ drums and shout @-@ along vocals " as specific elements that are reminiscent of Slipknot , adding that it was " an obvious choice for a single " as it would not alienate their potential audience of Slipknot fans . Jason D. Taylor noted the similarity in lyrical content to that of Slipknot 's ; however , he stated that vocalist Taylor comes across as less infuriated which " allows the songs themselves to settle smoothly , yet motivate the listener to feel the emotion " . NY Rock stated that the album has a " more balanced feel to it " than that of Slipknot 's most recent release at that time , Iowa .
Reviewers also noted upon the album 's versatility , specifically that of Taylor 's vocal range and abilities . Jeff Modzelewski praised the opening track " Get Inside " explaining , " the scorching speed @-@ metal verse and screaming chorus are played off pretty well against the melodic pre @-@ chorus " . Jason D. Taylor cited " Orchids " and " Take a Number " as songs which stand out because they " strike with surprising force for an alternative rock group " . On a similar note , Don Kaye said the album includes some " sinister , groove @-@ oriented metal gems that refreshingly stay away from nu metal cliches " . The most melodic track on the album , " Bother " , received specific attention from most reviewers . Modzelewski said that the track " seems to be the song that the album has been preparing everyone for " , further adding that Taylor proves " that he is a legitimate vocalist who doesn 't need to rely on destroying his vocal chords to make a good song " . In his review , Rowan Shaeffer stated the track was a specific highlight , but said that the change in style was " at odds with the rest of the material " on the album .
In 2003 , Stone Sour 's first single from the album , " Get Inside " , was nominated for the Best Metal performance at the 45th Grammy Awards . On March 20 , 2003 , Stone Sour was certified Gold in the United States . The following year , the album 's third single , " Inhale " , was also nominated for Best Metal Performance at the 46th Grammy Awards .
= = Track listing = =
All lyrics written by Corey Taylor , all music composed and performed by Stone Sour .
= = Personnel = =
= = Chart positions = =
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= Crewe Hall =
Crewe Hall is a Jacobean mansion located near Crewe Green , east of Crewe , in Cheshire , England . Described by Nikolaus Pevsner as one of the two finest Jacobean houses in Cheshire , it is listed at grade I. Built in 1615 – 36 for Sir Randolph Crewe , it was one of the county 's largest houses in the 17th century , and was said to have " brought London into Cheshire " .
The hall was extended in the late 18th century and altered by Edward Blore in the early Victorian era . It was extensively restored by E. M. Barry after a fire in 1866 , and is considered among his best works . Other artists and craftsmen employed during the restoration include J. Birnie Philip , J. G. Crace , Henry Weekes and the firm of Clayton and Bell . The interior is elaborately decorated and contains many fine examples of wood carving , chimneypieces and plasterwork , some of which are Jacobean in date .
The park was landscaped during the 18th century by Lancelot Brown , William Emes , John Webb and Humphry Repton , and formal gardens were designed by W. A. Nesfield in the 19th century . On the estate are cottages designed by Nesfield 's son , William Eden Nesfield , which Pevsner considered to have introduced features such as tile hanging and pargetting into Cheshire . The stables quadrangle is contemporary with the hall and is listed at grade II * .
The hall remained the seat of various branches of the Crewe family until 1936 , when the land was sold to the Duchy of Lancaster . It was used as offices after the Second World War , serving as the headquarters for the Wellcome Foundation for nearly thirty years . As of 2013 , it is used as a hotel , restaurant and health club .
= = History = =
= = = Sir Randolph Crewe , Civil War and the Restoration = = =
Crewe was the seat of the de Crewe ( or de Criwa ) family in the 12th and 13th centuries ; they built a timber @-@ framed manor house there in around 1170 . The manor passed to the de Praers family of Barthomley in 1319 by the marriage of Johanna de Crewe to Richard de Praers . Later in the 14th century it passed to the Fouleshurst ( or Foulehurst ) family , who held the manor jointly with that of Barthomley until around 1575 , when the estate was dispersed . Legal problems resulted in the lands being acquired by Sir Christopher Hatton , from whose heirs Sir Randolph Crewe ( 1559 – 1646 ) purchased an extensive estate including the manors of Crewe , Barthomley and Haslington in 1608 for over £ 6 @,@ 000 ( £ 1 @.@ 03 million today ) .
Born in nearby Nantwich , reputedly the son of a tanner , Sir Randolph ( or Ranulph ) had risen through the legal profession to become a judge , member of parliament and the parliamentary Speaker . His fortune derived from his successful practice in chancery and other London courts . He briefly served as Lord Chief Justice in 1625 – 26 , but was dismissed by Charles I for his refusal to endorse a forced loan without the consent of parliament . He divided his enforced retirement between his London house and the Crewe estate . In 1615 , he commenced building a substantial hall at Crewe , either adjacent to the old house , which was by then in disrepair , or after demolishing it . He later wrote that " it hath pleased God of his abundant goodness to reduce the house and Mannor of the name to the name againe . "
A few years after the hall 's completion in 1636 , Civil War broke out . Like most of the legal families of Cheshire , the Crewe family was parliamentarian , and the hall was used as a garrison . In December 1643 , royalist forces under the command of Lord Byron occupied the area as they surrounded Nantwich , a major parliamentarian stronghold early in the First Civil War which lay some 5 miles ( 8 km ) to the south west . A contemporary diarist , Edward Burghall , vicar of nearby Acton , described the subsequent action : " The royalists laid siege to Crewe Hall , where they within the house slew sixty , and wounded many , on St. John 's Day ; but wanting victuals and ammunition , they were forced to yield it up the next day , and themselves , a hundred and thirty @-@ six , became prisoners , stout and valiant soldiers , having quarter for life granted them . " On 4 February 1644 , shortly after the decisive parliamentarian victory at the Battle of Nantwich , the hall was retaken by Sir Thomas Fairfax 's forces .
Sir Randolph Crewe died a couple of years later , before the end of the First Civil War . His male line died out in 1684 , and the hall passed to the Offley family by the marriage of Sir Randolph 's great @-@ granddaughter , Anne Crewe , to John Offley of Madeley Old Manor , Staffordshire . Their eldest son , also John ( 1681 – 1749 ) , took the name Crewe in 1708 . The Offley – Crewe family was very wealthy at this time : John Offley Crewe 's income at his death was estimated at £ 15 @,@ 000 per year ( £ 2 @.@ 1 million today ) . Both John Offley Crewe and his son John Crewe ( 1709 – 1752 ) served as members of parliament for Cheshire .
= = = Barons Crewe and Marquess of Crewe = = =
Anne Crewe 's great @-@ grandson , John Crewe ( 1742 – 1829 ) , was created the first Baron Crewe in 1806 . A prominent Whig politician , he was a lifelong friend and supporter of Charles James Fox ; his wife Frances Crewe ( née Greville ; 1748 – 1818 ) was a famous beauty and political hostess who gave lavish entertainments at the hall . The Crewes ' social circle included many of the major figures of the day , and visitors to the hall during this period included politicians Fox and George Canning , philosopher Edmund Burke , playwright Richard Brinsley Sheridan , poet William Spencer , musicologist Charles Burney , and artists Sir Joshua Reynolds and Sir Thomas Lawrence . John Crewe had the park landscaped and the hall extended , and also had the interior remodelled in the neo @-@ Classical style then fashionable . Some forty years later , his grandson Hungerford Crewe ( 1812 – 94 ) went to considerable expense to have the interiors redecorated in a more sympathetic Jacobethan style .
The house was insured in 1857 for £ 10 @,@ 000 ( £ 900 thousand today ) ; the contents at that time included books and wines ( insured for £ 2 @,@ 250 ) , mathematical and musical instruments ( £ 250 ) , and pictures ( £ 1 @,@ 000 ) . The art collection included several family portraits and other works by Sir Joshua Reynolds , which were saved from the fire that gutted the building early in January 1866 . Extensive restoration work for Hungerford Crewe was completed in 1870 .
Hungerford Crewe never married and on his death in 1894 , the barony became extinct . The hall was inherited by his nephew , Robert Milnes , Baron Houghton ( 1858 – 1945 ) , the son of Annabella Hungerford Crewe ; he adopted the name Crewe , to become Crewe @-@ Milnes . The Crewe title was revived as an earldom for him in 1895 , and he later became the Marquess of Crewe . A Liberal politician and poet , Crewe @-@ Milnes held several key Cabinet positions between 1905 and 1916 , and was a trusted aide to Asquith . He was also a friend of George V , and the King and Queen Mary stayed at the hall for three days in 1913 , while touring the Staffordshire Potteries .
The Crewe @-@ Milnes family left Crewe Hall in 1922 , and the house stood empty until the Second World War . Crewe @-@ Milnes offered the hall to Cheshire County Council as a gift in 1931 , ostensibly because his heirs did not wish to live in the house . After the council 's refusal , the majority of the estate was sold to the Duchy of Lancaster in 1936 . His grandson , writer Quentin Crewe , described Crewe @-@ Milnes as " both extravagant and poorly advised " .
= = = Calmic , Wellcome and hotel = = =
Early in the Second World War , Crewe Hall was used as a military training camp , repatriation camp for Dunkirk troops and a US army camp , becoming the gun operations headquarters for the north @-@ west region in 1942 . It housed a prisoner @-@ of @-@ war camp for German officers from 1943 . The hall was leased as offices in 1946 , becoming the headquarters of Calmic Limited , who eventually employed nearly 800 people at Crewe Hall . Calmic produced hygiene and medical products on the site including tablets , creams , analgesics and antibiotic aerosols ; they constructed industrial facilities adjacent to the hall including a drying and filtration plant and pharmaceutical packaging unit . After Wellcome 's acquisition of Calmic in 1965 , the hall served as the UK and Ireland headquarters of the Wellcome Foundation until the merger with Glaxo in 1995 . Wellcome produced liquids , tablets , creams and antibiotic aerosols at the site ; the hall itself was used for administration , but the stables block was rebuilt internally for use as laboratories and the industrial facilities were expanded .
In 1994 , the Duchy of Lancaster sold the Crewe Hall buildings and the adjacent industrial site , which became Crewe Hall Enterprise Park . The Crewe Hall buildings remained empty after Wellcome moved out and were sold to a hotel developer in 1998 ; the hall became a 26 @-@ bedroom hotel the following year . Several additional buildings in a modern style were constructed in the 21st century to extend the accommodation .
= = Architectural history = =
The Jacobean hall was built for Sir Randolph Crewe between 1615 and 1636 . The architect of the original building is unknown , although some historians have concluded that its design was based on drawings by Inigo Jones . Although of a relatively conservative design , similar to that of Longleat from half a century earlier , the hall seems to have been considered progressive in provincial Cheshire . The historian Thomas Fuller wrote in 1662 :
Sir Randal first brought the model of excellent building into these remoter parts ; yea , brought London into Cheshire , in the loftiness , sightliness , and pleasantness of their structures .
Hearth @-@ tax assessments of 1674 show the original hall to have been one of the largest houses in Cheshire , its 42 hearths being surpassed only by Cholmondeley House and Rocksavage , neither of which have survived . As depicted in a painting of around 1710 , the original building was square with sides of around 100 feet ( 30 m ) , and featured gabled projecting bays and groups of octagonal chimney stacks . Built around a central open courtyard , the interior had a great hall and long gallery ; the main entrance led to a screens passage and the main staircase was in a small east hall . Externally , there was a walled forecourt and formal walled gardens ; a range of separate service buildings was located to the west .
= = = Georgian and Jacobethan alterations = = =
The house remained unaltered for much of the 18th century , in contrast to most of the other principal seats in the county . It was described in 1769 as " a square of very old date ... more to be admired now for its antiquity than elegance or conveniency . " Work was carried out during the 1780s and 90s for John Crewe ( later the first Baron Crewe ) . A service wing to the west in a Jacobean revival style was added to the hall in 1780 . The principal interiors of the old building were redecorated in neo @-@ Classical style at this time , although the original layout with great hall , long gallery and drawing room was retained . Improvements were made to the wine cellars and bedrooms in 1783 , and J. Cheney was employed to build a new attic staircase and seven bedrooms in 1796 . Edmund Burke wrote in 1788 , " I am vastly pleased with this place . We build no such houses in our time . " The second Lord Palmerston , visiting in the same year , wrote :
But now by taste and judgment plann 'd ,
Throughout these scenes we find
The work of Art 's improving hand ,
With ancient splendour join 'd .
The house was altered again in 1837 – 42 by Edward Blore for Hungerford Crewe . Blore replaced a local architect , George Latham , who had been commissioned in 1836 . Many of Blore 's working drawings survive in the Royal Institute of British Architects archive . He carried out decorative work to the interior in the Jacobethan style and made major changes to the plan of the ground floor , which included replacing the screens passage with an entrance hall and covering the central courtyard to create a single @-@ storey central hall . He also fitted plate glass windows throughout and installed a warm @-@ air heating system . The total cost , including his work on estate buildings , was £ 30 @,@ 000 ( £ 2 @.@ 5 million today ) .
= = = E. M. Barry restoration = = =
Most of Blore 's work to the main hall was destroyed in the fire of 1866 . Hungerford Crewe is said to have asked Blore , then retired , to restore the building , but he declined . The restoration work was instead carried out by E. M. Barry , son of Sir Charles Barry , the architect of the Palace of Westminster , and the contractors Cubitt & Co . ; it was completed in 1870 , at a cost of £ 150 @,@ 000 ( £ 12 @.@ 9 million today ) . In a lecture to the Royal Academy , Barry later outlined his strategy for the restoration :
The greatest care has been taken to recover the design of Sir Randolph for such of the work as it has been possible to restore ... although with less roughness of execution and uncouthness of detail , particularly in respect of the human figure . Such peculiarities cannot , I think , be properly repeated in a modern reconstruction ... it is not the part of the nineteenth century restorer to reproduce matters which at best were the weaknesses of his predecessors . He ... should not seek , by a clever imitation of bygone tricks of construction or design , to deceive the spectator as to the age of his own work , and so pass off the latter as something which it is not .
Nikolaus Pevsner describes Barry 's reconstruction as " an extremely sumptuous job . " Peter de Figueiredo and Julian Treuherz consider it his finest work , attributing his success to being " directed by the powerful character of the existing building . " Barry 's work is considered to be , in general , more elaborate and more regular than the original . For the restoration of the interior , he employed several of the leading artists and craftsmen of the time , who had previously worked on the Palace of Westminster . Barry 's principal innovation was the addition of a tower to the west wing , which was required for water storage . Intended to unite the east and west wings of the hall , the effect is limited by the tower 's Victorian design . He also reorganised the plan of the building , opening up Blore 's central hall to create a two @-@ storey atrium , as well as providing more ground @-@ floor service rooms and generating twenty extra servants ' bedrooms in an attic by modifying the roof .
Local architect Thomas Bower performed some alterations to the house for Robert Crewe @-@ Milnes in 1896 , including extending the service wing . Few changes to the hall itself occurred during Calmic 's tenancy . The company installed central heating in around 1948 , and later constructed an office extension on the north side of the house , which was demolished a few years after the building 's conversion into an hotel . Calmic had undertaken only cosmetic maintenance work , and by the 1970s the fabric of the building was in poor repair . A major stonework fall from the north gable during high winds in 1974 led Wellcome to carry out an extensive restoration programme to both the interior and the exterior , which was completed in 1979 at a cost of £ 500 @,@ 000 ( £ 2 @.@ 3 million today ) .
= = Main hall = =
Crewe Hall is a grade @-@ I @-@ listed mansion located at SJ733540 in the civil parish of Crewe Green , ½ mile ( 1 km ) from the edge of Crewe . The architecture historian Nikolaus Pevsner considered the main hall to be one of the two finest Jacobean houses in Cheshire , the other being Dorfold Hall at Acton . Constructed in red brick with stone dressings and a lead and slate roof , the hall has two storeys with attics and basements . The eastern half of the present building largely represents the original Jacobean hall . The exterior survived the fire of 1866 and the majority of the diapered brickwork is original , although some of the stonework of the porch and the tops of the gables was renewed by E. M. Barry .
The south ( front ) face of the eastern wing has seven bays , with a balustraded parapet at eaves level . The central bay is set forward to form a stone centrepiece around the arched main entrance , which is flanked by fluted Ionic columns . Immediately above the entrance are doubled tapering pilasters flanking a three @-@ light window , all surmounted by a large cartouche decorated with strapwork . On the first floor of the central bay is a triple @-@ mullion window , and above the parapet is a coat of arms . Flanking the centrepiece are two bays with diapered brickwork and single @-@ mullion windows . The two ends of the south face are also set forward ; they have canted , triple @-@ mullion bay windows and are surmounted above the parapet by shaped gables with attic windows . All the main windows of this face are double transomed .
The east face of the eastern wing has four bays with canted bay windows , shaped end gables and a central cartouche . In the centre of the northern ( garden ) face is a large bow window , originally Jacobean , which illuminates the chapel ; it has stone panels decorated with cartouches below arched stained glass lights . This face otherwise reverses the main façade , with the addition of mezzanine windows .
The western half of the building is stepped forward ( southwards ) by two bays from the original building . Originally the service wing , it is plainer than the eastern building and dates from the Georgian era . Though using Georgian proportions , it was built in an early Jacobean revival style which has been heightened by subsequent alterations , particularly the addition of a central gable . The main part of the south ( front ) face has seven bays , with a balustraded parapet running along the entire façade at eaves level . In the centre of the five east bays is a canted bay window beneath a shaped gable ; the flanking bays have single @-@ mullion , double @-@ transomed windows . The two west bays are set backwards and have a central oriel window on the first floor with two single @-@ mullion , double @-@ transomed windows on the ground floor .
The western wing is dominated by a square tower of stone @-@ dressed brick which rises two storeys above the roof and is capped by an ogee spirelet surrounded by four corner chimneys . Designed by Barry in the High Victorian style , it was added after the fire . A slender bell tower also rises from the west wing . At the rear is a loggia with a vaulted ceiling supported by Tuscan columns . The western end of this wing is a single @-@ storey extension by Thomas Bower dating from 1896 .
= = = Interior = = =
The interior of Crewe Hall contains a mixture of original Jacobean work , faithful reproductions of the original Jacobean designs ( which in some cases had been recorded ) , and work in the High Victorian style designed by Barry . The entrance hall in the east wing was remodelled by both Edward Blore and Barry . It is panelled in oak and contains a marble chimneypiece with Tuscan columns featuring the Crewe arms . It opens via a columned screen into the central hall , which was an open courtyard in the Jacobean house . Roofed by Blore at the first @-@ floor level , Barry converted the space into an atrium featuring cloisters around the walls , with a wooden gallery over them at the mezzanine level and a tunnel @-@ vaulted first @-@ floor gallery above . The floor is paved with a pattern of coloured marbles and the first @-@ floor gallery corridors have stained glass panels . The atrium has a hammerbeam roof supported by columns at the gallery level . To the east of the central hall is an accurate reconstruction by Barry of the original staircase , which Nikolaus Pevsner described as " one of the most ingeniously planned and ornately executed in the whole of Jacobean England . " Heavily carved , the newels feature heraldic animals , which were originally gilded and painted .
To the east of the entrance lies the dining room , which was formerly the Jacobean great hall . The room least damaged by the fire , it was restored by Barry to its 17th @-@ century appearance , with facsimiles of the original ceiling and carved wooden screen . It contains an overmantel featuring a relief of Plenty , considered to be original , and a large stone chimneypiece , which is believed to be the only surviving work by Blore on the interior . The oak parlour , in the south west , contains a large wooden Jacobean overmantel , featuring Green Men carving . The Jacobean carving here and in the dining room is noticeably cruder than the Victorian work . The carved parlour is another reproduction by Barry of the original . Panelled in oak , it has a plaster frieze of the Elements , Graces and Virtues . The alabaster chimneypiece depicts the winged figure of Time rewarding Industry and punishing Sloth , symbolised by two boys , which is surmounted by a carved portrait of Sir Randolph Crewe .
A small chapel lies to the north of the central hall . Originally rather austere , it was lavishly decorated by Barry in the High Victorian style . There is much elaborate wood carving , with the altar rail featuring angels and the benches poppyheads . The marble apse has alabaster carved heads of the prophets and evangelists by J. Birnie Philip , and the wall panelling features bronze medallions depicting biblical characters by the same artist . The ornate choir gallery , reached from the central hall 's mezzanine gallery , contains the family pew . The stained glass and wall murals are by Clayton and Bell , and the painting and stencilling are by J. G. Crace .
The suite of state rooms on the first floor of the east wing contains the long gallery , library , drawing room ( great chamber ) , small drawing room and two bedrooms . All date originally from the Jacobean mansion , but are likely to have been significantly altered by John Crewe and then extensively reworked by Blore in neo @-@ Jacobean style . They were restored to Barry 's designs , usually with little attempt to reproduce the Jacobean appearance , probably because records of most of the original designs were lacking . Crace performed much of the decoration work in these rooms . All the state rooms contain elaborate plasterwork and stone chimneypieces , often flanked with Corinthian columns or pilasters .
The long gallery , along the north side , has a chimneypiece in coloured marbles with busts by Henry Weekes depicting Sir Randolph Crewe and Nathaniel Crew , 3rd Baron Crew , Bishop of Durham . The library , above the carved parlour , contains statuettes of book lovers by Philip and a frieze of scenes from literature by J. Mabey . The drawing room has a facsimile of the Jacobean ceiling , which had been recorded by architect William Burn . Identical in pattern to one at the Reindeer Inn in Banbury , of which the Victoria and Albert Museum has a plaster cast , it was presumably originally the work of the same craftsman . One of the state bedrooms has another survivor of the fire , a Jacobean stone fireplace with a plaster overmantel relief depicting Cain and Abel .
= = Stables , outbuildings and gate lodges = =
The former stables , in red brick with a tiled roof , were completed around 1636 and are contemporary with the Jacobean mansion ; they are listed at grade II * . They form a quadrangle immediately to the west of the hall , enclosing a rectangular courtyard . The main east face of the quadrangle stands at right angles to the front of the house ; it has nine bays of two storeys and an attic . Its centrepiece , added by Edward Blore in around 1837 , consists of an arched stone entrance flanked by pilasters , above which a clock tower rises from the first @-@ floor level . The tower features twinned arrow @-@ slit windows and clock faces with stone surrounds , and is topped by a bell chamber and ogee cupola with finials . In addition to the centrepiece , the east face has four bays which are set forward and have shaped gables topped with finials . The north and south ends of this east building also have shaped gables .
The north and south sides of the quadrangle have large arched carriage openings beneath shaped gables ; the keystones are carved with horse 's heads . The walls within the carriageway opening are decorated with bands of blue brick . The east , north and south faces are all finished with an openwork brick parapet with a stone coping . The west building has twelve arched openings accessed from the courtyard . The main storeys of the quadrangle mainly have three @-@ light , stone @-@ dressed mullion windows , with two @-@ light windows at the attic level . All the roofs have tall octagonal chimneys and feature decorative ridge tiles . The interior of the stables block was rebuilt during the building 's conversion to its present use of laboratories and offices .
The Apple House , a small red @-@ brick building to the west of the stables quadrangle , also dates from around 1636 , and can be seen in a painting of Crewe Hall from around 1710 . Originally a dovecote , it is used as a storehouse . Built on an octagonal plan with two storeys , it has two oval windows with stone surrounds . The lower entrance has a stone semicircular arch ; a second doorway is located at first @-@ floor height . The pyramidal tiled roof is topped by a glazed lantern with a lead cap . The building is listed at grade II .
The park has two gate lodges ; both are listed at grade II . The northern lodge at Slaughter Hill is by Blore and dates from 1847 . In red brick with darker @-@ brick diapering , stone dressings and a slate roof , it has a T @-@ shaped plan with a single storey , and is Jacobean in style . It features two shaped gables , each decorated with a panel carved with Crewe Estate emblems , and a hexagonal central bay with a pyramidal roof which forms a porch . The Elizabethan @-@ style Weston or Golden Gates Lodge to the south of the house dates from before 1865 and is attributed to William Eden Nesfield , although it is not typical of his style . In red brick with blue @-@ brick zig – zag diapering , ashlar dressings and a slate roof , the lodge has two storeys , with a projecting canted bay to the road face . The driveway face has an ashlar panel with a shield bearing the Crewe family coat of arms .
= = Gardens and park = =
The National Register of Historic Parks and Gardens lists 201 hectares ( 497 acres ) of the gardens and surrounding parkland at grade II . An early engraving shows a walled forecourt to the south of the original hall , with a large stone gateway carved with Sir Randolph Crewe 's arms and motto . The forecourt had terraces , balustrades and a path decorated with diamond patterns . As depicted in a painting of around 1710 , the grounds were laid out in extensive formal walled pleasure gardens with parterres .
During the 18th century , the park was landscaped in a more naturalistic style for John Crewe ( later the first Baron Crewe ) by Lancelot Brown ( before 1768 ) , William Emes ( 1768 – 71 ) , and Humphry Repton and John Webb ( 1791 ) . Repton 's design included an ornamental lake of 23 hectares ( 57 acres ) immediately north of the house , created by damming Engelsea Brook , which still runs through the park . He also created new approaches to the house . The lake drained away in 1941 when a dam burst , and the area is now planted with poplars . A stone statue of Neptune with a reclining female , originally located on the banks of the lake , now stands in woodland ; it dates from the early 19th century . A boathouse , originally at the head of the lake , was in need of restoration in 2007 . A Temple of Peace formerly stood on the north shore of the lake , but was demolished some time after 1892 . Much of the parkland is now covered with mixed woodland , including Rookery Wood and Temple of Peace Wood .
Formal gardens were laid out around the house by W. A. Nesfield in around 1840 – 50 for Hungerford Crewe . Nesfield 's design included statuary , gravelled walks and elaborate parterres realised using low box hedges and coloured minerals . Balustraded terraces were also constructed on the north and south sides of the hall , probably designed by E. M. Barry , and incorporating statues of lions , griffins and other heraldic beasts , echoing the interior staircase . Military usage during the Second World War , however , destroyed parts of the gardens ; army buildings were erected near the house , and the area in front of the hall served as a parade ground and later was ploughed up to grow potatoes . The grounds were further neglected while the house was used as offices , and little has survived except the terraces , gates and statues . In 2009 , English Heritage placed the hall on the Heritage at Risk Register as highly vulnerable , considering that the historic character of the gardens and park is compromised by recent developments to the hotel complex , in particular the conference centre , spa and associated parking area .
The entrance gates and wall separating the gardens from the park and farmland date from 1878 and are listed at grade II . The wrought @-@ iron gates are by Cubitt & Co . , and were exhibited at the Paris Exhibition of 1878 . Two outer single gates and a double inner gate are supported by four sandstone piers . The outer pair of gate piers are capped by a bud @-@ shaped device supported on scrolls ; the inner pair are surmounted by a griffin and a lion , mirroring the statuary of the hall 's terraces . The lower gate sections of lyre @-@ like panels with leaf and spearhead motifs are topped with Jacobean @-@ style arched panels . The ornate gate overthrows include shields and emblems capped with crowns , sheaves and sickles . The inner gates bear the inscription Quid retribuam domino ( " What can I render to the Lord ? " ) , while the outer gates bear the date . The wall , of brick with stone dressings , features arcading and has piers surmounted with ogee caps carved to match the tiles of the main hall tower . A further feature of the gardens to survive is a grade @-@ II @-@ listed sundial dating from the early 19th century , which stands to the rear of the house .
= = Crewe estate = =
= = = History = = =
The original estate purchased by Sir Randolph Crewe in 1608 included the manors of Crewe , Barthomley and Haslington and cost over £ 6 @,@ 000 . Lands from the Offley estate in Staffordshire and the Done estate in Cheshire were acquired by marriage and inheritance in the late 17th and early 18th centuries , and in common with the other great Cheshire estates , the estate flourished during the 18th century . The estate of 1804 included land or property in Barthomley , Burwardsley , Crewe , Crowton , Elton , Hale , Northrode , Rushton , Sandbach , Spurstow , Tattenhall , Warmingham and Weston in Cheshire , as well as Madeley in Staffordshire and Muxton in Shropshire . The predominant land use was dairy farming , but the estate also included some arable land ; tenancies ranged from crofts of 1 or 2 acres ( less than a hectare ) to large farms of over 300 acres ( 120 ha ) . The gardens , park and home farm occupied 583 acres ( 236 ha ) . Hungerford Crewe was the fifth greatest landowner in the county in 1871 , with a total of 10 @,@ 148 acres ( 4 @,@ 107 ha ) . The majority of the Crewe estate was sold by Robert Crewe @-@ Milnes to the Duchy of Lancaster in 1936 .
= = = Estate buildings = = =
Crewe Hall Farmhouse , the estate 's home farm , stands on the edge of the grounds , ¼ mile to the south east of the hall ; it dates from around 1702 and is listed at grade II . In brown brick with a slate roof , it has two storeys and five bays to the front . Two of the adjacent farm buildings , dating from 1883 – 4 , are also listed . As of 2009 , the Duchy of Lancaster is developing outbuildings at Crewe Hall Farm , including the two listed buildings , into leasehold offices totalling 27 @,@ 850 square feet ( 2 @,@ 590 m2 ) .
Several estate cottages near Weston Lodge were designed by W. E. Nesfield between 1860 and 1866 , and are among his earliest works . They include Stowford and Magnolia Cottages ( 1864 – 65 ) , which Nikolaus Pevsner describes as " cheerful and just a little Kate Greenaway " , Smithy Cottage ( around 1865 ) and Fir Tree Cottage ( 1865 ) , all listed at grade II , as well as a half @-@ timbered farmhouse on Weston Road . Rather than either the Jacobean mansion or its High Victorian interiors , their style derives from buildings of the Home Counties , with tile hanging , incised pargetting , half @-@ hipped gables and high chimneys . Pevsner credits Nesfield with introducing these features to Cheshire .
= = Modern hotel and Crewe estate = =
As of 2013 , Crewe Hall is a hotel in the QHotels group , set in 8 acres ( 3 @.@ 2 ha ) of parkland , with a restaurant , brasserie , conference facilities , tennis courts and health club , including a gym , spa and swimming pool . There are 117 bedrooms , of which 25 are located in the old building . The hotel has four AA stars ; the restaurant and brasserie each have two AA Rosettes . The hall is licensed for civil wedding ceremonies . The hall and park are not otherwise open to the public . The Duchy of Lancaster retains ownership of a large area of the estate , which is mainly managed as dairy farms and woodland , with some commercial development near Crewe and at Crewe Hall Farm .
= = Gallery = =
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= Confessions of a Dangerous Mind =
Confessions of a Dangerous Mind is a 2002 biographical spy comedy film depicting the life of popular game show host and producer Chuck Barris , who claimed to have also been an assassin for the Central Intelligence Agency ( CIA ) . The film was directed by George Clooney ( as his feature film directorial debut ) . It was written by Charlie Kaufman , and starred Sam Rockwell , Julia Roberts , Drew Barrymore , and Clooney .
Columbia Pictures had planned to produce a film adaptation of Barris 's memoir of the same name in the late 1980s . When the film rights were purchased by producer Andrew Lazar , Charlie Kaufman was commissioned to write a new script , which attracted various A @-@ list actors and filmmakers to the project . Bryan Singer at one point planned to direct the film with Johnny Depp in the lead role , but the production was canceled . The production resumed when Clooney took over directing duties .
Barris remained heavily involved in production in an attempt to portray the film from his point of view . To accommodate the $ 30 million budget , Clooney convinced actresses Drew Barrymore and Julia Roberts to lower their asking prices . Confessions of a Dangerous Mind was released with respectful reviews from critics and was modestly successful at the box office . Rockwell , in particular , was praised for his acting and won the Silver Bear for Best Actor at the 2003 Berlin International Film Festival .
= = Plot = =
Tired of being rejected by the beautiful women he lusts after , Chuck Barris ( Rockwell ) moves to Manhattan to become an NBC page with dreams of becoming famous in television but is eventually fired . He moves back to Philadelphia and becomes Dick Clark 's personal assistant on American Bandstand in 1961 . He writes the successful song " Palisades Park " and becomes romantically involved with a woman named Penny Pacino ( Barrymore ) . Chuck is given permission to pitch the concept for The Dating Game at the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) ; he receives $ 7 @,@ 500 to create a television pilot for the studio . However , ABC abandons The Dating Game in favor of Hootenanny .
One night after Barris is kicked out of a bar for fighting , he is approached by CIA agent Jim Byrd ( Clooney ) , who recruits him as an assassin . Returning from a mission in Mexico , Barris finds that Penny has become a Hippie . Meanwhile , ABC decides to greenlight The Dating Game , and by 1967 the TV show is a phenomenon .
Barris takes another mission for the CIA in Helsinki , Finland , where he meets female operative Patricia Watson ( Roberts ) . He finds more success back home when The Newlywed Game goes on air . He and Penny decide to move to Los Angeles into a house , but Barris is cautious of marriage , much to Penny 's dismay . The journey in Barris 's life is tied in to the story of Thomas Carlyle 's main character in Sartor Resartus , Teufelsdröckh , and this parallel is referred to throughout the film . In 1970 , Byrd convinces Barris to go on another mission in East Berlin to assassinate communist Hans Colbert ( Norman Roy ) . Barris is introduced there to German @-@ American agent Keeler ( Rutger Hauer ) , whom he helps to murder Colbert . However , he is captured by the KGB and , after some weeks , freed during a West @-@ East spies exchange .
In 1976 , in Los Angeles , Barris creates The Gong Show and becomes even more famous as its host ; he is also criticized for lowering the general quality of television . Meanwhile , Keeler is murdered and Byrd warns Chuck of a mole in the agency . His TV shows are canceled due to poor ratings , and Penny threatens to leave him after catching him cheating on her . One night , Barris finds Byrd sitting atop the diving board of his backyard pool . Byrd reveals to Barris why he was chosen by the CIA to become an assassin : he is the son of a serial killer and has been raised during his infancy as a girl by his mother , so he " fit the profile " . Barris threatens to kill Byrd , and the film cuts to a point soon after Byrd is killed , with Barris still pointing his gun at him .
Faced with the unpleasant truth about himself , Barris begins to spiral out of control . After almost having a nervous breakdown on one of his shows , Barris shuts himself away in a New York City hotel . Penny manages to find him there and tries in vain to convince him to return to California to get married .
Barris finally leaves his room and confronts Patricia in Boston . After a cup of coffee with her , Barris falls to the floor , seemingly poisoned . Patricia then reveals that she is the mole . However , Barris actually tricked Patricia into drinking from the poisoned cup , and he himself wasn 't actually poisoned at all . After her death , he returns home and begins to write his autobiography , Confessions of a Dangerous Mind . He finally decides to marry Penny . At the end of the ceremony , he notices some of the people he previously killed among the crowd . Distraught , he confesses to her his double life as a CIA agent and assassin , but she merely laughs , assuming he is joking , and he decides not to correct her . In 2002 , he prepares for an interview for the film adaptation of his autobiography .
= = Cast = =
Sam Rockwell as Chuck Barris , a successful game show host and producer who lives a double life as a CIA assassin
Michael Cera as young Chuck Barris
Drew Barrymore as Penny Pacino ; she first meets Chuck in the 1960s and remains his girlfriend for years
George Clooney as Jim Byrd , a CIA agent who recruits Chuck
Julia Roberts as Patricia Watson , a female agent
Rutger Hauer as Keeler , a German @-@ American spy and World War II veteran who befriends Chuck
Jerry Weintraub as Larry Goldberg , the president of the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC )
Robert John Burke as Instructor Jenks , an eccentric FCC instructor
Michael Ensign as Simon Oliver , a British CIA supervisor who is the first of Patricia 's murders
Maggie Gyllenhaal as Debbie , a stagehand who works with Barris on the set for American Bandstand , and who eventually sleeps with him
Rachelle Lefevre as Tuvia
Kristen Wilson as Loretta
Daniel Zacapa as Renda
Emilio Rivera as Benitez
Carlos Carrasco as Brazioni
Richard Kind as Casting executive
Brad Pitt and Matt Damon ( cameos ) as The Dating Game bachelors , Brad and Matt
Akiva Goldsman ( uncredited ) as Playboy party guest
Barris , Dick Clark , Jim Lange , Murray Langston ( The Unknown Comic ) , Jaye P. Morgan , and Gene Patton ( Gene Gene the Dancing Machine ) are featured in the film through interviews central to the storyline through self @-@ referencing events .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Chuck Barris first sold the film rights of his " unauthorized autobiography " to Columbia Pictures in the late 1980s . Columbia president Dawn Steel greenlighted Confessions of a Dangerous Mind with Jim McBride directing . McBride offered the lead role to Richard Dreyfuss , who refused to read the script because he believed Barris 's morbid humor was distasteful . The project was abandoned at Columbia when Steel was fired in 1989 . Producer Andrew Lazar optioned the film rights from Columbia in 1997 and set Confessions of a Dangerous Mind at Warner Bros. Pictures that same year . Charlie Kaufman entered discussions to write a new screenplay in June 1997 and finished his first draft later that year . Barris gave positive feedback to Kaufman 's script and Curtis Hanson instantly agreed to direct with Sean Penn in the lead role and George Clooney and Drew Barrymore attached to co @-@ star .
Hanson eventually dropped out , but with the financial success of My Best Friend 's Wedding ( 1997 ) , P. J. Hogan entered discussions with Warner Bros. to direct in January 1998 . Mike Myers signed on to replace Sean Penn , who vacated the lead role . However , negotiations with Hogan fell through ; Sam Mendes , David Fincher and Darren Aronofsky all became interested in taking over the director 's position . Fincher and Myers were fast tracking production for Confessions in April 2000 but Fincher dropped out and , by that October , Brian De Palma was attached to direct with Renaissance Pictures co @-@ financing . Later that month , Warner Bros. put the project in turnaround , and Myers lost interest . Russell Crowe , Kevin Spacey , and Edward Norton had also been attached to the film in the early development stages .
In December 2000 , Ben Stiller was in discussions to star as Chuck Barris , with Bryan Singer directing and Clooney still aboard . However , Stiller was forced to vacate Confessions due to scheduling conflicts with Zoolander ( 2001 ) and The Royal Tenenbaums ( 2001 ) . Although Singer was interested in Sam Rockwell in the lead role , the director cast Johnny Depp to replace Stiller and commenced pre @-@ production in January 2001 on a planned $ 35 million budget . Renaissance Pictures was holding international distribution rights , but the filmmakers still needed more financing as well as a studio to cover distribution duties in the United States .
Grosvenor Park was interested in co @-@ financing with Renaissance , but the next month ( February 2001 ) , Confessions was once again stalled in development . Miramax Films had been negotiating for domestic rights , but difficulties arose when Miramax also wanted to cover international rights . Renaissance was also unable to close the financing in time to accommodate both the " production insurance " deadline and the 65 @-@ day shooting schedule , which was set to primarily take place in Montreal and British Columbia , Canada . Artisan Entertainment then became interested in covering North American distribution rights but dropped out after the bid went over $ 8 million . Johnny Depp eventually went to work on other films .
= = = Director = = =
With Singer busy preparing X2 , Confessions was rejuvenated with Clooney taking over as director . Miramax Films agreed to cover distribution duties and co @-@ finance the film . In the end , funding for Confessions came from Miramax , Clooney 's own Section Eight Productions , Village Roadshow Pictures , producer Andrew Lazar 's Mad Chance , Allied Filmmakers , and The Kushner @-@ Locke Company . Clooney explained , " I thought if I came on board as a director , for scale , and was able to bring everybody else on inexpensively , if I could get the film back down to $ 30 million , then I was going to be able to get the film made . That was a big part of my pitch to Harvey Weinstein at Miramax . "
Because Confessions was his directing debut , Clooney took inspiration from friends Steven Soderbergh and the Coen brothers for his filmmaking style . Writer Charlie Kaufman said he was dissatisfied with the way Clooney treated the screenplay . " I spent a lot of time working on the script , " he explained , " but I don 't think he was interested in the things I was interested in . I 've moved on and I don 't have any animosity towards Clooney , but it 's a movie I don 't really relate to . " Clooney acknowledged that Kaufman 's original script contained " really funky scenes that would never reach the green light of being a studio film . " A drug addiction subplot was removed based on Barris 's request for historical authenticity .
Clooney was adamant that Barris become heavily involved during production in an attempt to portray the film from his point of view . Barris was so enthusiastic with Clooney 's work on the film that he began writing Bad Grass Never Dies ( ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 7867 @-@ 1379 @-@ 0 ) , the sequel to Confessions ; Miramax also owns the film rights to Bad Grass . Barris filmed cameo appearances of himself during the shoot in Canada and taped a voice @-@ over in Clooney 's house .
When asked about Barris 's claim of being a CIA assassin , Clooney commented , " I don 't know how much I believed it . I didn 't want to officially ask him , because I didn 't want him to say , ' I made it up . ' I wanted to tell the story and I thought how interesting , if it was all made up , why someone as wealthy and as successful as Chuck Barris would have to do that . I thought that was an interesting person to explore , and that 's what we wanted to do with the film . " Clooney acknowledged that his upbringing with father Nick Clooney had a great bearing on his choice of depicting the 1960 / 70s game shows . " My father had a game show when I was growing up called The Money Maze . I know what those sets look like . I showed the guy how to do cue cards . I grew up on them , " the director reflected , " and knew what it looked like and smelled like . And I know something about some of the trappings of fame , so I thought I had a unique take on it . "
= = = Casting = = =
Casting the lead role of Barris was a long , difficult process . " After two months of screen tests and everything I still wasn 't able to get Sam Rockwell , " Clooney reflected . Rockwell had always been Clooney 's first choice ever since they worked together on Welcome to Collinwood ( 2002 ) . Both Clooney and Barris also believed Rockwell shared an uncanny resemblance to Barris . " I didn ’ t want someone too famous to play the role , " the director reasoned . " In my opinion , you cannot have famous people playing famous people . It doesn ’ t work . Sam was the guy for the part , ready to break and hadn 't yet . "
Prior to his audition , Rockwell " immersed " himself in the role by watching episodes of The Gong Show in an attempt to impress the filmmakers . " I went to LA [ and ] did an old @-@ fashioned screen test , like a real Scarlett O 'Hara @-@ type screen test , which you know they don 't really do anymore , " the actor remembered . For research , Rockwell spent two and a half months with Barris . " We went to coffee shops and dinner and movies , took walks , went to the zoo ; I even filmed him , " Rockwell explained . " I had him tape my lines in a tape recorder , and I listened to that to get his voice down . "
Clooney cast Julia Roberts as the mysterious CIA agent Patricia Watson due to their positive working relationship in Ocean 's Eleven ( 2001 ) . Her role was originally set for Nicole Kidman , who dropped out over scheduling conflicts with The Hours . After Rockwell 's casting , Confessions was once again briefly postponed ; Miramax did not greenlight the film until Roberts signed on . Clooney commented , " Julia really helped me . Her doing the part made it possible for me to cast Sam Rockwell . He can 't drive a $ 28 million film , but Julia certainly can . " Renée Zellweger and Gwyneth Paltrow were considered for the Penny Pacino role , which eventually went to Drew Barrymore .
Miramax was unsure of Clooney 's decision to cast Rockwell over other famous actors such as Robert Downey , Jr . , and Ben Stiller . Clooney convinced the studio into giving him the right of final cut privilege and casting Rockwell in exchange for first look deals on Full Frontal ( 2002 ) and other low @-@ budget films from Clooney 's Section Eight Productions . Clooney also agreed to cameo in Miramax 's Spy Kids 2 : The Island of Lost Dreams ( 2002 ) so Rockwell could be cast . To accommodate the $ 30 million budget , Clooney convinced Roberts and Barrymore to lower their asking prices .
= = = Filming = = =
Under Clooney 's direction , filming was initially set to begin in September 2001 , but principal photography did not start until January 14 , 2002 . From January to March 2002 , production for Confessions of a Dangerous Mind took place primarily in California and Montreal . The Playboy Mansion scene was shot in early April at Los Angeles , California ; the remaining two weeks of production took place around the Mexico – United States border . Filming for Confessions ended in late April 2002 .
Clooney and cinematographer Newton Thomas Sigel used various techniques when portraying the different decades of Barris 's life . " We thought in order to go back in time , most people remember things through film , " Clooney reasoned . " I don 't remember the 1950s – I wasn 't around for them – I know the 50s through Technicolor . Not Technicolor as it was shot , but Technicolor as it has faded now . " The filmmakers studied various films and magazine issues of that decade for inspiration on the color palette . Racking focuses were highly stylized for scenes set in the 1960s , similar to the Spaghetti Westerns of that era . Hand @-@ held cameras were used for scenes set in the 1970s , an homage to the films of Sidney Lumet , Mike Nichols and Alan J. Pakula , primarily Klute ( 1971 ) , Carnal Knowledge ( 1971 ) , and The Parallax View ( 1974 ) . Bob Fosse 's All That Jazz also influenced Clooney 's direction .
Clooney commented that post @-@ production for Confessions was stressful because he was simultaneously acting in Solaris ( 2002 ) .
= = Reception = =
= = = Release = = =
To tie in with the release of the film , Miramax Books republished Barris 's 1984 book . The film premiered out @-@ of @-@ competition at the May 2002 Cannes Film Festival before Miramax Films gave it a limited release in the United States on December 31 , 2002 ; the wide release came on January 23 , 2003 . The film only barely recouped its production costs , grossing only $ 33 @.@ 01 million , of which $ 16 million was domestic revenue and $ 17 @.@ 01 million came from foreign markets . It also suffered poor sales in its September 2003 Region 1 DVD release . The DVD includes over 20 minutes of deleted scenes , Rockwell 's three screen tests , a short documentary titled The Real Chuck Barris , Clooney 's audio commentary , and a making @-@ of featurette .
= = = Critical response = = =
The film received positive responses from critics . Based on 159 reviews collected by Rotten Tomatoes , 79 % of the reviewers enjoyed Confessions of a Dangerous Mind with an average rating of 7 @.@ 2 / 10 . Metacritic calculated an average score of 67 / 100 , based on 33 reviews . Confessions of a Dangerous Mind was shown at the Berlin International Film Festival on February 10 , 2003 . Sam Rockwell won the Silver Bear for Best Actor and George Clooney was nominated the Golden Bear but lost to Michael Winterbottom of In This World .
Roger Ebert gave Confessions a positive review . " George Clooney 's directorial debut is not only intriguing as a story but great to look at , " Ebert said , " a marriage of bright pop images from the 1960s and 1970s and dark , cold spyscapes that seem to have wandered in from John le Carré . " Peter Travers of Rolling Stone magazine wrote that the film carried a perfect balance of dark humor and psychological drama . " Clooney tackles a far @-@ reaching absurdist fantasy with Barris as a paradigm of paranoia , " Travers reviewed . " He wisely hooks up with talent he worked with as an actor : cinematographer Newton Thomas Sigel , from Three Kings ( 1999 ) , and editor Stephen Mirrione from Ocean 's Eleven ( 2001 ) . "
Mick LaSalle from the San Francisco Chronicle wrote that " there may be more entertaining and less problematic movies , but Confessions of a Dangerous Mind has something about it that hangs in there , working on the mind like a dog gnawing on a table leg . The movie makes a case for itself through sheer oddness and perversity . I 'm not sure Confessions is a good movie , but I am sure I like it . " Owen Gleiberman , writing in Entertainment Weekly , observed that " Sam Rockwell is handsome in a rumpled , slightly goofy rabbit @-@ toothed way , but he doesn 't really have the look , or aura , of a movie star , " Glieberman stated . " He 's more like a weirdly sincere space cadet , babbling to himself with puppyish befuddlement , breaking into funky soft dance moves that look as if he 's been doing them in his bedroom since he was 8 . All of which makes him an inspired choice to play Chuck Barris . "
Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times gave a negative review . He disliked the characterization of Chuck Barris and commented that " with its multiplicity of over @-@ stylized looks and slick gimmicks , Dangerous Mind was doubtless more stimulating to direct than it will be for audiences to experience . " Internet reviewer James Berardinelli wrote a mixed critique . " George Clooney is eager to show how much he has learned at the hands of the A @-@ list filmmakers he has toiled under . So we get a style that is about 50 % Steven Soderbergh and 50 % Coen brothers . Sometimes it works , but mostly it comes across as too artsy , with all sorts of bizarre angles and unusual shots . "
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= Monsters , Inc . =
Monsters , Inc. is a 2001 American computer @-@ animated comedy film directed by Pete Docter at his directorial debut , produced by Pixar Animation Studios , and released by Walt Disney Pictures . John Lasseter and Andrew Stanton both served as executive producers . The film was co @-@ directed by Lee Unkrich and David Silverman and stars the voices of John Goodman , Billy Crystal , Steve Buscemi , James Coburn and Jennifer Tilly .
The film centers on two monsters employed at the titular Monsters , Inc . : top scarer James P. " Sulley " Sullivan ( John Goodman ) and his one @-@ eyed partner and best friend Mike Wazowski ( Billy Crystal ) . Monsters , Inc. employees generate their city 's power by targeting and scaring children , but they are themselves afraid that the children may contaminate them ; when one child enters Monstropolis , Mike and Sulley must return her .
Docter began developing the film in 1996 and wrote the story with Jill Culton , Jeff Pidgeon , and Ralph Eggleston . Fellow Pixar director Andrew Stanton wrote the screenplay with screenwriter Daniel Gerson . The characters went through many incarnations over the film 's five @-@ year production process . The technical team and animators found new ways to render fur and cloth realistically for the film . Randy Newman , who composed the music for Pixar 's three prior films , returned to compose its fourth .
Monsters , Inc. was praised by critics and proved to be a major box office success from its release on November 2 , 2001 , generating over $ 562 million worldwide . Monsters , Inc. saw a 3D re @-@ release in theaters on December 19 , 2012 . Twelve years later , a prequel , Monsters University , directed by Dan Scanlon , was released on June 21 , 2013 .
= = Plot = =
The parallel city of Monstropolis is inhabited entirely by monsters , and is powered by electricity which is generated from the screams of human children . At the Monsters , Inc. factory , skilled individuals called " scarers " access the human world through closet doors in children 's bedrooms , to scare the children , and harvest their screams . It is considered dangerous work , as human children are believed to be " toxic " to monsters . Energy production is falling because children are becoming more difficult to scare . The company 's chairman , Henry J. Waternoose , is determined to find a solution . James P. " Sulley " Sullivan is the organization 's top scarer , however , he is goaded in a fierce rivalry with a chameleon @-@ like monster , Randall Boggs .
One day , Sulley discovers that Randall left a door activated on the scarefloor , and a small girl has entered the factory . After desperate failed attempts to put her back , Sulley takes her home . His best friend , Mike Wazowski is on a date with his girlfriend Celia , and chaos erupts when the child is discovered . Sulley and Mike escape the Child Detection Agency ( CDA ) and gradually discover that the little girl is actually not toxic . Sulley grows attached to her and names her " Boo " . They smuggle her into the factory in an attempt to send her home . Randall discovers that Boo is there , and tries to kidnap her , but instead kidnaps Mike . Randall reveals that he has built a large machine named " The Scream Extractor " in an attempt to extract all possible screams out of captured human children to help avert the company 's production problems . Randall straps Mike to the machine , but Sulley unplugs it and reports Randall to Waternoose . However , Waternoose is secretly in league with Randall , and instead exiles Mike and Sulley to the Himalayas . The two are taken in by a Yeti , who tells them about a nearby village which can enable them to return to the factory . Sulley heads out , but a frustrated Mike refuses to follow . Meanwhile , Randall straps Boo to the Scream Extractor , but Sulley saves her by destroying the machine . Waternoose sends Randall to capture Sulley . Mike returns to reconcile , but thinks Sulley is ignoring him because an invisible Randall is attacking Sulley . Sulley temporarily incapacitates Randall , and flees with Mike and Boo .
Randall pursues them as they speed through the factory , riding on the doors that are heading into a giant vault where millions of doors are stored . Boo 's laughter activates the doors , which allows the pursuit to pass in and out of the human world . Randall attempts to kill Sulley , but Boo attacks him . Sulley and Mike trap Randall in the human world , at a trailer park , where two residents beat him with a shovel . Sulley and Mike find Boo 's door , but Waternoose sends it back to the Scarefloor . While Mike distracts the CDA , Sulley confronts and argues with Waternoose , who reveals that he is working with Randall to kidnap kids and use the Scream Extractor to keep the company from going out of business and to stop its failing energy production . The CDA arrests him after discovering the recorded confession . The CDA 's leader is revealed to be Roz , who has worked undercover for two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half years , trying to expose Waternoose 's plot . Sulley and Mike say goodbye to Boo and return her to her home as Boo 's door is subsequently shredded to prevent any more escapes .
With the factory shut down , Sulley comes up with a way to end the company 's production problems , and is promoted as a new CEO of Monsters , Inc . The monsters now enter children 's bedrooms to make them laugh as laughter is ten times more powerful than screams , averting the energy crisis . Mike takes Sulley aside , revealing he has rebuilt Boo 's door , and only needs one more piece , which Sulley took as a memento . Sulley enters and happily reunites with Boo .
= = Voice cast = =
John Goodman as James P. " Sulley " Sullivan , a large , furry blue monster with horns and purple spots . Even though Sully excels at scaring children , he is kindhearted and thoughtful by nature . At the film 's beginning , Sully has been the " Best Scarer " at Monsters , Inc. for several months running .
Billy Crystal as Michael " Mike " Wazowski , a short , round green monster with a single big eyeball and skinny limbs . Mike is Sulley 's stationrunner and coach on the scare floor , and the two are close friends and roommates . Mike is charming and generally the more organized of the two , but is prone to neurotics and his ego sometimes leads him astray . He is dating Celia Mae , who calls him " Googly @-@ Bear " . He makes cameo appearances in Finding Nemo , Cars , WALL @-@ E , and Toy Story 3 .
Mary Gibbs as Mary " Boo " , a three @-@ year @-@ old human girl who is unafraid of any monster except Randall , the scarer assigned to her door . She believes Sulley is a large cat and refers to him as " Kitty " . The book based on the film gives Boo 's " real " name as Mary Gibbs , the name of her voice actress . In the film , one of Boo 's drawings is covered with the name " Mary " .
Steve Buscemi as Randall Boggs , a purple eight @-@ legged lizard monster with a chameleon @-@ like ability to change skin color and blend in completely with his surroundings . He is a snide and preening character who makes himself a rival to Mike and Sulley in scream collection .
James Coburn as Henry J. Waternoose , an arthropodic monster with a crab @-@ like lower body . Waternoose is the CEO of Monsters , Inc . , a job passed down through his family for three generations . He acts as a mentor to Sully , holding great faith in him as a scarer .
Jennifer Tilly as Celia Mae , a gorgon @-@ like monster with one eye and tentacle @-@ like legs . Celia is the receptionist for Monsters , Inc. and Mike 's girlfriend .
Bob Peterson as Roz , a slug @-@ like monster with a raspy voice reminiscent of Selma Diamond 's who administrates for Scarefloor F where Sully , Mike and Randall work . At the end of the movie , it is revealed that Roz is the " number 1 " agent of the CDA , and has worked undercover at Monsters , Inc. for about 2 years .
John Ratzenberger as Yeti aka . The Abominable Snowman , a furry white monster who was banished to the Himalayas . He was inspired by the Abominable Snowman from the 1964 Rankin / Bass animated special Rudolph the Red @-@ Nosed Reindeer .
Frank Oz as Jeff Fungus , Randall 's red @-@ skinned , three @-@ eyed assistant . He is generally incompetent and is often bullied by Randall .
Dan Gerson as Smitty and Needleman , two goofy adolescent monsters with cracking voices who work as janitors and operate the Door Shredder when required . The pair of them idolize Sully , and are generally seen as a nuisance by Mike .
Steve Susskind as Jerry Slugworth , a red seven @-@ fingered monster who manages Scare Floor F and is a good friend of Waternoose .
Bonnie Hunt as Ms. Flint , a female monster who trains new monsters to scare children .
Jeff Pidgeon as Thaddeus " Phlegm " Bile , a trainee scarer for Monsters , Inc .
Samuel Lord Black as George Sanderson , a chubby , oranged @-@ furred monster with a sole horn on top of his head . A running gag throughout the film involves George repeatedly making contact with artifacts of human clothing ( socks and the like cling to his fur via static ) , which prompts his scare coach to trigger " 23 – 19 " incidents with the CDA resulting in him mobbed and shaved bald .
Phil Proctor as Charlie , George 's assistant with sea @-@ green skin and tendrils for limbs . He is friend with George , Mike and Sully but is quick to call the CDA on his scarer at the drop of a hat .
Joe Ranft as Pete " Claws " Ward , a blue monster with razor @-@ sharp claws and horrifying breath .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
The idea for Monsters , Inc. was conceived in a lunch in 1994 attended by John Lasseter , Pete Docter , Andrew Stanton and Joe Ranft during the production of Toy Story . One of the ideas that came out of the brainstorming session was a film about monsters . " When we were making Toy Story " , Docter said , " everybody came up to me and said ' Hey , I totally believed that my toys came to life when I left the room . ' So when Disney asked us to do some more films , I wanted to tap into a childlike notion that was similar to that . I knew monsters were coming out of my closet when I was a kid . So I said , ' Hey , let 's do a film about monsters . ' "
Docter began work on the film that would become Monsters , Inc. in 1996 while others focused on A Bug 's Life ( 1998 ) and Toy Story 2 ( 1999 ) . Its code name was Hidden City , named for Docter 's favorite restaurant in Point Richmond . By early @-@ February 1997 , Docter had drafted a treatment together with Harley Jessup , Jill Culton , and Jeff Pidgeon that bore some resemblance to the final film . Docter pitched the story to Disney with some initial artwork on February 4 that year . He and his story team left with some suggestions in hand and returned to pitch a refined version of the story on May 30 . At this pitch meeting , longtime Disney animator Joe Grant – whose work stretched back to Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs ( 1937 ) – suggested the title Monsters , Inc . , a play on the title of a gangster film Murder , Inc . , which stuck .
= = = Writing = = =
Docter 's initial concept for the film went through many changes , but he found the notion of monsters living in their own world to be an appealing and workable one . His original idea featured a 30 @-@ year @-@ old man dealing with monsters that he drew in a book as a child coming back to bother him as an adult . Each monster represented a fear he had , and conquering those fears caused the monsters eventually to disappear .
After Docter scrapped the initial concept of a 30 @-@ year @-@ old terrified of monsters , he decided on a buddy story between a monster and a child titled simply Monsters , in which the monster character of Sulley ( known at this stage as Johnson ) was an up @-@ and @-@ comer at his workplace , where the company 's purpose was to scare children . Sulley 's eventual sidekick , Mike Wazowski , had not yet been added .
Between 1996 and 2000 , the lead monster and child went through radical changes as the story evolved . As the story continued to develop , the child varied in age and gender . Ultimately , the story team decided that a girl would be the best counterpart for a furry , 8 feet ( 96 in ) tall co @-@ star . After a girl was settled upon , the character continued to undergo changes , at one point being from Ireland and at another time being an African @-@ American character . Originally the character of the little girl , known as Mary , became a fearless seven @-@ year @-@ old who has been toughened by years of teasing and pranks from four older brothers . In stark contrast , Johnson is nervous about the possibility of losing his job after the boss at Monsters , Inc. announces a downsizing is on the way . He feels envious because another scarer , Ned ( who later became Randall ) , is the company 's top performer . Through various drafts , Johnson 's occupation went back @-@ and @-@ forth from being a scarer and from working in another area of the company such as a janitor or a refinery worker , until his final incarnation as the best scarer at Monsters , Inc . Johnson was originally planned to have tentacles for feet ; however , this caused many problems in early animation tests . The idea was later largely rejected , as it was thought that audiences would be distracted by the tentacles . Mary 's age also differed from draft to draft until the writers settled on the age of 3 . " We found that the younger she was , the more dependent she was on Sulley " , Docter said .
Eventually Johnson was renamed Sullivan . The name was suggested by an animator who had attended Texas A & M University , inspired by one of Texas A & M 's historic icons , Lawrence Sullivan Ross , nicknamed " Sully " by students . Sullivan was also planned to wear glasses throughout the film . However , the creators found it a dangerous idea because the eyes were a perfectly readable and clear way of expressing a character 's personality ; thus , the idea was rejected .
The idea of a monster buddy for the lead monster emerged at an April 6 , 1998 " story summit " in Burbank with employees from Disney and Pixar . A term coined by Lasseter , a " story summit " was a crash exercise that would yield a finished story in only two days . Such a character , the group agreed , would give the lead monster someone to talk to about his predicament . Development artist Ricky Nierva drew a concept sketch of a rounded , one @-@ eyed monster as a concept for the character , and everyone was generally receptive to it . Docter named the character Mike for the father of his friend Frank Oz , a director and Muppet performer . Jeff Pidgeon and Jason Katz story @-@ boarded a test in which Mike helps Sulley choose a tie for work , and Mike Wazowski soon became a vital character in the film . Originally , Mike had no arms and had to use his legs as appendages ; however , due to some technical difficulties , arms were soon added to him .
Screenwriter Dan Gerson joined Pixar in 1999 and worked on the film with the filmmakers on a daily basis for almost two years . He considered it his first experience in writing a feature film . He explained , " I would sit with Pete [ Docter ] and David Silverman and we would talk about a scene and they would tell me what they were looking for . I would make some suggestions and then go off and write the sequence . We 'd get together again and review it and then hand it off to a story artist . Here 's where the collaborative process really kicked in . The board artist was not beholden to my work and could take liberties here and there . Sometimes , I would suggest an idea about making the joke work better visually . Once the scene moved on to animation , the animators would plus the material even further . "
= = = Casting = = =
Bill Murray was considered for the voice role of James P. " Sulley " Sullivan . He screen tested for the role and was interested , but when Pete Docter was unable to make contact with him , he took it as a " no " . The voice role of Sulley went to John Goodman , the longtime co @-@ star of the comedy series Roseanne and a regular in the films of the Coen brothers . Goodman interpreted the character to himself as the monster equivalent of a National Football League player . " He 's like a seasoned lineman in the tenth year of his career , " he said at the time . " He is totally dedicated and a total pro . " Billy Crystal , having regretted turning down the part of Buzz Lightyear years prior , accepted that of Mike Wazowski , Sulley 's one @-@ eyed best friend and scare assistant . The casting of Steve Buscemi as Randall , Sulley 's rival , saw a reunion between himself and John Goodman ; they had previously worked together on The Big Lebowski and Barton Fink .
= = = Animation = = =
In November 2000 , early in the production of Monsters , Inc . , Pixar packed up and moved for the second time since its Lucasfilm years . The company 's approximately 500 employees had become spread among three buildings , separated by a busy highway . The company moved from Point Richmond to a much bigger campus , co @-@ designed by Lasseter and Steve Jobs , in Emeryville .
In production , Monsters Inc. differed from earlier Pixar features in that each main character had its own lead animator — John Kahrs on Sulley , Andrew Gordon on Mike , and Dave DeVan on Boo . Kahrs found that the " bearlike quality " of Goodman 's voice provided an exceptionally good fit with the character . He faced a difficult challenge , however , in dealing with Sulley 's sheer mass ; traditionally , animators conveyed a figure 's heaviness by giving it a slower , more belabored movement , but Kahrs was concerned that such an approach to a central character would give the film a sluggish feel . Like Goodman , Kahrs came to think of Sulley as a football player , one whose athleticism enabled him to move quickly in spite of his size . To help the animators with Sulley and other large monsters , Pixar arranged for Rodger Kram , a University of California , Berkeley expert on the locomotion of heavy mammals , to lecture on the subject .
Adding to Sulley 's lifelike appearance was an intense effort by the technical team to refine the rendering of fur . Other production houses had tackled realistic fur , most notably Rhythm & Hues in its 1993 polar bear commercials for Coca @-@ Cola and in its talking animals ' faces in Babe ( 1995 ) . Monsters , Inc . , however , required fur on a far larger scale . From the standpoint of Pixar 's engineers , the quest for fur posed several significant challenges . One was figuring out how to animate the huge numbers of hairs – 2 @,@ 320 @,@ 413 on Sulley – in a reasonably efficient way . Another was making sure the hairs cast shadows on other hairs . Without self @-@ shadowing , fur or hair takes on an unrealistic flat @-@ colored look . ( The hair on Andy 's toddler sister , as seen in the opening sequence of Toy Story , is an example of hair without self @-@ shadowing . )
The first fur test had Sullivan run an obstacle course . Results were not satisfactory , as objects would catch the fur and stretch it out because of the extreme amount of motion . Another similar test was also unsuccessful , with the fur going through the objects .
Eventually Pixar set up a Simulation department and created a new fur simulation program called Fizt ( short for " physics tool " ) . After a shot with Sulley had been animated , the Simulation department took the data for the shot and added his fur . Fizt allowed the fur to react in a natural way . When Sulley moved , the fur would automatically react to his movements , taking into account the effects of wind and gravity as well . The Fizt program also controlled movement on Boo 's clothing , which provided another breakthrough . The deceptively simple @-@ sounding task of animating cloth was also a challenge to animate because of the hundreds of creases and wrinkles that automatically occurred in the clothing when the wearer moved . It also meant solving the complex problem of how to keep cloth untangled – that is , how to keep it from passing through itself when parts of it intersect . Fizt applied the same system to Boo 's clothes as to Sulley 's fur . Boo would first be animated shirtless ; the Simulation department then used Fizt to apply the shirt over Boo 's body , and when she moved , her clothes would react to her movements in a natural manner .
To solve the problem of cloth @-@ to @-@ cloth collisions , Michael Kass , Pixar 's senior scientist , was joined on Monsters , Inc. by David Baraff and Andrew Witkin and developed an algorithm they called " global intersection analysis " to handle the problem . The complexity of the shots in Monsters , Inc . – including elaborate sets such as the door vault – required more computing power to render than any of Pixar 's earlier efforts combined . The render farm in place for Monsters , Inc. was made up of 3500 Sun Microsystems processors , compared with 1400 for Toy Story 2 and only 200 for Toy Story .
= = Release = =
The film premiered on October 28 , 2001 at the El Capitan Theatre in Hollywood , California . It was theatrically released on November 2 , 2001 in the United States , in Australia on December 26 , 2001 , and in the United Kingdom on February 8 , 2002 . The theatrical release was accompanied with the Pixar short animated film For the Birds . As in A Bug 's Life and Toy Story 2 , a montage of " outtakes " and a performance of the company play were made and included in the end credits of the film sometime later . After the success of the 3D re @-@ release of The Lion King , Disney and Pixar re @-@ released Monsters , Inc. in 3D on December 19 , 2012 .
= = = Home media = = =
Monsters , Inc. was released on VHS and DVD on September 17 , 2002 . It was then released on Blu @-@ ray on November 10 , 2009 , and on Blu @-@ ray 3D on February 19 , 2013 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office = = =
Monsters , Inc. ranked number 1 at the box office on its opening weekend , grossing $ 62 @,@ 577 @,@ 067 in North America alone . The film had a small drop @-@ off of 27 @.@ 2 % over its second weekend , earning another $ 45 @,@ 551 @,@ 028 . In its third weekend , the film experienced a larger decline of 50 @.@ 1 % , placing itself in the second position just after Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone . In its fourth weekend , however , there was an increase of 5 @.@ 9 % , making $ 24 @,@ 055 @,@ 001 that weekend for a combined total of over $ 525 million . As of May 2013 , it is the eighth @-@ biggest fourth weekend ever for a film .
The film made $ 289 @,@ 916 @,@ 256 in North America , and $ 272 @,@ 900 @,@ 000 in other territories , for a worldwide total of $ 562 @,@ 816 @,@ 256 . The film is Pixar 's ninth highest @-@ grossing film worldwide and sixth in North America . For a time , the film surpassed Toy Story 2 as the second highest @-@ grossing animated film of all time , only behind 1994 's The Lion King .
In the U.K. , Ireland , and Malta , it earned £ 37 @,@ 264 @,@ 502 ( $ 53 @,@ 335 @,@ 579 ) in total , marking the sixth highest @-@ grossing animated film of all time in the country and the thirty @-@ second highest @-@ grossing film of all time . In Japan , although earning $ 4 @,@ 471 @,@ 902 during its opening and ranking second behind The Lord of the Rings : The Fellowship of the Ring for the weekend , it moved to first place on subsequent weekends due to exceptionally small decreases or even increases and dominated for six weeks at the box office . It finally reached $ 74 @,@ 437 @,@ 612 , standing as 2001 's third highest @-@ grossing film and the third largest U.S. animated feature of all time in the country behind Toy Story 3 and Finding Nemo .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a score of 96 % based on 192 reviews , with an average score of 8 / 10 . The critical consensus was : " Clever , funny , and delightful to look at , Monsters , Inc. delivers another resounding example of how Pixar elevated the bar for modern all @-@ ages animation . " Another review aggregator , Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 top reviews from mainstream critics , calculated a score of 78 based on 34 reviews , indicating " generally favorable reviews . "
Charles Taylor from Salon.com stated : " It 's agreeable and often funny , and adults who take their kids to see it might be surprised to find themselves having a pretty good time . " Elvis Mitchell from The New York Times gave a positive review , praising the film 's use of " creative energy " : " There hasn 't been a film in years to use creative energy as efficiently as Monsters , Inc . " Although Mike Clark from USA Today thought the comedy was sometimes " more frenetic than inspired and viewer emotions are rarely touched to any notable degree , " he thought the film to be as " visually inventive as its Pixar predecessors . "
ReelViews film critic James Berardinelli , who gave the film 31 ⁄ 2 stars out of 4 , wrote that Monsters , Inc. was " one of those rare family films that parents can enjoy ( rather than endure ) along with their kids . " Roger Ebert , film critic from Chicago Sun @-@ Times , who gave the film 3 out of 4 stars , called the film " cheerful , high @-@ energy fun , and like the other Pixar movies , has a running supply of gags and references aimed at grownups . " Lisa Schwarzbaum , a film critic for Entertainment Weekly , giving the film a B , praised the film 's animation , stating " Everything from Pixar Animation Studios , the snazzy , cutting @-@ edge computer animation outfit , looks really , really terrific , and unspools with a liberated , heppest @-@ moms @-@ and @-@ dads @-@ on @-@ the @-@ block iconoclasm . "
= = = Accolades = = =
Monsters , Inc. won the Academy Award for Best Original Song ( Randy Newman , after fifteen previous nominations , for If I Didn 't Have You ) . It was one of the first animated films to be nominated for Best Animated Feature ( lost to Shrek ) . It was also nominated for Best Original Score ( lost to The Lord of the Rings : The Fellowship of the Ring ) and Best Sound Editing ( lost to Pearl Harbor ) . At the Kid 's Choice Awards in 2002 , it was nominated for " Favorite Voice in an Animated Movie " for Billy Crystal ( who lost to Eddie Murphy in Shrek ) . The American Film Institute nominated " If I Didn 't Have You " in the AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Songs category . The film was also nominated in the AFI 's 10 Top 10 animated film category .
= = Music = =
Monsters Inc. was Randy Newman 's fourth feature film collaboration with Pixar . The end credits song " If I Didn 't Have You " was sung by John Goodman and Billy Crystal .
The album was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Original Score and a Grammy Award for Best Score Soundtrack for Visual Media . The score lost both these awards to The Lord of the Rings : The Fellowship of the Ring , but after sixteen nominations , the song " If I Didn 't Have You " finally won Newman his first Academy Award for Best Original Song . It also won a Grammy Award for Best Song Written for Visual Media .
All songs written and composed by Randy Newman .
Chart positions
= = Lawsuits = =
Shortly before the film 's release , Pixar was sued by children 's songwriter Lori Madrid of Wyoming , stating that the company had stolen her ideas from her 1997 poem " There 's a Boy in My Closet . "
Madrid mailed her poem to six publishers in October 1999 , notably Chronicle Books , before turning it into a local stage musical in August 2001 . After seeing the trailer for Monsters , Inc . , Madrid concluded that Chronicle Books had passed her work to Pixar and that the film was based on her work . In October 2001 , she filed the suit against Chronicle Books , Pixar , and Disney in a federal court in Cheyenne , Wyoming . Her lawyer asked the court to issue a preliminary injunction , that would forbid Pixar and Disney from releasing the film while the suit was pending .
In a hearing on November 1 , 2001 – the day before the film 's scheduled release on 5 @,@ 800 screens in 3 @,@ 200 theaters across the country – the judge refused to issue the injunction . On June 26 , 2002 , he ruled that the film had nothing in common with the poem .
In November 2002 , Stanley Mouse filed a lawsuit , in which he alleged that the characters of Mike and Sulley were based on drawings of Excuse My Dust , a film that he had tried to sell to Hollywood in 1998 . The lawsuit also stated that a story artist from Pixar visited Mouse in 2000 , and discussed Mouse 's work with him . A Disney spokeswoman responded , by saying that the characters in Monsters , Inc. were " developed independently by the Pixar and Walt Disney Pictures creative teams , and do not infringe on anyone 's copyrights " . The case was ultimately settled under undisclosed terms .
= = Prequel = =
A prequel , titled Monsters University , was released on June 21 , 2013 . John Goodman , Billy Crystal , and Steve Buscemi reprised their roles of Sulley , Mike , and Randall , while Dan Scanlon directed the film . The prequel 's plot focuses on Sulley and Mike 's studies at Monsters University , where they start off as rivals but soon become best friends .
= = Other media = =
An animated short , Mike 's New Car , was made by Pixar in 2002 in which the two main characters have assorted misadventures with a car Mike has just bought . This film was not screened in theaters , but is included with all home video releases of Monsters , Inc . , and on Pixar 's Dedicated Shorts DVD . In August 2002 , a manga version of Monsters , Inc. was made by Hiromi Yamafuji and distributed in Kodansha 's Comic Bon Bon magazine in Japan ; the manga was published in English by Tokyopop until it went out of print . A series of video games , including a multi @-@ platform video game were created based on the film . The video games included Monsters , Inc . , Monsters , Inc . Scream Team and Monsters , Inc . Scream Arena . A game titled Monsters , Inc . Run was released on the App Store for iPhone , iPod Touch , and iPad on December 13 , 2012 .
Feld Entertainment toured a Monsters , Inc. edition of their Walt Disney 's World on Ice skating tour from 2003 to 2007 . Monsters , Inc. has inspired three attractions at Disney theme parks around the world . In 2006 Monsters , Inc . Mike & Sulley to the Rescue ! opened at Disneyland Resort 's Disney California Adventure in Anaheim , California . In 2007 , Monsters , Inc . Laugh Floor opened at Walt Disney World Resort 's Magic Kingdom in Lake Buena Vista , Florida , replacing The Timekeeper . The show is improvisational in nature , and features the opportunity for Guests to interact with the monster comedians and submit jokes of their own via text message . In 2009 Monsters , Inc . Ride & Go Seek opened at Tokyo Disney Resort 's Tokyo Disneyland in Chiba , Japan .
In 2009 , Boom ! Studios produced a Monsters Inc. comic book mini @-@ series that ran for four issues . The storyline takes place after the movie and focuses on Sulley and Mike 's daily struggles to operate Monsters Inc. on its new laughter @-@ focused company policy . At the same time , their work is impeded by the revenge schemes of Randall and Waternoose , as well as a human child ( indirectly revealed to be Sid Phillips from the Toy Story franchise ) who has hijacked the company 's closet door technology to commit a string of toy thefts throughout the human world .
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= Andrei Rublev ( film ) =
Andrei Rublev ( Russian : Андрей Рублёв , Andrey Rublyov ) , also known as The Passion According to Andrei ( Russian : Страсти по Андрею ) , is a 1966 Soviet biographical historical drama film directed by Andrei Tarkovsky and co @-@ written with Andrei Konchalovsky . The film is loosely based on the life of Andrei Rublev , the great 15th @-@ century Russian icon painter . The film features Anatoly Solonitsyn , Nikolai Grinko , Ivan Lapikov , Nikolai Sergeyev , Nikolai Burlyayev and Tarkovsky 's wife Irma Raush . Savva Yamshchikov , a famous Russian restorer and art historian , was a scientific consultant of the film .
Andrei Rublev is set against the background of 15th @-@ century Russia . Although the film is only loosely based on the life of Andrei Rublev , it seeks to depict a realistic portrait of medieval Russia . Tarkovsky sought to create a film that shows the artist as " a world @-@ historic figure " and " Christianity as an axiom of Russia ’ s historical identity " during a turbulent period of Russian history that ultimately resulted in the Tsardom of Russia . The film 's themes include artistic freedom , religion , political ambiguity , autodidacticism , and the making of art under a repressive regime . Because of this , it was not released domestically in the officially atheist and authoritarian Soviet Union for years after it was completed , except for a single 1966 screening in Moscow . A version of the film was shown at the 1969 Cannes Film Festival , where it won the FIPRESCI prize . In 1971 , a censored version of the film was released in the Soviet Union . The film was further cut for commercial reasons upon its U.S. release through Columbia Pictures in 1973 . As a result , several versions of the film exist .
Although these issues with censorship obscured and truncated the film for many years following its release , since being restored to its original version , Andrei Rublev has come to be regarded as one of the greatest films of all time , and has often been ranked highly in both the Sight & Sound critics ' and directors ' polls .
= = Plot summary = =
Note : The following synopsis refers to the original , 205 minute version of the film .
Andrei Rublev is divided into eight chapters , with a prologue and an epilogue only loosely related to the main film . The main film charts the life of the great icon painter through several episodes of his life . The background is 15th century Russia , a turbulent period characterized by fighting between rival princes and the Tatar invasions .
The film 's prologue shows the preparations for a hot air balloon ride . The balloon is tethered to the spire of a church next to a river , with a man named Yefim ( Nikolay Glazkov ) attempting to make the flight by use of a harness roped beneath the balloon . At the very moment of his attempt an ignorant mob arrive from the river and attempt to thwart the flight , putting a firebrand into the face of one of the men on the ground assisting Yefim . In spite of this the balloon is successfully released and Yefim is overwhelmed and delighted by the view from above and the sensation of flying , but he can not prevent a crash landing shortly after . He is the first of several creative characters , representing the daring escapist , whose hopes are easily crushed . After the crash , a horse is seen rolling on its back by a pond , a symbol of life – one of many horses in the movie .
I. The Jester ( Summer 1400 )
Andrei ( Anatoly Solonitsyn ) , Daniil ( Nikolai Grinko ) and Kirill ( Ivan Lapikov ) are wandering monks and religious icon painters , looking for work . The three represent different creative characters . Andrei is the observer , a humanist who searches for the good in people and wants to inspire and not frighten . Daniil is withdrawn and resigned , and not as bent on creativity as on self @-@ realization . Kirill lacks talent as a painter , yet still strives to achieve prominence . He is jealous , self @-@ righteous , very intelligent and perceptive . The three have just left the Andronikov Monastery , where they have lived for many years , heading to Moscow . During a heavy rain shower they seek shelter in a barn , where a group of villagers is being entertained by a jester ( Rolan Bykov ) . The jester , or skomorokh , is a bitterly sarcastic enemy of the state and the Church , who earns a living with his scathing and obscene social commentary and by making fun of the Boyars . He ridicules the monks as they come in , and after some time Kirill leaves unnoticed . Shortly , a group of soldiers arrive to arrest the skomorokh , whom they take outside , knock unconscious and take away , also smashing his musical instrument . As the rain has stopped the three monks thank the villagers for allowing them to shelter and continue on their way . As they walk on the heavy rain starts again .
II . Theophanes the Greek ( Summer – Winter – Spring – Summer 1405 – 1406 )
Kirill arrives at the workshop of Theophanes the Greek ( Nikolai Sergeyev ) , a prominent and well @-@ recognized master painter , who is working on a new icon of Jesus Christ . Theophanes is portrayed as a complex character : an established artist , humanistic and God @-@ fearing in his views yet somewhat cynical , regarding his art more as a craft and a chore in his disillusion with other people . His young apprentices have all run away to the town square , where a wrongly convicted criminal is about to be tortured and executed . Kirill talks to Theophanes , and the artist , impressed by the monk 's understanding and erudition , invites him to work as his apprentice on the decoration of the Cathedral of the Annunciation in Moscow . Kirill refuses at first , but then accepts the offer on the condition that Theophanes will personally come to the Andronikov Monastery and invite Kirill to work with him in front of all the fraternity and Andrei Rublev , who according to Theophanes ' comments has some fame as an icon painter in the outside world .
A short while later at the Andronikov Monastery , a messenger arrives from Moscow to ask Andrei for his assistance in decorating the Annunciation Cathedral with Theophanes the Greek . Both Daniil and Kirill are agitated by the recognition that Andrei receives . Daniil refuses to accompany Andrei and reproaches him for accepting Theophanes ’ offer without considering his fellows , but soon repents of his temper and tearfully wishes Andrei well when the younger monk comes to say goodbye to his friend . Kirill is jealous of Andrei and in a fit of anger , decides to leave the monastery for the secular world , throwing accusations of greed in the face of his fellow monks , who also dismiss him . Kirill stumbles out of the monastery into the snowy countryside and is pursued by his dog , but Kirill savagely beats it with his walking stick and leaves it for dead . Andrei leaves for Moscow with his young apprentice Foma ( Mikhail Kononov ) . Foma is another creative character , representing the light @-@ hearted and practical @-@ minded commercial artist . Still he seems to be contemplative enough to get along with Andrei .
III . The Passion According to Andrei ( 1406 )
While walking in the woods , Andrei and Foma have a conversation about Foma ’ s faults , especially lying . Foma confesses to taking honey from the bee garden , after Andrei notices his cassock is tacky , and smears mud on his face to soothe a bee sting . While Foma has talent as an artist , he is less concerned with the deeper meaning of his work and more concerned with practical aspects of the job , like perfecting his azure , a colour which in painting was often considered unstable to mix . They encounter Theophanes in the forest , and the old master sends Foma away . As he leaves , the apprentice finds a dead swan and pokes at it with a stick . We cut to banks of a stream where Andrei and Theophanes are arguing about religion , while Foma cleans his masters paint brushes . Theophanes argues that the ignorance of the Russian people is due to stupidity , while Andrei says that he doesn ’ t understand how he can be a painter and maintain such views . This section contains a reenactment of Christ 's Crucifixion on a snow @-@ covered hillside which plays out as Andrei recounts the story and expresses his belief that the men who crucified Jesus were obeying God 's will and loved him .
IV . The Feast ( 1408 )
Camping for the night on a riverbank , Andrei and Foma are collecting firewood for their group when Andrei hears the distant sounds of celebration further upstream in the woods . Going to investigate he encounters a large group of naked pagans , who are conducting a torch lit ritual for Midsummer . Andrei is intrigued and excited by the behaviour of the pagans but is caught spying on a couple making love , is tied to the crossbeam of a hut in a mockery of Jesus ' crucifixion and is threatened with drowning in the morning . A woman named Marfa ( Nelly Snegina ) , dressed only in a fur coat approaches Andrei . After explaining that her people are persecuted for their beliefs she drops her coat , kisses Andrei and then unties him . Andrei runs away , and is lost in the dense woods , scratching his face . The next morning Andrei returns to his group , including Daniil , and as they leave on their boats a group of soldiers appear on the riverbank chasing after several of the pagans including Marfa . Her partner is captured but she escapes by swimming into the river past Andrei ’ s boat . He and his fellow monks look away in shame .
V. The Last Judgment ( Summer 1408 )
Andrei and Daniil are working on the decoration of a church in Vladimir . Although they have been there for several months the walls are still white and bare as Andrei is doubting himself . A messenger arrives with word from the furious Bishop to say they have until the Autumn to finish the job . On a nearby road in the middle of a field of flowers Andrei confides to Daniil that the task disgusts him and that he is unable to paint a subject such as the Last Judgement as he doesn ’ t want to terrify people into submission . He comes to the conclusion that he has lost the ease of mind that an artist needs for his work . Foma , impatient and ambitious , resigns and leaves Andrei 's group to take up the offer of painting a smaller , less prestigious , church . Stone carvers and decorators of Andrei 's party have also been working on the Grand Prince 's mansion . The Prince wants the work to be done again more in line with his tastes but the workers already have another job , at the mansion of the Grand Prince 's brother , and refuse . On a path through the woods soldiers accost the artisans on the orders of the Grand Prince and gouge their eyes out , so that they cannot replicate their work . Back at the church Andrei is dismayed by the news of their fate and angrily throws paint and smears it on one of the walls . Sergei ( Vladimir Titov ) one of the young apprentices who escaped the attack unharmed reads a random section of the bible aloud , at Daniil 's request , concerning women . Durochka ( Irma Raush ) ( whose name identifies her as a holy fool or Yurodivy ) , wanders in out of the rain and is upset by the sight of the paint on the wall . Her feeble @-@ mindedness and innocence leads Andrei to the idea to paint a feast .
VI . The Raid ( Autumn 1408 )
While the Grand Prince is away in Lithuania , his power hungry younger brother forms an allegiance with a group of Tatars and raids Vladimir . We see flashbacks of the Grand Prince and his brother attending a religious service in the church , and see the rivalry and animosity between them . The invasion of the combined armed forces on horseback and the resulting carnage is shown in great detail . The city is burned , the citizens are murdered and women raped and killed . One scene shows a horse falling from a flight of stairs and being stabbed by a spear . Another shows a cow being set on fire . Foma narrowly escapes being killed in the city and escapes into the nearby countryside . As he is crossing a river a Tatar sentry shoots him in the back with an arrow , as he dies he falls into the river and is swept away . The Tatars force their way into the barricaded church , now fully decorated with Andrei 's paintings , where the majority of the citizens have taken refuge . The Tatars show no mercy and massacre the people inside and burn all the painted wooden altarpieces . Andrei saves Durochka from being raped by killing the invader with an axe . The Bishop 's messenger is cruelly tortured to make him reveal the location of the city 's gold , which he refuses to do . After being repeatedly burned , he has liquid metal from a melted crucifix poured into his mouth and is dragged away tied to a horse . In the aftermath only Andrei and Durochka are left alive in the church . Andrei imagines a conversation with the dead Theophanes the Greek , lamenting the loss of his work and the evil of mankind , while Durochka distractedly plaits the hair of a dead woman . Andrei decides to give up painting and takes a vow of silence to atone for killing another man .
VII . The Silence ( Winter 1412 )
Andrei is once again at the Andronikov Monastery as famine and war grip the country . He no longer paints and never speaks , and keeps Durochka with him as a fellow companion in silence . Several refugees discuss the problems in their respective home towns , and one man talks in a broken voice of his escape from Vladimir . He is recognised by a younger monk as the long absent Kirill . He has suffered during his time away from the monastery and begs the father superior to allow him to return . His wish is granted but he is instructed to copy out the holy scriptures fifteen times in penance . A group of Tatars stops at the monastery while travelling through the region , much to the concern of Andrei and Kirill who experienced their brutality first hand . Durochka is too simple minded to remember what the Tatars did and is fascinated by one of the soldier 's shining breastplate . The group taunt and play with her , but the soldier takes a liking to her , putting his horned helmet on her head and dressing her as a bride , finally deciding to take her away with him as his eighth , and only Russian , wife . Andrei attempts to stop her from leaving , but she is determined and rides away with the Tatars . Kirill talks to Andrei for the first time since they both left the monastery , and he assures him that Dorochka won 't be in any danger , as harming a holy fool is considered bad luck , and she will be let go . Andrei continues his menial work of carrying large hot stones from a fire with tongs to heat water for the monastery , but drops the stone in the snow .
VIII . The Bell ( Spring – Summer – Winter – Spring 1423 – 1424 )
Andrei ’ s life turns around as he witnesses the casting of a bell for the Grand Prince . The bellmaker and all his family have died of a plague that has ravaged the area , and only his son Boriska ( Nikolai Burlyayev ) has survived . He tells the Prince 's men that he is the only one who possesses his father 's secret , delivered on his death bed , of casting a bronze bell and persuades them to take him with them as he is the only person left alive who can make it successfully . Boriska is put in charge of the project and frequently contradicts and challenges the instincts of his co @-@ workers when choosing the location of the pit , the selection of the proper clay , the building of the mold , the firing of the furnaces and finally the hoisting of the bell . The process of making the bell grows into a huge , expensive endeavour with many hundreds of workers and Boriska makes several risky decisions , guided only by his instincts . As the furnaces are opened and the molten metal pours into the mould , he privately asks God for help . Andrei silently watches Boriska during the casting , and the younger man notices him too .
During the bell @-@ making , the skomorokh from the first sequence makes a reappearance amongst the crowds who have come to watch the bell being raised up and he threatens to kill Andrei , whom he mistakes for the man who denounced him years earlier and therefore led to his arrest , torture and prison sentence . Kirill intervenes on behalf of the silent Andrei and later privately confesses that his sinful envy of Andrei ’ s talent dissipated once he heard Andrei had abandoned painting and that it was he , Kirill , who had denounced the skomorokh . Kirill then criticises Andrei for allowing his God @-@ given talent for painting to go to waste and pleads with him to resume his artistry , to no response .
As the bell @-@ making nears completion , Boriska ’ s confidence slowly transforms into a stunned , detached disbelief that he ’ s succeeded at the task . The work crew takes over as Boriska makes several attempts to fade into the background of the activity . Once the bell has been hoisted into its tower the Grand Prince and his entourage arrive for the inaugural ceremony as the bell is blessed by the priests . As the bell is prepared to be rung the royal entourage is overhead discussing their doubts that it will . It is revealed that Boriska and the work crew know if the bell fails to ring the Grand Prince will have them all beheaded . ( It is also overheard that the Grand Prince had his brother , who raided Vladimir in The Raid sequence , beheaded . ) There is a quiet , agonizing tension as the foreman slowly coaxes the bell 's clapper back and forth , nudging it closer to the lip of the bell with each swing . A pan across the assembly reveals white @-@ robed Durochka , leading a horse ( preceded by a boy , presumably her son ) as she walks through the crowd . At the critical moment the bell rings perfectly and she smiles . After the ceremony , Andrei finds Boriska collapsed on the ground , sobbing as he admits his father never told him the secret of casting a bell . Andrei comforts him , breaking his vow of silence and telling the boy that they should carry on their work together : “ You ’ ll cast bells . I ’ ll paint icons . ” Andrei sees Durochka , the boy , and the horse walk off across a muddy field in the distance .
The epilogue is the only part of the film in colour and shows time @-@ aged , but still vibrant , details of several of Andrei Rublev ’ s actual icons . The icons are shown in the following order : Enthroned Christ , Twelve Apostles , The Annunciation , Twelve Apostles , Jesus entering Jerusalem , Birth of Christ , Enthroned Christ , Transfiguration of Jesus , Resurrection of Lazarus , The Annunciation , Resurrection of Lazarus , Birth of Christ , Trinity , Archangel Michael , Paul the Apostle , The Redeemer . The final scene crossfades from the icons and shows four horses standing by a river in the rain .
= = Cast = =
Anatoly Solonitsyn – Andrei Rublev
Nikolai Grinko – Daniel Chorny
Nikolai Sergeyev – Theophanes the Greek
Nikolai Burlyayev – Boriska
Ivan Lapikov – Kirill
Yuri Nikulin – Patrikei
Yuriy Nazarov – Prince Yury of Zvenigorod / Grand Prince Vasily I of Moscow
Rolan Bykov – the Skomorokh
Irma Raush – Durochka ( the holy fool girl )
Mikhail Kononov – Foma
Nikolay Glazkov – Yefim
Bolot Beishenaliyev – Edigu , Khan of the Nogai Horde
Irina Miroshnichenko – Mary Magdalene
= = Production = =
In 1961 , while working on his first feature film Ivan 's Childhood , Tarkovsky made a proposal to Mosfilm for a film on the life of Russia 's greatest icon painter , Andrei Rublev . The contract was signed in 1962 and the first treatment was approved in December 1963 . Tarkovsky and his co @-@ screenwriter Andrei Konchalovsky worked for more than two years on the script , studying medieval writings and chronicles and books on medieval history and art . In April 1964 the script was approved and Tarkovsky began working on the film . At the same time the script was published in the influential film magazine Iskusstvo Kino , and was widely discussed among historians , film critics and ordinary readers . The discussion on Andrei Rublev centered on the sociopolitical and historical , and not the artistic aspects of the film .
According to Tarkovsky , the original idea for a film about the life of Andrei Rublev was due to the film actor Vasily Livanov . Livanov proposed to write a screenplay together with Tarkovsky and Konchalovsky while they were strolling through a forest on the outskirts of Moscow . He also mentioned that he would love to play Andrei Rublev . Tarkovsky did not intend the film to be a historical or a biographical film about Andrei Rublev . Instead , he was motivated by the idea of showing the connection between a creative character 's personality and the times through which he lives . He wanted to show an artist 's maturing and the development of his talent . He chose Andrei Rublev for his importance in the history of Russian culture .
Tarkovsky cast Anatoli Solonitsyn for the role of Andrei Rublev . At this time Solonitsyn was an unknown actor at a theater in Sverdlovsk . According to Tarkovsky everybody had a different image of the historical figure of Andrei Rublev , thus casting an unknown actor who would not remind viewers of other roles was his favoured approach . Solonitsyn , who had read the film script in the film magazine Iskusstvo Kino , was very enthusiastic about the role , traveled to Moscow at his own expense to meet Tarkovsky and even declared that no one could play this role better than him . Tarkovsky felt the same , saying that " with Solonitsyn I simply got lucky " . For the role of Andrei Rublev he required " a face with great expressive power in which one could see a demoniacal single @-@ mindedness " . To Tarkovsky , Solonitsyn provided the right physical appearance and the talent of showing complex psychological processes . Solonitsyn would continue to work with the director , appearing in Solaris , The Mirror , and Stalker , and in the title role of Tarkovsky 's 1976 stage production of Hamlet in Moscow 's Lenkom Theatre . Before his death from cancer in 1982 , Solonitsyn was also intended to play protagonist Andrei Gortchakov in Tarkovsky 's 1983 Italian @-@ Russian co @-@ production Nostalghia , and to star in a project titled The Witch which Tarkovsky would significantly alter into his final production , The Sacrifice .
Tarkovsky chose to shoot the main film in black and white and the epilogue , showing some of Rublev 's icons , in color . In an interview he motivated his choice with the claim that in everyday life one does not consciously notice colors . Consequently , Rublev 's life is in black and white , whereas his art is in color . The film was thus able to express the co @-@ dependence of an artist 's art and his personal life . The color sequence of Rublev 's icons begins with showing only selected details , climaxing in Rublev 's most famous icon , The Trinity . One reason for including this color final was , according to Tarkovsky , to give the viewer some rest and to allow him to detach himself from Rublev 's life and to reflect . The film finally ends with the image of horses at river in the rain . To Tarkovsky horses symbolized life , and including horses in the final scene ( and in many other scenes in the film ) meant that life was the source of all of Rublev 's art .
Filming did not begin until April 1965 , one year after approval of the script . The initial budget was 1 @.@ 6 million Rubles , but it was cut several times to one million Rubles ( In comparison , Sergei Bondarchuk 's War and Peace had a budget of eight and half million Rubles ) . As a result of the budget restrictions several scenes from the script were cut , including an opening scene showing the Battle of Kulikovo . Other scenes that were cut from the script are a hunting scene , where the younger brother of the Grand Prince hunts swans , and a scene showing peasants helping Durochka giving birth to her Russian @-@ Tatar child . In the end the film cost 1 @.@ 3 million Rubles , with the cost overrun due to heavy snowfall , which disrupted shooting from November 1965 until April 1966 . The film was shot on location , on the Nerl River and the historical places of Vladimir / Suzdal , Pskov , Izborsk and Pechory .
Several scenes within the film depict violence , torture and cruelty toward animals , leading to controversy and censorship attempts upon completion of the film . Most of these scenes took place during the raid of Vladimir , showing for example the blinding and the torture of a monk . Most of the scenes involving cruelty toward animals were simulated . For example , during the Tatar raid of Vladimir a cow is set on fire . In reality the cow had an asbestos @-@ covered coat and was not physically harmed ; however , one scene depicts the real death of a horse . The horse falls from a flight of stairs and is then stabbed by a spear . To produce this image , Tarkovsky injured the horse by shooting it in the neck and then pushed it from the stairs , causing the animal to falter and fall down the flight of stairs . From there , the camera pans off the horse onto some soldiers to the left and then pans back right onto the horse , and we see the horse struggling to get its footing having fallen over on its back before being stabbed by the spear . The animal was then shot in the head afterward off camera . This was done to avoid the possibility of harming what was considered a lesser expendable , highly prized stunt horse . The horse was brought in from a slaughterhouse , killed on set , and then returned to the abattoir for commercial consumption . In a 1967 interview for Literaturnoe obozrenie , interviewer Aleksandr Lipkov suggested to Tarkovsky that " the cruelty in the film is shown precisely to shock and stun the viewers . And this may even repel them . " In an attempt to downplay the cruelty Tarkovsky responded : " No , I don 't agree . This does not hinder viewer perception . Moreover we did all this quite sensitively . I can name films that show much more cruel things , compared to which ours looks quite modest . "
The film is referenced in Tarkovsky 's two films that followed this one . It is first referenced in Solaris , made in 1972 , by having an icon by Andrei Rublev being placed in the main character 's room . It is next referenced by having a poster of the film being hanged on a wall in The Mirror , made in 1975 . It thus forms the first part in a series of three films by Tarkovsky referencing Andrei Rublev .
= = Distribution = =
The first cut of the film was completed in July 1966 and was named The Passion According to Andrei and ran 205 minutes . Goskino demanded cuts to the film , citing its length , negativity , violence , and nudity . After Tarkovsky completed this first version , it would be five years before the film was widely released in the Soviet Union .
The ministry 's demands for cuts first resulted in a 190 @-@ minute version . Despite Tarkovsky 's objections expressed in a letter to Alexey Romanov , the chairman of Goskino , the ministry demanded further cuts , and Tarkovsky trimmed the length to 186 minutes . The film premiered with a single screening at the Dom Kino in Moscow in 1966 . Audience reaction was enthusiastic , despite some criticism of the film 's naturalistic depiction of violence . In February 1967 , Tarkovsky and Alexei Romanov complained that the film was not yet approved for a wide release and refused to cut further scenes from the film . Tarkovsky 's refusal resulted in Andrei Rublev not being released for years , despite being a topic of discussion at the top level of Mosfilm , Goskino and even during a meeting of the Central Committee of the Communist Party .
Andrei Rublev was invited to the Cannes Film Festival in 1967 as part of a planned retrospective of Soviet film on occasion of the 50th anniversary of the October Revolution . The official answer was that the film was not yet completed and could not be shown at the film festival . A second invitation was made by the organizers of the Cannes Film Festival in 1969 . Soviet officials accepted this invitation , but they only allowed the film to screen at the festival out of competition , and it was screened just once at 4 A.M. on the final day of the festival . Audience response nevertheless was enthusiastic , and the film won the FIPRESCI prize . Soviet officials tried to prevent the official release of the film in France and other countries , but were not successful as the French distributor had legally acquired the rights in 1969 .
In the Soviet Union , influential admirers of Tarkovsky 's work — including the film director Grigori Kozintsev , the composer Dmitri Shostakovich and Yevgeny Surkov , the editor of Iskusstvo Kino — began pressuring for the release of Andrei Rublev . Tarkovsky and his second wife , Larisa Tarkovskaya wrote letters to other influential personalities in support of the film 's release , and Larisa Tarkovskaya even went with the film to Alexei Kosygin , then the Premier of the Soviet Union .
Despite Tarkovsky 's refusal to make further cuts , Andrei Rublev finally was released on December 24 , 1971 in the 186 @-@ minute 1966 version . The film was released in 277 prints and sold 2 @.@ 98 million tickets . When the film was released , Tarkovsky complained in his diary that in the entire city not a single poster for the film could be seen but that all theaters were sold out .
Despite the cuts having originated with Goskino 's demands , Tarkovsky ultimately endorsed the 186 @-@ minute cut the film over the original 205 @-@ minute version :
Nobody has ever cut anything from Andrei Rublev . Nobody except me . I made some cuts myself . In the first version the film was 3 hours 20 minutes long . In the second — 3 hours 15 minutes . I shortened the final version to 3 hours 6 minutes . I am convinced the latest version is the best , the most successful . And I only cut certain overly long scenes . The viewer doesn 't even notice their absence . The cuts have in no way changed neither the subject matter nor what was for us important in the film . In other words , we removed overly long scenes which had no significance .
We shortened certain scenes of brutality in order to induce psychological shock in viewers , as opposed to a mere unpleasant impression which would only destroy our intent . All my friends and colleagues who during long discussions were advising me to make those cuts turned out right in the end . It took me some time to understand it . At first I got the impression they were attempting to pressure my creative individuality . Later I understood that this final version of the film more than fulfils my requirements for it . And I do not regret at all that the film has been shortened to its present length .
In 1973 , the film was shown on Soviet television in a 101 @-@ minute version that Tarkovsky did not authorize . Notable scenes that were cut from this version were the raid of the Tartars and the scene showing naked pagans . The epilogue showing details of Andrei Rublev 's icons was in black and white as the Soviet Union had not yet fully transitioned to color TV . In 1987 , when Andrei Rublev was once again shown on Soviet TV , the epilogue was once again in black and white , despite the Soviet Union having completely transitioned to color TV . Another difference from the original version of the film was the inclusion of a short explanatory note at the beginning of the film , detailing the life of Andrei Rublev and the historical background . When the film was released in the U.S. and other countries in 1973 , the distributor Columbia Pictures cut it by an additional 20 minutes , making the film an incoherent mess in the eyes of many critics and leading to unfavorable reviews .
In the mid @-@ 1990s , Criterion Collection released the original , 205 @-@ minute version of Andrei Rublev on laserdisc , which Criterion re @-@ issued on DVD in 1999 . ( Criterion advertises this version as the " director 's cut , " despite Tarkovsky 's stated preference for the 186 @-@ minute version . ) According to Tarkovsky 's sister , Marina Tarkovskaya , one of the editors of the film , Lyudmila Feiginova , secretly kept a print of the 205 @-@ minute cut under her bed . Criterion 's producer from the project stated that the video transfer was sourced from a film print that filmmaker Martin Scorsese had acquired while visiting Russia .
= = Awards = =
Andrei Rublev won several awards . In 1969 , the film was screened at the Cannes Film Festival . Due to pressure by Soviet officials , the film could only be shown out of competition , and was thus not eligible for the Palme d 'Or or the Grand Prix . Nevertheless , it won the prize of the international film critics , FIPRESCI . In 1971 Andrei Rublev won the Critics Award of the French Syndicate of Cinema Critics , and in 1973 the Jussi Award for best foreign film .
= = = Regard = = =
In 2010 , the film was honored when it came equal second in a U.K. newspaper series of the " Greatest Films of All Time " as voted by critics from The Guardian and The Observer .
The film was ranked No. 87 in Empire magazine 's " The 100 Best Films Of World Cinema " in 2010 .
Also in 2010 , the Toronto International Film Festival released its " Essential 100 " list of films in which Andrei Rublev also placed No. 87 .
The film is rated at No. 25 on the Rate Your Music website 's top 100 films chart .
= = Influence = =
The film inspired Polish composer , Kasia Glowicka to construct a 2009 audio @-@ visual performance called " Quasi Rublev , " inspired by the film , with Goska Isphording playing harpsichord and Roos Theuws performing live visuals .
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= Salt March =
The Salt March ' , also known as the Dandi March and the Dandi Satyagraha , was an act of nonviolent civil disobedience in colonial India initiated by Mohandas Gandhi to produce salt from seawater , as was the practice of the local populace until British officials introduced taxation on salt production , deemed their sea @-@ salt reclamation activities illegal , and then repeatedly used force to stop it . The 24 @-@ day march began on 12 March 1930 as a direct action campaign of tax resistance and nonviolent protest against the British salt monopoly , and it gained worldwide attention which gave impetus to the Indian independence movement and started the nationwide Civil Disobedience Movement .
The march was the most significant organised challenge to British authority since the Non @-@ cooperation movement of 1920 – 22 , and directly followed the Purna Swaraj declaration of sovereignty and self @-@ rule by the Indian National Congress on 26 January 1930 .
Gandhi led the Dandi March from his base , Sabarmati Ashram , near the city of Ahmedabad . 78 people began the march with Gandhi , who intended to walk 240 miles ( 390 km ) to the coastal village of Dandi , which was located at a small town called Navsari in the state of Gujarat . As Gandhi and the others continued on what would become a 24 @-@ day march to Dandi to produce salt without paying the tax , growing numbers of Indians joined them along the way . When Gandhi broke the salt laws at 6 : 30 am on 6 April 1930 , it sparked large scale acts of civil disobedience against the British Raj salt laws by millions of Indians . The campaign had a significant effect on changing world and British attitudes towards Indian sovereignty and self @-@ rule and caused large numbers of Indians to join the fight for the first time .
After making salt at Dandi , Gandhi continued southward along the coast , producing salt and addressing meetings on the way . The Congress Party planned to stage a satyagraha at the Dharasana Salt Works , 25 miles south of Dandi . However , Gandhi was arrested on the midnight of 4 – 5 May 1930 , just days before the planned action at Dharasana . The Dandi March and the ensuing Dharasana Satyagraha drew worldwide attention to the Indian independence movement through extensive newspaper and newsreel coverage . The satyagraha against the salt tax continued for almost a year , ending with Gandhi 's release from jail and negotiations with Viceroy Lord Irwin at the Second Round Table Conference . Over 80 @,@ 000 Indians were jailed as a result of the Salt Satyagraha . However , it failed to result in major concessions from the British .
The Salt Satyagraha campaign was based upon Gandhi 's principles of nonviolent protest called satyagraha , which he loosely translated as " truth @-@ force " or " truthful demand " . " Literally , it is formed from the Sanskrit words satya , " truth " , and agraha , " insistence " . In early 1930 the Indian National Congress chose satyagraha as their main tactic for winning Indian sovereignty and self @-@ rule from British rule and appointed Gandhi to organise the campaign . Gandhi chose the 1882 British Salt Act as the first target of satyagraha . The Salt March to Dandi , and the beating by British police of hundreds of nonviolent protesters in Dharasana , which received worldwide news coverage , demonstrated the effective use of civil disobedience as a technique for fighting social and political injustice . The satyagraha teachings of Gandhi and the March to Dandi had a significant influence on American activists Martin Luther King , Jr . , James Bevel , and others during the movement for civil rights for blacks and other minority groups in the 1960s .
= = Declaration of sovereignty and self @-@ rule = =
At midnight on 31 December 1929 , the Indian National Congress raised the tricolour flag of India on the banks of the Ravi at Lahore . The Indian National Congress , led by Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru , publicly issued the Declaration of sovereignty and self @-@ rule , or Purna Swaraj , on 26 January 1930 . ( Literally in Sanskrit , purna , " complete , " swa , " self , " raj , " rule , " so therefore " complete self @-@ rule " . ) The declaration included the readiness to withhold taxes , and the statement :
We believe that it is the inalienable right of the Indian people , as of any other people , to have freedom and to enjoy the fruits of their toil and have the necessities of life , so that they may have full opportunities of growth . We believe also that if any government deprives a people of these rights and oppresses them the people have a further right to alter it or abolish it . The British government in India has not only deprived the Indian people of their freedom but has based itself on the exploitation of the masses , and has ruined India economically , politically , culturally and spiritually . We believe therefore , that India must sever the British connection and attain Purna Swaraj or complete sovereignty and self @-@ rule .
The Congress Working Committee gave Gandhi the responsibility for organising the first act of civil disobedience , with Congress itself ready to take charge after Gandhi 's expected arrest . Gandhi 's plan was to begin civil disobedience with a satyagraha aimed at the British salt tax . The 1882 Salt Act gave the British a monopoly on the collection and manufacture of salt , limiting its handling to government salt depots and levying a salt tax . Violation of the Salt Act was a criminal offence . Even though salt was freely available to those living on the coast ( by evaporation of sea water ) , Indians were forced to purchase it from the colonial government .
= = Choice of salt as protest focus = =
Initially , Gandhi 's choice of the salt tax was met with incredulity by the Working Committee of the Congress , Jawaharlal Nehru and Dibyalochan Sahoo were ambivalent ; Sardar Patel suggested a land revenue boycott instead . The Statesman , a prominent newspaper , wrote about the choice : " It is difficult not to laugh , and we imagine that will be the mood of most thinking Indians . "
The British establishment too was not disturbed by these plans of resistance against the salt tax . The Viceroy himself , Lord Irwin , did not take the threat of a salt protest seriously , writing to London , " At present the prospect of a salt campaign does not keep me awake at night . "
However , Gandhi had sound reasons for his decision . The salt tax was a deeply symbolic choice , since salt was used by nearly everyone in India , to replace the salt lost by sweating in India 's tropical climate . An item of daily use could resonate more with all classes of citizens than an abstract demand for greater political rights . The salt tax represented 8 @.@ 2 % of the British Raj tax revenue , and hurt the poorest Indians the most significantly . Explaining his choice , Gandhi said , " Next to air and water , salt is perhaps the greatest necessity of life . " In contrast to the other leaders , the prominent Congress statesman and future Governor @-@ General of India , C. Rajagopalachari , understood Gandhi 's viewpoint . In a public meeting at Tuticorin , he said :
Suppose , a people rise in revolt . They cannot attack the abstract constitution or lead an army against proclamations and statutes ... Civil disobedience has to be directed against the salt tax or the land tax or some other particular point — not that ; that is our final end , but for the time being it is our aim , and we must shoot straight .
Gandhi felt that this protest would dramatise Purna Swaraj in a way that was meaningful to the lowliest Indians . He also reasoned that it would build unity between Hindus and Muslims by fighting a wrong that touched them equally .
After the protest gathered steam , the leaders realised the power of salt as a symbol . Nehru remarked about the unprecedented popular response , “ it seemed as though a spring had been suddenly released . ”
= = Satyagraha = =
Mahatma Gandhi , along with many members of the Congress Party , had a long @-@ standing commitment to nonviolent civil disobedience , which he termed satyagraha , as the basis for achieving Indian sovereignty and self @-@ rule . Referring to the relationship between satyagraha and Purna Swaraj , Gandhi saw " an inviolable connection between the means and the end as there is between the seed and the tree . " He wrote , " If the means employed are impure , the change will not be in the direction of progress but very likely in the opposite . Only a change brought about in our political condition by pure means can lead to real progress . "
Satyagraha is a synthesis of the Sanskrit words Satya ( truth ) and Agraha ( insistence on ) . For Gandhi , satyagraha went far beyond mere " passive resistance " and became strength in practising nonviolent methods . In his words :
Truth ( satya ) implies love , and firmness ( agraha ) engenders and therefore serves as a synonym for force . I thus began to call the Indian movement Satyagraha , that is to say , the Force which is born of Truth and Love or nonviolence , and gave up the use of the phrase “ passive resistance ” , in connection with it , so much so that even in English writing we often avoided it and used instead the word “ satyagraha ” ....
His first significant attempt in India at leading mass satyagraha was the non @-@ cooperation movement from 1920 – 1922 . Even though it succeeded in raising millions of Indians in protest against the British created Rowlatt Acts , violence broke out at Chauri Chaura , where a mob killed 22 unarmed policemen . Gandhi suspended the protest , against the opposition of other Congress members . He decided that Indians were not yet ready for successful nonviolent resistance . The Bardoli Satyagraha in 1928 was much more successful . It succeeded in paralysing the British government and winning significant concessions . More importantly , due to extensive press coverage , it scored a propaganda victory out of all proportion to its size . Gandhi later claimed that success at Bardoli confirmed his belief in Satyagraha and Swaraj : " It is only gradually that we shall come to know the importance of the victory gained at Bardoli ... Bardoli has shown the way and cleared it . Swaraj lies on that route , and that alone is the cure ... " Gandhi recruited heavily from the Bardoli Satyagraha participants for the Dandi march , which passed through many of the same villages that took part in the Bardoli protests .
= = Preparing to march = =
On 5 February , newspapers reported that Gandhi would begin civil disobedience by defying the salt laws . The salt satyagraha would begin on 12 March and end in Dandi with Gandhi breaking the Salt Act on 6 April . Gandhi chose 6 April to launch the mass breaking of the salt laws for a symbolic reason — it was the first day of " National Week " , begun in 1919 when Gandhi conceived of the national hartal ( strike ) against the Rowlatt Act .
Gandhi prepared the worldwide media for the march by issuing regular statements from Sabarmati , at his regular prayer meetings and through direct contact with the press . Expectations were heightened by his repeated statements anticipating arrest , and his increasingly dramatic language as the hour approached : " We are entering upon a life and death struggle , a holy war ; we are performing an all @-@ embracing sacrifice in which we wish to offer ourselves as oblation . " Correspondents from dozens of Indian , European , and American newspapers , along with film companies , responded to the drama and began covering the event .
For the march itself , Gandhi wanted the strictest discipline and adherence to satyagraha and ahimsa . For that reason , he recruited the marchers not from Congress Party members , but from the residents of his own ashram , who were trained in Gandhi 's strict standards of discipline . The 24 @-@ day march would pass through 4 districts and 48 villages . The route of the march , along with each evening 's stopping place , was planned based on recruitment potential , past contacts , and timing . Gandhi sent scouts to each village ahead of the march so he could plan his talks at each resting place , based on the needs of the local residents . Events at each village were scheduled and publicised in Indian and foreign press .
On 2 March 1930 Gandhi wrote to the Viceroy , Lord Irwin , offering to stop the march if Irwin met eleven demands , including reduction of land revenue assessments , cutting military spending , imposing a tariff on foreign cloth , and abolishing the salt tax . His strongest appeal to Irwin regarded the salt tax :
If my letter makes no appeal to your heart , on the eleventh day of this month I shall proceed with such co @-@ workers of the Ashram as I can take , to disregard the provisions of the Salt Laws . I regard this tax to be the most iniquitous of all from the poor man 's standpoint . As the sovereignty and self @-@ rule movement is essentially for the poorest in the land , the beginning will be made with this evil .
As mentioned earlier , the Viceroy held any prospect of a ' salt protest ' in disdain . After he ignored the letter and refused to meet with Gandhi , the march was set in motion . Gandhi remarked , " On bended knees I asked for bread and I have received stone instead . " The eve of the march brought thousands of Indians to Sabarmati to hear Gandhi speak at the regular evening prayer . An American academic writing for The Nation reported that " 60 @,@ 000 persons gathered on the bank of the river to hear Gandhi 's call to arms . This call to arms was perhaps the most remarkable call to war that has ever been made . "
= = March to Dandi = =
On 12 March 1930 , Gandhi and 80 satyagrahis many of them were scheduled castes , set out on foot for the coastal village of Dandi , Gujarat , over 390 kilometres ( 240 mi ) from their starting point at Sabarmati Ashram . The Salt March was also called the White Flowing River because all the people were joining the procession wearing white khadi .
According to The Statesman , the official government newspaper which usually played down the size of crowds at Gandhi 's functions , 100 @,@ 000 people crowded the road that separated Sabarmati from Ahmadabad . The first day 's march of 21 kilometres ( 13 mi ) ended in the village of Aslali , where Gandhi spoke to a crowd of about 4 @,@ 000 . At Aslali , and the other villages that the march passed through , volunteers collected donations , registered new satyagrahis , and received resignations from village officials who chose to end co @-@ operation with British rule .
As they entered each village , crowds greeted the marchers , beating drums and cymbals . Gandhi gave speeches attacking the salt tax as inhuman , and the salt satyagraha as a " poor man 's struggle " . Each night they slept in the open . The only thing that was asked of the villagers was food and water to wash with . Gandhi felt that this would bring the poor into the struggle for sovereignty and self @-@ rule , necessary for eventual victory .
Thousands of satyagrahis and leaders like Sarojini Naidu joined him . Every day , more and more people joined the march , until the procession of marchers became at least two miles long . To keep up their spirits , the marchers used to sing the Hindu bhajan Raghupati Raghava Raja Ram while walking . At Surat , they were greeted by 30 @,@ 000 people . When they reached the railhead at Dandi , more than 50 @,@ 000 were gathered . Gandhi gave interviews and wrote articles along the way . Foreign journalists and three Bombay cinema companies shooting newsreel footage turned Gandhi into a household name in Europe and America ( at the end of 1930 , Time magazine made him " Man of the Year " ) . The New York Times wrote almost daily about the Salt March , including two front page articles on 6 and 7 April . Near the end of the march , Gandhi declared , " I want world sympathy in this battle of right against might . "
Upon arriving at the seashore on 5 April , Gandhi was interviewed by an Associated Press reporter . He stated :
I cannot withhold my compliments from the government for the policy of complete non interference adopted by them throughout the march .... I wish I could believe this non @-@ interference was due to any real change of heart or policy . The wanton disregard shown by them to popular feeling in the Legislative Assembly and their high @-@ handed action leave no room for doubt that the policy of heartless exploitation of India is to be persisted in at any cost , and so the only interpretation I can put upon this non @-@ interference is that the British Government , powerful though it is , is sensitive to world opinion which will not tolerate repression of extreme political agitation which civil disobedience undoubtedly is , so long as disobedience remains civil and therefore necessarily non @-@ violent .... It remains to be seen whether the Government will tolerate as they have tolerated the march , the actual breach of the salt laws by countless people from tomorrow .
The following morning , after a prayer , Gandhi raised a lump of salty mud and declared , " With this , I am shaking the foundations of the British Empire . " He then boiled it in seawater , producing illegal salt . He implored his thousands of followers to likewise begin making salt along the seashore , " wherever it is convenient " and to instruct villagers in making illegal , but necessary , salt .
= = The first 80 Marchers = =
79 Marchers accompanied Gandhi on his march . Most of them were between the ages of 20 and 30 . These men hailed from almost all parts of the country . The march gathered more people as it gained momentum , but the following list of names were the first 79 marchers who were with Gandhi from the beginning of the Dandi March until the end . Most of them simply dispersed after the march was over .
A memorial has been created inside the campus of IIT Bombay honouring these Satyagrahis .
= = Mass civil disobedience = =
Mass civil disobedience spread throughout India as millions broke the salt laws by making salt or buying illegal salt . Salt was sold illegally all over the coast of India . A pinch of salt made by Gandhi himself sold for 1 @,@ 600 rupees ( equivalent to $ 750 at the time ) . In reaction , the British government arrested over sixty thousand people by the end of the month .
What had begun as a Salt Satyagraha quickly grew into a mass Satyagraha . British cloth and goods were boycotted . Unpopular forest laws were defied in the Maharashtra , Karnataka and Central Provinces . Gujarati peasants refused to pay tax , under threat of losing their crops and land . In Midnapore , Bengalis took part by refusing to pay the chowkidar tax . The British responded with more laws , including censorship of correspondence and declaring the Congress and its associate organisations illegal . None of those measures slowed the civil disobedience movement .
In Peshawar , satyagraha was led by a Muslim Pashto disciple of Gandhi , Ghaffar Khan , who had trained 50 @,@ 000 nonviolent activists called Khudai Khidmatgar . On 23 April 1930 , Ghaffar Khan was arrested . A crowd of Khudai Khidmatgar gathered in Peshawar 's Kissa Khani ( Storytellers ) Bazaar . The British ordered troops of 2 / 18 battalion of Royal Garhwal Rifles to open fire with machine guns on the unarmed crowd , killing an estimated 200 – 250 . The Pashtun satyagrahis acted in accord with their training in nonviolence , willingly facing bullets as the troops fired on them . One British Indian Army Soldier Chandra Singh Garwali and troops of the renowned Royal Garhwal Rifles , refused to fire at the crowds . The entire platoon was arrested and many received heavy penalties , including life imprisonment .
While Gandhi marched along India 's west coast , his close associate C. Rajagopalachari , who would later become sovereign India 's first Governor @-@ General , organized the Vedaranyam salt march in parallel on the east coast . His group started from Tiruchirappalli , in Madras Presidency ( now part of Tamil Nadu ) , to the coastal village of Vedaranyam . After making illegal salt there , he too was arrested by the British .
The civil disobedience in 1930 marked the first time women became mass participants in the struggle for freedom . Thousands of women , from large cities to small villages , became active participants in satyagraha . Gandhi had asked that only men take part in the salt march , but eventually women began manufacturing and selling salt throughout India . Usha Mehta , an early Gandhian activist , remarked that " Even our old aunts and great @-@ aunts and grandmothers used to bring pitchers of salt water to their houses and manufacture illegal salt . And then they would shout at the top of their voices : ' We have broken the salt law ! ' " The growing number of women in the fight for sovereignty and self @-@ rule was a " new and serious feature " according to Lord Irwin . A government report on the involvement of women stated " thousands of them emerged .... from the seclusion of their homes ... in order to join Congress demonstrations and assist in picketing : and their presence on these occasions made the work the police was required to perform particularly unpleasant . "
There were outbreaks of violence in Calcutta ( now Kolkata ) , Karachi , and Gujarat . Unlike his suspension of satyagraha after violence broke out during the Non @-@ co @-@ operation movement , this time Gandhi was " unmoved " . Appealing for violence to end , at the same time Gandhi honoured those killed in Chittagong and congratulated their parents " for the finished sacrifices of their sons .... A warrior 's death is never a matter for sorrow . "
British documents show that the British government was shaken by satyagraha . Nonviolent protest left the British confused about whether or not to jail Gandhi . John Court Curry , a British police officer stationed in India , wrote in his memoirs that he felt nausea every time he dealt with Congress demonstrations in 1930 . Curry and others in British government , including Wedgwood Benn , Secretary of State for India , preferred fighting violent rather than nonviolent opponents .
= = Dharasana Satyagraha and Aftermath = =
Gandhi himself avoided further active involvement after the march , though he stayed in close contact with the developments throughout India . He created a temporary ashram near Dandi . From there , he urged women followers in Bombay ( now Mumbai ) to picket liquor shops and foreign cloth . He said that " a bonfire should be made of foreign cloth . Schools and colleges should become empty . "
For his next major action , Gandhi decided on a raid of the Dharasana Salt Works in Gujarat , 25 miles south of Dandi . He wrote to Lord Irwin , again telling him of his plans . Around midnight of 4 May , as Gandhi was sleeping on a cot in a mango grove , the District Magistrate of Surat drove up with two Indian officers and thirty heavily armed constables . He was arrested under an 1827 regulation calling for the jailing of people engaged in unlawful activities , and held without trial near Poona ( now Pune ) .
The Dharasana Satyagraha went ahead as planned , with Abbas Tyabji , a seventy @-@ six @-@ year @-@ old retired judge , leading the march with Gandhi 's wife Kasturba at his side . Both were arrested before reaching Dharasana and sentenced to three months in prison . After their arrests , the march continued under the leadership of Sarojini Naidu , a woman poet and freedom fighter , who warned the satyagrahis , " You must not use any violence under any circumstances . You will be beaten , but you must not resist : you must not even raise a hand to ward off blows . " Soldiers began clubbing the satyagrahis with steel tipped lathis in an incident that attracted international attention . United Press correspondent Webb Miller reported that :
Not one of the marchers even raised an arm to fend off the blows . They went down like ten @-@ pins . From where I stood I heard the sickening whacks of the clubs on unprotected skulls . The waiting crowd of watchers groaned and sucked in their breaths in sympathetic pain at every blow . Those struck down fell sprawling , unconscious or writhing in pain with fractured skulls or broken shoulders . In two or three minutes the ground was quilted with bodies . Great patches of blood widened on their white clothes . The survivors without breaking ranks silently and doggedly marched on until struck down .... Finally the police became enraged by the non @-@ resistance .... They commenced savagely kicking the seated men in the abdomen and testicles . The injured men writhed and squealed in agony , which seemed to inflame the fury of the police .... The police then began dragging the sitting men by the arms or feet , sometimes for a hundred yards , and throwing them into ditches .
Vithalbhai Patel , former Speaker of the Assembly , watched the beatings and remarked , " All hope of reconciling India with the British Empire is lost forever . " Miller 's first attempts at telegraphing the story to his publisher in England were censored by the British telegraph operators in India . Only after threatening to expose British censorship was his story allowed to pass . The story appeared in 1 @,@ 350 newspapers throughout the world and was read into the official record of the United States Senate by Senator John J. Blaine .
Salt Satyagraha succeeded in drawing the attention of the world . Millions saw the newsreels showing the march . Time magazine declared Gandhi its 1930 Man of the Year , comparing Gandhi 's march to the sea " to defy Britain 's salt tax as some New Englanders once defied a British tea tax . " Civil disobedience continued until early 1931 , when Gandhi was finally released from prison to hold talks with Irwin . It was the first time the two held talks on equal terms , and resulted in the Gandhi – Irwin Pact . The talks would lead to the Second Round Table Conference at the end of 1931 .
= = Long @-@ term effect = =
Salt Satyagraha produced scant progress toward dominion status or self @-@ rule for India , and did not win any major concessions from the British . It also failed to attract Muslim support . Congress leaders decided to end satyagraha as official policy in 1934 . Nehru and other Congress members drifted further apart from Gandhi , who withdrew from Congress to concentrate on his Constructive Programme , which included his efforts to end untouchability in the Harijan movement . Even though British authorities were again in control by the mid @-@ 1930s , Indian , British , and world opinion increasingly began to recognise the legitimacy of claims by Gandhi and the Congress Party for sovereignty and self @-@ rule . The Satyagraha campaign of the 1930s also forced the British to recognise that their control of India depended entirely on the consent of the Indians – Salt Satyagraha was a significant step in the British losing that consent .
Nehru considered the Salt Satyagraha the high @-@ water mark of his association with Gandhi , and felt that its lasting importance was in changing the attitudes of Indians :
" Of course these movements exercised tremendous pressure on the British Government and shook the government machinery . But the real importance , to my mind , lay in the effect they had on our own people , and especially the village masses .... Non @-@ cooperation dragged them out of the mire and gave them self @-@ respect and self @-@ reliance .... They acted courageously and did not submit so easily to unjust oppression ; their outlook widened and they began to think a little in terms of India as a whole .... It was a remarkable transformation and the Congress , under Gandhi 's leadership , must have the credit for it . "
More than thirty years later , Satyagraha and the March to Dandi exercised a strong influence on American civil rights activist Martin Luther King , Jr . , and his fight for civil rights for blacks in the 1960s :
" Like most people , I had heard of Gandhi , but I had never studied him seriously . As I read I became deeply fascinated by his campaigns of nonviolent resistance . I was particularly moved by his Salt March to the Sea and his numerous fasts . The whole concept of Satyagraha ( Satya is truth which equals love , and agraha is force ; Satyagraha , therefore , means truth force or love force ) was profoundly significant to me . As I delved deeper into the philosophy of Gandhi , my skepticism concerning the power of love gradually diminished , and I came to see for the first time its potency in the area of social reform . "
= = Partial re @-@ enactment in 2005 = =
To commemorate the Great Salt March , the Mahatma Gandhi Foundation proposed a partial re @-@ enactment of the first few kilometres on the 75th anniversary . The event was known as the " International Walk for Justice and Freedom " . Mahatma Gandhi 's great @-@ grandson Tushar Gandhi and several hundred fellow marchers followed the same route to Dandi . The start of the march on 12 March 2005 in Ahmedabad was attended by Sonia Gandhi , Chairperson of the United Progressive Alliance , as well as several Indian Cabinet Ministers , many of whom walked for the first few kilometres . The participants halted at Dandi on the night of 5 April , with the commemoration ending on 7 April .
A series of commemorative stamps were issued on the 75th anniversary of the Dandi March — denomination INR 5 , Date of Issue : 5 April 2005 .
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= German submarine U @-@ 27 ( 1936 ) =
German submarine U @-@ 27 was a Type VIIA U @-@ boat of Nazi Germany 's Kriegsmarine built for service in World War II . Her keel was laid down in November 1935 in Bremen . She was commissioned in August 1936 with Korvettenkapitän Hans Ibbeken in command . Ibbeken was relieved on 4 October 1937 , by Johannes Franz , who commanded the boat until 6 June 1939 when Hans @-@ Georg von Friedeburg assumed command for barely one month . He was relieved on 8 July again by Johannes Franz , who commanded the boat until her loss on 20 September 1939 .
U @-@ 27 had a very short career , with only one war patrol and only two enemy ships sunk . Following the sinking of two British trawlers , Davara on 13 September and Rudyard Kipling on 16 September , U @-@ 27 was hunted down and sunk west of Lewis , Scotland , by depth charges from the British destroyers HMS Fortune , Faulknor and Forester . All 38 crewmen survived and were made prisoner for the remainder of the war .
= = Construction and design = =
= = = Construction = = =
U @-@ 27 was ordered by the Kriegsmarine on 1 April 1935 as part of Plan Z and in violation of the Treaty of Versailles . Her keel was laid down in the AG Weser shipyard in Bremen as yard number 908 on 11 November 1935 . After about nine months of construction , she was launched on 24 June 1936 and commissioned into the Kriegsmarine as the second Type VIIA submarine , ( after U @-@ 33 , which was commissioned a few months earlier ) , on 12 August under the command of Korvettenkapitän Hans Ibbeken .
= = = Design = = =
Like all Type VIIA submarines , U @-@ 27 displaced 626 tonnes ( 616 long tons ) on the surface and 745 t ( 733 long tons ) submerged . She was 64 @.@ 51 m ( 211 ft 8 in ) in overall length and had a 45 @.@ 50 m ( 149 ft 3 in ) pressure hull . U @-@ 27 's propulsion consisted of two MAN 6 @-@ cylinder 4 @-@ stroke M 6 V 40 / 46 diesel engines that totaled 2 @,@ 100 – 2 @,@ 310 PS ( 1 @,@ 540 – 1 @,@ 700 kW ; 2 @,@ 070 – 2 @,@ 280 bhp ) at maximum between 470 and 485 rpm giving a maximum speed of 17 knots ( 31 km / h ; 20 mph ) on the surface and a range of 6 @,@ 200 nmi ( 11 @,@ 500 km ; 7 @,@ 100 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . The submarine was also equipped with two Brown , Boveri & Cie GG UB 720 / 8 electric motors that totaled 750 PS ( 550 kW ; 740 shp ) . Their maximum rpm was 322 and they could propel the submarine 95 nmi ( 176 km ; 109 mi ) at 4 knots ( 7 @.@ 4 km / h ; 4 @.@ 6 mph ) when submerged , with an underwater maximum speed of 8 knots ( 15 km / h ; 9 @.@ 2 mph ) . The U @-@ boat 's test depth was 220 m ( 720 ft ) , but she could go as deep as 230 – 250 m ( 750 – 820 ft ) without having her hull crushed . U @-@ 27 's armament consisted of five 53 @.@ 3 cm ( 21 in ) torpedo tubes ( four located in the bow and one in the stern ) . She could have up to 11 torpedoes on board or 22 TMA mines or 33 TMB mines . U @-@ 27 was also equipped with a 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) L / 45 deck gun with 220 rounds . Her anti @-@ aircraft defenses consisted of one 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) anti @-@ aircraft gun . U @-@ 27 had a crew of four officers and 40 to 56 enlisted men .
= = Service history = =
U @-@ 27 had a very short career , conducting only one war patrol and sinking only two enemy vessels before she herself was sunk . She left Wilhelmshaven on her first war patrol on 23 August 1939 . For a period of 24 days , she traveled down the coast of Germany and neutral Belgium and the Netherlands , through the English Channel and out into the Atlantic Ocean off the coast of Ireland . Here , the boat sank two British trawlers , totaling 624 tons . The first attack took place at 2 : 55 on 13 September , 21 nmi ( 39 km ; 24 mi ) northwest of Tory Island , when the trawler Davara was shelled by U @-@ 27 's deck gun . Following the sinking of Davara , her captain and 11 other crew members were picked up by the steam merchant ship Willowpool . The second vessel to be sunk was the trawler Rudyard Kipling . The attack took place at 3 : 53 on 16 September , 100 nmi ( 190 km ; 120 mi ) west of the west coast of neutral Ireland , with the ship being sunk by scuttling charges from U @-@ 27 . Following the sinking of Rudyard Kipling , the submarine picked up the crew of the trawler who were then given food and warm clothes . Eight hours later , Rudyard Kipling 's crew were allowed to re @-@ enter their lifeboats to row the remaining 5 nmi ( 9 @.@ 3 km ; 5 @.@ 8 mi ) to Ireland .
= = = Fate = = =
The destroyers HMS Fortune and HMS Faulknor ( who sank U @-@ 39 six days earlier ) , had been part of a concerted effort to find and sink the U @-@ Boat that had been attacking trawlers . On 20 September 1939 , three torpedoes were fired at the warships , but failed to do any damage when they exploded prematurely . The British vessels replied with a series of depth charge attacks , one of which damaged the German submarine sufficiently to force it to the surface . Fortune 's ramming attack was curtailed when it became apparent that the U @-@ Boat was surrendering . All 38 crewmen survived and were taken prisoner . U @-@ 27 became the second German submarine to be sunk in World War II after U @-@ 39 was sunk on 14 September 1939 .
U @-@ 27 's skipper , Kapitänleutnant Johannes Franz was able , via code , to inform Bdu , the U @-@ boat high command , of the situation regarding the malfunctioning torpedoes from his prison camp .
= = Summary of raiding history = =
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= 1904 Chappaqua tornado =
The 1904 Chappaqua tornado was an intense tornado that struck northern Westchester County , New York during the afternoon of July 16 , 1904 . As of 2009 , this tornado ranks as the strongest tornado to touch down in the county , ranking as F3 on the modern @-@ day Fujita Scale . The tornado formed around 3 : 30 pm EST within a severe thunderstorm near Chappaqua , New York . The tornado quickly began to produce damage in the hamlet , destroying several structures and killing two people . Homes were knocked off their foundations and rolled over along the tornado 's path . By 4 : 00 pm EST , the tornado dissipated and left $ 100 @,@ 000 ( 1904 USD ; $ 2 @.@ 4 million 2009 USD ) worth of damage in its wake . Hail associated with the same storm cell also inflicted damage upon a few structures . The tornado is known as the worst disaster in the history of Chappaqua .
= = Synopsis = =
During the afternoon of July 16 , 1904 , a severe thunderstorm produced a strong tornado that touched down around 3 : 30 pm EST in Chappaqua , New York . Residents reported the first indication of the thunderstorm was a large black cloud approaching the region . The sky was reportedly completely dark as torrential rain and high winds commenced . Intense lightning and loud thunder prompted people to seek shelter in their cellars . The tornado tracked directly through Chappaqua before moving towards the Hudson River . Upon reaching the river , the tornado became a waterspout that was powerful enough to uncover the river bed below it . The waterspout eventually dissipated by 4 : 00 pm EST . The tornado was later rated as F3 on the modern @-@ day Fujita scale .
= = Impact = =
At the time of the tornado , roughly 1 @,@ 000 people lived in the hamlet of Chappaqua . Five homes and three barns were destroyed by the tornado and two people , 80 @-@ year @-@ old Mrs. Mary Hibbs and an unknown woman , were killed ; six additional people were injured . Orchards in the path of the tornado were completely destroyed and greenhouses were leveled . The severity of lightning during the storm caused many women to faint according to The New York Times .
The five homes destroyed were wood @-@ frame , two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ story buildings , one of which was lifted off its foundation and flipped over before falling to the ground , being demolished on impact . One of the home 's occupants was killed after the chimney fell on her . Another person died from shock after seeing her home destroyed . The other four homes were all located within 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) of each other . One of the destroyed homes belonged to Walter Snarles ; he saw the tornado approaching his home and saved his life by jumping out a window before the home was rolled over by the tornado . Another home belonged to Mrs. Hester Cox ; she sustained minor bruises after her home was also rolled over . Nearby , the home of Mr. Marrow was also destroyed ; at the time of the tornado , he , his daughter and his niece were inside . The home was turned over on its side ; debris injured the two girls , knocking the niece unconscious .
A barn belonging to Charles Dodge was destroyed , while the Kensico Cemetery sustained significant hail damage . All the glass on one of the conservatories was shattered . Within hours after the tornado , nearby firefighters rushed to the hamlet to assist victims of the storm . During the nighttime hours , they patrolled the streets and watched over destroyed homes to prevent looters from stealing any valuable items left in the debris . Property damage from the tornado was estimated at $ 100 @,@ 000 ( 1904 USD ) and five families were left homeless . Following an assessment of the damage , debris from destroyed homes was found upwards of 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) from Chappaqua , including a marriage certificate . A calf was picked up and tossed roughly 0 @.@ 25 miles ( 0 @.@ 40 km ) before landing in an open field unharmed . Two plants were also thrown roughly 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) by the tornado .
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= A5 ( Croatia ) =
The A5 motorway ( Croatian : Autocesta A5 ) is a motorway in Croatia spanning 55 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 34 @.@ 5 mi ) . It connects Osijek , the largest city in Slavonia region , to the Croatian motorway network at the Sredanci interchange of the A3 motorway . The A5 represents a significant north – south transportation corridor in Croatia and is a part of the European route E73 . The A5 motorway route also follows Pan @-@ European corridor Vc . In addition to Osijek , the A5 motorway also passes near Đakovo .
The first section of the A5 , joining the Sredanci interchange to Đakovo , was opened in 2007 ; the route to Osijek opened in 2009 . As of September 2011 , the section south of the A3 , extending to the Sava River and border of Bosnia and Herzegovina , is under construction . Once the entire Pan @-@ European corridor Vc is completed , motorists will recognize the A5 's importance as a transit route . When completed , the corridor shall entail the A5 itself extended to the Hungarian border and connected to the Hungarian M6 motorway as well as Bosnia and Herzegovina 's A1 motorway and the A10 motorway , completing the corridor route at the Adriatic Sea coast . The current route requires no major structures , but as of September 2011 , two major bridges are under construction — across Sava and Drava rivers as the motorway extends south and north respectively .
The motorway consists of two traffic lanes and an emergency lane in each driving direction separated by a central reservation . All intersections of the A5 motorway are grade separated . There are four exits and four rest areas operating along the route . The motorway is tolled using a ticket system , integrated with the A3 , and each exit includes a toll plaza .
= = Route description = =
The A5 is an important north – south motorway covering 55 kilometres ( 34 mi ) in the eastern Croatian region of Slavonia , connecting the region 's largest city , Osijek , to the remainder of the Croatian motorway system . The A5 's southern terminus joins the A3 motorway at the Sredanci interchange ; its northern terminus is near Osijek , connecting to the city 's southern bypass . As a part of the road network of Croatia , the A5 is a part of European route E73 . The motorway is of great importance to Croatia 's economic development , especially tourism , as it represents a major southward transport route from southern Hungary . The Pan @-@ European corridor Vc will include the A5 , and its completion will highlight the importance of the A5 motorway .
The cities and towns with an immediate connection to the A5 include Đakovo via the D7 and Čepin via the Ž4105 county road . The A5 motorway consists of two traffic lanes and an emergency lane in each driving direction , with carriageways separated by the median . All existing interchanges are trumpet interchanges , except for Sredanci , which is a cloverleaf . The A5 features a number of rest areas which provide various services including restrooms , filling stations and restaurants . The motorway has four interchanges , providing access to several towns and cities and the Croatian state road network . The motorway is maintained and operated by the state @-@ owned management company Hrvatske autoceste .
An automatic traffic monitoring and guidance system is in place along the motorway . It consists of measuring , control and signaling devices , located in zones where driving conditions may vary — at interchanges , near viaducts and bridges , and areas where fog is common . The system uses variable traffic signs to communicate driving conditions , possible restrictions and other information to motorists .
The A5 motorway runs through plains crossed by a number of watercourses and railways running perpendicular to the motorway route , requiring a variety of bridges and viaducts . Particular attention to the environment is also necessary , due to water supply and natural heritage zones , as well as nearby agricultural production .
= = Toll = =
The A5 is a tolled motorway based on the vehicle classification in Croatia using a closed toll system . Toll charged along the A5 route between Osijek and the Sredanci interchange depends on the route traveled and ranges from 4 @.@ 00 kuna ( 0 @.@ 54 euro ) to 30 @.@ 00 kuna ( 4 @.@ 05 euro ) for passenger cars and 13 @.@ 00 kuna ( 1 @.@ 76 euro ) to 98 @.@ 00 kuna ( 13 @.@ 24 euro ) for semi @-@ trailer trucks . Motorcycles are charged approximately half of the passenger car rate . The toll is payable in either Croatian kuna or euros using major credit cards , debit cards and a number of prepaid toll collection systems . The latter include smart cards issued by the motorway operator and ENC , an electronic toll collection system which is used by motorways across Croatia , with discounted rates for dedicated lanes at toll plazas . Toll collection systems along the A5 and A3 are unified ; vehicles switching from one motorway to the other at Sredanci , for example , do not pass toll plazas at the interchange .
In the first half of 2011 Hrvatske autoceste collected 508 @.@ 1 million kuna ( 68 @.@ 7 million euro ) in toll revenue , an increase of 2 @.@ 25 % compared to the same period in 2010 . However , the company reports revenue for the entire motorway network and does not provide data for individual motorways .
= = History = =
The first section of the A5 motorway , covering 23 @-@ kilometre ( 14 mi ) between the Sredanci interchange and Đakovo was opened on 9 November 2007 . This was Croatia 's first commitment to improve transport facilities along the Pan @-@ European transport corridor Vc , while providing a feeder motorway to the A3 toward Osijek , the largest city in the east of the country . Hrvatske autoceste invested 1 @.@ 4 billion kuna ( 189 million euro ) to construct the first section , completed in eighteen months by a consortium of Croatian construction companies . When the first section opened , construction on a second stretch of the A5 , reaching 32 @.@ 5 @-@ kilometre ( 20 @.@ 2 mi ) between Đakovo and Osijek , was announced on 15 November , with completion scheduled for December 2008 .
The route extension to Osijek was delayed by four months , but opened on 17 April 2009 . The construction works were completed in 17 months at a price of 2 @.@ 13 billion kuna ( 287 million euro ) . Completion of this section marked the start of toll collection on the A5 motorway . The motorway is nicknamed " Slavonika " , presumably because it spans Slavonia from North to South , although the Sredanci interchange with the A3 motorway is also called Slavonika by some media .
In general , motorways in Croatia have led to a positive economic impact on the cities and towns they connected , as well as aiding tourism in Croatia .
= = Further construction = =
As of September 2011 , 3 @.@ 5 @-@ kilometre ( 2 @.@ 2 mi ) Sredanci – Svilaj border crossing section was under construction , representing the southernmost section of the A5 motorway . The new section includes an additional exit to Svilaj , a mainline toll plaza , a border crossing and a bridge across the Sava River . This bridge leads to Bosnia and Herzegovina , where the motorway is scheduled to continue as A1 motorway towards Sarajevo , Mostar and Ploče , reconnecting to the Croatian motorway network — A10 motorway . The section is scheduled for completion in 2014 .
An extension is also planned for the A5 motorway north of Osijek , across the Drava River , to the Hungarian border , where it will connect to the Hungarian M6 motorway at a Branjin Vrh / Ivándárda border crossing . This route will also contain two new exits near Čeminac and Beli Manastir and a new bridge over the Drava River . In July 2011 , a groundbreaking ceremony was held at the bridge construction site , as a preparation for extension of the A5 . In May 2012 , Hrvatske autoceste — the investor in the construction works contract — proposed cancellation of the construction works as a cost @-@ cutting measure , even though funding of the works was secured through European Investment Bank and European Bank for Reconstruction and Development loans .
= = Traffic volume = =
Traffic is regularly counted and reported by Hrvatske autoceste , the operator of the motorway , and is published by Hrvatske ceste . Variations between AADT and average summer daily traffic ( ASDT ) traffic volumes are attributed to the fact that the motorway carries substantial tourist traffic to the Adriatic Sea resorts during the summer . On average , the A5 motorway carries 14 % more ASDT than AADT . The largest increase , 15 % , of ASDT relative to AADT is observed on the Đakovo – Sredanci section .
The variations between the AADT and the ASDT traffic volumes are attributed to the fact that the motorway carries certain tourist traffic from Hungary to the Croatian motorway network and ultimately to the Adriatic Sea . On average the motorway carries 15 % increased volume of traffic during summer months . As the Hungarian M6 motorway is gradually extended towards the Croatian border and the A5 motorway 's northern terminus , the number of tourists traveling along this route in summer months is increasing .
= = Rest areas = =
There are four rest areas along the A5 motorway . Legislation identifies four types of rest areas : A @-@ type rest areas comprise a full range of amenities , including a filling station , a restaurant and a hotel or motel ; B @-@ type rest areas have no lodging ; C @-@ type rest areas are very common and include a filling station and a café , but no restaurants or accommodations ; D @-@ type rest areas only offer parking spaces , possibly picnicking tables and benches and restrooms . Most rest areas along the A2 motorway generally follow this ranking system , although some offer extra services . Many filling stations along the Croatian motorway network have small convenience stores , and some offer LPG fuel .
The primary motorway operator , Hrvatske autoceste ( HAC ) , leases the A , B and C type rest areas to various operators through public tenders . There is a single such rest area operator on the A5 motorway : Petrol . The rest area operators are not permitted to sub @-@ lease fuel operations . The A5 motorway rest areas are accessible from both directions of the motorway and operate 24 hours a day , seven days a week .
= = Exit list = =
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= Bobby Timmons =
Robert Henry " Bobby " Timmons ( December 19 , 1935 – March 1 , 1974 ) was an American jazz pianist and composer . He was a sideman in Art Blakey 's Jazz Messengers for two periods ( July 1958 to September 1959 ; February 1960 to June 1961 ) , between which he was part of Cannonball Adderley 's band . Several of Timmons ' compositions written when part of these bands – including " Moanin ' " , " Dat Dere " , and " This Here " – enjoyed commercial success and brought him more attention . In the early and mid @-@ 1960s he led a series of piano trios that toured and recorded extensively .
Timmons was strongly associated with the soul jazz style that he helped initiate ; this link to apparently simple writing and playing , coupled with drug and alcohol addiction , led to a decline in his career . Timmons died , aged 38 , from cirrhosis . His contribution to jazz remains undervalued .
= = Early life = =
Timmons was born in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania , the son of a minister . He had a sister , Eleanor . Both of his parents , and several aunts and uncles , played the piano . From an early age Timmons studied music with an uncle , Robert Habershaw , who also taught McCoy Tyner . Timmons first played at the church where his grandfather was minister ; this influenced his later jazz playing . He grew up in the same area as other future musicians , including the Heath brothers , Jimmy , Percy , and Tootie . Timmons ' first professional performances were in his local area , often as a trio that included Tootie Heath on drums . After graduating from high school Timmons was awarded a scholarship to study at the Philadelphia Musical Academy .
= = 1954 to spring 1961 = =
Timmons moved to New York in 1954 . He played with Kenny Dorham in 1956 , making his recording debut with the trumpeter in a live set in May of that year . He went on to play and record with Chet Baker in 1956 – 57 ( bassist Scott LaFaro was part of this band for a time ) , Sonny Stitt in 1957 , and Maynard Ferguson in 1957 – 58 . He also recorded as a sideman with hornmen Curtis Fuller , Hank Mobley , and Lee Morgan , all for Blue Note Records in 1957 .
Timmons became best known as a member of Art Blakey 's band the Jazz Messengers , which he was first part of from July 1958 to September 1959 , including for a tour of Europe . He was recruited for the Messengers by saxophonist Benny Golson , who said that " He was inventive , [ ... ] He could play bebop and he could play funky – he could play a lot of things , and I thought it was the element that Art needed . He hadn 't had anybody quite like Bobby , who could go here or go there , rather than walking in a single corridor . " By late 1958 Timmons was sharing bandmate Morgan 's East Sixth Street apartment and the pair had bought a piano , allowing Timmons to practice and Morgan to work on composing . From around the time he joined Blakey , Timmons , along with some of his fellow band members , was a heroin user . After leaving Blakey , Timmons joined Cannonball Adderley 's band , in October 1959 .
Timmons was also known as a composer during this period : The Encyclopedia of Jazz states that his compositions " Moanin ' " ( from the 1958 album of the same title ) , " This Here " , and " Dat Dere " " helped generate the gospel @-@ tinged ' soul jazz ' style of [ the ] late ' 50s and early ' 60s . " The first was written when Timmons was first with Blakey ; the others were composed when he was with Adderley . " This Here " ( sometimes " Dis Here " ) was a surprise commercial success for Adderley : recorded in concert in 1959 , it was released as part of the The Cannonball Adderley Quintet in San Francisco album while the band was still on tour , and they discovered its popularity only when they arrived back in New York and found crowds outside the Village Gate , where they were due to play .
Timmons was reported to be dissatisfied with the money he had received from " This Here " , and was enticed in February 1960 into leaving Adderley and returning to Blakey 's band by the offer of more pay . Timmons then appeared on further well @-@ known albums with the drummer , including A Night in Tunisia , The Freedom Rider and The Witch Doctor . His own recording debut as sole leader was This Here Is Bobby Timmons in 1960 , which contained his first versions of his best @-@ known compositions . In the same year , he played on recordings led by Nat Adderley , Arnett Cobb , and Johnny Griffin , among others ; on the first of these , Work Song , Timmons did not appear on all of the tracks , because he had been drinking heavily .
= = Summer 1961 to 1974 = =
Timmons left Blakey for the second time in June 1961 , encouraged by the success of his compositions , including jukebox plays of " Dat Dere " , which Oscar Brown had recorded after adding lyrics . Timmons then formed his own bands , initially with Ron Carter on bass and Tootie Heath on drums . They toured around the US , including the West Coast , but played most in and around New York . In the initial stages of this trio , Timmons liked the group sounds of the trios led by Red Garland and Ahmad Jamal . According to Tootie Heath , Timmons was at the peak of his fame at that point , but was addicted to heroin , and used a lot of the money that the band was paid maintaining his habit .
In 1963 Timmons ' playing , with Lewis Powers on bass and Ron McCurdy on drums , was described by a Washington Post reviewer as " flexible and adventuresome [ ... ] Glossing over everything is an undeniable sheen of church music and spirituals . " In 1965 the same reviewer commented that Timmons was employing musicians who were of much lower ability : " Timmons lacks a certain passion but I wonder if this is not the fault of his sidemen . " Timmons started playing vibes in the mid @-@ 1960s . He occasionally played organ , but recorded only one track on that instrument – a 1964 version of " Moanin ' " on From the Bottom . Recordings as a leader continued , usually as part of a trio or quartet , but , after joining Milestone Records around 1967 , Timmons ' album Got to Get It ! featured him as part of a nonet , playing arrangements by Tom McIntosh .
Timmons ' career declined quickly in the 1960s , in part because of drug abuse and alcoholism and partly as a result of frustration at being typecast as a composer and player of seemingly simple pieces of music . In 1968 he made his second , final , recording for Milestone , Do You Know the Way ? In the following year he played in a quartet led by Sonny Red , with Dexter Gordon on one of the saxophonist 's temporary returns to the US from Europe , and in a trio backing vocalist Etta Jones . Timmons continued to play in the early 1970s , mostly in small groups or in combination with other pianists , and mainly in the New York area .
According to saxophonist Jimmy Heath , Timmons joined Clark Terry 's big band for a tour of Europe in 1974 . He was unwell and drank on the plane to Sweden , and fell while drinking at the bar before the band 's first concert , in Malmö . Susceptible to blood clotting , he was flown back to the US . On March 1 , 1974 , he died from cirrhosis , at the age of 38 , at St Vincent 's Hospital in New York . He had been in hospital for a month . He was buried in Philadelphia , and was survived by his wife , Estelle , and son , also Bobby .
= = Playing style and influence = =
Timmons was known for using block chords , " a style in which the right hand creates the melody and the left hand moves with the rhythm of the right hand , but does not change voicing except to accommodate the chord changes . " His use of them was more aggressive , and less melodic , than that of Garland . The Penguin Guide to Jazz suggested that " Timmons ' characteristic style was a rolling , gospelly funk , perhaps longer on sheer energy than on harmonic sophistication . " In the opinion of Scott Yanow , stylistically , " somehow Bobby Timmons never grew beyond where he was in 1960 . " Gary Giddins , however , highlighted other facets of Timmons ' playing : the " lush [ Bud ] Powell @-@ inspired ballads , his clear , sharp , unsentimental long lines . " Carter also identified Powell as a primary influence on Timmons , and commented that his partner in the trio " was very giving , very loyal , played every night like it was his last chance to get it right . "
The funky aspects of Timmons ' playing influenced fellow pianists , including Les McCann , Ramsey Lewis , and Benny Green . Timmons is often mentioned as being under @-@ rated ; jazz writer Marc Myers commented in 2008 that " today , Timmons ' contribution to jazz – as an accompanist , writer , leader and innovator of a new sound – is vastly overlooked and undervalued . "
= = Compositions = =
Timmons wrote " a steady stream of infectious funky tunes " , stated Giddins . Timmons dismissed the idea that he was deliberately a composer : " I 'm a dilettante as a composer . I have never consciously sat down and tried to write a song . " He stated that his method of composing a new song might involve " whistling , playing around with the notes , or at a club . I 'll tell one musician to play this note , another that note , and we kick it around . " One account of the creation of " Moanin ' " was given by Golson : Timmons had the opening eight bars , which he often played between tunes , but formed the complete song only after Golson encouraged him to add a bridge .
= = Personality = =
Tootie Heath reported that , when they were on tour and Timmons was addicted to heroin , the pianist would routinely lie and sometimes pull out a knife to threaten people with . Carter , the bassist from that tour , stated that Timmons offered his bandmates a lot of encouragement to experiment and improve from performance to performance , and that he " was a really multi @-@ talented person and he was just a real sweetheart , a sweetheart of a man . " In Golson 's words , Timmons " had no ego about him , [ ... ] He was always upbeat , never downbeat , and he never maligned anybody unless it was in a humorous way . "
= = Discography = =
= = = As leader / co @-@ leader = = =
= = = As sideman = = =
Sources :
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= Elizabeth Alkin =
Elizabeth Alkin ( c . 1600 – c . 1655 ) was a publisher , nurse and spy for the Parliamentarian forces during the English Civil War . Among the many derogatory names she was called by royalist sympathisers , that of Parliament Joan is one by which she is also commonly known .
= = Background and Civil War activities = =
Nothing is known of Alkin until 1645 ; because of comments of her age made later in life , her date of birth is taken to be around 1600 . She was the wife of Francis Alkin , a spy for the Parliamentarians who was hanged early in the English Civil War by royalist forces for his activities . She was the mother of three children .
In 1645 Alkin was employed by the earl of Essex , Sir William Waller , to be a spy for the Parliamentarians . She received a similar commission from Sir Thomas Fairfax two years later . Parliamentary records show that in 1645 she received payment from the Committee for the Advance of Money for uncovering the activities of George Mynnes , a Surrey @-@ based iron merchant , who was supplying metal to the royalist forces .
In the seventeenth century , daily news was published in newsbooks which tended to be small eight @-@ page publications , the forerunners of newspapers . They were usually sold on the street by what the historian Bob Clarke describes as " semi @-@ destitute female hawkers , known as Mercury Women " . Those publications supporting the royalist cause were closed down and the publishers prosecuted , and Alkin became involved in uncovering those behind the publication . In 1648 the royalist newsbooks the Mercurius Melancholicus and the Parliament Kite both referred to her attempts to uncover them , and the following year the Mercurius Pragmaticus called her an " old Bitch " who could " smell out a Loyall @-@ hearted man as soon as the best Blood @-@ hound in the Army " .
Although Alkin acted as one of the newsbook sellers , between 1650 and 1651 she published several short @-@ lived newsbooks , including The Impartial Scout , The Moderne Intelligencer , Mercurius Anglicus ( formerly a royalist title which she appropriated ) and Mercurius Scoticus , or , The Royal Messenger . Clarke believes Alkin may have used formerly royalist titles , or royalist @-@ sounding names to win the confidence of royalist sympathisers , and get them to reveal the location of illicit printers . The historian Marcus Nevitt disagrees , and argues that Alkin was " reappropriating Royalist titles for Parliamentarian consumption " . In total she produced ten notebook issues of differing titles .
One of those she uncovered was William Dugard , who ran four presses at the Merchant Taylors ' School in London ; Dugard was imprisoned in February 1650 . The following year she was paid £ 10 for discovering the printers of Edward Hall 's work Manus testium lingua testium , and received further recompense from the Committee for the Advance of Money for other , unknown services .
= = Post Civil War = =
In 1653 , during the First Anglo @-@ Dutch War , Alkin assisted Daniel Whistler in setting up a network of casualty reception stations in Portsmouth , Harwich and East Anglia . The stations treated both English and Dutch casualties .
Alkin made financial claims from the state for her nursing , some of which were paid , although a petition of 1654 refers to her severe illness . The same letter stated that she had had to sell many of her possessions , including her bed . A petition for financial relief from May 1655 is the last recorded note on her , and it is presumed that she died soon afterwards .
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= Battle of Gythium =
The Battle of Gythium was fought in 195 BC between Sparta and the coalition of Rome , Rhodes , the Achaean League and Pergamum . As the port of Gythium was an important Spartan base the allies decided to capture it before they advanced inland to Sparta . The Romans and the Achaeans were joined outside the city by the Pergamese and Rhodian fleets . The Spartans held out but one of the joint commanders , Dexagoridas , decided to surrender the city to the Roman legate . When Gorgopas , the other commander , found out he killed Dexagoridas and took solo command of the city . After Dexagoridas ' murder the Spartans held out more vigorously . However , Titus Quinctius Flamininus of the allied forces arrived with 4 @,@ 000 more men and the Spartans decided to surrender the city on the condition that the garrison could leave unharmed . The result of this battle forced Nabis , the tyrant of Sparta , to abandon the surrounding land and withdraw to the city of Sparta . Later that year , Sparta capitulated to the allies .
= = Prelude = =
The Macedonians had been defeated in the Second Macedonian War in 197 BC which left the Spartans in control of Argos . This Spartan gain was a setback for the Achaean League who had been trying to incorporate Sparta into their league for many years . The Romans had won the Second Macedonian War and it left them in control of Greek affairs . However , they decided not to occupy Greece but to garrison some cities for five years . The tyrant of Sparta , Nabis , who had declared himself king , was troubling the Achaean League and was also threatening to destroy the peace in Greece .
In 195 BC , Flamininus summoned his army in Greece and that of his allies at Plataea in Boeotia . He then marched from Plataea to Argos where he was joined by 10 @,@ 000 Achean infantry and 1 @,@ 000 cavalry . After a few brief skirmishes , the allies decided to abandon the siege and they pitched in Tegea . They then advanced upon Caryae where they were joined by 1 @,@ 500 Macedonians and 400 Thessalian cavalry .
Nabis also made his own preparations . Nabis had always been on good terms with Cretan leaders and he requested 1 @,@ 000 of their best soldiers who were hand picked to assist him . As well as the Cretans , he hired 3 @,@ 000 mercenaries and 10 @,@ 000 citizens . The Romans and their allies then advanced upon Sellasia not far north of Sparta . The Romans were defeated in a small battle and they retreated . The Romans then won another battle against the Spartans and forced them to retreat into the city .
= = Battle = =
Some coastal cities surrendered to the Romans which allowed the Romans to have a base in the coastal regions of Laconia . Gythium was a large city and had been made by the Spartans as their main port and naval arsenal . The Romans advanced upon the city and they were joined there by the combined Rhodian and Pergamese fleets . The sailors from the Roman , Pergamese and Rhodian fleets built siege engines which had devastating effects on the walls . One of the city 's joint commanders , Dexagoridas , offered to surrender the city to the Roman legate in charge of the fleet while Flamininus was gone . When the other commander Gorgopas found out he murdered Dexagoridas .
Now with the city under Gorgopas ' command the defenders became reinvigorated . The siege was proving more difficult until Flamininus arrived with 4 @,@ 000 Roman soldiers . With the arrival of the new soldiers , the allied soldiers were encouraged and began bombarding the city again with their siege engines while the Rhodian and Pergamese fleet continued to put pressure on the Spartans from the sea . The Spartans knew that they did not have much of a chance of withstanding the renewed allied assault and Gorgopas decided to surrender the city to the Romans under the condition that the garrison was allowed to leave the city unharmed .
= = Aftermath = =
When Nabis found out that Gythium had fallen to the allies he decided to abandon the remaining Laconian countryside that he controlled . Nabis sent envoys to Flamininus who offered Nabis a parley . The Romans attacked Sparta when the parley ended but the Spartans withstood the initial allied assaults . Nabis , however , seeing that the situation was hopeless agreed to surrender the city to the Romans . The Romans forced Nabis to abandon Argos and most of the coastal cities of Laconia . The Romans formed all the cities that had broken off from Sparta on the Laconian coast into the Union of Free Laconians . However , the Romans didn 't strip Nabis of his powers because they wanted a state in the Peloponnese to counter the growing Achaean League . Nabis attacked Gythium two or three years later only to retreat after being unable to capture the city but in 192 BC he was assassinated by the Aetolians before he had a chance to attempt another attack on the city . In 189 BC , the Spartans , having been deprived of a port , attacked and captured the city of Las . The Acheans , threatened by the attack , demanded the surrender of those responsible for the attack and when that was refused they captured the city .
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= General Aircraft Hamilcar =
The General Aircraft Limited GAL . 49 Hamilcar or Hamilcar Mark I was a large British military glider produced during the Second World War , which was designed to carry heavy cargo , such as the Tetrarch or M22 Locust light tank . When the British airborne establishment was formed in 1940 by the order of Prime Minister Winston Churchill it was decided to develop a large glider which would be able to transport heavy equipment in support of airborne troops . General Aircraft Limited were chosen in January 1941 to develop this glider , which they designated the GAL . 49 ' Hamilcar ' . It was designed to transport a single light tank or two Universal Carriers . A number of problems , which included vacillation by the War Office on the number of gliders that it wanted and poor management by GAL , led to delays in the production of the Hamilcar , and the first production glider was only assembled in mid @-@ 1943 . These problems were only partially solved , and production of the glider continued to be slow , hampered by difficulties in finding suitable locations to store and construct the Hamilcars once their parts were produced . A total of 344 Hamilcars had been built when production ended in 1946 .
Hamilcars were only used on three occasions , and only in support of British airborne forces . They first saw action in June 1944 , when approximately thirty were used to carry 17 @-@ pounder anti @-@ tank guns , transport vehicles and Tetrarch light tanks into Normandy in support of British airborne forces during Operation Tonga . In September 1944 a similar number of Hamilcars were used to transport anti @-@ tank guns , transport vehicles and supplies for airborne troops as part of Operation Market Garden . They were used a third and final time in March 1945 during Operation Varsity , when they transported M22 Locust light tanks and other supplies . The gliders proved to be successful in all three operations , although their slow speed and large size made them easy targets for anti @-@ aircraft fire , which resulted in a number of gliders being damaged or destroyed . A powered variant of the Hamilcar was produced , the Hamilcar Mark X , in an attempt to extend the range of the Hamilcar so it could serve in the Pacific War ; however , the conflict in the Pacific ended before the design could see combat .
= = Development = =
= = = Background = = =
The British airborne establishment was formed in June 1940 under the orders of the Prime Minister , Winston Churchill , in response to the German use of airborne forces during the Battle of France . When the equipment to be used by the airborne forces was being developed , it had been decided by officials at the War Office that gliders would be an integral component of such a force ; these would be used to transport troops and heavy equipment , which by 1941 had been expanded to include artillery and some form of tank . By the beginning of 1941 , the War Office had issued four specifications for military gliders to be used by the airborne forces . The first was Air Ministry specification X.10 / 40 , which called for an eight @-@ seater glider similar to the German DFS 230 , which eventually became the General Aircraft Hotspur I ; the second was specification X.25 / 40 which became the Slingsby Hengist , a fifteen @-@ seat glider ; the third was specification X.26 / 40 , the 25 @-@ seater Airspeed Horsa ; and the last , X.27 / 40 was for a glider that could carry a light tank or other heavy loads . The number of aeronautical firms able to design and produce gliders was limited , especially since several were already committed to producing other prop @-@ driven aircraft for the government ; as such , contracts for the gliders were allocated to firms as the government saw fit , rather than through any competitive process . Slingsby was chosen to develop X.25 / 40 because it was believed to be too small to build larger gliders , and Airspeed would eventually build the Horsa . Because it had already developed the Hotspur , which first flew in November 1940 , and was considered to have a sufficiently developed production capacity capable of producing a larger glider , General Aircraft Limited were chosen to develop X.27 / 40 .
Before being selected , the company had already been in the process of developing designs for a glider which would carry a single Mk VII ' Tetrarch ' light tank . The design was a low @-@ wing aircraft designed so that the tank driver also functioned as the glider pilot , and flew the glider from his seat in the tank through a series of internal modifications to the tank . The idea behind the design was to save on specially @-@ trained glider pilots and allow the tank to be brought into action as soon as the glider landed ; surviving illustrations of the design show the tank encased in the glider 's fuselage but with the turret outside the airframe , possibly so that it could engage targets as it landed . However , the design was considered to be impractical , both by the company and the War Office , and a more conventional design was finally arrived at in a joint meeting between the two in January 1941 . It called for a glider which would be constructed primarily out of wood capable of carrying a Tetrarch light tank and two universal carriers with a combined maximum weight of approximately 17024 lbs ; a surviving requisition form from the Air Ministry to GAL confirms a cost of £ 50 @,@ 000 per glider . By early February 1941 the basic design for the glider had been completed by the company 's chief designer , and had been designated the GAL . 49 ' Hamilcar ' ; the name came from the Carthaginian general Hamilcar Barca .
Such a large glider had never been constructed before by the British military , and in order to test the design , a half @-@ scale prototype model was first designed ; designated GAL . 50 it still required an Armstrong Whitworth Whitley medium bomber to act as a tug to get it airborne , and was first flown in September 1941 . However , it only flew once ; the test pilot approached the landing area too low , attempted to raise the flaps for extra glide , and instead crashed the prototype and wrecked it . However , the trial was considered to be a success and the first full @-@ scale prototype model was finished at GAL 's works in Hanworth , Middlesex in March 1942 . The Hamilcar was transported to RAF Snaith in Yorkshire , as GAL 's airfield at Hanworth was too short for the glider to take off from ; moving the glider to a secure military airfield would also ensure that it remained secret . Its first flight was conducted on 27 March 1942 , towed by a Handley Page Halifax bomber . A second prototype was completed in June 1942 , and further testing and development took place at a number of different airfields , including the Airborne Forces Experimental Establishment at RAF Beaulieu ; all flight trials appear to have been successful , and there were few differences between the prototypes and the production models .
= = = Production problems = = =
The number of Hamilcars that the War Office required frequently fluctuated . In May 1942 the War Office asked GAL for 360 Hamilcars to be used in two major airborne operations , but this was found to be unrealistic ; not only was the production rate for the glider far too slow to accommodate this large number , the same number of tugs needed to tow the gliders could not be found . In November 1943 the War Office issued another report in which it increased the number of required gliders to 800 , an even more unrealistic number ; by the time production of the Hamilcar ended , a total of 344 had been built . GAL produced an initial run of 22 Hamilcars , which included the two prototype models and ten pre @-@ production aircraft required for evaluation trials . Subsequent production of parts was assigned to a series of sub @-@ contractors called the ' Hamilcar Production Group ' , which included the Birmingham Railway Carriage and Wagon Company , the Co @-@ operative Wholesale Society and AC Cars . Production for the glider was targeted to begin in late 1941 with approximately 40 @-@ 50 to be completed by the end of that year ; in reality this was overoptimistic , with the planned 40 @-@ 50 only being completed by June 1944 .
The slow rate of production for the Hamilcar appears to be the result of a combination of factors . There was a great demand on the specific types of wood required to build the glider , and difficulty in finding suitably large airfields with enough skilled personnel where the gliders could be constructed and stored ; it also appears that a lack of official priority and poor management at GAL also impeded production . Between March and August 1942 GAL had promised eighteen Hamilcars would be built and delivered , but by September only one had actually appeared ; this slow rate of production so concerned the Ministry of Aircraft Production that it appointed an ' Industrial Panel ' of three senior industrial experts to visit GAL and detail the causes of the problems . The panel visited GAL in early September 1942 and issued a report on 24 September which stated that the root of the problems was that GAL appeared to have taken a bigger workload than it could handle , which was exacerbated by poor organization and management skills . There were also conflicts between GAL and the Hamilcar Production Group which hurt production ; the Group had been formed by the Ministry on 28 July in an attempt to speed up production , but senior GAL managers resented this and failed to cooperate fully with the Group . The panel also identified a ' piecemeal method of ordering ' by the Ministry of Aircraft Production as a cause of further delays . Ultimately several senior managers and staff at GAL were replaced on the recommendation of the panel in an attempt to decrease internal conflicts and speed up production .
The ten pre @-@ production gliders were eventually delivered by the end of 1942 , and the first production glider was put together between March and April 1943 . Production of parts and the building of complete gliders continued throughout 1943 , but production schedules continued to fall behind , particularly when the United States Army Air Forces became interested in the glider , requiring a significant number to be completed for Operation Overlord , the airborne landings in Normandy , and a number of others to be used in the Far East . This placed further pressure on GAL and the Hamilcar Production Group , as the USAAF demands would require further production and new flight trials to see if the glider would operate effectively in a tropical climate . In late 1943 the USAAF required 140 Hamilcars , which would be used to transport bulldozers and other construction equipment for airfield building , and in November it was agreed that 50 would be supplied to them by June 1944 . However , the continued slow production of the gliders so concerned the USAAF that it cancelled its requirement in February 1944 ; this meant that American personnel who had been helping with the production of the gliders were withdrawn and production times were further delayed . It also meant that only British airborne forces would utilize the Hamilcar . By January 1944 only 27 Hamilcars had been erected and were ready for use ; a total of 53 had been produced , but the rest were in storage awaiting parts to complete them or to be erected . Finding personnel to erect the gliders , and airfields to store them , continued to be a problem . By June , however , eighty of the gliders had been manufactured and erected and were ready for use in airborne operations , in time for a small number to be used during Operation Tonga , the British airborne landings in Normandy . Production continued throughout the conflict and finally ended in 1946 , with a total of 344 being produced .
= = Design = =
The Hamilcar was constructed primarily from wood , mainly birch and spruce , with fabric @-@ covered plywood forming the skin , and high grade steel reinforcement beams in critical areas . It had a wingspan of 110 feet ( 34 m ) , a length of 68 feet ( 21 m ) and a height of 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) to the top of the fin with the tail down . < > It weighed 18 @,@ 400 pounds ( 8 @,@ 300 kg ) when empty , and could transport a military load of 17 @,@ 600 pounds ( 8 @,@ 000 kg ) to give a total weight of 36 @,@ 000 pounds ( 16 @,@ 000 kg ) . The whole aircraft was broken down into smaller sections for transport . It was so large and heavy that it required the largest and most powerful aircraft to pull it off the airfield and subsequently tow it ; four @-@ engined bombers were used , most frequently the Handley Page Halifax . Both wing and cockpit were set above the fuselage to provide the greatest amount of room for the cargo compartment , and to ensure that they did not interfere with the loading of vehicles ; the compartment measured approximately 32 feet 31 @.@ 5 inches ( 10 @.@ 554 m ) , 7 feet 10 @.@ 5 inches ( 2 @.@ 400 m ) inches wide and between 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) and 7 feet 7 inches ( 2 @.@ 31 m ) inches in height . The nose of the glider was hinged and opened to the side for ease of loading vehicles and cargo , and the crew of two pilots were seated in tandem in a cockpit on the top of the fuselage , which was accessed via an internal ladder and was fifteen feet above ground ; they were eventually protected by a bullet @-@ proof windscreen and a plate of armour behind the second pilot . An intercom was also added to provide communication between the pilots and the personnel below them . An initial design feature , which was eventually removed prior to full @-@ scale production , was the installation of an under @-@ fuselage hatch which would allow the prone firing of a Bren light machine gun as the glider approached the landing zone .
The ratio between length and wingspan was practically the same as that of an Avro Lancaster bomber , which had a wingspan of 102 feet ( 31 m ) and a length of 69 feet 6 inches ( 21 @.@ 18 m ) , in contrast to modern sport gliders which possess a particularly large wingspan to enhance gliding performance . This was the result of a decision taken by the War Office in early 1940 on how military gliders would be used ; the idea was for the glider to be released at a low altitude close to the landing zone and conduct a steep descent to reduce time in the air and exposure to enemy fire . The glider also possessed large flaps which assisted in a steep and rapid descent , and through adjustments of their angle during landing a precise control over descent rate and point of landing could be achieved ; they also allowed a slower touchdown speed to be attained . They were operated through a small bottle of compressed air large enough only for a single landing ; a small bottle not only saved weight , but gave a smaller chance of it being hit by enemy fire , thereby exploding and damaging the glider . Standard approach speed for the Hamilcar was 100 miles per hour ( 160 km / h ) , although for shorter landings this could be slowed to 80 miles per hour ( 130 km / h ) , and stalling speeds were 64 miles per hour ( 103 km / h ) with flaps up or 52 miles per hour ( 84 km / h ) with flaps deployed . The Hamilcar was fitted with tailwheel landing gear , with oleo @-@ pneumatic shock absorbers that could be deflated to bring the fuselage nose down for loading or unloading purposes . A jettisonable undercarriage was initially designed for the glider , as it was discovered that it travelled for a shorter distance when it landed only on its skids . However , this was eventually replaced with a fixed undercarriage - the same as had been designed for ferrying operations - as pilots found that they preferred to land on wheels because of the extra control it gave them and the ability to avoid other gliders and potential collisions in the landing area . The wheeled undercarriage was not fitted until after the glider had been loaded ; two 15 @-@ ton jacks were used to lift the aircraft for the fitting .
When the glider was carrying tanks or other vehicles , common practice was that their engines would be started in the air , usually just prior to the glider casting off from the tug ; special exhaust ducts were fitted to the glider to expel exhaust fumes . The Tetrarch and M22 Locust light tanks were so large that they barely fit inside the glider , and as such their crews stayed inside the tank for the duration of the flight . Once the glider landed , the anchorages keeping the vehicle stationary would be released by the driver pulling a lanyard within his reach , and the driver would then drive the tank forward , which automatically pulled a line that operated the swing door release . However , Universal Carriers and other vehicles relied on one of the pilots operating the door line manually . This was achieved by the pilot sliding down the fuselage and then dropping to the ground . They would then go to each undercarriage leg and release the valves there , which would expel hydraulic fluid and allow the shock absorbers struts to deflate , and then enter the glider and operate the door release line . If the swing door was jammed after the glider had landed , it was possible for tanks to break through the unopened forward fuselage and drive straight out of the glider , which occurred in both airborne operations where Hamilcars transported tanks .
= = Operational history = =
When the parts for a Hamilcar were completed and the glider was erected , it was flown to RAF North Luffenham in Rutland to have its specific cargo placed on board , and it was then flown to RAF Tarrant Rushton , which had been selected as the Hamilcar training and operational base in November 1943 . It was not possible to tow the glider empty , so any empty gliders usually carried Universal Carriers or concrete blocks as ballast . Training with the Hamilcar appears to have taken place primarily at RAF Tarrant Rushton , and began sometime between the end of 1943 and the first months of 1944 . Hamilcar training began with dual instruction , where an instructor accompanied the pilots for several hours , and then moved onto flying solo flights . Most of this training consisted of ' circuits and bumps ' , where the pilots practiced controlling the glider as it took off from an airfield under tow , and then landing it after the tow rope was detached ; cross @-@ country navigation was also practiced . It was common practice for members of airlanded units to be inside the gliders as cargo when training took place , although there is evidence that tank crews only acted as cargo for one or two flights , probably due to the risk of accidents which might cost the lives of specialized troops and equipment . Those flights that tank crews did experience usually consisted of gliders landing on carefully marked airfields instead of the open countryside in order to minimize the risks involved , and also make recovery of the glider easier . Accidents do not seem to have been a common occurrence . During training by ' C ' Squadron of the Glider Pilot Regiment , part of the Army Air Corps , which specialized in flying Hamilcars , over 2800 lifts were made with an average of 50 lifts per crew . Only three incidents resulted in fatalities or injuries , with seven pilots killed during the training .
= = = Operation Tonga = = =
Operation Tonga originated in the planning of Operation Overlord , the plan for the eventual invasion of France and the opening of a Second Front in North @-@ Western Europe . Planning for the invasion of Europe by the Allies had begun in May 1943 when President of the United States Franklin Delano Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill had met at the Washington Conference . The two Allied leaders decided that all available Allied forces in the theatre should be concentrated in Great Britain , and that planning for the invasion of North @-@ Western Europe should begin . A provisional target date of May 1944 was set , the code @-@ name Overlord decided upon , and a joint Anglo @-@ American planning staff created under Lieutenant @-@ General Frederick E. Morgan , who was given the title of Chief of Staff to the Supreme Allied Commander ( COSSAC ) . The plan eventually agreed upon called for the British 6th Airborne Division and the American 82nd and 101st Airborne Divisions to land either side of the landing areas to secure their flanks and protect the landing troops from counterattack . The British airborne forces were to land in the east and the American airborne forces to land to the west of Bayeux in support of the infantry and armoured units advancing from the beachheads . The operation began on the night of 5 June , with the deployment of 6th Airborne Division to eastern Normandy . It was tasked with protecting the eastern flank of the Allied seaborne landings , securing strategically important areas east of Caen , capturing several important bridges over the Caen Canal and River Dives , and destroying a coastal artillery battery .
The division would use approximately 350 gliders for the operation , the majority of which would transport 6th Airlanding Brigade . This number included thirty @-@ four Hamilcars ; four would land in landing zone ' N ' between 03 : 00 and 04 : 30 in support of the operations of 3rd Parachute Brigade and 5th Parachute Brigade , and would carry four 17 @-@ pounder anti @-@ tank guns and their transport vehicles and crews . The other thirty would land at approximately 21 : 00 in landing @-@ zone ' W ' as part of a reinforcement lift . Twenty of the Hamilcars would carry Tetrarch light tanks and their crews which belonged to 6th Airborne Armoured Reconnaissance Regiment , four more carried three Rota trailers without crews , and another three carried Universal Carriers with their crews . The last three carried two Universal Carriers converted to accommodate a 3 @-@ inch mortar , one Universal Carrier which carried a slave battery , sixteen motorcycles and a jeep . The four Hamilcars which were to land in support of 3rd and 5th Parachute Brigades took off from Tarrant Rushton at 02 : 10 on 6 June and were due to land at approximately 03 : 30 ; however , only two landed successfully . One suffered a broken tow rope shortly after it took off , although it was able to land safely at an airfield in England ; the other reached the Normandy coast , but the tow rope was disconnected too early and it landed a considerable distance away from the landing zone . When dawn broke , it was discovered by German forces and attacked ; four of the crew and passengers were killed and one captured , but the rest managed to escape .
The remaining Hamilcars took off between 18 : 40 and 19 : 35 with the rest of the gliders which would transport 6th Airlanding Brigade and began their journey towards the landing zone . One Hamilcar , which was transporting a Tetrarch light tank , was lost over the English Channel when the tank broke loose of its shackles and crashed through the nose of the glider that was carrying it , causing both to fall into the sea mid @-@ flight . The rest of the gliders arrived safely at the landing zone at approximately 21 : 00 , flying astern of each other as closely as possible ; several accounts mention that the sight of the Hamilcars and other gliders as they landed was a great morale booster for Allied troops who saw them . However , their landings were not all without incident . Two Hamilcars collided with each other in the landing zone , destroying themselves and the Tetrarchs they carried ; a third Hamilcar hit another Tetrarch as it was being unloaded and flipped the tank upside down , rendering it unusable , although the crew escaped without injury . Another Hamilcar rammed several of the wooden poles that had been driven into the ground by the Germans to damage gliders , which resulted in one of its wings being completely torn off as it landed . However , there were few casualties and actual German opposition to the gliders as they landed was minimal . Of those gliders that survived the journey and made a successful landing , many later suffered heavy damage from German artillery and mortar fire , as well as the movement of Allied armour through the landing zones . Although approximately forty gliders were later repaired and flown back to Britain , none of these were Hamilcars as their size precluded any attempt to recover them .
= = = Operation Market Garden = = =
After major defeats in Normandy in July to August 1944 , remnants of German forces withdrew across the Low Countries and eastern France towards the German border . In the north in the first week of September , the British 21st Army Group under Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery was advancing on a line running from Antwerp to the northern border of Belgium with its British Second Army under Lieutenant @-@ General Sir Miles Dempsey while its First Canadian Army under Lieutenant @-@ General Harry Crerar had commenced its task of recapturing the ports of Dieppe , Le Havre and Boulogne @-@ sur @-@ Mer . To the south , the U.S. 12th Army Group under Lieutenant General Omar Bradley was nearing the German border and had been ordered to orient on the Aachen gap with Lieutenant General Courtney Hodges ' U.S. First Army in support of Montgomery 's advance on the Ruhr , while its U.S. Third Army under Lieutenant General George S. Patton moved eastward towards the Saar . The U.S. 6th Army Group under General Jacob L. Devers was advancing towards Germany after their landings in southern France . Field @-@ Marshal Bernard Montgomery devised an ambitious plan called Operation Market Garden which would take place in mid @-@ September ; it was intended to bypass the Siegfried Line by hooking around its northern end and thereby allow the Allies to cross the Rhine with large @-@ scale forces and trap the German Fifteenth Army between Arnhem and the shores of the IJsselmeer . Market , the airborne element of the plan , would employ four of the six divisions of the First Allied Airborne Army . The U.S. 101st Airborne Division , under Major General Maxwell D. Taylor , would drop in two locations just north of XXX Corps to take the bridges northwest of Eindhoven at Son and Veghel . The 82nd Airborne Division , under Brigadier General James M. Gavin , would drop northeast of them to take the bridges at Grave and Nijmegen , and the British 1st Airborne Division , under Major @-@ General Roy Urquhart , and the Polish 1st Independent Parachute Brigade would drop at the extreme north end of the route , to take the road bridge at Arnhem and rail bridge at Oosterbeek .
A lack of sufficient transport aircraft meant that 1st Airborne Division would be dropped in three separate lifts over three successive days . 1st Parachute Brigade and most of 1st Airlanding Brigade would land on 17 September , 4th Parachute Brigade and the rest of 1st Airlanding Brigade would land on 18 September , and on 19 September the Polish 1st Independent Parachute Brigade would land , along with a supplies for the entire division . The division would utilize approximately 650 gliders during the operation , of which 39 would be Hamilcars . It appears that the Hamilcars that had been utilized by 6th Airborne Division and subsequently abandoned in June had been replaced , as records state that 64 of the gliders were available by September . Thirteen Hamilcars would be flown on 17 September and land in landing zone ' Z ' . Eight of the gliders would carry 17 @-@ pounder anti @-@ tank guns , their towing vehicles and crews , and the other five would carry ten Universal Carriers , two apiece ; the Carriers were to act as transports for the airborne troops . On 18 September fifteen Hamilcars would land in landing zone ' X ' ; eight would carry a 17 @-@ pounder anti @-@ tank gun , their towing vehicles and crews each , and the other four would carry eight Universal Carriers , which would once again act as transport for the airborne troops that were flown in . The final three were packed with ammunition and stores , as well as a number of sappers from the Royal Engineers ; these were experimental loads , as it was believed that the Hamilcar might be a more efficient way of transporting supplies rather than the Horsa due to its larger size . On 19 September , ten Hamilcars would transport American engineers who belonged to the American 878th Aviation Engineer Battalion and their equipment , which included bulldozers , cranes and graders ; they were to construct a forward airfield in landing zone ' W ' after the gliders had been cleared away .
All fifteen Hamilcars which participated in the first lift on 17 September arrived over the landing zones safely , but problems were experienced when they came in to land . Two of the gliders landed on soft ground , which caused them to rapidly decelerate ; this , combined with the majority of their equipment being in the front of the gliders , resulted in them flipping onto their backs . Three of the pilots were killed and the fourth was badly wounded and later taken prisoner , and several passengers were wounded ; the 17 @-@ pounder anti @-@ tank guns on board the gliders were damaged beyond repair . The rest of the Hamilcars landed successfully , although one overran the landing zone and hit a railway embankment ; this damaged the two Universal Carriers being carried by the glider , although both were later salvaged . The lift on 18 September was delayed for several hours due to poor weather conditions , and the glider force did not take off until approximately 11 : 00 . En route to the landing zones , one Hamilcar was forced to cast off and land at an airfield in England after its tow aircraft developed engine trouble , and another ditched in the English Channel when its tug developed engine troubles as well ; both had been carrying 17 @-@ pounder anti @-@ tank guns . The rest of the Hamilcars encountered heavy anti @-@ aircraft fire as they landed , with several being hit . As a result , one Hamilcar landed short of the landing zone after being hit in the wing , and another was forced to make an emergency landing far from the landing zone after being hit ; the stores , pilots and passengers were captured by German forces shortly after the glider landed . The rest of the Hamilcars landed successfully . The third lift on 19 September did not take place due to weather problems , and because several of 1st Airborne Division 's landing zones had been overrun . Finally on 21 September the weather cleared , but due to 1st Airborne Division 's deteriorating situation it was decided that the 878th Aviation Engineer Battalion would not be delivered . As such , only a single Hamilcar accompanied 1st Polish Independent Parachute Brigade when it set off for its drop near the town of Driel ; this was the same Hamilcar which had been forced to land in England on 19 September when its tug had experienced engine trouble . However , the tow rope between the glider and tug snapped over Belgium , and it was forced to land near Ghent .
= = = Operation Varsity = = =
By March 1945 , the Allied armies had advanced into Germany and had reached the River Rhine . The Rhine was a formidable natural obstacle to the Allied advance , but if breached would allow the Allies to access the North German Plain and ultimately advance on Berlin and other major cities in Northern Germany . Following the " Broad Front Approach " laid out by General Dwight D. Eisenhower , the Supreme Allied Commander of the Allied Expeditionary Force , it was decided to attempt to breach the Rhine in several areas . Field Marshal Bernard Montgomery , commanding the British 21st Army Group , devised a plan to allow the forces under his command to breach the Rhine , which he entitled Operation Plunder , and which was subsequently authorized by Eisenhower . Plunder envisioned the British Second Army under Lieutenant @-@ General Sir Miles Dempsey and the U.S. Ninth Army under Lieutenant General William Simpson crossing the Rhine on three fronts ; at Rees , Wesel , and in the area south of the Lippe Canal . To ensure the operation 's success , Montgomery insisted that the amphibious assaults be supported by an airborne landing , which was code @-@ named Operation Varsity . Varsity was initially planned with three airborne divisions in mind , with all three to be dropped behind German lines in support of 21st Army Group as it conducted its amphibious assaults to breach the Rhine . However , during the earliest stages of planning , it became apparent to the planners that the 13th Airborne Division would be unable to participate in the operation , as there were only enough combat transport aircraft in the area to effectively transport two divisions . The plan for the operation was therefore altered to accommodate the two remaining airborne divisions , the British 6th Airborne and the US 17th Airborne Division . The two airborne divisions would be dropped behind German lines , with their objective to land around Wesel and disrupt enemy defences in order to aid the advance of the British Second Army towards Wesel .
6th Airborne Division would be dropped in a single lift , unlike Operation Market Garden , and was to seize the high ground north of the town of Bergen , capture the town of Hamminkeln and several bridges over the river IJssel , and then hold the northern portion of the operational area until relieved by Allied ground forces . The division would utilize 440 gliders for the operation , which included a large number of the new Horsa Mark II and 48 Hamilcars . The loads assigned to the Hamilcars were similar to those used during Operation Market Garden , with sixteen of the gliders transporting 17 @-@ pounder anti @-@ tank guns , as well as their vehicles and crews . Twelve were assigned to 716th Airborne Light Composite Company of the Royal Army Service Corps , and were loaded with twelve Universal Carriers , trailers and stores of ammunition and equipment . The company were to use the Universal Carriers and trailers , along with transport to be provided by 6th Airlanding Brigade , to collect , control and issue supplies dropped by aerial resupply drops to the airborne troops as they fought . Eight Hamilcars were to transport M22 Locust light tanks which belonged to 6th Airborne Armoured Reconnaissance Regiment , and another four were to carry panniers of supplies . Two more were to carry a single Royal Engineers D4 bulldozer each , and finally 3rd Parachute Brigade and 5th Parachute Brigade were assigned three Hamilcars each ; these would each carry a Universal Carrier for use as transport by the headquarters staff of the brigades .
All of the gliders successfully took off at 07 : 20 on 24 March , but seven were lost en route to the landing zones , the majority being forced to cast off and land in Allied territory due to their tugs suffering engine failures ; however , one Hamilcar which carried an M22 Locust broke up in mid @-@ air as it approached the Rhine , possibly due to structural failure , and all aboard were killed . Three more of the gliders were destroyed by German anti @-@ aircraft fire as they approached the landing zones , as their slow speed made them easy targets . The thirty @-@ eight that remained landed successfully between 10 : 46 and 11 : 00 , although a number of them suffered damage from anti @-@ aircraft fire . Particularly hard hit were the Hamilcars that carried the RASC personnel and supplies ; eight landed successfully , but only three were sufficiently undamaged to allow the stores they carried to be recovered . Of the eight Hamilcars that transported the M22 Locusts of 6th Airborne Armoured Reconnaissance Regiment , seven reached the landing zones intact but had problems when they landed due to anti @-@ aircraft fire and smoke obscuring the area . Four landed safely , but the other three came under heavy German anti @-@ aircraft fire and crashed as they landed ; one tank survived with a damaged machine gun , another crashed through a house which put its wireless radio set and main armament out of action , and the third broke loose of the glider as it landed and was flipped over onto its turret , which rendered it useless . After the operation had come to an end , a few of the undamaged Hamilcars were dismantled and their parts shipped to England to aid in the construction of further gliders .
= = = Post @-@ war = = =
Operation Varsity was the last time that the Hamilcar would be used in combat , but the model did remain in service for a number of years after the end of the Second World War ; they were particularly useful for transporting large and heavy loads . On 31 December 1945 64 Hamilcars were recorded as being present at RAF Tarrant Rushton , where they were used for routine training exercises . However , in January 1946 a process was begun to dispose of ' surplus ' Hamilcars , with 44 moved to disposal facilities and twenty remaining . The remainder continued to be used for routine flying exercises until July , when six more were disposed of due to ' glue deterioration ' , and by February 1947 only twelve were left in operation . These last few Hamilcars appear to have remained in service until 1950 , with several used in airshows and public displays by the RAF , and were ultimately phased out as obsolescent by the mid @-@ 1950s .
= = Variants = =
Several variants on the Hamilcar Mark I were planned , although only one was actually produced . The Hamilcar Mark X , also known as the GAL . 58 , was designed to specification X 4 / 44 in an attempt to allow Hamilcars to be used in the tropical climate of the Pacific , where high temperatures and the high altitudes of many airfields reduced the efficiency of piston @-@ engined aircraft . This meant that Halifax bombers could not tow Hamilcars without a drastically reduced fuel load , which in turn narrowed the range of the Hamilcar . Two initial solutions were proposed to correct this problem ; the first was to convert a Hamilcar into a rocket @-@ assisted take off ( RATO ) aircraft . Two cylindrical steel cylinders filled with twenty @-@ four three @-@ inch rockets were attached to either side of the glider to provide it with 20 @,@ 000 lbs of mean thrust as it took off ; they would then be jettisoned once the glider was airborne . Initial trials conducted in January 1943 proved to be successful , but was not pursued any further for unknown reasons . The second solution was double towing , where two Halifax aircraft , one stripped of all unnecessary equipment , attached tow ropes to a Hamilcar and then took off from an airfield ; once airborne the normal Halifax would then detach its towrope and land , and the modified Halifax would tow the glider to its destination . However , this idea went no further than initial trials in England , as it was considered to be a high risk operation with a high probability of a serious accident occurring . As such , a powered version of the Hamilcar , the Mark X , was decided upon , as it offered the possibility of long @-@ range airborne operations and the ability to retrieve the glider once it had been used . The decision was taken to start developing the Mark X in November 1943 when the potential for airborne operations against Japan itself began to be considered by the Allies ; however , for some reason a relaxed view was taken to the development of the production models , and the first was not available until the early months of 1945 .
The first prototype was converted from a Hamilcar Mark I. Two Bristol Mercury radial piston engines , capable of producing 965 hp , were added to the wings of the glider , and the wings and fuselage were strengthened so they could take the weight of the engines . Extra controls were added to the cockpit and duplicated in the two pilot positions , although space restrictions meant that the glider could only be started from the rear seat , and fuel tanks were added to the wings , with the possibility of a third being carried in the fuselage . These additions increased the glider 's weight to 47 @,@ 000 pounds ( 21 @,@ 000 kg ) , but its other dimensions remained unchanged , including the carrying capacity in the fuselage . The first flight of the Mark X , under its own power , took place in February 1945 and the initial flight and further trials showed that the glider operated as had been expected . With engines installed , a Mark X could be towed by a fully loaded Halifax and achieve an operational radius of approximately 900 miles ( 1 @,@ 400 km ) . However , if the glider itself was fully loaded and took off on its own power , it was discovered that it could not maintain height even at full power ; this resulted in a decision to decrease the amount of cargo it could carry under its own power , which in turn decreased its weight to 32 @,@ 500 pounds ( 14 @,@ 700 kg ) . Two Hamilcar Mark Is were converted for initial trials , and when these proved satisfactory a further eight Mark Is were converted and ten Mark Xs built from scratch ; any further orders were cancelled when the conflict ended in August 1945 , although further tests were conducted in the United States . One other Hamilcar variant was proposed , although it never went into production or appeared to go further than the design stage . This was a proposal to mate a Lockheed P @-@ 38 Lightning fighter to the top of a Hamilcar , as the fighter would provide enough power to keep both aircraft in flight and relieve the glider pilots of the task of controlling the glider until it cast off to land .
While the unpowered glider needed ballast to be flown empty , the Hamilcar X was less sensitive to centre of gravity issues . The performance of the Hamilcar X under its own power was not dissimilar to performance under tow , notwithstanding the low load . At 32 @,@ 500 lb , it could take off in 1 @,@ 385 yards . Its maximum speed was 145 miles per hour ( 233 km / h ) but it could cruise at 120 miles per hour ( 190 km / h ) . With 400 gallons of fuel it could manage 705 miles ( 1 @,@ 135 km ) in still air or 1 @,@ 675 miles ( 2 @,@ 696 km ) with 860 gallons onboard replacing the cargo capacity .
= = Operators = =
United Kingdom
British Army
Royal Air Force
= = Survivors = =
A significant proportion of the fuselage of Hamilcar TK777 is preserved at the Museum of Army Flying in Hampshire , England . A badly preserved section of the fuselage of TK718 is part of the collection of the Bovington Tank Museum , where it is displayed with a Tetrarch tank .
= = Specifications = =
Data from Jane 's All The World 's Aircraft 1945 @-@ 1946
General characteristics
Crew : 2
Capacity : 7 tons
Length : 68 ft ( 20 @.@ 73 m )
Wingspan : 110 ft ( 33 @.@ 53 m )
Height : 20 ft 3 in ( 6 @.@ 17 m )
Wing area : 1 @,@ 657 @.@ 5 ft2 ( 153 @.@ 98 m2 )
Airfoil : RAF.34 modified
Empty weight : 18 @,@ 400 lb ( 8 @,@ 346 kg )
Max. takeoff weight : 36 @,@ 000 lb ( 16 @,@ 329 kg )
Performance
Never exceed speed : 187 mph ( 300 km / h )
Maximum speed : 150 mph ( 240 km / h )
Stall speed : 65 mph ( 105 km / h )
Wing loading : 22 @.@ 37 lb / ft ² ( 109 @.@ 2 kg / m ² )
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= Within the Woods =
Within the Woods is a 1978 horror short film written , directed and produced by Sam Raimi . Raimi drew inspiration from his earlier short film Clockwork , deciding to produce a " prototype " horror film to help build the interest of potential investors . Raimi cast his friends Bruce Campbell and Ellen Sandweiss as the two protagonists and produced the film for $ 1600 . Shot on location in a remote cabin in the woods , production was a difficult process because of the low budget . Several of the special effects presented in the film were done in a severely low budget manner , some of which were improvised on set . The film centers around demonic possession and mysterious forces originating from the woods .
Raimi convinced a local theater manager to screen the film alongside The Rocky Horror Picture Show which sparked minor interest . Initially a meager success , the film screened well to test audiences and inspired a larger budget remake directed by Raimi , called The Evil Dead ( 1981 ) . The film was the first in the Evil Dead franchise , and launched the careers of both Campbell and Raimi . Several of the aesthetic qualities found in Within the Woods later defined Raimi 's films .
= = Plot = =
Two romantic couples , consisting of four teenagers , decide to spend a weekend together located in a remote cabin found in the woods . An unseen force stalks and watches the group without their knowledge . Ellen ( Ellen Sandweiss ) and her boyfriend Bruce ( Bruce Campbell ) enter the woods to have a picnic lunch . The other couple , Scotty ( Scott Spiegel ) and Shelly ( Mary Valenti ) , remain at the cabin playing Monopoly to pass time . During their lunch , Bruce announces to Ellen that they 're camping on an Indian burial ground . Ellen is concerned , but Bruce assures her that they will be fine as long as they don 't disturb the graves of the dead . Bruce then explores the area and discovers an ancient dagger belonging to the Indians . Ignoring his own advice , he takes the dagger with him .
After lunch , Ellen takes a nap . When she awakes , she finds Bruce missing and wanders into the woods looking for him . To her horror , she finds Bruce 's dead body , horribly mutilated with apparent knife wounds . She is then startled by the presence of a demonic entity hiding within the woods , and quickly runs back to the cabin . While fleeing , she is attacked by unseen forces . She runs back to the cabin and screams to be let in immediately , being let in just as the entity is approaching her . Ellen tells her friends that Bruce has been murdered , but Scotty dismisses the whole thing as a joke and goes to find Bruce . Shelly - Scotty 's girlfriend - , and Ellen are concerned when Scotty doesn 't return right away . Shelly walks outside to begin a search for the missing men , but a possessed Bruce assaults and strangles her , eventually stabbing her in the neck and killing her with the dagger that he found , moaning " join us . "
Ellen encounters her possessed friend and flees into another room , grabbing knives to protect her . Something attempts to enter the room where Ellen is hiding , and she blindly lashes out with a knife - mistakenly stabbing Scotty who had just returned to the cabin . While horrified , Ellen is then attacked by the possessed Bruce . Ellen manages to trap Bruce outside , stabbing Bruce 's hand several times in the process . The bleeding Scotty tells Ellen to look into the cellar for the gun they brought along . While walking down the stairs to the cellar , she trips on a broken step and injures herself . After finding the gun , she goes back up stairs and discovers that Scotty had been stabbed to death while she was downstairs . The demonic Bruce then attacks her , but she manages to cut off his hand .
Ellen attempts to flee but is severely beaten by the possessed Bruce , who throws her around the cabin . While being strangled , Ellen picks up Bruce 's mutilated hand which is still holding the dagger found from before , and she uses it to stab Bruce . A large amount of blood is expended by Bruce , who lies motionless for a moment , only to then continue his assault on Ellen . Ellen mutilates Bruce 's body even further with an axe , chopping off nearly every limb from the writhing body . Severely disturbed by the things she has witnessed , Ellen rocks back and forth muttering to herself . The corpse of Scotty suddenly springs up , before turning towards the oblivious Ellen , ready to attack . The screen then cuts to black , leaving the fate of Ellen ambiguous .
= = Production = =
= = = Background = = =
Before the development stages of Within the Woods , Sam Raimi and Bruce Campbell were long time friends who had grown up with each other . The duo had produced several low @-@ budget films with super 8 mm film during their youth . During the early parts of Raimi 's career , he directed films that were mostly classified as comedies , such as Booby Bartenders , Shemp Eats the Moon and The Great Bogus Monkey Pignut Swindle . While those films were described as " goofy " and primitive by members of the cast and crew , Raimi eventually produced the short film It 's Murder ! , which featured mostly comedic moments . One of the sequences of the film involved a suspenseful moment where a criminal jumped on an unsuspecting individual . Raimi later dismissed the short film , but complimented that scene , stating that it was " the only part of It 's Murder ! that really worked well .
While working on the film , it inspired Raimi to approach the horror genre with more enthusiasm , leading to the conception of his next short film Clockwork . The film featured a woman being stalked by a demented man , and launched an interest in Raimi to pursue working on more horror films . While both Raimi and Campbell expressed a positive opinion on the genre , they admitted they had little experience with the genre and went to drive @-@ in theaters to research various science fiction and horror films . Raimi developed the motto " the gore the merrier " during these sessions at the drive @-@ in , and quickly developed an interest in films featuring high levels of blood . Raimi gained an appeal in B movie cinema , which led him to want to pursue the production of a more ambitious film for his next project . In order to gain the interest of producers , Raimi and Campbell set out to produce a " prototype " film that would serve as a showcase of their talents . The film would work as a trailer to help promote further cinematic productions .
The prototype film was called Within the Woods . In addition to Raimi 's interest in various horror films , one of the main inspirations came in the writing of H. P. Lovecraft , who introduced the concept of the " book of the dead " to Raimi . Raimi studied the concept of magical books , in particular the Necronomicon , which formed the basis of the film . Campbell described the film as a combination of " creative writing and ancient history " . In order to flesh out of the idea , Raimi came up with a concept where a group of teenagers went into the woods and were attacked by demonic spirits , summoned by the disturbance of an Indian burial ground . The book of the dead concept was not present in the finished film , but appeared extensively in later films by Raimi .
= = = Filming = = =
Raimi was able to secure $ 1600 to produce the film . Raimi and Campbell collected a group of their friends and family who were interested in participating in the production of the film . The film was primarily shot at a farm house belonging to one of Raimi 's friends located in Marshall , Michigan . One of the regular actors involved with Raimi 's early short films , Ellen Sandweiss , was cast as the film 's protagonist . This decision stemmed from the notion that most horror films at the time involved female leads , who were more enjoyable to watch terrorized . The current boyfriend of Sandweiss was cast as the film 's antagonist , a demon who threatens the cast . Campbell was cast as one of the protagonists , though he initially was not familiar with horror cinema and instead identified as a fan of comedies . One of the films that inspired Campbell 's interest in the genre was John Carpenter 's film Halloween . Another Raimi regular , Scott Spiegel , was also cast as a protagonist based on his prior collaborations with the group .
The effects of the film were entirely low @-@ budget . Nearly every effect in the film was done via things picked up at a make @-@ up and Halloween store located close to where the film was shot . The effects in the film were notably more intricate than the simple ones featured in Raimi 's prior projects , and contained mutilated bodies , stabbed body parts and demonic possession skin @-@ attachments . Tom Sullivan was one of the primary make @-@ up supervisors on set , and he found it difficult working presentable effects out of such low budgets . One notable example involved a chest stabbing rig that had to be attached to Spiegel 's chest by straps and duct tape .
Campbell had to sleep wearing his make @-@ up . Because of several scenes that required to be shot in both the day and the night , it was considered easiest to have Campbell sleep all night wearing his make @-@ up , since removing it was too complicated . When Campbell eventually had the effect removed , he was alarmed to notice that his face had actually " changed shape " because of how long the make @-@ up had been applied , though it returned to normal after an extended amount of time . This serves as one of several moments where the film @-@ makers had to be creative to make the film considering the low budget . Other examples include blacking out the windows to make scenes darker and shooting all night long to make the filming schedule . Raimi had to get increasingly inventive during production , often coming up with " bizarre " ideas while shooting scenes . This led to him experimenting with camera moves and camera speeds , " taking it a little further than we had gone before , recording synch @-@ sound at a third slower for a more monstrous effect .
= = = Post @-@ production = = =
Though production was difficult for many of the actors involved , especially Campbell , the film was eventually completed within acceptable budget limits . Raimi had completed the filming of his " prototype " and sought out to develop and edit the film as cheaply as possible . Though at the time it was unknown how the film was going to be distributed . Raimi had shot the film in the same style as many of his earlier films , with 8mm film . He intended to blow the footage up after filming to the industry standard of 35mm in order to save money , though Campbell noted that the idea was without precedent . Though the request was " obscure " in nature , a company in San Francisco managed to accommodate the task with little difficulty . Upon testing how the footage looked at a local movie theater , it came out mostly acceptable , until further tests led to the footage appearing grainy and difficult to make out .
= = Distribution and reception = =
After production , Raimi virtually had no idea how the film was going to be distributed and what would come of it . The main idea behind shooting the film was to make a trailer to show to future investors , but even that was proving to be difficult . Eventually , Raimi got in contact with a manager at a movie theater in Detroit who was " open and flexible " . The same theater played The Rocky Horror Picture Show every single week and was open to more unusual cinema . To Raimi 's shock , the manager agreed to screen Within the Woods right before a midnight showing of The Rocky Horror Picture Show . The premiere of the film received a positive reception by the audience , and the cast and crew was paid just over $ 10 , all of which was donated to the American Cancer Society . The film , however , was never commercially released .
While critics mostly ignored the locally distributed , low @-@ budget horror film , local The Detroit News critic Michael McWilliams watched the premiere of the film , writing that " it will probably never be advertised alongside the glossy , big @-@ budget horror movies of our time , but you won 't easily forget a locally produced little film called Within the Woods . He compared the low @-@ budget film to the blockbuster The Amityville Horror , writing that it provided more scares . Tom Sulivan , the make @-@ up supervisor of the film , stated that the film " really packs a punch " , and expressed a positive opinion of working on the project .
= = Aftermath = =
In order to produce a follow @-@ up picture , Raimi needed nearly $ 150 @,@ 000 . Raimi approached Phil Gillis , a lawyer to one of his friends , asking if he wanted to invest money into the production of a remake . Gillis was unimpressed with Within the Woods , but offered Raimi legal advice on how to approach further productions . Raimi approached several investors , " begging " for money , and eventually acquired nearly $ 90 @,@ 000 of the funds needed and set out to make the movie anyway .
Within the Woods was later retooled by Raimi with a vastly higher production value and a full @-@ length running time as the 1981 film The Evil Dead . The Evil Dead would go on to be the first installment of a film franchise spawning two sequels , Evil Dead II ( 1987 ) , and Army of Darkness ( 1992 ) , both of which were directed by Raimi and featured Campbell as Ash Williams . A remake , known as Evil Dead , was released in 2013 with Raimi and Campbell as producers and creative consultants . In 2015 , the Starz television network began airing the ongoing comedy horror series Ash vs Evil Dead , which features Bruce Campbell returning as an older Ash Williams .
Several aspects of Within the Woods were later presented in future Raimi films , including the use of the " Raimi @-@ cam " , a camera rig that creates a fluent flow of camera movement . Other elements , such as graphic imagery , bleak endings , and mutilations , defined many of Raimi 's other films . Raimi has put Campbell in cameo roles in all three of Raimi 's Spider @-@ Man trilogy , as well as several other films .
Academy Award winning film @-@ making duo the Coen brothers were inspired by Raimi 's decision to produce a short film as a trailer , utilizing the concept to produce funding for their debut Blood Simple ( 1984 ) . The Coen brothers served as editors for The Evil Dead , and developed a friendship with Raimi . The duo have cast Campbell in some of their films such as The Hudsucker Proxy ( 1994 ) and Fargo ( 1996 ) , the former of which was co @-@ written by Raimi .
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= Psilocybe allenii =
Psilocybe allenii is a species of agaric fungus in the family Hymenogastraceae . Described as new to science in 2012 , it is named after John W. Allen , who provided the type collection . It is found in the northwestern North America from Los Angeles , California to British Columbia , Canada , most commonly within 10 miles ( 16 km ) of the Pacific coast .
The fruitbodies ( mushrooms ) grow on rotting wood , especially wood chips used in garden landscaping . The caps of the mushrooms are brown to buff , broadly convex to flattened and have a diameter up to 9 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) , while the white stipes are up to 9 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) long and 0 @.@ 7 cm ( 0 @.@ 3 in ) thick . As a bluing species in the genus Psilocybe , P. allenii contains the psychoactive compounds psilocin and psilocybin , and it is consumed recreationally for its hallucinogenic properties . It is closely related to Psilocybe cyanescens , from which it differs macroscopically by the lack of a wavy cap margin .
= = Taxonomy = =
Psilocybe allenii was described as new to science in 2012 by Jan Borovička , Alan Rockefeller , and Peter G. Werner . Borovička received material collected from Seattle , Washington , which he noted was microscopically similar to Psilocybe cyanescens , but lacked the wavy cap margins characteristic of that species . In previous publications , Borovička had noted that both macro- and microscopic characters of certain Psilocybe species were highly variable , which could also account for the differences observed in the Seattle material . However , DNA sequencing revealed a 5 @-@ base pair change in the internal transcribed spacer regions ( a segment of RNA often used in molecular phylogenetics to identify or distinguish fungal species ) between P. cyanescens and the Seattle collections . This difference , in addition to the readily observable macroscopic differences , was deemed sufficient to warrant describing the taxon as a new species . Additional molecular studies published by Borovička and colleagues in 2015 identified P. azurescens , P. cyanescens , P. weraroa , P. cubensis , and P. serbica as closely related to P. allenii .
For several years before its official description , the taxon was known in the San Francisco Bay Area , and suspected of being an undescribed species . The authors suggest that a color photograph of " P. cyanescens " in David Arora 's popular 1986 guidebook Mushrooms Demystified may actually depict P. allenii . Mycologist Paul Stamets suggested in 2005 that it " probably is new , or least a newly imported species " . It is commonly called " Psilocybe cyanofriscosa " in the online mycological community , but this name is grammatically incorrect Latin and has never been validly published in scientific literature . The specific epithet allenii honors John W. Allen , who collected the original material and provided the impetus for the study . Allen collected the type material from the University of Washington Campus in November 2009 . He first collected the fungus in Capitol Hill in 1982 , and several times later from Seattle . Some of these collections he sent to Mexican Psilocybe specialist Gastón Guzmán , who initially thought them to be P. cyanescens because of their overlapping spore size ranges .
= = Description = =
Fruitbodies of P. allenii are variable in size , depending on the substrate in which they grow . The caps are 1 @.@ 5 – 9 cm ( 0 @.@ 6 – 3 @.@ 5 in ) in diameter , and range from broadly convex to flattened , sometimes with a slight depression in the center . The cap margin is either straight and slightly curved inward , rarely slightly wavy , and sometimes has radial grooves in moist specimens . The surface is smooth , sticky when moist , with a gelatinous cap cuticle that can be peeled . Wet fruitbodies are so slippery that they are difficult to collect . Caps are hygrophanous , and so will change color depending on how moist they are . They are pale orange brown to caramel brown when moist , but dry to yellowish @-@ buff . Gills have an adnate to sinuate attachment to the stipe , and are initially cream to pale gray brown , but become dark purple as the spores mature .
The cylindrical , hollow stipe typically measures 4 – 7 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 – 2 @.@ 8 in ) long by 0 @.@ 2 – 0 @.@ 7 cm ( 0 @.@ 1 – 0 @.@ 3 in ) thick , with the base slightly thicker . The top of the stipe is pruinose ( covered with white powdery granules ) , while the base is connected to thick white rhizomorphs . The stipe surface is smooth to silky fibrillose ( as if made of silky , slender fibers ) , and its color initially white before yellowing slightly in age . Mycelium at the base of the stipe is white or stained blue . All parts of the fruitbody stain blue if bruised or handled . Young specimens have a white partial veil that later disappears , or remains as a zone on the stipe that can be colored purplish brown by spores . The odor and taste of the mushroom is farinaceous — similar to freshly ground flour .
Spore prints are dark brown , sometimes with violet shades . Spores are thick @-@ walled with an apical pore , and elongated ellipsoid to equilateral in face view , and somewhat inequilateral in side view , typically measuring 12 @.@ 0 – 12 @.@ 6 – 13 @.@ 1 by 6 @.@ 8 – 7 @.@ 1 – 7 @.@ 4 μm . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) are cylindrical , four @-@ spored with sterigmata up to 5 @.@ 5 μm long , and have dimensions of 27 – 37 by 9 – 11 μm . Clamp connections are present in hyphae . Cheilocystidia ( cystidia on the gill edge ) are abundant . They are hyaline ( translucent ) , thin @-@ walled , and variably shaped , and range from narrow clubs to narrow flasks with a neck no longer than 8 μm ; their dimensions are typically 20 – 30 by 6 – 8 μm . The pleurocystidia ( found on the gill face ) are common ; they are broadly club @-@ shaped but taper to a point ( sometimes with a rounded tip at the end ) , and measure 25 – 35 by 9 – 14 μm . Caulocystidia ( found on the stipe ) are also present , with variable shapes similar to the cheilo- and pleurocystidia .
The mushrooms are consumed for their psychoactive properties , and have a potency roughly similar to P. cyanescens . Borovička and colleagues say they are " commonly sought out by some mushroom hunters " . According to Rockefeller , " If you go to Golden Gate Park in December you will see hundreds of hippies looking at the wood chip landscaping for Psilocybe cyanescens and Psilocybe allenii . "
= = = Similar species = = =
Several Psilocybe species have an appearance roughly similar to P. allenii , but these can usually be distinguished by differences in morphology or distribution . The European species P. serbica var. moravica has a similar cap and stipe , but is generally more slender than P. allenii . The closely related P. cyanescens is indistinguishable by microscopic characteristics , but features a wavy cap in maturity , a longer fruiting season ( from late September through April ) , and lacks a ring zone on the stipe often seen in P. allenii . P. azurescens has a broader cap , an umbo that may be broad or acute , a longer stipe up to 20 cm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) , and a growing season similar to that of P. cyanescens . The authors also note that the Australian P. subaeruginosa is similar ( including three taxa that have since been synonymized : P. australiana , P. eucalypta , and P. tasmaniana ) but suggest that further research is required to better understand the delimitation of this species complex .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Psilocybe allenii is found in the northwestern North America , with a range extending from British Columbia south to Los Angeles , California . It is most common in areas up to 10 miles ( 16 km ) from the Pacific coast , although it has been collected 100 miles ( 160 km ) inland . Fruitbodies grow scattered , in groups , or ( more rarely ) in clusters , on woody debris , such as wood chips often used in landscaping . Favored substrates include hardwood mulches made of oak , eucalyptus , Douglas fir , and alder . Fruiting occurs in cold weather , generally from late September to January . The species can be readily cultivated on agar , grain spawn , and cellulosic material , including wood chips and sawdust .
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= Suillellus luridus =
Suillellus luridus ( formerly Boletus luridus ) , commonly known as the lurid bolete , is a fungus of the bolete family , found in deciduous woodlands on chalky soils in Asia , Europe , and eastern North America . Fruit bodies appear in summer and autumn and may be abundant . It is a solid bolete with an olive @-@ brown cap up to 20 cm ( 8 in ) in diameter , with small red pores on the underside . The stout ochre stem reaches 8 – 14 cm ( 3 – 6 in ) high and 1 – 3 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 – 1 @.@ 2 in ) wide , and is patterned with a red mesh @-@ work . Like several other red @-@ pored boletes , it stains blue when bruised or cut . Though edible when cooked , it can cause gastric upset when eaten raw and can be confused with the poisonous Boletus satanas , though the latter species has a pale cap ; as a result , some guidebooks recommend avoiding consumption altogether . When consumed with alcohol , Suillellus luridus has been implicated in causing adverse reactions similar to those caused by the compound coprine , though laboratory testing has not revealed any evidence of coprine in the mushroom .
First described in 1774 , the species has been transferred to various Boletaceae genera in its taxonomic history , although it retained the original name given to it by German botanist Jacob Christian Schaeffer until a transfer to genus Suillellus in 2014 . Several varieties , a subspecies , and a form have been described by European mycologists . Suillellus luridus is mycorrhizal , forming a symbiotic association with deciduous trees such as oak , birch and beech , and has been found to have a growth @-@ enhancing effect on conifers in experiments . The fruit bodies are highly attractive to , and often infested by , insects , and several species of fly have been recorded feeding on them . Chemical analyses have revealed some aspects of the mushroom 's components , including its volatile flavour compounds , its fatty acid and amino acid compositions , and the identities of the carotenoid compounds responsible for its colour .
= = Taxonomy = =
Boletus luridus was described by German botanist Jacob Christian Schäffer in 1774 , in his series on fungi of Bavaria and the Palatinate , Fungorum qui in Bavaria et Palatinatu circa Ratisbonam nascuntur icones . The specific epithet is the Latin adjective luridus , ' sallow ' . French botanist Pierre Bulliard 's 1791 Boletus rubeolarius is a heterotypic synonym ( based on a different type ) . The following year , Johann Friedrich Gmelin called it Boletus subvescus , from the Latin words sub " nearly " or " under " , and vescus " edible " . However , this is a nomen nudum . Several taxonomical synonyms arose when the species was transferred to different genera within the family Boletaceae by different authorities , including Leccinum by Samuel Frederick Gray in 1821 , Tubiporus by Petter Karsten in 1881 , Dictyopus by Lucien Quélet in 1888 , and Suillellus by William Murrill in 1909 .
The variety Boletus luridus var. erythropus , published as " beta " by Elias Magnus Fries in his 1821 Systema Mycologicum , is synonymous with Boletus erythropus . Boletus luridus var. rubriceps was originally described from Spain ( as a species of Tubiporus ) by René Maire in 1937 , and later formally transferred to Boletus by Aurel Dermek in 1987 . Other varieties of B. luridus include Roman Schulz 's var. obscurus and var. rubromaculatus published in 1924 ; Josef Velenovský 's 1939 var. tenuipes , found in the Czech Republic ; and Jean Blum 's 1969 var. lupiniformis and var. queletiformis , originally described from France and Spain , respectively . Boletus erythrentheron , originally described as a distinct species by Jan Bezděk , was later published as the variety B. luridus var. erythrentheron by Albert Pilát and Dermek in 1979 , and finally as a subspecies by Jiri Hlavácek in 1995 . Carmine Lavorato and Giampaolo Simonini defined the form primulicolor from Sardinia in 1997 . Rolf Singer 's 1947 variety caucasicus is currently considered an independent species , Boletus caucasicus Singer ex . Alessio . Similarly , B. luridus f. sinensis , found in Hainan Province , China , was later elevated to distinct species status as B. sinensis .
Boletus luridus is the type species of Boletus section Luridi , originally circumscribed by Fries in 1838 . This section includes species producing medium to large fruit bodies with thick , swollen stems , and minute pores that are coloured red , orange , or brown . However , the genus as a whole is strongly paraphyletic and will probably be fragmented once further studies have resolved relationships to a finer detail . Manfred Binder and David Hibbett showed B. luridus to be most closely related to a group containing B. torosus and B. luteocupreus , with B. vermiculosus and Pulveroboletus ravenelii as more distant relatives , based on molecular phylogenetics inferred from ribosomal DNA sequences . In a separate molecular study of ten frequently eaten European boletes , B. luridus clustered together with B. rhodoxanthus . Genetic analysis published in 2013 shows that B. luridus and many ( but not all ) red @-@ pored boletes are part of a dupainii clade ( named for Boletus dupainii ) , well @-@ removed from the core group of Boletus edulis and relatives within the Boletineae . For this reason , it is now considered a species of Suillellus .
The English common name is lurid bolete . Both it and Boletus satanas are known as ayimantari , " bear mushroom " , in Eastern Turkey .
= = Description = =
Suillellus luridus is a stout fungus with a thick yellow @-@ olive to olive @-@ brown convex cushion @-@ shaped cap that can reach 20 cm ( 8 in ) in diameter . The cap colour tends to darken with age , and regions of red , orange , purple , brown , or olive @-@ green can develop in maturity . The cap surface is tomentose ( velvety ) , becoming smoother with old age , and sticky in wet weather . The pore surface is initially dark red before turning orange @-@ red , and has a lighter @-@ coloured zone encircling the margin . There are 2 – 3 circular pores per millimetre , and the tubes are 1 – 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 – 0 @.@ 8 in ) deep . The tubes are shorter around the cap margin and close to the stem , where they form a circular depression . Initially pale yellow , the tubes gradually become olive @-@ yellow and then bluish @-@ green upon exposure to air . A characteristic feature is the presence of a maroon layer between the tubes and the flesh . The thick stem is 8 – 14 cm ( 3 – 6 in ) tall and 1 – 3 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 – 1 @.@ 2 in ) wide , and bears a distinctive orange @-@ red meshlike pattern on a paler yellowish or ochre background . The flesh is yellowish , with red marks in the cap , and stains an intense dark blue when bruised or broken . There is a faint sour smell , and the taste is described as mild .
Variety queletiformis can be distinguished from the main form by the reddish discolouration of the stem base that occurs both on the exterior surface and in the flesh . Variety rubriceps has a deep crimson red cap , while var. lupiniformis has a pale yellow or dirty ochre cap , sometimes with pink tones throughout .
The spore dust is olive to brownish olive . The spores are oval to somewhat fuse @-@ shaped , measuring 11 – 15 μm long by 4 @.@ 5 – 6 @.@ 5 μm wide . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) are club @-@ shaped and four @-@ spored , and measure 29 @.@ 2 – 36 @.@ 5 by 11 @.@ 0 – 12 @.@ 4 μm . Cystidia on the sides of the tubes ( pleurocystidia ) are fuse @-@ shaped with swollen middles and long necks , measuring 33 – 48 by 7 @.@ 3 – 13 @.@ 5 μm ; cheilocystidia ( on the edges of the pores ) have a similar morphology . The cap cuticle is made of cylindrical hyphae 3 @.@ 7 – 5 @.@ 8 μm wide that are interwoven compactly , and the hyphal tips are erect and arranged in bundles . In contrast , the hyphae of the cap flesh is loosely interwoven with hyphae that are cylindrical and branched , measuring 3 @.@ 7 – 8 @.@ 8 μm . Hyphae do not contain clamp connections . The mycelium is an unusual yellow colour .
Some chemical tests can be used to help identify the mushroom . A drop of dilute potassium hydroxide placed on the cap cuticle will stain dark red to blackish , and orange @-@ yellow on the flesh , while ferrous sulphate solution turns the cuticle yellow and then greenish @-@ yellow . Melzer 's reagent will turn the flesh dark blue , after the natural bluing reaction to injury has faded .
= = = Similar species = = =
Also found on calcareous ( chalky ) soils , Rubroboletus satanas is larger and has a pale cap , and its upper stem lacks the reticulations characteristic of S. luridus . Its flesh does not turn blue so markedly on bruising or cutting . It has a more globular overall shape , and young mushrooms carry a smell of decay . The edible Neoboletus luridiformis can be distinguished from S. luridus by its dark brown cap ; it also grows on sandy soils associated with conifers . In North America , it can be confused with the poisonous Rubroboletus pulcherrimus , which has a fatter stalk and deeper red pores . Initially collected in Michigan under oak , Boletus vinaceobasis resembles S. luridus but has shorter spores and its cystidia are dark brown in Melzer 's reagent . Boletus species that share a similar appearance with S. luridus but lack reticulation in their stems include B. subvelutipes ( found in North America and Asia ) and B. hypocarycinus ( United States ) .
Boletus caucasicus , found in southern Europe , has yellow flesh in the cap tissue immediately above the tube layer , in contrast to the reddish colour of the same flesh found in S. luridus . Another European species , Rubroboletus rhodoxanthus , has characteristic pinkish tones in the cap . The Chinese species Neoboletus sinensis , originally described as a form of S. luridus , can be most reliably distinguished from the latter by its larger spores , which have been reported to be as large as 12 – 17 by 5 @.@ 5 – 7 μm . Fruit bodies closely resembling S. luridus have been recorded in Australia , though renamed Boletus barragensis as they differ in spore size and preference for trees of the family Myrtaceae .
= = Ecology and distribution = =
The fungus grows in a mycorrhizal association with deciduous trees such as oak , birch and beech on chalky soils . It is also suspected of being a mycorrhizal associate of subshrub rock roses in the genus Helianthemum . Field studies indicate that the fungus , when paired as a mycorrhizal partner with seedlings of the conifer Cunninghamia lanceolata , increases the seedling 's survival rate , augments its height and ground diameter , and increases the chlorophyll content in the leaves . A similar growth @-@ enhancing effect had been noted earlier with Pinus taiwanensis seedlings . These beneficial effects on plant growth are a result of multiple interactions among the fungus , host plant , and indigenous soil microbes that increase the biomass of carbon , and increase the bacterial diversity in the mycorrhizosphere . In a study comparing the salinity resistance of three common ectomycorrhizal fungi ( the others were Suillus bovinus and S. luteus ) , S. luridus was the most tolerant to high concentrations of salt , and is a good candidate species for the inoculation of tree seedlings to be planted on saline soil . Fruit bodies grow singly or scattered on the ground , from June to November after summer rains . S. luridus may occur in parks near a single tree , though it will not be found in acidic soils .
The predilection of insects for this mushroom was noted by 19th @-@ century British mycologist Anna Maria Hussey , who wrote in 1847 :
there are very few of the soft @-@ fleshed tribes , all of which are the nurseries of innumerable insects , so much in favour as the poisonous Boletus luridus , on breaking an old one it is a living mass of larvae . Our present subject is so soon attacked by insects that it is very rare to find specimens devoid of wriggling life , and being a very common and abundant kind , it must be of great service in the economy of insect existence .
Several fly species have been recorded feeding on the fruit bodies , including Phaonia boleticola , P. rufipalpis , Thricops diaphanus , and , in North America , Drosophila falleni , Pegomya mallochi , P. winthemi , Megaselia pygmaeoides , and Muscina assimilis . In contrast , slugs tend to avoid consuming this species .
The fungus is widespread in Europe , east to the Black Sea region and eastern Anatolia in Turkey , and Pakistan , where it has been recorded from Khanspur , Kuzagali , Sudhan Gali and Hajinpir . In North America , it is known from eastern Canada and the United States east of the Great Lakes , although in one instance it was found in North Dakota . Its range extends south to Mexico , and it has been recorded once from Costa Rica . In Asia , it has been found in the Bar 'am Forest in the Upper Galilee in northern Israel , and India . Taiwan , It is widely distributed in China , having been found in Hebei , Jiangsu , Anhui , Henan , Guangdong , and Yunnan provinces . The variety rubriceps has been recorded growing under linden ( Tilia ) in the Czech Republic .
= = Toxicity = =
Mild tasting , Suillellus luridus is edible after thorough cooking and is highly regarded in France . It is also commonly consumed in Italy and China . The mushroom is sold in regional markets in central Mexico ; despite this , it is considered inedible by inhabitants of La Malinche National Park . Caution is advised if choosing this species for consumption , as it resembles other less edible blue @-@ staining boletes . Some guidebooks recommend avoiding it altogether . If eaten raw or insufficiently cooked , symptoms of gastrointestinal poisoning can occur within 30 minutes to two hours , including nausea , vomiting , abdominal cramps , and diarrhoea . A full recovery can be expected within 24 to 48 hours if fluid losses are restored . Chemical analysis has revealed traces of the toxin muscarine and its stereoisomers .
Suillellus luridus has been suspected of causing an enhanced alcohol sensitivity similar to that caused by the common ink cap ( Coprinopsis atramentaria ) , with gastric symptoms . A German mycologist reported having suffered symptoms himself upon imbibing alcohol with this " otherwise excellent " mushroom . A 1982 report of three cases from Switzerland further incriminated the species , yet a 1994 study casts doubt on this ; researchers Ulrich Kiwitt and Hartmut Laatsch looked for antabuse @-@ like compound coprine content in S. luridus and similar species , and found none in the historical suspect but did find indications for it in the rare B. torosus . They concluded that the most likely explanation for historical incidents was a misidentification of B. torosus with S. luridus , though they could not rule out S. luridus containing a hitherto unidentified compound causing alcohol @-@ related reactions .
= = Chemistry = =
The composition of the volatile flavour compounds of Suillellus luridus consists largely of linoleic acid , with smaller proportions of 1 @-@ butanol , 3 @-@ methyl @-@ 1 @-@ butanol , pentadecanoic acid , palmitic acid , linoleic acid methyl ester , and heptadecanoic acid . Pyrazine compounds might be responsible for the characteristic odour of the dried mushroom . The predominant sterol present in the fruit bodies is ergosterol , with smaller amounts of closely related derivative compounds . The main fatty acids of the mushroom include linoleic acid ( 53 @.@ 4 % of total fatty acids ) , oleic acid ( 24 @.@ 1 % ) , and palmitic acid ( 10 @.@ 2 % ) . Arginine is the free amino acid found in the highest concentration ( 96 @.@ 9 μM per gram of dry weight ) , followed by glutamine ( 9 @.@ 7 ) and alanine ( 8 @.@ 2 ) .
The carotenoid content of the fruit bodies differs substantially between the cap , the tubes , and the stem . The upper part of the cap , which contains 3 @.@ 1 micrograms of carotenoid per gram ( µg / g ) fresh weight , has predominantly mutatochrome ( 47 % of total carotenoids ) , 4 @-@ keto @-@ α @-@ carotene ( 40 @.@ 2 % ) , and δ @-@ carotene ( 6 @.@ 4 % ) . The major carotenoids in the tubes ( totaling 4 @.@ 3 µg / g ) include neurosporaxanthin ( 31 @.@ 1 % ) , auroxanthin ( 17 @.@ 2 % ) , 4 @-@ keto @-@ α @-@ carotene ( 17 @.@ 1 % ) , and rhodopin ( 15 @.@ 8 % ) . The stem ( 1 @.@ 2 µg / g ) contains primarily auroxanthin ( 32 @.@ 5 % ) , followed by 4 @-@ keto @-@ α @-@ carotene ( 19 @.@ 9 % ) , β @-@ zeacarotene ( 18 @.@ 5 % ) , and rhodopin ( 11 @.@ 4 % ) . The colour change observed with tissue injury is caused by variegatic and xerocomic acids , both of which turn blue when oxidized enzymatically upon exposure to air .
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= Yasser Arafat =
Mohammed Yasser Abdel Rahman Abdel Raouf Arafat al @-@ Qudwa ( / ˈærəˌfæt , ˈɑːrəˌfɑːt / ; Arabic : محمد ياسر عبد الرحمن عبد الرؤوف عرفات ; 24 August 1929 – 11 November 2004 ) , popularly known as Yasser Arafat ( Arabic : ياسر عرفات , Yāsir `Arafāt ) or by his kunya Abu Ammar ( Arabic : أبو عمار , ' Abū `Ammār ) , was a Palestinian leader . He was Chairman of the Palestine Liberation Organization ( PLO ) , President of the Palestinian National Authority ( PNA ) , and leader of the Fatah political party and former paramilitary group , which he founded in 1959 . Originally opposed to Israel 's existence , he modified his position in 1988 when he accepted UN Security Council Resolution 242 . Arafat and his movement operated from several Arab countries . In the late 1960s and early 1970s , Fatah faced off with Jordan in a brief civil war . Forced out of Jordan and into Lebanon , Arafat and Fatah were major targets of Israel 's 1978 and 1982 invasions of that country .
Later in his career , Arafat engaged in a series of negotiations with the government of Israel to end the decades @-@ long conflict between it and the PLO . These included the Madrid Conference of 1991 , the 1993 Oslo Accords and the 2000 Camp David Summit . His political rivals , including Islamists and several PLO leftists , often denounced him for being corrupt or too submissive in his concessions to the Israeli government . In 1994 Arafat received the Nobel Peace Prize , together with Yitzhak Rabin and Shimon Peres , for the negotiations at Oslo . During this time , Hamas and other militant organizations rose to power and shook the foundations of the authority that Fatah under Arafat had established in the Palestinian territories . In late 2004 , after effectively being confined within his Ramallah compound for over two years by the Israeli army , Arafat became ill , fell into a coma and died on 11 November 2004 at the age of 75 . While the cause of Arafat 's death has remained the subject of speculation , investigations by Russian and French teams determined no foul play was involved .
Arafat remains a controversial figure . The majority of the Palestinian people — regardless of political ideology or faction — viewed him as a heroic freedom fighter and martyr who symbolized the national aspirations of his people , while many Israelis have described him as an unrepentant terrorist .
= = Early life = =
= = = Birth and childhood = = =
Arafat was born in Cairo , Egypt . His father , Abdel Raouf al @-@ Qudwa al @-@ Husseini , was a Palestinian from Gaza City , whose mother , Yasser 's paternal grandmother , was Egyptian . Arafat 's father battled in the Egyptian courts for 25 years to claim family land in Egypt as part of his inheritance but was unsuccessful . He worked as a textile merchant in Cairo 's religiously mixed Sakakini District . Arafat was the second @-@ youngest of seven children and was , along with his younger brother Fathi , the only offspring born in Cairo . His mother , Zahwa Abul Saud , was from a Jerusalem @-@ based family . She died from a kidney ailment in 1933 , when Arafat was four years of age .
Arafat 's first visit to Jerusalem came when his father , unable to raise seven children alone , sent him and his brother Fathi to their mother 's family in the Moroccan Quarter of the Old City . They lived there with their uncle Salim Abul Saud for four years . In 1937 , their father recalled them to be taken care of by their older sister , Inam . Arafat had a deteriorating relationship with his father ; when he died in 1952 , Arafat did not attend the funeral , nor did he visit his father 's grave upon his return to Gaza . Arafat 's sister Inam stated in an interview with Arafat 's biographer , British historian Alan Hart , that Arafat was heavily beaten by his father for going to the Jewish quarter in Cairo and attending religious services . When she asked Arafat why he would not stop going , he responded by saying that he wanted to study Jewish mentality .
= = = Education = = =
In 1944 , Arafat enrolled in the University of King Fuad I and graduated in 1950 . He later claimed to have sought a better understanding of Judaism and Zionism by engaging in discussions with Jews and reading publications by Theodor Herzl and other prominent Zionists . At the same time , he became an Arab nationalist and began procuring weapons to be smuggled into the former British Mandate of Palestine , for use by irregulars in the Arab Higher Committee and the Army of the Holy War militias .
During the 1948 Arab – Israeli War , Arafat left the University and , along with other Arabs , sought to enter Palestine to join Arab forces fighting against Israeli troops and the creation of the state of Israel . However , instead of joining the ranks of the Palestinian fedayeen , Arafat fought alongside the Muslim Brotherhood , although he did not join the organization . He took part in combat in the Gaza area ( which was the main battleground of Egyptian forces during the conflict ) . In early 1949 , the war was winding down in Israel 's favor , and Arafat returned to Cairo from a lack of logistical support .
After returning to the University , Arafat studied civil engineering and served as president of the General Union of Palestinian Students ( GUPS ) from 1952 to 1956 . During his first year as president of the union , the University was renamed Cairo University after a coup was carried out by the Free Officers Movement overthrowing King Farouk I. By that time , Arafat had graduated with a bachelor 's degree in civil engineering and was called to duty to fight with Egyptian forces during the Suez Crisis ; however , he never actually fought . Later that year , at a conference in Prague , he donned a solid white keffiyeh – different from the fishnet @-@ patterned one he adopted later in Kuwait , which was to become his emblem .
= = = Marriage = = =
In 1990 , Arafat married Suha Tawil , a Palestinian Christian when he was 61 and Suha , 27 . Before their marriage , she was working as a secretary for Arafat in Tunis after her mother introduced her to him in France . Prior to Arafat 's marriage , he adopted fifty Palestinian war orphans .
During her marriage , Suha tried to leave Arafat on many occasions , but was not permitted to by her husband . She views her marriage to Arafat as a mistake . Suha said she regrets the marriage and given the choice again , would not have wed him .
On 24 July 1995 , Arafat 's wife Suha gave birth to a daughter in Neuilly @-@ sur @-@ Seine , France . She was named Zahwa after Arafat 's deceased mother .
= = = Name = = =
Arafat 's full name was Mohammed Abdel Rahman Abdel Raouf Arafat al @-@ Qudwa . Mohammed Abdel Rahman was his first name , Abdel Raouf was his father 's name and Arafat his grandfather 's . Al @-@ Qudwa was the name of his tribe and al @-@ Husseini was that of the clan to which the al @-@ Qudwas belonged . The al @-@ Husseini clan was based in Gaza and is not related to the well @-@ known al @-@ Husayni clan of Jerusalem .
Since Arafat was raised in Cairo , the tradition of dropping the Mohammed or Ahmad portion of one 's first name was common ; notable Egyptians such as Anwar Sadat and Hosni Mubarak did so . However , Arafat also dropped Abdel Rahman and Abdel Raouf from his name as well . During the early 1950s , Arafat adopted the name Yasser , and in the early years of Arafat 's guerrilla career , he assumed the nom de guerre of Abu Ammar . Both names are related to Ammar ibn Yasir , one of Muhammad 's early companions . Although he dropped most of his inherited names , he retained Arafat due to its significance in Islam .
= = Rise of Fatah = =
= = = Founding of Fatah = = =
Following the Suez Crisis in 1956 , Egyptian president Gamal Abdel Nasser agreed to allow the United Nations Emergency Force to establish itself in the Sinai Peninsula and Gaza Strip , precipitating the expulsion of all guerrilla or " fedayeen " forces there — including Arafat . Arafat originally attempted to obtain a visa to Canada and later Saudi Arabia , but was unsuccessful in both attempts . In 1957 , he applied for a visa to Kuwait ( at the time a British protectorate ) and was approved , based on his work in civil engineering . There he encountered two Palestinian friends : Salah Khalaf ( " Abu Iyad " ) and Khalil al @-@ Wazir ( " Abu Jihad " ) , both official members of the Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood . Arafat had met Abu Iyad while attending Cairo University and Abu Jihad in Gaza . Both would later become Arafat 's top aides . Abu Iyad traveled with Arafat to Kuwait in late 1960 ; Abu Jihad , also working as a teacher , had already been living there since 1959 . After settling in Kuwait , Abu Iyad helped Arafat obtain a temporary job as a schoolteacher .
As Arafat began to develop friendships with Palestinian refugees ( some of whom he knew from his Cairo days ) , he and the others gradually founded the group that became known as Fatah . The exact date for the establishment of Fatah is unknown . In 1959 , the group 's existence was attested to in the pages of a Palestinian nationalist magazine , Filastununa Nida al @-@ Hayat ( Our Palestine , The Call of Life ) , which was written and edited by Abu Jihad . FaTaH is a reverse acronym of the Arabic name Harakat al @-@ Tahrir al @-@ Watani al @-@ Filastini which translates into " The Palestinian National Liberation Movement " . " Fatah " is also a word that was used in early Islamic times to refer to " conquest . "
Fatah dedicated itself to the liberation of Palestine by an armed struggle carried out by Palestinians themselves . This differed from other Palestinian political and guerrilla organizations , most of which firmly believed in a united Arab response . Arafat 's organization never embraced the ideologies of the major Arab governments of the time , in contrast to other Palestinian factions , which often became satellites of nations such as Egypt , Iraq , Saudi Arabia , Syria and others .
In accordance with his ideology , Arafat generally refused to accept donations to his organization from major Arab governments , in order to act independently of them . He did not want to alienate them , and sought their undivided support by avoiding ideological alliances . However , to establish the groundwork for Fatah 's future financial support , he enlisted contributions from the many wealthy Palestinians working in Kuwait and other Arab states of the Persian Gulf , such as Qatar ( where he met Mahmoud Abbas in 1961 ) . These businessmen and oil workers contributed generously to the Fatah organization . Arafat continued this process in other Arab countries , such as Libya and Syria .
In 1962 , Arafat and his closest companions migrated to Syria — a country sharing a border with Israel — which had recently seceded from its union with Egypt . Fatah had approximately three hundred members by this time , but none were fighters . In Syria , he managed to recruit members by offering them higher incomes to enable his armed attacks against Israel . Fatah 's manpower was incremented further after Arafat decided to offer new recruits much higher salaries than members of the Palestine Liberation Army ( PLA ) , the regular military force of the Palestine Liberation Organization ( PLO ) , which was created by the Arab League in 1964 . On 31 December , a squad from al @-@ Assifa , Fatah 's armed wing , attempted to infiltrate Israel , but they were intercepted and detained by Lebanese security forces . Several other raids with Fatah 's poorly trained and badly @-@ equipped fighters followed this incident . Some were successful , others failed in their missions . Arafat often led these incursions personally .
Arafat was detained in Syria 's Mezzeh Prison when a Palestinian Syrian Army officer , Yusef Urabi , was killed . Urabi had been chairing a meeting to ease tensions between Arafat and Palestinian Liberation Front leader Ahmed Jibril , but neither Arafat nor Jibril attended , delegating representatives to attend on their behalf . Urabi was killed during or after the meeting amid disputed circumstances . On the orders of Defense Minister Hafez al @-@ Assad , a close friend of Urabi , Arafat was subsequently arrested , found guilty by a three @-@ man jury and sentenced to death . However , he and his colleagues were pardoned by President Salah Jadid shortly after the verdict . The incident brought Assad and Arafat to unpleasant terms , which would surface later when Assad became President of Syria .
= = = Leader of the Palestinians = = =
On 13 November 1966 , Israel launched a major raid against the Jordanian administered West Bank town of as @-@ Samu , in response to a Fatah @-@ implemented roadside bomb attack which had killed three members of the Israeli security forces near the southern Green Line border . In the resulting skirmish , scores of Jordanian security forces were killed and 125 homes razed . This raid was one of several factors that led to the 1967 Six @-@ Day War .
The Six @-@ Day war began when Israel launched air strikes against Egypt 's air force on 5 June 1967 . The war ended in an Arab defeat and Israel 's occupation of several Arab territories , including the West Bank and Gaza Strip . Although Nasser and his Arab allies had been defeated , Arafat and Fatah could claim a victory , in that the majority of Palestinians , who had up to that time tended to align and sympathize with individual Arab governments , now began to agree that a ' Palestinian ' solution to their dilemma was indispensable . Many primarily Palestinian political parties , including George Habash 's Arab Nationalist Movement , Hajj Amin al @-@ Husseini 's Arab Higher Committee , the Islamic Liberation Front and several Syrian @-@ backed groups , virtually crumbled after their sponsor governments ' defeat . Barely a week after the defeat , Arafat crossed the Jordan River in disguise and entered the West Bank , where he set up recruitment centers in Hebron , the Jerusalem area and Nablus , and began attracting both fighters and financiers for his cause .
At the same time , Nasser contacted Arafat through the former 's adviser Mohammed Heikal and Arafat was declared by Nasser to be the " leader of the Palestinians . " In December 1967 Ahmad Shukeiri resigned his post as PLO Chairman . Yahya Hammuda took his place and invited Arafat to join the organization . Fatah was allocated 33 of 105 seats of the PLO Executive Committee while 57 seats were left for several other guerrilla factions .
= = = Battle of Karameh = = =
Throughout 1968 , Fatah and other Palestinian armed groups were the target of a major Israeli army operation in the Jordanian village of Karameh , where the Fatah headquarters — as well as a mid @-@ sized Palestinian refugee camp — were located . The town 's name is the Arabic word for ' dignity ' , which elevated its symbolism in the eyes of the Arab people , especially after the collective Arab defeat in 1967 . The operation was in response to attacks , including rockets strikes from Fatah and other Palestinian militias , within the Israeli @-@ occupied West Bank . According to Said Aburish , the government of Jordan and a number of Fatah commandos informed Arafat that large @-@ scale Israeli military preparations for an attack on the town were underway , prompting fedayeen groups , such as George Habash 's newly formed Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine ( PFLP ) and Nayef Hawatmeh 's breakaway organization the Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine ( DFLP ) , to withdraw their forces from the town . Though advised by a sympathetic Jordanian Army divisional commander to withdraw his men and headquarters to the nearby hills , Arafat refused , stating , " We want to convince the world that there are those in the Arab world who will not withdraw or flee . " Aburish writes that it was on Arafat 's orders that Fatah remained , and that the Jordanian Army agreed to back them if heavy fighting ensued .
In response to persistent PLO raids against Israeli civilian targets , Israel attacks the town of Karameh , Jordan , the site of a major PLO camp . The goal of the invasion was to destroy Karameh camp and capture Yasser Arafat in reprisal for the attacks by the PLO against Israeli civilians , which culminated in an Israeli school bus hitting a mine in the Negev . However , plans for the two operations were prepared in 1967 , one year before the bus incident . When Jordan saw the size of the raiding forces entering the battle it was lead to the assumption that Israel had another goal of capturing Balqa Governorate to create a Golan Heights similar situation . Israel assumed that the Jordanian Army would ignore the invasion , but the latter fought alongside the Palestinians and opened heavy fire that inflicted losses upon the Israeli forces . This engagement marked the first known deployment of suicide bombers by Palestinian forces . The Israelis were repelled at the end of a day 's battle , having destroyed most of the Karameh camp and taken around 141 PLO prisoners . Both sides declared victory . On a tactical level , the battle went in Israel 's favor and the destruction of the Karameh camp was achieved . However , the relatively high casualties were a considerable surprise for the Israel Defense Forces and was stunning to the Israelis . Although the Palestinians were not victorious on their own , King Hussein let the Palestinians take credit . Some have alleged that Arafat himself was on the battlefield , but the details of his involvement are unclear . However , his allies – as well as Israeli intelligence – confirm that he urged his men throughout the battle to hold their ground and continue fighting .
The battle was covered in detail by Time , and Arafat 's face appeared on the cover of the 13 December 1968 issue , bringing his image to the world for the first time . Amid the post @-@ war environment , the profiles of Arafat and Fatah were raised by this important turning point , and he came to be regarded as a national hero who dared to confront Israel . With mass applause from the Arab world , financial donations increased significantly , and Fatah 's weaponry and equipment improved . The group 's numbers swelled as many young Arabs , including thousands of non @-@ Palestinians , joined the ranks of Fatah .
When the Palestinian National Council ( PNC ) convened in Cairo on 3 February 1969 , Yahya Hammuda stepped down from his chairmanship of the PLO . Arafat was elected chairman on 4 February . He became Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the Palestinian Revolutionary Forces two years later , and in 1973 , became the head of the PLO 's political department .
= = Confrontation with Jordan = =
In the late 1960s , tensions between Palestinians and the Jordanian government increased greatly ; heavily armed Palestinian elements had created a virtual " state within a state " in Jordan , eventually controlling several strategic positions in that country . After their proclaimed victory in the Battle of Karameh , Fatah and other Palestinian militias began taking control of civil life in Jordan . They set up roadblocks , publicly humiliated Jordanian police forces , molested women and levied illegal taxes — all of which Arafat either condoned or ignored . King Hussein considered this a growing threat to his kingdom 's sovereignty and security , and attempted to disarm the militias . However , in order to avoid a military confrontation with opposition forces , Hussein dismissed several of his anti @-@ PLO cabinet officials , including some of his own family members , and invited Arafat to become Prime Minister of Jordan . Arafat refused , citing his belief in the need for a Palestinian state with Palestinian leadership .
Despite Hussein 's intervention , militant actions in Jordan continued . On 15 September 1970 , the PFLP hijacked five planes and landed three of them at Dawson 's Field , located 30 miles ( 48 km ) east of Amman . After the passengers were moved to other locations , three of the planes were blown up . This tarnished Arafat 's image in many western nations , including the United States , who held him responsible for controlling Palestinian factions that belonged to the PLO . Arafat , bowing to pressure from Arab governments , publicly condemned the hijackings and suspended the PFLP from any guerrilla actions for a few weeks . He had taken the same action after the PFLP attacked Athens Airport . The Jordanian government moved to regain control over its territory , and the next day , King Hussein declared martial law . On the same day , Arafat became supreme commander of the PLA .
As the conflict raged , other Arab governments attempted to negotiate a peaceful resolution . As part of this effort , Gamal Abdel Nasser led the first emergency Arab League summit in Cairo on 21 September . Arafat 's speech drew sympathy from attending Arab leaders . Other heads of state took sides against Hussein , among them Muammar Gaddafi , who mocked him and his schizophrenic father King Talal . A ceasefire was agreed upon between the two sides , but Nasser died of a massive heart attack hours after the summit , and the conflict resumed shortly afterward .
By 25 September , the Jordanian army achieved dominance , and two days later Arafat and Hussein agreed to a ceasefire in Amman . The Jordanian army inflicted heavy casualties on the Palestinians — including civilians — who suffered approximately 3 @,@ 500 fatalities . After repeated violations of the ceasefire from both the PLO and the Jordanian Army , Arafat called for King Hussein to be toppled . Responding to the threat , in June 1971 , Hussein ordered his forces to oust all remaining Palestinian fighters in northern Jordan , which they accomplished . Arafat and a number of his forces , including two high @-@ ranking commanders , Abu Iyad and Abu Jihad , were forced into the northern corner of Jordan . They relocated near the town of Jerash , near the border with Syria . With the help of Munib Masri , a pro @-@ Palestinian Jordanian cabinet member , and Fahd al @-@ Khomeimi , the Saudi ambassador to Jordan , Arafat managed to enter Syria with nearly two thousand of his fighters . However , due to the hostility of relations between Arafat and Syrian President Hafez al @-@ Assad ( who had since ousted President Salah Jadid ) , the Palestinian fighters crossed the border into Lebanon to join PLO forces in that country , where they set up their new headquarters .
= = Headquarters in Lebanon = =
= = = Official recognition = = =
Because of Lebanon 's weak central government , the PLO was able to operate virtually as an independent state . During this time in the 1970s , numerous leftist PLO groups took up arms against Israel , carrying out attacks against civilians as well as military targets within Israel and outside of it .
Two major incidents occurred in 1972 . The Fatah subgroup Black September hijacked Sabena Flight 572 en route to Vienna and forced it to land at the Ben Gurion International Airport in Lod , Israel . The PFLP and the Japanese Red Army carried out a shooting rampage at the same airport , killing twenty @-@ four civilians . Israel later claimed that the assassination of PFLP spokesman Ghassan Kanafani was a response to the PFLP 's involvement in masterminding the latter attack . Two days later , various PLO factions retaliated by bombing a bus station , killing eleven civilians .
At the Munich Olympic Games , Black September kidnapped and killed eleven Israeli athletes . A number of sources , including Mohammed Oudeh ( Abu Daoud ) , one of the masterminds of the Munich massacre , and Benny Morris , a prominent Israeli historian , have stated that Black September was an armed branch of Fatah used for paramilitary operations . According to Abu Daoud 's 1999 book , " Arafat was briefed on plans for the Munich hostage @-@ taking . " The killings were internationally condemned . In 1973 – 74 , Arafat closed Black September down , ordering the PLO to withdraw from acts of violence outside Israel , the West Bank and Gaza Strip .
In 1974 , the PNC approved the Ten Point Program ( drawn up by Arafat and his advisers ) , and proposed a compromise with the Israelis . It called for a Palestinian national authority over every part of " liberated " Palestinian territory , which refers to areas captured by Arab forces in the 1948 Arab @-@ Israeli War ( present @-@ day West Bank , East Jerusalem and Gaza Strip ) . This caused discontent among several of the PLO factions ; the PFLP , DFLP and other parties formed a breakaway organization , the Rejectionist Front .
Israel and the US have alleged also that Arafat was involved in the 1973 Khartoum diplomatic assassinations , in which five diplomats and five others were killed . A 1973 United States Department of State document , declassified in 2006 , concluded " The Khartoum operation was planned and carried out with the full knowledge and personal approval of Yasser Arafat . " Arafat denied any involvement in the operation and insisted it was carried out independently by the Black September group . Israel claimed that Arafat was in ultimate control over these organizations and therefore had not abandoned terrorism .
In addition , some circles within the US State Department viewed Arafat as an able diplomat and negotiator who could get support from many Arab governments at once . An example of that , we find in March 1973 that Arafat tried to arrange for a meeting between the President of Iraq and the Emir of Kuwait in order to resolve their disputes .
Also in 1974 , the PLO was declared the " sole legitimate representative of the Palestinian people " and admitted to full membership of the Arab League at the Rabat Summit . Arafat became the first representative of a non @-@ governmental organization to address a plenary session of the UN General Assembly . In his United Nations address , Arafat condemned Zionism , but said , " Today I have come bearing an olive branch and a freedom fighter 's gun . Do not let the olive branch fall from my hand . " He wore a holster throughout his speech , although it did not contain a gun . His speech increased international sympathy for the Palestinian cause .
Following recognition , Arafat established relationships with a variety of world leaders , including Saddam Hussein and Idi Amin . Arafat was Amin 's best man at his wedding in Uganda in 1975 .
= = = Fatah involvement in Lebanese Civil War = = =
Although hesitant at first to take sides in the conflict , Arafat and Fatah played an important role in the Lebanese Civil War . Succumbing to pressure from PLO sub @-@ groups such as the PFLP , DFLP and the Palestine Liberation Front ( PLF ) , Arafat aligned the PLO with the Communist and Nasserist Lebanese National Movement ( LNM ) . The LNM was led by Kamal Jumblatt , who had a friendly relationship with Arafat and other PLO leaders . Although originally aligned with Fatah , Syrian President Hafez al @-@ Assad feared a loss of influence in Lebanon and switched sides . He sent his army , along with the Syrian @-@ backed Palestinian factions of as @-@ Sa 'iqa and the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine – General Command ( PFLP @-@ GC ) led by Ahmad Jibril to fight alongside right @-@ wing Christian forces against the PLO and the LNM . The primary components of the Christian front were the Phalangists loyal to Bachir Gemayel and the Tigers Militia led by Dany Chamoun , a son of former President Camille Chamoun .
In February 1975 , a pro @-@ Palestinian Lebanese MP , Maarouf Saad , was shot and killed , reportedly by the Lebanese Army . His death , from his wounds , the following month , and the massacre in April of that year of 27 Palestinians and Lebanese travelling on a bus from Sabra and Shatila to the Tel al @-@ Zaatar refugee camp by Phalangist forces , precipitated the Lebanese Civil War . Arafat was reluctant to respond with force , but many other Fatah and PLO members felt otherwise . For example , the DFLP carried out several attacks against the Lebanese Army . In 1976 , an alliance of Christian militias with the backing of the Lebanese and Syrian armies besieged Tel al @-@ Zaatar camp in east Beirut . The PLO and LNM retaliated by attacking the town of Damour , a Phalangist stronghold where they massacred 684 people and wounded many more . The Tel al @-@ Zaatar camp fell to the Christians after a six @-@ month siege in which thousands of Palestinians , mostly civilians , were killed . Arafat and Abu Jihad blamed themselves for not successfully organizing a rescue effort .
PLO cross @-@ border raids against Israel grew during the late 1970s . One of the most severe — known as the Coastal Road massacre — occurred on 11 March 1978 . A force of nearly a dozen Fatah fighters landed their boats near a major coastal road connecting the city of Haifa with Tel Aviv @-@ Yafo . There they hijacked a bus and sprayed gunfire inside and at passing vehicles , killing thirty @-@ seven civilians . In response , the IDF launched Operation Litani three days later , with the goal of taking control of Southern Lebanon up to the Litani River . The IDF achieved this goal , and Arafat withdrew PLO forces north into Beirut .
After Israel withdrew from Lebanon , cross @-@ border hostilities between PLO forces and Israel continued , though from August 1981 to May 1982 , the PLO adopted an official policy of refraining from responding to provocations . On 6 June 1982 , Israel launched an invasion of Lebanon to expel the PLO from southern Lebanon . Beirut was soon besieged and bombarded by the IDF ; Arafat declared the city to be the " Hanoi and Stalingrad of the Israeli army . " The Civil War 's first phase ended and Arafat — who was commanding Fatah forces at Tel al @-@ Zaatar — narrowly escaped with assistance from Saudi and Kuwaiti diplomats . Towards the end of the siege , the US and European governments brokered an agreement guaranteeing safe passage for Arafat and the PLO — guarded by a multinational force of eight hundred US Marines supported by the US Navy — to exile in Tunis .
Arafat returned to Lebanon a year after his eviction from Beirut , this time establishing himself in the northern Lebanese city of Tripoli . This time Arafat was expelled by a fellow Palestinian working under Hafez al @-@ Assad . Arafat did not return to Lebanon after his second expulsion , though many Fatah fighters did .
= = Headquarters in Tunisia = =
Arafat and Fatah 's center for operations was based in Tunis , the capital of Tunisia , until 1993 . In 1985 Arafat narrowly survived an Israeli assassination attempt when Israeli Air Force F @-@ 15s bombed his Tunis headquarters as part of Operation Wooden Leg , leaving 73 people dead ; Arafat had gone out jogging that morning .
= = = First Intifada = = =
During the 1980s , Arafat received financial assistance from Libya , Iraq and Saudi Arabia , which allowed him to reconstruct the badly damaged PLO . This was particularly useful during the First Intifada in December 1987 , which began as an uprising of Palestinians against the Israeli occupation of the West Bank and Gaza Strip . The word Intifada in Arabic is literally translated as " tremor " , however , it is generally defined as an uprising or revolt .
The first stage of the Intifada began following an incident at the Erez checkpoint where four Palestinian residents of the Jabalya refugee camp were killed in a traffic accident involving an Israeli driver . Rumors spread that the deaths were a deliberate act of revenge for an Israeli shopper that was stabbed to death by a Palestinian in Gaza four days earlier . Mass rioting broke out and within weeks and partly upon consistent requests by Abu Jihad , Arafat attempted to direct the uprising , which lasted until 1992 – 93 . Abu Jihad had previously been assigned the responsibility of the Palestinian territories within the PLO command and according to biographer Said Aburish , had " impressive knowledge of local conditions " in the Israeli @-@ occupied territories . On 16 April 1988 , as the Intifada was raging , Abu Jihad was assassinated in his Tunis household by an Israeli hit squad . Arafat had considered Abu Jihad as a PLO counterweight to local Palestinian leadership in the territories , and led a funeral procession for him in Damascus .
The most common tactic used by Palestinians during the Intifada was throwing stones , molotov cocktails , and burning tires . The local leadership in some West Bank towns commenced non @-@ violent protests against Israeli occupation by engaging in tax resistance and other boycotts . Israel responded by confiscating large sums of money in house @-@ to @-@ house raids . As the Intifada came to a close , new armed Palestinian groups — in particular Hamas and the Palestinian Islamic Jihad ( PIJ ) — began targeting Israeli civilians with the new tactic of suicide bombings , and internal fighting amongst the Palestinians increased dramatically .
= = = Change in direction = = =
In 1970 , Arafat declared : " Our basic aim is to liberate the land from the Mediterranean Sea to the Jordan River . We are not concerned with what took place in June 1967 or in eliminating the consequences of the June war . The Palestinian revolution 's basic concern is the uprooting of the Zionist entity from our land and liberating it . " However , in early 1976 , at a meeting with US Senator Adlai Stevenson III , Arafat suggested that if Israel withdrew a " few kilometers " from parts of the West Bank and the Gaza Strip and transferred responsibility to the UN , Arafat could give " something to show his people before he could acknowledge Israel 's right to exist " .
On 15 November 1988 , the PLO proclaimed the independent State of Palestine . Though he had frequently been accused of and associated with terrorism , in speeches on 13 and 14 December Arafat repudiated ' terrorism in all its forms , including state terrorism ' . He accepted UN Security Council Resolution 242 and Israel 's right " to exist in peace and security " and Arafat 's statements were greeted with approval by the US administration , which had long insisted on these statements as a necessary starting point for official discussions between the US and the PLO . These remarks from Arafat indicated a shift away from one of the PLO 's primary aims — the destruction of Israel ( as entailed in the Palestinian National Covenant ) – and toward the establishment of two separate entities : an Israeli state within the 1949 armistice lines , and an Arab state in the West Bank and the Gaza Strip . On 2 April 1989 , Arafat was elected by the Central Council of the Palestine National Council , the governing body of the PLO , to be the president of the proclaimed State of Palestine .
Prior to the Gulf War in 1990 – 91 , when the Intifada 's intensity began to wear down , Arafat supported Saddam Hussein 's invasion of Kuwait and opposed the US @-@ led coalition attack on Iraq . He made this decision without the consent of other leading members of Fatah and the PLO . Arafat 's top aide Abu Iyad vowed to stay neutral and opposed an alliance with Saddam ; On 17 January 1991 , Abu Iyad was assassinated by the Abu Nidal Organization . Arafat 's decision also severed relations with Egypt and many of the oil @-@ producing Arab states that supported the US @-@ led coalition . Many in the US also used Arafat 's position as a reason to disregard his claims to being a partner for peace . After the end of hostilities , many Arab states that backed the coalition cut off funds to the PLO and began providing financial support for the organization 's rival Hamas and other Islamist groups . Arafat narrowly escaped death again on 7 April 1992 , when an Air Bissau aircraft he was a passenger on crash @-@ landed in the Libyan Desert during a sandstorm . Two pilots and an engineer were killed ; Arafat was bruised and shaken .
= = Palestinian Authority and peace negotiations = =
= = = Oslo Accords = = =
In the early 1990s , Arafat and leading Fatah officials engaged the Israeli government in a series of secret talks and negotiations that led to the 1993 Oslo Accords . The agreement called for the implementation of Palestinian self @-@ rule in portions of the West Bank and Gaza Strip over a five @-@ year period , along with an immediate halt to and gradual removal of Israeli settlements in those areas . The accords called for a Palestinian police force to be formed from local recruits and Palestinians abroad , to patrol areas of self @-@ rule . Authority over the various fields of rule , including education and culture , social welfare , direct taxation and tourism , would be transferred to the Palestinian interim government . Both parties agreed also on forming a committee that would establish cooperation and coordination dealing with specific economic sectors , including utilities , industry , trade and communication .
Prior to signing the accords , Arafat — as Chairman of the PLO and its official representative — signed two letters renouncing violence and officially recognizing Israel . In return , Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin , on behalf of Israel , officially recognized the PLO . The following year , Arafat and Rabin were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize , along with Shimon Peres . The Palestinian reaction was mixed . The Rejectionist Front of the PLO allied itself with Islamists in a common opposition against the agreements . It was rejected also by Palestinian refugees in Lebanon , Syria , and Jordan as well as by many Palestinian intellectuals and the local leadership of the Palestinian territories . However , the inhabitants of the territories generally accepted the agreements and Arafat 's promise for peace and economic well @-@ being .
= = = Establishing authority in the territories = = =
In accordance with the terms of the Oslo agreement , Arafat was required to implement PLO authority in the West Bank and Gaza Strip . He insisted that financial support was imperative to establishing this authority and needed it to secure the acceptance of the agreements by the Palestinians living in those areas . However , Arab states of the Persian Gulf — Arafat 's usual source for financial backing — still refused to provide him and the PLO with any major donations because for siding with Iraq during the 1991 Gulf War . Ahmed Qurei — a key Fatah negotiator during the negotiations in Oslo — publicly announced that the PLO was bankrupt .
In 1994 , Arafat moved to Gaza City , which was controlled by the Palestinian National Authority ( PNA ) — the provisional entity created by the Oslo Accords . Arafat became the President and Prime Minister of the PNA , the Commander of the PLA and the Speaker of the PLC . In July , after the PNA was declared the official government of the Palestinians , the Basic Laws of the Palestinian National Authority was published , in three different versions by the PLO . Arafat proceeded with creating a structure for the PNA . He established an executive committee or cabinet composed of twenty members . Arafat also replaced and assigned mayors and city councils for major cities such as Gaza and Nablus . He began subordinating non @-@ governmental organizations that worked in education , health , and social affairs under his authority by replacing their elected leaders and directors with PNA officials loyal to him . He then appointed himself chairman of the Palestinian financial organization that was created by the World Bank to control most aid money towards helping the new Palestinian entity .
Arafat established a Palestinian police force , named the Preventive Security Service ( PSS ) , that became active on 13 May . It was mainly composed of PLA soldiers and foreign Palestinian volunteers . Arafat assigned Mohammed Dahlan and Jibril Rajoub to head the PSS . Amnesty International accused Arafat and the PNA leadership for failing to adequately investigate abuses by the PSS ( including torture and unlawful killings ) of political opponents and dissidents as well as the arrests of human rights activists .
Throughout November and December 1995 , Arafat toured dozens of Palestinian cities and towns that were evacuated by Israeli forces including Jenin , Ramallah , al @-@ Bireh , Nablus , Qalqilyah and Tulkarm , declaring them " liberated " . The PNA also gained control of the West Bank 's postal service during this period . On 20 January 1996 , Arafat was elected president of the PNA , with an overwhelming 88 @.@ 2 percent majority ( the other candidate was charity organizer Samiha Khalil ) . However , because Hamas , the DFLP and other popular opposition movements chose to boycott the presidential elections , the choices were limited . Arafat 's landslide victory guaranteed Fatah 51 of the 88 seats in the PLC . After Arafat was elected to the post of President of the PNA , he was often referred to as the Ra 'is , ( literally president in Arabic ) , although he spoke of himself as " the general " . In 1997 , the PLC accused the executive branch of the PNA of financial mismanagement causing the resignation of four members of Arafat 's cabinet . Arafat refused to resign his post .
= = = Other peace agreements = = =
In mid @-@ 1996 , Benjamin Netanyahu was elected Prime Minister of Israel . Palestinian @-@ Israeli relations grew even more hostile as a result of continued conflict . Despite the Israel @-@ PLO accord , Netanyahu opposed the idea of Palestinian statehood . In 1998 , US President Bill Clinton persuaded the two leaders to meet . The resulting Wye River Memorandum detailed the steps to be taken by the Israeli government and PNA to complete the peace process .
Arafat continued negotiations with Netanyahu 's successor , Ehud Barak , at the Camp David 2000 Summit in July 2000 . Due partly to his own politics ( Barak was from the leftist Labor Party , whereas Netanyahu was from the rightist Likud Party ) and partly due to insistence for compromise by President Clinton , Barak offered Arafat a Palestinian state in 73 percent of the West Bank and all of the Gaza Strip . The Palestinian percentage of sovereignty would extend to 90 percent over a ten- to twenty @-@ five @-@ year period . Also included in the offer was the return of a small number of refugees and compensation for those not allowed to return . Palestinians would also have " custodianship " over the Temple Mount , sovereignty on all Islamic and Christian holy sites , and three of Jerusalem 's four Old City quarters . Arafat rejected Barak 's offer and refused to make an immediate counter @-@ offer . He told President Clinton that , " the Arab leader who would surrender Jerusalem is not born yet . "
After the September 2000 outbreak of the Second Intifada , negotiations continued at the Taba summit in January 2001 ; this time , Ehud Barak pulled out of the talks to campaign in the Israeli elections . In October and December 2001 , suicide bombings by Palestinian militant groups increased and Israeli counter strikes intensified . Following the election of Ariel Sharon in February , the peace process took a steep downfall . Palestinian elections scheduled for January 2002 were postponed — the stated reason was an inability to campaign due to the emergency conditions imposed by the Intifada , as well as IDF incursions and restrictions on freedom of movement in the Palestinian territories . In the same month , Sharon ordered Arafat to be confined to his Mukata 'a headquarters in Ramallah , following an attack in the Israeli city of Hadera ; US President George W. Bush supported Sharon 's action , claiming that Arafat was " an obstacle to the peace . "
= = Political survival = =
Arafat 's long personal and political survival was taken by most Western commentators as a sign of his mastery of asymmetric warfare and his skill as a tactician , given the extremely dangerous nature of politics of the Middle East and the frequency of assassinations . Some commentators believe his survival was largely due to Israel 's fear that he could become a martyr for the Palestinian cause if he were assassinated or even arrested by Israel . Others believe that Israel refrained from taking action against Arafat because it feared Arafat less than Hamas and the other Islamist movements gaining support over Fatah . The complex and fragile web of relations between the US , Israel , Saudi Arabia , and other Arab states contributed also to Arafat 's longevity as the leader of the Palestinians .
Israel attempted to assassinate Arafat on a number of occasions , but has never used its own agents , preferring instead to " turn " Palestinians close to the intended target , usually using blackmail . According to Alan Hart , the Mossad 's specialty is poison . According to Abu Iyad , two attempts were made on Arafat 's life by the Israeli Mossad and the Military Directorate in 1970 . In 1976 , Abu Sa 'ed , a Palestinian agent working for the Mossad , was enlisted in a plot to put poison pellets that looked like grains of rice in Arafat 's food . Abu Iyad explains that Abu Sa 'ed confessed after he received the order to go ahead , explaining that he was unable to go through with the plot because , " He was first of all a Palestinian and his conscience wouldn 't let him do it . " Arafat claimed in a 1988 interview with Time that because of his fear of assassination by the Israelis , he never slept in the same place two nights in a row .
= = = Relations with Hamas and other militant groups = = =
Arafat 's ability to adapt to new tactical and political situations was perhaps tested by the rise of the Hamas and PIJ organizations , Islamist groups espousing rejectionist policies with Israel . These groups often bombed non @-@ military targets , such as malls and movie theaters , to increase the psychological damage and civilian casualties . In the 1990s , these groups seemed to threaten Arafat 's capacity to hold together a unified nationalist organization with a goal of statehood .
An attack carried out by Hamas militants killed 29 Israeli civilians celebrating Passover , including many senior citizens . In response , Israel launched Operation Defensive Shield , a major military offensive into major West Bank cities . Mahmoud al @-@ Zahar , a Hamas leader in Gaza , stated in September 2010 that Arafat had instructed Hamas to launch what he termed " military operations " against Israel in 2000 when Arafat felt that negotiations with Israel would not succeed .
Some Israeli government officials opined in 2002 that the armed Fatah sub @-@ group al @-@ Aqsa Martyrs ' Brigades commenced attacks towards Israel in order to compete with Hamas . On 6 May 2002 , the Israeli government released a report , based in part on documents , allegedly captured during the Israeli raid of Arafat 's Ramallah headquarters , which allegedly included copies of papers signed by Arafat authorizing funding for al @-@ Aqsa Martyrs Brigades ' activities . The report implicated Arafat in the " planning and execution of terror attacks " .
= = = Attempts to marginalize = = =
Persistent attempts by the Israeli government to identify another Palestinian leader to represent the Palestinian people failed . Arafat was enjoying the support of groups that , given his own history , would normally have been quite wary of dealing with or supporting him . Marwan Barghouti ( a leader of al @-@ Aqsa Martyrs Brigades ) emerged as a possible replacement during the Second Intifada , but Israel had him arrested for allegedly being involved in the killing of twenty @-@ six civilians , and he was sentenced to five life terms .
Arafat was finally allowed to leave his compound on 2 May 2002 after intense negotiations led to a settlement : six PFLP militants , including the organization 's secretary @-@ general Ahmad Sa 'adat , wanted by Israel , who had been holed up with Arafat in his compound , would be transferred to international custody in Jericho . After the wanted men were handed over the siege was lifted . With that , and a promise that he would issue a call to the Palestinians to halt attacks on Israelis , Arafat was released . He issued such a call on 8 May . On 19 September 2002 , the IDF largely demolished the compound with armored bulldozers in order to isolate Arafat . In March 2003 , Arafat ceded his post as Prime Minister to Mahmoud Abbas amid pressures by the US .
After the Israeli security Cabinet on 11 September 2003 had decided that " Israel will act to remove this obstacle [ Arafat ] in the manner , at the time , and in the ways that will be decided on separately " , Israeli Cabinet members and officials had hinted on Arafat 's death and the Israeli military had begun making preparations for Arafat 's possible expulsion in the near future , many feared for his life . Israeli peace activists of Gush Shalom , Knesset members and others went into the Presidential Compound , prepared to serve as a human shield . The compound remained under siege until Arafat 's transfer to a French hospital , shortly before his death .
In 2004 , President Bush dismissed Arafat as a negotiating partner , saying he had " failed as a leader " and accused him of undercutting Abbas when he was prime minister ( Abbas resigned the same year he was given the position ) . Arafat had a mixed relationship with the leaders of other Arab nations . His support from Arab leaders tended to increase whenever he was pressured by Israel ; for example , when Israel declared in 2003 it had made the decision , in principle , to remove him from the Israeli @-@ controlled West Bank . In an interview with the Arabic news network Al Jazeera , Arafat responded to Ariel Sharon 's suggestion that he be exiled from the Palestinian territories permanently , by stating , " Is it his [ Sharon 's ] homeland or ours ? We were planted here before the Prophet Abraham came , but it looks like they [ Israelis ] don 't understand history or geography . "
= = Financial dealings = =
Under the Oslo Peace Accords , Israel undertook to deposit the VAT tax receipts on goods purchased by Palestinians into the Palestinian treasury . Until 2000 , these monies were transferred directly to Arafat 's personal accounts at Bank Leumi , in Tel Aviv .
In August 2002 , the Israeli Military Intelligence Chief alleged that Arafat 's personal wealth was in the range of US $ 1 @.@ 3 billion . In 2003 the International Monetary Fund ( IMF ) conducted an audit of the PNA and stated that Arafat diverted $ 900 million in public funds to a special bank account controlled by Arafat and the PNA Chief Economic Financial adviser . However , the IMF did not claim that there were any improprieties , and it specifically stated that most of the funds had been used to invest in Palestinian assets , both internally and abroad .
However , in 2003 , a team of American accountants — hired by Arafat 's own finance ministry — began examining Arafat 's finances . In its conclusions , the team claimed that part of the Palestinian leader 's wealth was in a secret portfolio worth close to $ 1 billion , with investments in companies like a Coca @-@ Cola bottling plant in Ramallah , a Tunisian cell phone company and venture capital funds in the US and the Cayman Islands . The head of the investigation stated that " although the money for the portfolio came from public funds like Palestinian taxes , virtually none of it was used for the Palestinian people ; it was all controlled by Arafat . And none of these dealings were made public . " An investigation conducted by the General Accounting Office reported that Arafat and the PLO held over $ 10 billion in assets even at the time when he was publicly claiming bankruptcy .
Although Arafat lived a modest lifestyle , Dennis Ross , former Middle East negotiator for Presidents George H.W. Bush and Bill Clinton , stated that Arafat 's " walking @-@ around money " financed a vast patronage system known as neopatrimonialism . According to Salam Fayyad — a former World Bank official whom Arafat appointed Finance Minister of the PNA in 2002 — Arafat 's commodity monopolies could accurately be seen as gouging his own people , " especially in Gaza which is poorer , which is something that is totally unacceptable and immoral . " Fayyad claims that Arafat used $ 20 million from public funds to pay the leadership of the PNA security forces ( the Preventive Security Service ) alone .
Fuad Shubaki , former financial aide to Arafat , told the Israeli security service Shin Bet that Arafat used several million dollars of aid money to buy weapons and support militant groups . During Israel 's Operation Defensive Shield , the Israel army recovered counterfeit money and documents from Arafat 's Ramallah headquarters . The documents showed that , in 2001 , Arafat personally approved payments to Tanzim militants . The Palestinians claimed that the counterfeit money was confiscated from criminal elements .
= = Illness and death = =
The first reports of Arafat 's failing health by his doctors for what his spokesman said was the flu came on 25 October 2004 , after he vomited during a staff meeting . His condition deteriorated in the following days . Following visits by other doctors , including teams from Tunisia , Jordan , and Egypt — and agreement by Israel to allow him to travel — Arafat was taken to France on a French government jet , and was admitted to the Percy military hospital in Clamart , a suburb of Paris . On 3 November , he had lapsed into a gradually deepening coma .
Arafat was pronounced dead at 03 : 30 UTC on 11 November 2004 at the age of 75 of what French doctors called a massive hemorrhagic cerebrovascular accident ( hemorrhagic stroke ) . Initially , Arafat 's medical records were withheld by senior Palestinian officials , and Arafat 's wife refused an autopsy . French doctors also said that Arafat suffered from a blood condition known as disseminated intravascular coagulation , although it is inconclusive what brought about the condition . When Arafat 's death was announced , the Palestinian people went into a state of mourning , with Qur 'anic mourning prayers emitted from mosque loudspeakers throughout the West Bank and the Gaza Strip , and tires burned in the streets . The Palestinian Authority and refugee camps in Lebanon declared 40 days of mourning .
= = = Funeral = = =
On 11 November 2004 , a French Army Honor Guard held a brief ceremony for Arafat , with his coffin draped in a Palestinian flag . A military band played the French and Palestinian national anthems , and a Chopin funeral march . French President Jacques Chirac stood alone beside Arafat 's coffin for about ten minutes in a last show of respect for Arafat , whom he hailed as " a man of courage " . The next day , Arafat 's body was flown from Paris aboard a French Air Force transport plane to Cairo , Egypt for a brief military funeral there , attended by several heads of states , prime ministers and foreign ministers . Egypt 's top Muslim cleric Sayed Tantawi led mourning prayers preceding the funeral procession .
Israel refused Arafat 's wish to be buried near the Al @-@ Aqsa Mosque or anywhere in Jerusalem , citing security concerns . Israel also feared that his burial would strengthen Palestinian claims to East Jerusalem . Following the Cairo procession , Arafat was " temporarily " buried within the Mukataa in Ramallah ; tens of thousands of Palestinians attended the ceremony . Arafat was buried in a stone , rather than wooden , coffin , and Palestinian spokesman Saeb Erekat said that Arafat would be reburied in East Jerusalem following the establishment of a Palestinian state . After Sheikh Taissir Tamimi discovered that Arafat was buried improperly and in a coffin — which is not in accordance with Islamic law — Arafat was reburied on the morning of 13 November at around 3 : 00 am . On 10 November 2007 , prior to the third anniversary of Arafat 's death , President Mahmoud Abbas unveiled a mausoleum for Arafat near his tomb in commemoration of him .
= = = Theories about the cause of death = = =
Numerous theories have appeared regarding Arafat 's death , with the most prominent being poisoning ( possibly by polonium ) and AIDS @-@ related illnesses , as well as liver disease or a platelet disorder .
In September 2005 , an Israeli @-@ declared AIDS expert claimed that Arafat bore all the symptoms of AIDS based on obtained medical records . But others , including Patrice Mangin of the University of Lausanne and The New York Times disagreed with this claim , insisting that Arafat 's record indicated that it was highly unlikely that the cause of his death was AIDS . Arafat 's personal doctor Ashraf al @-@ Kurdi and aide Bassam Abu Sharif maintained that Arafat was poisoned , possibly by thallium . A senior Israeli physician concluded that Arafat died from food poisoning . Both those claims were rejected by Haaretz and The New York Times . Then @-@ Palestinian foreign minister Nabil Shaath had also ruled out poisoning after talks with Arafat 's French doctors .
On 4 July 2012 , Al Jazeera published the results of a nine @-@ month investigation , which revealed that none of the causes of Arafat ’ s death suggested in several rumors could be true . Tests carried out by a Swiss scientific experts found traces of polonium in quantities much higher than could occur naturally on Arafat 's personal belongings . On 12 October 2013 , the British medical journal The Lancet published a peer @-@ reviewed article by the Swiss experts about the analysis of the 38 samples of Arafat 's clothes and belongings and 37 reference samples which were known to be polonium @-@ free , suggesting that Arafat could have died of polonium poisoning .
On 27 November 2012 , three teams of international investigators , a French , a Swiss , and a Russian team , collected samples from Arafat 's body and the surrounding soil in the mausoleum in Ramallah , to carry out an investigation independently from each other .
On 6 November 2013 , Al Jazeera reported that the Swiss forensic team had found levels of polonium in Arafat 's ribs and pelvis 18 to 36 times the average , and were 83 percent confident that polonium poisoning occurred , but Professor Bochud disagreed with this interpretation by Al Jazeera and only states that the poisoning hypothesis by polonium is " reasonably supported " . According to the Swiss expert team ( including notably experts in radio @-@ chemistry , radio @-@ physics and legal medicine ) , on a probability scale ranging from one to six , death by polonium poisoning is around five . Forensic Biologist Nathan Lents of the John Jay College of Criminal Justice , said the report 's results are consistent with a possible polonium poisoning , but " There 's certainly not a smoking gun here . " Derek Hill , a professor in radiological science at University College London who was not involved in the investigation , said " I would say it 's clearly not overwhelming proof , and there is a risk of contamination ( of the samples ) , but it is a pretty strong signal . ... It seems likely what they 're doing is putting a very cautious interpretation of strong data . "
On 26 December 2013 , a team of Russian scientists released a report saying they had found no trace of radioactive poisoning — a finding that comes after the French report found traces of the radioactive isotope polonium . Vladimir Uiba , the head of the Federal Medical and Biological Agency , said that Arafat died of natural causes ( without explaining which ) and the agency had no plans to conduct further tests . Unlike the Swiss report , the French and Russian reports were not made public , at the time . The Swiss experts read the French and Russian reports and explained that the radiologic data measured by the other teams support their conclusions of a probable death by polonium poisoning . In March 2015 a French prosecutor announced that his death was of natural causes , and the polonium and lead traces found were environmental .
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= Massospondylus =
Massospondylus ( / ˌmæsoʊˈspɒndᵻləs / mas @-@ oh @-@ SPON @-@ di @-@ ləs ; from Greek , μάσσων ( massōn , " longer " ) and σπόνδυλος ( spondylos , " vertebra " ) ) is a genus of sauropodomorph dinosaur from the Early Jurassic Period ( Hettangian to Pliensbachian ages , ca . 200 – 183 million years ago ) . It was described by Sir Richard Owen in 1854 from remains discovered in South Africa , and is thus one of the first dinosaurs to have been named . Fossils have since been found at other locations in South Africa , Lesotho , and Zimbabwe . Material from Arizona 's Kayenta Formation , India , and Argentina has been assigned to this genus at various times , but the Arizonan and Argentinian material are now assigned to other genera .
The type species is M. carinatus ; seven other species have been named during the past 150 years , but only M. kaalae among these is still considered valid . Early sauropodomorphs systematics have undergone numerous revisions during the last several years , and many scientists disagree where exactly Massospondylus lies on the dinosaur evolutionary tree . The family name Massospondylidae was once coined for the genus , but because knowledge of early sauropodomorph relationships is in a state of flux , it is unclear which other dinosaurs — if any — belong in a natural grouping of massospondylids ; several 2007 papers support the family 's validity .
Although Massospondylus was long depicted as quadrupedal , a 2007 study found it to be bipedal . It was probably a plant eater ( herbivore ) , although it is speculated that the early sauropodomorphs may have been omnivorous . This animal , which was 4 – 6 metres ( 13 – 20 ft ) long , had a long neck and tail , with a small head and slender body . On each of its forefeet , it bore a sharp thumb claw that was used in defense or feeding . Recent studies indicate that Massospondylus grew steadily throughout its lifespan , possessed air sacs similar to those of birds , and may have cared for its young .
= = Description = =
Massospondylus was a mid @-@ size sauropodomorph , around 4 metres ( 13 ft ) in length and weighed approximately 1000 kilograms ( 2200 lb ) , although a few sources have estimated its length at up to 6 metres ( 20 ft ) . It was a typical early sauropodomorph , with a slender body , a long neck and a proportionally very small head . The vertebral column was composed of nine cervical ( neck ) vertebrae , 13 dorsal ( back ) vertebrae , three sacral ( hip ) vertebrae , and at least 40 caudal ( tail ) vertebrae . The pubis faced forward , as with most saurischians . It had a slighter build than that of Plateosaurus , an otherwise similar dinosaur . The neck was proportionally longer than in most other plateosaurids , with the foremost cervicals being four times the length of their width . The forelimbs were only half the length of the hindlimbs but quite powerful , as indicated by the broad upper end of the humerus that provided attachment areas for a large arm musculature . Like Plateosaurus , it had five digits on each hand and foot . The hand was short and wide , with a large sickle shaped thumb claw used for feeding or defense against predators . The thumb was the longest finger in the hand , while the fourth and fifth digits were tiny , giving the forepaws a lopsided look .
= = = Cranial anatomy = = =
The small head of Massospondylus was approximately half the length of the femur . Numerous openings , or fenestrae , in the skull reduced its weight and provided space for muscle attachment and sensory organs . These fenestrae were present in pairs , one on each side of the skull . At the front of the skull were two large , elliptical nares , which were roughly half the size of the orbits . The orbits were proportionally larger in Massospondylus than in related genera , such as Plateosaurus . The antorbital fenestrae , smaller than those seen in Plateosaurus , were situated between the eyes and the nose . At the rear of the skull were two more pairs of temporal fenestrae : the lateral temporal fenestrae immediately behind the eye sockets , which were shaped like an inverted " T " in Massospondylus , and the supratemporal fenestrae on top of the skull . Small fenestrae also penetrated each mandible . The shape of the skull is traditionally restored as wider and shorter than that of Plateosaurus , but this appearance may be due just to differential crushing experienced by the various specimens . Some features of the skull are variable between individuals ; for example , the thickness of the upper border of the orbit and the height of the posterior maxilla . These differences may be due to sexual dimorphism or individual variation .
Tooth count is variable between individuals and increases with skull size . The premaxilla shows the constant number of four teeth per side in all known skulls ; however , in the maxilla , the tooth count ranges from 14 to 22 . There are 26 teeth in each side of the lower jaw in the largest known skull . The height of the teeth crowns decreases from front to back in the upper jaw , but was more or less constant in the lower jaw . The lack of pronounced tooth wear and the variable height of the crowns suggests that the teeth were replaced by succeeding new ones in relatively short time intervals . Notably , there was variation in the tooth morphology based on the position of the teeth in the jaw . The heterodonty present in Massospondylus is greater than that present in Plateosaurus , although not as pronounced as the specialization of teeth in Heterodontosaurus . Teeth closer to the front of the snout had round cross @-@ sections and tapered to points , unlike the back teeth , which were spatulate and had oval cross @-@ sections .
As with other early sauropodomorphs , it has been proposed that Massospondylus had cheeks . This theory was proposed because there are a few large holes for blood vessels on the surfaces of the jaw bones , unlike the numerous small holes present on the jaws of cheekless reptiles . The cheeks would have prevented food from spilling out when Massospondylus ate . Crompton and Attridge ( 1986 ) described skulls of Massospondylus as possessing pronounced overbites and suggested the presence of a horny beak on the tip of the lower jaw to make up the difference in length and account for tooth wear on the teeth at the tip of the snout . However , the difference in length may be a misinterpretation based on crushing in a top – bottom plane , and the possession of a beak is considered unlikely in recent studies .
= = Discovery = =
The first fossils of Massospondylus were described by paleontologist Sir Richard Owen in 1854 . Originally , Owen did not recognize these finds as those of a dinosaur ; instead he attributed them to " large , extinct , carnivorous reptiles " that were related to today 's lizards , chameleons and iguanas . This material , a collection of 56 bones , was found in 1853 by the government surveyor Joseph Millard Orpen in the Upper Elliot Formation at Harrismith , South Africa and was donated to the Hunterian Museum at the Royal College of Surgeons in London . Among the remains were vertebrae from the neck , back , and tail ; a shoulder blade ; a humerus ; a partial pelvis ; a femur ; a tibia ; and bones of the hands and feet . All these bones were found disarticulated , making it difficult to determine if all material belongs to a single species or not . However , Owen was able to distinguish three different types of caudal vertebrae , which he attributed to three different genera : Pachyspondylus , Leptospondylus and Massospondylus . Massospondylus was separated from the other two genera on the basis of its much longer caudal vertebrae , which also lead to the scientific name that has been derived from the Greek terms masson / μάσσων ' longer ' and sphondylos / σφόνδυλος ' vertebra ' . However , later it was shown that the putative caudal vertebrae of Massospondylus were actually cervical vertebrae and that all the material probably belongs only to a single species . On May 10 , 1941 , the Hunterian Museum was demolished by a German bomb , destroying all the fossils ; only casts remain .
Possible Massospondylus remains have been found in the Upper Elliot Formation , the Clarens Formation , and the Bushveld Sandstone of South Africa and Lesotho ; the Forest Sandstone and the Upper Karroo Sandstone of Zimbabwe . These remains consist of at least 80 partial skeletons and four skulls , representing both juveniles and adults . The report of Massospondylus from Arizona 's Kayenta Formation is based on a skull described in 1985 . The skull of the Kayenta specimen from Arizona is 25 % larger than the largest skull from any African specimen . The Kayenta specimen possesses four teeth in the premaxilla and sixteen in the maxilla . Uniquely among dinosaurs , it also had tiny , one @-@ millimetre- ( 0 @.@ 04 in- ) long palatal teeth . Recent restudy of African Massospondylus skulls , however , indicates that the Kayenta specimen does not pertain to Massospondylus . This Kayenta skull and associated postcranial elements , identified collectively as MCZ 8893 , has been recently referred to the newly described genus Sarahsaurus .
Massospondylus had also been reported from Argentina , but this has been reassessed as a closely related but distinct genus . The fossils included several partial skeletons and at least one skull , found in the Lower Jurassic Canon del Colorado Formation of San Juan , Argentina . This material was named Adeopapposaurus in 2009 .
= = = Species = = =
Many species have been named , although most are no longer considered valid . M. carinatus , named by Richard Owen , is the type species . Other named species include : M. browni Seeley , 1895 , M. harriesi Broom 1911 , M. hislopi Lydekker , 1890 , M. huenei Cooper , 1981 , M. kaalae Barrett 2009 , M. rawesi Lydekker , 1890 , and M. schwarzi Haughton , 1924 .
M. browni , M. harriesi , and M. schwarzi were all found in the Upper Elliot Formation of Cape Province , South Africa . All three are based on fragmentary material , and were regarded as indeterminate in the most recent review . M. browni is based on two cervical , two back , and three caudal vertebrae and miscellaneous hind limb elements . M. harriesi is known from a well @-@ preserved forelimb and parts of a hindlimb . M. schwarzi is known from an incomplete hind limb and sacrum . M. hislopi and M. rawesi were named from fossils found in India . M. hislopi is based on vertebrae from the Upper Triassic Maleri Formation of Andhra Pradesh , whereas M. rawesi is based on a tooth from the Upper Cretaceous Takli Formation of Maharashtra . M. hislopi was tentatively retained as an indeterminate sauropodomorph in the latest review , but M. rawesi may be a theropod or nondinosaur . M. huenei is a combination derived by Cooper for Lufengosaurus huenei , as he considered Lufengosaurus and Massospondylus to be synonyms . This synonymy is no longer accepted .
M. kaalae was described in 2009 on the basis of a partial skull from the Upper Elliot Formation in Eastern Cape of South Africa . This species is known from the same time and region as some specimens of M. carinatus . It differs from the type species in the morphology of the braincase , as well as in several other characters of the skull such as the proportions of the premaxilla .
= = = Dubious names = = =
Several dinosaurs are often considered synonymous with Massospondylus . These include the above @-@ mentioned Leptospondylus and Pachyspondylus , as well as Aristosaurus , Dromicosaurus , Gryponyx taylori and Hortalotarsus , which are dubious names of little scientific value . Hortalotarsus skirtopodus was named by Harry Seeley in 1894 . According to Broom ( 1911 ) , " Originally most of the skeleton was in the rock , and it was regarded by the farmers as the skeleton of a Bushman , but it is said to have been destroyed through fear that a Bushman skeleton in the rock might tend to weaken the religious belief of the rising generation . " Seeley however , states that most of the skeleton was lost by a failed attempt to free it from the rock by using gunpowder . Some partial leg bones were salvaged . Together with Massospondylus carinatus , Owen named Leptospondylus capensis and Pachyspondylus orpenii . Aristosaurus erectus was named by E.C.N. van Hoepen in 1920 based on a nearly complete skeleton . Hoepen also named Dromicosaurus gracilis , which consisted of a partial skeleton . Gryponyx taylori was named by Sidney H. Haughton in 1924 . It consists of hip bones . All of the above fossils come from the Hettangian or Sinemurian faunal stages of South Africa , where Massospondylus has been found . Under the rules of zoological nomenclature , these names are junior synonyms . They were named after Massospondylus was described in a scientific paper ; the name Massospondylus thus takes priority .
Ignavusaurus , known from a young specimen , may also be synonymous with Massospondylus .
= = Classification = =
Basal sauropodomorph systematics continue to undergo revision , and many genera once considered classic " prosauropods " have recently been removed from the group in phylogenetic nomenclature , on the grounds that their inclusion would not constitute a clade ( a natural grouping containing all descendants of a single common ancestor ) . Yates and Kitching ( 2003 ) published a clade consisting of Riojasaurus , Plateosaurus , Coloradisaurus , Massospondylus , and Lufengosaurus . Galton and Upchurch ( 2004 ) included Ammosaurus , Anchisaurus , Azendohsaurus , Camelotia , Coloradisaurus , Euskelosaurus , Jingshanosaurus , Lessemsaurus , Lufengosaurus , Massospondylus , Melanorosaurus , Mussaurus , Plateosaurus , Riojasaurus , Ruehleia , Saturnalia , Sellosaurus , Thecodontosaurus , Yimenosaurus and Yunnanosaurus in a monophyletic Prosauropoda . Wilson ( 2005 ) considered Massospondylus , Jingshanosaurus , Plateosaurus , and Lufengosaurus a natural group , with Blikanasaurus and Antetonitrus possible sauropods . Bonnan and Yates ( 2007 ) considered Camelotia , Blikanasaurus and Melanorosaurus possible sauropods . Yates ( 2007 ) placed Antetonitrus , Melanorosaurus , and Blikanasaurus as basal sauropods and declined to use the term Prosauropoda , as he considered it synonymous with Plateosauridae . However , he did not rule out the possibility that a small group of prosauropods consisting of Plateosaurus , Riojasaurus , Massospondylus and their closest kin were monophyletic .
Massospondylus is the type genus of the proposed family Massospondylidae , to which it gives its name . The Massospondylidae family may also include Yunnanosaurus , although Lu et al . ( 2007 ) placed Yunnanosaurus in its own family . Yates ( 2007 ) considered Massospondylus , Coloradisaurus , and Lufengosaurus massospondylids , with Yunnanosaurus in Anchisauria . Smith and Pol ( 2007 ) also found a Massospondylidae in their phylogenetic analysis , including Massospondylus , Coloradisaurus , and Lufengosaurus , as well as their new genus , Glacialisaurus . Adeopapposaurus , based on the fossils once thought to belong to a South American form of Massospondylus , was also classified as a massospondylid , as was Leyesaurus , another South American genus that was named in 2011 . Pradhania was originally regarded as a more basal sauropodomorph but new cladistic analysis performed by Novas et al . , 2011 suggests that Pradhania is a massospondylid . Pradhania presents two shared traits of the Massospondylidae recovered in their phylogenetic analysis , and the fossils of Pradhania were discovered from the same region and basin in India as M. hislopi .
= = Paleoecology = =
The faunas and floras of the Early Jurassic were similar worldwide , with conifers adapted for hot weather becoming the common plants ; basal sauropodomorphs and theropods were the main constituents of a worldwide dinosaur fauna . The environment of early Jurassic southern Africa has been described as a desert . African Massospondylus was a contemporary of temnospondyli ; turtles ; a sphenodontia ; rauisuchids ; early crocodylomorphs ; tritylodontid and trithelodontid therapsids ; morganucodontid mammals ; and dinosaurs including the small theropod Megapnosaurus rhodesiensis and several genera of early ornithischians , such as Lesothosaurus and the heterodontosaurids Abrictosaurus , Heterodontosaurus , Lycorhinus and Pegomastax . Until recently , Massospondylus was regarded as the only known sauropodomorph from the Upper Elliot Formation . However , newer finds revealed a diverse contemporary sauropodomorph fauna with six additional species , including Ignavusaurus , Arcusaurus and two unnamed taxa as well as two unnamed sauropods .
It is not clear which carnivores may have preyed on Massospondylus . Most of the theropods that have been discovered in rocks of Early Jurassic age in southern Africa , such as Megapnosaurus , were smaller than mid @-@ sized sauropodomorphs like Massospondylus . These smaller predators have been postulated as using fast slashing attacks to wear downsauropodomorphs , which could have defended themselves with their large hand and foot claws . The 6 @-@ metre- ( 20 ft- ) long carnivorous theropod Dracovenator lived during the same period ( Hettangian to Sinemurian stages ) as Massospondylus and has also been found in the Elliot Formation of South Africa .
= = Paleobiology = =
As with all dinosaurs , much of the biology of Massospondylus , including its behavior , coloration , and physiology , remains unknown . However , recent studies have allowed for informed speculation on subjects such as growth patterns , diet , posture , reproduction , and respiration .
A 2007 study suggested that Massospondylus may have used its short arms for defense against predators ( " defensive swats " ) , in intraspecies combat , or in feeding , although its arms were too short to reach its mouth . Scientists speculate that Massospondylus could have used its large pollex ( thumb ) claw in combat , to strip plant material from trees , digging , or for grooming .
= = = Growth = = =
A 2005 study indicated that Massospondylus ' sister taxon , Plateosaurus , exhibited growth patterns affected by environmental factors . The study indicated that , when food was plentiful or when the climate was favorable , Plateosaurus exhibited accelerated growth . This pattern of growth is called " developmental plasticity " . It is unseen in other dinosaurs , including Massospondylus , despite the close relationship between the two . The study indicated that Massospondylus grew along a specific growth trajectory , with little variation in the growth rate and ultimate size of an individual . Another study of age determination indicated that Massospondylus grew at a maximum rate of 34 @.@ 6 kg ( 76 @.@ 3 lb ) per year and was still growing at around 15 years of age .
= = = Diet = = =
Early sauropodomorphs such as Massospondylus may have been herbivorous or omnivorous . As recently as the 1980s , paleontologists debated the possibility of carnivory in the " prosauropods " . However , the hypothesis of carnivorous " prosauropods " has been discredited , and all recent studies favor a herbivorous or omnivorous lifestyle for these animals . Galton and Upchurch ( 2004 ) found that cranial characteristics ( such as jaw articulation ) of most basal sauropodomorphs are closer to those of herbivorous reptiles than those of carnivorous ones , and the shape of the tooth crown is similar to those of modern herbivorous or omnivorous iguanas . The maximum width of the crown was greater than that of the root , resulting in a cutting edge similar to those of extant herbivorous or omnivorous reptiles . Barrett ( 2000 ) proposed that basal sauropodomorphs supplemented their herbivorous diets with small prey or carrion . Gastroliths ( gizzard stones ) have been found in association with three Massospondylus fossils from the Forest @-@ Sandstone in Zimbabwe , and with a Massospondylus @-@ like animal from the Late Triassic of Virginia . Until recently , scientists believed that these stones functioned as a gastric mill to aid ingestion of plant material , compensating for its inability to chew , as it is the case in many modern birds . However , Wings and Sander ( 2007 ) showed that the polished nature and the abundance of those stones precluded a use as an effective gastric mill in most non @-@ theropod dinosaurs , including Massospondylus .
= = = Gait and range of motion = = =
Although long assumed to have been quadrupedal , a 2007 anatomical study of the forelimbs has questioned this , arguing that their limited range of motion precluded effective habitual quadrupedal gait . Neither could the forelimbs swing fore and behind in a fashion similar to the hindlimbs , nor could the hand be rotated with the palmar surfaces facing downwards . This inability to pronate the hand is also supported by in @-@ situ finds of articulated ( still @-@ connected ) arms that always show unrotated hands with palmar faces facing each other . The study also ruled out the possibility of " knuckle @-@ walking " and other forms of locomotion that would make an effective locomotion possible without the need to pronate the hand . Although its mass suggests a quadrupedal nature , Massospondylus would have been restricted to its hind legs for locomotion .
Since the discovery of rudimentary and nonfunctional clavicles in ceratopsians , it was assumed that these shoulder bones were reduced in all dinosaurs that did not have true furculae . Robert Bakker ( 1987 ) suggested that this would have allowed the shoulder blades to swing with the forelimbs in quadrupedal dinosaurs , increasing their functional forelimb length . This would have reduced the discrepancy of length between fore- and hindlimbs in a quadrupedal Massospondylus . However , a recent discovery shows that Massospondylus possessed well @-@ developed clavicles that were joined in a furcula @-@ like arrangement , acting like a clasp between the right and left shoulder blades and prohibiting any rotation of these bones . This discovery indicates that the clavicle reduction is limited to the evolutionary line leading to the ceratopsians . It also indicates that the furcula of birds is derived from clavicles .
Michael Cooper ( 1981 ) noted that the zygapophyses of the neck vertebrae were inclined , prohibiting significant horizontal movement of the neck , so that " consequently any significant movement in this direction must have been accomplished by a change in the position of the entire body " . This was contradicted in a recent study , noting that only the basalmost cervicals show inclined zygapophyses , allowing sufficient horizontal movement of the neck as a whole .
= = = Reproduction = = =
In 1976 , a clutch of seven 190 @-@ million @-@ year @-@ old Massospondylus eggs was found in Golden Gate Highlands National Park in South Africa by James Kitching , who identified them as most likely belonging to Massospondylus . It was nearly 30 years before extraction was started on the fossils of the 15 @-@ centimetre- ( 6 in- ) long embryos . They remain the oldest dinosaur embryos ever found . By early 2012 , at least 10 egg clutches from at least four fossiliferous horizons had been found , with up to 34 eggs per clutch . This indicates that this nesting site may have been used repeatedly ( site fidelity ) , by groups of animals ( colonial nesting ) ; in both cases , these represent the oldest evidence of this behaviour . Sedimentary structures indicate that the nesting area was in the vicinity of a lake . The eggshells were very thin ( about 0 @.@ 1 mm ) , allowing gas exchange even in a low oxygen and carbon dioxide rich environment , which indicates that the eggs were at least partly buried in the substrate . There are no hints that Massospondylus constructed nests ; however , the arrangement of the eggs in tight rows indicates that the eggs were pushed in this position by the adults .
The embryos probably represented near @-@ hatchlings . While the skeletal features were similar to those of the adults , the body proportions were very dissimilar . The head was big with a short snout and very large orbits , whose diameter amounts 39 % of the entire skull length . The neck was short , contrasting to the very long neck in the adults . Girdle bones and caudals were relatively tiny . The forelimbs were of equal length to the hindlimbs , indicating that newly hatched Massospondylus were quadrupedal , unlike the bipedal adults . The discovery of hatching footprints with manus impressions confirmed their quadrupedality . These impressions show that the hand was not pronated , with palm faces facing each other and the thumb facing forwards . The unpronated manus and the big head indicate that an effective locomotion was not possible for newly hatched Massospondylus . Notably , the near @-@ hatchings had no teeth , suggesting they had no way of feeding themselves . Based on the lack of teeth and the ineffective locomotion , scientists speculate that postnatal care might have been necessary . This is further supported by evidence that the hatchings remained at the nest sites until they had doubled in size .
Newly hatched juveniles are known from a second sauropodomorph , Mussaurus ; these remains resemble those of the embryonic Massospondylus , suggesting that quadrupedality was present in newly hatched Mussaurus and presumably other basal sauropodomorphs as well . The quadrupedality of the hatchings suggests that the quadrupedal posture of later sauropods may have evolved from retention of juvenile characteristics in adult animals , an evolutionary phenomenon known as pedomorphosis . This discovery therefore " sheds some light in the evolutionary pathways through which the peculiar adaptations of giant dinosaurs were attained " , stated French paleontologist Eric Buffetaut .
= = = Respiratory system = = =
Many saurischian dinosaurs possessed vertebrae and ribs that contained hollowed @-@ out cavities ( pneumatic foramina ) , which reduced the weight of the bones and may have served as a basic ' flow @-@ through ventilation ' system similar to that of modern birds . In such a system , the neck vertebrae and ribs are hollowed out by the cervical air sac ; the upper back vertebrae , by the lung ; and the lower back and sacral ( hip ) vertebrae , by the abdominal air sac . These organs constitute a complex and very efficient method of respiration . " Prosauropods " are the only major group of saurischians without an extensive system of pneumatic foramina . Although possible pneumatic indentations have been found in Plateosaurus and Thecodontosaurus , the indentations were very small . One study in 2007 concluded that basal sauropodomorphs like Massospondylus likely had abdominal and cervical air sacs , based on the evidence for them in sister taxa ( theropods and sauropods ) . The study concluded that it was impossible to determine whether basal sauropodomorphs had a bird @-@ like flow @-@ through lung , but that the air sacs were almost certainly present .
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= Up All Night : The Live Tour =
Up All Night : The Live Tour is a video album documenting the 3 January 2012 show of English @-@ Irish boy band One Direction 's Up All Night Tour . It was released on 28 May 2012 by Syco Music . Filmed at the International Centre in the British city of Bournemouth , the 73 @-@ minute recording was directed by Andy Saunders and produced by Saunders and Tom Bairstaw . Up All Night : The Live Tour features concert footage and backstage content .
It attracted positive commentary and global success , having topped the charts in twenty @-@ five countries and selling one million copies by August 2012 . The recording additionally obtained multi @-@ platinum certifications from the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) , Music Canada ( MC ) , the Syndicat National de l 'Édition Phonographique ( SNEP ) , and the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) .
= = Development and release = =
The 73 @-@ minute recording was directed by Andy Saunders , and was produced by Saunders and Tom Bairstaw . Security was provided by Preston Mahon and Jag Chagger . Karen Ringland was the band chaperone , and Jon Shone was the musical director . During the concert , Shone additionally performed key boards , Sandy Beales performed bass guitar , Josh Devine performed drums , and Dan Richards performed guitar . Paul Higgins , Richard Griffiths , Harry Magee , Will Bloomfield served as managers , and Marco Gastel assistant . Tom Bairstow carried out the video production , Rob Derbyshire soundtracks , and Rob Arbuckle screen 3D visualisations . Matt English served as show 's graphic designer , Helene Horlyck vocal coach , Louise Doyle creative director , Paul Roberts choreographer , Caroline Watson and Lydia Taylor costume stylists , and Crystabel Riley and Lou Teasdale groomers .
Up All Night : The Live Tour was available to pre @-@ order by early April 2012 . In support of the release , a preview of the recording , its performance of " Moments " , was released on 12 April . A 30 @-@ second preview of its " More than This " performance premiered on the CBS entertainment television news show Entertainment Tonight on 9 May . The entire " More than This " performance debuted on YouTube on 11 May , with MTV News editor Jocelyn Vena suggesting that fans would appreciate the recording 's sequences . The video album was released on DVD and Blu @-@ ray on 28 May , by Syco Music and Columbia Records . One Direction held a global Twitter viewing party for Up All Night : The Live Tour on 31 May . Utilising the hashtag # 1DVDWatchParty , fans had the opportunity to talk to the band directly on Twitter as the group 's members and fans watched the recording simultaneously .
= = Reception = =
Up All Night : The Live Tour garnered positive commentary and global success , having topped the charts in twenty @-@ five countries and selling one million copies by August 2012 . A Yahoo ! contributor favoured the concert 's acoustic performances as showcasing the members ' individual tones and vocal prowess . Joanne Dorken , writing for MTV News , praised the group 's stage presence and the content itself as having " all the thrills and spills you would expect from a 1D concert " . She additionally deemed it " a must have for any Directioner " , a One Direction fan , as it gives " an up @-@ close @-@ and @-@ personal insight into the world " of the boy band . An editor for Sugarscape shared Dorken 's sentiments and summarised it as " all good fun " , but was dismayed by the choreography in the " What Makes You Beautiful " performance . The recording reached number six on the United Kingdom 's Official Video Chart , and had sold 61 @,@ 000 units in the United Kingdom by 2 August 2012 . In Australia , it debuted at number one on the ARIA DVD chart and was certified six times platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for shipments of 90 @,@ 000 units in its first week of sale . The recording was ultimately certified nine times platinum in Australia for shipments of 135 @,@ 000 units .
In the United States , Up All Night : The Live Tour debuted at number one on Billboard 's Top Music Videos chart with first @-@ week sales of 76 @,@ 000 copies , surpassing sales of the Billboard 200 number one album , John Mayer 's Born and Raised , which sold 65 @,@ 000 copies . One Direction made US chart history as the feat marks the first time a music DVD had outsold the Billboard 200 number one album . Its opening figure also makes it the highest music DVD debut of 2012 and the second highest debut in the past five years behind Adele 's Live at the Royal Albert Hall , which launched at number one in December 2011 , with 96 @,@ 000 copies . In the week ending 27 January 2013 , Up All Night : The Live Tour claimed its 30th week on top of the Top Music Videos Chart , which is longer than any other title since the chart originated in March 1995 . It surpassed Ray Stevens ' Comedy Video Classics , which logged 29 weeks on top in 1993 @-@ 1994 . The recording was ultimately certified five times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) on 29 May 2013 , indicating shipments of 500 @,@ 000 copies . In Mexico the DVD debuted at number @-@ one of the Music DVD Chart selling over 10 @,@ 000 copies , being certified Gold in its first week . Two months after its release it had gone on to sell over 40 @,@ 000 copies and was certified double platinum by Mexican Recording Industry Association ( AMPROFON ) . Up All Night : The Live Tour ended up as the best selling International DVD of the year with sales of 50 @,@ 000 .
= = Track listing = =
Special features
" On Tour with One Direction "
Music videos of " What Makes You Beautiful " , " Gotta Be You " , and " One Thing "
= = Chart positions = =
= = Certifications = =
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= Quagga catshark =
The quagga catshark ( Halaelurus quagga ) is a species of catshark , belonging to the family Scyliorhinidae . A small , slim @-@ bodied shark reaching 37 cm ( 15 in ) in length , it has a distinctive color pattern of narrow , dark brown vertical bars , which resemble those of the quagga . Its head is short and flattened , with a pointed snout tip that is not upturned .
Little is known of the quagga catshark 's natural history , as it is known only from nine specimens caught off southwestern India and eastern Somalia . Inhabiting the offshore waters of continental shelf at depths of 59 – 220 m ( 194 – 722 ft ) or more , it is a bottom @-@ dwelling predator of shrimps . It exhibits an oviparous mode of reproduction , with a record of a female containing eight eggs that were enclosed in brown capsules bearing long tendrils at the corners . The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) presently lacks sufficient data to assess the conservation status of this species . It is not economically valued but is taken as bycatch .
= = Taxonomy = =
The first specimen of the quagga catshark was a 27 cm ( 11 in ) long adult male collected by the paddle steamer RIMS Investigator from a depth of 187 m ( 614 ft ) off the Malabar Coast of India . It was described by British naturalist Alfred William Alcock in A Descriptive Catalogue of the Indian Deep @-@ sea Fishes in the Indian Museum , published in 1899 . He assigned the new species to the genus Scyllium ( a synonym of Scyliorhinus ) and named it after the quagga ( Equus quagga quagga ) because of their similar color patterns . Later authors moved this species to the genus Halaelurus .
Only nine quagga catshark specimens have been recorded . In addition to Alcock 's type specimen , four males were trawled from off the eastern Somalian coast by the research ship RV Anton Bruun in 1964 . Four more individuals , two male and two female , were found amongst the contents of commercial fishing trawls conducted off Quilon , India in 2010 . A male specimen reported from the Gulf of Aden in 1939 was later re @-@ identified as a speckled catshark ( H. boesemani ) .
= = Description = =
Slender and firm @-@ bodied , the quagga catshark has a short and flattened head with a pointed snout . The slightly protruding tip of the snout is not upturned like in some other Halaelurus species . The anterior rims of the nostrils bear triangular flaps of skin . The small , horizontally oval eyes are placed high on the head and have rudimentary nictitating membranes ; below the eyes are thick ridges , and behind them are tiny spiracles . The rather large mouth is curved , with the upper teeth exposed when closed . There are short furrows at the corners of the mouth . The jaws contain 26 – 28 upper and 27 lower tooth rows on each side ; in addition , there are three tooth rows at the upper symphysis ( jaw midpoint ) and one row at the lower . The teeth have three cusps . The five pairs of gill slits are placed higher than the level of the mouth ; the fifth pair are smaller than the rest .
The moderately large and rounded pectoral fins are positioned fairly close to the pelvic fins . Adult males have thin , tapering claspers with a denticle @-@ covered knob on the outer side near the tip . The first dorsal fin is placed just behind the pelvic fin bases , while the larger second dorsal fin is placed just behind the anal fin . The anal fin is larger than the second dorsal fin and comparable in size to the pelvic fins . The caudal fin has a small but discernible lower lobe and a large upper lobe with a notch in its trailing margin . The thick skin is covered by dermal denticles , which have arrowhead @-@ shaped crowns with a central ridge and three posterior teeth . This shark has a striking dorsal color pattern consisting of over 20 narrow , dark brown vertical bars on a light brown background ; the bars run from the head to the tail and extend onto the dorsal fins . The underside is off @-@ white , and the pectoral , pelvic , and anal fins have pale trailing margins . The largest known specimen is 37 cm ( 15 in ) long .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The known specimens of the quagga catshark have been collected from the Laccadive Sea off southwestern India and from the Indian Ocean off Somalia . The Indian sharks were caught between the depths of 90 and 220 m ( 300 and 720 ft ) or possibly 280 m ( 920 ft ) , while the Somalian sharks were caught at depths of 59 to 70 m ( 194 to 230 ft ) . This is a bottom @-@ dwelling species found far from shore over the continental shelf .
= = Biology and ecology = =
The diet of the quagga catshark consists of deep @-@ living shrimps . Its reproduction is oviparous like the other members of its genus . One of the female Indian specimens was gravid with eight eggs , divided evenly between the two oviducts . The eggs are enclosed in brown purse @-@ shaped capsules measuring 3 @.@ 8 – 4 @.@ 0 cm ( 1 @.@ 5 – 1 @.@ 6 in ) in length , with long coiled tendrils at their four corners . The smallest known specimen is 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) long , which is probably close to the size at hatching . Males reach sexual maturity at between 28 and 35 cm ( 11 and 14 in ) long ; female maturation size is unknown .
= = Human interactions = =
The quagga catshark is harmless and is not utilized by humans . It is caught incidentally by demersal fisheries in bottom trawls and potentially other gear ; such fishing activity is very intense in Indian and Somalian waters , though specific data on this species is lacking . Therefore , the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has listed it as Data Deficient .
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= Japanese battleship Haruna =
Haruna ( 榛名 ) , named after Mount Haruna , was a warship of the Imperial Japanese Navy during World War I and World War II . Designed by the British naval engineer George Thurston , she was the fourth and last battlecruiser of the Kongō class , amongst the most heavily armed ships in any navy when built . Laid down in 1912 at the Kawasaki Shipyards in Kobe , Haruna was formally commissioned in 1915 on the same day as her sister ship , Kirishima . Haruna patrolled off the Chinese coast during World War I. During gunnery drills in 1920 , an explosion destroyed one of her guns , damaged the gun turret , and killed seven men . During her career , Haruna underwent two major reconstructions . Beginning in 1926 , the Imperial Japanese Navy rebuilt her as a battleship , strengthening her armor and improving her speed and power capabilities . In 1933 , her superstructure was completely rebuilt , her speed was increased , and she was equipped with launch catapults for floatplanes . Now fast enough to accompany Japan 's growing carrier fleet , Haruna was reclassified as a fast battleship . During the Second Sino @-@ Japanese War , Haruna transported Imperial Japanese Army troops to mainland China before being redeployed to the Third Battleship Division in 1941 . On the eve of the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor , she sailed as part of the Southern Force in preparation for the Battle of Singapore .
Haruna fought in almost every major naval action of the Pacific Theater during World War II . She covered the Japanese landings in Malaya ( in present @-@ day Malaysia ) and the Dutch East Indies ( now Indonesia ) in 1942 before engaging American forces at the Battle of Midway and during the Guadalcanal Campaign . Throughout 1943 , Haruna primarily remained at Truk Lagoon ( Micronesia ) , Kure Naval Base ( near Hiroshima ) , Sasebo Naval Base ( near Nagasaki ) , and the Lingga Islands ( in present @-@ day Indonesia ) , and deployed on several occasions in response to American carrier airstrikes on Japanese island bases . Haruna participated in the Battle of the Philippine Sea and the Battle of Leyte Gulf in 1944 , engaging American vessels in the latter . In 1945 , Haruna was transferred to Kure Naval Base , where she was sunk by aircraft of Task Force 38 on 28 July 1945 .
= = Design and construction = =
Haruna was the fourth and last of the Imperial Japanese Navy 's Kongō @-@ class battlecruisers , a line of capital ships designed by the British naval engineer George Thurston . The class was ordered in 1910 in the Japanese Emergency Naval Expansion Bill after the commissioning of HMS Invincible in 1908 . The four battlecruisers of the Kongo @-@ class were designed to match the naval capabilities of the other major powers at the time ; they have been called the battlecruiser versions of the British ( formerly Turkish ) battleship HMS Erin . Their heavy armament and armor protection ( which contributed 23 @.@ 3 percent of their displacement ) were greatly superior to those of any other Japanese capital ship afloat at the time .
The keel of Haruna was laid down at Kobe by Kawasaki on 16 March 1912 , with most of the parts used in her construction manufactured in Japan . Due to a shortage of available slipways , Haruna and her sister ship Kirishima were the first two capital ships of the Imperial Japanese Navy to be built in private shipyards . Launched on 14 December 1913 , Haruna 's fitting @-@ out began in early 1914 . She was completed on 19 April 1915 .
= = = Armament = = =
Haruna 's main battery consisted of eight 14 in ( 36 cm ) heavy @-@ caliber main guns in four twin turrets ( two forward , two aft ) . The turrets were noted by the U.S. Office of Naval Intelligence to be " similar to the British 15 @-@ inch turrets " , with improvements made in flash @-@ tightness . Each of her main guns could fire high @-@ explosive or armor @-@ piercing shells a maximum of 38 @,@ 770 yd ( 19 @.@ 14 nmi ; 35 @.@ 45 km ) at a firing rate of two shells per minute . In keeping with the Japanese doctrine of deploying more powerful vessels before their opponents , Haruna and her sister ships were the first vessels in the world equipped with 14 in ( 36 cm ) guns . The main guns carried ammunition for 90 salvoes , and had an approximate barrel life of 250 to 280 rounds . In 1941 , separate dyes ( used to distinguish between shells fired from multiple ships ) were introduced for the armor @-@ piercing shells of the four Kongo @-@ class battleships , with Haruna 's armor @-@ piercing shells using black dye .
Her secondary battery was originally sixteen 6 in ( 15 cm ) 50 @-@ caliber medium guns in single casemates ( all located amidships ) , eight 3 in ( 7 @.@ 6 cm ) guns and eight submerged 21 in ( 53 cm ) torpedo tubes . The six @-@ inch guns could fire five to six rounds per minute , with a barrel life of 500 rounds . The 6 " / 50 caliber gun was capable of firing both anti @-@ aircraft and anti @-@ ship shells , though the positioning of the guns on Haruna made antiaircraft firing impractical . During her second reconstruction , the older 3 @-@ inch guns were removed and replaced with eight 5 in ( 13 cm ) dual @-@ purpose guns . These 5 " / 40 caliber guns could fire between 8 and 14 rounds per minute , with a barrel life of 800 to 1 @,@ 500 rounds . The 5 " / 40 had the widest variety of shot types of Haruna 's guns , being designed to fire antiaircraft , antiship , and illumination shells . She was also armed with a large number of 1 in ( 2 @.@ 5 cm ) antiaircraft machine guns . In 1943 , her secondary armament was reconfigured to eight 6 in ( 15 cm ) guns , twelve 5 in ( 13 cm ) guns , and finally by the end of 1944 one hundred and eight Type 96 antiaircraft autocannon in 30 triples and 18 single mounts .
= = Operational history = =
= = = 1915 – 1926 : Battlecruiser = = =
On 19 April 1915 , Haruna was formally commissioned at Kobe . On 13 December 1915 , after eight months of trials , she was assigned to the Third Battleship Division of the Second Fleet . On 9 April 1916 , she departed Sasebo Naval Base for operations in the East China Sea , returning to Japan 10 days later . On 1 December 1916 , Captain Saburo Hyakutake assumed command of Haruna until 15 September 1917 , when Captain Naomi Taniguchi replaced him . On 1 December 1917 , she was placed in reserve , as hostilities in the Pacific theatre of World War I concluded .
On 12 September 1920 , Haruna was involved in gunnery drills off Hokkaidō when a breech explosion destroyed the starboard gun of the No. 1 turret , killing seven men and badly damaging the armored roof of the turret . A later investigation by the Imperial Japanese Navy concluded that a faulty fuse ignited the gunpowder bags in the breech , detonating the shell while still in the barrel . The turret was repaired at Yokosuka Naval Arsenal , where the elevation of her 14 @-@ inch guns was also increased by seven degrees . Three months later , she was once again placed in reserve .
With the conclusion of World War I and the signing of the Washington Naval Treaty , the size of the Imperial Japanese Navy was significantly lessened , with a ratio of 5 : 5 : 3 required between the capital ships of the United Kingdom , the United States , and Japan . The treaty also banned Japan from building any new capital ships until 1931 , with no capital ship permitted to exceed 35 @,@ 000 long tons ( 36 @,@ 000 t ) . Provided that new additions did not exceed 3 @,@ 000 long tons ( 3 @,@ 000 t ) , existing capital ships were allowed to be upgraded with improved anti @-@ torpedo bulges and deck armor . By the time the Washington Treaty had been fully implemented in Japan , only three classes of World War I @-@ era capital ships remained active : the Ise @-@ class battleships , the Kongō @-@ class battlecruisers , and one of the Fusō @-@ class battleships ( Yamashiro ) .
= = = 1926 – 1933 : Reconstruction into battleship = = =
Unable to construct new capital ships until 1931 , Japan resorted to upgrading battleships and battlecruisers . In July 1926 , Haruna became the first of Japan 's vessels to undergo extensive modernization and modification , in drydock at Yokosuka Naval Arsenal . Over the next two years , her horizontal armor near her ammunition magazines was strengthened , and the machinery spaces within the hull were increased . Anti @-@ torpedo bulges were added along the waterline , as permitted by the Washington Treaty . She was refitted to accommodate three Type 90 Model 0 floatplanes . To increase her speed and power capacities , all 36 Yarrow boilers were removed and replaced with 16 newer boilers , and Brown @-@ Curtis direct @-@ drive turbines were installed . Haruna 's forward funnel was removed , and her second funnel was enlarged and lengthened . The modifications to her hull increased her armor weight from 6 @,@ 502 to 10 @,@ 313 long tons , directly violating the terms of the Washington Treaty . In July 1928 , Haruna — now capable of speeds of 29 kn ( 54 km / h ; 33 mph ) — was reclassified as a battleship .
Following new sea trials , Haruna was assigned on 10 December 1928 to the Fourth Battleship Division of the Second Fleet as the Emperor 's special ship . For the next 12 months , she operated between Sasebo , Port Arthur , and the East China Sea . On 1 February 1929 , Prince Takamatsu , the younger brother of Emperor Hirohito , was assigned to the crew . On 20 November 1929 , she was reassigned to the First Battleship Division . She was placed in reserve on 1 December 1930 .
On 22 April 1930 , Japan signed the London Naval Treaty , placing further restrictions on her maritime forces . In addition to the scrapping of several older battleships , Japan would not be permitted to construct new capital ships until 1937 . After minor fitting @-@ out work , her reconstruction begun in 1926 was declared complete on 1 October 1931 . On 8 November 1931 , she served as the Emperor 's ship during his official visit to Kumamoto prefecture .
In September 1931 , Japan invaded Manchuria . On 25 February 1933 , based on the report by the Lytton Commission , the League of Nations agreed that Japan 's invasion had violated Chinese sovereignty . Refusing to accept the organization 's judgment , Japan withdrew from the League of Nations the same day . Immediately following , Japan also withdrew from the Washington and London Naval Treaties , thus removing all restrictions on the number and size of her capital ships . Haruna was reactivated and assigned to the First Battleship Division on 20 May 1933 .
= = = 1933 – 1941 : Fast battleship = = =
On 1 August 1933 , Haruna was drydocked at Kure Naval Arsenal in preparation for upgrades that would enable her to escort Japan 's growing fleet of aircraft carriers . Her stern was lengthened by 26 ft ( 7 @.@ 9 m ) , and her bridge was completely reconstructed according to Japan 's pagoda mast style of forward superstructure . Her 16 older boilers were removed and replaced with 11 oil @-@ fired Kampon Boilers and newer geared turbines . Catapults and rails were added to support three Nakajima E8N or Kawanishi E7K reconnaissance and spotter floatplanes .
Haruna 's armor was also extensively upgraded . Her main belt was strengthened to a uniform thickness of 8 inches ( up from varying thicknesses of 6 to 8 inches ) , while diagonal bulkheads of depths ranging from 5 to 8 in ( 127 to 203 mm ) now reinforced the main armored belt . The turret armor was strengthened to 10 inches ( 254 mm ) , while 4 in ( 102 mm ) were added to portions of the deck armor . Her ammunition magazine protection was also strengthened to 4 @.@ 0 inches ( 10 cm ) . The reconstruction was finished on 30 September 1934 . Capable of more than 30 kn ( 56 km / h ; 35 mph ) despite the significant increase in hull displacement , Haruna was now reclassified as a fast battleship .
On 28 October 1935 , Captain Jisaburō Ozawa assumed command of Haruna . On 1 June 1936 , she was assigned to the Third Battleship Division of the First Fleet . Throughout 1937 , Haruna conducted extensive gunnery drills and patrols off the coast of China , primarily in the vicinity of Tsingtao . On 7 July 1937 , Japan officially declared war on China , thus beginning the Sino @-@ Japanese War . One month later , Haruna transported Japanese Army forces to mainland China in preparation for campaigns into Chinese Nationalist territory . On 1 December 1937 , she was again placed in reserve . On 2 April 1940 , she was transferred from Sasebo to Taiwan . She was redesignated as a " special service ship " on 15 November 1940 , and five months later was attached to the Third Battleship Division of the First Fleet , based in Hashirajima .
= = = 1941 – 1942 : Early war service = = =
Haruna and Kongō departed the Hashirajima fleet anchorage on 29 November 1941 , to participate in the opening stage of the Pacific War as part of the Southern ( Malay ) Force 's Main Body , under the overall command of Vice @-@ Admiral Nobutake Kondō . On 4 December 1941 , the Main Body arrived off the coast of Southern Siam and Northern Malaya , in preparation for the invasion of Siam and the Malayan Peninsula four days later . When Britain 's " Force Z " – consisting of the battleship HMS Prince of Wales and the battlecruiser HMS Repulse – was quickly defeated by Japan 's land @-@ based and carrier aircraft , Haruna 's battlegroup withdrew from Malayan waters . The battlegroup subsequently sortied from Indochina for three days in mid @-@ December to protect a reinforcement convoy traveling to Malaya and again on 18 December to cover the Army 's landing at Lingayen Gulf in the Philippines . The Main Body departed Cam Ranh Bay in French Indochina on 23 December bound for Taiwan , arriving two days later .
On 13 December 1941 , an erroneous report was published in the U.S. media that an American B @-@ 17 heavy bomber had bombed and mortally damaged Haruna during battle off Lingayen Gulf off the Philippines . No Japanese battleships were present , and Haruna was 1 @,@ 500 nmi ( 2 @,@ 800 km ; 1 @,@ 700 mi ) away in the Gulf of Siam at the time .
On 18 January 1942 , Kondō 's Main Force arrived in Palau alongside two fast carriers , with the intention of covering Japan 's invasion of Borneo and the Dutch East Indies . Haruna , Maya , and the fleet carriers Hiryū and Sōryū operated to the east of Mindanao until 18 February 1942 , when the Main Body departed Palau in preparation for " Operation J " , Japan 's invasion of the Dutch East Indies . On 25 February , the Third Battleship Division provided cover for air attacks on Java . Haruna bombarded Christmas Island on 7 March 1942 , then returned to Staring @-@ baai for 15 days of maintenance and rest . In April 1942 , Haruna joined five fleet carriers in attacks on Colombo in Ceylon . Following the destruction of HMS Dorsetshire on 5 April 1942 , Haruna was sent southwest to locate the remainder of the British Eastern Fleet , under the command of Admiral James Somerville . On 9 April , one of her floatplanes spotted the carrier HMS Hermes south of Trincomalee ; Japanese airstrikes sank the carrier the same day . Having crippled the offensive capability of Britain 's Eastern Fleet , the Third Battleship Division returned to Japan on 23 April . Haruna was drydocked throughout May 1942 for general repairs and refits .
On 29 May 1942 , Haruna joined her sister ship Kirishima as part of Vice @-@ Admiral Chūichi Nagumo 's carrier strike force during the Battle of Midway . On 4 June , she was attacked in multiple airstrikes by American torpedo bombers , but she took no hits and succeeded in shooting down five American aircraft . On 5 June , she took on survivors from the four destroyed Japanese aircraft carriers before returning to Japan . She remained in Japan until September 1942 , undergoing minor refits in August of that year . On 6 September , Haruna transferred to Truk Lagoon alongside the rest of the Third Battleship Division , and on 10 September the ship sortied as part of Admiral Kondō 's Second Fleet into the Solomon Islands . On 20 September , the fleet was ordered to return to Truk .
In the aftermath of the Battle of Cape Esperance , the Japanese Army opted to reinforce their positions on Guadalcanal . To protect their transport convoy from enemy air attack , Admiral Yamamoto sent Haruna and Kongō , escorted by one light cruiser and nine destroyers , to bombard Henderson Field . Because of their high speed , the two battleships could bombard the field and withdraw before being subjected to air attack from aircraft carriers . On the night of 13 – 14 October , the two battleships shelled Henderson Field from a distance of 16 @,@ 000 yards ( 15 @,@ 000 m ) , firing 973 14 @-@ inch shells . In the most successful Japanese battleship action of the war , the bombardment heavily damaged both runways , destroyed almost all available aviation fuel , incapacitated 48 of the airfield 's 90 aircraft , and killed 41 men . The Japanese troop convoy reached the island the next day .
During the Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands on 26 October 1942 , Haruna was attacked by a PBY Catalina flying boat but received no damage . In mid @-@ November , the battleship and other warships provided distant cover for the ultimately unsuccessful efforts to bombard Henderson Field again and land reinforcements on Guadalcanal . On 15 November 1942 , following the Japanese defeat and loss of Hiei and Kirishima during the Naval Battle of Guadalcanal , the Third Battleship Division returned to Truk , where it remained for the rest of 1942 .
= = = 1943 : Movement between bases = = =
Haruna engaged no enemy targets during 1943 . In late January 1943 , she participated in " Operation Ke " , as part of a diversionary force and distant cover supporting Japanese destroyers that were evacuating personnel from Guadalcanal . During 15 – 20 February 1943 , the Third Battleship Division transferred from Truk to Kure Naval Base . From 23 February to 31 March 1943 , Haruna was drydocked in Kure Naval Arsenal for upgrades , receiving additional Type 96 25 mm ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) antiaircraft guns and armor . On 17 May 1943 , in response to the American invasion of Attu Island , Haruna sortied alongside Musashi , the Third Battleship Division , two fleet carriers , two cruisers and nine destroyers . Three days later , the submarine USS Sawfish discovered the task group , but was unable to attack . On 22 May 1943 , the task force arrived in Yokosuka , where it was joined by an additional three fleet carriers and two light cruisers ; the force was disbanded when Attu fell before the necessary preparations were finished . Throughout June 1943 , Haruna was refitted at Yokosuka . On 18 September 1943 , Haruna left Truk as part of a counterattack force in response to American raids on the Brown Islands in Micronesia , but no contact was made and the ship returned to the base .
On 17 October 1943 , Haruna again left Truk as part of an even larger force — five battleships , three fleet carriers , eight heavy cruisers , three light cruisers and numerous destroyers — in response to American raids on Wake Island . When no contact was made the force returned to Truk on 26 October 1943 . On 16 December 1943 , she arrived at Sasebo for refits and inland @-@ sea training .
= = = 1944 : Final combat actions = = =
On 25 January 1944 , Captain Kazu Shigenaga assumed command of Haruna while the ship was stationed at Kure . The Third Battleship Division departed Kure on 8 March 1944 . Arriving at Lingga on 14 March 1944 , the division remained for training until 11 May 1944 . On 11 May 1944 , Haruna and Admiral Ozawa 's Mobile Fleet departed Lingga for Tawitawi , where they were joined by Vice @-@ Admiral Takeo Kurita 's " Force C " . On 13 June , Ozawa 's Mobile Fleet departed Tawitawi for the Mariana Islands . During the Battle of the Philippine Sea , Haruna escorted Japanese fast carriers , and was hit by two 500 lb ( 230 kg ) armor @-@ piercing bombs on 20 June 1944 from U.S. carrier aircraft . On 24 June , she was drydocked in Kure for repairs and refitting . In August 1944 she transferred to Lingga .
In October 1944 , Haruna departed Lingga in preparation for " Operation Sho @-@ 1 " , Japan 's counterattack during the Battle of Leyte Gulf , the largest naval engagement in history . On 24 October , Haruna was lightly damaged by fragments from near misses by American carrier aircraft in the Battle of the Sibuyan Sea . On 25 October , during the Battle off Samar , Haruna — as part of Admiral Kurita 's Centre Force — engaged escort carriers and destroyers of the U.S. 7th Fleet 's " Taffy 3 " . Her 14 in ( 36 cm ) shells straddled ( but did not hit ) two American escort carriers , before she dodged torpedoes launched by American destroyers . After a fierce defensive action by the American ships , Admiral Kurita elected to withdraw , ending the battle .
Following the Japanese Navy 's defeat at Leyte Gulf , Haruna returned to Brunei and Lingga for repairs . On 22 November 1944 , she ran aground on a coral reef near Lingga , suffering serious damage to her watertight compartments and forcing her to return to Sasebo , where the hull was patched and repaired . On 2 December 1944 , while returning to Japan from Southeast Asia as part of a task group , she evaded torpedoes fired by an American submarine . On 9 December , three more American submarines intercepted the task group ; USS Sea Devil , Plaice , and Redfish damaged the carrier Junyō and multiple destroyers with torpedoes . Unharmed , Haruna arrived at Sasebo the following day . At the end of 1944 , she transferred to Kure for full repairs and upgrading , having survived a year in which four other Japanese battleships had been lost .
= = = 1945 : Loss = = =
On 1 January 1945 , Haruna was removed from the deactivated Third Battleship Division and transferred to the First Battleship Division of the Second Fleet . On 10 February , Haruna was assigned to the Kure Naval District . On 19 March 1945 , American carrier aircraft attacked the remainder of the Japanese Navy at Kure . The base was defended by veteran Japanese fighter instructors flying Kawanishi N1K @-@ J " Shiden " or " George " fighters , led by the man who planned the attack on Pearl Harbor , Minoru Genda . These fighter planes were superior in some respects to America 's main fighter , the F6F Hellcat . They surprised the attackers , destroyed several American aircraft , and defended the base from the brunt of the attack . Haruna sustained light damage from a single bomb on the starboard side , and remained at Kure .
On 24 July 1945 , the U.S. Navy 's Task Force 38 began a series of aerial attacks on Kure Naval Base to destroy the last remnants of Japan 's navy . The same day , the battleship Hyūga was sunk , and Haruna was hit by a single bomb which caused light damage . Four days later , she sustained eight bomb hits from Task Force 38 's aircraft and sank at her moorings at 16 : 15 . In two days of attacks , 65 officers and men of Haruna were killed . Her remnants were raised from the sea floor in 1946 and broken up over the course of two months .
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= Carl Eytel =
Carl Eytel ( September 12 , 1862 – September 17 , 1925 ) was a German American artist who built his reputation for paintings and drawings of desert subjects in the American Southwest . Immigrating to the United States in 1885 , he eventually settled in Palm Springs , California in 1903 . With an extensive knowledge of the Sonoran Desert , Eytel traveled with author George Wharton James as he wrote the successful Wonders of the Colorado Desert , and contributed over 300 drawings to the 1908 work . While he enjoyed success as an artist , he lived as an ascetic and eventually died in poverty . Eytel 's most important work , Desert Near Palm Springs , hangs in the History Room of the California State Library .
= = Life = =
= = = Early life and immigration = = =
Carl Eytel was born as Karl Adolf Wilhelm Eytel in Maichingen , Böblingen to Tusnelda ( née Schmid ) and Friederick Hermann Eytel , a Lutheran minister in the Kingdom of Württemberg ( now the state of Baden @-@ Württemberg , near Stuttgart ) , Germany . As a boy , he became a ward of his grandfather when his father died . Eytel was well educated in the German gymnasium and became enamored of the American West while reading the works of Prussian natural science writer and explorer Alexander von Humboldt , which he found in the Stuttgart Royal Library . From 1880 to 1884 he studied forestry in Tübingen and then was drafted into the German Army . He first traveled to the United States in 1885 aboard the Suevia and worked as a ranch hand in Kansas . Later he worked at a slaughterhouse for 18 months to earn his living and to study cattle . In 1891 , he read an article about the Palm Springs area in the San Francisco Call and was " incited " to visit the California desert .
= = = Palm Springs = = =
Eytel returned to Germany to study art for 18 months ( 1897 – 1898 ) at the Royal Art School Stuttgart and then re @-@ immigrated to the United States . Wanting to be a cowboy , he worked as a cowhand in the San Joaquin Valley and he eventually settled in Palm Springs in 1903 . Living in small cabins he built himself , Palm Springs remained his home . Eytel often walked on his travels , covering 400 miles in the Colorado Desert on foot . On one of his travels he was nearly lynched as a horse thief and in 1918 , during a trip to northern Arizona , he was threatened with lynching as a German spy .
= = Work = =
While living for the most part as a " desert rat " and starving artist , he both traveled alone throughout the American Southwest and accompanied author J. Smeaton Chase and painter Jimmy Swinnerton on their travels . Serving as George Wharton James ' guide to " every obvious and obscure location of importance " , he illustrated James ' two volume The Wonders of the Colorado Desert . The work was successful and received generally favorable reviews . The collaboration on the book lasted from 1903 to 1907 . Eytel 's illustrations were also used by James in his 1906 article " The Colorado Desert : As General Kearney Saw It " .
= = = Successes = = =
By 1908 Eytel was exhibiting works in Pasadena and enjoying the patronage of socialite Martha M. Newkirk . He was also planning to build a bungalow in Beaumont , California . And , in 1909 , his work was being exhibited in major art venues and the Kanst gallery in Los Angeles . Later , in 1911 , after traveling with Chase on horseback , he contributed 21 realistic line art drawings to Chase 's book , Cone @-@ bearing Trees of the California Mountains .
Besides his work in Wonders of the Colorado Desert and Cone @-@ bearing Trees , Eytel contributed ( both drawings and articles ) to the best periodicals , including the Los Angeles Times and , for nearly 14 years , the New Yorker Staats @-@ Zeitung . ( During his travels in the southwest he became friends with Los Angeles Times city editor Charles Lummis . ) A stone wall in the dining room of Dr. Welwood Murray 's early hotel was covered with an Eytel mural of Palm Canyon . His hundreds of drawings of native palms were his trademark and he became known as " The Artist of the Palms " . His work helped publicize early Palm Springs . In 1977 his works were selling for $ 10 @,@ 000 and under .
= = = " Creative Brotherhood " = = =
Along with naturalist Edmund C. Jaeger , and authors Chase and Charles Francis Saunders , Eytel was a core member of what University of Arizona Professor Peter Wild called a " Creative Brotherhood " that lived in Palm Springs in the early 20th century . Other Brotherhood members included cartoonist and painter Swinnerton , author James , and photographers Fred Clatsworthy and Stephen H. Willard . The men lived near each other ( like Eytel , Jaeger built his own cabin ) , traveled together throughout the Southwest , helped with each other 's works , and exchanged photographs which appeared in their various books .
The Brotherhood lasted from 1915 when Jaeger , who was the teacher in the Palm Springs one @-@ room school house , met Eytel and Chase . It ended in 1923 when Chase died . ( In 1924 , after completing his studies at Occidental College in Los Angeles , Jaeger began a 30 @-@ year teaching career at Riverside Junior College in Riverside , California . ) Jaeger wrote the initial eulogy for Eytel upon his death and in 1948 , recalling his time with him , Jaeger said :
As an artist Eytel was largely self @-@ taught .... Not widely schooled , but widely read . Eytel possessed a knowledge not only of the Greek and Roman classics but of the best literature of England , America and his native Germany . I never knew Eytel to sleep indoors . Trying to inure himself to hardships in the belief it would toughen his constitution ....
Over the years it was Eytel who served as their " spiritual figurehead " . Even after Jaeger left to complete his studies and Chase married the wealthy Isabel White ( 1917 ) , the three , plus Saunders , often exchanged letters . Suffering from a " hacking and persistent cough " , Eytel remained in Palm Springs , impoverished , and Swinnerton would buy art supplies for him . Later Eytel became a recluse .
= = = Smoketree School = = =
Journalist Ann Japenga has characterized Eytel 's work as " Smoketree School " – a school which is named after a favorite desert art subject , the smoketree . The school has origins with Alson S. Clark and Jack Frost , who were influenced by French impressionist Claude Monet . Other Smoketree artists include Carl Bray , Fred Chisnall , Maynard Dixon , Clyde Forsythe , Sam Hyde Harris , John Hilton , R. Brownell McGrew , Agnes Pelton , Hanson Puthuff and Swinnerton .
= = = Style and subjects = = =
Like many artists of the desert southwest , Eytel 's style was impressionistic . His subjects were varied and included the Mission San José de Tumacácori , in the Tumacácori National Historical Park near Nogales , Arizona ( pre @-@ restoration ) , and California Mission San Gabriel Arcángel and Mission San Juan Capistrano Spanish missions . His drawings for Cone @-@ bearing Trees of the California Mountains and Wonders of the Colorado Desert were especially detailed and included Desert Bighorn Sheep , desert reptiles , and cattle . ( His Mirage in the Desert ( 1905 ) , painted for Wonders , depicts cattle and cowboys . )
Eytel depicted the life of Navajo , Hopi , Cahuilla , Serrano and Kamia peoples , including landscapes of the New Mexico Eight Northern Pueblos in San Ildefonso , Laguna , Tesuque and Taos Pueblo . The Walpi Pueblo on First Mesa , Hopi Reservation , Arizona , and Cocopah people near Calexico , California were drawn as well .
Prospectors working the Anaconda ( Dale District ) and Manana ( Colorado River ) mines in Arizona and the famous Picacho gold mine were drawn , as were the Rancho Guajome Adobe near Encinitas , California , the Sierra Bonita Ranch near Fort Grant , Arizona , turn of the century Tucson , Arizona , and the Yuma Territorial Prison , Yuma , Arizona .
His scenes from early Palm Springs included the stagecoach station and William Pester – " The Hermit of Palm Springs " .
Eytel 's landscapes and mountain scenes in Wonders included :
Ehrenberg , Arizona
Algodones , including the Pilot Knob landmark , Imperial County , California
Palo Verde , Arizona
San Jacinto National Forest , California
Oak Creek Canyon , within Coconino National Forest , Arizona
Mt . San Gorgonio , California
Mt . San Jacinto , California
Royal Gorge , Colorado
San Francisco Peaks near Flagstaff , Arizona
Sentinel Rock and Cathedral Spires in Yosemite Valley , California
Tahquitz Peak , near Idyllwild , California
Twin Buttes , Navajo County , Arizona
= = Honors = =
Eytel was a friend of the Cahuilla people and they allowed him to be buried in their cemetery in Palm Springs after he died of tuberculosis in a Banning , California sanatorium . His funeral and burial were arranged by Nellie Coffman , who had established the original Desert Inn in the Palm Springs village in 1909 .
Eytel received the following eulogy from Saunders writing in August 1926 :
But to Carl Eytel , pioneer of Palm Springs artists , working there long before the world of fashion had heard of the place , Palm Springs was his home , and the desert his life . He knew it in all seasons , in all moods , and he painted it with a sort of religious ardor springing from unfailing love , in season and out . Others have been better draughtsmen than he , but when you look at a canvas by Eytel at his best you are looking into what seems the desert ’ s heart .
His painting Desert near Palm Springs ( 1914 ) is displayed in the California History Room of the California State Library . The Palm Springs Art Museum has a set of Eytel 's sketches and displays various of his paintings .
The desert shrub amphipappus fremontii was given the common name " eytelia " in his honor . The short " Via Eytel " in Palm Springs is named in his honor , as is the short " Eytel Road " in nearby Cathedral City .
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= Catch Me If You Can ( Girls ' Generation song ) =
" Catch Me If You Can " is a song recorded in two languages ( Japanese and Korean ) by South Korean girl group Girls ' Generation . The Korean version was released by S.M. Entertainment and KT Music on April 10 , 2015 , while the Japanese version was released on April 22 by EMI and Universal Music Japan . The song was composed by Erik Lidbom and Jin Choi , with the Korean lyrics written by Mafly and Choe A @-@ Leum , and the Japanese lyrics written by Junji Ishiwatari and Jeff Miyahara . Musically , it was described by critics as an EDM track . The song marked the first release of Girls ' Generation as an eight @-@ member group following the dismissal of member Jessica Jung in September 2014 .
The single received generally favorable review from music critics , who not only praised its musical styles , but also compared the song to works by American musicians such as Zedd and Skrillex . Commercially , the single peaked at number 19 on the South Korean Gaon Digital Chart and number 8 on the Japanese Oricon Singles Chart . Two music videos were created for the single , one for the Korean version and one for the Japanese version , which were released simultaneously on April 10 , 2015 . The music videos were hailed for their " mind @-@ blowing " choreography , as described by Billboard magazine .
= = Background = =
South Korean girl group Girls ' Generation had achieved success on the Asian music scene with hit singles such as " Gee " and " I Got a Boy " since their 2007 debut as a nine @-@ piece girl group , consisting of members Taeyeon , Sunny , Tiffany , Hyoyeon , Yuri , Sooyoung , Yoona , Seohyun , and Jessica . In September 2014 , Jessica announced that she had been dismissed as a member of Girls ' Generation by their parent company S.M. Entertainment , due to her schedule conflict between the group 's mutual music activities and her own fashion business Blanc & Eclare ; the release of " Catch Me If You Can " marked Girls ' Generation 's first release as an eight @-@ member group .
On February 18 , 2015 , it was announced that Girls ' Generation was preparing for their comeback in Japan by releasing their ninth Japanese single named " Catch Me If You Can " , which was scheduled to be released in Japan on April 22 , 2015 . On March 23 , further information regarding the single was announced : the Japanese version of " Catch Me If You Can " would be distributed under three formats : CD single , digital download , and 12 @-@ inch single . The Korean version was released digitally worldwide by S.M. Entertainment on April 10 , 2015 . Due to its popularity on YouTube , the song also received airplay on SiriusXM Hits 1 radio during the week of April 20 , 2015 . Both versions of the single contain a B @-@ side track titled " Girls " .
= = Composition and reception = =
The music for " Catch Me If You Can " was composed by Erik Lidbom and Jin Choi . The Korean lyrics were written by Mafly and Choe A @-@ Leum , while the Japanese lyrics were written by Junji Ishiwatari and Jeff Miyahara . Musically , the song was described as an electronic dance music ( EDM ) track . Jeff Benjamin , writing for Fuse , noted it as a departure from the group 's signature bubblegum pop styles and named it " high @-@ turbo " EDM . The song is instrumented by " surging " synthesizers , tribal house beats , and bass drops . Upon its release , " Catch Me If You Can " received generally positive reviews from music critics . Benjamin further compared the track 's breakdowns to the musical styles of Russian – German DJ Zedd and wrote that the song " rise [ s ] above any mediocre label " . He also wrote an article for Billboard where he compared its musical styles to those of Zedd and American DJ Skrillex , labelling it a " smart move " .
= = = Chart performance = = =
The Korean version of " Catch Me If You Can " peaked at number 19 on the Gaon Digital Chart and has sold 135 @,@ 068 digital downloads . It also peaked at number 2 on the US World Digital Songs chart by Billboard magazine , becoming the group 's highest @-@ charting single on the chart . The Japanese version debuted at number 8 on the Japanese Oricon Singles Chart , selling 20 @,@ 835 physical copies in its first week of release . It has since sold 23 @,@ 167 physical units in Japan , becoming the 31st highest @-@ selling CD single of April in Japan . It additionally charted at number 9 on the Japan Hot 100 by Billboard Japan . In Taiwan , the single charted atop the G @-@ Music J @-@ pop chart in the first week of May 2015 .
= = Music videos and promotion = =
On April 10 , 2015 , S.M. Entertainment released the Korean music video on YouTube and other online web @-@ sharing websites , while the Japanese music video was disclosed on the group 's Japanese official website . The audio was revealed simultaneously on several South Korean online distributors .
Prior to the release , the members of Girls ' Generation had promoted the new song on their social network profiles , including Instagram and Sina Weibo . S.M. Entertainment also started a selfie contest with the hashtag " # catchGG " on Twitter , accompanying the group 's comeback . Following the release of the song , the group did not do any official promotion in South Korea . However , Girls ' Generation later performed the song on South Korean music program Show ! Music Core , in conjunction with the release of the group 's subsequent single " Party " , in July 2015 . They also performed the song on NTV 's Live Monster concert in Japan during the same month .
The music video for " Catch Me If You Can " was directed by Toshiyuki Suzuki and features the members dancing in white tank tops and orange uniforms at a construction zone . Jeff Benjamin from American music magazine Billboard described the choreography as " powerful and sexy " and " mind @-@ blowing " . He furthered commented that the members sure " can dance their asses off " and compared the video to Ciara 's 2009 music video for " Work " for the same construction zone background and the white tank top look . Similarly , Filipino channel Myx praised the music video 's visual , commenting that the group were " keeping it hot with their steamy moves and outfits " . In June 2015 , an earlier version of the music video featuring ex @-@ member Jessica was unofficially released onto the Internet . It was presumably filmed before she was dismissed from the group in September 2014 .
= = Track listings and formats = =
= = Chart = =
= = Release history = =
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= Copernicium =
Copernicium is a chemical element with symbol Cn and atomic number 112 . It is an extremely radioactive synthetic element that can only be created in a laboratory . The most stable known isotope , copernicium @-@ 285 , has a half @-@ life of approximately 29 seconds , but it is possible that this copernicium isotope may have a nuclear isomer with a longer half @-@ life , 8 @.@ 9 min . Copernicium was first created in 1996 by the GSI Helmholtz Centre for Heavy Ion Research near Darmstadt , Germany . It is named after the astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus .
In the periodic table of the elements , it is a d @-@ block transactinide element . During reactions with gold , it has been shown to be an extremely volatile metal and a group 12 element , and it may even be a gas at standard temperature and pressure . Copernicium is calculated to have several properties that differ between it and its lighter homologues , zinc , cadmium and mercury ; the most notable of them is withdrawing two 6d @-@ electrons before 7s ones due to relativistic effects , which confirm copernicium as an undisputed transition metal . Copernicium is also calculated to show a predominance of the oxidation state + 4 , while mercury shows it in only one compound at extreme conditions and zinc and cadmium do not show it at all . It has also been predicted to be more difficult to oxidise copernicium from its neutral state than the other group 12 elements .
In total , approximately 75 atoms of copernicium have been detected using various nuclear reactions .
= = History = =
= = = Official discovery = = =
Copernicium was first created on February 9 , 1996 , at the Gesellschaft für Schwerionenforschung ( GSI ) in Darmstadt , Germany , by Sigurd Hofmann , Victor Ninov et al . This element was created by firing accelerated zinc @-@ 70 nuclei at a target made of lead @-@ 208 nuclei in a heavy ion accelerator . A single atom ( the second was subsequently dismissed ) of copernicium was produced with a mass number of 277 .
208
82Pb + 70
30Zn → 278
112Cn * → 277
112Cn + 1
0n
In May 2000 , the GSI successfully repeated the experiment to synthesize a further atom of copernicium @-@ 277 . This reaction was repeated at RIKEN using the Search for a Super @-@ Heavy Element Using a Gas @-@ Filled Recoil Separator set @-@ up in 2004 and 2013 to synthesize three further atoms and confirm the decay data reported by the GSI team .
The IUPAC / IUPAP Joint Working Party ( JWP ) assessed the claim of discovery by the GSI team in 2001 and 2003 . In both cases , they found that there was insufficient evidence to support their claim . This was primarily related to the contradicting decay data for the known nuclide rutherfordium @-@ 261 . However , between 2001 and 2005 , the GSI team studied the reaction 248Cm ( 26Mg , 5n ) 269Hs , and were able to confirm the decay data for hassium @-@ 269 and rutherfordium @-@ 261 . It was found that the existing data on rutherfordium @-@ 261 was for an isomer , now designated rutherfordium @-@ 261m .
In May 2009 , the JWP reported on the claims of discovery of element 112 again and officially recognized the GSI team as the discoverers of element 112 . This decision was based on the confirmation of the decay properties of daughter nuclei as well as the confirmatory experiments at RIKEN .
= = = Naming = = =
Using Mendeleev 's nomenclature for unnamed and undiscovered elements , copernicium should be known as eka @-@ mercury . In 1979 , IUPAC published recommendations according to which the element was to be called ununbium ( with the corresponding symbol of Uub ) , a systematic element name as a placeholder , until the element was discovered ( and the discovery then confirmed ) and a permanent name was decided on . Although widely used in the chemical community on all levels , from chemistry classrooms to advanced textbooks , the recommendations were mostly ignored among scientists in the field , who either called it " element 112 " , with the symbol of ( 112 ) or even simply 112 .
After acknowledging the GSI team 's discovery , the IUPAC asked them to suggest a permanent name for element 112 . On 14 July 2009 , they proposed copernicium with the element symbol Cp , after Nicolaus Copernicus " to honor an outstanding scientist , who changed our view of the world " .
During the standard six @-@ month discussion period among the scientific community about the naming , it was pointed out that the symbol Cp was previously associated with the name cassiopeium ( cassiopium ) , now known as lutetium ( Lu ) . For this reason , the IUPAC disallowed the use of Cp as a future symbol , prompting the GSI team to put forward the symbol Cn as an alternative . On 19 February 2010 , the 537th anniversary of Copernicus ' birth , IUPAC officially accepted the proposed name and symbol .
= = Isotopes = =
Copernicium has no stable or naturally @-@ occurring isotopes . Several radioactive isotopes have been synthesized in the laboratory , either by fusing two atoms or by observing the decay of heavier elements . Six different isotopes have been reported with atomic masses from 281 to 285 , and 277 , two of which , copernicium @-@ 283 and copernicium @-@ 285 , have known metastable states . Most of these decay predominantly through alpha decay , but some undergo spontaneous fission .
The isotope copernicium @-@ 283 was instrumental in the confirmation of the discoveries of the elements flerovium and livermorium .
= = = Half @-@ lives = = =
All copernicium isotopes are extremely unstable and radioactive ; in general , heavier isotopes are more stable than the lighter . The most stable isotope , 285Cn , has a half @-@ life of 29 seconds , although it is suspected that this isotope has an isomer with a half @-@ life of 8 @.@ 9 minutes , and 283Cn may have an isomer with a half @-@ life of about 5 minutes . Other isotopes have half @-@ lives shorter than 0 @.@ 1 seconds . 281Cn and 284Cn both have half @-@ lives of 97 ms , and the other two isotopes have half @-@ lives slightly under one millisecond . It is predicted that the heavy isotopes 291Cn and 293Cn may have half @-@ lives of around 1200 years , and may have been produced in the r @-@ process and be detectable in cosmic rays , though they would be about 10 − 12 times as abundant as lead .
The lightest isotopes were synthesized by direct fusion between two lighter nuclei and as decay products ( except for 277Cn , which is not known to be a decay product ) , while the heavier isotopes are only known to be produced by decay of heavier nuclei . The heaviest isotope produced by direct fusion is 283Cn ; the two heavier isotopes , 284Cn and 285Cn have only been observed as decay products of elements with larger atomic numbers . In 1999 , American scientists at the University of California , Berkeley , announced that they had succeeded in synthesizing three atoms of 293Uuo . These parent nuclei were reported to have successively emitted three alpha particles to form copernicium @-@ 281 nuclei , which were claimed to have undergone an alpha decay , emitting an alpha particle with decay energy of 10 @.@ 68 MeV and half @-@ life 0 @.@ 90 ms , but their claim was retracted in 2001 . The isotope , however , was produced in 2010 by the same team . The new data contradicted the previous ( fabricated ) data .
= = Predicted properties = =
= = = Chemical = = =
Copernicium is the last member of the 6d series of transition metals and the heaviest group 12 element in the periodic table , below zinc , cadmium and mercury . It is predicted to differ significantly from the lighter group 12 elements . Due to stabilization of 7s electronic orbitals and destabilization of 6d ones caused by relativistic effects , Cn2 + is likely to have a [ Rn ] 5f146d87s2 electronic configuration , using the 6d orbitals before the 7s one , unlike its homologues . The fact that the 6d electrons participate readily in chemical bonding mean that copernicium should behave more like a transition metal than its lighter homologues , especially in the + 4 oxidation state . In water solutions , copernicium is likely to form the + 2 and + 4 oxidation states , with the latter one being more stable . Among the lighter group 12 members , for which the + 2 oxidation state is the most common , only mercury can show the + 4 oxidation state , but it is highly uncommon , existing at only one compound ( mercury ( IV ) fluoride , HgF4 ) at extreme conditions . The analogous compound for copernicium , copernicium ( IV ) fluoride ( CnF4 ) , is predicted to be more stable . The diatomic ion Hg2 +
2 , featuring mercury in the + 1 oxidation state , is well @-@ known , but the Cn2 +
2 ion is predicted to be unstable or even non @-@ existent . Oxidation of copernicium from its neutral state is also likely to be more difficult than those of previous group 12 members . Copernicium ( II ) fluoride , CnF2 , should be more unstable than the analogous mercury compound , mercury ( II ) fluoride ( HgF2 ) , and may even decompose spontaneously into its constituent elements . In polar solvents , copernicium is predicted to preferentially form the CnF −
5 and CnF −
3 anions rather than the analogous neutral fluorides ( CnF4 and CnF2 , respectively ) , although the analogous bromide or iodide ions may be more stable towards hydrolysis in aqueous solution . The anions CnCl2 −
4 and CnBr2 −
4 should also be able to exist in aqueous solution .
The valence s @-@ subshells of the group 12 elements and period 7 elements are expected to be relativistically contracted most strongly at copernicium . This and the closed @-@ shell configuration of copernicium result in it probably being a very noble metal . Its metallic bonds should also be very weak , possibly making it extremely volatile , like the noble gases , and potentially making it gaseous at room temperature . However , it should be able to form metal – metal bonds with copper , palladium , platinum , silver , and gold ; these bonds are predicted to be only about 15 – 20 kJ / mol weaker than the analogous bonds with mercury .
= = = Physical and atomic = = =
Copernicium should be a very heavy metal with a density of around 23 @.@ 7 g / cm3 in the solid state ; in comparison , the most dense known element that has had its density measured , osmium , has a density of only 22 @.@ 61 g / cm3 . This results from copernicium 's high atomic weight , the lanthanide and actinide contractions , and relativistic effects , although production of enough copernicium to measure this quantity would be impractical , and the sample would quickly decay . However , some calculations predict copernicium to be a gas at room temperature , the first gaseous metal in the periodic table ( the second being flerovium ) , due to the closed @-@ shell electron configurations of copernicium and flerovium . The atomic radius of copernicium is expected to be around 147 pm . Due to the relativistic stabilization of the 7s orbital and destabilization of the 6d orbital , the Cn + and Cn2 + ions are predicted to give up 6d electrons instead of 7s electrons , which is the opposite of the behavior of its lighter homologues .
In addition to the relativistic contraction and binding of the 7s subshell , the 6d5 / 2 orbital is expected to be destabilized due to spin @-@ orbit coupling , making it behave similarly to the 7s orbital in terms of size , shape , and energy . Hence copernicium may not be a noble transition metal , but rather a semiconductor with a band gap of around 0 @.@ 2 eV . Copernicium is expected to crystallize in the hexagonal close @-@ packed crystal structure , with lattice parameters a |
= 332 pm and c =
540 pm . The c / a ratio of 1 @.@ 63 is the ideal value , establishing a kinship between solid copernicium and the solid noble gases , though its cohesive energy ( enthalpy of crystallization ) should be on the order of that of mercury rather than be near the lower value of the noble gases .
= = Experimental atomic gas phase chemistry = =
Interest in copernicium 's chemistry was sparked by predictions that it would have the largest relativistic effects in the whole of period 7 and group 12 . Copernicium has the ground state electron configuration [ Rn ] 5f146d107s2 and thus should belong to group 12 of the periodic table , according to the Aufbau principle . As such , it should behave as the heavier homologue of mercury and form strong binary compounds with noble metals like gold . Experiments probing the reactivity of copernicium have focused on the adsorption of atoms of element 112 onto a gold surface held at varying temperatures , in order to calculate an adsorption enthalpy . Owing to relativistic stabilization of the 7s electrons , copernicium shows radon @-@ like properties . Experiments were performed with the simultaneous formation of mercury and radon radioisotopes , allowing a comparison of adsorption characteristics .
The first experiments were conducted using the 238U ( 48Ca , 3n ) 283Cn reaction . Detection was by spontaneous fission of the claimed parent isotope with half @-@ life of 5 minutes . Analysis of the data indicated that copernicium was more volatile than mercury and had noble gas properties . However , the confusion regarding the synthesis of copernicium @-@ 283 has cast some doubt on these experimental results . Given this uncertainty , between April – May 2006 at the JINR , a FLNR – PSI team conducted experiments probing the synthesis of this isotope as a daughter in the nuclear reaction 242Pu ( 48Ca , 3n ) 287Fl . In this experiment , two atoms of copernicium @-@ 283 were unambiguously identified and the adsorption properties indicated that copernicium is a more volatile homologue of mercury , due to formation of a weak metal @-@ metal bond with gold , placing it firmly in group 12 .
In April 2007 , this experiment was repeated and a further three atoms of copernicium @-@ 283 were positively identified . The adsorption property was confirmed and indicated that copernicium has adsorption properties completely in agreement with being the heaviest member of group 12 . These experiments also allowed the first experimental estimation of copernicium 's boiling point : 84 + 112
− 108 ° C.
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= 2011 Guerrero earthquake =
The 2011 Guerrero earthquake struck with a moment magnitude of 5 @.@ 7 in southern Mexico at 08 : 24 local time on Thursday , 5 May . It was positioned west of Ometepec , Guerrero , with a focal depth of 24 km ( 14 @.@ 9 mi ) , and was lightly felt in many adjacent areas .
Buildings swayed with the tremor in Mexico City , prompting evacuations and causing panic among many . Following the quake , police patrolled city streets for safety reasons and damage assessments were carried out across the affected region . There were no casualties , though two local police stations suffered slight damage . A number of light aftershocks succeeded the main event , of which the strongest measured a magnitude of 4 @.@ 1 ( ML ) .
= = Geology = =
The magnitude 5 @.@ 7 ( Mw ) earthquake occurred inland near the southern coast of Mexico at a depth of 24 km ( 14 @.@ 9 mi ) , with a duration of nearly one minute and an epicenter about 55 km ( 34 mi ) west of Ometepec , Guerrero . In the region , the Cocos , North American , and Caribbean Plates converge and create a tectonic zone of continuous seismic activity . The quake struck near the eastern periphery of the Guerrero seismic gap , which extends from Acapulco to Ixtapa – Zihuatanejo and contains enough seismic energy to generate an earthquake of up to magnitude 7 @.@ 5 , but it did not cause the gap to rupture . Initial estimates from the USGS placed its intensity at a magnitude of 5 @.@ 8 ( Mw ) ; the National Seismological Service registered the earthquake at magnitude 5 @.@ 5 ( ML ) .
Owing to the moderate magnitude of the quake , significant shaking was felt only in localized parts of Costa Chica , registering strongest at VI ( strong ) on the Mercalli scale in Azoyú and V ( moderate ) in populous areas around the epicenter . Lighter ground motions ( MM IV – III ) were perceived in much of Guerrero , including Acapulco and Chilpancingo , with weak tremors ( MM II ) reported as far away as in Mexico City , about 300 km ( 187 mi ) from the epicenter . The capital city rests on a former lakebed of largely unconsolidated sedimentary layers , so earthquake shaking in its vicinity is generally amplified .
= = Aftershocks = =
By 6 May , a total of five light aftershocks had occurred near the earthquake 's epicenter . Of the five , the first registered a magnitude of 3 @.@ 7 ( ML ) and struck about 15 minutes after the main shock , and was succeeded by a magnitude 3 @.@ 9 ( ML ) tremor at 10 : 09 local time . Two similar quakes of minor intensity struck the region the next day ; however , the strongest and final aftershock registered a magnitude of 4 @.@ 1 ( ML ) and occurred at 04 : 00 in the morning .
= = Impact and response = =
Despite relatively strong ground motions , damage to the area was very limited ; structures around the epicenter were a mix of fairly vulnerable and resistant to earthquake shaking . Buildings swayed with the tremor in Mexico City , causing panic among many citizens and prompting some to evacuate . Several schools in Guerrero were evacuated as a safety precaution . The earthquake and its aftershock sequence contributed to intermittent power outages in Acapulco ; more than 40 @,@ 000 residences in some 40 districts remained without power by the next day . There were no reports of major losses or fatalities in the wake of the tremor , though two police stations located in Acapulco and Marquelia suffered light damage . Elsewhere , some fallen roof tiles and small landslides occurred east of the epicenter in Cuautepec .
Prior to the arrival of seismic waves in Mexico City , seven of twelve earthquake sensors near the coast of Guerrero detected a " potentially significant quake " . Alert systems were subsequently activated in the area , giving locals at least 50 seconds to secure themselves . Shortly after impact , authorities dispatched five helicopters to ascertain any damage in the wake of the quake . SSP officials , along with over 3 @,@ 000 police officers , patrolled the city streets as a safety measure . In response to the earthquake 's occurrence , the Federal District announced the installation of 50 @,@ 000 seismic alarms in local schools , hospitals , and offices . Reassessments of structural conditions — particularly in earthquake @-@ prone parts of the state — were scheduled , and about 1 @,@ 817 @,@ 000 government workers partook in an earthquake simulation exercise the following day .
= = = Scientific reaction = = =
Although the intensity of the quake was fairly significant , specialists reported that earthquakes of such magnitude do not release nearly enough seismic energy to prevent a major earthquake from occurring in the region . In reality , roughly 900 earthquakes of similar intensities to that of the Guerrero earthquake are required per year to total the energy unleashed by a magnitude 7 @.@ 5 event . Many locals perceived an apparent increase in recent earthquake occurrences , though at the time seismologists registered normal levels of seismic activity in the area . In 2009 , a similar magnitude 5 @.@ 8 Mw earthquake struck Guerrero near Acapulco at a depth of 35 km ( 22 mi ) , killing at least two people .
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= Alan Moore ( war artist ) =
Alan Moore ( 1 August 1914 – 24 September 2015 ) was an Australian war artist during World War II . He is best known for his images of the Bergen @-@ Belsen concentration camp .
= = Early life = =
Moore was born in Melbourne in 1914 . He began life drawing art classes at age 16 , but was forbidden by his father from continuing because the subjects were nude . He took up his studies again when he turned 18 , at the National Gallery of Victoria Art School , this time completing his studies to obtain a degree . He also studied under J.S. Watkins in Sydney .
He won several art and drawing prizes in Melbourne , including the Grace Joel scholarship prize in 1942 for a nude painting .
On 14 July 1939 Moore married this first wife , Maria .
= = Career = =
= = = During the war = = =
Moore enlisted in the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) in 1942 , where he was tasked with drawing airplane diagrams . A problem with one leg prevented him from being aircrew . In late 1943 , following recommendations from artists William Dargie and Harold Herbert , he was commissioned as an official war artist attached to the army , and given the rank of lieutenant .
Moore 's first deployment as an artist was with the RAAF in Papua New Guinea in early 1944 . His earlier watercolour paintings , made in Milne Bay and Goodenough Island , were destroyed by wet weather and humidity ; he subsequently changed to working with oils , which were more suitable for the tropical environment .
During his time in Papua New Guinea he flew in several bombing raids to make sketches from the air .
Towards the end of World War II , he recorded war scenes from Papua New Guinea , the Middle East , Italy , England and Germany .
In 1945 Moore accompanied the British 11th Armoured Division when they liberated the Bergen @-@ Belsen concentration camp in Germany . He spent three days sketching and painting the state of the camp , its prisoners and their captors , including Fritz Klein . It was suggested by one soldier that nobody would believe the portrayals , prompting Moore to also photograph the scenes as proof .
= = = After the war = = =
After the war , Moore returned to Melbourne , where he painted images from his Belsen sketches and photographs . They were exhibited commercially , but failed to sell . The Australian War Memorial initially rejected the material because it did not depict Australian soldiers ; however it accepted them in 1969 when they were donated by Moore . In 2013 – 14 the Belsen images formed the basis of a year @-@ long exhibition at the Australian War Memorial in Canberra , which Moore himself visited at the invitation of the Memorial .
The War Memorial also commissioned Moore to paint several large portraits , including of Generals Douglas MacArthur and Arthur Samuel Allen . As of 2015 the War Memorial holds more than 200 of his works .
After the war Moore spent some years in Europe .
He taught painting at Swinburne Technical College from c . 1963 .
= = Later life = =
Moore continued to paint at his studio in Avoca until he was 95 , stopped by arthritis and failing vision . At about the same time he moved into a nursing home in Avoca .
He died on 24 September 2015 , survived by his third wife , Alison .
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= Bond Street =
Bond Street in the West End of London , connects Piccadilly in the south to Oxford Street in the north . The street , consisting of two sections , has been a popular shopping area since the 18th century and is the home of many fashion outlets that sell prestigious and expensive items . The southern section is Old Bond Street and the longer northern section New Bond Street — a distinction not generally made in everyday usage .
The street was originally fields surrounding Clarendon House on Piccadilly , which were developed by Sir Thomas Bond . It was built up in the 1720s , and by the end of the 18th century was a popular place for the upper @-@ class residents of Mayfair to socialise . Prestigious and expensive shops were established along the street but it declined as a centre of social activity in the 19th century , although it held its reputation as a fashionable place for retail , and is home to the auction houses Sotheby 's and Bonhams ( formerly Phillips ) and the department stores Fenwick and Tiffany 's . It is one of the most expensive and sought after strips of real estate in Europe .
= = Geography = =
Bond Street is the only street that runs between Oxford Street and Piccadilly . Old Bond Street is at the southern end between Piccadilly and Burlington Gardens . The northern section , New Bond Street , extends as far as Oxford Street . The whole street combined is around 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) long . The street is narrow , and many of the shops along its front are less than 20 feet ( 6 m ) wide .
The nearest tube stations are Green Park on Piccadilly , and Bond Street station on Oxford Street . Despite its name , the station does not directly connect to either New or Old Bond Street . No bus routes use the street , though the C2 service crosses New Bond Street . Part of New Bond Street is classified B406 ; the remainder and all of Old Bond Street has no number . New Bond Street is pedestrianised between Grafton Street and Clifford Street to prevent through traffic and to stop the road being used as a rat run .
= = History = =
There has been evidence of Roman settlement around what is now Bond Street . In 1894 , a culvert made from brick and stone was discovered in the area . The street was named after Sir Thomas Bond , the head of a syndicate of developers who purchased a Piccadilly mansion called Clarendon House , from Christopher Monck , 2nd Duke of Albemarle in 1686 , and proceeded to demolish the house and develop the area . At that time , the house backed onto open fields , known as Albemarle Ground , and the development of various estates in Mayfair had just begun .
New Bond Street was added during a second phase of construction 14 years after Bond 's syndicate began developing the area . Most of the building along the street occurred in the 1720s , on what was the Conduit Mead Estate . John Rocque 's map of London , published in 1746 , shows properties along the entire length of Bond Street , including the fully constructed side streets . The two parts of the street have always had separate names , and a plan by the council to merge the two into a singular " Bond Street " in the 1920s were rejected by locals .
During the 18th century , the street began to become popular with the bourgeoisie living around Mayfair . Shop owners let out the upstairs for residential purposes , attracting lodgers such as Jonathan Swift , George Selwyn , William Pitt the Elder and Laurence Stern . In 1784 , Georgiana Cavendish , Duchess of Devonshire , an active socialite , demanded that people boycotted Covent Garden as its residents had voted against Whig member of parliament Charles James Fox , causing him to lose his seat in parliament and dissolve the Fox – North Coalition . She insisted people should look for nearer shopping streets , and encouraged people to go to Bond Street . Consequently , the street became a retail area for people living in Mayfair . By the end of the century , an upper class social group known as the Bond Street Loungers had appeared , wearing expensive wigs and parading up and down the street in a pretentious manner .
Lord Nelson stayed at temporary lodgings on New Bond Street between 1797 – 8 , and again in 1811 – 13 . Thomas Pitt , 2nd Baron Camelford lived on Bond Street and was unhappy about the presence of the Bond Street Loungers . Already notorious for a violent and abusive temper , on 7 October 1801 , he refused invitations to join in celebrations of peace between Britain and France ( which led to the Treaty of Amiens ) , resulting in an altercation with several Loungers at his doorstep . Camelford retreated upstairs and fired upon the crowd with a pistol .
During the 19th century , Bond Street became less known for its social atmosphere and increased its reputation as a street for luxury shopping . The auctioneer Phillips was established in 1796 at No. 101 Bond Street , specialising in stringed instruments and sheet music . The jewellers Asprey originally opened in 1830 at Nos. 165 – 169 New Bond Street . The Jewish practice of Kabbalah has been associated with the street after former East End trader Sarah Levenson opened a shop on No. 50 New Bond Street in 1856 and immediately became profitable , albeit through exaggerated and questionable product claims . Levenson was twice taken to court and prosecuted for fraud , each resulting in a five @-@ year prison sentence . She died mid @-@ way through the second . Nevertheless , the practice regained popularity and a Kabbalah Centre remains on the street .
The Royal Arcade links Old Bond Street with Albemarle Street . It was originally proposed in 1864 as a longer link between Old Bond Street and Regent Street , but this was rejected due to the scale of proposed demolition and restricting access to existing properties . It was subsequently redesigned to its current layout , opening in 1879 and replacing the Clarendon Hotel , which had been demolished in 1870 .
The street has maintained its reputation for luxury shopping into the 21st century , and has on occasions been regarded as the best retail location in Europe . In 2011 , Bloomberg Business reported that New Bond Street was the most expensive retail street in Europe after the Champs @-@ Élysées in Paris . As a consequence , though , the street has suffered from armed robbery on numerous occasions , with thieves being attracted by the high value of goods that can be stolen in raids . The Graff Diamonds robbery in Bond Street in 2009 resulted in an estimated loss of £ 40 million .
= = Properties = =
Westminster City Council have said that Bond Street has the highest density of haute couture stores anywhere in the world , attracting " the rich , the famous , and the simply curious " . The entire length of Bond Street has been part of the Mayfair Conservation Area controlled by Westminster City Council since 1969 . Building alterations and constructions are tightly controlled to ensure the street 's appearance and upkeep are unaltered . Many buildings are listed . The council regulates the style and materials used on shop front advertising .
At one time , Bond Street was best known for top @-@ end art dealers and antique shops that were clustered around the London office of Sotheby 's auction house — which has been at Nos. 34 – 35 Bond Street since 1917 and the Fine Art Society , founded in 1876 . The sculpture over the entrance to Sotheby 's is from Ancient Egypt and is believed to date from around 1600BC . It is the oldest outdoor sculpture in London .
Some dealers and antique shops remain , but many of the shops became occupied by fashion boutiques , some of which are branches of global designer brands . The street still has a reputation as a fashionable place for shopping , including the flagship stores for Ralph Lauren and Cartier . Fenwick have had a department store on Bond Street since 1891 . The Phillips building at No. 101 is still used for auctions ; the company was bought by Bonhams in 2001 and subsequently spent £ 30 million expanding and refurbishing the premises . In 2015 , Valentino announced plans to build a new flagship store on Old Bond Street .
The street features " Allies " , a statue of Winston Churchill and Franklin D. Roosevelt , who are portrayed sitting on a park bench in conversation , sculpted by Lawrence Holofcener . The statue , popular with tourists , was unveiled in May 1995 by Princess Margaret and was erected by the Bond Street Association to commemorate 50 years since the end of World War II . In 2013 , maquettes of the sculpture ( which are replicas , as Holofcener did not make any as part of the original artwork or design ) were sold at Bonhams .
The construction of Crossrail , part of which runs between Bond Street and Tottenham Court Road stations , involved demolition of property in nearby Hanover Square , some of which backs onto New Bond Street . This affected Nos. 64 – 72 , which required refurbishment .
= = Cultural references = =
Bond Street has been mentioned in several works of literature , including Jane Austen 's novel Sense and Sensibility and Virginia Woolf 's 1925 novel Mrs Dalloway . The plot of the 1948 film Bond Street centres around items purchased from shops on the street . In Suzanna Clarke 's novel Jonathan Strange & Mr. Norrell , Bond Street is described as having " the most fashionable shops in all the kingdom " .
Bond Street is also a square on the British Monopoly board , and is the most expensive of the green @-@ coloured set that also includes Regent and Oxford Streets . The three streets are grouped together because of their shared history in shopping and retail .
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= Gateshead International Stadium =
Gateshead International Stadium is a multi @-@ purpose , all @-@ seater venue in Gateshead , Tyne and Wear , England . Originally known as the Gateshead Youth Stadium , the venue was built in 1955 at a cost of £ 30 @,@ 000 . It has since been extensively re @-@ developed on three occasions . Its capacity of around 11 @,@ 800 is the greatest in the Metropolitan Borough of Gateshead , the third @-@ largest in Tyne and Wear ( behind only St James ' Park and the Stadium of Light ) and the sixth @-@ largest in North East England .
The main arena is principally used for athletics . The inaugural athletics competition at the redeveloped venue , the 1974 " Gateshead Games " , was instigated by Brendan Foster , a Gateshead Council employee at that time . By breaking the world record in the men 's 3 @,@ 000 m , Foster brought international publicity to the new stadium and began a tradition of athletics competitions at the venue , which has since hosted the British Grand Prix ( 2003 – 10 ) and the European Team Championships in 1989 , 2000 and 2013 . It is the only venue to have hosted the latter event three times . Five world records have been set at the stadium , including two by pole vaulter Yelena Isinbayeva and a tied 100 metres record by Asafa Powell in 2006 .
Although the venue primarily caters for athletics , it is the current or former home to teams in several sports . Gateshead football club have played their home games at the stadium since 1970 . Gateshead International Stadium was home to the Gateshead Thunder rugby league club during their spell in the Super League and the replacement Gateshead Thunder club played home games in the main arena , which was known as the Thunderdome when used by that team until the club relocated to Newcastle in 2015 . Gateshead Harriers Athletic Club , which includes Foster and Jonathan Edwards among its life members , are the oldest tenants , having used the site since 1956 . The stadium has also been used as a concert venue by numerous musical artists including Bon Jovi , Bryan Adams and Tina Turner .
= = History and development = =
The Stadium is built on the site of two large chemical works opened in 1827 and 1834 . These works initially thrived , but by the early part of the 20th century both were in terminal decline , and were demolished in 1932 to leave behind a 2 @-@ million @-@ tonne heap of spoil . This land , approximately 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) east of the centre of Gateshead , was cleared in 1942 but continued to lie derelict until the mid @-@ 1950s .
In early 1955 , Gateshead Council began work on transforming this land . The Gateshead Youth Stadium , built on the site of the old chemical works , was opened by Jim Peters on 27 August 1955 . Costing £ 30 @,@ 000 , the original venue contained little more than a cinder running track and an asphalt cycling track , though floodlights and a seating area were added soon after . On 1 July 1961 , the arena hosted its first major competition — the Vaux Breweries International Athletics Meet — but according to sportswriter John Gibson , the Youth Stadium remained " little more than a minor track with a tiny grandstand and open terraces " .
According to author Thomas Telfer , by the turn of the 1970s , the town of Gateshead was suffering from " the classic symptoms of decay in its inner @-@ city areas " . The response during the 1960s had been a programme of systematic derelict land reclamation and environmental improvement . While these measures did not have an immediate positive impact on the perception of the town , Gateshead Council pressed ahead by looking to develop existing infrastructure with a view to overall regeneration . One such opportunity was identified at the Gateshead Youth Stadium , where the council believed that investment might raise the region 's profile and bring international recognition . In April 1974 , Gateshead Council inaugurated a " Sport and Recreation " department . In July 1974 , the council appointed Brendan Foster — a former schoolteacher turned athlete and a native of Tyne and Wear — as the Council 's sport and recreation manager . Foster , who according to Gibson became " the father of Gateshead athletics " , had been forced to train in Edinburgh during 1973 as a result of the poor condition of the Youth Stadium track . In December 1973 , he had been invited to a civic reception to celebrate his breaking of the two @-@ mile world record earlier that year at Crystal Palace . At this reception , Foster was told that a new synthetic track was being laid at Gateshead Youth Stadium . His response was a promise that , if the Council was serious , he would run at the stadium and break a world record ( Foster later offered an explanation of that promise : " You know how it is when you 've had a few drinks — you promise the world ! " ) . When the track was laid in early 1974 , Foster became convinced of the Council 's sincerity . He was interviewed for the managerial position and , upon appointment , became the " driving force " behind the programme of improvements to the Youth Stadium , which included the building of the main , covered Tyne and Wear stand in 1981 and three accompanying stands ; the venue was renamed the Gateshead International Stadium . This first tranche of improvements cost around £ 8 million , and Foster 's proposal to commemorate the re @-@ opening with an athletic event was approved , allowing for the first " Gateshead Games " to be held in 1974 .
The success of the first Gateshead Games , and their subsequent annual renewal , raised the profile of the stadium and caused Gateshead Council to further their financial investment . During the 1980s , additions were made to the site infrastructure , including the building of an indoor sports hall , outdoor football pitches and a gymnasium . In 1989 the running track was again relayed and Gateshead confirmed its reputation as a top @-@ class athletics venue by hosting the Europa Cup ( forerunner to the European Team Championships ) . In the 21st century , the site has been the subject of two major re @-@ development projects . The first was completed in 2006 , when two artificial outdoor football pitches , indoor athletic training facilities , sports science provisions and conferencing rooms were added at a cost of £ 15 million . The revamped stadium , funded by collaboration between One NorthEast , Sport England and Gateshead College among others , was opened on 12 May 2006 by Sebastian Coe .
A second tranche of development , undertaken in two stages , was approved in November 2009 . This included a general refurbishment and improvement of the existing facilities at the stadium , adding cover , better toilet and new refreshment facilities to the exposed East Stand , improving wheelchair access , adding extra catering and conferencing facilities and a new media and management centre . This was funded by collaboration between Gateshead Council , local development funds and Gateshead College . The covering of the 4 @,@ 000 @-@ seat East Stand with a new canopy roof was completed in July 2010 , immediately prior to Gateshead hosting a Diamond League event . The second stage of the re @-@ development — the building of the corporate and media facilities — commenced on 6 September 2010 and was completed on time in summer 2011 . The total cost of the work was estimated to be £ 7 @.@ 6 million .
A third programme of expansion was initially mooted in 2008 . The aim of this programme was to expand the stadium into an all @-@ embracing " sports village " , replete with an ice rink , indoor golf course , restaurants and shops . Gateshead Council invited tenders in August 2008 from commercial organisations interested in undertaking the development . A formal draft development brief was compiled and published in November 2009 . A report to Council in December 2009 noted that there had been " a reasonable level of interest at the preliminary stage " from private investors , but that only one detailed proposal had been submitted , which had been declined by the Council on financial grounds . The report also noted concerns that the original centrepiece of the proposed village , the ice rink , may have been deterring investors and that a similar proposal to redevelop land at the Stadium of Light in Sunderland was detracting from what councillors had hoped to be a unique feature of the proposed village . The result was that a fresh proposal was raised to remove the ice rink from the brief in an attempt to " stimulate the market " . A public consultation was undertaken and in May 2010 the council reported that 327 of the 375 responses received were in favour of the amended proposal . As a result , notice was given to developers that the council intended to market the site and ten responses were received .
= = Structure and facilities = =
Gateshead International Stadium and its facilities occupy 24 @.@ 4 hectares ( 60 acres ) of land . The main athletics arena at Gateshead International Stadium is an all @-@ seater , bowl @-@ shaped arena consisting of four stands of seats . The precise capacity of the venue is uncertain ; some sources claim it to be 11 @,@ 750 , others 11 @,@ 762 and some provide a figure of 11 @,@ 800 . The main stand is the Tyne and Wear Stand , a steep , cantilevered structure seating 3 @,@ 300 spectators . This stand contains toilet and catering facilities and a bar area . Opposite is the East Stand , a 4 @,@ 000 @-@ seat structure that was uncovered until 2010 , when a cantilevered canopy roof was added . A bespoke design by Fabric Architecture , the roof is a 30 metres ( 98 ft ) structure incorporating five barrel vault forms . Part of the same improvement plan added toilet and catering facilities to the East Stand . The South Terrace , sometimes referred to as simply the South Stand , consists of a continuous , uncovered bank of seating in eight blocks with access through four turnstiles . The North Terrace is opposite and consists of two blocks of uncovered seating separated by a large scoreboard .
The athletics track in the main arena was laid in 2003 and is an International Association of Athletics Federations ( IAAF ) standard 400m eight @-@ lane oval . It is a polymer synthetic tartan track with a depth of 3 centimetres ( 1 @.@ 18 in ) . The sprint straight consists of eight lanes and is situated in front of the Tyne and Wear Stand , adjacent to the long and triple jump area . A height @-@ adjustable water jump , for use in steeplechase racing , is located on the inside of the track . Floodlights allow athletics events to be held at night . The inner track area , which is floodlit , is an IAAF standard @-@ sized grass surface used for athletics field events , rugby and football . When used for the latter , the pitch dimensions are 100 by 64 metres ( 109 @.@ 4 yd × 70 @.@ 0 yd ) .
The main arena is supplemented by other facilities . To the rear of the North Terrace are two third generation artificial pitches that are UEFA licensed , fully floodlit and full @-@ sized for use in competitive rugby , football and American football . Alongside them are two grassed and one sand @-@ dressed playing areas , which are also floodlit . Behind the Tyne and Wear Stand is an indoor sports hall , which contains a 33 by 44 metres ( 36 @.@ 1 yd × 48 @.@ 1 yd ) playing area marked out for various sports including badminton , netball and tennis . A retractable indoor athletics facility was previously housed alongside the sports hall , consisting of a 50 metres ( 55 yd ) long synthetic sprint straight and areas for throwing and jumping events , but its mechanical operation proved problematic and a more modern structure replaced it in 2006 . This facility has a 60 metres ( 66 yd ) sprint straight in an 82 metres ( 90 yd ) hall , throwing and jumping facilities , a weights room and gymnasium .
= = Athletics = =
The first major athletic event held at the stadium was the Vaux Breweries International Athletics meet in July 1961 . According to its sponsors , the highlight of this meet was the team three @-@ mile race , won by the Blackpool and Fylde Athletic club who were awarded a gold tankard as their prize . Attracted by a prize fund of £ 500 and the imminent AAA Championships in London , the event attracted several athletes from New Zealand , including reigning 5000m metre Olympic champion Murray Halberg and Peter Snell , the reigning 800m Olympic champion . Watched by a capacity crowd of 10 @,@ 000 spectators , the men won their respective races ; Halberg placed first in the mile with a time of 4 : 03 : 70 and Snell led a New Zealand one @-@ two in the 880 @-@ yard event , finishing ahead of teammate Gary Philpott in 1 : 50 : 40 .
When the comprehensive refurbishment of the stadium was completed more than a decade later , Brendan Foster ( by this time a Gateshead Council employee ) proposed an international athletics meet . On 3 August 1974 , the first " Gateshead Games " were staged in front of around 10 @,@ 000 spectators . Four weeks before he won the European 5000m title at the 1974 European Athletics Championships in Rome , Foster kept his earlier promise to run in the men 's 3000m and won the race in a new world @-@ record time of 7 : 35 : 20 . According to journalist John Gibson , Foster 's performance gave the meet , broadcast live by Tyne Tees Television , " landmark status " . A plaque commemorating the record was later placed at the entrance to the stadium .
The Gateshead Games became an annual event , which gave the stadium credibility as a major sporting venue . In his managerial capacity with Gateshead Council , Foster was increasingly able to attract athletes to the games . In 1977 , Foster had to intervene when BBC Radio Newcastle provided the wrong Ethiopian national anthem which , when played , offended Miruts Yifter sufficiently that he and his teammates started off towards Newcastle International Airport . The intervention worked — in the end , Foster asked Yifter and his teammates if they would sing the anthem themselves , which they did in the middle of the stadium — and Yifter returned to outclass a field including Steve Ovett over 5000m . The track was resurfaced by Regisport in 1982 and the venues ' profile was further raised in the summer of 1983 , when Gateshead @-@ born athlete Steve Cram faced Sebastian Coe over 800m in the Gateshead Games . In front of a reported crowd of 15 @,@ 000 who were " shoehorned into the bowl " and millions more watching on BBC 's Sunday Grandstand , Cram prevailed to spark " pandemonium " in his final race before winning the gold medal at the 1983 World Athletics Championships in Helsinki .
In 1989 , Gateshead hosted the Europa Cup . The men 's competition was won for the first time by a Great Britain team captained by Linford Christie and which included Kriss Akabusi and Jack Buckner ; the event was described a decade later as having had an " invigorating effect " on those who were in attendance . Four years later , on 30 July 1993 , a stadium @-@ record crowd of 14 @,@ 797 watched Christie , by this time the reigning 100m Olympic champion , in action again – this time against his old rival Carl Lewis in a race where both men were reportedly paid £ 100 @,@ 000 irrespective of the result . Christie won in a time of 10 @.@ 07 seconds , ahead of Jon Drummond in second and Lewis , who finished " a distant third " . The 100m race was the highlight of the " high profile " Vauxhall Invitational meet , which was televised in the UK by ITV and watched by around 10 million viewers . Michael Johnson , John Regis and Steve Cram competed in various events at the Vauxhall Invitational .
In August 1998 , Gateshead was selected to host the 2000 Europa Cup after the European Athletic Association switched the event from original host venue Martinique to avoid athletes travelling long distances in an Olympic year . This made Gateshead the first venue to host the event twice . On 16 – 17 July 2000 , spectators at Gateshead once again saw Great Britain 's men 's team take the title , this time by half a point from Germany in second place ; the British victory came despite missing ten first @-@ choice team members . The women 's event was won by Russia , who defeated second @-@ placed Germany by thirteen points .
Foster 's " Gateshead Games " had become the British Grand Prix by 2003 , and on 13 July 21 @-@ year @-@ old Yelena Isinbayeva set a new world record of 4.82m in the women 's pole vault event . Isinbayeva 's achievement in the last event of the meet was so unexpected that only 1 @,@ 000 of the 10 @,@ 000 spectators witnessed it , the rest having left early . For her achievement , she was given a bonus cheque for $ 50 @,@ 000 . On 27 June 2004 , Isinbayeva returned to Gateshead . This time the event organisers decided to schedule the pole vault event earlier and were rewarded when Isinbayeva defied extremely windy conditions to post a new record mark of 4.87m. Isinbayeva was the second woman to set a world record in the pole vault at Gateshead ; Daniela Bartova did so in 1995 . In 2006 , a crowd of 8 @,@ 500 saw Asafa Powell equal the world record of 9 @.@ 77 seconds in the men 's 100m . The official , un @-@ rounded time of 9 @.@ 762 seconds was then the fastest time ever recorded . The meet was also notable for the return to competition of Dwain Chambers after his ban for using performance @-@ enhancing drugs , and for Eliud Kipchoge breaking Foster 's stadium record over 3000m that had stood for more than three decades .
In 2010 , the British Grand Prix at Gateshead was chosen as one of the inaugural fourteen Diamond League events , but although competitors included Tyson Gay , Powell , Jessica Ennis and Vincent Chepkok , the attendance was unusually poor , causing the local press to wonder whether Gateshead 's contract for the marquee event would be renewed . Those fears were to prove well @-@ founded when UK Athletics agreed to a three @-@ year contract to stage the event at the Alexander Stadium in Birmingham . The move prompted one reporter to lament that " the switch is a major blow to both Gateshead International Stadium and North @-@ East sport in general , but can hardly be regarded as a major surprise given the dwindling support for major athletics events in the region . "
This loss was mitigated somewhat by the European Athletic Association 's decision to award Gateshead the 2013 European Team Championships , the successor to the Europa Cup . In doing so , Gateshead became the only stadium to host the European Team Championships on three occasions . The championships were held on 22 – 23 June 2013 amid very wet and windy conditions . On the first day of competition , Mo Farah ran a 50 @.@ 89 second final lap in winning the men 's 5000m to help the home team into third place on 181 points , behind Russia ( 194 points ) and Germany ( 195 points ) . Despite a strong start , the Great Britain team were unable to make up the deficit on the second day of competition and finished in third place overall on 338 points , behind runners @-@ up Germany ( 347 @.@ 5 points ) and the champions Russia ( 354 @.@ 5 points ) .
= = Tenants = =
= = = Gateshead Football Club = = =
Gateshead Football Club , who played in the Football League , reached the quarter @-@ finals of the FA Cup in 1953 , previously played their home games at Redheugh Park . In 1960 , the Football League failed to re @-@ elect the club and after several years playing in regional leagues , the club moved to what was then the Youth Stadium in 1970 , before folding in 1973 . They were temporarily replaced by Gateshead United , when South Shields F.C. moved to play in Gateshead in 1974 . That club played at Gateshead Stadium from 1974 to 1977 when it folded and Gateshead F.C was reformed .
Gateshead F.C. have been tenants since their re @-@ formation in 1977 . In May 2008 Gateshead hosted Buxton in a promotion play @-@ off and won 2 – 0 in front of 1 @,@ 402 spectators , the largest crowd to watch the club at the ground in 14 years . That record was broken a year later when 4 @,@ 121 saw Gateshead defeat Telford United 2 – 0 on 9 May 2009 to win promotion to the Conference Premier league . The current record attendance for a competitive fixture stands at 8 @,@ 144 , set on 4 May 2014 when Gateshead played host to Grimsby Town in the second leg of the Conference Premier play @-@ off semi @-@ final . Gateshead won 3 @-@ 1 to progress to the final at Wembley Stadium where they were beaten 2 @-@ 1 by Cambridge United . The defeat consigned the club to a 55th consecutive season outside the Football League . Gateshead F.C. continue to play at Gateshead Stadium but , according to North East Life magazine , it is " a fine but inappropriate stadium ... as a football ground it can be a soulless home " . In 2009 , chairman Graham Wood unveiled plans to move to a new , purpose @-@ built 9 @,@ 000 capacity ground on Prince Consort Road in the centre of Gateshead . Detailed proposals were published soon after , and Wood told local media in 2012 that he expects the move to increase crowds and alleviate the financial constraints on him as he continues to bankroll the club ; it is estimated that crowds would need to reach 3 @,@ 000 regularly for the club to operate profitably from Gateshead Stadium . According to the original proposal , the stadium was expected to be ready for the 2012 – 13 season , but financing has been difficult and the proposed move is now on hold .
= = = Gateshead Harriers = = =
Gateshead Harriers are an athletic club based at Gateshead International Stadium . Founded in 1904 as Gateshead St Mary 's Church Running Club , they were initially a men @-@ only club until allowing the admission of women in 1951 . The club moved to the Gateshead Youth Stadium in 1956 , making the Harriers the stadium 's oldest tenant . In 2006 they won promotion to the first division of the British Athletics League and were the only club from the north @-@ east of England to compete at that level . After a six @-@ year stay in the division , the Harriers were relegated to division two in August 2012 after failing to win enough points at the final meet of the season at Eton to prevent a bottom @-@ two league finish . Club officials received over 100 new applications for membership in the aftermath of the 2012 London Olympics .
At least one Gateshead Harrier has taken part in every Olympics and Paralympics held since 1972 . Notable alumni include Brendan Foster , who joined the club aged 17 and later claimed that " my first aim was to be the best runner of Gateshead Harriers " . Foster , inducted into the England Athletics Hall of Fame in 2010 and recently voted the eleventh " greatest Geordie " in a local poll , later became the president of Gateshead Harriers and remains so as of 2012 . Current world triple @-@ jump record holder Jonathan Edwards , another member of the England Athletics Hall of Fame , joined Gateshead Harriers in 1991 . Edwards was a member of the club when he set his record mark in winning gold at the 1995 World Championships in Helsinki , when winning Olympic gold at the 2000 Sydney Games and a second world title a year later in Edmonton . Both Foster and Edwards are honorary life members of the club .
= = = Gateshead Thunder = = =
In 1998 , Gateshead was awarded a rugby league franchise after a three @-@ way contest with Cardiff and Swansea . The result was Gateshead Thunder , who played in Super League IV in 1999 . The Thunder played at Gateshead International Stadium and the club had , according to sports journalist Andy Wilson , " an enjoyable and surprisingly successful season " which included home and away wins against St Helens and a sixth @-@ place finish in the table – missing out on the playoffs by two points . Despite these performances , which attracted an average crowd of 3 @,@ 895 to Gateshead Stadium , the franchise lost £ 700 @,@ 000 in its first year and in November 1999 the Rugby Football League ( RFL ) approved a merger with the Hull Sharks . The result was the formation of Hull F.C. , and when the authorities refused permission for the merged clubs to enter a Hull @-@ based team into the RFL 's second tier , the franchise moved almost in its entirety to Hull , ending Gateshead 's Super League participation after a single season ; according to Wilson , the Thunder was " left to die , provoking bitter resentment " from supporters .
According to journalist Richard Bott , since the demise of the original Thunder side the club has " struggled for their very existence . " There have been some highlights , including winning Championship 1 in 2008 and a run to the quarter @-@ final of the Challenge Cup in 2009 which ended in a 66 – 6 defeat to Super League side St Helens in front of 4 @,@ 325 fans at Gateshead International Stadium . However , the Thunder went through a 64 @-@ game losing streak spanning two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half years before winning against Workington Town on 29 August 2012 .
Relations between the Thunder and Gateshead Council were strained at times , with a possible move to Kingston Park Newcastle upon Tyne , first mooted , and rejected , in 2006 . In 2008 , the club committed itself again to Gateshead Stadium for the immediate future , however , in March 2014 The Journal reported that talks had begun between Thunder 's managing director Keith Christie and representatives of Newcastle Falcons with a view to the Falcons taking over the rugby league club . Falcons ' owner Semore Kurdi confirmed that a bid had been made to purchase Gateshead Thunder on 20 March 2014 , though he refused to elaborate on whether he intended to relocate the club if that bid was accepted . The takeover was confirmed on 23 May 2014 , though it was announced that the club would continue to play at the International Stadium . In January 2015 Gateshead Thunder were officially renamed Newcastle Thunder and relocated to Kingston Park . Keith Christie told the BBC that the move was " a business decision " designed to build a new fan base for the club .
= = = Gateshead Senators = = =
The Gateshead Senators ( originally the Gateshead International Senators ) are an American football club formed in 1988 when the Newcastle Senators , who played at Northern Rugby Club , moved across the Tyne to play at the Gateshead International Stadium . The club has had mixed fortunes but their most successful season came in 1999 . Having won eight of their nine games in the regular season , the team won the Division One North title and advanced to the end @-@ of @-@ season playoffs . After beating the Merseyside Nighthawks 43 – 0 in the quarter @-@ finals , the Senators defeated the Essex Spartans 33 – 19 in the semi @-@ finals to reach the championship final . At the Saffron Lane Stadium in Leicester , the Senators faced the Bristol Aztecs . In a tight encounter , the Senators claimed the Division One British American Football League title with a 7 – 2 victory . The club reached the playoffs again in the next three seasons but were unable to replicate that success , and after a season voluntarily spent in Division Two in 2003 , returned to Division One North in 2004 . They continue to play in that division , and in the 2012 season failed to make the playoffs after recording five wins and five defeats in their ten games .
The Senators were a tenant at Gateshead Stadium from 1988 to 2011 . In 2012 , the club announced plans to move away from Gateshead for the start of the 2012 season to create " a better game @-@ day experience " and they now play at the Monkton Stadium .
= = Concert venue = =
Gateshead International Stadium has been used for many years as a concert venue . On 31 July 1982 , The Police performed at the stadium as part of their Ghost in the Machine Tour , with U2 as a supporting act . Reports in the local press suggested that The Police seemed disappointed that the stadium was only half full and cited high ticket prices and poor weather as possible causes . On 16 June 1992 Guns N ' Roses , supported by Soundgarden and Faith No More , performed at the stadium . This time the weather was hot and sunny which helped ensure that the concert , part of the Use Your Illusion Tour , was a sell @-@ out . American rock group Bon Jovi have played twice at the stadium . The first occasion was on 27 June 1995 , while supported by Skin , on their These Days Tour . The group returned to Gateshead on 22 August 2000 as part of their Crush Tour . Another artist who has performed multiple times at Gateshead International Stadium is Tina Turner . As part of her Foreign Affair : The Farewell Tour , Turner performed twice on consecutive nights ( 21 – 22 July 1990 ) and attracted a total of 60 @,@ 000 spectators . Turner performed for a third time at the stadium as part of her Wildest Dreams Tour on 12 July 1996 . Other artists to have played at the stadium include Bryan Adams , Rod Stewart , Simple Minds and Simply Red .
= = Transport = =
Gateshead International Stadium is 2 miles ( 3 km ) east of Gateshead Town Centre and is on the A184 Felling Bypass , with access to a car park at Neilson Road . Journey time by car from Gateshead town centre is approximately five minutes and a further five minutes travel from Newcastle upon Tyne . A footpath runs adjacent to the Felling bypass and the journey by foot from Gateshead town centre takes some fifteen minutes . A journey east to Heworth Interchange also takes around fifteen minutes . Two designated cycle routes run past the stadium . These are Hadrian 's Way , which provides access from Tynemouth in the east and Wylam in the west , and the Keelman 's Way , which runs along the south bank of the River Tyne towards Blaydon @-@ on @-@ Tyne .
The stadium is well served by public transport . It has its own Tyne and Wear Metro station , the Gateshead Stadium Metro station . This is at Shelley Drive , some five minutes ' walk from the ground . Trains run direct from this station to all other Metro destinations ; trains to South Shields and South Hylton stop at platform one while trains travelling towards St James and Airport stop at platform two . The Gateshead Stadium Metro station is open seven days a week and at peak times seventeen trains per hour stop there . The nearest mainline railway station is Newcastle Central Station , around 3 miles ( 5 km ) away , though local rail travel calls at Heworth Interchange . Go North East operate the 93 / 4 " Loop " bus service , which provides access to the stadium from the Team Valley , Gateshead Interchange , Heworth Interchange and Queen Elizabeth Hospital in Sheriff Hill . This bus runs every fifteen minutes during the day and every half @-@ hour during evenings .
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= A Trip to the Dentist =
" A Trip to the Dentist " is the twenty @-@ first and penultimate episode of the first season of the American mystery television series Veronica Mars . Written by Diane Ruggiero and directed by Marcos Siega , the episode premiered on UPN on May 3 , 2005 .
The series depicts the adventures of Veronica Mars ( Kristen Bell ) as she deals with life as a high school student while moonlighting as a private detective . In this episode , Veronica resolves the mystery of her sexual assault a year earlier by talking to previous acquaintances and learning about the details of what happened at Shelly Pomroy 's party a year earlier while she was under the influence of GHB . Meanwhile , Duncan ( Teddy Dunn ) returns from running away earlier , and Veronica and Logan 's relationship matures as she reacts to the news that he had roofies the night of the party .
The episode , which resolved Veronica 's date rape , one of the main story arcs of the first season , was critically acclaimed .
= = Background = =
Although the first season primarily deals with the murder of Veronica 's best friend , Lilly Kane ( Amanda Seyfried ) , and the murder is resolved in " Leave It to Beaver " , another arc running throughout the season is the story of Veronica 's mysterious rape a year earlier . At that time , Veronica went to a party at a wealthy student , Shelly 's , house . There , she was slipped a mysterious drink , and the next thing she knew , she woke up in an unidentified bed missing her underwear " , indicating that she had been raped . The next day , she walked into the sheriff 's department and reported the crime , where Sheriff Don Lamb ( Michael Muhney ) mocked her predicament and refused to conduct an investigation , leaving Veronica in tears .
= = Synopsis = =
The episode opens in Havana , Cuba . Keith ( Enrico Colantoni ) surprises a now @-@ bearded Duncan ( Teddy Dunn ) , who denies killing Lilly ( Amanda Seyfried ) . At school , Veronica avoids Logan , but that night , Logan shows up at Veronica 's door . Logan apologizes for owning GHB before Veronica informs him about her rape . Logan denies being her rapist , but Veronica says she 'll punish whoever it is , even if it 's Logan . Veronica talks to Meg ( Alona Tal ) about the party , and she mentions seeing Veronica being harassed by some boys before she left . Keith returns Duncan to the Kanes before threatening Clarence Wiedman ( Christopher B. Duncan ) . Veronica approaches Luke ( Sam Huntington ) about a trip to Tijuana to pick up some GHB ; he admits getting the drugs , but he says that he gave them to Dick Casablancas ( Ryan Hansen ) . Luke states that Madison Sinclair was seen writing " slut " on Veronica 's car after the party . Veronica confronts Madison , who says that she defaced Veronica 's car because she made out with Dick , her boyfriend . However , Veronica doesn 't remember this incident due to the effects of the drugs . Veronica attempts to barge in on a fight between Keith and Alicia over Wallace 's involvement in the Wiedman case , but her intervention does nothing to defuse the situation . Veronica talks to Casey , who confirms the make out sessions with Dick and Cassidy , and Veronica was also forced to make out with Shelly for the boys ' amusement .
Veronica talks to Sean Friedrich and tells him about the girl @-@ on @-@ girl event and that Dick and Beaver took her over to a bed and argued about who should have sex with her . Veronica talks to Dick , who presents a different account of events , saying that he didn 't drug her and that he found Beaver with Veronica already . Veronica approaches Beaver , who gives a set of events more similar to that of Sean . However , after Dick and Sean leave , he purports to have run away and vomited before he could bring himself to rape her . Keith says that he has to leave for an engagement in Vegas . Logan talks to Aaron , but Aaron does not even know Logan 's birth date . Veronica talks to Carrie Bishop ( Leighton Meester ) , who says that she saw Veronica having sex with Duncan . Veronica confronts Duncan , who denies the rape accusations and remembers comforting Veronica in her drugged state . Duncan says that the sex was consensual even though he knew that they were siblings , confirming Veronica 's fears . Veronica talks to Wallace about the events but says that she is content with the answers she has . Keith calls a prostitute in Vegas for an unknown reason , while Veronica apologizes to Logan and tells her about the situation with Duncan . Back in Vegas , Keith talks to the prostitute , Cheyenne , about Abel Koontz , as Cheyenne and Koontz were together at the time of Lilly 's murder . Veronica and Logan go into his darkened house before they realize that Aaron throws a surprise party for him , meaning that virtually the entire high school knows that they are dating .
Duncan abruptly exits the now @-@ awkward party . Madison gives Veronica a cocktail , which she calls " A Trip to the Dentist . " Noticing that something is strange , Veronica talks to Madison , who says that she spit in her own drugged drunk before unknowingly giving it to Veronica . Duncan suddenly starts smashing his car before Meg comes out and talks to Duncan , criticizing him . Logan and Veronica are making out before Logan reveals an important piece of information — that he drugged Duncan , not knowing what was going to happen between them . Logan temporarily leaves Veronica before she notices a camera in the ceiling . She investigates further and finds a whole network of cameras , hinting that Logan was using them for some nefarious purpose . She calls Weevil to pick her up before she enters the house , finding her mother with Keith .
= = Arc significance = =
Keith finds Duncan in Cuba . After a lengthy investigation , Veronica concludes that she and Duncan had consensual sex when they were both drugged . The Kanes believe that Veronica is Duncan 's sister , and Keith learns that Abel Koontz couldn 't have killed Lilly . Veronica goes public with her relationship with Logan before finding a series of cameras in his bedroom .
= = Production = =
The episode was originally called " Up on the Roofie " , referencing the episode 's theme of roofies , before being changed to the final title of " A Trip to the Dentist " . " A Trip to the Dentist " has the return of several guest stars from a previous single episode , including Luke ( Sam Huntington ) from " You Think You Know Somebody " , Cole ( Daniel Bess ) from " Like a Virgin " , Casey Gant ( Jonathan Bennett ) from " Drinking the Kool @-@ Aid " , Sean Friedrich ( Kevin Sheridan ) from " An Echolls Family Christmas " , and Carrie Bishop ( Leighton Meester ) from " Mars vs. Mars " . Within the context of the episode , these characters reappeared so that Veronica could ask them what they knew about the party where she was raped .
This episode reintroduces and resolves Veronica 's rape , introduced earlier in the season . However , it had been largely ignored until this point in the series . The episode was the third and final episode of the series directed by Marcos Siega , after " Drinking the Kool @-@ Aid " and " Mars vs. Mars " . In addition , the episode marks regular writer Diane Ruggiero 's sixth writing credit for the show . After the episode aired , Rob Thomas called the episode " our high @-@ water mark " . Commenting on Ruggiero writing the episode , he stated , " She was really my right hand writing the series , and it felt good to have someone who knew the voices as well as I did . We were both in a comfort zone , both writing this show and writing with each other . "
In one scene of " A Trip to the Dentist " , Weevil ( Francis Capra ) accuses Logan ( Jason Dohring ) of having hit Lilly during their relationship . The series ' writers were planning to develop that plot strand into a storyline , with it eventually being revealed that Duncan had hit Lilly in an epileptic fit . However , the storyline was abandoned in order to make time for other story arcs . Thomas commented , " At the end of the day , I don 't want people thinking that Logan hit Lilly . I did , however , want Weevil to believe it . " Although Veronica concludes in this episode that she had consensual sex with Duncan while they were both under the influence of roofies , more information about the night is later revealed in the show 's second season finale , " Not Pictured " , in which it is revealed that Cassidy " Beaver " Casablancas raped her . When asked whether the writers knew that Beaver would be eventually revealed as the rapist when writing " A Trip to the Dentist " , Thomas responded , " I wish I could claim that we were that clever . " The writers realized that there was a moment in the episode 's script where Beaver could have raped Veronica roughly a month after its airing .
= = Themes = =
The episode , and particularly its treatment of rape , has been discussed in books of essays on Veronica Mars and elsewhere . Victoria E. Thomas , writing for In Media Res , opined that Veronica frequently distances herself from her rape , noting a scene in the pilot in which she states , " I 'm no longer that girl . " She regarded " A Trip to the Dentist " as a way for Veronica to heal from her rape , writing " Her healing is tied to finding out who raped her ; a simple solution to a complex issue . This choice could mirror our present day stigma and lack of support for survivors of sexual assault , or it could simply allow the producers to erase her identity as a sexual assault survivor , leading the audience to believe that the strength of the character is not tied to her rape . "
Sarah Whitney , in Investigating Veronica Mars : Essays on the Teen Detective Series , found the episode 's portrayal of rape " troubling " . She wrote , " On of the reasons this ending has always been problematic for me as a viewer is that it is a too @-@ familiar script . Women are frequently told ( or tell themselves ) that they have " misinterpreted " sexual situations by missing cues ( " leading men on " ) or by being " unclear " about their lack of consent . Furthermore , the episode leaves us bereft of a villain that can be nailed to the wall for forcible rape . " The writer went on to state that instead of placing the blame on a single person , " A Trip to the Dentist " blamed several people for Veronica 's rape . Whitney also wrote that despite that the " official resolution of the rape narrative denies a traditional ' whodunit ' ending , " it makes a statement that she was raped by an " unfeeling class of people . "
James and Mona Rocha argued that while " Veronica showed poor judgment in the episode , the blame for her rape should not be put on her — instead , Dick , Logan , Sean , Dick , and Cassidy ( Beaver ) should take the blame . Responsibility and blame aren 't zero @-@ sum reckonings , such that adding to one person 's blame automatically subtracts it from someone else 's . " Regarding Logan , they stated that " she wouldn 't have been raped , if not for Logan 's buying the GHB . " On Dick , they wrote that " Dick didn 't intend to drug Veronica , but he did intend to drug someone . " The pair argued that Veronica made some choices that were causally related to her rape , but they concluded that she did not deserve blame . " If someone like Veronica makes a bad prudential choice that causes her harm , then maybe she should blame herself , but we can 't blame her for any moral wrong done to her as a result . She may have acted foolishly , but that was within her rights . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
In its original broadcast , " A Trip to the Dentist " received 2 @.@ 85 million viewers , marking a decrease from the previous episode and ranking 100th of 114 in the weekly rankings .
= = = Reviews = = =
The episode received critical acclaim . Kenneth Nguyen from The Age commented " ' A Trip to the Dentist ' , is perhaps the most complex , confronting installment thus far of a series that prides itself on being complex and confronting . " The reporter went on to praise the " expertly scripted " reveal and thought Diane Ruggiero 's " command of the tightrope high @-@ school milieu seems pretty much spot @-@ on . It is Ruggiero 's resolution of the mystery , however , that will keep fans talking . Like the best resolutions , I suppose , it raises more questions than it answers . "
Complex gave the episode a positive review , writing that it was overshadowed by " Leave It to Beaver " , but that it was also a good episode by itself as well . " [ The date rape mystery ] all comes to a head in the penultimate episode , which puts Veronica on the emotional rollercoaster until she gets to the uncomfortable truth . " The magazine also praised the reappearances of guest stars : " what really makes the episode special is the way it trots out every supporting player and case @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week guest star . " IGN ranked the episode 4th on its list of the top ten Veronica Mars episodes , saying that " ' A Trip to the Dentist ' " is a heavy episode that expertly shows how different people remember the same situation . The fact that Veronica has to threaten people who were at the party into telling her the truth is frakking painful . It 's made even more sad when you realize that the version she believed to be the truth actually wasn 't . "
Rowan Kaiser of The A.V. Club gave a positive review , stating that the reveal was " an effective narrative , and one which creates a " satisfying " resolution for the viewer as well as the character . Veronica Mars has done a good job of subverting expectations on a regular basis , but it ’ s still a TV show , with requirements for satisfying resolutions . [ ... ] Which is my roundabout way of saying that while I wasn ’ t surprised by the reveal that it was Duncan Kane , I was impressed by how well it worked up to that point . It had to be Duncan or someone totally irrelevant and shocking . " Television Without Pity gave the episode an " A + " , its fourth such rating for the series , after " An Echolls Family Christmas " , " Clash of the Tritons " , and " M.A.D. " .
Conversely , Price Peterson , writing for TV.com , gave a more mixed review , heavily criticizing the resolution to Veronica 's rape case . While calling it an " entertaining episode " , he said that it had an " appalling message . " He explained by writing that " [ r ] egardless of Duncan having been drugged , Veronica could not give consent to him any more than she could to the dudes who were playing puppet @-@ girl with her during the party . Regardless of the retroactive comfort of knowing that she 'd lost her virginity to someone she liked , Veronica did not remember it ... That kind of psychological trauma goes away immediately ? " Kimberly Roots of TV Line called the episode " cathartic " and that " we get a huge reveal from Duncan , some unintentionally very public LoVe PDA and a say @-@ it @-@ ain ’ t @-@ so @-@ Logan ! cliffhanger that swings us right into the season finale . "
Buzzfeed ranked the episode 3rd on its complete ranking of Veronica Mars episodes , comparing it to Buffy the Vampire Slayer — " both these shows have always managed a perfect balance between high school drama ( gossip , futile betrayals , and short @-@ lived romances ) and extremely powerful and dark themes ( sexism , rape , harassment , addiction , and domestic violence ) . " TV Line ranked the episode 2nd on a similar list , only below " Pilot " . Wired called the episode a necessary episode if one binge @-@ watched the show , writing that " The information she uncovers is staggeringly heartbreaking , and the way in which the show handled the arc pays off with complex , difficult confrontations . "
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= You Rock My World =
" You Rock My World " is a song by American recording artist Michael Jackson from his tenth and final studio album released during his lifetime , Invincible ( 2001 ) . It was released as the lead single from the album on August 22 , 2001 by Epic Records . The lyrics pertain to being in love and trying to gain a woman 's affection . Produced by Jackson and Rodney " Darkchild " Jerkins and written by Jackson , Jerkins , Fred Jerkins III , LaShawn Daniels and Nora Payne , the song is musically a disco @-@ pop song with influences from Jackson 's songs from his previous studio albums with Quincy Jones .
The song received mixed reviews from music critics , with reviewers commenting that Jackson could have made a better effort for it and that it was not his best material , while other reviewers generally praised the song 's composition and Jackson 's vocal performance . " You Rock My World " was commercially successful worldwide and peaked at number ten on the Billboard Hot 100 , becoming Jackson 's first top ten song in the United States in over six years , and his last in the country until " Love Never Felt So Good " ( a duet with Justin Timberlake ) hit number 9 in 2014 . This success was achieved on airplay alone , as the song was not released as a commercial single in the United States . " You Rock My World " topped the French music chart for three consecutive weeks . It also reached the top ten in Australia , Austria , Canada , Denmark , Finland , Italy , Sweden , Switzerland and the United Kingdom .
As part of promotion for the song , a music video was released . The video , which is thirteen and a half minutes long , was directed by Paul Hunter and features Chris Tucker and Marlon Brando . In the video , Jackson and Tucker portray men who are trying to gain a woman 's affection . The video has been compared to Jackson 's previous videos " Smooth Criminal " and " The Way You Make Me Feel " and has received mixed reviews . The song was performed only twice by Jackson ; at Madison Square Garden in New York City at two concerts in September 2001 to celebrate Jackson 's career as a solo artist . Footage of the performance was shown in the two @-@ hour CBS television special , Michael Jackson : 30th Anniversary Special . The track was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Male Pop Vocal Performance at the 44th Grammy Awards . " You Rock My World " has sold 6 million copies worldwide .
= = Background = =
" You Rock My World " was recorded by Michael Jackson for his studio album , Invincible ( 2001 ) . The song was written and composed by Michael Jackson and produced by Jackson and Jerkins . " You Rock My World " was officially released as the lead single from the album in mid @-@ August 2001 , by Epic Records . Prior to the singles official release it had been leaked to two New York radio stations on Friday , August 17 . Immediately after the songs radio airplay the radio stations had received " a herd of [ radio ] callers asking for more . " " You Rock My World " was first played on the WJTM @-@ FM station at 6 p.m. , with WKTU @-@ FM airing the song 45 minutes later . Both stations had played the single every two hours until around 6 p.m. Saturday , when Jackson 's record label , Epic Records , called the program director for both stations , Frankie Blue , who was also a friend of Jackson , and asked him to stop . Blue later recalled , " They informed me of the dangers of playing a song too early . " He refused to say how the song came into his possession .
= = Composition = =
" You Rock My World " is credited as being an uptempo disco @-@ pop song that has vibrating vocal harmonies . The song is played in the time signature of common time in the key E minor , with Jackson 's vocal range spanning from the tonal nodes of E4 to Bb5 . " You Rock My World " has a moderate tempo of 95 beats per minute . The chord progression in the song is Em7 – C9 @-@ Bm7 – Am7 – D – Em7 . The song 's composition has been compared to Jackson 's previous material with Quincy Jones from the 1970s and 1980s , as well as the disco @-@ theme from Jackson 's 1979 single , " Don 't Stop ' til You Get Enough " . Chris Tucker voices the vocal introduction of the song while all the instruments heard on the track were played by Jackson and Rodney Jerkins . Lyrically , the song 's lyrics are about being in love , as well as the effect that it can have , as evident in the opening line , " My life will never be the same , ' cause , girl , you came and changed the way I walk , the way I talk , I cannot explain " .
= = Critical reception = =
" You Rock My World " received generally mixed reviews from music critics . Praise was mainly directed at the song 's composition , while dissatisfaction towards the song was expressed by critics because they felt that the track was not Jackson 's best material . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic listed " You Rock My World " as being a highlight for the Invincible album . Reviewer Andrew Hamilton , also of AllMusic , stated that , " If anybody other than Michael Jackson had released ' You Rock My World ' with the tons of publicity and promotion it was accorded , it would have slam dunked the charts and been a multiple award winner . It sold well and got play everywhere , but too many critics panned the song and the album it came from as not being good enough for an artist on Jackson 's level . " Hamilton commented that people should " give Michael credit " because he was able to maintain a respectable career as a recording artist over the years of his later career .
James Hunter of Rolling Stone praised the song 's vocal rhythms as being " finely sculpted " and " exquisite " . He noted that the song shows similarities to Jackson 's previous material with Quincy Jones . Mark Beaumont , a writer for NME , described the song as being a " disco classic " and commented that he felt that the song 's brief intro was " funnier than Chris Evans on fire " . Catherine Halaby of Yale Daily News stated that the song " showcases the best of ' classic Michael ' " , and described the song as being " funky , catchy , upbeat , not too creepy " . " You Rock My World " was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Pop Vocal Performance - Male at the 44th Grammy Awards , but it lost the award to James Taylor 's " Don 't Let Me Be Lonely Tonight " . It was Jackson 's first Grammy nomination since 1997 , for his single " Earth Song " , and his first nomination in that category since 1995 .
= = Chart performance = =
" You Rock My World " was commercially successful , generally charting within the top ten positions on music charts worldwide . The song was Jackson 's last hit single in the United States in the final years of his career . " You Rock My World " charted within the top twenty positions on the Billboard Hot 100 on September 15 , 2001 . The following week , the song charted at its peak position , number ten . It became Jackson 's highest charting single since his 1995 number @-@ one single , " You Are Not Alone " . " You Rock My World " also charted at number seven and thirteen on Billboard 's Pop Charts and R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs respectively . Notably , these chart positions were attained based on airplay alone , as no commercial single was issued in the United States . Fred Bronson , Billboard 's chart expert at the time , remarked , " Certainly , if a commercial single had been available , it would have peaked higher - perhaps even at no.1 " . The song also charted within the top ten positions , peaking at number two , on the Canadian RPM Hot 100 chart . " You Rock My World " debuted on the United Kingdom Singles Chart at number two , which was its peak position in the country , on October 20 . The song remained within the top twenty positions on the chart for four consecutive weeks , and remained within the top 100 positions for fifteen consecutive weeks from October 20 , 2001 , to January 26 , 2002 . " You Rock My World " debuted on the French Singles Chart on October 13 , 2001 , at the number one position . The song remained at the number one position on the chart for three consecutive weeks , and remained within the top twenty positions for ten consecutive weeks . The song debuted on the Dutch Singles Charts at number four on October 20 , and the following week , charted at its peak position , number two . " You Rock My World " debuted on the Finnish Singles Chart on the forty first week of 2001 , at its peak position , number two . After three weeks , the song fell off the charts .
The song debuted at its peak position , number two , in Norway in the 42nd second week of 2001 . The song remained on the chart for six consecutive weeks , charting within the top twenty positions . " You Rock My World " entered New Zealand charts on September 16 , at number thirty one . After seven weeks , the song charted at its peak position , number thirteen , and remained on the chart for twelve weeks in 2001 . " You Rock My World " debuted on the Australian Singles Chart at its peak position , number four . After the song charted within the top fifty positions for five consecutive weeks , it fell off the chart , and re @-@ entered two weeks later at number thirty seven , and fell off the chart for the second time on January 6 , 2002 . " You Rock My World " debuted on the Italian Singles Chart on November 11 , at its peak position number three , and remained within the top ten positions for four weeks in 2001 . The song peaked at number two and four on the Belgium Flanders and Walonia charts in 2001 . On the Austrian Singles Chart , the song debuted at its peak position , number nine , on October 21 , and it remained on the chart for a total of eight weeks .
After Jackson 's death in June 2009 , " You Rock My World " re @-@ entered music charts worldwide and re @-@ entered Billboard charts for the first time in almost eight years . The song also peaked at number sixty two on Billboard 's Digital Songs chart on July 11 , 2009 . The song re @-@ entered the United Kingdom Singles Chart on July 4 , charting at number ninety @-@ seven . The following week the song charted at its peak position , number sixty , and charted out of the top 100 positions after spending three weeks on the chart . " You Rock My World " re @-@ entered the Australian Singles Chart for the third time on July 19 , at number fifty . The song remained on the chart for only one week .
= = Promotion = =
In late August 2001 , Jackson and Sony Music began a promotional campaign for " You Rock My World " . As part of promotion for the single , as well as the album , Jackson made a public appearance by celebrating his 43rd birthday — one day late — by presiding over the NASDAQ market opening ceremony in Times Square on Thursday morning , on August 30 , 2001 . Jackson only performed " You Rock My World " twice . The only performances of " You Rock My World " was during two concerts in early September 2001 , which was to celebrate Jackson 's 30th year as solo artist , at Madison Square Garden . Tucker , who is part of the song 's dialogue and video , was part of the live performance . Footage of the second concert on September 10 was shown in a two @-@ hour television special , entitled Michael Jackson : 30th Anniversary Special , which was aired on CBS in November of the same year .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " You Rock My World " was directed by Paul Hunter , and was released in 2001 . The video , which is over thirteen minutes long , was described as being a short film . The dance performed during the video consists of fragments from the canceled " Dangerous " music video . The video consists of Jackson 's and Tucker 's characters trying to gain a woman 's ( Kishaya Dudley ) affection by subsequently following her around the neighborhood . The video for " You Rock My World " was thought to be the last music video to feature any participation from Jackson before the video for " One More Chance " was unearthed ( his following videos would consist of archive footage of himself and others ) . The video has been compared to Jackson 's previous 1980s music videos for his singles , " Smooth Criminal " ( 1987 ) , " Bad " ( 1987 ) , and " The Way You Make Me Feel " ( 1987 ) , all from his 1987 studio album , Bad . In the video , Jackson can be seen wearing a Blazer and his traditional hat . The video features appearances from Marlon Brando , Michael Madsen and Billy Drago . The video won an NAACP Image Award for Outstanding Music Video at the award shows 2002 ceremony . In several instances in the video , Tucker 's character makes several references to previous songs by Michael Jackson , such as " Beat It " , " P.Y.T. ( Pretty Young Thing ) " , " The Girl Is Mine " , " Bad " and " Dangerous " . The short version of the music video appears on Number Ones , and the long version appears on Michael Jackson 's Vision .
= = Covers and homages = =
In Episode 10 of the first season of the CW series Hellcats , " Pledging My Love " , the cheerleading team , led by Derrick Altman ( played by D. B. Woodside ) , danced to a shortened version of " You Rock My World " as a means for Altman to propose to coach Vanessa Lodge ( played by Sharon Leal ) . The number was choreographed by episode director Debbie Allen .
= = Live performances = =
" You Rock My World " was performed twice live during the 30th anniversary concerts performed in late 2001 . In the second concert , he was joined by Usher and Chris Tucker at the end , who danced with him . It was the only full song from Invincible that Jackson had performed live . The song was set to be performed in his This Is It concerts , but he died before the concerts took place .
= = Track listing = =
= = Personnel = =
Written and composed by Michael Jackson , Rodney Jerkins
Produced and all musical instruments performed by Michael Jackson and Rodney Jerkins
Lead and background vocals by Michael Jackson
Intro by Chris Tucker and Michael Jackson
Recorded by Brad Gilderman , Rodney Jerkins , Jean @-@ Marie Horvat , Dexter Simmons and Stuart Brawley
Digital Editing by Harvey Mason , Jr. and Stuart Brawley
Mixed by Bruce Swedien and Rodney Jerkins
Starring Michael Jackson , Chris Tucker , Marlon Brando , Michael Madsen , Billy Drago , introducing Kryshia Dudley .
Directed by Paul Hunter
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
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= Autism =
Autism is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by impaired social interaction , verbal and non @-@ verbal communication , and restricted and repetitive behavior . Parents usually notice signs in the first two years of their child 's life . These signs often develop gradually , though some children with autism reach their developmental milestones at a normal pace and then regress . The diagnostic criteria require that symptoms become apparent in early childhood , typically before age three .
While autism is highly heritable , researchers suspect both environmental and genetic factors as causes . In rare cases , autism is strongly associated with agents that cause birth defects . Controversies surround other proposed environmental causes ; for example , the vaccine hypotheses have been disproven . Autism affects information processing in the brain by altering how nerve cells and their synapses connect and organize ; how this occurs is not well understood . In the DSM V it is one of three recognized disorders in the autism spectrum ( ASDs ) , the other two being Asperger syndrome , which lacks delays in cognitive development and language , and pervasive developmental disorder , not otherwise specified ( commonly abbreviated as PDD @-@ NOS ) , which is diagnosed when the full set of criteria for autism or Asperger syndrome are not met .
Early speech or behavioral interventions can help children with autism gain self @-@ care , social , and communication skills . Although there is no known cure , there have been reported cases of children who recovered . Not many children with autism live independently after reaching adulthood , though some become successful . An autistic culture has developed , with some individuals seeking a cure and others believing autism should be accepted as a difference and not treated as a disorder .
Globally , autism is estimated to affect 21 @.@ 7 million people as of 2013 . As of 2010 , the number of people affected is estimated at about 1 – 2 per 1 @,@ 000 worldwide . It occurs four to five times more often in boys than girls . About 1 @.@ 5 % of children in the United States ( one in 68 ) are diagnosed with ASD as of 2014 , a 30 % increase from one in 88 in 2012 . The rate of autism among adults aged 18 years and over in the United Kingdom is 1 @.@ 1 % . The number of people diagnosed has been increasing dramatically since the 1980s , partly due to changes in diagnostic practice and government @-@ subsidized financial incentives for named diagnoses ; the question of whether actual rates have increased is unresolved .
= = Characteristics = =
Autism is a highly variable neurodevelopmental disorder that first appears during infancy or childhood , and generally follows a steady course without remission . People with autism may be severely impaired in some respects but normal , or even superior , in others . Overt symptoms gradually begin after the age of six months , become established by age two or three years , and tend to continue through adulthood , although often in more muted form . It is distinguished not by a single symptom , but by a characteristic triad of symptoms : impairments in social interaction ; impairments in communication ; and restricted interests and repetitive behavior . Other aspects , such as atypical eating , are also common but are not essential for diagnosis . Autism 's individual symptoms occur in the general population and appear not to associate highly , without a sharp line separating pathologically severe from common traits .
= = = Social development = = =
Social deficits distinguish autism and the related autism spectrum disorders ( ASD ; see Classification ) from other developmental disorders . People with autism have social impairments and often lack the intuition about others that many people take for granted . Noted autistic Temple Grandin described her inability to understand the social communication of neurotypicals , or people with normal neural development , as leaving her feeling " like an anthropologist on Mars " .
Unusual social development becomes apparent early in childhood . Autistic infants show less attention to social stimuli , smile and look at others less often , and respond less to their own name . Autistic toddlers differ more strikingly from social norms ; for example , they have less eye contact and turn @-@ taking , and do not have the ability to use simple movements to express themselves , such as pointing at things . Three- to five @-@ year @-@ old children with autism are less likely to exhibit social understanding , approach others spontaneously , imitate and respond to emotions , communicate nonverbally , and take turns with others . However , they do form attachments to their primary caregivers . Most children with autism display moderately less attachment security than neurotypical children , although this difference disappears in children with higher mental development or less severe ASD . Older children and adults with ASD perform worse on tests of face and emotion recognition although this may be partly due to a lower ability to define a person 's own emotions .
Children with high @-@ functioning autism suffer from more intense and frequent loneliness compared to non @-@ autistic peers , despite the common belief that children with autism prefer to be alone . Making and maintaining friendships often proves to be difficult for those with autism . For them , the quality of friendships , not the number of friends , predicts how lonely they feel . Functional friendships , such as those resulting in invitations to parties , may affect the quality of life more deeply .
There are many anecdotal reports , but few systematic studies , of aggression and violence in individuals with ASD . The limited data suggest that , in children with intellectual disability , autism is associated with aggression , destruction of property , and tantrums .
= = = Communication = = =
About a third to a half of individuals with autism do not develop enough natural speech to meet their daily communication needs . Differences in communication may be present from the first year of life , and may include delayed onset of babbling , unusual gestures , diminished responsiveness , and vocal patterns that are not synchronized with the caregiver . In the second and third years , children with autism have less frequent and less diverse babbling , consonants , words , and word combinations ; their gestures are less often integrated with words . Children with autism are less likely to make requests or share experiences , and are more likely to simply repeat others ' words ( echolalia ) or reverse pronouns . Joint attention seems to be necessary for functional speech , and deficits in joint attention seem to distinguish infants with ASD : for example , they may look at a pointing hand instead of the pointed @-@ at object , and they consistently fail to point at objects in order to comment on or share an experience . Children with autism may have difficulty with imaginative play and with developing symbols into language .
In a pair of studies , high @-@ functioning children with autism aged 8 – 15 performed equally well as , and adults better than , individually matched controls at basic language tasks involving vocabulary and spelling . Both autistic groups performed worse than controls at complex language tasks such as figurative language , comprehension and inference . As people are often sized up initially from their basic language skills , these studies suggest that people speaking to autistic individuals are more likely to overestimate what their audience comprehends .
= = = Repetitive behavior = = =
Autistic individuals display many forms of repetitive or restricted behavior , which the Repetitive Behavior Scale @-@ Revised ( RBS @-@ R ) categorizes as follows .
Stereotyped behaviors : Repetitive movements , such as hand flapping , head rolling , or body rocking .
Compulsive behaviors : Time @-@ consuming behaviors intended to reduce anxiety that an individual feels compelled to perform repeatedly or according to rigid rules , such as placing objects in a specific order , checking things , or hand washing .
Sameness is resistance to change ; for example , insisting that the furniture not be moved or refusing to be interrupted .
Ritualistic behavior involves an unvarying pattern of daily activities , such as an unchanging menu or a dressing ritual . This is closely associated with sameness and an independent validation has suggested combining the two factors .
Restricted behavior is limited in focus , interest , or activity , such as preoccupation with a single television program , toy or game .
Self @-@ injury includes movements that injure or can injure the person , such as eye @-@ poking , skin @-@ picking , hand @-@ biting and head @-@ banging .
No single repetitive or self @-@ injurious behavior seems to be specific to autism , but autism appears to have an elevated pattern of occurrence and severity of these behaviors .
= = = Other symptoms = = =
Autistic individuals may have symptoms that are independent of the diagnosis , but that can affect the individual or the family . An estimated 0 @.@ 5 % to 10 % of individuals with ASD show unusual abilities , ranging from splinter skills such as the memorization of trivia to the extraordinarily rare talents of prodigious autistic savants . Many individuals with ASD show superior skills in perception and attention , relative to the general population . Sensory abnormalities are found in over 90 % of those with autism , and are considered core features by some , although there is no good evidence that sensory symptoms differentiate autism from other developmental disorders . Differences are greater for under @-@ responsivity ( for example , walking into things ) than for over @-@ responsivity ( for example , distress from loud noises ) or for sensation seeking ( for example , rhythmic movements ) . An estimated 60 % – 80 % of autistic people have motor signs that include poor muscle tone , poor motor planning , and toe walking ; deficits in motor coordination are pervasive across ASD and are greater in autism proper .
Unusual eating behavior occurs in about three @-@ quarters of children with ASD , to the extent that it was formerly a diagnostic indicator . Selectivity is the most common problem , although eating rituals and food refusal also occur ; this does not appear to result in malnutrition . Although some children with autism also have gastrointestinal symptoms , there is a lack of published rigorous data to support the theory that children with autism have more or different gastrointestinal symptoms than usual ; studies report conflicting results , and the relationship between gastrointestinal problems and ASD is unclear .
Parents of children with ASD have higher levels of stress . Siblings of children with ASD report greater admiration of and less conflict with the affected sibling than siblings of unaffected children and were similar to siblings of children with Down syndrome in these aspects of the sibling relationship . However , they reported lower levels of closeness and intimacy than siblings of children with Down syndrome ; siblings of individuals with ASD have greater risk of negative well @-@ being and poorer sibling relationships as adults .
= = Causes = =
It has long been presumed that there is a common cause at the genetic , cognitive , and neural levels for autism 's characteristic triad of symptoms . However , there is increasing suspicion that autism is instead a complex disorder whose core aspects have distinct causes that often co @-@ occur .
Autism has a strong genetic basis , although the genetics of autism are complex and it is unclear whether ASD is explained more by rare mutations with major effects , or by rare multigene interactions of common genetic variants . Complexity arises due to interactions among multiple genes , the environment , and epigenetic factors which do not change DNA sequencing but are heritable and influence gene expression . Many genes have been associated with autism through sequencing the genomes of affected individuals and their parents .
Studies of twins suggest that heritability is 0 @.@ 7 for autism and as high as 0 @.@ 9 for ASD , and siblings of those with autism are about 25 times more likely to be autistic than the general population . However , most of the mutations that increase autism risk have not been identified . Typically , autism cannot be traced to a Mendelian ( single @-@ gene ) mutation or to a single chromosome abnormality , and none of the genetic syndromes associated with ASDs have been shown to selectively cause ASD . Numerous candidate genes have been located , with only small effects attributable to any particular gene . Most loci individually explain less than 1 % of cases of autism . The large number of autistic individuals with unaffected family members may result from spontaneous structural variation — such as deletions , duplications or inversions in genetic material during meiosis . Hence , a substantial fraction of autism cases may be traceable to genetic causes that are highly heritable but not inherited : that is , the mutation that causes the autism is not present in the parental genome .
Several lines of evidence point to synaptic dysfunction as a cause of autism . Some rare mutations may lead to autism by disrupting some synaptic pathways , such as those involved with cell adhesion . Gene replacement studies in mice suggest that autistic symptoms are closely related to later developmental steps that depend on activity in synapses and on activity @-@ dependent changes . All known teratogens ( agents that cause birth defects ) related to the risk of autism appear to act during the first eight weeks from conception , and though this does not exclude the possibility that autism can be initiated or affected later , there is strong evidence that autism arises very early in development .
Exposure to air pollution during pregnancy , especially heavy metals and particulates , may increase the risk of autism . Environmental factors that have been claimed to contribute to or exacerbate autism include certain foods , infectious diseases , solvents , diesel exhaust , PCBs , phthalates and phenols used in plastic products , pesticides , brominated flame retardants , alcohol , smoking , illicit drugs , vaccines , and prenatal stress , but no evidence has been found for these claims , and some such as the MMR vaccine have been completely disproven .
Parents may first become aware of autistic symptoms in their child around the time of a routine vaccination . This has led to unsupported theories blaming vaccine " overload " , a vaccine preservative , or the MMR vaccine for causing autism . The latter theory was supported by a litigation @-@ funded study that has since been shown to have been " an elaborate fraud " . Although these theories lack convincing scientific evidence and are biologically implausible , parental concern about a potential vaccine link with autism has led to lower rates of childhood immunizations , outbreaks of previously controlled childhood diseases in some countries , and the preventable deaths of several children .
= = Mechanism = =
Autism 's symptoms result from maturation @-@ related changes in various systems of the brain . How autism occurs is not well understood . Its mechanism can be divided into two areas : the pathophysiology of brain structures and processes associated with autism , and the neuropsychological linkages between brain structures and behaviors . The behaviors appear to have multiple pathophysiologies .
= = = Pathophysiology = = =
Unlike many other brain disorders , such as Parkinson 's , autism does not have a clear unifying mechanism at either the molecular , cellular , or systems level ; it is not known whether autism is a few disorders caused by mutations converging on a few common molecular pathways , or is ( like intellectual disability ) a large set of disorders with diverse mechanisms . Autism appears to result from developmental factors that affect many or all functional brain systems , and to disturb the timing of brain development more than the final product . Neuroanatomical studies and the associations with teratogens strongly suggest that autism 's mechanism includes alteration of brain development soon after conception . This anomaly appears to start a cascade of pathological events in the brain that are significantly influenced by environmental factors . Just after birth , the brains of children with autism tend to grow faster than usual , followed by normal or relatively slower growth in childhood . It is not known whether early overgrowth occurs in all children with autism . It seems to be most prominent in brain areas underlying the development of higher cognitive specialization . Hypotheses for the cellular and molecular bases of pathological early overgrowth include the following :
An excess of neurons that causes local overconnectivity in key brain regions .
Disturbed neuronal migration during early gestation .
Unbalanced excitatory – inhibitory networks .
Abnormal formation of synapses and dendritic spines , for example , by modulation of the neurexin – neuroligin cell @-@ adhesion system , or by poorly regulated synthesis of synaptic proteins . Disrupted synaptic development may also contribute to epilepsy , which may explain why the two conditions are associated .
The immune system is thought to play an important role in autism . Children with autism have been found by researchers to have inflammation of both the peripheral and central immune systems as indicated by increased levels of pro @-@ inflammatory cytokines and significant activation of microglia . Biomarkers of abnormal immune function have also been associated with increased impairments in behaviors that are characteristic of the core features of autism such as deficits in social interactions and communication . Interactions between the immune system and the nervous system begin early during the embryonic stage of life , and successful neurodevelopment depends on a balanced immune response . It is thought that activation of a pregnant mother 's immune system such as from environmental toxicants or infection can contribute to causing autism through causing a disruption of brain development . This is supported by recent studies that have found that infection during pregnancy is associated with an increased risk of autism .
The relationship of neurochemicals to autism is not well understood ; several have been investigated , with the most evidence for the role of serotonin and of genetic differences in its transport . The role of group I metabotropic glutamate receptors ( mGluR ) in the pathogenesis of fragile X syndrome , the most common identified genetic cause of autism , has led to interest in the possible implications for future autism research into this pathway . Some data suggests neuronal overgrowth potentially related to an increase in several growth hormones or to impaired regulation of growth factor receptors . Also , some inborn errors of metabolism are associated with autism , but probably account for less than 5 % of cases .
The mirror neuron system ( MNS ) theory of autism hypothesizes that distortion in the development of the MNS interferes with imitation and leads to autism 's core features of social impairment and communication difficulties . The MNS operates when an animal performs an action or observes another animal perform the same action . The MNS may contribute to an individual 's understanding of other people by enabling the modeling of their behavior via embodied simulation of their actions , intentions , and emotions . Several studies have tested this hypothesis by demonstrating structural abnormalities in MNS regions of individuals with ASD , delay in the activation in the core circuit for imitation in individuals with Asperger syndrome , and a correlation between reduced MNS activity and severity of the syndrome in children with ASD . However , individuals with autism also have abnormal brain activation in many circuits outside the MNS and the MNS theory does not explain the normal performance of children with autism on imitation tasks that involve a goal or object .
ASD @-@ related patterns of low function and aberrant activation in the brain differ depending on whether the brain is doing social or nonsocial tasks . In autism there is evidence for reduced functional connectivity of the default network , a large @-@ scale brain network involved in social and emotional processing , with intact connectivity of the task @-@ positive network , used in sustained attention and goal @-@ directed thinking . In people with autism the two networks are not negatively correlated in time , suggesting an imbalance in toggling between the two networks , possibly reflecting a disturbance of self @-@ referential thought .
The underconnectivity theory of autism hypothesizes that autism is marked by underfunctioning high @-@ level neural connections and synchronization , along with an excess of low @-@ level processes . Evidence for this theory has been found in functional neuroimaging studies on autistic individuals and by a brainwave study that suggested that adults with ASD have local overconnectivity in the cortex and weak functional connections between the frontal lobe and the rest of the cortex . Other evidence suggests the underconnectivity is mainly within each hemisphere of the cortex and that autism is a disorder of the association cortex .
From studies based on event @-@ related potentials , transient changes to the brain 's electrical activity in response to stimuli , there is considerable evidence for differences in autistic individuals with respect to attention , orientation to auditory and visual stimuli , novelty detection , language and face processing , and information storage ; several studies have found a preference for nonsocial stimuli . For example , magnetoencephalography studies have found evidence in children with autism of delayed responses in the brain 's processing of auditory signals .
In the genetic area , relations have been found between autism and schizophrenia based on duplications and deletions of chromosomes ; research showed that schizophrenia and autism are significantly more common in combination with 1q21.1 deletion syndrome . Research on autism / schizophrenia relations for chromosome 15 ( 15q13.3 ) , chromosome 16 ( 16p13.1 ) and chromosome 17 ( 17p12 ) are inconclusive .
Functional connectivity studies have found both hypo- and hyper @-@ connectivity in brains of people with autism . Hypo @-@ connectivity seems to dominate , especially for interhemispheric and cortico @-@ cortical functional connectivity .
= = = Neuropsychology = = =
Two major categories of cognitive theories have been proposed about the links between autistic brains and behavior .
The first category focuses on deficits in social cognition . Simon Baron @-@ Cohen 's empathizing – systemizing theory postulates that autistic individuals can systemize — that is , they can develop internal rules of operation to handle events inside the brain — but are less effective at empathizing by handling events generated by other agents . An extension , the extreme male brain theory , hypothesizes that autism is an extreme case of the male brain , defined psychometrically as individuals in whom systemizing is better than empathizing . These theories are somewhat related to Baron @-@ Cohen 's earlier theory of mind approach , which hypothesizes that autistic behavior arises from an inability to ascribe mental states to oneself and others . The theory of mind hypothesis is supported by the atypical responses of children with autism to the Sally – Anne test for reasoning about others ' motivations , and the mirror neuron system theory of autism described in Pathophysiology maps well to the hypothesis . However , most studies have found no evidence of impairment in autistic individuals ' ability to understand other people 's basic intentions or goals ; instead , data suggests that impairments are found in understanding more complex social emotions or in considering others ' viewpoints .
The second category focuses on nonsocial or general processing : the executive functions such as working memory , planning , inhibition . In his review , Kenworthy states that " the claim of executive dysfunction as a causal factor in autism is controversial " , however , " it is clear that executive dysfunction plays a role in the social and cognitive deficits observed in individuals with autism " . Tests of core executive processes such as eye movement tasks indicate improvement from late childhood to adolescence , but performance never reaches typical adult levels . A strength of the theory is predicting stereotyped behavior and narrow interests ; two weaknesses are that executive function is hard to measure and that executive function deficits have not been found in young children with autism .
Weak central coherence theory hypothesizes that a limited ability to see the big picture underlies the central disturbance in autism . One strength of this theory is predicting special talents and peaks in performance in autistic people . A related theory — enhanced perceptual functioning — focuses more on the superiority of locally oriented and perceptual operations in autistic individuals . These theories map well from the underconnectivity theory of autism .
Neither category is satisfactory on its own ; social cognition theories poorly address autism 's rigid and repetitive behaviors , while the nonsocial theories have difficulty explaining social impairment and communication difficulties . A combined theory based on multiple deficits may prove to be more useful .
= = Diagnosis = =
Diagnosis is based on behavior , not cause or mechanism . Under the DSM @-@ 5 , autism is characterized by persistent deficits in social communication and interaction across multiple contexts , as well as restricted , repetitive patterns of behavior , interests , or activities . These deficits are present in early childhood , typically before age three , and lead to clinically significant functional impairment . Sample symptoms include lack of social or emotional reciprocity , stereotyped and repetitive use of language or idiosyncratic language , and persistent preoccupation with unusual objects . The disturbance must not be better accounted for by Rett syndrome , intellectual disability or global developmental delay . ICD @-@ 10 uses essentially the same definition .
Several diagnostic instruments are available . Two are commonly used in autism research : the Autism Diagnostic Interview @-@ Revised ( ADI @-@ R ) is a semistructured parent interview , and the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule ( ADOS ) uses observation and interaction with the child . The Childhood Autism Rating Scale ( CARS ) is used widely in clinical environments to assess severity of autism based on observation of children .
A pediatrician commonly performs a preliminary investigation by taking developmental history and physically examining the child . If warranted , diagnosis and evaluations are conducted with help from ASD specialists , observing and assessing cognitive , communication , family , and other factors using standardized tools , and taking into account any associated medical conditions . A pediatric neuropsychologist is often asked to assess behavior and cognitive skills , both to aid diagnosis and to help recommend educational interventions . A differential diagnosis for ASD at this stage might also consider intellectual disability , hearing impairment , and a specific language impairment such as Landau – Kleffner syndrome . The presence of autism can make it harder to diagnose coexisting psychiatric disorders such as depression .
Clinical genetics evaluations are often done once ASD is diagnosed , particularly when other symptoms already suggest a genetic cause . Although genetic technology allows clinical geneticists to link an estimated 40 % of cases to genetic causes , consensus guidelines in the US and UK are limited to high @-@ resolution chromosome and fragile X testing . A genotype @-@ first model of diagnosis has been proposed , which would routinely assess the genome 's copy number variations . As new genetic tests are developed several ethical , legal , and social issues will emerge . Commercial availability of tests may precede adequate understanding of how to use test results , given the complexity of autism 's genetics . Metabolic and neuroimaging tests are sometimes helpful , but are not routine .
ASD can sometimes be diagnosed by age 14 months , although diagnosis becomes increasingly stable over the first three years of life : for example , a one @-@ year @-@ old who meets diagnostic criteria for ASD is less likely than a three @-@ year @-@ old to continue to do so a few years later . In the UK the National Autism Plan for Children recommends at most 30 weeks from first concern to completed diagnosis and assessment , though few cases are handled that quickly in practice . Although the symptoms of autism and ASD begin early in childhood , they are sometimes missed ; years later , adults may seek diagnoses to help them or their friends and family understand themselves , to help their employers make adjustments , or in some locations to claim disability living allowances or other benefits .
Underdiagnosis and overdiagnosis are problems in marginal cases , and much of the recent increase in the number of reported ASD cases is likely due to changes in diagnostic practices . The increasing popularity of drug treatment options and the expansion of benefits has given providers incentives to diagnose ASD , resulting in some overdiagnosis of children with uncertain symptoms . Conversely , the cost of screening and diagnosis and the challenge of obtaining payment can inhibit or delay diagnosis . It is particularly hard to diagnose autism among the visually impaired , partly because some of its diagnostic criteria depend on vision , and partly because autistic symptoms overlap with those of common blindness syndromes or blindisms .
= = = Classification = = =
Autism is one of the five pervasive developmental disorders ( PDD ) , which are characterized by widespread abnormalities of social interactions and communication , and severely restricted interests and highly repetitive behavior . These symptoms do not imply sickness , fragility , or emotional disturbance .
Of the five PDD forms , Asperger syndrome is closest to autism in signs and likely causes ; Rett syndrome and childhood disintegrative disorder share several signs with autism , but may have unrelated causes ; PDD not otherwise specified ( PDD @-@ NOS ; also called atypical autism ) is diagnosed when the criteria are not met for a more specific disorder . Unlike with autism , people with Asperger syndrome have no substantial delay in language development . The terminology of autism can be bewildering , with autism , Asperger syndrome and PDD @-@ NOS often called the autism spectrum disorders ( ASD ) or sometimes the autistic disorders , whereas autism itself is often called autistic disorder , childhood autism , or infantile autism . In this article , autism refers to the classic autistic disorder ; in clinical practice , though , autism , ASD , and PDD are often used interchangeably . ASD , in turn , is a subset of the broader autism phenotype , which describes individuals who may not have ASD but do have autistic @-@ like traits , such as avoiding eye contact .
The manifestations of autism cover a wide spectrum , ranging from individuals with severe impairments — who may be silent , developmentally disabled , and locked into hand flapping and rocking — to high functioning individuals who may have active but distinctly odd social approaches , narrowly focused interests , and verbose , pedantic communication . Because the behavior spectrum is continuous , boundaries between diagnostic categories are necessarily somewhat arbitrary . Sometimes the syndrome is divided into low- , medium- or high @-@ functioning autism ( LFA , MFA , and HFA ) , based on IQ thresholds , or on how much support the individual requires in daily life ; these subdivisions are not standardized and are controversial . Autism can also be divided into syndromal and non @-@ syndromal autism ; the syndromal autism is associated with severe or profound intellectual disability or a congenital syndrome with physical symptoms , such as tuberous sclerosis . Although individuals with Asperger syndrome tend to perform better cognitively than those with autism , the extent of the overlap between Asperger syndrome , HFA , and non @-@ syndromal autism is unclear .
Some studies have reported diagnoses of autism in children due to a loss of language or social skills , as opposed to a failure to make progress , typically from 15 to 30 months of age . The validity of this distinction remains controversial ; it is possible that regressive autism is a specific subtype , or that there is a continuum of behaviors between autism with and without regression .
Research into causes has been hampered by the inability to identify biologically meaningful subgroups within the autistic population and by the traditional boundaries between the disciplines of psychiatry , psychology , neurology and pediatrics . Newer technologies such as fMRI and diffusion tensor imaging can help identify biologically relevant phenotypes ( observable traits ) that can be viewed on brain scans , to help further neurogenetic studies of autism ; one example is lowered activity in the fusiform face area of the brain , which is associated with impaired perception of people versus objects . It has been proposed to classify autism using genetics as well as behavior .
= = Screening = =
About half of parents of children with ASD notice their child 's unusual behaviors by age 18 months , and about four @-@ fifths notice by age 24 months . According to an article failure to meet any of the following milestones " is an absolute indication to proceed with further evaluations . Delay in referral for such testing may delay early diagnosis and treatment and affect the long @-@ term outcome " .
No babbling by 12 months .
No gesturing ( pointing , waving , etc . ) by 12 months .
No single words by 16 months .
No two @-@ word ( spontaneous , not just echolalic ) phrases by 24 months .
Any loss of any language or social skills , at any age .
The United States Preventative Services Task Force in 2016 found it was unclear if screening was beneficial or harmful among children in whom there is no concerns . The Japanese practice is to screen all children for ASD at 18 and 24 months , using autism @-@ specific formal screening tests . In contrast , in the UK , children whose families or doctors recognize possible signs of autism are screened . It is not known which approach is more effective . Screening tools include the Modified Checklist for Autism in Toddlers ( M @-@ CHAT ) , the Early Screening of Autistic Traits Questionnaire , and the First Year Inventory ; initial data on M @-@ CHAT and its predecessor , the Checklist for Autism in Toddlers ( CHAT ) , on children aged 18 – 30 months suggests that it is best used in a clinical setting and that it has low sensitivity ( many false @-@ negatives ) but good specificity ( few false @-@ positives ) . It may be more accurate to precede these tests with a broadband screener that does not distinguish ASD from other developmental disorders . Screening tools designed for one culture 's norms for behaviors like eye contact may be inappropriate for a different culture . Although genetic screening for autism is generally still impractical , it can be considered in some cases , such as children with neurological symptoms and dysmorphic features .
= = Prevention = =
Infection with rubella during pregnancy causes fewer than 1 % of cases of autism ; vaccination against rubella can prevent many of those cases .
= = Management = =
The main goals when treating children with autism are to lessen associated deficits and family distress , and to increase quality of life and functional independence . In general , higher IQs are correlated with greater responsiveness to treatment and improved treatment outcomes . No single treatment is best and treatment is typically tailored to the child 's needs . Families and the educational system are the main resources for treatment . Studies of interventions have methodological problems that prevent definitive conclusions about efficacy , however the development of evidence @-@ based interventions has advanced in recent years . Although many psychosocial interventions have some positive evidence , suggesting that some form of treatment is preferable to no treatment , the methodological quality of systematic reviews of these studies has generally been poor , their clinical results are mostly tentative , and there is little evidence for the relative effectiveness of treatment options . Intensive , sustained special education programs and behavior therapy early in life can help children acquire self @-@ care , social , and job skills , and often improve functioning and decrease symptom severity and maladaptive behaviors ; claims that intervention by around age three years is crucial are not substantiated . Available approaches include applied behavior analysis ( ABA ) , developmental models , structured teaching , speech and language therapy , social skills therapy , and occupational therapy . Among these approaches , interventions either treat autistic features comprehensively , or focalize treatment on a specific area of deficit . There is some evidence that early intensive behavioral intervention ( EIBI ) , an early intervention model based on ABA for 20 to 40 hours a week for multiple years , is an effective treatment for some children with ASD . Two theoretical frameworks outlined for early childhood intervention include applied behavioral analysis ( ABA ) and developmental social pragmatic models ( DSP ) . One interventional strategy utilizes a parent training model , which teaches parents how to implement various ABA and DSP techniques , allowing for parents to disseminate interventions themselves . Various DSP programs have been developed to explicitly deliver intervention systems through at @-@ home parent implementation . Despite the recent development of parent training models , these interventions have demonstrated effectiveness in numerous studies , being evaluated as a probable efficacious mode of treatment .
= = = Education = = =
Educational interventions can be effective to varying degrees in most children : intensive ABA treatment has demonstrated effectiveness in enhancing global functioning in preschool children and is well @-@ established for improving intellectual performance of young children . Similarly , teacher @-@ implemented intervention that utilizes an ABA combined with a developmental social pragmatic approach has been found to be a well @-@ established treatment in improving social @-@ communication skills in young children , although there is less evidence in its treatment of global symptoms . Neuropsychological reports are often poorly communicated to educators , resulting in a gap between what a report recommends and what education is provided . It is not known whether treatment programs for children lead to significant improvements after the children grow up , and the limited research on the effectiveness of adult residential programs shows mixed results . The appropriateness of including children with varying severity of autism spectrum disorders in the general education population is a subject of current debate among educators and researchers .
= = = Medication = = =
Many medications are used to treat ASD symptoms that interfere with integrating a child into home or school when behavioral treatment fails . More than half of US children diagnosed with ASD are prescribed psychoactive drugs or anticonvulsants , with the most common drug classes being antidepressants , stimulants , and antipsychotics . Antipsychotics , such as risperidone and aripiprazole , have been found to be useful for treating irritability , repetitive behavior , and sleeplessness that often occurs with autism , however their side effects must be weighed against their potential benefits , and people with autism may respond atypically . There is scant reliable research about the effectiveness or safety of drug treatments for adolescents and adults with ASD . No known medication relieves autism 's core symptoms of social and communication impairments . Experiments in mice have reversed or reduced some symptoms related to autism by replacing or modulating gene function , suggesting the possibility of targeting therapies to specific rare mutations known to cause autism .
= = = Alternative medicine = = =
Although many alternative therapies and interventions are available , few are supported by scientific studies . Treatment approaches have little empirical support in quality @-@ of @-@ life contexts , and many programs focus on success measures that lack predictive validity and real @-@ world relevance . Scientific evidence appears to matter less to service providers than program marketing , training availability , and parent requests . Some alternative treatments may place the child at risk . A 2008 study found that compared to their peers , autistic boys have significantly thinner bones if on casein @-@ free diets ; in 2005 , botched chelation therapy killed a five @-@ year @-@ old child with autism . There has been early research looking at hyperbaric treatments in children with autism .
Although popularly used as an alternative treatment for people with autism , there is no good evidence that a gluten @-@ free diet is of benefit . In the subset of people who have gluten sensitivity there is limited evidence that suggests that a gluten free diet may improve some autistic behaviours .
= = = Cost = = =
Treatment is expensive ; indirect costs are more so . For someone born in 2000 , a US study estimated an average lifetime cost of $ 4 @.@ 07 million ( net present value in 2016 dollars , inflation @-@ adjusted from 2003 estimate ) , with about 10 % medical care , 30 % extra education and other care , and 60 % lost economic productivity . Publicly supported programs are often inadequate or inappropriate for a given child , and unreimbursed out @-@ of @-@ pocket medical or therapy expenses are associated with likelihood of family financial problems ; one 2008 US study found a 14 % average loss of annual income in families of children with ASD , and a related study found that ASD is associated with higher probability that child care problems will greatly affect parental employment . US states increasingly require private health insurance to cover autism services , shifting costs from publicly funded education programs to privately funded health insurance . After childhood , key treatment issues include residential care , job training and placement , sexuality , social skills , and estate planning .
= = Society and culture = =
The emergence of the autism rights movement has served as an attempt to encourage people to be more tolerant of those with autism . Through this movement , people hope to cause others to think of autism as a difference instead of a disease . Proponents of this movement wish to seek “ acceptance , not cures . ” There have also been many worldwide events promoting autism awareness such as World Autism Awareness Day , Light It Up Blue , Autism Sunday , Autistic Pride Day , Autreat , and others . There have also been many organizations dedicated to increasing the awareness of autism and the effects that autism has on someone ’ s life . These organizations include Autism Speaks , Autism National Committee , Autism Society of America , and many others . Social @-@ science scholars have had an increased focused on studying those with autism in hopes to learn more about “ autism as a culture , transcultural comparisons … and research on social movements . ” Media has had an influence on how the public perceives those with autism . Rain Man , a film that won 4 Oscars including Best Picture , depicts a character with autism who has incredible talents and abilities . While many autistics don 't have these special abilities , there are some autistic individuals who have been successful in their fields .
= = Prognosis = =
There is no known cure . Children recover occasionally , so that they lose their diagnosis of ASD ; this occurs sometimes after intensive treatment and sometimes not . It is not known how often recovery happens ; reported rates in unselected samples of children with ASD have ranged from 3 % to 25 % . Most children with autism acquire language by age five or younger , though a few have developed communication skills in later years . Most children with autism lack social support , meaningful relationships , future employment opportunities or self @-@ determination . Although core difficulties tend to persist , symptoms often become less severe with age .
Few high @-@ quality studies address long @-@ term prognosis . Some adults show modest improvement in communication skills , but a few decline ; no study has focused on autism after midlife . Acquiring language before age six , having an IQ above 50 , and having a marketable skill all predict better outcomes ; independent living is unlikely with severe autism . Most people with autism face significant obstacles in transitioning to adulthood .
= = Epidemiology = =
Most recent reviews tend to estimate a prevalence of 1 – 2 per 1 @,@ 000 for autism and close to 6 per 1 @,@ 000 for ASD , and 11 per 1 @,@ 000 children in the United States for ASD as of 2008 ; because of inadequate data , these numbers may underestimate ASD 's true rate . Globally , autism affects an estimated 21 @.@ 7 million people as of 2013 , while Asperger syndrome affects a further 31 @.@ 1 million . In 2012 , the NHS estimated that the overall prevalence of autism among adults aged 18 years and over in the UK was 1 @.@ 1 % . Rates of PDD @-@ NOS 's has been estimated at 3 @.@ 7 per 1 @,@ 000 , Asperger syndrome at roughly 0 @.@ 6 per 1 @,@ 000 , and childhood disintegrative disorder at 0 @.@ 02 per 1 @,@ 000 . CDC 's most recent estimate is that 1 out of every 68 children , or 14 @.@ 7 per 1 @,@ 000 , has an ASD as of 2010 .
The number of reported cases of autism increased dramatically in the 1990s and early 2000s . This increase is largely attributable to changes in diagnostic practices , referral patterns , availability of services , age at diagnosis , and public awareness , though unidentified environmental risk factors cannot be ruled out . The available evidence does not rule out the possibility that autism 's true prevalence has increased ; a real increase would suggest directing more attention and funding toward changing environmental factors instead of continuing to focus on genetics .
Boys are at higher risk for ASD than girls . The sex ratio averages 4 @.@ 3 : 1 and is greatly modified by cognitive impairment : it may be close to 2 : 1 with intellectual disability and more than 5 @.@ 5 : 1 without . Several theories about the higher prevalence in males have been investigated , but the cause of the difference is unconfirmed ; one theory is that females are underdiagnosed .
Although the evidence does not implicate any single pregnancy @-@ related risk factor as a cause of autism , the risk of autism is associated with advanced age in either parent , and with diabetes , bleeding , and use of psychiatric drugs in the mother during pregnancy . The risk is greater with older fathers than with older mothers ; two potential explanations are the known increase in mutation burden in older sperm , and the hypothesis that men marry later if they carry genetic liability and show some signs of autism . Most professionals believe that race , ethnicity , and socioeconomic background do not affect the occurrence of autism .
Several other conditions are common in children with autism . They include :
Genetic disorders . About 10 – 15 % of autism cases have an identifiable Mendelian ( single @-@ gene ) condition , chromosome abnormality , or other genetic syndrome , and ASD is associated with several genetic disorders .
Intellectual disability . The percentage of autistic individuals who also meet criteria for intellectual disability has been reported as anywhere from 25 % to 70 % , a wide variation illustrating the difficulty of assessing autistic intelligence . In comparison , for PDD @-@ NOS the association with intellectual disability is much weaker , and by definition , the diagnosis of Asperger 's excludes intellectual disability .
Anxiety disorders are common among children with ASD ; there are no firm data , but studies have reported prevalences ranging from 11 % to 84 % . Many anxiety disorders have symptoms that are better explained by ASD itself , or are hard to distinguish from ASD 's symptoms .
Epilepsy , with variations in risk of epilepsy due to age , cognitive level , and type of language disorder .
Several metabolic defects , such as phenylketonuria , are associated with autistic symptoms .
Minor physical anomalies are significantly increased in the autistic population .
Preempted diagnoses . Although the DSM @-@ IV rules out concurrent diagnosis of many other conditions along with autism , the full criteria for Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder ( ADHD ) , Tourette syndrome , and other of these conditions are often present and these comorbid diagnoses are increasingly accepted .
Sleep problems affect about two @-@ thirds of individuals with ASD at some point in childhood . These most commonly include symptoms of insomnia such as difficulty in falling asleep , frequent nocturnal awakenings , and early morning awakenings . Sleep problems are associated with difficult behaviors and family stress , and are often a focus of clinical attention over and above the primary ASD diagnosis .
= = History = =
A few examples of autistic symptoms and treatments were described long before autism was named . The Table Talk of Martin Luther , compiled by his notetaker , Mathesius , contains the story of a 12 @-@ year @-@ old boy who may have been severely autistic . Luther reportedly thought the boy was a soulless mass of flesh possessed by the devil , and suggested that he be suffocated , although a later critic has cast doubt on the veracity of this report . The earliest well @-@ documented case of autism is that of Hugh Blair of Borgue , as detailed in a 1747 court case in which his brother successfully petitioned to annul Blair 's marriage to gain Blair 's inheritance . The Wild Boy of Aveyron , a feral child caught in 1798 , showed several signs of autism ; the medical student Jean Itard treated him with a behavioral program designed to help him form social attachments and to induce speech via imitation .
The New Latin word autismus ( English translation autism ) was coined by the Swiss psychiatrist Eugen Bleuler in 1910 as he was defining symptoms of schizophrenia . He derived it from the Greek word autós ( αὐτός , meaning " self " ) , and used it to mean morbid self @-@ admiration , referring to " autistic withdrawal of the patient to his fantasies , against which any influence from outside becomes an intolerable disturbance " .
The word autism first took its modern sense in 1938 when Hans Asperger of the Vienna University Hospital adopted Bleuler 's terminology autistic psychopaths in a lecture in German about child psychology . Asperger was investigating an ASD now known as Asperger syndrome , though for various reasons it was not widely recognized as a separate diagnosis until 1981 . Leo Kanner of the Johns Hopkins Hospital first used autism in its modern sense in English when he introduced the label early infantile autism in a 1943 report of 11 children with striking behavioral similarities . Almost all the characteristics described in Kanner 's first paper on the subject , notably " autistic aloneness " and " insistence on sameness " , are still regarded as typical of the autistic spectrum of disorders . It is not known whether Kanner derived the term independently of Asperger .
Kanner 's reuse of autism led to decades of confused terminology like infantile schizophrenia , and child psychiatry 's focus on maternal deprivation led to misconceptions of autism as an infant 's response to " refrigerator mothers " . Starting in the late 1960s autism was established as a separate syndrome by demonstrating that it is lifelong , distinguishing it from intellectual disability and schizophrenia and from other developmental disorders , and demonstrating the benefits of involving parents in active programs of therapy . As late as the mid @-@ 1970s there was little evidence of a genetic role in autism ; now it is thought to be one of the most heritable of all psychiatric conditions . Although the rise of parent organizations and the destigmatization of childhood ASD have deeply affected how we view ASD , parents continue to feel social stigma in situations where their child 's autistic behavior is perceived negatively by others , and many primary care physicians and medical specialists still express some beliefs consistent with outdated autism research .
The Internet has helped autistic individuals bypass nonverbal cues and emotional sharing that they find so hard to deal with , and has given them a way to form online communities and work remotely . Sociological and cultural aspects of autism have developed : some in the community seek a cure , while others believe that autism is simply another way of being .
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= Ohio State Route 844 =
State Route 844 ( SR 844 ) is a 2 @.@ 395 @-@ mile ( 3 @.@ 854 km ) state route that runs between Beavercreek and Wright @-@ Patterson Air Force Base in the US state of Ohio . The north – south signed route is a spur freeway which mainly passes through government @-@ owned properties . For some of its path , SR 844 passes through Wright State University . The highway was first signed in 1995 on the same alignment as today . SR 844 replaced the SR 444A designation of the highway , which dated back to 1989 .
= = Route description = =
SR 844 begins at a partial interchange with Interstate 675 ( I @-@ 675 ) . The route heads northeast as a four @-@ lane controlled @-@ access highway , passing under North Fairfield Road . The road has a partial interchange with Colonel Glenn Highway , before passing on the southeast and east sides of Wright State University . The highway curves due north , having an interchange with University Boulevard . After the interchange with University Boulevard , the road curves northwest , passing over SR 444 . Followed by an interchange with SR 444 , SR 844 ends at Gate 15A of Wright @-@ Patterson Air Force Base .
SR 844 is signed as " McClernon Memorial Skyway " , after the late Brigadier General Glen J. McClernon . McClernon had been base commander during the time the university was being established — partially on land deeded to it by the Air Force base — and also had been a two @-@ term mayor of Fairborn .
The entire length of SR 844 is part of the National Highway System , a system of routes important to the nation 's economy , mobility and defense . The highway is maintained by the Ohio Department of Transportation ( ODOT ) .
= = History = =
SR 844 was originally SR 444A , which opened by 1989 . After a public comment period in 1994 , ODOT changed the number to " 844 " by 1995 . Although legally designated as " McClernon @-@ Skyway Memorial Drive " on September 22 , 1989 , SR 844 is both signed and recognized by the state as " McClernon Memorial Skyway " .
= = Future = =
There are plans to add a ramp from northbound SR 844 to northbound SR 444 , and to add a ramp from northbound SR 444 to southbound SR 844 . As of October 2013 , the status and funding for this project are unknown .
= = Major junctions = =
The entire route is in Greene County .
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= Money in the Bank ( 2011 ) =
The 2011 Money in the Bank event was the seventh of thirteen professional wrestling pay @-@ per @-@ view events held by WWE that year , and the second installment in the annual Money in the Bank series of events . It took place on July 17 , 2011 , at the Allstate Arena in Rosemont , Illinois .
The event featured six matches , including two Money in the Bank ladder matches . Alberto Del Rio won the match for wrestlers from the Raw brand to earn a WWE Championship match at a time of his choosing within the next year , while Daniel Bryan won the match for wrestlers from the SmackDown brand for the same opportunity for the World Heavyweight Championship . In the World Heavyweight Championship match also held at the event , Christian defeated Randy Orton by disqualification and became the new champion as per the match stipulation . The main event featured CM Punk defeating John Cena to become the new WWE Champion .
Money in the Bank was broadcast globally and received acclaim from fans and critics alike , with the main event receiving the most praise . For pay @-@ per @-@ view buys , 195 @,@ 000 customers paid to watch the event compared with 165 @,@ 000 for the previous year .
= = Production = =
= = = Background = = =
WWE 's Money in the Bank pay @-@ per @-@ view events feature their own variant of ladder matches , where multiple wrestlers use ladders to retrieve a briefcase hanging above the ring . Two briefcases were contested at the 2011 event , one each for members of the Raw and SmackDown brands . The respective winners were guaranteed a match for the WWE and World Heavyweight Championships at a time of their choosing within the next year . The 2010 , 2011 , 2012 , and 2014 Money in the Bank events featured a main event involving John Cena , albeit in different storylines .
By November 2010 , WWE had announced that the 2011 Money in the Bank event would take place on July 17 , 2011 , at the Allstate Arena in Rosemont , Illinois . Tickets went on sale in May 2011 through Ticketmaster with prices ranging from $ 25 to $ 300 . The event , sponsored by confectionery brand Skittles , was the second annual Money in the Bank pay @-@ per @-@ view ( PPV ) event and the seventh of thirteen in the 2011 WWE PPV schedule . The theme song , " Money in the Bank " , was composed by Jim Johnston .
= = = Storylines = = =
The professional wrestling matches at Money in the Bank featured professional wrestlers performing as characters in scripted events pre @-@ determined by the hosting promotion , WWE . Storylines between the characters were produced on WWE 's weekly television shows Raw and SmackDown with the Raw and SmackDown brands — storyline divisions in which WWE assigned its employees to different programs . These storylines provided the background to the 2011 event , which continued the storylines from the previous event in WWE 's 2011 pay @-@ per @-@ view schedule , Capitol Punishment .
The main event featured John Cena defending the WWE Championship against CM Punk . Punk pinned Cena in a non @-@ title match on the June 13 , 2011 episode of Raw , and then became the number one contender by winning a Triple Threat Falls Count Anywhere match against Alberto Del Rio and Rey Mysterio on the June 20 episode of Raw . After the match , Punk said his WWE contract would expire at midnight on July 17 , immediately after the Money in the Bank PPV ended ; Punk vowed to win the championship and leave the company with it . On the next episode of Raw , Punk delivered a worked shoot promo and said that he , rather than Cena , was " the best in the world " ; he also berated WWE for not promoting him properly . Punk called Cena an " ass @-@ kisser " and insulted WWE management — including chairman Vince McMahon and executive John Laurinaitis . In addition to saying that he was breaking the fourth wall by talking to the camera , Punk proposed that he could defend the WWE Championship by wrestling in other companies such as Ring of Honor and New Japan Pro Wrestling after leaving the company with the title . As a result , Punk was given a storyline suspension and stripped of his championship match . Cena confronted McMahon and threatened to walk out on him and return the WWE Championship if Punk were not reinstated . McMahon relented on the condition that if Cena lost the title , he would be fired . On the following episode of Raw , McMahon tried to sign Punk to a new contract to ensure the WWE Championship would stay in WWE ; McMahon agreed to Punk 's demands and apologized to Punk before Cena interrupted the proceedings . The segment resulted in Cena punching Punk , so Punk tore up the agreed contract .
At Money in the Bank 2011 , Randy Orton defended the World Heavyweight Championship against Christian . The storyline started on the May 6 episode of SmackDown when Orton defeated Christian to become the champion less than a week after Christian had won the title . At Capitol Punishment on June 19 , Orton defeated Christian to retain the title despite illegally pinning Christian . On the June 24 episode of SmackDown , Christian demanded another attempt at the title from SmackDown General Manager Theodore Long ; his demand was granted with the proviso that he could defeat Kane . Christian lost the match against Kane by disqualification after interference from Mark Henry . Long then made a tag team match for later that same episode , pitting the team of Christian and Henry against Kane and Orton with a similar stipulation ; Henry pinned Orton in the bout . Afterward , Long offered Henry an attempt at the title if Henry could defeat Orton again . Henry lost the match after Christian engineered a distraction . This set up a match between Orton and Christian for the title at Money in the Bank . On the July 8 episode of SmackDown , Christian 's lawyers in the storyline added a stipulation to the match that if Orton was disqualified or there were poor officiating , he would lose the title to Christian .
The Raw Money in the Bank competitors were announced on the June 27 episode of Raw with no qualifying matches ; these were Alberto Del Rio , Alex Riley , Evan Bourne , Jack Swagger , Kofi Kingston , Rey Mysterio , R @-@ Truth , and The Miz . The SmackDown Money in the Bank competitors were announced on the July 1 SmackDown as Cody Rhodes , Daniel Bryan , Heath Slater , Justin Gabriel , Kane , Sheamus , Sin Cara , and Wade Barrett .
The feud between Big Show and Mark Henry started on the June 17 episode of SmackDown , when Big Show was forced to face Henry in a match . Big Show knocked out Henry before the bout began , creating a rivalry between the two . Henry interfered in Big Show 's match with Alberto Del Rio at Capitol Punishment and on the June 27 episode of Raw in a cage match . Henry versus Big Show was later announced for Money in the Bank . When Brie Bella lost her Divas Championship to Kelly Kelly on the June 20 Raw , a title rematch was announced for Money in the Bank . Kelly had been feuding with the Bella Twins since May 2011 .
= = Event = =
= = = Preliminary matches = = =
The event , featuring commentary by Michael Cole , Jerry Lawler and Booker T , began with the SmackDown Money in the Bank ladder match . During the bout , Sheamus slammed Sin Cara through a ladder propped between the ring apron and the announcers ' table with a powerbomb throw . The ladder was bent in half and Cara was stretchered away from ringside . Near the end of the match , Barrett , Rhodes and Bryan were the only three in the ring . Bryan put Rhodes in a guillotine choke submission hold on top of the ladder in the middle of the ring while Barrett sneaked up the other side of the ladder . After Bryan knocked Rhodes off the ladder , Barrett got Bryan onto his shoulders and tried to throw him off . Bryan countered with repeated elbow strikes to Barrett 's head . Bryan then kicked Barrett in the head and unhooked the briefcase to win the contest .
In the show 's second match , Kelly Kelly defeated Brie Bella to retain the Divas Championship . Kelly won the bout after slamming Brie 's face into the mat with her K2 maneuver .
In the show 's third match , Mark Henry defeated Big Show . Henry gained a two @-@ count after slamming Big Show back against the mat with his World 's Strongest Slam move . Henry then performed the move again and two running splashes for the pinfall victory . After the match , Henry jumped on a chair wrapped around Big Show 's ankle , causing an injury to Big Show .
The next match was the Raw Money in the Bank match , where all the wrestlers brought ladders . During the match , Evan Bourne performed his signature Air Bourne aerial maneuver , diving from a ladder and landing on the other wrestlers at ringside . Bourne and Miz went for the briefcase but Del Rio toppled their ladder , and Miz was taken backstage with a knee injury . The seven remaining wrestlers simultaneously climbed four ladders in the ring , but fell off one by one . With nobody left in the ring , Miz hopped down to the ring and climbed the ladder with one leg , but Mysterio stopped him by slamming him off the ladder with a sunset flip powerbomb . As Mysterio and Del Rio battled on top of the ladders for the briefcase , Del Rio distracted Mysterio by unmasking him and then pushing him onto another ladder , which tipped over and sent both wrestlers to the mat . Del Rio regrouped and unhooked the briefcase to win the match .
In the show 's fifth match , Randy Orton defended his World Heavyweight Championship against Christian , with the condition that Christian would win the title if Orton were disqualified or if there were poor officiating . Christian opened the bout by bringing a steel chair into the ring and trying to goad Orton into getting disqualified . Orton balked and threw the chair to the floor . Christian performed his signature Killswitch , forcing Orton 's face to the mat , but Orton kicked out of the pin at the two count . As Orton was prepared to perform his signature RKO move , Christian spat in his face . An enraged Orton kicked Christian in the groin and was disqualified , so Christian became the new champion . Afterwards , Orton twice slammed Christian 's face into the announcers ' table with his RKO maneuver .
= = = Main event match = = =
The final match was for the WWE Championship between Champion John Cena and CM Punk . WWE Chairman Vince McMahon had threatened to have Cena fired if Punk won . During the match , two separate signature Attitude Adjustment moves by Cena failed to score the victory . More than 30 minutes into the match , Punk performed his Go to Sleep maneuver , hitting Cena 's ribs and causing Cena to fall out of the ring . As Punk rolled Cena back into the ring , McMahon and John Laurinaitis emerged from backstage and distracted Punk , resulting in Cena placing Punk in the STF submission hold . Punk did not submit , but McMahon signaled the referee to award Cena the match and sent Laurinaitis to ring the bell . This was reminiscent of the Montreal Screwjob in 1997 , where a conspiracy orchestrated by McMahon led to Bret Hart losing his WWF Championship to Shawn Michaels by submission despite Hart never submitting .
Not wanting a tainted victory , Cena broke the hold and attacked Laurinaitis . As Cena returned to the ring , Punk hit him in the face with the Go to Sleep maneuver and pinned him to win the WWE Championship . McMahon ordered the winner of the Raw Money in the Bank match , Alberto Del Rio , to cash in his contract on Punk . When Del Rio ran out and tried to cash in his contract for an immediate WWE Championship match , Punk kicked him in the head before he could do so . After blowing a kiss to a distraught McMahon , Punk fled the arena and left as WWE Champion .
= = Reception = =
During the event , WWE announced that its attendance was 14 @,@ 815 . It was later reported that 12 @,@ 000 attendees had paid , earning WWE $ 750 @,@ 000 . The event drew 195 @,@ 000 pay @-@ per @-@ view purchases , which was an increase of 18 @.@ 2 % from the 165 @,@ 000 of the previous year 's event . This contributed to WWE 's PPV revenue of $ 15 @.@ 8 million for the third quarter of 2011 compared with $ 13 @.@ 6 million for the third quarter of 2010 . The 2012 Money in the Bank event received 188 @,@ 000 purchases , a drop of 3 @.@ 6 % .
Money in the Bank has received critical acclaim . Dave Meltzer of the Wrestling Observer Newsletter awarded the Cena – Punk main event five stars out of five , the first WWE match since 1997 to receive such a rating . The Wrestling Observer Newsletter later awarded the event the Best Major Show of 2011 , over other professional wrestling events by companies including Pro Wrestling Guerrilla and New Japan Pro Wrestling , as well as over a kickboxing event by K @-@ 1 and mixed martial arts events by Ultimate Fighting Championship . The main event won the Observer award for Match of the Year .
Alex Roberts of the Professional Wrestling Torch Newsletter attended the event . He criticized the ladder matches as " dangerous spectacles " where many wrestlers " took plenty of painful @-@ looking bumps " but often failed to score " a corresponding crowd reaction " . He also stated that the apparent injuries suffered by Sin Cara and the Miz in those matches had unnerved the audience . In contrast , Roberts felt that the two world title matches , which focused on " in @-@ ring psychology and storytelling " , were much more " memorable " or even " legendary " . Regarding the main event , Roberts said , " even a match @-@ ending run @-@ in bypassed the expected convoluted machinations and played perfectly to the narrative at hand " . At the end of 2011 , Nathan Kyght of the Professional Wrestling Torch Newsletter ranked Money in the Bank the best of 34 pay @-@ per @-@ views in 2011 , including those from WWE , Total Nonstop Action Wrestling , Ring of Honor , and Dragon Gate USA .
Wade Keller , also from the Professional Wrestling Torch Newsletter , awarded the Cena – Punk bout five stars out of five , and said the " athleticism wasn 't at the A + level , but everything else that equals magic in pro wrestling happened in the last 40 minutes " . Keller awarded the SmackDown Money in the Bank ladder match four stars and said there were " lots of good workers taking a lot of big bumps , but also selling them , during the course of the match " . For the Orton – Christian match , Keller said that it was " paced well , executed well , and the finish played into the personalities and storyline of this feud " . Regarding the outcome of the Henry – Big Show match , Keller commented that it was " interesting to see WWE really truly get behind Henry for the first time after all of this time " .
Dave Hillhouse at the Canadian Online Explorer 's said Money in the Bank featured " exactly what a main event is supposed to be . A match that overshadows every other bout on the card , that has you , no matter how good each other contest is , looking forward to an ending just to be one step closer to the final contest . " Hillhouse rated the main event eight out of ten and the overall event six out of ten . When the Canadian Online Explorer polled its readers on the event , 26 % did not watch the event , 5 % thought it was disappointing , 6 % thought it was okay and 63 % thought it was great .
Rob McNichol at the United Kingdom 's The Sun rated the event nine and a half out of ten , describing it as a " flawless exercise in the booking , promotion and performance of a wrestling show ... full of excitement , emotion and great wrestling " . McNichol described Bryan 's win in the " very good " opener as memorable and " a great way to inspire the crowd , who would become so important during the night " . He said of the Orton – Christian match , " Christian ’ s character development was excellent " and that while the audience were initially " pro @-@ Christian , who was supposed to be playing the heel " ( a villainous character ) , they eventually cheered Orton 's post @-@ match beatdown of Christian . McNichol described the main event as " professional wrestling at [ its ] finest " and " probably the most gripping angle in wrestling this century " . He said the audience 's " astonishing " reception to the main event was as good as " any major match you have ever seen or cared about in history " , and the match itself " was methodical , played to both wrestlers ' strengths , and was beautifully paced " .
In 2013 , WWE released a list of their " 15 best pay @-@ per @-@ views ever " , with 2011 's Money in the Bank ranked the second best . WWE also released " the 50 greatest WWE Championship Matches ever " in 2013 , with the Cena – Punk match from the event ranked fourth .
Money in the Bank 2011 was released on DVD by WWE Home Video on August 16 , 2011 ; it included Matt Striker interviewing Daniel Bryan as extra content . Eric Cohen of About.com awarded the DVD five stars out of five , and said the event was one of the greatest PPV events of all time and warranted his highest possible recommendation . DVD Talk gave a " Highly Recommended " rating to the DVD , despite " an average technical presentation ( no Blu @-@ ray option , either ) and no real bonus features " .
= = Aftermath = =
After CM Punk left the Allstate Arena with the WWE Championship belt , celebrity website TMZ pictured him showing off his newly won title belt on the streets of Chicago with Colt Cabana and Ace Steel .
To crown a new WWE Champion , WWE Chairman Vince McMahon started an eight @-@ man tournament on the July 18 episode of Raw , which included all the participants of the Raw Money in the Bank ladder match except Evan Bourne , whose place was filled by Dolph Ziggler . The Miz and Rey Mysterio made it to the tournament finals , which McMahon postponed so he could fire John Cena as a result of the conditions imposed on the Money in the Bank match . Triple H interrupted and announced that the WWE Board of Directors had removed McMahon from power in a vote of no confidence , and that Triple H was to take over the day @-@ to @-@ day operations of WWE . Triple H refused to fire Cena .
On July 21 , Punk gatecrashed the joint WWE – Mattel panel at the San Diego Comic @-@ Con International with title belt in hand . He confronted Triple H and took exception to WWE attempting to crown a new WWE Champion . Two days later , Punk made a surprise appearance at a show hosted by the All American Wrestling company without his title belt to endorse Gregory Iron , a wrestler with cerebral palsy , as an inspiration for overcoming his impediment .
On the July 25 episode of Raw , Mysterio won the tournament to become the new WWE Champion , and immediately had to fend off Alberto Del Rio to prevent him from cashing in his Money in the Bank . Triple H , now Chief Operating Officer , decreed that Mysterio was to face ex @-@ champion Cena later that night for the title ; Cena won and again became WWE Champion . After the match , Punk made an unannounced return to WWE with the old WWE Championship belt to confront Cena . Cena and Punk later fought in a match at SummerSlam on August 14 to crown the undisputed WWE Champion , which Punk won . As Punk celebrated , Kevin Nash made his WWE return and assaulted him . Del Rio then cashed in his Money in the Bank contract and pinned Punk to become the new champion after kicking Punk in the head . Punk regained the WWE Championship from Del Rio at Survivor Series in November 2011 ; starting a 434 @-@ day reign until The Rock beat him at the 2013 Royal Rumble event .
After losing the World Heavyweight Championship to Christian , Randy Orton was granted a rematch at SummerSlam , where he won a No Holds Barred match to win the title . Meanwhile , in the storyline , Mark Henry went on to crush Kane and Vladimir Kozlov 's ankles with steel chairs . He defeated Orton at Night of Champions in September to become World Heavyweight Champion for the first time . Big Show returned from injury in October 2011 to feud with Henry over his title . Daniel Bryan initially declared that he would only cash in his Money in the Bank contract for a World Heavyweight Championship match at WrestleMania XXVIII . However , on the November 25 episode of SmackDown , Bryan cashed in the briefcase after Henry had been knocked out by Big Show to become the World Heavyweight Champion . The match was voided by General Manager Theodore Long as Henry was not medically cleared to compete , and the briefcase was returned to Bryan . At WWE 's TLC : Tables , Ladders , and Chairs PPV in December 2011 , Henry lost the World Heavyweight Championship to Big Show . After the match , Henry assaulted Big Show which allowed Bryan to cash in his contract and pin Big Show to win the title . Bryan held on to his title long enough to have a World Heavyweight Championship match at WrestleMania XXVIII in April 2012 , where he lost his championship to Sheamus .
Kelly Kelly 's next contender for the Divas Championship was Beth Phoenix ; Kelly defeated Phoenix to retain her title at SummerSlam , but Phoenix ultimately beat Kelly for the title at Hell in a Cell in October 2011 .
John Laurinaitis continued to appear on television after Money in the Bank . In October 2011 , he was appointed Raw General Manager , replacing Triple H as the on @-@ screen authority figure . During Laurinaitis ' rule , he feuded with CM Punk and later with John Cena , until he was fired in the storyline at No Way Out in June 2012 .
In later Money in the Bank events , John Cena , Randy Orton and Sheamus won Money in the Bank ladder matches in 2012 , 2013 and 2015 respectively . Cena cashed in on CM Punk and won via disqualification ; thus Punk retained the WWE Championship . Orton cashed in on Daniel Bryan and captured the WWE Championship . Sheamus cashed in on Roman Reigns and captured the WWE World Heavyweight Championship .
In WWE 's documentary CM Punk : Best in the World released in 2012 , it was documented from the out @-@ of @-@ universe perspective that a disenchanted Punk rejected signing a new contract with WWE for more than a year leading up to Money in the Bank . After being persuaded by Joey Mercury and Lars Frederiksen that he could only help wrestlers underappreciated by WWE ( like himself ) if he stayed , Punk signed a new contract with WWE about an hour before capturing the WWE Championship from Cena , while the pay @-@ per @-@ view event was ongoing .
= = Results = =
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= Genetic drift =
Genetic drift ( also known as allelic drift or the Sewall Wright effect after biologist Sewall Wright ) is the change in the frequency of a gene variant ( allele ) in a population due to random sampling of organisms . The alleles in the offspring are a sample of those in the parents , and chance has a role in determining whether a given individual survives and reproduces . A population 's allele frequency is the fraction of the copies of one gene that share a particular form . Genetic drift may cause gene variants to disappear completely and thereby reduce genetic variation .
When there are few copies of an allele , the effect of genetic drift is larger , and when there are many copies the effect is smaller . In the early 20th century , vigorous debates occurred over the relative importance of natural selection versus neutral processes , including genetic drift . Ronald Fisher , who explained natural selection using Mendelian genetics , held the view that genetic drift plays at the most a minor role in evolution , and this remained the dominant view for several decades . In 1968 , population geneticist Motoo Kimura rekindled the debate with his neutral theory of molecular evolution , which claims that most instances where a genetic change spreads across a population ( although not necessarily changes in phenotypes ) are caused by genetic drift acting on neutral mutations . There is currently a scientific debate about how much of unguided evolution has been caused by natural selection , and how much by genetic drift .
= = Analogy with marbles in a jar = =
The process of genetic drift can be illustrated using 20 marbles in a jar to represent 20 organisms in a population . Consider this jar of marbles as the starting population . Half of the marbles in the jar are red and half blue , and both colours correspond to two different alleles of one gene in the population . In each new generation the organisms reproduce at random . To represent this reproduction , randomly select a marble from the original jar and deposit a new marble with the same colour as its " offspring " into a new jar . ( The selected marble remains in the original jar . ) Repeat this process until there are 20 new marbles in the second jar . The second jar then contains a second generation of " offspring , " consisting of 20 marbles of various colours . Unless the second jar contains exactly 10 red marbles and 10 blue marbles , a random shift occurred in the allele frequencies .
Repeat this process a number of times , randomly reproducing each generation of marbles to form the next . The numbers of red and blue marbles picked each generation fluctuates ; sometimes more red and sometimes more blue . This fluctuation is analogous to genetic drift – a change in the population 's allele frequency resulting from a random variation in the distribution of alleles from one generation to the next .
It is even possible that in any one generation no marbles of a particular colour are chosen , meaning they have no offspring . In this example , if no red marbles are selected , the jar representing the new generation contains only blue offspring . If this happens , the red allele has been lost permanently in the population , while the remaining blue allele has become fixed : all future generations are entirely blue . In small populations , fixation can occur in just a few generations .
= = Probability and allele frequency = =
The mechanisms of genetic drift can be illustrated with a simplified example . Consider a very large colony of bacteria isolated in a drop of solution . The bacteria are genetically identical except for a single gene with two alleles labeled A and B. A and B are neutral alleles meaning that they do not affect the bacteria 's ability to survive and reproduce ; all bacteria in this colony are equally likely to survive and reproduce . Suppose that half the bacteria have allele A and the other half have allele B. Thus A and B each have allele frequency 1 / 2 .
The drop of solution then shrinks until it has only enough food to sustain four bacteria . All other bacteria die without reproducing . Among the four who survive , there are sixteen possible combinations for the A and B alleles :
( A @-@ A @-@ A @-@ A ) , ( B @-@ A @-@ A @-@ A ) , ( A @-@ B @-@ A @-@ A ) , ( B @-@ B @-@ A @-@ A ) ,
( A @-@ A @-@ B @-@ A ) , ( B @-@ A @-@ B @-@ A ) , ( A @-@ B @-@ B @-@ A ) , ( B @-@ B @-@ B @-@ A ) ,
( A @-@ A @-@ A @-@ B ) , ( B @-@ A @-@ A @-@ B ) , ( A @-@ B @-@ A @-@ B ) , ( B @-@ B @-@ A @-@ B ) ,
( A @-@ A @-@ B @-@ B ) , ( B @-@ A @-@ B @-@ B ) , ( A @-@ B @-@ B @-@ B ) , ( B @-@ B @-@ B @-@ B ) .
Since all bacteria in the original solution are equally likely to survive when the solution shrinks , the four survivors are a random sample from the original colony . The probability that each of the four survivors has a given allele is 1 / 2 , and so the probability that any particular allele combination occurs when the solution shrinks is
<formula>
( The original population size is so large that the sampling effectively happens without replacement ) . In other words , each of the sixteen possible allele combinations is equally likely to occur , with probability 1 / 16 .
Counting the combinations with the same number of A and B , we get the following table .
As shown in the table , the total number of possible combinations to have an equal ( conserved ) number of A and B alleles is six , and its probability is 6 / 16 . The total number of possible alternative combinations is ten , and the probability of unequal number of A and B alleles is 10 / 16 . Thus , although the original colony began with an equal number of A and B alleles , chances are that the number of alleles in the remaining population of four members will not be equal . In the latter case , genetic drift has occurred because the population 's allele frequencies have changed due to random sampling . In this example the population contracted to just four random survivors , a phenomenon known as population bottleneck .
The probabilities for the number of copies of allele A ( or B ) that survive ( given in the last column of the above table ) can be calculated directly from the binomial distribution where the " success " probability ( probability of a given allele being present ) is 1 / 2 ( i.e. , the probability that there are k copies of A ( or B ) alleles in the combination ) is given by
<formula>
where n = 4 is the number of surviving bacteria .
= = Mathematical models of genetic drift = =
Mathematical models of genetic drift can be designed using either branching processes or a diffusion equation describing changes in allele frequency in an idealised population .
= = = Wright – Fisher model = = =
Think of a gene with two alleles , A or B. In diploid populations consisting of N individuals there are 2N copies of each gene . An individual can have two copies of the same allele or two different alleles . We can call the frequency of one allele p and the frequency of the other q . The Wright – Fisher model ( named after Sewall Wright and Ronald Fisher ) assumes that generations do not overlap ( for example , annual plants have exactly one generation per year ) and that each copy of the gene found in the new generation is drawn independently at random from all copies of the gene in the old generation . The formula to calculate the probability of obtaining k copies of an allele that had frequency p in the last generation is then
<formula>
where the symbol " ! " signifies the factorial function . This expression can also be formulated using the binomial coefficient ,
<formula>
= = = Moran model = = =
The Moran model assumes overlapping generations . At each time step , one individual is chosen to reproduce and one individual is chosen to die . So in each timestep , the number of copies of a given allele can go up by one , go down by one , or can stay the same . This means that the transition matrix is tridiagonal , which means that mathematical solutions are easier for the Moran model than for the Wright – Fisher model . On the other hand , computer simulations are usually easier to perform using the Wright – Fisher model , because fewer time steps need to be calculated . In the Moran model , it takes N timesteps to get through one generation , where N is the effective population size . In the Wright – Fisher model , it takes just one .
In practice , the Moran model and Wright – Fisher model give qualitatively similar results , but genetic drift runs twice as fast in the Moran model .
= = = Other models of drift = = =
If the variance in the number of offspring is much greater than that given by the binomial distribution assumed by the Wright – Fisher model , then given the same overall speed of genetic drift ( the variance effective population size ) , genetic drift is a less powerful force compared to selection . Even for the same variance , if higher moments of the offspring number distribution exceed those of the binomial distribution then again the force of genetic drift is substantially weakened .
= = = Random effects other than sampling error = = =
Random changes in allele frequencies can also be caused by effects other than sampling error , for example random changes in selection pressure .
One important alternative source of stochasticity , perhaps more important than genetic drift , is genetic draft . Genetic draft is the effect on a locus by selection on linked loci . The mathematical properties of genetic draft are different from those of genetic drift . The direction of the random change in allele frequency is autocorrelated across generations .
= = Drift and fixation = =
The Hardy – Weinberg principle states that within sufficiently large populations , the allele frequencies remain constant from one generation to the next unless the equilibrium is disturbed by migration , genetic mutations , or selection .
However , in finite populations , no new alleles are gained from the random sampling of alleles passed to the next generation , but the sampling can cause an existing allele to disappear . Because random sampling can remove , but not replace , an allele , and because random declines or increases in allele frequency influence expected allele distributions for the next generation , genetic drift drives a population towards genetic uniformity over time . When an allele reaches a frequency of 1 ( 100 % ) it is said to be " fixed " in the population and when an allele reaches a frequency of 0 ( 0 % ) it is lost . Smaller populations achieve fixation faster , whereas in the limit of an infinite population , fixation is not achieved . Once an allele becomes fixed , genetic drift comes to a halt , and the allele frequency cannot change unless a new allele is introduced in the population via mutation or gene flow . Thus even while genetic drift is a random , directionless process , it acts to eliminate genetic variation over time .
= = = Rate of allele frequency change due to drift = = =
Assuming genetic drift is the only evolutionary force acting on an allele , after t generations in many replicated populations , starting with allele frequencies of p and q , the variance in allele frequency across those populations is
<formula>
= = = Time to fixation or loss = = =
Assuming genetic drift is the only evolutionary force acting on an allele , at any given time the probability that an allele will eventually become fixed in the population is simply its frequency in the population at that time . For example , if the frequency p for allele A is 75 % and the frequency q for allele B is 25 % , then given unlimited time the probability A will ultimately become fixed in the population is 75 % and the probability that B will become fixed is 25 % .
The expected number of generations for fixation to occur is proportional to the population size , such that fixation is predicted to occur much more rapidly in smaller populations . Normally the effective population size , which is smaller than the total population , is used to determine these probabilities . The effective population ( Ne ) takes into account factors such as the level of inbreeding , the stage of the lifecycle in which the population is the smallest , and the fact that some neutral genes are genetically linked to others that are under selection . The effective population size may not be the same for every gene in the same population .
One forward @-@ looking formula used for approximating the expected time before a neutral allele becomes fixed through genetic drift , according to the Wright – Fisher model , is
<formula>
where T is the number of generations , Ne is the effective population size , and p is the initial frequency for the given allele . The result is the number of generations expected to pass before fixation occurs for a given allele in a population with given size ( Ne ) and allele frequency ( p ) .
The expected time for the neutral allele to be lost through genetic drift can be calculated as
<formula>
When a mutation appears only once in a population large enough for the initial frequency to be negligible , the formulas can be simplified to
<formula>
for average number of generations expected before fixation of a neutral mutation , and
<formula>
for the average number of generations expected before the loss of a neutral mutation .
= = = Time to loss with both drift and mutation = = =
The formulae above apply to an allele that is already present in a population , and which is subject to neither mutation nor natural selection . If an allele is lost by mutation much more often than it is gained by mutation , then mutation , as well as drift , may influence the time to loss . If the allele prone to mutational loss begins as fixed in the population , and is lost by mutation at rate m per replication , then the expected time in generations until its loss in a haploid population is given by
<formula>
where <formula> is equal to Euler 's constant . The first approximation represents the waiting time until the first mutant destined for loss , with loss then occurring relatively rapidly by genetic drift , taking time Ne < < 1 / m . The second approximation represents the time needed for deterministic loss by mutation accumulation . In both cases , the time to fixation is dominated by mutation via the term 1 / m , and is less affected by the effective population size .
= = Genetic drift versus natural selection = =
The law of large numbers predicts that when the population is large , the effect of genetic drift is much milder . When the reproductive population is small , however , the effects of sampling error can alter the allele frequencies significantly . Genetic drift is therefore considered to be a consequential mechanism of evolutionary change primarily within small , isolated populations .
Although both processes affect evolution , genetic drift operates randomly while natural selection functions non @-@ randomly . While natural selection has a direction , guiding evolution towards heritable adaptations to the current environment , genetic drift has no direction and is guided only by the mathematics of chance . As a result , drift acts upon the genotypic frequencies within a population without regard to their phenotypic effects . In contrast , selection favors the spread of alleles whose phenotypic effects increase survival and / or reproduction of their carriers , lowers the frequencies of alleles that cause unfavorable traits , and ignores those that are neutral .
In natural populations , genetic drift and natural selection do not act in isolation ; both forces are always at play , together with mutation and migration . However , the magnitude of drift on allele frequencies per generation is larger when the absolute number of copies of the allele is small ( e.g. , in small populations ) . The magnitude of drift is large enough to overwhelm selection when the selection coefficient is less than 1 divided by the effective population size .
The mathematics of genetic drift depend on the effective population size , but it is not clear how this is related to the actual number of individuals in a population . Genetic linkage to other genes that are under selection can reduce the effective population size experienced by a neutral allele . With a higher recombination rate , linkage decreases and with it this local effect on effective population size . This effect is visible in molecular data as a correlation between local recombination rate and genetic diversity , and negative correlation between gene density and diversity at noncoding DNA regions . Stochasticity associated with linkage to other genes that are under selection is not the same as sampling error , and is sometimes known as genetic draft in order to distinguish it from genetic drift .
When the allele frequency is very small , drift can also overpower selection even in large populations . For example , while disadvantageous mutations are usually eliminated quickly in large populations , new advantageous mutations are almost as vulnerable to loss through genetic drift as are neutral mutations . Not until the allele frequency for the advantageous mutation reaches a certain threshold will genetic drift have no effect .
In general , " global " solutions to many adaptive challenges at once can evolve at a smaller effective population size than " local " solutions that must evolve separately to each adaptive challenge .
= = Population bottleneck = =
A population bottleneck is when a population contracts to a significantly smaller size over a short period of time due to some random environmental event . In a true population bottleneck , the odds for survival of any member of the population are purely random , and are not improved by any particular inherent genetic advantage . The bottleneck can result in radical changes in allele frequencies , completely independent of selection .
The impact of a population bottleneck can be sustained , even when the bottleneck is caused by a one @-@ time event such as a natural catastrophe . An interesting example of a bottleneck causing unusual genetic distribution is the relatively high proportion of individuals with total rod cell color blindness ( achromatopsia ) on Pingelap atoll in Micronesia . After a bottleneck , inbreeding increases . This increases the damage done by recessive deleterious mutations , in a process known as inbreeding depression . The worst of these mutations are selected against , leading to the loss of other alleles that are genetically linked to them , in a process of background selection . For recessive harmful mutations , this selection can be enhanced as a consequence of the bottleneck , due to genetic purging.This leads to a further loss of genetic diversity . In addition , a sustained reduction in population size increases the likelihood of further allele fluctuations from drift in generations to come .
A population 's genetic variation can be greatly reduced by a bottleneck , and even beneficial adaptations may be permanently eliminated . The loss of variation leaves the surviving population vulnerable to any new selection pressures such as disease , climate change or shift in the available food source , because adapting in response to environmental changes requires sufficient genetic variation in the population for natural selection to take place .
There have been many known cases of population bottleneck in the recent past . Prior to the arrival of Europeans , North American prairies were habitat for millions of greater prairie chickens . In Illinois alone , their numbers plummeted from about 100 million birds in 1900 to about 50 birds in the 1990s . The declines in population resulted from hunting and habitat destruction , but the random consequence has been a loss of most of the species ' genetic diversity . DNA analysis comparing birds from the mid century to birds in the 1990s documents a steep decline in the genetic variation in just in the latter few decades . Currently the greater prairie chicken is experiencing low reproductive success . However , bottleneck and genetic drift can lead to a genetic loss that increases fitness as seen in Ehrlichia .
Over @-@ hunting also caused a severe population bottleneck in the northern elephant seal in the 19th century . Their resulting decline in genetic variation can be deduced by comparing it to that of the southern elephant seal , which were not so aggressively hunted .
= = = Founder effect = = =
The founder effect is a special case of a population bottleneck , occurring when a small group in a population splinters off from the original population and forms a new one . The random sample of alleles in the just formed new colony is expected to grossly misrepresent the original population in at least some respects . It is even possible that the number of alleles for some genes in the original population is larger than the number of gene copies in the founders , making complete representation impossible . When a newly formed colony is small , its founders can strongly affect the population 's genetic make @-@ up far into the future .
A well @-@ documented example is found in the Amish migration to Pennsylvania in 1744 . Two members of the new colony shared the recessive allele for Ellis – van Creveld syndrome . Members of the colony and their descendants tend to be religious isolates and remain relatively insular . As a result of many generations of inbreeding , Ellis @-@ van Creveld syndrome is now much more prevalent among the Amish than in the general population .
The difference in gene frequencies between the original population and colony may also trigger the two groups to diverge significantly over the course of many generations . As the difference , or genetic distance , increases , the two separated populations may become distinct , both genetically and phenetically , although not only genetic drift but also natural selection , gene flow , and mutation contribute to this divergence . This potential for relatively rapid changes in the colony 's gene frequency led most scientists to consider the founder effect ( and by extension , genetic drift ) a significant driving force in the evolution of new species . Sewall Wright was the first to attach this significance to random drift and small , newly isolated populations with his shifting balance theory of speciation . Following after Wright , Ernst Mayr created many persuasive models to show that the decline in genetic variation and small population size following the founder effect were critically important for new species to develop . However , there is much less support for this view today since the hypothesis has been tested repeatedly through experimental research and the results have been equivocal at best .
Founder effect was first well @-@ investigated in the USSR by Soviet scientists Lisovskiy V.V. , Kuznetsov M.A. and Nikolay Dubinin .
= = History of the concept = =
The concept of genetic drift was first introduced by one of the founders in the field of population genetics , Sewall Wright . His first use of the term " drift " was in 1929 , though at the time he was using it in the sense of a directed process of change , or natural selection . Random drift by means of sampling error came to be known as the " Sewall – Wright effect , " though he was never entirely comfortable to see his name given to it . Wright referred to all changes in allele frequency as either " steady drift " ( e.g. , selection ) or " random drift " ( e.g. , sampling error ) . " Drift " came to be adopted as a technical term in the stochastic sense exclusively . Today it is usually defined still more narrowly , in terms of sampling error , although this narrow definition is not universal . Wright wrote that the " restriction of " random drift " or even " drift " to only one component , the effects of accidents of sampling , tends to lead to confusion . " Sewall Wright considered the process of random genetic drift by means of sampling error equivalent to that by means of inbreeding , but later work has shown them to be distinct .
In the early days of the modern evolutionary synthesis , scientists were just beginning to blend the new science of population genetics with Charles Darwin 's theory of natural selection . Working within this new framework , Wright focused on the effects of inbreeding on small relatively isolated populations . He introduced the concept of an adaptive landscape in which phenomena such as cross breeding and genetic drift in small populations could push them away from adaptive peaks , which in turn allow natural selection to push them towards new adaptive peaks . Wright thought smaller populations were more suited for natural selection because " inbreeding was sufficiently intense to create new interaction systems through random drift but not intense enough to cause random nonadaptive fixation of genes . "
Wright 's views on the role of genetic drift in the evolutionary scheme were controversial almost from the very beginning . One of the most vociferous and influential critics was colleague Ronald Fisher . Fisher conceded genetic drift played some role in evolution , but an insignificant one . Fisher has been accused of misunderstanding Wright 's views because in his criticisms Fisher seemed to argue Wright had rejected selection almost entirely . To Fisher , viewing the process of evolution as a long , steady , adaptive progression was the only way to explain the ever @-@ increasing complexity from simpler forms . But the debates have continued between the " gradualists " and those who lean more toward the Wright model of evolution where selection and drift together play an important role .
In 1968 , Motoo Kimura rekindled the debate with his neutral theory of molecular evolution , which claims that most of the genetic changes are caused by genetic drift acting on neutral mutations .
The role of genetic drift by means of sampling error in evolution has been criticized by John H. Gillespie and William B. Provine , who argue that selection on linked sites is a more important stochastic force .
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= The Demands of Liberal Education =
The Demands of Liberal Education is a 1999 political philosophy book by Meira Levinson that establishes a liberal political theory of children 's education that fits the mutual needs of the state and its diverse citizenry . She writes that the intent of a liberal education — an education that follows from a liberal society 's values — is to maximize the autonomy of individual children through increasing their capacity for liberty . Levinson argues autonomy as a right to children . The book , published by Oxford University Press , aims to address a lacuna between educational policy and liberal political theory .
Levinson advocates for a weak perfectionist state that can promote thick autonomy while accepting citizens who do not agree . She argues for public schools " common " to all citizens and " detached " from individual citizen or community values , and argues for a constitutional mandate to this end .
Reviewers recommended the book for public educators as an important contribution to liberal theory . Their common criticism was based around practical applications and the imposition of autonomy as a value , e.g. , her contemporary examples of national civics education , how citizens who disagreed with the focus on autonomy could be accommodated , and how a weak perfectionist state could defend marginalized group interests in a public school setting .
= = Overview = =
In The Demands of Liberal Education , Meira Levinson sets out to write a " coherent liberal political theory of children 's education " that establishes how education can mutually satisfy the conflicting interests of the state and its diverse citizenry . " Liberal education " is defined as the type of education that follows from a liberal society 's values . Levinson writes that the intent of liberal education is to maximize individual autonomy in successive generations , particularly by " cultivating the ' capacity ' to exercise liberty " . Autonomy and its cultivation is the primary moral aim of liberal education . Levinson argues from a liberal political philosophy rather than from a philosophy of education , and contends that a broad liberal education best equips for individual autonomy and thus creates the best republic .
Meira Levinson published The Demands of Liberal Education in 1999 with Oxford University Press . She was a secondary schoolteacher at the time , having completed her D. Phil at the University of Oxford in 1997 . Her thesis is titled " Autonomy , Schooling , and the Reconstruction of the Liberal Educational Ideal " . The book was published in paperback in April 2002 . The work aimed to address a lack of literature between educational policy and liberal political theory , with the intent to serve both constituencies .
= = Summary = =
The first chapter assumes the importance of liberalism . Levinson writes about the foundations of liberalism and asserts that the political liberalism of John Rawls is untenable for its lack of interest in values of autonomy . She concludes that liberal states must adopt a " weakly perfectionist stance towards autonomy " , or a stance that promotes thick autonomy while accepting citizens who do not share that value . Levinson acknowledges the influence of non @-@ formal education but focuses on public schools as the ideal institution for training citizens . She advocates for public schools that are " common " to all members of a community and " detached " from the internal values of the community ( or parents ) .
Levinson proposes that citizenship education can provide the " cultural coherence " that may be missing from a " detached " school — which would be a diverse community that prioritizes " critical thinking , tolerance , and reflectiveness " . She argues for a constitutional mandate to establish the " autonomy @-@ promoting aim of education " regardless of public support , and asks for a " culture change " . Levinson distinguishes between parental and child rights , as laws exist for parents who do not act in their children 's best interests . She adds that children are limited by the restricted scope of their parents ' knowledge , and that the state should intervene to combat this small @-@ mindedness in the interests of children . Specifically , she cites Christian criticism of curricular neutrality as a tactic to justify the imposition of their own " limited and restrictive " worldview , and that external knowledge increases the odds of their children not adopting their worldview . Her argument is that the limited worldviews resulting from " excessive paternalism " consequently stunt children 's ability to develop adult autonomy or make rational decisions . Thus , state and parental paternalism should be limited where it will hurt individual " capacity for autonomy " .
Towards her " weak perfectionist " liberalism , Levinson requires three traits of a liberal society : ( 1 ) an agreeable , transparent , and equally accessible " legitimation process " for government , ( 2 ) pluralism , and ( 3 ) " substantive liberal institutions " such as " individual liberties and ... governmental duties " . She pairs this view of liberalism with thick autonomy as " the only defensible interpretation of liberalism " . Levinson develops an idea of autonomy that would be agreeable to most citizens while sufficient to guarantee liberalism 's " substantive liberal institutions " , and defines it as " higher @-@ order preference formation " that minds one 's personal values while allowing for openness to criticism and a developed personality . She argues that capacity for autonomy is a right to children , that the state is obligated to facilitate it , and that children are obligated to receive it . In this way , Levinson 's stance is that the state must make education compulsory . Children require paternalistic decisions of some sort , and the state is best suited to promote consent and operate in the best interests of children . The state has a right to override lack of child and parental interest in such an autonomy @-@ promoting education , since such an override lets children decide their values later in life , as adults , as opposed to never having that opportunity . Levinson contends that parents , on the other hand , must provide for the well @-@ being , identity development , and " cultural coherence " sense of their children .
Another chapter compares how the American , English , and French educational systems foster private and public identities . She writes that the French public school system is best for its neutral secularity and disregard of " parentally inspired discriminations " , which are not allowed to influence the common nature of the school . This is contrasted with the American public school system 's trends of increased privatization and non @-@ neutrality . American school voucher programs use public school money towards private schools , departing from the mission of the common public school and further compounding school inequality and ethnic segregation . Levinson concludes that parental choice limits capacity for autonomy and , consequently , individual liberty .
= = Reception = =
In his Philosophical Books review , Graham Haydon wrote that the book was part of a trend of political philosopher interest in how education works within liberal @-@ democratic societies . He noted issues of compatibility between a society 's self @-@ described " liberal " values and the values of their educational practice , or between a society 's educational practice and the wishes of its citizens . Haydon wrote critics of the common and detached public school would ask how the students would be raised without " some cultural coherence " . Writing in 2001 , he said that her criticism of England 's civics education already appeared outdated in view of England 's then @-@ new National Curriculum citizenship curriculum , which he felt Levinson would find the " best model ... consistent with her own argument " . He added that the " radical pluralist " societies used as examples do not accommodate citizens that hold other values over " autonomy " , and do not answer how citizens can be convinced to believe in " autonomy @-@ promoting " schools . Haydon considered her book " an important contribution " to liberal theory and wrote that " it would be a loss to political philosophy " if she continued her work as a schoolteacher in lieu of an academic career .
Kern Alexander of the Journal of Education Finance compared Levinson 's view of parental and child rights to Michael Walzer 's 1984 Spheres of Justice , where he writes that children confined to parental teachings alone when without compulsory public schools . Alexander linked Walzer and Levinson 's views on parental school choice as more about " choosing ' schoolmates than schoolbooks ' " , to the detriment of " cultural cohesion " and for reasons unrelated to educational quality . Alexander recommended the book for " all public educators " for its thoughts on the role of school privatization , homeschooling , and voucher programs .
Writing for Studies in Philosophy and Education , Doret de Ruyter approved of Levinson 's emphasis on autonomy and concurred that Levinson 's definition of autonomy would be agreeable to citizens of Western liberal countries . De Ruyter was unsure about edge cases of autonomy , such as whether being closed @-@ minded to the prospect of a pierced belly button would make her a less autonomous person in Levinson 's view . She also disagreed with Levinson 's position of parental " privilege " ( rather than right ) over their children , and invoked Wesley Newcomb Hohfeld to argue that parents instead have the opposite of a privilege , a " duty " , to their children 's interests and require the liberty to fulfill it , including through education . To defend this parental duty to children and freedom from society in fulfillment of the duty , de Ruyter cited John Eekelaar 's parental duty @-@ right to educate children : a positive right to educate as they see fit and a negative right that prevents others from impeding . She concluded that the state 's duty conflicts with the duty of parents and thus the state 's duty is " primarily ... against children " .
De Ruyter also disagreed that " detached " schools were the only means of inculcating capacity for autonomy , and argued for " autonomy enhancing education " over " autonomy imposing education " . In her criticism , de Ruyter wrote that Levinson lacked critical distance from her idea of a " detached " school , which were presented in " utopian character " , with no concrete examples of such a school in existence , and as inexplicably immune from " capitalist @-@ dominated education " . She added that " detachment " was vague in definition , that more important was detachment from absolutist or divisive stances of " the good life " , and that curriculum and school management were better correlative factors towards liberal schools . De Ruyter concluded that " autonomy imposing schools " would be more harmful than respectful and " autonomy @-@ friendly ... reduced plural environments " , as a child would be better off in an imperfect pluralist than a homogenous fundamentalist classroom . Levinson responded to de Ruyter 's points in a later issue of the journal .
In Educational Researcher , Luis Mirón and Pradeep Dhillon wrote that theorists of education and liberal political philosophy could not " afford to ignore " the book . They wrote that the state would have to be " benign " and " hermetically sealed " from external influence for her theory to hold — that such a state would be weak against the interests of illiberal parties . They added that her evaluation of public education across several countries did not account for supranational influence and that she did not engage the potential issues endemic to integrating heteronymous illiberals . Additionally , they felt that the book lacked in its practical proposals for public school civics education , particularly in how a weak perfectionist , " activist " state can intervene on behalf of marginalized group interests in a public school setting .
The book was discussed in a group session at the American Philosophical Association 's 2002 annual meeting . The panel , led by James Dwyer , included William Galston , Fran Schrag , Yuli Tamir , and a response from the author .
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= Marjorie Cameron =
Marjorie Cameron Parsons Kimmel ( April 23 , 1922 – June 24 , 1995 ) , who professionally used the mononym Cameron , was an American artist , poet , actress , and occultist . A follower of Thelema , the new religious movement established by the English occultist Aleister Crowley , she was also the wife of rocket pioneer and fellow Thelemite Jack Parsons .
Born in Belle Plaine , Iowa , Cameron volunteered for services in the United States ' Navy during the Second World War , after which she settled in Pasadena , California , where she met Parsons , who believed her to be the " Elemental woman " that he had invoked in the early stages of a series of sex magic rituals called the Babalon Working . They entered a relationship and were married in 1946 . Their relationship was often strained , although Parsons sparked her involvement in Thelema and occultism . After Parsons ' death in an explosion at their home in 1952 , Cameron came to suspect that her husband had been assassinated and began rituals to communicate with his spirit . Moving to Beaumont , she established a multi @-@ racial occult group called The Children , which dedicated itself to sex magical rituals with the intent of producing mixed @-@ race " moon children " who would be devoted to the god Horus . The group soon dissolved , with many of its members concerned by Cameron 's increasingly apocalyptic predictions .
Returning to Los Angeles , Cameron befriended the socialite Samson De Brier and established herself as a figure within the city 's avant @-@ garde artistic community . Among her friends were the filmmakers Curtis Harrington and Kenneth Anger . She appeared in two of Harrington 's films , The Wormwood Star and Night Tide , as well as in Anger 's film Inauguration of the Pleasure Dome , and in later years she would also make appearances in art @-@ house films created by John Chamberlain and Chick Strand . Rarely remaining in one place for long , during the 1950s and 1960s she lived for periods in Joshua Tree , San Francisco , and Santa Fe . Over the course of this period she had relationships with various men , bearing one of them a daughter . Although health problems at times prevented her from working , she produced enough art and poetry to result in several exhibitions . From the late 1970s through to her death from cancer in 1995 , Cameron lived in a bungalow in West Hollywood , there raising her daughter and grandchildren , continuing to pursue her interests in esotericism , and producing further artworks and poetry .
Cameron 's recognition as an artist increased after her death , when her paintings made appearances in exhibitions across the U.S. As a result of increased attention on Parsons , Cameron 's life also gained greater coverage in the early 2000s , while in 2011 a biography of Cameron authored by Spencer Kansa was published .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life : 1922 – 1945 = = =
Cameron was born in Belle Plaine , Iowa , on April 23 , 1922 . Her father , the railway worker Hill Leslie Cameron , was the adopted child of a Scots @-@ Irish family , while her mother , Carrie Cameron ( née Ridenour ) was of Dutch ancestry . She was their first child , followed by three further siblings : James ( b . 1923 ) , Mary ( b . 1927 ) , and Robert ( b . 1929 ) . They lived on the wealthier north side of town , although life was nevertheless hard due to the Great Depression . Attending Whittier Elementary School and then Belle Plaine High School , where she did well at art , English , and drama but failed algebra , Latin , and civic lessons , she also joined the athletics , glee club , and chorus . Relating that one of her childhood friends had committed suicide , she characterized herself as a rebellious child , claiming that " I became the town pariah ... Nobody would let their kid near me " . She enjoyed going to the cinema , and had sexual relationships with various men ; falling pregnant , her mother performed an illegal home abortion . In 1940 , the Cameron family relocated to Davenport in order for Hill to work at the Rock Islands Arsenal munitions factory . Cameron completed her final year of high school education at Davenport High School , there having romantic relations with both a man and a woman . Leaving school , she worked as a display artist in a local department store .
Following the entry of the United States into the Second World War , in February 1943 she signed up for the Women Accepted for Volunteer Emergency Service , a part of the U.S. Navy . Initially sent to a training camp at Iowa State Teachers College in Cedar Falls , she was then posted to Washington D.C. , where she served as a cartographer for the Joint Chief of Staff , in the course of his duties meeting U.K. Prime Minister Winston Churchill in May 1943 . She was reassigned to the Naval Photographic Unit in Anacostia , where she worked as wardrobe mistress for propaganda documentaries , in the course of which she met various Hollywood stars . When her brother James returned to the U.S. injured from service overseas , she went AWOL and returned to Iowa to see him , as a result of which she was court martialed and confined to barracks for the rest of the war . For reasons unknown to her , she received an honorable discharge from the military in 1945 , traveling to Pasadena , California , where her family had relocated , with both her father and brothers securing work at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory ( JPL ) there .
= = = Jack Parsons : 1946 – 1952 = = =
In Pasadena , Cameron ran into a former colleague , who invited her to visit the large American Craftsman @-@ style house where he was currently lodging , 1003 Orange Grove Avenue , also known as " The Parsonage . " The house was so @-@ called because its lease was owned by Jack Parsons , a rocket scientist who had been a founding member of the JPL and who was also a devout follower of the new religious movement founded by English occultist Aleister Crowley in 1904 , Thelema . Parsons was the head of the Agape Lodge , a branch of the Thelemite Ordo Templi Orientis ( OTO ) . Unbeknownst to Cameron , Parsons had just finished a series of rituals utilizing Enochian magic with his friend and lodger L. Ron Hubbard , all with the intent of attracting an " Elemental " woman to be his lover . Upon encountering Cameron , with her distinctive red hair and blue eyes , he considered her to be the individual whom he had invoked . After they met at the Parsonage on 18 January 1946 , they were instantly attracted to each other , and spent the next two weeks in Parsons ' bedroom together . Although Cameron was unaware of it , Parsons saw this as a form of sex magic that constituted part of the Babalon Working , a rite to invoke the birth of Thelemite goddess Babalon onto Earth in human form .
Cameron briefly traveled to New York City to see a friend , there discovering that she was pregnant , and again decided to terminate the pregnancy . Parsons meanwhile had founded a company with Hubbard and his girlfriend Sara Northrup , Allied Enterprises , into which he invested his life savings . It nevertheless became apparent that Hubbard was a confidence trickster , who tried to flee with Parsons ' money , resulting in the termination of their friendship . Returning to Pasadena , Cameron consoled Parsons , painting a picture of Sara with her legs severed below the knee . Parsons decided to sell 1003 , which was then demolished , and the couple instead moved to Manhattan Beach . It was there , on 19 October 1946 , that he and Cameron married at San Juan Capistrano courthouse in Orange County , in a service witnessed by his best friend Edward Forman . Having an aversion to all religion , Cameron initially took no interest in Parsons ' Thelemite beliefs and occult practices , although he maintained that she had an important destiny , giving her the magical name of " Candida " , often shortened to " Candy " , which became her nickname .
Cameron decided to travel to Paris , France , with the intention of studying art at the Académie de la Grande Chaumière , hoping that they would admit her with a letter of recommendation from Pasadena 's Art Centre School . She also hoped to use the trip to visit England and meet with Crowley , to explain to him Parsons ' Babalon Working . Traveling via New York aboard the SS America , upon arrival she learned that Crowley had died , and that she was unable to join the college . She found post @-@ war Paris " extreme and bleak " , although befriended Juliette Greco before spending three weeks in Switzerland and then returning home . When Cameron developed catalepsy , Parsons suggested that she read Sylvan Muldoon 's books on astral projection , also encouraging her to read James Frazer 's The Golden Bough , Heinrich Zimmer 's The King and the Corpse , and Joseph Campbell 's The Hero with a Thousand Faces . Although she still did not accept Thelema , she began to be increasingly interested in the occult , and in particular the use of the tarot .
Parsons and Cameron 's relationship was deteriorating and they contemplated divorce . While Cameron visited the artistic commune at San Miguel de Allende in Mexico , there befriending the artist Renate Druks , Parsons moved into a house on Redondo Beach , having a brief relationship with an Irishwoman named Gladis Gohan before Cameron returned . Parsons and Cameron then moved to the coach house at 1071 South Orange Grove , while he began work at the Bermite Powder Company constructing explosives for the film industry . They began holding parties once more that were attended largely by bohemians and members of the beat generation , with Cameron attending the jazz clubs of Central Avenue with her friend , the sculptor Julie Macdonald . Earning some of her own money , Cameron produced illustrations for fashion magazines and sold some of her paintings , with a number being purchased by her friend , the artist Jirayr Zorthian . Parsons and Cameron had decided to travel to Mexico for a few months . On the day before they planned to leave , June 17 , 1952 , he received a rush order of explosives for a film set , and began work on the order at his house . In the midst of this project , an explosion destroyed the building , fatally wounding Parsons ; he was rushed to hospital , but there declared dead . Cameron did not want to see the body , instead retreating to San Miguel , asking her friend George Frey to oversee the cremation .
= = = The Children , Kenneth Anger , and Curtis Harrington : 1952 – 68 = = =
In the hope of communicating with Parsons ' spirit , while in Mexico Cameron began performing blood rituals in which she cut her own wrist . As part of these rituals , she claimed to have received a new magical identity , Hilarion . When she learned that an unidentified flying object had been seen over Washington D.C. ' s Capitol Building she considered it a response to Parsons ' death . After two months , she returned to California , there attempting suicide . Increasingly interested in occultism , she read through her husband 's papers , coming to understand the purpose of his Babalon Working and furthermore believing that the spirit of Babalon had been incarnated into herself . She came to believe that Parsons had been murdered by the police or anti @-@ zionists , and continued her attempts at astral projection to commune with his spirit . Her mental stability was deteriorating , and she became convinced that a nuclear test on Eniwetok Atoll would result in the destruction of the California coast . Though unproven , there is evidence that she was institutionalized in a psychiatric ward during this period , before having a brief affair with African @-@ American jazz player Leroy Booth , a relationship that would have been illegal at the time . At some point in this period she stayed with the Thelemite Wilfred Talbot Smith and his wife , although he thought that she had " bats in the belfry " and ignored what he described as her " Mad Mental Meanderings " .
In December 1952 Cameron moved to a derelict ranch in Beaumont . With the aid of Druks and Paul Mathison , she gathered a loose clique of magical practitioners around herself which she called " The Children " . Intentionally comprising members from various different races , she oversaw a range of sex magic rituals with the intent of creating a breed of mixed @-@ race " moonchildren " who would be devoted to Horus . She fell pregnant as a result of these rites , terming her forthcoming child " the Wormwood Star " , although the pregnancy ended in miscarriage . Over time , many of Cameron 's associates within The Children distanced themselves from her , in particular because of her increasingly apocalyptic pronouncements ; she claimed that Mexico was about to conquer the U.S. , that a race war was about to break out in the Old World , and that a comet would hit the Earth , with she and her followers being rescued by a flying saucer that would take them to Mars . During her magical rituals she was using a range of drugs , including marijuana , peyote , and magic mushrooms , and in June 1953 visited Los Angeles to attend a Gerald Heard lecture on the mind @-@ expanding usages of hallucinogens . Perhaps related to her drug use , Cameron was suffering from auditory hallucinations , frequent bouts of depression , and dramatic mood swings . During this period , she was in correspondence with the Thelemite Jane Wolfe , although other Thelemites and Crowley associates such as Karl Germer and Gerald Yorke deemed her insane .
At the advice of the I Ching , Cameron returned to Los Angeles , moving in with Booth until the duo were arrested for illegal drug possession . Released on bail , she moved into Druks ' Malibu home , and through her joined the avant @-@ garde artistic circle surrounding the socialite Samson De Brier . It was through this circle that Cameron met the Thelemite film maker Kenneth Anger , and after a party titled " Come As Your Madness " which was organised by Mathison and Druks , he decided to produce a film featuring Cameron and others in the group . The resulting film was Inauguration of the Pleasure Dome . After seeing the film , the English Thelemite Kenneth Grant wrote to Cameron hoping that she might move to England and join his New Isis Lodge , however Cameron never responded .
Through common friends Cameron met Sheridan " Sherry " Kimmel , and the two entered a relationship . A veteran of the Second World War from Florida , Kimmel suffered from posttraumatic stress disorder , often causing him severe mood swings . He developed an interest in occultism and became intensely jealous of Parsons ' continuing influence over Cameron , destroying Parsons ' notes on the Babalon Working that she had kept . Cameron again became pregnant , although was unsure who the father was ; she gave birth to a daughter , Crystal Eve Kimmel , on Christmas Eve 1955 . She allowed her daughter to behave how she pleased , believing that that was the best way for to learn . With her friend , the film @-@ maker Curtis Harrington , Cameron then produced a short film , The Wormwood Star , which was filmed at the home of multi @-@ millionaire art collector Edward James ; the film features images of Cameron 's paintings , and recitations of her own poems . In autumn 1956 Cameron 's first exhibition was held , at Walter Hopp 's studio in Brentwood , however a number of paintings were destroyed when the gallery caught fire . Around this time , Cameron was introduced to the actor Dean Stockwell at a public recital of her poetry ; he then introduced her to his friend and fellow actor Dennis Hopper .
In late 1957 , Cameron moved to San Francisco with her friends Norman Rose and David Metzer . There she mingled within the same bohemian social circles as many of the Beat Generation of artists and writers , and was a regular at avant @-@ garde poetry readings . She began a relationship with the artist Burt Shonberg , and with him moved into a ranch outside of Joshua Tree . Together they began exploring the subject of Ufology , and became friends with the ufologist George Van Tassel . However , after Kimmel was released from a psychiatric ward , Cameron re @-@ established her relationship with him , and in 1959 they were married in a civil ceremony at Santa Monica City Hall ; their relationship was strained and they separated soon after .
In 1960 , she then appeared alongside Hopper in Harrington 's first full @-@ length film , Night Tide . The film was a critical success and , despite not receiving a wide distribution , it became a cult classic . She was also invited to appear in Harrington 's next film , Games , although ultimately never did so . Having based herself in the Los Angeles area of Venice , it was here that an exhibit of her artwork was held at a local arts shop in August 1961 . On his return to the U.S. from Europe , Anger moved in with Cameron for a time , although in early 1964 she then left Venice and moved in with Anger in his flat in Silverlake Boulevard until he departed for New York City . According to Anger biographer Bill Landis , Cameron had become " a rather formidable maternal figure " in Anger 's life . In October 1964 , the Cinema Theatre in Los Angeles held an event known as The Transcendental Art of Cameron , which displayed her art and poetry and screened some of her films ; however , Anger arrived and disrupted the event by objecting to the screening of Inauguration of the Pleasure Dome without his permission . He proceeded to launch a poster campaign against his former friend , The Cameron File , in which he labelled Cameron " Typhoid Mary of the Occult World " . She later reconciled with Anger , visiting him in San Francisco , where he introduced her to Anton LaVey , the founder of the Church of Satan . LaVey was delighted to meet her , having been a fan of Night Tide .
= = = Later life : 1969 – 1995 = = =
In the latter part of the 1960s , Cameron and her daughter moved to the pueblos of Santa Fe , New Mexico , where she developed a friendship with the sculptor John Chamberlain and appeared in his art movie , Thumb Suck , which was never released . It was also while in New Mexico that she suffered a collapsed lung and required hospitalization . Her wider health was poor , as she suffered from chronic bronchitis and emphysema – which were exacerbated by her chain smoking – while hand tremors resulted in her being unable to paint for four years . Returning to California , by 1969 she was living in the Pioneertown sector of Joshua Tree . From there she and her daughter moved to a small bungalow on North Genesse Avenue in the West Hollywood area of Los Angeles , which at the time had become impoverished and associated with crime , sex stores , and adult movie theatres ; she remained there for the rest of her life .
By the mid @-@ 1980s Cameron was focusing to a greater extent on her family life , particularly in looking after her grandchildren , who were known to go joyriding in her jeep . Neighbors recall her playing a Celtic harp in her garden and slowly walking her dog around the block while smoking a joint of marijuana . At one point she was arrested for cultivating cannabis in her home . During that decade , Cameron became a regular practitioner of Tai chi , taking part in group sessions in Bronson Park under the tutelage of Marshall Ho 'o and gaining a teaching certificate in the subject . She also came to be very interested in Jose Arguelles ' The Mayan Factor and Charles Musès ' The Lion Path , undertaking the Neo @-@ shamanic practices endorsed in the latter . The claims regarding a prehistoric matriarchal society devoted to a Goddess which were made in the writings of archaeologist Marija Gimbutas also interested and influenced her . Cameron was also very interested in A. S. Raleigh 's Woman and Superwoman , taping her own reading of it and sending copies to her friends and getting it played on local public radio . Throughout all of these disparate spiritual interests , she nevertheless retained faith in the Thelemic ideas of Crowley .
As well as entertaining old friends who came to visit her in her home , Cameron also met with younger occultists , such as the Thelemite William Breeze and the industrial musician Genesis P @-@ Orridge . Cameron aided Breeze in co @-@ editing a collection of Parsons ' occult and libertarian writings , which were published as Freedom is a Two @-@ Edged Sword in 1989 . Cameron was also acquainted with the experimental film @-@ maker Chick Strand and appeared in the latter 's 1979 project Loose Ends , during which she narrated the story of an exorcism . In 1989 an exhibition of her work , titled The Pearl of Reprisal , was held at the Los Angeles Municipal Art Gallery . It included a selection of her paintings and a screening of Inauguration of the Pleasure Dome and The Wormwood Star , while Cameron attended to provide a candle @-@ it reading of her poetry . In the mid @-@ 1990s , Cameron was diagnosed with a brain tumor and underwent radiotherapy treatment , which she supplemented with alternative medicines . However , the tumor was cancerous and metastasized to her lungs . She died at the age of 73 in the VA Medical Centre on July 24 , 1995 , having undergone the Thelemic last rites , carried out by a high priestess of the Ordo Templi Orientis . Her body was cremated and its ashes scattered in the Mojave Desert . A memorial event was then held at the Venice 's Beyond Baroque Literary Arts Center in August .
= = Personality = =
According to historian of Thelema Martin P. Starr , Cameron 's " very dominating personality could not brook rivals of any kind " . Stockwell described Cameron as " a very , very intense personality , but very fascinating " . Considering her to be " an out and out witch " , Hopper described her as having an " infectious personality " through her presence ; she was someone " that you knew [ was ] different and [ she ] had a magnetic quality that you wanted to be closer to . " Charles Brittin , who knew Cameron on Los Angeles ' artistic circuit , called her " a sweet person with a great personality , not the way some of her friends wanted to picture her to be " . Her friend Shirley Berman described her as having " many different crowds of friends , and I think she was a different personality with each crowd ... She wasn 't an even personality at all , but she was always a very gracious person . "
= = Artistic style = =
Cameron 's occult beliefs closely impacted her artworks . According to The Huffington Post , Cameron 's artwork merges " Crowley 's occult with the surrealism and symbolism of French poets , yielding dark yet whimsical depictions buzzing with otherworldly power " . The art curator Philippe Vergne described her work as being situated on " the edge of surrealism and psychedelia " , embodying " an aspect of modernity that deeply doubts and defies cartesian logic at a moment in history when these values have shown their own limitations " .
Cameron 's biographer Spencer Kansa was of the opinion that Cameron exhibited parallels with the Australian artist and occultist Rosaleen Norton , both in terms of her physical appearance and the similarities between their artistic styles . Harrington also saw similarities in the work of Cameron and the artists Leonora Carrington and Leonor Fini . On the website of the Cameron Parsons Foundation , Michael Duncan expressed the view that Cameron 's work rivals that of " fellow surrealists " like Carrington , Fini , Remedios Varo , and Ithell Colquhoun , while also appearing " fascinatingly prescient " of the works by later artists Kiki Smith , Amy Cutler , Karen Kilimmck , and Hernan Bas . In later years , Cameron would often be erroneously labelled a Beat artist because she inhabited many of the same social circles as prominent Beat poets and writers . Rejecting this label , Kansa instead described Cameron as " a pre @-@ Beat bohemian , whose heart lay in Romanticism " .
= = Legacy = =
Cameron 's reputation as an artist grew posthumously . In 2006 her friend Scott Hobbs established the Cameron @-@ Parsons Foundation to serve as an archive storing and promoting her work . In 1995 , her painting Peyote Vision was included as part of an exhibition on " Beat Culture and the New American " which was held at the Whitney Museum of American Art in New York City . A number of her artworks were then exhibited alongside those of Crowley and other Thelemites for the 2001 exhibition " Reflections of a New Aeon " , held at the Eleven Seven Gallery in California 's Long Beach . In 2007 a retrospective of Cameron 's work was held at the Nicole Klagsbrun Gallery in New York City 's Chelsea district , while that same year some of her works appeared in the traveling exhibition " Semina Culture " , which was devoted to all of the artists who contributed to Wallace Berman 's journal . In 2014 , a retrospective of her word , titled " Cameron : Songs for the Witch Woman , " was held at the Museum of Contemporary Art , Los Angeles . That year , the U.K.-based publisher Fulgur Esoterica released a book featuring images of Cameron 's artworks and Parsons ' poems . In 2015 , a retrospective of her work titled " Cameron : Cinderella of the Wastelands " was held at the Deitch Projects gallery in Soho , New York City , which included an evening in which friends of Cameron 's assembled to publicly discuss her legacy .
Cameron 's life was brought to wider attention through the publication of two biographies about Parsons , John Carter 's Sex and Rockets and then George Pendle 's Strange Angel . On the basis of this , a dramatization of Parsons ' life appeared as the play Moonchild , performed at The Access Theatre on Broadway in 2004 ; for the show , Cameron was portrayed by Heather Tom . In 2011 , Wormwood Star , a biography of Cameron authored by the Briton Spencer Kansa , was published , a work that was not authorized by the Cameron @-@ Parsons Foundation . He had spent almost three years in the U.S. researching the book , interviewing many of those who knew her , a number of whom died shortly after . Kansa stated that most of those whom he interviewed " were immensely generous with their time and recollections " but that " one of Cameron 's kookier friends " had begun making claims that Kansa was not a biographer but was really an agent of the Federal Bureau of Investigation . Writing in the Los Angeles Review of Books , Steffie Nelson noted that Kansa did " his due diligence tracking down [ Cameron 's ] childhood acquaintances and friends " but at the same time was critical of the lack of sources of footnotes .
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= SPARS =
For the various meanings of " spar " , see Spar ( disambiguation ) .
The United States Coast Guard ( USCG ) Women 's Reserve , better known by the acronym SPARS , was the World War II women 's branch of the USCG Reserve . It was established by the U.S. Congress and signed into law by the President Franklin D. Roosevelt on 23 November 1942 . This authorized the acceptance of women into the reserve as commissioned officers and at the enlisted level , effective for the duration of the war plus six months . The purpose of the law was to release officers and men for sea duty and to replace them with women at shore stations . Dorothy C. Stratton was appointed director of the Women 's Reserve ( SPARS ) , with the rank of lieutenant commander and was later promoted to captain . She had been the Dean of Women on leave from Purdue University , and an officer in The United States Naval Reserve ( Women 's Reserve ) , better known under the acronym WAVES for Women Accepted for Volunteer Emergency Service . Stratton is credited with creating the nautical name of SPARS .
The age for officer candidates was between 20 and 50 ; they had to have a college degree , or two years of college and two years of professional or business experience . The enlisted age requirements were between 20 and 36 ; candidates had to have completed at least two years of high school . For the most part , SPARS were white , but five African @-@ Americans did eventually serve . The agreement between the U.S. Navy and the USCG required that officer candidates receive their indoctrination training at Smith College , Northampton , Massachusetts . But in June 1943 , the USCG withdrew from the agreement , and the indoctrination of SPAR officer candidates was transferred to the USCG Academy at New London , Connecticut . Most SPAR officers were general duty officers , but some officers received specialized training .
At first , according to agreement , the SPARS enlisted personnel received their indoctrination training on college campuses operated for such by the U.S. Navy . In March 1943 , the USCG decided to establish its own training center for the indoctrination of enlisted recruits . The site selected was the Palm Beach Biltmore Hotel , Palm Beach , Florida . Beginning in late June , all enlisted personnel received their indoctrination and specialized training there . Some 70 percent of the enlisted women who received recruit training also received some specialized training . Yeoman and storekeepers represented the largest share , but many SPARS were given the opportunity to train in other fields . In January 1945 , the training of enlisted personnel was transferred from Palm Beach to Manhattan Beach , Brooklyn , New York .
The SPARS were assigned to every USCG district except Puerto Rico , and served in Hawaii and Alaska as well . Most officers held general duty billets , which included administrative and supervisory assignments . Others served as communication officers , supply officers , barracks , and recruiting officers . The bulk of the enlisted women performed clerical and stenographic duties . In smaller numbers , the enlisted personnel were found in practically every other billet , from baking pies to rigging parachutes and driving jeeps . A select group of SPAR officers and enlisted personnel were also assigned to work with the Long Range Aid to Navigation at monitoring stations in the Continental United States . Better known under the acronym LORAN , it was a top @-@ secret radio navigation system developed for ships at sea and long @-@ range aircraft . The first monitoring station staffed by SPARS was at Chatham , Massachusetts . Chatham is believed to have been ( at the time ) the only all female @-@ staffed station of its kind in the world . The SPARS peak strength was approximately 11 @,@ 000 officers and enlisted personnel.Commodore J. A. Hirschfield , USCG , said the SPARS volunteered for duty when their country needed them , and they did their jobs with enthusiasm , efficiency , and with a minimum of fanfare . To honor the SPARS , two USCG cutters were given their name .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
The U.S. Coast Guard ( USCG ) Women 's Reserve act was passed by the 77th Congress as Public Law 773 , and signed into law by the president on 23 November 1942 . It amended the USCG Auxiliary and Reserve Act of 1941 , providing for the releasing of officers and enlisted men for duty at sea to be replaced by women at shore stations . It was established as a branch of the USCG Reserve , with authority to enlist and appoint women to serve during World War II and for six months thereafter . The reservists were to be trained and qualified for duty at the continental shore stations of the USCG . They were not to be used to replace civil service personnel . The act was similar to that of the Navy 's Women Accepted for Volunteer Emergency Service or WAVES . Initially , the SPARS were only stationed in the United States , but in 1944 they were allowed to deploy to Hawaii and Alaska . The USCG was the smallest of the military branches and was under the wing of the United States Department of the Navy , although , just prior to World War II , it had been under the supervision of the United States Department of the Treasury .
Dorothy C. Stratton was appointed director of the Women 's Reserve ( SPARS ) with the rank of lieutenant commander and was later promoted to captain . She had been the Dean of Women on leave from Purdue University and a lieutenant in the WAVES . Stratton is credited with creating the nautical name of SPARS . The name was fashioned by taking the first letters of the USCG 's Latin motto , Semper Paratus , and the first letters of its English translation , " Always Ready " . Stratton held a master 's degree from the University of Chicago and a doctorate from Columbia University . ( She died in 2006 at age 107 . )
= = = Recruiting = = =
At the outset , the U.S. Navy , U.S. Marine Corps , and USCG agreed to recruit and to train the members of their respective women 's reserves together , using existing Navy facilities . For recruiting purposes , the SPARS would utilize the Offices of the Naval Officer Procurement . Their first recruiting efforts got underway in December 1942 , but they were hampered somewhat by the absence of SPAR recruiting personnel . Their absence resulted from the agreement between the Navy and the USCG , whereby the SPARS would receive its first personnel by transfer from the WAVES . A total of 15 WAVE officers and 153 WAVE enlisted women requested and were discharged from the WAVES to become the first SPARS . Eventually , SPAR officers were assigned to most of the Naval Officer Procurement offices . The recruiting information about SPARS was disseminated with WAVES publicity materials and it was also done separately . But it became apparent that the job of selling the SPARS included selling the USCG as well .
By June 1943 , it was clear to the USCG that the recruiting process in place did not favor the SPARS , so it withdrew from the joint agreement effective 1 July 1943 . Hence , all women applicants for SPARS would be interviewed and enlisted at USCG district recruiting stations . The change was met with increased enthusiasm by the recruiters and it proved positive overall . Still , the competition remained keen with the other , better known , women services . Some recruiters referred to themselves as peddlers of patriotism , but their lot was not an easy one . In their book , Three Years Behind the Mast , the authors Mary Lyne and Kay Arthur , both officers in SPARS , described the realities of recruiting in this way :
During the day , we made speeches distributed posters , decorated windows , led parades , manned information booths , interviewed applicants , appeared on radio programs , and gave aptitude tests . By night , we made more speeches ; prayed women would be drafted , and went to bed dreaming about our quotas .
The main recruiting effort had ended . During the 25 @-@ month recruitment period , about 11 @,@ 000 women signed enlistment contracts to serve in the SPARS . Yeoman Third Class Dorothy Tuttle was the first woman to enlist in the SPARS at a recruiting station on 7 December 1942 .
In late 1942 , recruiting requirements were such that both enlisted and officer candidates had to be American citizens ; have no children under 18 years of age ; present three character references ; pass a physical examination ; and submit a record of occupation after leaving school . Enlisted applicants were also required to have completed at least two years of high school and be between the ages of 20 and 36 years . Officer candidates were expected to be college graduates , or to have completed two years of college , and have at least two years of acceptable business or professional experience , and be between the ages of 20 and 50 years . Certain regulations with respect to marriage applied to both enlisted and officer candidates . Married women could enlist provided their husbands were not in the USCG . Unmarried women had to agree not to marry until they had finished their training period . After training , they could marry a civilian or service man who was not in the USCG .
In August 1943 , recruiting policies were changed to permit SPARS to marry men of the USCG without having to resign . The USCG would continue to accept applicants who were married to men in the Army , Navy , or Marine Corps , but would not accept a woman who was already married to an enlisted man or an officer serving in the USCG . However , women could join the SPARS if their husbands were enrolled as temporary members of the reserve . In November 1943 , the marriage policy with respect to recruits was changed further to permit women who were wives of cadets , warrant officers , or enlisted men of the USCG to enlist or be commissioned in the SPARs . The ban remained on women whose husbands were commissioned officers in the USCG with the rank of ensign or above .
Although the USCG officially opened its doors to African @-@ American women in October 1944 , it was not until March 1945 that the first five women were accepted ; they were the only African @-@ American women to serve in the SPARS . Although the Women 's Army Corps ( WAC ) accepted African @-@ American women from its inception , the U.S. Navy 's Women Accepted for Volunteer Emergency Service ( WAVES ) only began accepting African @-@ American women in October 1944 , with fewer than 100 of them serving in the WAVES , and the U.S. Marine Corps Women 's Reserve never opened its ranks to African @-@ American women . The five African @-@ American women who served in the SPARS were : Olivia Hooker , D. Winifred Byrd , Julia Mosley , Yvonne Cumberbatch , and Aileen Cooke .
= = = Officer training = = =
The agreement between the Navy and the USCG ( noted earlier ) , required the initial classes of SPAR officer candidates to receive their indoctrination training at Smith College , Northampton , Massachusetts ; officially known as the United States Naval Reserve ( WR ) Midshipmen 's School . But in June 1943 , the USCG withdrew from the agreement , and the indoctrination of SPAR officer candidates was transferred to the USCG Academy at New London , Connecticut . It was the only U.S. military service that trained women officer candidates at its own academy .
Initially , the training period was for six weeks ; later it was changed to eight weeks . General in scope , the program was designed to give cadets an overall view of the USCG . Academic study included : administration , correspondence , communications , history , organization , personnel , public speaking , ships , and special lectures and visual aids . The regimental part of the training was designed to help cadets adjust to military life , and to acquaint them with their responsibilities as officers . The cadets ranged in age from 20 to 40 , with diverse civilian backgrounds from teachers and journalists to lawyers and technicians .
During the two @-@ year life of the officer indoctrination program , about 930 women completed the training and were commissioned as SPAR officers . In late 1944 , the USCG determined that this complement was sufficient for its needs and discontinued the program . However , to replace the officers who had gone overseas , and those separated from the SPARS , the officer candidate school was later reopened for one last class . The candidates were all former enlisted personnel , who received their indoctrination at the USCG training station , Manhattan Beach , Brooklyn , New York . The USCG strived to recruit officer candidates who already had some civilian training or work experience of the type that could be used without further training . As result , only about one third of the officers received any specialized training . However , the specialized training programs produced 203 communications officers , and 106 pay and supply officers , prior to its discontinuance in November and December 1944 .
= = = Enlisted training = = =
At first , the SPARS enlisted personnel received their indoctrination training on college campuses operated for such by the U.S. Navy . A few SPARS received their recruit training at Oklahoma A & M University , Stillwater , Oklahoma , another 150 of them received their training at Iowa State Teachers College , Cedar Falls , Iowa , and about 1 @,@ 900 SPARS received their recruit training at Hunter College in the Bronx , New York . In March 1943 , the USCG decided that there was a need to establish its own training center for the indoctrination of recruits and to provide specialized training programs . The site selected was the Palm Beach Biltmore Hotel , Palm Beach , Florida ; it was leased , and then commissioned as a training station , on 23 May 1943 . Beginning in late June , all enlisted personnel received their indoctrination and specialized training at this station .
The recruits ' indoctrination period at Palm Beach was six weeks . It covered instruction on subjects such as : activities , organization , personnel , current events , and social hygiene . The physical education aspects consisted of : body mechanics , swimming , games , and drill . Another important part of recruit training was the testing , classification , and selection process . This was designed to make the most of the recruit 's abilities , background and interests . The results of the testing were usually the basis for general assignments or the opportunity for specialized training .
From the first class of 14 June 1943 , until the final class of 16 December 1944 , more than 7 @,@ 000 recruits were indoctrinated at the Palm Beach station . Approximately , 70 percent of the enlisted women who received recruit training also received some specialized training . Yeoman and storekeepers represented the largest share , but many SPARS were given the opportunity for training in other fields . Some attended other Navy schools and were trained as motion picture sound technicians , link trainer operators , parachute riggers , and air control operators . Others attended USCG schools and learned to be : cooks , bakers , radioman , pharmacist mates , radio technicians , and motor vehicle drivers . In January 1945 , the training of enlisted personnel was transferred from Palm Beach to Manhattan Beach , Brooklyn , New York , the largest USCG training station for men .
= = = Assignments = = =
The SPARS were assigned to every USCG district except Puerto Rico . In some districts , they worked in the district offices and in the small field units as well . Most officers held general duty billets , which included administrative and supervisory assignments . Others served as communication officers , supply officers , and barracks and recruiting officers . The bulk of the enlisted women had clerical and stenographic civilian backgrounds and the USCG wanted them for this reason . Exciting jobs were few and far between , yet not all assigned to paperwork found it boring . Some saw how their contribution fit into the big picture . In smaller numbers , the enlisted personnel were found in practically every other billet , from baking pies , to rigging parachutes , and driving jeeps .
Initially , SPARS were prohibited from serving in USCG districts outside the country . But in late 1944 , Congress amended the law allowing SPARS to serve overseas . For the SPARS , this meant Hawaii and Alaska . However , only those with good records , good physical health , a year 's service , and training and experience in the types of duty requested were selected . About 200 women served in Hawaii , doing roughly the same kind of work , and holding the same ratings , that they would have held in the United States . About an equal number of women served in Alaska as well . A select group of SPAR officers and enlisted personnel were assigned to work with the Long Range Aid to Navigation at monitoring stations in the Continental United States . Better known under the acronym LORAN , it was a top @-@ secret radio navigation system developed for ships at sea , and long @-@ range aircraft . The first monitoring station staffed by SPARS was at Chatham , Massachusetts , after they had received two months of instructions at M.I.T. on the operation and maintenance of LORAN . The unit at Chatham is believed to have been ( at the time ) the only all @-@ female staffed one of its kind in the world .
The SPARS enjoyed success in the work place , but they also suffered a degree of intolerance at times . On more than one occasion , male guardsmen would make the point that the USCG had struggled along without women for over 150 years . Attitudes toward them ranged from enthusiasm and amusement to open hostility . But not all the objections were personal or petty . Many of the men simply failed to see the need for women in the service , while others felt it was an unnecessary expense . However , if the women were equal to the job the men were willing to give them their due . Many men , regulars and reservists , supported them , taught them the ropes , and gave them encouragement .
= = = Women of the SPARS = = =
The average SPAR officer was 29 years old , single , a college graduate , and had worked seven years in a professional or managerial position ( in education or government ) before entering the service . The average enlisted SPAR was 24 years old , single , a high school graduate , and had worked for over three years in a clerical or sales job before joining the service . The likelihood was that she came from the state of Massachusetts , New York , Pennsylvania , Illinois , Ohio , or California . The reasons for becoming a SPAR differed , but most likely it was patriotism , self @-@ advancement , desire for travel and adventure , or the loss of a loved one in the war .
In their off @-@ duty hours , SPARS contributed time and effort to many community and wartime causes . Some became active nurse 's aides , some rolled bandages for the Red Cross , others donated blood to blood banks , some visited service men in convalescent hospitals , and others collected gifts for the men overseas . Many of them were also involved in the March of Dimes campaigns , and war chest and war bond drives . Both officers and enlisted were awarded ribbons and medals based on their service , and some were acknowledged for their outstanding contributions to the SPARS and the country . In general , SPARS looked upon their service favorably , and many of them found a form of kinship in having been a part of the nation 's military forces during wartime . With the surrender of Japan in August 1945 , the USCG demobilization effort began , and the SPARS were gradually discharged . They were separated from the service on a point system , and on the basis of their jobs . However , many SPARS were reassigned to the personnel separation centers to help with demobilization ( women and men reservists ) and they were not separated until it was completed . The Women 's Reserve of the USCG ( SPARS ) was inactivated on 25 July 1947 .
= = = Legacy = = =
In his foreword to Three Years Behind the Mast , Commodore J. A. Hirschfield , USCG , observed that the SPARS asked no favors and no privileges . They did their jobs with enthusiasm , with efficiency , and a minimum of fanfare . The USCG was fortunate in having the help of the SPARS who volunteered for duty when their country needed them , and carried the job through to a successful finish . The USCG named two cutters in honor of the SPARS : USCGC Spar ( WLB @-@ 403 ) was a 180 @-@ foot ( 55 m ) sea going buoy tender commissioned in June 1944 and decommissioned in 1997 , and USCGC Spar ( WLB @-@ 206 ) , a 225 @-@ foot ( 69 m ) seagoing buoy tender that was commissioned in 2001 .
Although the SPARS no longer exist as a separate organization , the term is sometimes informally used for a female Coast Guardsman ; however , it is not an officially sanctioned term .
= = Uniforms = =
The uniforms worn by the SPARS were the same design and style as those worn by the WAVES , except for the service insignias ; created for them by the New York fashion house of Mainbocher . The decision made regarding the type and style of the uniforms was largely that of the U.S. Navy Uniform Board . The standard uniform was a navy blue suit , consisting of a jacket and a six @-@ gored skirt . Included were black oxfords and plain black pumps ; a brimmed hat ; black gloves ; black leather purse , and rain and winter coats . The summer uniform was of the same design as the standard uniform , worn in white Palm Beach cloth , tropical worsted , or other light fabrics . Shoes were oxfords or pumps of white leather . The summer work wear was a grey and white striped seersucker dress with jacket .
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