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= Dance for You =
" Dance for You " is a song by American singer Beyoncé for the deluxe edition of her fourth studio album , 4 ( 2011 ) . It was written by Beyoncé , Terius " The @-@ Dream " Nash and Christopher " Tricky " Stewart , while production was handled by the former two . " Dance for You " is a midtempo R & B and synthpop song , in which Beyoncé adopts sensual vocals . The instrumental elements used on it include echoing drum patterns and clapping synthesizers . In " Dance for You " , Beyoncé , as the female protagonist , speaks of the love she has for her man and about all the things she will do to show him her appreciation .
" Dance for You " was well received by contemporary music critics , who noted its similarity to songs by Janet Jackson ; they also praised its production and Beyoncé 's vocals . Following the release of 4 , " Dance for You " charted at number 200 on the South Korean International Singles Chart , and at number 147 on the UK Singles Chart . Though the song was never released as a single , it appeared on several charts in the United States based on radio support . " Dance for You " reached number 78 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart , and number six on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart .
Its music video was directed by Beyoncé and Alan Ferguson . The clip debuted on November 25 , 2011 and was placed on the concert DVD Live at Roseland : Elements of 4 ( 2011 ) . Inspired by 1940 's film noir , the video is shot in black @-@ and @-@ white and captures Beyoncé dancing and flipping her hair in a detective 's office to seduce him . Critics wrote that the video contains some of Beyoncé 's best and most sensual moves , called her a femme fatale , and commented that its concept effectively matched the song 's lyrics . The song was part of Beyoncé 's set list during her residency show Revel Presents : Beyoncé Live ( 2012 ) and The Mrs. Carter Show World Tour ( 2013 ) .
= = Background and composition = =
" Dance for You " was written by Beyoncé , Terius " The @-@ Dream " Nash and Christopher " Tricky " Stewart , with production by Beyoncé and Nash . The song was recorded at MSR Studios in New York City and Real World Studios at Box , Wiltshire . It was made available on the deluxe edition of 4 , which was available for purchase at Target Corporation until January 2012 . The deluxe edition was released to iTunes Stores on January 2 , 2012 . It includes two additional tracks , " Schoolin ' Life " and " Lay Up Under Me " , and three remixes of " Run the World ( Girls ) " ( 2011 ) . " Dance for You " is a midtempo R & B and synthpop song with a sensual vibe . In the song , Beyoncé sexifies her vocals and sings over echoing drum patterns , an electric guitar , a bluesy guitar , church organs , and clapping synthesizers . " Dance for You " bears resemblance to Janet Jackson 's work . Thematically , the song is similar to Beyoncé 's " Speechless " ( 2003 ) and Destiny 's Child 's " Cater 2 U " ( 2005 ) ; it is about showing appreciation and gratitude .
In " Dance for You " , Beyoncé , as the female protagonist , expresses her feelings to her man and tells him how devoted she is to him . Jocelyn Vena of MTV News wrote that the song is " about keeping things hot with her man " . Echoing Vena 's sentiments , Marc Hogan of Spin magazine described the lyrics as detailing a " triumphantly monogamous relationship " . In the first verse , Beyoncé sings about how understanding , loyal , and patient her man is . She further states that she really cares about his heart , she has a lot of valuable things to say , and that for all these reasons , she is going to dance for him .
After telling her love interest to " sit back and watch " , Beyoncé sings the chorus , where she states the things she will do to show her appreciation to her love interest , " Tonight I 'm gonna dance for you / Tonight I 'm gonna dance for you / Tonight I 'm gonna put my body on your body / Boy , I like it when you watch me / Tonight it 's going down . " In the second verse , she sings : " You 'll never need two , because I will be your number one / Them other chicks are superficial / But I know you know I 'm the one / That 's why I 'm all into you / Cuz I can recognize that you know that / That 's why I ’ m backin ' this thing back / Pop poppin ' this thing back " . Before the song ends , Beyoncé repeatedly chants " yes " in the background as the electric guitar crescendos into a piercing subliminal sound .
On October 20 , 2012 , a remix of the song featuring a rap verse from American rapper T.I. was released online . His rap appears at the three and a half minute mark of the song as he sings about " how he loves it when his lady gives it to him dirty when no one is around " and " lives out his fantasy with candlelight ( for a little ambiance ) , lingerie and Louis Vuitton " . He later adds , " I just want to watch the moon glisten off your body ... I really just want to peel you out dem clothes and show you how excited I am to lay you down right now . " The remix was well received by music critics . A writer of Vibe magazine commented that it " is sultry and will steam up any club , bedroom or wherever you like to get dirty " . A writer of Rap @-@ Up magazine described the remix as " amazing " , adding that " [ t ] he bedroom will be banging to this remix " . Similarly , X. Alexander of the website Idolator praised the remix , writing that T.I. ' s vocals make the " smooth , bedroom @-@ ready R & B track that much sexier " .
= = Critical reception = =
Idolator 's staff members wrote that " Dance for You " is a " dangerously slick slow @-@ jam " . Similarly , Carrie Batta of Pitchfork Media commented that the song is an " impeccable slow jam " . Describing the song as " saucy " , Pip Ellwood of Entertainment Focus wrote that " Dance for You " is the best of the three deluxe tracks . Natalie Finn of E ! Online described the song as a " come @-@ hither love letter to the man in her life , set to a sultry beat " . By contrast , Joshua Glossner of The Daily Collegian found the song to be too lengthy , adding , " Well I hope she hurries up and shows him how much she loves him before the eternity @-@ long track is done . " He further noted that " Dance For You " immediately reminded him of Ciara 's " Promise " ( 2006 ) . Marc Hogan of Spin magazine found " Dance for You " to be " a sort of strip @-@ club jam set , as with the rest of the album " . He added that the song would fit squarely on a track by The Weeknd , owing to " the bluesy guitar and smoky organ " . However , he concluded that " it 's not exactly worth plunking down another 32 bucks for " . Danielle Cheesman of MSN Music showed high favoritism for " Dance for You " , writing :
'Dance for You ' puts [ Beyoncé ] in the bedroom . Clocking in at over 6 minutes , the song of seduction plays as if it was being undressed , much like [ Beyoncé ] is , piece by piece , lyric for lyric . As with 'Speechless ' and ' Cater 2 U ' , [ she ] often forgoes the independent woman anthems and beautiful power ballads to remind us that she is a real sexual being rather than a formulated sex symbol . It is breathy , but not boring . It does not chronicle innocent lovemaking with sugarcoated terms , but the grittier things that really go down when you are completely comfortable ( and overly confident ) with , as she puts it , the person ' you 'd like to thank , in case you don 't thank them enough ' .
At the 2013 ASCAP Rhythm & Soul Awards " Dance for You " was one of the songs to win in the category for Award @-@ Winning R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs .
= = Chart performance = =
For the week ending July 30 , 2011 , " Dance for You " debuted at number 200 on the South Korean International Singles Chart , selling 3 @,@ 142 digital downloads . For the week ending March 29 , 2012 , the song became the sixth song from 4 to chart on the US Billboard Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs as it debuted at number 76 . " Dance for You " entered the top ten of the chart issue dated September 29 , 2012 at number 10 . It became Beyoncé 's nineteenth top 10 as a soloist and extended her lead for the most top 10s among female artists since 2000 . " Dance for You " marked the third time Beyoncé had claimed a quartet of top 10s from a single album . " Dance for You " continued its ascension on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart until it reached its peak position at number 6 . On the US Mainstream R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Airplay chart , the song marked Beyoncé 's fifth top 10 - the first time she has claimed five top 10s on that tally from one album . For the week ending September 22 , 2012 , " Dance for You " debuted at number 100 on the US Billboard Hot 100 . It later reached a peak at number 78 .
= = Music video = =
= = = Background and concept = = =
An accompanying music video for " Dance for You " was co @-@ directed by Beyoncé and Alan Ferguson . It was filmed in a vintage New York @-@ styled office before Beyoncé 's baby bump started showing . Two previews of the video were posted online on November 21 , 2011 . In the first preview , Beyoncé wears pants , garters and a wrap dress as she performs a sexy dance routine on a desk while a man watches her dance . In the second preview , she wears the same outfit and dances seductively in front of a chair in an office as the camera cuts to the man , who is watching her . Beyoncé pays homage to German @-@ American actress and singer Marlene Dietrich in the video as she channels a 1920s @-@ inspired look and stars as a screen siren . In the behind @-@ of the @-@ scene of the video , Beyoncé said :
I wanted the video to have the same rawness that both the melody and the lyrics of the song have because " Dance for You " is one of my most intimate songs . I wanted the video to have a classic feel ; to be seductive but still keep the sense of mystery . When I write , when I perform , and when I make music videos , I don ’ t hold anything back . ' Dance for You ' is about that same passion ; to be free and unrestrained .
Many critics , including Jocelyn Vena of MTV News and Erika Ramirez of Billboard magazine , noted that that the clip was inspired by 1940 's film noir . Similarly , The Improper Bostonian wrote that the setting looks like a Humphrey Bogart movie , further calling it " a clear take @-@ off " on mid @-@ 20th Century film noir due to its utilization of sharp camera angles and deep shadows . Although initially planned to debut on November 27 , 2011 , the release of the video was changed to November 25 , 2011 . However , it premiered online before its official release on E ! Online . " Dance For You " is the seventh video from 4 . It was included on the deluxe edition of Live at Roseland : Elements of 4 ( 2011 ) , which was released on November 29 , 2011 . The video was digitally released to iTunes Stores on November 27 , 2011 .
= = = Synopsis = = =
The video is shot in black @-@ and @-@ white and is set in a dimly lit and smoky office , where Beyoncé puts on a private show for a detective ( played by actor Brett G. Smith ) . As the clip begins , the detective is gazing out the window . Beyoncé then arrives and stands in an open doorway while rain pours outside . With wavy hair and winged eyeliner , Beyoncé is dressed in a thigh @-@ length leather trench coat and high stockings . After walking inside the office , she immediately strips off her coat . This reveals a satin dress over black panties and thigh @-@ high pantyhose held up by garters . When the music starts , Beyoncé sits on a desk and plays with her hair , her back facing the face of the detective . The latter leans against his desk while watching Beyoncé , who starts to dance sensually on the desk and flips her hair to seduce him . As Beyoncé dances around the armchair , she exposes her vintage @-@ style underwear .
The man is now standing , his arms crossed , and watches with pleasure as Beyoncé continues the private dance . After several minutes of teasing , Beyoncé approaches the detective , who is now smiling , and knocks a stack of papers off of his desk so she can rub against him . She then pulls open the blinds to let light in . At the same time , several other women are seen to be present in the room . They were apparently there all along , hidden in the darkness . Together , they give a choreographed teaser dance in front of their own respective antique fans while their hair is blowing . The women move about to continue the dance elsewhere in the room , executing some hip @-@ shaking moves . They later perform a chair @-@ dancing routine with Beyoncé , and whip their hair back and forth . The video ends with a fade to black as Beyoncé approaches the man at his desk .
= = = Reception = = =
Many reviewers have commented on the sexiness displayed in the video . Erika Ramirez of Billboard magazine commented that the video was " sexy " and that " Beyoncé pops it back for a mysterious detective . " Lewis Corner of Digital Spy wrote that Beyoncé dances " seductively " in the office . Andrew Martin of Prefix Magazine wrote : " To anyone who finds Beyoncé attractive or has ever wanted her to dance for them , we bring you her latest video . The visuals for ' Dance for You ' are more or less a chance for her to show off why so many of you think her husband , Jay @-@ Z , is the luckiest man alive . " Leah Collins of Canadian magazine Dose wrote , " It 's all very sultry and intimate to a point — that point being the moment she unveils a line @-@ up of back @-@ up dancers . " Similarly , a writer of the website Idolator commented , " ' Dance for You ' doesn 't compare to the spectacle of say , the ' Run the World ( Girls ) ' clip , but it is effective . [ ... ] It 's a mostly private dance — until all those other ladies show up . " The writer also called Beyoncé a femme fatale in the video . Likewise , Sarah Anne Hughes of The Washington Post wrote that Beyoncé " goes full on femme fatale " and concluded that the concept of the video " is about as straightforward as can be " . Marc Hogan of Spin magazine noted , " The video follows pretty literally from the song 's theme , with Mrs. Jay @-@ Z grinding sensuously . " A writer of Vibe magazine noted that Beyoncé was " keeping things sexy " with the video for the song .
Michael O 'Connell of The Hollywood Reporter noted that the video contains Beyoncé 's " trademark moves " . Likewise , Ben Kaye of the website Consequence of Sound wrote , " [ In the clip ] , we witness the always mesmerizing songstress seducing a private detective with a sultry version of the twisting and twerking she 's famous for . Essentially , it 's just what you 'd expect from the track 's lyrics , and that 's in no way a bad thing . " Contessa Gayles of The Boombox wrote that " Beyoncé rocks the racy shoot in satin hot pants , garters and a slinky wrap dress " , further describing her look and the set as " sexy " . Matt Donnelly of Los Angeles Times described the video as " sultry " and further found " a Jessica Rabbit vibe " . Donnelly also wrote , " The video carries the standard Bey DNA — wind machines , plunging necklines and lots of hair . Not that we 're complaining . " Derek Johnson of Long Island Press commented that the video is " heating up the Internet and we 're pretty sure we know why " , referring to Beyoncé 's figure . He further commended Beyoncé for taking viewers back to the days of black and white television and " into the office of a lonely detective on a rainy day . We 've all seen that show before , but not like this . " Natalie Finn of E ! Online compared the video with the one for " Single Ladies ( Put a Ring on It ) " ( 2008 ) , adding that it " sticks with the power of black and white " , and describing the set as " naughty " . Katie Hasty of the website HitFix praised Beyoncé 's look in the video but commented , " If you 're a hetero sexual lady detective , however , this is sort of boring . "
= = Live performances = =
Beyoncé performed the song for the first time as a part of her residency show Revel Presents : Beyoncé Live in Atlantic City , New Jersey , United States ' entertainment resort , hotel , casino and spa , Revel . The performance featured Beyoncé leading a group of ten dancers to perform a choreographed bump and grind dance . While performing the choreography , Beyoncé did not sing the song live , but was accompanied vocally by her three backup vocalists , the Mamas . The performance of " Dance for You " was later included on the live album Live in Atlantic City ( 2013 ) which was filmed during the revue . " Dance for You " was also performed during the opening shows of the first leg of Beyoncé 's Mrs. Carter Show World Tour .
= = Charts = =
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= Meher Baba =
Meher Baba ( born Merwan Sheriar Irani ; 25 February 1894 – 31 January 1969 ) was an Indian spiritual master who said he was the Avatar , God in human form .
Merwan Sheriar Irani was born in 1894 in Pune , India to Irani Zoroastrian parents . At the age of 19 , he began a seven @-@ year spiritual transformation . During this time he contacted five spiritual masters before beginning his own mission and gathering his own disciples in early 1922 , at the age of 27 .
From 10 July 1925 to the end of his life , Meher Baba maintained silence , communicating by means of an alphabet board or by unique hand gestures . With his mandali ( circle of disciples ) , he spent long periods in seclusion , during which time he often fasted . He also traveled widely , held public gatherings and engaged in works of charity with lepers , the poor and the mentally ill .
In 1931 , Meher Baba made the first of many visits to the West , where he attracted followers . Throughout most of the 1940s , Meher Baba worked with a category of spiritual aspirants called masts , who he said are entranced or spellbound by internal spiritual experiences . Starting in 1949 , along with selected mandali , he traveled incognito about India in an enigmatic and still largely unexplained period he called the " New Life " .
After being injured as a passenger in two serious automobile accidents , one in the United States in 1952 and one in India in 1956 , his ability to walk became severely limited . In 1962 , he invited his Western followers to India for a mass darshan called " The East @-@ West Gathering " . Concerned by an increasing use of LSD and other psychedelic drugs , in 1966 Baba stated that they did not convey real benefits . Despite deteriorating health , he continued what he called his " Universal Work " , which included fasting and seclusion , until his death on 31 January 1969 . His samadhi ( shrine / tomb ) in Meherabad , India , has become a place of international pilgrimage .
Meher Baba gave numerous teachings on the cause and purpose of life , including teaching reincarnation and that the phenomenal world is an illusion . He taught that the Universe is imagination , that God is what really exists , and that each soul is really God passing through imagination to realize individually His own divinity . In addition he gave practical advice for the aspirant who wishes to attain Self @-@ realization and thereby escape the wheel of births and deaths . He also taught about the concept of Perfect Masters , the Avatar , and those on the various stages of the spiritual path that he called involution . His teachings are most importantly recorded in his principal books Discourses and God Speaks .
His legacy includes the Avatar Meher Baba Charitable Trust he established in India , a handful of centers for information and pilgrimage , as well as an influence on pop @-@ culture artists and the introduction of common expressions such as " Don 't Worry , Be Happy . " Meher Baba 's silence has remained a mysterious issue as much among his followers as with the rest of the world .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
Meher Baba was an Irani born in Pune , India to a Zoroastrian family . His given name was Merwan Sheriar Irani . He was the second son of Sheriar Irani , a Persian Zoroastrian who had spent years wandering in search of spiritual experience before settling in Poona ( now Pune ) , and Shireen Irani .
As a boy he formed " The Cosmopolitan Club " , which was dedicated to remaining informed in world affairs and giving money to charity . He was a multi @-@ instrumentalist and poet . Fluent in several languages , he was especially fond of the poetry of Hafez , Shakespeare , and Shelley .
In his youth , he had no mystical inclinations or experiences , and was " [ u ] ntroubled as yet by a sense of his own destiny ... " He was more interested in sports and was co @-@ captain of his high school cricket team . At the age of 19 , during his second year at Deccan College in Pune , he met a very old Muslim woman who was locally revered as a saint , named Hazrat Babajan , who kissed him on the forehead . The event affected him profoundly , leaving him visibly dazed , and he gave up his normal activities . After that he contacted other spiritual figures , who , along with Babajan , he later said were the five " Perfect Masters " of the age : Tajuddin Baba , Narayan Maharaj , Sai Baba of Shirdi , and Upasni Maharaj .
Upasni Maharaj , he later said , helped him to integrate his mystical experiences with normal consciousness , thus enabling him to function in the world without diminishing his experience of God @-@ realization . In late 1921 , at the age of 27 , after living for seven years with Upasni , Merwan started to attract a following of his own . His early followers gave him the name " Meher Baba " , meaning " Compassionate Father " .
In 1922 , Meher Baba and his followers established " Manzil @-@ e @-@ Meem " ( House of the Master ) in Bombay ( now Mumbai ) . There Baba began his practice of demanding strict discipline and obedience from his disciples . A year later , Baba and his mandali moved to an area a few miles outside Ahmednagar that he named " Meherabad " ( Meher flourishing ) . This ashram would become the center for his work . During the 1920s , Meher Baba opened a school , hospital and dispensary at Meherabad . All three were free and open to all castes and faiths .
In July 1925 , Meher Baba began a life @-@ long period of self @-@ imposed silence , communicating first by use of chalk and slate , then by an alphabet board and later by self @-@ styled hand gestures . In January 1927 he gave up writing with pen or pencil also .
= = = 1930s – First contacts with the West = = =
In the 1930s , Meher Baba began a period of extensive world travel , with several trips to Europe and the United States . It was during this period that he established contact with his first close group of Western disciples . He traveled on a Persian passport because he had given up writing as well as speaking and would not sign the forms required by the British government of India .
On his first trip to England in 1931 he traveled on the SS Rajputana , the same ship that was carrying Mahatma Gandhi , who was sailing to the second Round Table Conference in London . Baba and Gandhi had three meetings onboard , including one that lasted for three hours . The British press highlighted these meetings , but an aide to Gandhi said , " You may say emphatically that Gandhi never asked Meher Baba for help or for spiritual or other advice . "
On 20 May 1932 Baba arrived in New York and provided the press with a 1000 @-@ word written statement , which was described by devotee Quentin Tod as his " Message to America " . In the statement Baba proclaimed himself " one with the infinite source of everything " and declared his intention to break his silence : " When I speak , my original message will be delivered to the world and it will have to be accepted . " When asked about the Indo @-@ British political situation he had no comment , but his followers explained that he had told Gandhi to abandon politics .
In the West , Meher Baba met with a number of celebrities and artists , including Hollywood notables Gary Cooper , Charles Laughton , Tallulah Bankhead , Boris Karloff , Tom Mix , Maurice Chevalier , Ernst Lubitsch and others . On 1 June 1932 Mary Pickford and Douglas Fairbanks , Jr. held a reception for Baba at Pickfair where he delivered a message to Hollywood . As a result , Meher Baba emerged as " one of the enthusiasms of the ' 30s " .
In 1934 , after announcing that he would break his self @-@ imposed silence in the Hollywood Bowl , Baba suddenly changed his plans and boarded the RMS Empress of Canada and sailed to Hong Kong without explanation . The Associated Press reported that " Baba had decided to postpone the word @-@ fast breaking until next February because ' conditions are not yet ripe ' . " He returned to England in 1936 but did not return to the United States again until the early 1950s .
In the late 1930s , Meher Baba invited a group of Western women to join him in India , where he arranged a series of trips throughout India and Ceylon ( now Sri Lanka ) that became known as the Blue Bus Tours . When they returned home , many newspapers treated their journey as an occasion for scandal . Time Magazine 's 1936 review of God is my Adventure describes the US 's fascination with the " long @-@ haired , silky @-@ mustached Parsee named Shri Sadgaru [ sic ] Meher Baba " four years earlier .
= = = 1940s – Masts and the New Life = = =
In the 1930s and 1940s , Meher Baba did extensive work with a category of people he termed " masts " , who are persons " intoxicated with God " . According to Baba these individuals are essentially disabled by their enchanting experience of the higher spiritual planes . Although outwardly masts may appear irrational or even insane , Baba claimed that their spiritual status was actually quite elevated , and that by meeting with them he helped them to move forward spiritually while enlisting their aid in his spiritual work . One of the best known of these masts , known as Mohammed Mast , lived at Meher Baba 's encampment at Meherabad until his death in 2003 .
In 1949 Baba began an enigmatic period that he called the " New Life " . Following a series of questions on their readiness to obey even the most difficult of his requests , Baba selected twenty companions to join him in a life of complete " hopelessness and helplessness " .
He made provisions for those dependent on him , after which he and his companions otherwise gave up almost all property and financial responsibilities . They then traveled about India incognito while begging for food and carrying out Baba 's instructions in accordance with a strict set of " conditions of the New Life " . These included absolute acceptance of any circumstance and consistent good cheer in the face of any difficulty . Companions who failed to comply were sent away .
About the New Life Meher Baba wrote :
This New Life is endless , and even after my physical death it will be kept alive by those who live the life of complete renunciation of falsehood , lies , hatred , anger , greed and lust ; and who , to accomplish all this , do no lustful actions , do no harm to anyone , do no backbiting , do not seek material possessions or power , who accept no homage , neither covet honor nor shun disgrace , and fear no one and nothing ; by those who rely wholly and solely on God , and who love God purely for the sake of loving ; who believe in the lovers of God and in the reality of Manifestation , and yet do not expect any spiritual or material reward ; who do not let go the hand of Truth , and who , without being upset by calamities , bravely and wholeheartedly face all hardships with one hundred percent cheerfulness , and give no importance to caste , creed and religious ceremonies . This New Life will live by itself eternally , even if there is no one to live it .
Meher Baba ended the New Life in February 1952 and once again began a round of public appearances throughout India and the West .
= = = 1950s – God Speaks and automobile accidents = = =
In the 1950s Baba established two centers outside of India : the Meher Spiritual Center in Myrtle Beach , South Carolina in the United States and Avatar 's Abode near Brisbane , Australia . He inaugurated the Meher Spiritual Center in April 1952 . On 24 May 1952 , en route from the Spiritual Center to Meher Mount in Ojai , California , the car in which he was a passenger was struck head @-@ on near Prague , Oklahoma . He and his companions were thrown from the vehicle and suffered many injuries . Baba 's leg was severely broken and he sustained facial injuries , including a broken nose . The injured were treated at Duke Hospital in Durham , North Carolina , after which they returned to Myrtle Beach to recuperate . While recuperating at Youpon Dunes , a home owned by Elizabeth Patterson , in Myrtle Beach , he worked on the charter for a group of Sufis , which he named Sufism Reoriented .
Meher Baba began dictating his major book , God Speaks , The Theme of Creation and Its Purpose , in Dehradun , August 1953 . In September of 1954 , Meher Baba gave a men @-@ only sahavas at Meherabad that later became known as the " Three Incredible Weeks " . During this time Baba issued a declaration , " Meher Baba 's Call " , wherein he once again affirmed his Avatarhood " irrespective of the doubts and convictions " of others . At the end of this sahavas Meher Baba gave the completed manuscript of his book God Speaks to two members of Sufism Reoriented , Ludwig H. Dimpfl and Don E. Stevens , for editing and publication in America . The book was subsequently published by Dodd , Mead and Company the following year .
On 30 September 1954 Meher Baba gave his " Final Declaration " message , in which he made various enigmatic predictions .
In October 1954 , Meher Baba discarded his alphabet board and began using a unique set of hand gestures to communicate , which he used for the remainder of his life .
On 2 December 1956 , outside Satara , India , the car in which Baba was being driven went out of control and a second serious automobile accident occurred . Baba suffered a fractured pelvis and other severe injuries . Dr. Nilu , one of Baba 's mandali , was killed . This collision seriously incapacitated Baba . Despite his physicians ' predictions to the contrary , after great effort Baba managed to walk again , but from that point on he was in constant pain and was severely limited in his ability to move . In fact , during his trip to the West in 1958 he often needed to be carried from venue to venue .
In 1956 , during his fifth visit to the US , Baba stayed at New York 's Hotel Delmonico before traveling to the Meher Center at Myrtle Beach , South Carolina . In July he traveled to Washington , D.C. and received friends and disciples at the home of Mrs. James Terry ( Ivy ) Duce , wife of the vice @-@ president of the Arabian American Oil Co . He then traveled to Meher Mount at Ojai , California before continuing on to Australia . His final visits to the United States and Australia were made in 1958 .
= = = 1960s – Later years and message on drugs = = =
In 1962 , Baba gave one of his last public functions , a series of meetings he called The East @-@ West Gathering . At these meetings , in which his western followers were invited to meet his Indian disciples , Baba gave darshan to many thousands of people despite the physical strain this caused him .
In the mid @-@ 1960s Baba became concerned with the increasingly prevalent drug culture in the West and began a correspondence with several Western academics , including Timothy Leary and Richard Alpert , in which he strongly discouraged the use of all hallucinogenic drugs for spiritual purposes . In 1966 Baba 's responses to questions on drugs were published in a pamphlet titled God in a Pill ? Meher Baba stated that drug use was spiritually damaging and that if enlightenment were possible through drugs then " God is not worthy of being God " . Meher Baba instructed some of his young Western disciples to spread this message ; in doing so , they increased awareness of Meher Baba 's teachings among the young during this period . In an interview with Frederick Chapman , a Harvard graduate and Fulbright scholar who met Baba during a year of study in India , Baba stated that LSD is " harmful physically , mentally and spiritually " , and warned that " the continued use of LSD leads to madness or death " .
On this basis , an anti @-@ drug campaign was initiated by Baba lovers in the United States , Europe and Australia . Although the campaign was largely unsuccessful , it created a wave of new followers , and some of Baba 's views found their way into academic debate on the merits and dangers of hallucinogens .
From the East @-@ West Gathering of 1962 onward , Baba 's health steadily deteriorated . Despite the physical toll it took on his body , he continued to undergo long periods of seclusion and fasting . In late July 1968 , Baba completed a particularly taxing period of seclusion and stated that by then his work was " completed 100 % to my satisfaction " . At this point he was using a wheelchair . Within a few months his condition had worsened and he was by then bedridden . His body was wracked by intense muscular spasms that had no clear medical origin . Despite the care of several doctors the spasms grew progressively worse .
On 31 January 1969 , Meher Baba died at his home in Meherazad , conveying by his last gestures , " Do not forget that I am God . " In time his devotees called the anniversary of his death Amartithi ( deathless day ) . Meher Baba 's body lay in state at his samadhi at Meherabad . Covered with roses , and cooled by ice , his body was kept available to the public for one week before its final burial . Before his death , Meher Baba had made extensive preparations for a public darshan program to be held in Poona . His mandali decided to proceed with the arrangements despite the physical absence of the host . Several thousand attended this " Last Darshan " , including many hundreds of people from the United States , Europe , and Australia .
= = Silence = =
From 10 July 1925 , until his death in 1969 , Meher Baba was silent . He communicated first by using an alphabet board and later by unique hand gestures which were interpreted and spoken out by one of his mandali , usually by his disciple Eruch Jessawala . Meher Baba said that his silence was not undertaken as a spiritual exercise but solely in connection with his universal work .
Man 's inability to live God 's words makes the Avatar 's teaching a mockery . Instead of practicing the compassion he taught , man has waged wars in his name . Instead of living the humility , purity , and truth of his words , man has given way to hatred , greed , and violence . Because man has been deaf to the principles and precepts laid down by God in the past , in this present Avataric form , I observe silence .
Meher Baba often signaled the moment " that he would ' break ' his silence by speaking the ' Word ' in every heart , thereby giving a spiritual push forward to all living things " .
When I break My Silence , the impact of My Love will be universal and all life in creation will know , feel and receive of it . It will help every individual to break himself free from his own bondage in his own way . I am the Divine Beloved who loves you more than you can ever love yourself . The breaking of My Silence will help you to help yourself in knowing your real Self .
Meher Baba said that the breaking of his silence would be a defining event in the spiritual evolution of the world .
When I speak that Word , I shall lay the foundation for that which is to take place during the next seven hundred years .
On many occasions Meher Baba promised to break his silence with an audible word before he died , often stating a specific time and place when this would occur , but according to all contemporary accounts , Meher Baba remained silent until his death . His failure to break his silence disappointed some of his followers , while others regarded these broken promises as a test of their faith . Some followers speculate that " the Word " will yet be " spoken " , or that Meher Baba did break his silence but in a spiritual rather than a physical way .
For many years , Baba asked his followers to undertake austerities on 10 July , the anniversary of the day his silence began , such as keeping silence , fasting and praying . In his final Silence Day request to his followers in 1968 , he asked only that they keep silent . Many of Baba 's followers continue to celebrate Silence Day by keeping silence in his honor .
= = Teachings = =
Meher Baba 's teachings can roughly be divided into two main categories : his metaphysics on the nature of the soul and the Universe , and practical advice for the spiritual aspirant . The two are interrelated . His metaphysics is mostly found in his principal book on the subject , God Speaks . It contains detailed statements on his cosmology and the purpose of life as well as the progression of the soul , while his elucidations on the practical spiritual life are mostly contained in Discourses , although it also covers many metaphysical areas mirroring or amplifying God Speaks .
= = = God Speaks = = =
In God Speaks , Meher Baba describes the journey of the soul from its original state of unconscious divinity to the ultimate attainment of conscious divinity . The whole journey is a journey of imagination , where the original indivisible state of God imagines becoming countless individualized souls which he likens to bubbles within an infinite ocean . Each soul , powered by the desire to become conscious , starts its journey in the most rudimentary form of consciousness . This limitation brings the need of a more developed form to advance it towards an increasingly conscious state . Consciousness grows in relation to the impressions each form is capable of gathering .
According to Baba , each soul pursues conscious divinity by evolving : that is , experiencing itself in a succession of imagined forms through seven " kingdoms " : stone / metal , vegetable , worm , fish , bird , animal , and human . The soul identifies itself with each successive form , becoming thus tied to illusion . During this evolution of forms thinking also increases , until in human form thinking becomes infinite . Although in human form the soul is capable of conscious divinity , all the impressions that it has gathered during evolution are illusory ones , creating a barrier for the soul to know itself . For this barrier to be overcome , further births in human form are needed in a process named reincarnation .
Eventually the soul reaches a stage where its previously gathered impressions grow thin or weak enough that it enters a final stage called involution . This stage also requires a series of human births , during which the soul begins an inner journey , by which it realizes its true identity as God . Baba breaks this inner journey of Realization into seven stages he calls " planes . " The whole process culminates at the seventh plane with God @-@ realization , where the goal of life for the individual soul is reached .
= = = Discourses = = =
The Discourses are a collection of explanations and elucidations that Meher Baba has given on many topics that concern the advancement of the spiritual aspirant . Some of the most important topics treated are : sanskaras ( mental impressions ) , Maya ( the principle of illusion ) , the nature of the ego , reincarnation , karma , violence and non @-@ violence , meditation , love , discipleship , and God @-@ realization . His explanations often include stories from the lore of India and the Sufi culture . One such story , the wise man and the ghost , shows the power that superstitious beliefs can have on a person , while another , Majnun and Layla , show how selfless love , even in human relations , can lead one to discipleship .
Thus Meher Baba offers many suggestions that keep one moving towards God @-@ realization . These suggestions include putting theory into practice , the internal renunciation of desires , offering selfless service to humanity or the master , spontaneity , while avoiding actions that bind one to illusion . But rather than lay out moral rules , Baba offers an understanding as to why some actions bind the individual whereas some others help towards his emancipation . Many chapters offer a better understanding of the mechanisms by which consciousness gets caught up between the opposites of experience , such as pleasure and pain , good and evil , and point to a way of transcending them .
= = = Perfect Masters and the Avatar = = =
Baba said that at all times on Earth there are fifty @-@ six incarnate God @-@ realized souls and that of these souls there are always five who constitute the " five Perfect Masters " of their era . When one of the five Perfect Masters dies , Baba said that another God @-@ realized soul among the fifty @-@ six immediately replaces him or her by taking up that office .
The Avatar , according to Baba , is a special Perfect Master , the first soul to achieve God @-@ realization . This soul , the original Perfect Master , or the " Ancient One " , never ceases to incarnate . Baba indicated that this particular soul personifies the state of God which in Hinduism is named Vishnu and in Sufism is named Parvardigar , i.e. the sustainer or preserver state of God . According to Meher Baba the Avatar appears on Earth every 700 – 1400 years and is ' brought down ' into human form by the five Perfect Masters of the time to aid in the process of moving creation in its never @-@ ending journey toward Godhood . Baba asserted that in other ages this role was fulfilled by Zoroaster , Rama , Krishna , Buddha , Jesus , and Muhammad .
Baba described the Avatar as " a gauge against which man can measure what he is and what he may become . He trues the standard of human values by interpreting them in terms of divinely human life . "
Most of Meher Baba 's followers accept his claim of avatarhood and he is said to be " revered by millions around the world as the Avatar of the age and a God @-@ realized being " .
= = Legacy = =
Baba 's travels and teachings left a legacy of followers and devotees worldwide .
The Avatar Meher Baba Charitable Trust , established by Meher Baba in 1959 , maintains his tomb and pilgrimage facilities , as well as a free school and dispensary , a cataract clinic , and a veterinary clinic . The Trust follows the charter left for it by Meher Baba in his lifetime , but does not act as spiritual authority over groups . Likewise , the Trust does not engage in propaganda , promote creeds or dogmas , or seek converts . Baba discouraged evangelizing , stating , " I need no propaganda or publicity . " Rather , he encouraged his followers to " let your life itself be my message of love and truth to others " and to " spread my message of Love and Truth as far and wide as possible " . Followers of Meher Baba have no established rituals . Many do , however , perform practices of choice such as pujas , aartis , prayers , music , plays , viewing films of Baba and so forth , but the choice is personal . The primary focus for followers is living a life Meher Baba would approve of , for example , refraining from the use of psychedelic drugs , including marijuana , and trying to remember God with love .
Gatherings of Baba followers are generally informal . Special effort is made to gather together on Amartithi , the anniversary of Baba 's death , and on his birthday . Many Baba followers keep silent on 10 July ( Silence Day ) , observing the request Baba frequently made of his followers during his lifetime . Aarti is performed morning and evening at Baba 's samadhi in India . Also at Meherabad , his followers maintain Baba 's practice of lighting a dhuni fire on the 12th of each month .
Although Baba had initially begun gaining public attention in the West as early as 1932 as the result of contacts with some celebrities of the time and from the rather disillusioned account of Paul Brunton ( A Search in Secret India , 1934 ) , he received further attention after his death through various mentions in western pop @-@ culture .
Pete Townshend of The Who , who became a follower of Baba , dedicated his 1969 rock @-@ opera Tommy to Meher Baba in the record 's gatefold . The Who 's 1971 song " Baba O 'Riley " was named in part after Meher Baba , and Townshend recorded several Meher Baba tribute albums including Happy Birthday , I Am , Who Came First , and With Love . In 1970 Melanie Safka mentioned Baba in her song " Lay Down ( Candles in the Rain ) " with the lyrics " Meher Baba lives again " . Bobby McFerrin 's 1988 Grammy Award @-@ winning song " Don 't Worry , Be Happy " was inspired by a popular quote of Baba seen in numerous Baba posters and inspirational cards . Concepts of Meher Baba 's philosophy , as well as a character based on Baba but unnamed , have also frequently appeared in works of comic book writer J. M. DeMatteis , including Doctor Fate and Seekers Into The Mystery .
In 2012 , the feature film Nema Aviona za Zagreb premiered in the Netherlands with an exclusive interview with Meher Baba filmed in 1967 . In the interview Baba explains the difference between God @-@ realization and drug @-@ induced hallucinations and the scene plays a pivotal role in the documentary 's narrative .
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= Mycena lanuginosa =
Mycena lanuginosa is a species of mushroom in the Mycenaceae family . First collected in 2000 and reported as a new species in 2007 , it is known only from lowland oak @-@ dominated forests in central Honshu in Japan . The small mushroom is characterized by its grooved , grayish @-@ brown to violet @-@ brown cap up to 11 mm ( 0 @.@ 43 in ) in diameter , and the slender grayish @-@ brown to reddish @-@ brown stem covered with minute , fine , soft hairs . The mushroom produces amyloid spores ( spores that stain when treated with Melzer 's reagent ) . Microscopic distinguishing features include the smooth , spindle @-@ shaped cheilocystidia and pleurocystidia ( cystidia on the gill edge and face , respectively ) and the diverticulate elements in the outer layer of the cap and the stem .
= = Taxonomy , naming , and classification = =
Mycena lanuginosa was first collected by Haruki Takahashi in 2000 , and published as a new species in 2007 , along with seven other Japanese Mycena species . The specific epithet is derived from the Latin word lanuginosa , meaning " lanugineous " , referring to the hairy stem . The Japanese name for the mushroom is Keashi @-@ haiirotake ( ケアシハイイロタケ ) .
The fungus is classified in the section Fragilipedes ( Fr . ) Quél . , as defined by Dutch Mycena specialist Maas Geesteranus . This section is the largest in the genus Mycena .
= = Description = =
The cap is 7 to 11 mm ( 0 @.@ 28 to 0 @.@ 43 in ) in diameter , conical to convex to bell @-@ shaped , and has distinct radial grooves that extend almost to the center . It is dry , and somewhat hygrophanous ( changing color as it loses or absorbs water ) . The surface is initially pruinose ( covered with what appears to be a fine white powder ) , but soon becomes smooth . The cap is dark brown at the center , and gradually changes to reddish @-@ brown and finally to nearly white at the margin . The white flesh is up to 0 @.@ 5 mm thick , and does not have any distinctive taste or odor . The slender stem is 30 to 60 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 to 2 @.@ 4 in ) long by 0 @.@ 8 to 1 @.@ 3 mm ( 0 @.@ 031 to 0 @.@ 051 in ) thick , cylindrical , attached to the center of the cap , hollow , and dry . The top portion of the stem is pruinose , while near the base the surface is covered with soft , fine hairs . The stem color is grayish @-@ brown to reddish @-@ brown near the top , changing to reddish @-@ brown near the bottom . The stem base is covered with long , fairly coarse , whitish fibrils . The gills are narrowly attached to the stem , distantly spaced ( 12 – 18 gills reach the stem ) , up to 1 @.@ 5 mm broad , thin , and whitish , with the gill edges the same color as the gill faces .
= = = Microscopic characteristics = = =
The spores are roughly ellipsoid , smooth , thin @-@ walled , colorless , and measure 10 – 12 by 5 @.@ 5 – 6 @.@ 5 µm . They are amyloid , meaning they will stain blue to black when treated with Melzer 's reagent . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) are 35 – 42 by 7 – 9 µm , club @-@ shaped , four @-@ spored , and have clamps at their bases . The abundant cheilocystidia ( cystidia on the gill edge ) are thin @-@ walled , and measure 40 – 80 by 5 – 15 µm . The smooth , colorless , and thin @-@ walled spindle @-@ shaped cells sometimes come to an abruptly tapering point ; they form a sterile gill edge . Like the cheilocystidia , the pleurocystidia ( cystidia on the gill face ) are also spindle @-@ shaped , abundant , smooth and thin @-@ walled ; they measure 63 – 102 by 8 – 15 µm . The hymenophoral tissue ( tissue of the hymenium @-@ bearing structure ) is made of smooth , thin @-@ walled element hyphae that are 3 – 25 µm wide , roughly cylindrical ( often inflated ) , hyaline ( translucent ) , and dextrinoid ( turning reddish to reddish @-@ brown in Melzer 's reagent ) . The cap cuticle is made of parallel , bent @-@ over hyphae that are 2 – 6 µm wide , and cylindrical . They can be either smooth , or covered with scattered , warty or finger @-@ like thin @-@ walled brownish diverticulae . The underlying hyphae have a parallel arrangement , and are hyaline or brownish , dextrinoid , with short and inflated cells that are up to 35 µm wide . The stem cuticle is made of parallel , bent @-@ over hyphae measuring 3 – 6 µm wide . These hyphae , as well as the terminal cells ( caulocystidia ) , have characteristics similar to the hyphae of the cap cuticle . The flesh of the stem is composed of longitudinally arranged , cylindrical hyphae that are 6 – 20 µm wide , smooth , hyaline , and dextrinoid . Clamp connections are present in the cortical layer of cap and stem , and at the basal septa of the basidia .
= = = Similar species = = =
M. lanuginosa closely resembles M. pilosella , a species originally described from Netherlands by Maas Geesteranus , and the European species M. zephirus ; both are in the section Fragilipedes . Mycena pilosella differs in several microscopic characteristics : it has densely diverticulate elements of the cap cuticle ; long , cylindrical caulocystidia that diverge at a right angle ; and it does not have pleurocystidia . Mycena zephirus is distinct in forming a whitish cap , a stem that is initially minutely hairly but later becomes smooth , radish @-@ like odor , ellipsoid to cylindrical spores , and cheilocystidia with branches near the tip .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Mycena lanuginosa is known only from Kanagawa , in Honshu , Japan . Fruit bodies are found solitary or scattered , on dead leaves and twigs in lowland forests dominated by the oak species Quercus myrsinifolia and Q. serrata . Fruiting occurs from March to November .
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= Voices of a Distant Star =
Voices of a Distant Star ( Japanese : ほしのこえ , Hepburn : Hoshi no Koe , lit . " Voices of a Star " ) is a Japanese original video animation ( OVA ) directed , written and co @-@ produced by Makoto Shinkai . The OVA premièred in Japan in February 2002 in an advanced screening . It was followed by two DVD releases on April 19 and October 6 , 2002 . It chronicles a long @-@ distance relationship between two close friends , one a soldier , who attempt to communicate with one @-@ another over the course of an interstellar war by utilizing text messages that take years to reach their recipient . ADV Films licensed the OVA for release in North American and the United Kingdom , Madman Entertainment licensed it for Australasia and Anime Limited , for the United Kingdom .
The OVA was adapted into a drama CD by Pioneer LDC and a novel was written by Waku Ōba , illustrated by Makoto Shinkai and Kou Yaginuma , and published by Media Factory 's imprint MF Bunko J. Makoto Shinkai adapted a manga from the OVA , illustrated by Mizu Sahara ; Kodansha serialized it in its manga magazine , Afternoon , from April 2004 , and released the manga as a one @-@ shot on February 23 , 2005 . The manga was licensed for a North American release by Tokyopop , which published it on August 1 , 2006 .
In 2002 , the OVA won the Animation Kobe award for packaged work . It also won the 2003 Seiun Award for best media . Reviews of the series have been generally positive , with reviewers praising the series and applauding the art , plot and music ; however there was criticism of the English dubbing .
= = Plot = =
A schoolgirl named Mikako Nagamine ( Mika Shinohara ( original Japanese ) , Sumi Mutoh ( Japanese ) Cynthia Martinez ( English ) ) is recruited into the UN Space Army to fight in a war against a group of aliens called the Tarsians — named after the Tharsis region of Mars where they were first encountered . As a Special Agent , Mikako pilots a giant robotic mecha called a Tracer as part of a fighting squadron attached to the spacecraft carrier Lysithea . When the Lysithea leaves Earth to search for the Tarsians , Mikako 's friend Noboru Terao ( Makoto Shinkai ( original Japanese ) , Chihiro Suzuki ( Japanese ) Adam Colon ( English ) ) remains on Earth . The two continue to communicate across space using the e @-@ mail facilities on their mobile telephones . As the Lysithea travels deeper into space , messages take increasingly longer to reach Noboru on Earth , and the time @-@ lag of their correspondence eventually spans years .
The narrative begins in 2047 . Mikako is apparently alone in a hauntingly empty city , trying to contact people through her mobile telephone . She wakes up in her Tracer orbiting an extrasolar planet . She then goes to Agartha , the fictional fourth planet of the Sirius System . Mikako sends an e @-@ mail to Noboru ( which shows the date 2047 @-@ 09 @-@ 16 ) , with the subject " I am here " , which would reach him eight years later . Some flashes of imagery , perhaps indicative of memory , a hallucination , or even a mystical encounter , are then shown . The room shown at the beginning of the animation is presented again ; Mikako is squatting in the corner , sobbing and pleading with her doppelganger to let her see Noboru again so she can tell him she loves him .
The ship 's alarm warns Mikako that the Tarsians are surrounding her , but she does not understand . A climactic battle ensues . On Earth , Noboru receives the message almost nine years later . At Agartha , three of the four carriers equipped with the warp engines which brought the expeditionary force to Sirius have been destroyed . The Lysithea is still intact after Mikako joins the fight and stops its destruction . After winning the battle , Mikako lets her damaged Tracer drift in space .
In the manga , at 16 years old , Mikako sends a message to 25 years old Noboru , telling him that she loves him . By this time , Noboru has joined the UN , which has launched a rescue mission for the Lysithea . When Mikako hears that the UN is sending help for their rescue , she consults a list of people on the mission , and finds that Noboru is among them . The manga ends with Mikako saying that they will definitely meet again .
= = Production = =
Voices of a Distant Star was written , directed and produced by Makoto Shinkai on his Power Mac G4 using LightWave , Adobe Photoshop 5 @.@ 0 , Adobe After Effects 4 @.@ 1 and Commotion 3 @.@ 1 DV software . Around June 2000 , Shinkai drew the first picture for Voices — of a girl holding a mobile telephone in a cockpit .
Shinkai said the OVA was inspired by Dracula and Laputa . He stated that production took seven months to complete . He said another inspiration was his frequent sending of text messaging to his wife when he was working . Shinkai cited the availability of digital hardware and software tools for image production at his workplace , Falcom , and friends ' view that individual film production could occur because of the introduction of PlayStation 2 and DVDs .
Makoto and his then girlfriend , Mika Shinohara , provided the voice acting for the working dub . A second Japanese dub was later created for the DVD release with professional voice actors . Makoto 's friend Tenmon , who had worked with Makoto 's video game company , provided the soundtrack . The song and film were created together in sync during storyboarding . Sometimes , the timing of the animation had to be changed to match the music .
I think it 's because of the theme of the story - communication between people . I used cell phones in the story because that is what is commonly used in Japan to communicate , but there are many countries where people don 't use cell phones . Communication from the heart is ever @-@ lastingly important wherever you are , so I assume that is why it appealed to so many people . The other thing that is appealing is that I created this animation by myself . The mass media reported on the man who created anime by himself . I 'm looking forward to more people doing things this way and seeing an emergence of independent animators , whether it 's individuals or small groups .
The ending theme to the OVA , " Through the Years and Far Away " ( Hello , Little Star ) , was composed by Tenmon , with lyrics written by K. Juno and sung by Low .
= = Media = =
= = = OVA = = =
The Voices of a Distant Star OVA was directed , written and produced by Makoto Shinkai . Shinkai and his fiance , Mika Shinohara , provided the voices of the characters for the original video . The OVA was released for an advanced screening in February 2002 . Yoshihiro Hagiwara produced the DVD release , and the voice actors were Chihiro Suzuki and Sumi Mutoh . CoMix Wave Inc. released it on DVD on April 19 , 2002 . A DVD Book version of the story was released by Tokuma Shoten on October 6 , 2002 .
In July 2002 , ADV Films announced it had licensed Voices of a Distant Star for a North American release . Steven Foster , director of ADV Films , directed the dubbing of the film into English , with voices provided by Adam Colon and Cynthia Martinez . ADV Films released the North American DVD on June 10 , 2003 . On June 30 , 2003 , ADV recalled the North American DVDs because they failed to include the original Japanese tracks made by Shinkai and Shinohara . ADV Films UK released the DVD in the United Kingdom on November 17 , 2003 . ADV Films UK also released a Shinkai Collection DVD set , containing Voices of a Distant Star and The Place Promised in Our Early Days , on September 3 , 2007 . Anime Limited has since taken over ADV Film 's license for the film and has announced DVD and Blu @-@ ray twin @-@ pack releases of Voices of a Distant Star and The Place Promised in Our Early Days in the UK . The film was licensed in Australasia by Madman Entertainment , which released the DVD on October 15 , 2003 .
The film was licensed in France by Kazé , in Italy by D / visual , in Russia by XLM Media , in Taiwan by Proware Multimedia International . Crunchyroll streamed Voices for free for 48 hours beginning on March 5 , 2010 to celebrate Shinkai as director .
= = = Other = = =
A drama CD was released by Pioneer LDC on June 25 , 2002 . A novel was adapted from the OVA by Waku Ōba and illustrated by Makoto Shinkai and Kou Yaginuma . The novel was published by Media Factory 's imprint MF Bunko J on July 25 , 2002 .
The OVA was adapted into a manga by Makoto Shinkai and illustrated by Mizu Sahara . It was serialized in Kodansha 's manga magazine , Afternoon from April 2004 . Kodansha released the manga as a one @-@ shot on February 23 , 2005 . The manga was licensed for a North American release by Tokyopop , which published the manga on August 1 , 2006 . The manga was also licensed in Italy by D / visual , in Germany by Egmont Manga & Anime and in Portugal by Panini Comics .
= = Reception = =
Voices of A Distant Star film was listed 100th on DVD Verdict 's Top 100 DVD Films list . It has also won the Animation Kobe for packaged work in 2002 and the 2003 Seiun Award for best media .
Anime News Network 's Jonathan Mays criticized Steven Foster 's dubbing of the film . He said , " Foster carelessly omits critical details , completely rewrites some scenes , misinterprets emotions , and even adds new dialogue where the original track had silence " . In an Anime News Network interview , Foster said he " made some changes to make the jokes more accessible " . Mays also said , " The animation is breathtaking . Shinkai 's backgrounds have very few equals . The character designs look uninspired , but paired with the animator 's beautifully realized worlds , the generic appearance fades into the magnificence of the scene . " He said Shinkai 's use of lighting is " masterful " , " incredibly realistic " and conveys the characters ' moods well . He called the characters " unoriginal " . DVD Verdict 's Rob Lineberger commended the music , saying " the simple score infuses the animation with meaning . Solitary piano notes are sluggish , as though the pianist lacked the enthusiasm needed to pick up his fingers . When the action kicks in , it arrives with a sonic punch from 5 @.@ 1 speakers . Rockets scream around you , birds move overhead , engines thrum quietly in your wake . The soundtrack does what it is supposed to do : transport you to another world " .
THEM Anime Review 's Carlos Ross said , " The voice @-@ acting is remarkable , the directing is solid , and music is quite competent . But the real kicker here is the animation quality , which actually equals ( and sometimes exceeds ) that of excellent television series like Vandread and Full Metal Panic ... there is a remarkable amount of storyline ; the plot is well @-@ written and executed , and never gets a chance to be too drawn out . And Shinkai gives equal time to the slick action sequences and the well @-@ handled , genuinely touching romance " . IGN 's A.E. Sparrow said , " While [ the film ] was visually one of the best pieces of eye @-@ candy I have seen in a year or so , it 's ultimately a voice track over a sequence of pretty pictures . Don 't get me wrong , it was absolutely beautiful , but it left me wanting more " . Mania 's Chris Beveridge commended ADV Films for obtaining the original computer files that were used to create it . He said , " the transfer here is simply gorgeous . Colors are amazingly lush and deep , saturated without bleeding . Cross coloration is non @-@ existent and only a few very minor areas of aliasing occur . The only real ' flaw ' that I could see with this transfer is during some of the panning sequences up and down , there ’ s a slight stutter that ’ s simply inherent in the materials " . DVDs Worth Watching 's Johanna Draper Carlson said , " the character designs are familiar and uninspired , and the cross @-@ cutting choppy " .
IGN 's A.E. Sparrow said that compared with the film , the manga has " a healthy amount of additional storylines , characters and dialogue ... " He also said , " Mizu Sahara 's artwork brings a bit of clarity to scenes that might have come off as muddled in the anime " . Anime News Network 's Theron Martin said the manga has " strong storytelling which carries good emotional appeal , fleshes out the original anime " but said it " unnecessarily adds on to the ending " , and that " character designs were not Shinkai 's strong point , and Sahara 's are only a slight improvement " .
Manga Worth Reading 's Johanna Draper Carlson said , " the art is denser than in many manga , with toned backgrounds anchoring the drawn world . Faces are often in shadow , suggesting separation and loss . " Pop Culture Shock 's Melinda Beasi wrote , " the manga is absolutely beautiful . The art is nicely detailed and very expressive , and the panel layouts , including the placement and style of dialogue and narrative text , make the story visually interesting and easy to follow " . She also said , " Sahara also spends more time exploring both Mikako ’ s and Noboru ’ s feelings about Mikako ’ s appointment to the Lysithea , which is very revealing for both characters " . Mania.com 's Sakura Eries said , stating " there 's not a lot of detail in the backgrounds , the mecha designs are dull , and the warp scenes , which were so spectacular in the anime , don 't make much of an impact " .
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= The Possum =
" The Possum " is the 18th episode of the second season of the American comedy television series Parks and Recreation , and the 24th overall episode of the series . It originally aired on NBC in the United States on March 11 , 2010 . In the episode , Leslie forms a task force to capture an possum that bit the mayor 's dog , but she begins to fear she has caught the wrong animal .
The episode was written by Mike Scully and directed by Tristram Shapeero . " The Possum " featured a guest appearance by Alison Becker , who reprised her previous guest role as reporter Shauna Malwae @-@ Tweep . Supporting character Ron Swanson is revealed to have a large woodshop in " The Possum " , which was inspired by actor Nick Offerman 's real @-@ life carpentry skills .
According to Nielsen Media Research , " The Possum " was seen by 4 @.@ 6 million viewers . Its rating among viewers between ages 18 and 49 constituted a nine percent drop from the previous week 's episode , " Woman of the Year " . " The Possum " received generally positive reviews .
= = Plot = =
After the infamous possum " Fairway Frank " bites Mayor Gunderson 's dog at a golf course , mayoral representative Evelyn ( Judith Moreland ) asks Leslie ( Amy Poehler ) to form a task force to capture it . Leslie , Tom ( Aziz Ansari ) , Andy ( Chris Pratt ) and two incompetent animal control workers , Harris ( Harris Wittels ) and Brett ( Colton Dunn ) go to the golf course and quickly find the animal . The animal control workers are useless and Tom immediately runs away , but Andy dives toward the animal and captures it . Evelyn is impressed with Leslie and promises her a special favor from the mayor 's office . However , Leslie sees a second opossum and fears they have captured the wrong animal . She later finds out that the mayor doesn 't care about catching Fairway Frank , but rather about securing a trophy animal for his bathroom .
Back at the department office , reporter Shauna Malwae @-@ Tweep ( Alison Becker ) interviews Andy for a newspaper article . After he brags about the capture , the reporter suggests his heroics might win him back the affections of Ann ( Rashida Jones ) , his ex @-@ girlfriend , much to Andy 's excitement . April ( Aubrey Plaza ) , who has romantic feelings for Andy , overhears this and leaves jealously . Evelyn demands delivery of Fairway Frank . Leslie responds that there is uncertainty about the identity of Fairway Frank . She refuses to hand over the captured opossum and creates a ketchup @-@ blood diversion so that April can escape with the caged animal .
Leslie and April take the opossum to Ann 's home , where April has been paid $ 50 to housesit . April lets the opossum out of its cage , and it causes havoc and minor damage . While hiding from the animal , April reveals her feelings about Andy to Leslie for the first time . When Leslie refuses to hand over the opossum , Evelyn angrily takes back her promise of a favor from the mayor 's office . Andy , still oblivious to the reasons behind April 's jealousy , delivers coffee to April , as well as the day 's newspaper , containing a story which credits April for providing moral support to Andy . It is later revealed that Leslie has donated the opossum to the Pawnee zoo .
Meanwhile , Ron ( Nick Offerman ) plans a woodshop expansion in his home and seeks the approval of city planner Mark ( Paul Schneider ) . Mark informs Ron that an inspection is needed to ensure that the facility meets all current zoning code standards , and an obviously lying Ron claims it does , clearly underscoring his vexation with governmental regulations . During the inspection , Mark finds numerous code violations , including oily rags placed above a wood @-@ burning fireplace and a long @-@ outdated fire extinguisher . Later , Mark takes a half @-@ day off so that he can help his friend 's woodshop meet city code . Ron thanks Mark by building a wooden canoe and leaving it in his office .
= = Production = =
" The Possum " was written by Mike Scully and directed by Tristram Shapeero . Despite the title , the animal featured in the episode is an opossum , a marsupial species native to the Americas which is commonly called a possum , though that name refers to animals native to the Eastern Hemisphere . Some commentators said the main plotline involving the opossum served as an allegory for capital punishment . The episode featured actress and comedian Alison Becker in a guest appearance as Pawnee Journal reporter Shauna Malwae @-@ Tweep . The actress and character first appeared in the first season episode " The Reporter " , in which she had sex with Mark , which Andy bluntly recollects upon first seeing Shauna in " The Possum " . Rashida Jones appears only in the opening and closing scenes of " The Possum " because she was filming scenes for David Fincher 's film The Social Network .
In " The Possum " , Ron is revealed to have a very large woodshop . This element of Ron 's character was inspired by actor Nick Offerman , who in addition to comedy runs an independent carpentry business called Offerman Woodshop . This was also referenced in the previous second season episode " Sweetums " , in which Ron builds a harp from scratch to prove to Leslie he is not intoxicated . During one scene , Leslie shows a list of the Pawnee Parks Department 's Most Wanted Pests , which includes several raccoons . This is a reference to a running gag , established from the series , that Pawnee has a terrible raccoon infestation problem . Shortly after " The Possum " originally aired , a downloadable PDF file was made available on NBC 's " City of Pawnee " website of the most wanted pests list , which included images of the 10 most animals including raccoons , the opossum , a bat , a feral cat and a crow . The site also included a PDF file of the front page of the fictional newspaper 's The Pawnee Journal , which included the newspaper article referenced in the episode about Andy 's capture of the opossum . A printed copy of the newspaper article can be seen taped to the wall of Andy 's shoeshine stand in the subsequent episode , " Park Safety " .
= = Cultural references = =
While visiting a golf course , Tom said he used to love golf pro Tiger Woods , until his extramarital affairs scandal was revealed , and then he considered him a god . One of the raccoons featured on a list of Pawnee 's Most Wanted Pests List was named Zorro , a reference to the sword @-@ wielding title character of several books , films and television programs . Another pest is named " Jangle Bo Jangles " , a reference to the pop song " Mr. Bojangles " .
= = Reception = =
In its original American NBC broadcast on March 11 , 2010 , " The Possum " was seen by 4 @.@ 6 million viewers , according to Nielsen Media Research . Although it was the same amount of viewers as last week 's episode , " Woman of the Year " , " The Possum " had a 2 @.@ 1 rating / 6 share among viewers between ages 18 and 49 , a nine percent drop from the previous episode . In the 9 p.m. timeslot on March 11 , Parks and Recreation was outperformed by American Idol on Fox , which drew 20 @.@ 46 million viewers , and Survivor : Heroes vs. Villains on CBS , which drew 12 @.@ 17 million viewers . " The Possum " outperformed a repeat of Grey 's Anatomy on ABC , which drew 4 @.@ 5 million viewers , and The Vampire Diaries on The CW , which drew 1 @.@ 37 million viewers .
The episode received generally positive reviews . Alan Sepinwall , television columnist with The Star @-@ Ledger , said the episode featured strong physical comedy , political satire , romantic tension and character moments . He said he " loved virtually every beat of the possum story " and finds the developing Andy and April relationship funny and believable . Entertainment Weekly writer Sandra Gonzalez said " The Possum " was a very funny episode , and particularly praised the development of the Andy and April relationship . She said Plaza and Pratt did some of their best work to date in the episode .
Matt Fowler of IGN praised the April and Andy relationship and the subplot with Ron and Mark , although he claimed Ron was the funnier of the duo and Mark 's character is too normal and boring for the show . Fowler also liked the way Leslie 's political ambition conflicted with her conscience in the episode . New York magazine writer Steve Kandell praised the main plotline with Leslie and the performances by Pratt and Offerman , particularly praising the jokes surrounding Ron 's woodworking hobby . Kandell pointed out the episode did not suffer from Ann 's absence and suggested although Rashida Jones is charming , the show does not need her . Leonard Pierce of The A.V. Club said the episode 's main story was " a bit of a trifle " and the subplots were lacking , but that " The Possum " included several laughs and demonstrated Ron and Leslie 's opposing attitudes about local government .
= = DVD release = =
" The Possum " , along with the other 23 second season episodes of Parks and Recreation , was released on a four @-@ disc DVD set in the United States on November 30 , 2010 . The DVD included deleted scenes for each episode .
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= Psilocybe yungensis =
Psilocybe yungensis is a species of psychedelic mushroom in the Strophariaceae family . In North America , it is found in northeast , central and southeastern Mexico . In South America , it has been recorded from Bolivia , Colombia , and Ecuador . It is also known from the Caribbean island Martinique , and China . The mushroom grows in clusters or groups on rotting wood . The fruit bodies have conical to bell @-@ shaped reddish- to orangish @-@ brown caps that are up to 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 0 in ) in diameter , set atop slender stems 3 to 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 to 2 @.@ 0 in ) long . The mushrooms stain blue when bruised , indicative of the presence of the compound psilocybin . Psilocybe yungensis is used by Mazatec Indians in the Mexican State of Oaxaca for entheogenic purposes .
= = Taxonomy and classification = =
The species was described as new to science by American mycologists Rolf Singer and Alexander H. Smith , based on specimens collected in Nor Yungas Province , Bolivia , on the road to La Paz to Coroico . They published a short description in Latin in a 1958 Mycologia publication , followed by a more detailed description in English later that year . According to Psilocybe specialist Gastón Guzmán , the species Psilocybe acutissima ( described by Roger Heim in 1958 ) , and Psilocybe isauri ( described by Singer in 1959 ) are synonyms , as both the macroscopic and microscopic features are the same in the type material of all three . Singer considered P. isauri a species distinct from P. yungensis because of differences in the hairiness of the stem surface . Smith named the variety P. yungensis var. diconica for specimens he found with conical , rather than obconical ( the form of an inverted cone ) papilla . Similarly , the main distinguishing feature that Heim ascribed to P. acutissima was a papillate cap ( somewhat resembling the shape of a female human breast ) . Later studies showed that these morphological variations did not warrant individual recognition , because of the variable nature of these characteristics , and the existence of intermediate forms .
Guzmán places P. yungensis in the section Cordisporae , a grouping of Psilocybe species characterized primarily by having rhomboid spores less than 8 micrometers long . The specific epithet yungensis refers to the name of the type locality . The natives of Huautla de Jiménez and Mixe natives call P. yungensis a hongo adivinador ( " divinatory mushroom " ) , hong que adormece ( " soporific mushroom " ) , or hongo genio ( " genius mushroom " ) .
= = Description = =
The P. yungensis fruit bodies have caps that are conical to bell @-@ shaped in maturity , and reach a diameter of up to 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 0 in ) . The cap surface is smooth and sticky , and , in moist specimens , has faint radial striations ( grooves ) that extend almost to the margin . The color of fresh caps ranges from dark reddish @-@ brown to rusty brown to orangish @-@ brown . Additionally , the cap is hygrophanous , meaning it will change color depending on its state of hydration ; a dry cap fades to become dull yellowish @-@ brown or the color of " dingy straw " . The cap frequently has a prominent umbo .
The gill attachment ranges from adnate ( broadly attached to the stem ) to adnexed ( narrowly attached ) . The spacing of the narrow gills is close to crowded , and the gill color is initially dull gray before maturing spores cause the color to change to purplish @-@ brown . The stem is 3 to 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 to 2 @.@ 0 in ) long and 1 @.@ 5 to 2 @.@ 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 06 to 0 @.@ 10 in ) thick , and more or less equal in width throughout its length or slightly larger near the base . The hollow , brittle , stem is pale brown on the upper part , and reddish @-@ brown near the bottom . The stem is densely covered with whitish fibrils that are pressed flat against the surface ; the fibrils slough off in maturity to leave a smooth surface . The mushroom has a cortinate partial veil ( resembling the webby cortina produced by species of Cortinarius ) but it does not last for long ; it occasionally leaves behind sparse remnants of tissue hanging on the cap margin and the upper part of the stem . No ring remains on the stem after the veil disappears . All parts of the mushroom will stain blue when injured ; these stains will blacken as the mushroom dries .
The spore print is dark purplish @-@ brown . Spores range in shape from roughly rhomboid to roughly elliptical , and typically have dimensions of 5 – 6 by 4 – 6 μm . They are thick @-@ walled and have a large germ pore . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) are club @-@ shaped to swollen , hyaline , usually four @-@ spored ( although rarely two- or three @-@ spored forms are present ) , and measure 13 – 19 by 4 @.@ 4 – 6 @.@ 6 μm . The pleurocystidia ( cystidia on the gill face ) are ventricose ( swollen ) near the base and often mucronate ( ending abruptly in a short sharp point ) at the apex , and measure 14 – 25 by 4 @.@ 4 – 10 @.@ 5 μm . The cheilocystidia ( cystidia on the gill edge ) are variable in shape , and measure 14 – 40 by 4 @.@ 4 – 7 @.@ 7 μm . Pleurocystidia are relatively sparse , while cheilocystidia are abundant . Clamp connections are present in the hyphae . The application of a drop of potassium hydroxide solution turns both the cap and the stem from brown to blackish .
= = = Similar species = = =
The species Psilocybe subyungensis , known only from Venezuela , is roughly similar in form , although somewhat smaller , with a cap width of up to 1 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 in ) in diameter and stem lengths of up to 3 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 4 in ) . In addition to differences in distribution , it can be clearly distinguished from P. yungensis by the larger cystidia : the pleurocystidia measure 8 @.@ 8 – 11 by 3 @.@ 8 – 5 @.@ 5 μm , and the cheilocystidia 16 @.@ 5 – 25 by 7 @.@ 7 – 12 μm . Stamets notes that " Few species resemble P. yungensis " , while Michael Beug considers the orangish @-@ brown cap color unusual for a Psilocybe , and compares it to Conocybe .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Psilocybe yungensis is a saprobic species , and contributes to the degradation of organic matter deposited in soils and nutrient cycling in forests where it grows . It typically grows in clusters or groups on rotting wood ( rarely on humus ) ; it is less frequently found growing solitarily . It is often reported from coffee plantations , subtropical , or cloud forests , especially those occurring at elevations between 1 @,@ 000 and 2 @,@ 000 m ( 3 @,@ 300 and 6 @,@ 600 ft ) . The species occurs in northeast , central and southeastern Mexico , and has been recorded from several locations in the states of Oaxaca , Puebla , Tamaulipas and Veracruz . It is also known from Bolivia , Colombia , and Ecuador , as well as the Caribbean island Martinique . In 2009 , it was reported from China . In Mexico and Colombia , the fungus usually fruits between June and July ; in Bolivia , it was recorded appearing during January .
= = Uses = =
The fruit bodies of Psilocybe yungensis are used for entheogenic , or spiritual , ritualistic purposes by the Mazatec Indians in the Mexican State of Oaxaca . Some authorities have suggested that P. yungensis is the " tree fungus " reported by Jesuit missionaries of the 17th and 18th centuries , a reddish mushroom that was apparently the source of an intoxicating beverage used by the Yurimagua Indians of Amazonian Peru . There is , however , no established record of hallucinogenic mushroom use in that area , and it is possible that the mushroom could instead be a psychedelic species of the wood @-@ dwelling genus Gymnopilus .
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= Norsk Air =
Norsk Air was a Norwegian airline based at Sandefjord Airport , Torp . At its height from the mid @-@ 1980s and onwards it operated scheduled flights to Stavanger , Bergen , Trondheim and Copenhagen , and for shorter periods also other Norwegian and international destinations . The airline had 156 employees and 150 @,@ 000 annual passengers in 1989 . The company was established as a sole proprietorship by Øyvind Skaunfelt as Vestfoldfly in 1961 , after purchasing Thor Solberg 's aviation school at Tønsberg Airport , Jarlsberg . In addition to an aviation college , the company operated various charter services using mostly Cessna aircraft . The company split into a flying school and an airline in 1972 , with the latter taking the name Norsk Flytjeneste . Three 50 @-@ passenger Douglas DC @-@ 6 were subsequently bought and were among other places flown with aid charters to Bangladesh . Both the DC @-@ 6 and later charter flights with business jets proved unprofitable and were quickly terminated .
The company turned to regular charter services to Bergen and Stavanger in the 1980s , and from 1984 served the routes with scheduled flights , using seven @-@ passenger Beechcraft 200 King Air . In 1985 the company was converted to a limited company and bought by Kosmos . It subsequently acquired four 30 @-@ passenger Embraer EMB 120 Brasilias — as the second European airline . It introduced several new routes , including international flights to Denmark and the United Kingdom , and took the name Norsk Air . The company bought Norving 's Skien Airport , Geiteryggen division in 1987 and started operations from a second base . Kosmos failed in 1988 and Norsk Air was eventually given for free to Widerøe in 1990 . Skien operations were discontinued the following year and the airline changed name to Widerøe Norsk Air . It remained a subsidiary until being amalgamated in 1996 .
= = History = =
= = = Vestfoldfly = = =
The airline was established as Vestfoldfly by Øyvind Skaunfelt in 1961 . He had been working at Thor Solberg 's aviation school at Tønsberg Airport , Jarlsberg , and offered to purchase the school and airplanes when Solberg retired . Two years earlier , Sandefjord Airport , Torp had opened a civilian sector and Skaunfelt decided to establish his company there . In May 1961 , he received government permission for commercial flying . He started a newspaper route to Oslo Airport , Fornebu , and could also carry three passengers in his single @-@ engined Cessna . The route continued onwards from Sandefjord to Tønsberg , Larvik and at Skien Airport , Geiteryggen . Vestfoldfly also started offering scenic trips and charter . During the summer , the airline also flew seaplanes south along the coast to Kragerø , Risør and Arendal . Other activities involved crop dusting of forest for Felleskjøpet . The airline also provided a target service for the military . Four aircraft were permanently used to tow a target about 1 @,@ 000 to 2 @,@ 000 meters ( 3 @,@ 300 to 6 @,@ 600 ft ) behind the aircraft , and military personnel would practice shooting at the target .
During the 1960s , Vestfoldfly never received a concession for a regular , scheduled flight from Sandefjord to Oslo . The reason was that the Skien @-@ based Fjellfly held the concession for the routes from Oslo to Sandefjord , Tønsberg and Skien . Fjellfly never used its landing rights at Sandefjord , but nevertheless still hindered Vestfoldfly from starting a competing route . Skaunfelt eventually split his activity in two , demerging the aviation school and renaming it Den Norske Luftfartsskole , which remained in operation until 1999 . The other activity was renamed Norsk Flytjeneste . In 1969 , Norsk Flytjeneste and Jotun , a large Sandefjord @-@ based industrial company , established Penguin Air Service , where Norsk Flytjeneste owned 25 percent of the shares . Penguin Air Service company bought a six @-@ seat Piper PA @-@ 31 Navajo and started charter services for Jotun . In 1975 , Bugge Supplyship also joined the joint venture and a second aircraft was bought . Most of the traffic was for the oil industry to Stavanger .
= = = Norsk Flytjeneste = = =
In 1972 , Norsk Flytjeneste purchased two 50 @-@ passenger Douglas DC @-@ 6Bs from Braathens SAFE and leased one from Sterling Airways . They were used for domestic and international charter . The largest contract was from the Norwegian Church Aid , who contracted Norsk Flytjeneste to fly aid to Bangladesh . However , the airline failed to make money on the DC @-@ 6s , mostly because of the high operating costs , and sold them after a year . The company followed up with purchasing a ten @-@ seat Cessna Citation business jet that they offered in the charter market . However , the market was not large enough , and the jet was sold .
The main market for the charter services was Stavanger Airport , Sola , mainly serving transport of personnel in the oil industry . By the 1980s , Norsk Air had up to four daily round trips between the two cities . In 1983 , the airline received concession to start a regular scheduled service to Stavanger . A ten @-@ seat Beechcraft Super King Air was bought and services started on 12 January 1984 . Services to Bergen Airport , Flesland started on 10 July . Soon there were four daily round trips to both cities , supplemented by charter trips operated by Penguin . Starting on 26 March 1984 , Norsk Flytjeneste experienced competition on the routes from Sandefjord to Bergen and Stavanger , when Busy Bee , on contract with Braathens SAFE , started flights using 50 @-@ passenger Fokker F27s . However , they operated only one round trip , with the same aircraft serving Sandefjord – Stavanger – Haugesund – Bergen .
In 1984 , Norsk Flytjenesete started negotiations with the Sandefjord @-@ based conglomerate Kosmos , who were seeking to invest in a local airline . Kosmos had decided to start a diversification strategy to spread their risk . Norsk Flytjeneste was at the time not making money on its routes , but Kosmos was willing to carry the loss as an investment . The airline was sold to Kosmos on 15 April 1985 . At the time of the take @-@ over , Norsk Flytjeneste had four Cessna 310s and one Piper Navajo . The airline 's seven @-@ passenger Beechcraft 200 and C90 King Airs were already owned by Kosmos . The company was changed from a sole propriatoriship to a limited company . Kjell Riege from Kosmos was appointed managing director while Tor Lundstrøm continued as chief pilot .
= = = Norsk Air = = =
On 30 July 1985 , Norsk Flytjeneste opened their first international route , to Copenhagen Airport in Denmark . The concessions had a limitation on not using aircraft with more than ten seats . However the limitation was lifted later in the year . Under Kosmos ' management , Norsk Flytjeneste started an aggressive expansion . Applications were made for concessions from Sandefjord to Gothenburg in Sweden , and from Oslo via Hamar and Røros to Trondheim . Norsk Flytjeneste also needed larger aircraft , and the airline evaluated several types , including the Embraer EMB 120 Brasilia , the 30 @-@ passenger Saab 340 and the Fokker F27 . The company chose to order four 30 @-@ passenger Brasilias . During the negotiations with Embraer , the company realized that Norsk Flytjeneste was a difficult name for foreigners , since the Brazilians could not pronounce " Flytjeneste " . When the new aircraft were delivered , the airline rebranded as Norsk Air .
The company also joined the joint venture Commuter Service along with other Norwegian regional airlines , Coast Aero Center , Mørefly and Trønderfly . The intention was to create a cooperative company which could compete in a more diversified market . The group 's lawyer stated that the organizational structure among regional airlines was 15 years out of date and that the group would take market shares in a growing market , especially by starting new niche direct services .
Norsk Air was the second airline in Europe to order the Brasilia , after Air Excel . Three were financed with loans from Banco de Brasil and the last was leased . With the introduction of the Brasilias in 1986 , the airline started a route from Sandefjord to Trondheim Airport , Værnes . From 1985 to 1986 , the airline 's costs doubled , but not their income . In 1987 , Terje Røsjode , former bank chief for Christiania Bank in Sandefjord , took over as managing director . The Brasilias had state @-@ of @-@ art technology , and although airlines purchase new aircraft to reduce their maintenance costs , this was not the reality for Norsk Air because they did not have sufficient competence to maintain the aircraft . In particular , they lacked sufficient electronic expertise , due to the increase of electronic components in the aircraft . All the other aircraft were sold .
In 1986 , the company established a duty @-@ free shop at Torp . By 1987 , Norsk Air was losing NOK 20 million per year . The company established a route from Sandefjord to Gothenburg @-@ Landvetter Airport and to London Stansted Airport , but neither were profitable , and were quickly terminated . Norsk Air started a route from Fagernes Airport , Leirin to Oslo and Bergen on 4 November 1987 . The route turned out to be unprofitable , and was terminated on 1 June 1988 , after the company had lost NOK 5 million on the route .
To develop the company , Kosmos and Norsk Air bought the Kirkenes @-@ based airline Norving , that also operated flights from Skien Airport , Geiteryggen — about one hour 's drive from Sandefjord — to Bergen , Trondheim and Stavanger . Norving had seven types of aircraft , but was losing large amounts of money , although the Norwegian Ministry of Transport and Communications covered their losses on some state @-@ subsidized regional routes . The purchase of Norving caused an internal organization conflict between the two organizations . The operations from Skien were merged into Norsk Air , while the rest of Norving was sold . The latter went bankrupt in 1993 . Norsk Air also showed interested in purchasing Widerøe , but none of the large owners were interested in selling .
= = = Widerøe Norsk Air = = =
Kosmos was bought by the Skaugen Group in 1988 , and on 21 October , Kosmos ' Chief Executive Officer ( CEO ) Bjørn Bettum and Chairman Otto Grieg Tidemand were fired . The Skaugen Group decided to integrate Kosmos ' shipping and oil @-@ related activities into their group . All other investments , including Norsk Air , were to be sold or closed . At the time , Norsk Air had 140 employees . Norsk Air 's CEO , Mr. Røsjodet , made contact with Bård Mikkelsen , who was CEO of Widerøe , to try to convince them to purchase Norsk Air . Widerøe was a that time solely occupied with flying on the subsidized regional routes . The company was interested in having some non @-@ subsidized routes to better benchmark its operations . The two largest owners , Scandinavian Airlines System ( SAS ) and Braathens SAFE , did not want to purchase Norsk Air , but the third @-@ largest owner , Fred . Olsen & Co. liked the idea , and bought SAS ' and Braathens SAFE 's 62 @.@ 3 percent stake in Widerøe to make the deal possible . Other possible purchasers who had negotiated with Norsk Air were Sterling Airlines , Partnair and Jan Einar Johansen , former owner of Scandi Line .
By 1989 , the airline had 156 employees and 150 @,@ 000 annual passengers . On 9 February 1989 , Norsk Air 's board decided to start the termination process if a sale was not made . The employees agreed to cut their wages 10 percent and not take sick days during the sales process . One of the main difficulties in the sales process was that Widerøe could not afford to purchase Norsk Air 's hangar at the airport . Widerøe intended to continue operations at both Torp and Geiteryggen for a year to see where to establish its base . In fear that the airline would move to Skien , the municipalities of Sandefjord and Stokke , who owned the majority of the airport , agreed to purchase the hangar , which had been built for NOK 20 million in 1987 , for NOK 11 @.@ 5 million . Half the hangar would be rented to Widerøe for NOK 500 @,@ 000 per year . This was insufficient to cover the NOK 1 @.@ 2 million in annual interest costs .
Widerøe took over Norsk Air free of charge on 1 May 1989 , and changed the company 's name to Widerøe Norsk Air . The company was kept as a subsidiary to avoid cross @-@ subsidization of the subsidized routes . Widerøe started negotiations with Busy Bee , and agreed to lease the Fokker 50 used by Busy Bee to Sandefjord , in exchange for Busy Bee terminating the route in 1990 . Widerøe Norsk Air also decided that it was not profitable to fly from both Skien and Sandefjord , and terminated all Skien services . Starting on 28 October 1991 , the airline also started a route from Sandefjord via Kristiansand Airport , Kjevik to London . This route was terminated one year later . In 1993 , Widerøe sold its Fokker 50 to Norwegian Air Shuttle . On 1 May 1996 , Widerøe Norsk Air was merged with Widerøe and ceased to exist . After the merger , Widerøe phased out the Brasilias and replaced them with de Havilland Canada Dash 8 aircraft .
= = Destinations = =
The following is a list of destinations served by Norsk Air in regular scheduled services . It includes the city , country , airport and the period in which the airline served the airport . Hubs are denoted with a dagger ( ) .
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= Bart the Genius =
" Bart the Genius " is the second episode of The Simpsons ' first season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on January 14 , 1990 . It was the first episode written by Jon Vitti . It was also the first ever episode to use the opening sequence , as well as the first regular episode . In the episode Bart cheats on an intelligence test and is declared a genius , so he is sent to a school for gifted children . Though he initially enjoys being treated as a genius , he begins to see the downside of his new life .
It marks the first use of Bart 's catchphrase " Eat my shorts " . As the second episode produced , directly after the disastrous animation of " Some Enchanted Evening " , the future of the series depended on how the animation turned out on this episode . The animation proved to be more acceptable and production continued .
= = Plot = =
The Simpson family spend a night of playing Scrabble and Lisa reminds Bart that he is supposed to be stimulating his brain with various vocabulary if he hopes to pass his intelligence test . He cheats his way to victory by coming up with his own word , basing its definition on an insulting description of Homer . This angers his father and he spends time chasing after Bart , much to the embarrassment of his family .
At Springfield Elementary School , Bart is busted for vandalism by Principal Skinner , who has been informed by class genius , Martin Prince . Faced with the prospect of failing an intelligence test , Bart surreptitiously switches exams with Martin . When the school psychologist , Dr. Pryor , studies the results , he identifies Bart as a genius , to the delight of Homer and Marge , who enroll him in a new school . However , Lisa is not fooled by his supposed genius and still believes Bart to be a moron ; Skinner shares her belief , but takes advantage of Bart 's departure from the school .
At the Enriched Learning Center for Gifted Children , Bart feels out of place among the other students with advanced academic skills . Meanwhile , Marge attempts to stimulate Bart with a little culture by taking the family to the opera . However , this proves disastrous as Bart and Homer are quite disruptive , much to Lisa 's joy . Ostracized by his brilliant classmates , Bart visits his former school , where his old friends reject him because of his perceived intelligence . On the bright side , he enjoys newfound attention from Homer and he covers for them when Marge makes another attempt to stimulate Bart 's brain by taking to a ballet recital . After Bart 's chemistry experiment explodes , filling the school lab with green goo , he confesses to Dr. Pryor that he switched tests with Martin . Dr. Pryor realizes that he was never a genius and has him readmitted to Springfield Elementary .
Bart returns home and tells Homer that he cheated on the intelligence test , but that he is glad they are closer than ever . An angry Homer chases Bart through the house , only for Bart to lock the door of his bedroom . Lisa pronounces that Bart is back to being his normal , dumb self .
= = Production = =
The concept for the episode developed from writer Jon Vitti coming up with a long list of bad things Bart would do for attention imagining the potential consequences . The only idea that developed into an interesting episode concept was Bart cheating on an IQ test . This idea was based on an incident from Vitti 's childhood when a number of his classmates did not take an intelligence test seriously and suffered poor academic treatment because of it . Because Bart was already obviously unintelligent , Vitti reversed the problem for his episode . Vitti used all his memories of elementary school behavior to produce a draft script of 71 pages , substantially above the required length of about 45 pages .
It was Vitti 's first script for a 30 @-@ minute television program . Bart 's use of the phrase " Eat my shorts " was intended to reflect his adoption of catchphrases he had heard on TV ; the creative team had told Vitti that he should not come up with original taglines for the character . The scene where the family plays Scrabble was inspired by the 1985 cartoon The Big Snit .
Director David Silverman had difficulty devising a legible Scrabble board for the opening scene that would convey the idea that the Simpsons were only able to devise very simple words . The design of Bart 's visualization of the math problem was partially inspired by the art of Saul Steinberg . The increasing appearance of numbers in that sequence derived from Silverman 's use of a similar tactic when he had to develop a set design for the play The Adding Machine .
Each successive scene in the sequence was shorter than the one before it by exactly one frame . The scene where Bart writes his confession was done as one long take to balance the shorter scenes elsewhere in the episode . It was animated in the United States by Dan Haskett . There were a few problems with the finished animation for the episode . The banana in the opening scene was colored incorrectly , as the Korean animators were unfamiliar with the fruit , and the final bathtub scene was particularly problematic , including issues with lip sync . The version in the broadcast episode was the best of several attempts .
The episode was the first to feature the series ' full title sequence . Creator Matt Groening developed the lengthy sequence in order to cut down on the animation necessary for each episode , but devised the two gags as compensation for the repeated material each week . In the first gag , the camera zooms in on Springfield Elementary School , where Bart can be seen writing a message on the chalkboard . This message , which changes from episode to episode , has become known as the " chalkboard gag " . The other gag is known as a " couch gag " , in which a twist of events occur when the family meets to sit on their couch and watch television . Groening , who had not paid much attention to television since his own childhood , was unaware that title sequences of such length were uncommon by that time . As the finished episodes became longer , the production team were reluctant to cut the stories in order to allow for the long title sequence , so shorter versions of it were developed . The episode also introduced the characters Martin Prince and his parents , Richard , Bart 's teacher Edna Krabappel and Dr. J Loren Pryor .
= = Cultural references = =
In the opening scene , Maggie spells EMCSQU with her blocks , a reference to Albert Einstein 's mass @-@ energy equivalence equation . A picture of Einstein also appears on the wall of Dr. Pryor 's office . At one point Homer erroneously refers to Einstein as the inventor of the light bulb . Dr. Pryor compares Bart 's proposed work among ordinary children to Jane Goodall 's study of chimpanzees . Goodall was pleased to be mentioned in the episode , sending the program a letter , and Vitti an autographed copy of her book . The conductor of the opera the family attends is named Boris Csupowski , a reference to animator Gabor Csupo . The opera attended by the family is Carmen , by French composer Georges Bizet ; the song that Bart mocks is a famous aria called the Toreador Song . Students at the gifted school have lunchboxes that feature images of the 1945 novel Brideshead Revisited and chess grandmaster Anatoly Karpov .
= = Reception and legacy = =
In its original American broadcast , " Bart the Genius " finished 47th place in the weekly ratings for the week of January 8 – January 14 , 1990 with a Nielsen rating of 12 @.@ 7 . It was the second highest rated show on the Fox Network that week . Since airing , the episode has received mostly positive reviews from television critics . Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , the authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , strongly praised the episode calling it " superbly written and directed , often a literal child 's @-@ eye view of education , the first Simpsons episode proper is a classic . " They went on to say , " these twenty minutes cemented Bart 's position as a cultural icon and a hero to all underachievers , and managed a good few kicks at hothouse schools along the way . Especially worthy of note is the sequence where Bart visualises his maths problem , the viewing of which should be a required part of teacher training . "
In September 2001 , in an DVD review of the first season , David B. Grelck gave the episode a rating of 2 ½ / 5 and commented that the episode was " wacky and fun , very Bart centered , it 's easy to see with this episode why Bart became the figurehead for a few years of class clowns " . Colin Jacobson at DVD Movie Guide said in a review that the episode " offered another decent but unspectacular episode " and further commented that " its early vintage seems clear both through the awkward animation and the lack of appropriate character development . "
In February 1991 , in an interview , Jon Vitti described " Bart the Genius " as his favorite among the episodes he wrote to that point . James L. Brooks also mentioned the episode among his favorites , saying that " we did things with animation when that happened that just opened doors for us . " The show received mail from viewers complaining that the throwing away of a comic book was an incident of censorship . The invented word " Kwyjibo " in the episode inspired the creator of the Melissa macro virus , as well as the name of an Iron Oxide Copper Gold deposit in Quebec .
= = Home release = =
The episode was released first on home video in the United Kingdom , as part of a VHS release titled The Simpsons Collection ; the episode was paired with season one episode " The Call of the Simpsons " . In the United Kingdom , it was once re released as part of VHS boxed set of the complete first season , released in November 1999 .
In the United States , the episode would finally see the home video release as a part of The Simpsons Season One DVD set , which was released on September 25 , 2001 . Groening , Brooks , Silverman , and Vitti participated in the DVD 's audio commentary . A digital edition of the series ' first season was published December 20 , 2010 in the United States containing the episode , through Amazon Video and iTunes .
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= Outflow ( meteorology ) =
Outflow , in meteorology , is air that flows outwards from a storm system . It is associated with ridging , or anticyclonic flow . In the low levels of the troposphere , outflow radiates from thunderstorms in the form of a wedge of rain @-@ cooled air , which is visible as a thin rope @-@ like cloud on weather satellite imagery or a fine line on weather radar imagery . Low @-@ level outflow boundaries can disrupt the center of small tropical cyclones . However , outflow aloft is essential for the strengthening of a tropical cyclone . If this outflow is undercut , the tropical cyclone weakens . If two tropical cyclones are in proximity , the upper level outflow from the system to the west can limit the development of the system to the east .
= = Thunderstorms = =
For thunderstorms , outflow tends to indicate the development of a system . Large quantities of outflow at the upper levels of a thunderstorm indicate its development . Too much outflow in the lower levels of a thunderstorm , however , can choke off the low @-@ level inflow which fuels it . Squall lines typically bow out the most , or bend the most convex outward , at the leading edge of low level outflow due to the formation of a mesoscale high @-@ pressure area which forms within the stratiform rain area behind the initial line . This high pressure area is formed due to strong descending motion behind the squall line , and could come in the form of a downburst .
The " edge " of the outflow boundary can often be detected by Doppler radar ( especially in clear air mode ) . Convergence occurs along the leading edge of the downdraft . Convergence of dust , aerosols , and bugs at the leading edge will lead to a higher clear air signature . Insects and arthropods are swept along by the prevailing winds , making them good indicators of the presence of outflow boundaries . The signature of the leading edge is also influenced by the density change between the cooler air from the downdraft and the warmer environmental air . This density boundary will increase the number of echo returns from the leading edge . Clouds and new thunderstorms also develop along the outflow 's leading edge . This makes it possible to locate the outflow boundary when using precipitation mode on a weather radar . Also , it makes outflow boundaries findable within visible satellite imagery as a thin line of cumuliform clouds which is known as an arcus , or arc , cloud . The image to the right depicts a particularly strong ouflow boundary ahead of a line of storms . Often , the outflow boundary will bow in the direction it is moving the quickest .
= = Tropical cyclones = =
The development of a significant mesoscale convective complex can send out a large enough outflow boundary to weaken the cyclone as the tropical cyclone center moves into the more stable air mass behind the leading edge of thunderstorm outflow , or outflow boundary . Moderate vertical wind shear can lead to the initial development of the convective complex and surface low similar to the mid @-@ latitudes , but it must relax to allow tropical cyclogenesis to continue .
While the most obvious motion of clouds is toward the center , tropical cyclones also develop an upper @-@ level ( high @-@ altitude ) outward flow of clouds . These originate from air that has released its moisture and is expelled at high altitude through the " chimney " of the storm engine . This outflow produces high , thin cirrus clouds that spiral away from the center . The clouds are thin enough for the sun to be visible through them . These high cirrus clouds may be the first signs of an approaching tropical cyclone . As air parcels are lifted within the eye of the storm the vorticity is reduced , causing the outflow from a tropical cyclone to have anticyclonic motion . If two tropical cyclones are in proximity to one another , the outflow from the system downstream ( normally to the west ) can hinder the development of the system upstream ( normally to the east ) .
= = Local effects = =
Low @-@ level outflow boundaries from thunderstorms are cooler and more moist than the air mass the thunderstorm originally formed within due to its wet bulbing by rain , forming a wedge of denser air which spreads out from the base of the parent thunderstorm . If wind speeds are high enough , such as during microburst events , dust and sand can be carried into the troposphere , reducing visibility . This type of weather event is known as a haboob , and is most common in the late spring within Sudan . Upper @-@ level outflow can consist of thick cirrus clouds which would then obscure the sun and reduce solar insolation around the outermost edge of tropical cyclones .
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= Metal Gear Solid 3 : Snake Eater =
Metal Gear Solid 3 : Snake Eater is an action @-@ adventure stealth video game directed by Hideo Kojima . Snake Eater was developed by Konami Computer Entertainment Japan and published by Konami for the PlayStation 2 , and was released on November 17 , 2004 , in North America ; December 16 , 2004 , in Japan ; and in March 2005 in Europe and Australia . The game serves as a prequel to the entire Metal Gear series .
Set in 1964 ( three decades before the events of the original Metal Gear ) , the story centers on FOX operative codenamed Naked Snake as he attempts to rescue a weapons designer , sabotage an experimental superweapon , and assassinate his defected former boss . While previous games were set in a primarily urban environment , Snake Eater adopts a 1960s Soviet jungle setting , with the high tech , near @-@ future trappings of previous Metal Gear Solid games being replaced with the wilderness . While the setting has changed , the game 's focus remains on stealth and infiltration , while retaining the series ' self @-@ referential , fourth wall @-@ breaking sense of humor . The story of Snake Eater is told through numerous cut scenes and radio conversations .
Metal Gear Solid 3 : Snake Eater was critically acclaimed , and sold 3 @.@ 6 million copies worldwide by August 2005 . It is now widely considered to be one of the greatest video games of all time .
= = Gameplay = =
The gameplay of Snake Eater is similar to that of previous games in the Metal Gear Solid series . Snake , controlled by the player , must move undetected through a hostile , enemy @-@ filled environment . Although Snake acquires various weapons ( ranging from handguns to rocket propelled grenades ) , the emphasis is on using stealth to avoid confrontations . A number of objects and gadgets can be found along the way to aid in this , including motion detectors to track hostile soldiers , and the Metal Gear series ' trademark cardboard box , which Snake can hide under to avoid visual detection .
Despite the fundamental similarities , Snake Eater introduces many new aspects of gameplay not present in previous Metal Gear games , including camouflage , a new hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat system called " close quarters combat " or " CQC " , a stamina gauge , and an injury @-@ and @-@ treatment system .
Approximately two @-@ thirds of the game is set outdoors in a Soviet Union rainforest , and using this varied environment to its fullest potential is often the key to success . Of the new features , particular emphasis is placed on camouflage and using the jungle environment itself ( for example , climbing trees or hiding in tall grass ) to avoid being seen by the enemy . The advanced radar from previous games has been removed in favor of a simple motion detector and sonar system more suitable for the game 's time period .
A percentage value called the " camouflage index " gauges Snake 's exposure , on a scale from negative values ( highly visible and attracting attention ) up to 100 % ( completely invisible to the enemy ) . In order to minimize visibility , the player must switch between different camouflage uniforms and face paints to blend in with the environment ; for example , wearing a bark @-@ patterned uniform while leaning against a tree , or wearing striped face paint while hiding in tall grass . Other devices for camouflage , such as a fake gavial head to decrease chances of being detected in water , are also available .
The basic close combat from previous installments has been heavily refined and expanded into the CQC system . When unarmed or using a one @-@ handed weapon , Snake can grab opponents and put them in a chokehold , at which point a variety of actions can be performed , such as choking the enemy unconscious , slitting the enemy 's throat , or interrogating them at knifepoint to obtain information . The context , pressure applied to the button , and movement of the analog stick determine the action performed .
While previous games used only a simple life bar , Snake Eater also keeps track of injuries over the entire body . For example , a long fall could fracture Snake 's leg , slowing him down until the injury is properly treated with a splint and bandage . Unless these injuries are treated , Snake will not be able to fully recover his health for some time .
The location brings in the need to rely upon native flora and fauna to survive . This is manifested in a stamina gauge , which constantly depletes during gameplay . Failure to restore the gauge by eating has detrimental effects on gameplay , such as decreasing Snake 's ability to aim his weapon and being heard by the enemy due to Snake 's loud stomach grumbles . Food can be stored in the backpack until it is needed . However , some types of food rot over time , and consuming rotten foods may result in Snake developing a stomach ache , causing the stamina gauge to deplete faster .
The PlayStation 2 versions of Snake Eater include a minigame called Snake vs. Monkey , in which Snake has to catch Ape Escape @-@ style monkeys . In addition to containing tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek humor , bonus items usable in the main game can be unlocked by progressing through various stages .
= = Plot = =
= = = Characters = = =
The protagonist of Snake Eater , Naked Snake ( David Hayter / Akio Ōtsuka ) , known as Big Boss in subsequent games , is a young former Green Beret assigned to the CIA unit FOX . During his mission , Snake is assisted by fellow FOX members over his radio : Major Zero ( Jim Piddock / Banjō Ginga ) , commander of FOX and a former member of the British Special Air Service , who provides Snake with mission advice and battle tactics ; Para @-@ Medic ( Heather Halley / Houko Kuwashima ) , who provides medical information , as well as advice on flora and fauna ; and Sigint ( James C. Mathis III / Keiji Fujiwara ) , who provides weapon and equipment information .
The two primary antagonists of the game are Colonel Volgin ( Neil Ross / Kenji Utsumi ) , an electricity @-@ controlling GRU colonel and member of the extreme Brezhnev faction , who are attempting to overthrow Nikita Khrushchev to seize power for Leonid Brezhnev and Alexei Kosygin , and The Boss ( Lori Alan / Kikuko Inoue ) , former mentor to Naked Snake and co @-@ founder of the FOX unit . The Cobra Unit , a Special Forces unit led by The Boss , is composed of The End ( J. Grant Albrecht / Osamu Saka ) , a venerable expert sniper credited as the " father of modern sniping " ; The Fear ( Michael Bell / Kazumi Tanaka ) , who has supernatural flexibility and agility ; The Fury ( Richard Doyle / Masato Hirano ) , a disfigured former cosmonaut armed with a flamethrower and a jetpack ; The Pain ( Gregg Berger / Hisao Egawa ) , who can control hornets to both defend himself and attack his enemies ; and The Sorrow ( David Thomas / Yukitoshi Hori ) , the spirit of a deceased medium .
Other characters include Dr. Sokolov ( Brian Cummings / Naoki Tatsuta ) , a rocket scientist whom Snake must rescue ; EVA ( Suzetta Miñet / Misa Watanabe ) , Snake 's love interest , American defector , and KGB agent sent to assist him , and a young Ocelot ( Josh Keaton / Takumi Yamazaki ) , commander of the elite Ocelot Unit within Volgin 's GRU .
= = = Story = = =
= = = = Virtuous Mission = = = =
Metal Gear Solid 3 is set before the events of first Metal Gear during the Cold War in 1964 , where a CIA agent , codenamed " Naked Snake " , is sent to the jungles of Tselinoyarsk , in the USSR . Aided over radio by Major Zero , Para @-@ Medic , and his former mentor The Boss , his mission is to rescue a defecting Soviet scientist named Sokolov who is secretly developing an advanced nuclear @-@ equipped tank called the " Shagohod " . The mission goes smoothly until The Boss defects and provides her new benefactor , Colonel Volgin , with two Davy Crockett miniature nuclear shells . Sokolov is captured by Cobra Unit and Snake is heavily injured and thrown off a bridge by The Boss , allowing Volgin and his cohorts to escape with Sokolov . Volgin detonates one of the nuclear shells to cover up its theft , which is subsequently blamed on The Boss . Snake is recovered using the Fulton Recovery System .
= = = = Operation Snake Eater = = = =
Having detected the U.S. aircraft which deployed Snake flying over Soviet soil , the Soviet Union declares the United States responsible for the nuclear attack , tipping both nations to the edge of a nuclear war . In a secret conference between U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson and Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev , a deal is hatched to prove the U.S. ' s innocence and restore peace . The United States agrees to stop Volgin 's renegade faction , destroy the stolen Shagohod and eliminate the American defector , The Boss .
A week after being rescued from the region , Snake is redeployed into the Soviet jungle as part of " Operation : Snake Eater " , to fulfill the United States ' promises . During the mission , he gains the assistance of another American defector , ex @-@ NSA agent EVA , who defected a few years earlier ( though she is informed she would be helped by ADAM , who defected with her ) . After numerous encounters with the elite Ocelot Unit ( led by a young Revolver Ocelot ) , and defeating nearly every member of Cobra Unit , Snake succeeds in locating Sokolov and the stolen Shagohod , only to be captured in Volgin 's military fortress , Groznyj Grad . After listening to Volgin brutally beat Sokolov to death , Snake is tortured by Volgin and loses his eye while protecting EVA from Ocelot , who was attempting to kill her upon suspecting her of being a spy ; Snake ultimately escapes .
When he returns to the facility to destroy the Shagohod , Snake is once again confronted by Volgin and learns of " The Philosophers " . Made up of the most powerful men in the United States , Soviet Union , and China , they were an Illuminati @-@ like organization who control the world behind the scenes . However , after the end of World War II , they began to fight amongst themselves , and the organization broke down . The Philosopher 's Legacy , a fund the organization had jointly amassed to finance their wars ( $ 100 billion ) , was divided up and hidden in banks all over the world . Volgin had illegally inherited this money , and Snake learns that the U.S. is attempting to retrieve it .
Snake continues his mission , destroying the facility and the Shagohod tank , while engaging Volgin , who is killed by a bolt of lightning during the battle . Snake and EVA travel to a lake , where a WIG ground effect vehicle is hidden . Before they use it to escape the region , Snake confronts his old mentor , The Boss , whom he must assassinate to complete his mission . After an emotional battle , Snake overcomes his feelings and kills The Boss , emerging victorious . He and EVA escape to Alaska , and spend the night together as they make love . During the night , EVA disappears , and leaves behind a tape revealing herself to be a Chinese spy sent to steal the Philosopher 's Legacy for China . The tape continues , and EVA reveals that The Boss did not defect to the Soviet Union ; rather , she was under orders to pretend to defect so she could infiltrate Volgin 's ranks and find the location of the Legacy , which could be brought back to America . The final part of her mission was to sacrifice her honor and die at the hands of Snake , under the guise of a traitor , to prove the U.S. ' s innocence in Volgin 's nuclear attack from the beginning of the game .
Snake is awarded the title of " Big Boss " and given the Distinguished Service Cross for his efforts by President Johnson in front of his FOX Unit and other officials ; however Snake has become so distraught and demoralized after EVA 's revelation that he leaves almost immediately after getting his medal , hardly acknowledging Major Zero , Para @-@ Medic and Sigint . Later , he arrives at an anonymous grave , The Boss 's , just one of thousands located in Arlington National Cemetery . Laying down The Boss 's gun and a bouquet of lilies upon the nameless gravestone , he scans the endless rows before him , salutes , and sheds a single tear , knowing that The Boss 's true patriotism would be known by only EVA , himself , and others who knew of her mission .
After the credits roll , Ocelot is heard talking to an unknown man over the telephone . Ocelot informs him that the microfilm stolen by EVA was a fake and that half of the Philosopher 's Legacy is now in America 's hands , with the other half held by the KGB . It transpires that Ocelot has been triple @-@ crossing everyone from the very beginning . He then reveals that he is in fact ADAM , that he is talking to the director of the CIA , and that he has been working for the said agency all this time .
= = Development = =
Originally , the game was supposed to be developed for the PlayStation 3 , but due to the long wait for the PS3 , the game was developed for the PlayStation 2 instead . From the outset , the game 's director Hideo Kojima wished to drastically change the setting from previous games . He stated that the jungle setting is what both his development team , and the Metal Gear fans , wanted . However , he acknowledged that the elements of a jungle environment , such as the weather , landscape and wildlife , were features that would present problems during the game 's development . Whereas in previous installments the player starts out close to , or even within , the enemy base , Kojima wished Snake Eater to be more realistic , with Snake starting out miles from civilization and having to work his way to the enemy encampment .
Kojima commented that the outside environment was very difficult to create . He explained that the reason previous games were primarily set indoors is because the current consoles were not powerful enough to portray a true jungle environment . In contrast with urban environments , the jungle does not have a flat surface . The protagonist in Snake Eater has to cross uneven terrain , including rocks , dirt mounds , and treestumps . As a result , the collision engine used in previous installments could not be used , and a new one had to be built from scratch . Setting up the motion capture technology so players could walk over these mounds was a problem during development .
Many fans wanted Snake Eater to use a 3D camera , but this was ultimately not implemented in the game . Kojima views Metal Gear Solid , Sons of Liberty and Snake Eater as a trilogy , and wished to keep the camera the same as the previous two in order to keep the feel of the three games the same . He did , however , acknowledge that the current trend for video games is to use the 3D camera . The camera was later implemented in an updated version of Snake Eater titled Metal Gear Solid 3 : Subsistence , and further installments in the franchise .
Kojima designed boss battles of Snake Eater to be totally different from those in previous Metal Gear games , or any other games . He said that the boss battle with sniper The End best represented free , open gameplay in the game . The battle takes place over a large area of dense jungle , and the player must search extensively for The End , who attacks over long range from an unknown position . This battle of attrition can last for hours , and contrasts with other boss fights in which the enemy is right in front of the player and in view the whole time . In addition , the player has the ability to both avoid this boss battle altogether by killing The End earlier in the game ; or save and quit during the fight , wait a week , and reload the game to find The End having died of old age . Kojima commented that features like this do not appear in other games .
= = = Music = = =
The musical score of Snake Eater was composed by Harry Gregson @-@ Williams and Norihiko Hibino , who provided material for both cut scenes and the game itself . Hibino wrote the game 's opening theme , " Snake Eater " , a distinctly Bond @-@ like vocal track which also appears in the game proper , as performed by Cynthia Harrell . Composer and lyricist Rika Muranaka provides a song called " Don 't Be Afraid " which is played during the ending for the game . The song is performed by Elisa Fiorillo .
In a break from tradition , one of the ending themes of the game was not an in @-@ house production , but Starsailor 's " Way To Fall " . Hideo Kojima later revealed in his blog that he originally wanted to use " Space Oddity " and " Ashes to Ashes " ( by David Bowie ) for the ending themes because of the space development theme of the game , but during the game 's development that theme lost its significance . One of his colleagues then advised him to listen to Stellastarr , but Kojima heard Starsailor . He liked the song " Way To Fall " , and chose it as an ending theme .
= = Reception = =
Snake Eater was a commercial success and sold 3 @.@ 6 million copies worldwide by August 2005 . Although this is considerably lower than Metal Gear Solid 2 : Sons of Liberty , which has sold 7 million copies to date , critics were pleased with the new protagonist , Naked Snake — who strongly resembles the series protagonist Solid Snake — after fans were disappointed by Raiden in MGS2 . Some critics , who found the lengthy dialogues and multitude of plot twists in Sons of Liberty to be detrimental to the game experience found the storyline of Snake Eater a pleasing throwback to the original Metal Gear Solid , with less of the " philosophical babble " present in Sons of Liberty .
= = = Critical response = = =
Metal Gear Solid 3 : Snake Eater was critically acclaimed , and was given high scores by some of the most prominent gaming critics . On the review aggregator GameRankings , the game has an average score of 91 @.@ 77 % based on 86 reviews . On Metacritic , the game had an average score of 91 / 100 , based on 68 reviews . Gaming website IGN awarded a 9 @.@ 6 / 10 and Edge rated it 8 / 10 . GameSpot , who granted it an 8 @.@ 7 / 10 , commented that the game is " richly cinematic " and " a great achievement . " GameSpy hailed it as " probably the best Metal Gear Solid game yet " , and Eurogamer called it " overwhelmingly superior to MGS2 : Sons of Liberty " in their review .
Reviewers had mixed opinions about the game 's camouflage system . Edge commented that " laying , camouflaged , in short grass inches away from a patrolling enemy is a gripping twist on stealth , " while GameSpy criticized it as " just a number to monitor and not a terribly interesting one . " Out of the variety of new features , GameSpot called it " the most important and best implemented . " The game has also been criticized for its low frame rate , which has been reduced to 30 frame / s ( compared with 60 frame / s in Sons of Liberty ) .
The cut scenes of Snake Eater have been called " visually exciting and evocative , beautifully shot " by Edge . However , they commented that the script " ranges from awkward to awful " and criticized David Hayter 's performance as Snake , concluding that " Snake Eater 's speech is not up to the standard of other games , let alone cinema . " GameSpot said that some of the humor " falls flat , as if lost in translation from Japanese " and " should appeal to ... hardcore fans but ... takes you out of the moment . "
= = = Awards = = =
Since its release in 2004 , the game has received numerous awards . Notable ones include " best overall action game " , " best overall story " and " best PS2 use of sound " in IGN 's Best of 2004 awards , and " best story " , " best sound effects " and " best new character " in GameSpot 's Game of the Year 2004 awards .
Snake Eater 's theme song won the " Best Original Vocal Song - Pop " from the Game Audio Network Guild at the Game Developers Conference in August 2005 , while the game itself won the award for " Best PS2 Game " at 2005 's Game Convention in Germany . David Hayter , voice of Snake , was nominated for the Academy of Interactive Arts and Sciences award for " Outstanding Achievement in Character Performance . "
= = = Legacy = = =
Snake Eater was developed as a prequel to the entire Metal Gear series , and was followed by several direct sequels : Metal Gear Solid : Portable Ops , Metal Gear Solid : Peace Walker , Metal Gear Solid V : Ground Zeroes , and Metal Gear Solid V : Phantom Pain . In 2011 , Kojima revealed that he floated the idea of a Metal Gear Solid 5 set during the World War II invasion of Normandy , showing The Boss and Cobra Unit 's assistance in the fight . However , the team was hesitant about such a big project and Kojima later felt that " simply dropping MGS5 on the younger staff members was a bit heavy . "
The game has since been listed on several " Best of ... " lists by video @-@ gaming publications . In 2009 , IGN placed Subsistence at number 3 on its " The Top 25 PS2 Games of All Time " list . GamePro listed Snake Eater and Subsistence at 8th place on its list of " The 36 Best PS2 Games " in 2010 . That same year , IGN ranked Snake Eater 2nd on its list of the " Top 100 PlayStation 2 Games " , and said that it had " the best story in the franchise . " In 2013 , GamesRadar placed the game at number 22 on its " The 100 Best Games of All Time " list . That same year , the game 's story was ranked 10th place on GamesRadar 's list of " The Best Videogame Stories Ever " . In 2015 , the game placed 2nd on USgamer 's " The 15 Best Games Since 2000 " list .
= = Release history = =
Like Metal Gear Solid 2 : Sons of Liberty before it , Snake Eater was first released in North America ; the Japanese release was held back for almost a month after that . However , the Japanese version featured a downloadable camouflage pattern unavailable in North America . A limited edition premium package of Snake Eater was released alongside the standard version in Japan . The premium package came with a video DVD disc featuring all the promotional trailers shown prior to the game 's release ( including a proof of concept video shown internally within Konami ) , two booklets and a painted 1 / 144 @-@ scale model of the Shagohod . A special limited edition CD was given away to those who preordered the Japanese version of Snake Eater , which included several tracks from the game 's soundtrack , as well as computer screensavers and additional camouflage for the main game . The pre @-@ order package allowed cell phone users to access a special site featuring image and music downloads .
For the European release , Konami added several new features , including the " European Extreme " difficulty setting , a Demo Theater of the game 's cut scenes , and a Duel Mode , where players can replay boss battles from the main game , in addition to extra facepaints based on European flags and two new " Snake vs. Monkey " levels .
= = = Subsistence = = =
Metal Gear Solid 3 : Subsistence was released in Japan on December 22 , 2005 , later in North America on March 14 , 2006 , in Europe on October 6 , 2006 and in Australia on October 13 , 2006 . Subsistence continues the Metal Gear Solid series tradition of follow @-@ up expanded versions . While previous releases , such as Metal Gear Solid : Integral and Metal Gear Solid 2 : Substance included skill challenge missions and / or side story missions , Subsistence eschews the extra single @-@ player missions to include updated versions of the series ' first two games , Metal Gear and Metal Gear 2 : Solid Snake , a brand @-@ new competitive online mode , and a fully 3D , user @-@ controlled camera in the main portion of the game .
Subsistence 's online multiplayer component , titled Metal Gear Online , consists of five tournament @-@ style game modes , each with a capacity of up to eight players . This mode pits players , each playing as a generic soldier against each other in deathmatch battles and variations of capture the flag , using stages , items , maneuvers , and units ( such as the KGB , GRU or Ocelot Unit ) from the main game . Depending on server settings , each round the highest @-@ scoring player in each unit automatically assumes the role of one of the main characters ( or Reiko Hinomoto from Rumble Roses ) , along with unique abilities and / or items . For example , the highest scoring player on the GRU team would assume the role of Major Raikov , leader of the GRU , next round . Konami 's Metal Gear Online service for the PlayStation 2 closed in Japan on December 26 , 2006 , followed by in North America on April 2 , 2007 and in Europe on October 30 , 2007 , although a fan community has revived it by emulating the servers . As noted above , the online mode , after one of the players unlocks an animal codename , also allowed for the player to play as either Reiko Hinomoto or Rowdy Reiko from Rumble Roses ( depending if the player in question was of red team or blue team , respectively ) . According to Metal Gear series creator Hideo Kojima , he added the characters into the game as secret characters in part due to opportunity : Kojima had earlier been offered a deal with Rumble Roses producer Akari Uchida to make a crossover between Metal Gear and Rumble Roses . However , the Metal Gear development team at the time refused to work with them . Kojima eventually accepted the offer when trying to decide on secret characters for the online mode for Subsistence to tie up loose ends . He also admitted that he originally considered offering Tomonobu Itagaki , at the time the producer of the Tecmo fighting game series Dead or Alive , the opportunity of using one of his characters as a secret character .
In addition to the older games and the online mode , Subsistence includes many minor features common to international version releases . It includes the downloadable extra camouflage and face paint designs and " Snake vs. Monkey " stages previously exclusive to the European release , the European Extreme difficulty level , parody cut scenes and trailers from the official website , and connectivity with Metal Gear Acid 2 . The Japanese version also includes a URL for a hidden website that allows the download of OtaClock , a PC and Mac clock program that features Metal Gear Solid series recurring character Otacon . This website is now publicly available .
" Limited Edition " copies of Subsistence also include Existence , the game 's cut scenes edited into a three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ hour feature film with additional scenes and remastered sound . The North American " Limited Edition " package was only available to consumers who pre @-@ ordered it before the game 's release . The three disc edition is the standard release of Subsistence in Europe to make up for the title 's lengthy delay .
A bonus documentary DVD video titled Metal Gear Saga Vol . 1 was bundled with pre @-@ orders for Subsistence in North America and with the European Platinum reissue of Snake Eater released in Germany on March 23 , 2006 . The disc includes a five @-@ part , 30 @-@ minute featurette about the entire Metal Gear series interspersed with an interview of Hideo Kojima , as well as trailers for various current Metal Gear games .
Subsistence received marginally higher review scores than the original Snake Eater , averaging 94 % on Metacritic . Reviewers commented that the introduction of the 3D camera removed the " only grade @-@ A problem " and makes the gameplay feel " less restrictive and more natural . " The online mode is considered " impressive for a PS2 game " , though " [ Snake Eater ] ' s distinctive gameplay conventions do not entirely lend themselves to the online action @-@ gaming experience . " Subsistence received IGN 's award for " best online game " for the PlayStation 2 in December 2006 .
= = = HD Edition = = =
Konami released a graphically upgraded version of Snake Eater titled Metal Gear Solid 3 : Snake Eater - HD Edition for PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 consoles in late 2011 , and early 2012 in Europe . It was released as a stand @-@ alone digital download , as well as part of the Metal Gear Solid HD Collection , which also include Metal Gear Solid 2 : Sons of Liberty and Metal Gear Solid : Peace Walker . The PS3 and Xbox 360 versions runs in a resolution of 720p and aims for a target framerate of 60 frames per second , compared to the PS2 version 's maximum of 30 FPS . The HD Edition features some of the content from the Subsistence version , such as the third @-@ person camera , demo theater and the inclusion of the MSX2 Metal Gear games , but lacks the online multiplayer mode and the " Snake vs. Monkey " minigame ( due to this version also being released on the Xbox 360 ) . A PlayStation Vita version of the Metal Gear Solid HD Collection on June 2012 , which features Metal Gear Solid 2 and 3 ; this version of Metal Gear Solid 3 features limited touch controls to take advantage of the Vita 's touch screen , and compared to the PS2 version , the framerate is a more consistent 30 FPS , with less screen tearing .
= = = Metal Gear Solid : Snake Eater 3D = = =
At Electronic Entertainment Expo 2010 , Konami displayed a technical demo for the Nintendo 3DS entitled Metal Gear Solid 3D : Snake Eater – The Naked Sample . The demo 's subtitle " The Naked Sample " was meant to convey its purpose as just a sample of the 3DS hardware , with no plans to bring a game to production at that point . Series producer Hideo Kojima stated at the time that if a Metal Gear game for the 3DS was actually made they would consider some elements from the PlayStation Portable title Metal Gear Solid : Peace Walker , including the game 's cooperative gameplay system . Later in 2010 , Konami announced a full Metal Gear title for release on the 3DS , which was revealed at Nintendo World 2011 to be Metal Gear Solid : Snake Eater 3D . It was released on February 21 , 2012 in North America and March 8 , 2012 worldwide .
Due to the limited interface of the 3DS , as well as to take advantage of the touch screen , 3D has vastly unique controls when compared to other games in the Metal Gear series . While the game has been heavily criticized for these control changes , use of the Circle Pad Pro peripheral has been cited to alleviate much of the control issues of the 3DS . This is done by restoring camera movement to the second analog stick , adding ZL and ZR buttons for aiming and attacking , and allowing the face buttons to be used in a manner more in line with all other releases in the Metal Gear series .
3D also has certain optional in @-@ game differences that affect play , such as the concise over the shoulder third @-@ person view and the addition of crouch @-@ walking . Firing in this third @-@ person view substitutes an open cross @-@ hair for the standard down @-@ the @-@ barrel sighting of the standard FPS view . This method of aiming can seem less precise , but does allow for a greater margin of error in accuracy . 3D makes use of the 3DS console 's gyroscope , which is used to maintain balance when walking across a bridge or standing on tree branches . The camouflage system has also been updated , allowing the player to make use of the 3DS ' camera to make a custom camouflage pattern . The port features numerous graphical improvements over the initial PlayStation 2 version including better character models and the addition of normal mapping . Despite this , the framerate has been criticized for falling far below the other versions of Snake Eater . Snake Eater 3D has met with positive reviews , averaging 77 @.@ 74 % at GameRankings based on 34 reviews , and 78 / 100 at Metacritic based on 46 reviews .
= = = Other re @-@ releases = = =
The 20th Anniversary Edition of Metal Gear released in Japan includes the first disc of Subsistence , with a second disc containing the MSX2 versions of Metal Gear and Metal Gear 2 , without the other extra game modes that were featured in Subsistence ( Snake vs. Monkey , Metal Gear Online , Secret Theater and Duel Mode ) . The version of Metal Gear Solid 3 : Subsistence included in the North American Essential Collection box set is missing the MSX2 games .
= = Pachislot = =
KPE , the parlor entertainment subsidiary of Konami , announced a pachislot adaptation of Metal Gear Solid : Snake Eater scheduled to be released in Japan sometime during Autumn 2016 . It will be released on a new type of pachislot cabinet known as the " Big Boss " , which features a 32 @-@ inch LCD monitor in full HD covering its front surface . Scenes from the original video game have been redone in updated CGI to showcase the cabinet 's high @-@ end video capabilities . The announcement of this pachislot has been met with backlash among the Metal Gear following the controversy surrounding the circumstances of Kojima 's departure from Konami , with the official trailer on KPE 's Youtube channel currently holding over 53 @,@ 000 thumbs down after 980 @,@ 000 views .
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= Cold Blood ( Doctor Who ) =
" Cold Blood " is the ninth episode in the fifth series of British science fiction television series Doctor Who , which was first broadcast on 29 May 2010 on BBC One . It was written by Chris Chibnall and directed by Ashley Way . It is the second episode of a two @-@ part story , the first episode being " The Hungry Earth " , which features the return of the reptilian humanoid Silurians .
Continuing from the previous episode , alien time traveller the Doctor ( Matt Smith ) and geologist Nasreen Chaudhry ( Meera Syal ) have taken the TARDIS deep below the ground to the Silurian city where the Doctor 's companion Amy Pond ( Karen Gillan ) , a local man named Mo ( Alun Raglan ) , and Mo 's son Elliot ( Samuel Davies ) are being held hostage . Meanwhile , above ground , Amy 's fiancé Rory ( Arthur Darvill ) , Mo 's wife Ambrose ( Nia Roberts ) , and Ambrose 's father Tony ( Robert Pugh ) keep watch over Alaya ( Neve McIntosh ) , a captured Silurian who is the key to freeing the hostages . When Ambrose kills Alaya , the Doctor attempts to prevent Alaya 's sister Restac ( McIntosh ) from wiping out the human population as revenge by offering to share the planet with the Silurians .
Chibnall was elected by executive producers Steven Moffat and Piers Wenger to write a two @-@ part episode about the return of the Silurians . Chibnall wanted " Cold Blood " in particular to be about the mistakes people make under pressure , and conflict that could come out of protecting a family . The episode is also connected to the series ' story arc , as the crack in the universe returns at the end of the episode . " The Hungry Earth " and " Cold Blood " were filmed in October and November 2009 , with scenes in " Cold Blood " shot in Llanwynno , Wales , Cardiff 's Temple of Peace , Plantasia , and an array of locations and sets for parts of the Silurian city , which the production team did not want to look like a cave . The episode was watched by 7 @.@ 49 million viewers in the United Kingdom and received mixed reviews from critics . Some reviewers were disappointed by the plot and characteristics of the Silurians , but the emotional ending was widely praised .
= = Plot = =
As the Doctor and geologist Nasreen Chaudhry arrive by TARDIS in the massive Silurian underground civilisation , they are captured and taken to the Silurian doctor , Malohkeh . The Silurians ' hostility is increased when the Doctor recalls his previous meeting with a similar race of reptilian humanoids which were destroyed by humans , a reference to the Third Doctor in Doctor Who and the Silurians . Meanwhile , Amy and Mo escape from Malokeh 's experimentation and Mo discovers his son , Elliot , sedated in a chamber and under observation . When Malokeh realises the Doctor is not human , the leader of the Silurian warrior caste , Restac , insists both the Doctor and Nasreen be executed and escorts them to a Silurian court ; though Amy and Mo interrupt the trial with stolen weapons , they too are captured . Eldane , Restac 's superior , is called in by Malohkeh and demands a halt to the hostilities .
The Doctor makes contact with Rory , Mo 's wife Ambrose , and Ambrose 's father Tony , reminding them to keep their captive Silurian , Restac 's sister Alaya , alive . They are unaware that Ambrose has already killed Alaya because she would not help Tony , whom she had infected with Silurian venom . The Doctor arranges a " conference " between the Silurians ( represented by Eldane ) and the humans ( represented by Amy and Nasreen ) ; the three discuss how both species can co @-@ exist on the surface of the Earth . Ambrose and Tony , worried about the Silurian reaction when they discover Alaya 's death , set Nasreen and Tony 's drill to burrow further and self @-@ destruct fifteen minutes after they depart , which would destroy the Silurian oxygen supply and kill them all .
Meanwhile , Restac has killed Malohkeh for his betrayal and awakened other members of the warrior caste , intending to stage a coup against Eldane . When Rory and the others arrive with Alaya 's corpse , Restac becomes furious and orders the humans ' death ; the Doctor disables their weapons to give him , Eldane , and the humans time to escape ; they bar themselves into Malohkeh 's lab . The Doctor and Eldane realise they can use Silurian technology to destroy the drill before it detonates , but it will cause their exit route to collapse if they cannot reach the TARDIS in time . Eldane returns the warriors to hibernation by initiating a " toxic fumigation " ; the humans escape , and Eldane hopes that in a thousand years , peace between humans and Silurians can occur . Tony , still affected by Silurian venom , opts to stay behind to be cured , and Nasreen also remains behind to study the earth from below and help improve human @-@ Silurian relations .
Ambrose 's family takes refuge in the TARDIS , but the Doctor , Amy and Rory find a crack in the cavern wall similar to those they have seen before . The Doctor surmises that the crack was caused by an explosion in time , which might have left " shrapnel " behind . He reaches in and pulls out an object which he wraps in a handkerchief . Before he can explain , Restac , dying from the toxic exposure , crawls around the corner and fires at the Doctor , but Rory pushes him out of the way and takes the shot , dying in Amy 's arms . As the crack begins to absorb Rory 's body , the Doctor realises that Rory will be written out of history and forces Amy to board the TARDIS before the drill explodes . He tries to help her concentrate on remembering Rory , but a jolt from the TARDIS causes her to lose concentration and her memories of Rory are lost . The Doctor finds Amy 's engagement ring , which Rory had stowed before the events , on the floor of the TARDIS .
On the surface , Ambrose thanks the Doctor for not letting the Silurians execute her for killing Alaya , and the Doctor asks her to help prepare humanity for their next encounter with the Silurians . The Doctor and Amy return to the TARDIS , where Amy sights her future self on the hillside without Rory . The Doctor takes out the object he pulled from the crack : a burnt piece of the TARDIS 's sign . He worriedly compares it to the real thing . Aside from the damage , they appear identical .
= = Production = =
Writer Chris Chibnall was contracted by executive producers Steven Moffat and Piers Wenger to write a two @-@ part Doctor Who episode about Silurians and a drill . Chibnall had previously written the Doctor Who episode " 42 " as well as episodes of the spin @-@ off series Torchwood . " Cold Blood " is the second part of the story which began with " The Hungry Earth " ; the latter built up the tension while " Cold Blood " was designed to get into the action . " Cold Blood " is also set in the bigger setting of the Silurian city , while " The Hungry Earth " was set in a small Welsh village . Chibnall wanted the Silurian city to contrast with the village . Chibnall wanted it to be a " story about people making mistakes under massive pressure " and the accidental conflict that came out of protecting a family ; as such , he always intended for Alaya to die . He considered " Cold Blood " especially to be " so clearly about the Silurians and what the Silurians want " .
Moffat 's plan " from the outset " , to tie the episode into the overarching story arc of the series , was that Rory not just die but be erased from history in the crack in the universe . Moffat would later bring Rory back in " The Pandorica Opens " , though the episode reveals his consciousness was placed in a Roman centurion Auton as part of a trap for the Doctor to save the universe from the cracks . Moffat also thought it was appropriate as the trio had had fun , and now it was time for a casualty . Rory 's death is also connected with Chibnall 's theme of making mistakes ; it was the Doctor 's fault as he stopped to look at the crack . Gillan called the scene " incredibly challenging " for her to perform and tried to make it " truthful and believable " .
" The Hungry Earth " and " Cold Blood " made up the fourth production block of the series and were filmed in late October and November 2009 in the Upper Boat Studios and Llanwynno , Wales . " Cold Blood " utilised many different locations and unusual sets to portray the Silurian city , as the production team did not want simply a " cave feel " . They believed that the Silurians were also sophisticated and were able to use materials found underground , such as granite and marble . Many of the sets were given an orange glow from beneath to portray the " ambient glow " from the centre of the earth . The jungle walkway leading to the Silurian city was filmed in the Plantasia botanical garden in Swansea on 13 November 2009 . The set gave a sense of things growing , as these were necessary for the Silurians to survive . Set designers were able to rearrange the plants , though they had to be careful not to show the window leading to the car park or other modern amenities . The hall where the Doctor is brought for execution was filmed at the Temple of Peace in Cardiff , and little dressing was done to the set .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Cold Blood " was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC One and simulcast on BBC HD on 29 May 2010 . Initial overnight ratings showed that the episode was watched by 5 @.@ 7 million viewers , a million more than the previous week . Final consolidated ratings rose to 7 @.@ 49 million ( 7 @.@ 04 million on BBC One and 0 @.@ 45 million on BBC HD ) , ranking the show fourth for the week ending 30 May 2010 on the channel and the highest rated show on BBC One for the day . The episode received an Appreciation Index of 85 , considered " excellent " .
" Cold Blood " was released in Region 2 on DVD and Blu @-@ ray on 2 August 2010 with the episodes " Amy 's Choice " and " The Hungry Earth " . It was then re @-@ released as part of the Complete Fifth Series boxset on 8 November 2010 .
= = = Critical reception = = =
The episode received mixed reviews from critics . Dan Martin , writing for The Guardian , said that the episode was similar to previous Silurian stories in Doctor Who , though he said he loved the " tense , mad and thoughtful story " . He expressed " delight " at Amy and Nasreen negotiating for the humans , though he thought the diplomacy scenes were " broadly drawn " . Overall , he considered the strength of the episode was " giving you something big and moral to chew over , in a way that nothing else this series has yet " . Gavin Fuller of The Daily Telegraph also compared " Cold Blood " ' s concept and ideas to the original 1970 Silurians story but considered this story made " less of an impact " due to a " black and white depiction " and the one @-@ dimensional Restac . He was also critical of Matt Smith 's Doctor , whose portrayal " lacked gravitas and conviction and was altogether too light @-@ hearted " . However , he praised both Smith and Gillan 's " strong " performances in the final scene where Rory is killed .
The A.V. Club 's Keith Phipps gave the episode a B + , noting that Rory 's death had been spoiled for him by commenters on the site and thus he did not enjoy the episode as much as he might have . He called it " satisfying , if not extraordinary " conclusion and " another pretty solid entry in the series " . He further praising Gillan and Amy 's character for " [ continuing ] to impress " as well as the depths to the supporting characters by both Chibnall and Way , and the allegories that could be derived from the conflict between the humans and the Silurians and the aftermath of Rory 's demise .
IGN 's Matt Wales rated the episode 8 out of 10 , and thought that " even less actually happened " than the previous episode , though he enjoyed the " atmospheric build @-@ up and more thoughtful tone " . While he considered it predictable , he said that it " still offered plenty in the way of entertainment with its brisk pace , beautifully @-@ realised underground world and a convincing cast of rounded characters " . He praised Smith and Gillan 's performances in the ending , but thought it was " a surprisingly downbeat denouement " . Ian Berriman of SFX magazine gave " Cold Blood " four and a half out of five stars , positively comparing the emotional ending to episodes from the Russell T Davies era . He also had some " nitpicks " about the episode , such as the abrupt character change of Malohkeh .
= = = Reviews = = =
" The Hungry Earth " / " Cold Blood " reviews at The Doctor Who Ratings Guide
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= Che ( 2008 film ) =
Che is a two @-@ part 2008 biopic about Argentine Marxist revolutionary Ernesto " Che " Guevara , directed by Steven Soderbergh and starring Benicio del Toro . Rather than follow a standard chronological order , the films offer an oblique series of interspersed moments along the overall timeline . Part One is entitled The Argentine and focuses on the Cuban Revolution from the landing of Fidel Castro , Guevara , and other revolutionaries in Cuba to their successful toppling of Fulgencio Batista 's dictatorship two years later . Part Two is entitled Guerrilla and focuses on Guevara 's attempt to bring revolution to Bolivia and his demise . Both parts are shot in a cinéma vérité style , but each has different approaches to linear narrative , camerawork , and the visual look .
Filmmaker Terrence Malick originally worked on a screenplay limited to Guevara 's attempts to start a revolution in Bolivia . When financing fell through , Malick left the project , and Soderbergh subsequently agreed to direct the film . He realized that there was no context for Guevara 's actions in Bolivia and decided that his participation in the Cuban Revolution and his appearance at the United Nations in 1964 should also be depicted . Peter Buchman was hired to write the screenplay : the script was so long that Soderbergh decided to divide the film into two parts , one chronicling Cuba and other depicting Bolivia . Soderbergh shot the films back @-@ to @-@ back starting at the beginning of July 2007 , with Guerrilla first in Spain for 39 days , and The Argentine shot in Puerto Rico and Mexico for 39 days .
Che was screened as a single film at the 2008 Cannes Film Festival . Del Toro won the Best Actor Award , and the film received mostly positive reviews . IFC Films , which holds all North American rights to Che , initially released the combined film for one week on 12 December 2008 in New York City and Los Angeles to qualify for the year 's Academy Awards . Strong box office performance led to the " special roadshow edition " being extended in N.Y.C. and L.A. and later expanded into additional markets . The film was released as two separate films , titled Che Part 1 : The Argentine and Che Part 2 : Guerrilla , and distribution expanded further after that . The Independent Film Channel released the films via video on demand and on Region 1 DVD exclusively from Blockbuster . Che Parts I and II have grossed nearly $ 41 million USD , against a budget of $ 58 million USD .
= = Plot = =
= = = Part 1 : The Argentine = = =
In Havana 1964 , Che Guevara is interviewed by Lisa Howard who asks him if reform throughout Latin America might not blunt the " message of the Cuban Revolution . "
In 1955 , at a gathering in Mexico City , Guevara first meets Fidel Castro . He listens to Castro ’ s plans and signs on as a member of the July 26th Movement .
There is a return to 1964 for Guevara ’ s address before the United Nations General Assembly in New York City , where he makes an impassioned speech against American imperialism , and defends the executions his regime has committed , declaring " this is a battle to the death . "
March 1957 . Guevara deals with debilitating bouts of asthma as his group of revolutionaries meet up with Castro ’ s . Together , they attack an army barracks in the Sierra Maestra on May 28 , 1957 .
On October 15 , 1958 , the guerrillas approach the town of Las Villas . The Battle of Santa Clara is depicted with Guevara demonstrating his tactical skill as the guerrillas engage in street @-@ to @-@ street fighting and derail a train carrying Cuban soldiers and armaments . Near the film ‘ s end , they are victorious . With the Cuban Revolution now over , Guevara heads to Havana , remarking " we won the war , the revolution starts now . "
= = = Part 2 : Guerrilla = = =
The second part begins on November 3 , 1966 with Guevara arriving in Bolivia disguised as a middle @-@ aged representative of the Organization of American States hailing from Uruguay , who subsequently drives into the mountains to meet his men . The film is organized by the number of days that he was in the country . On Day 26 , there is solidarity among Guevara 's men despite his status as foreigner . By Day 67 , Guevara has been set up for betrayal . He tries to recruit some peasants only to be mistaken for a cocaine smuggler . On Day 100 , there is a shortage of food and Guevara exercises discipline to resolve conflicts between his Cuban and Bolivian followers .
By Day 113 , some of the guerrillas have deserted and the Bolivian Army has discovered their base camp . Much to Che 's disappointment Tamara " Tania " Bunke , Guevara 's revolutionary contact , has botched elaborate preparations and given away their identity . On Day 141 , the guerrillas capture Bolivian soldiers that refuse to join the revolution and are free to return to their villages . CIA advisers arrive to supervise anti @-@ insurgent activity and training . On Day 169 , Guevara 's visiting friend , the French intellectual Régis Debray , is captured at Muyupampa by the Bolivian Army , which launches an aerial attack on Day 219 .
Guevara grows sick and by Day 280 can barely breathe as a result of his acute asthma . On Day 302 , the Bolivian Army kills Tania Bunke , Juan Acuña Ñunez , and several others in Che 's forces in an ambush as they attempt to cross the Vado del Yeso after a local informant tells the Bolivian troops about the movements of the rebels . By Day 340 , Guevara is trapped by the Bolivian Army in the Yuro Ravine near the village of La Higuera . Che is wounded and captured . The next day , a helicopter lands and a Cuban American CIA agent Félix Rodríguez emerges . The Bolivian high command are then phoned and give approval for Guevara 's execution . He is shot on 9 October 1967 , and his corpse lashed to a helicopter 's landing skids and flown out .
In a final flashback scene , Guevara is aboard the Granma in 1956 , looking out over the ocean . He sees the Castro brothers alone at the bow of the ship ; Fidel is talking and Raúl is taking notes . Guevara hands a peeled orange to one of his comrades and returns his gaze to the lone brothers before the scene fades to black .
= = Cast = =
Benicio del Toro as Ernesto " Che " Guevara
Demián Bichir as Fidel Castro
Rodrigo Santoro as Raúl Castro
Santiago Cabrera as Camilo Cienfuegos
Franka Potente as Tamara " Tania " Bunke
Gastón Pauls as Ciro Bustos ( el Argentino )
Catalina Sandino Moreno as Aleida March
Julia Ormond as Lisa Howard
Oscar Isaac as U.N. Interpreter and film narrator
Lou Diamond Phillips as Mario Monje
Benjamín Benítez as Harry " Pombo " Villegas
Armando Riesco as Benigno
Elvira Minguez as Celia Sanchez
Édgar Ramírez as Ciro Redondo
Alfredo De Quesada as Israel Pardo
Roberto Luis Santana as Juan Almeida Bosque
Victor Rasuk as Rogelio Acevedo
Kahlil Mendez as Urbano
Matt Damon as Fr . Schwarz
Unax Ugalde as Roberto " El Vaquerito " Rodríguez
Joaquim de Almeida as René Barrientos
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Originally , Che was intended to be a much more traditional film based on Jon Lee Anderson 's 1997 biography Che Guevara : A Revolutionary Life . Actor Benicio del Toro and producer Laura Bickford optioned the film rights to Anderson 's book . However , after two years they had not found a suitable writer and the rights expired . During this time , Del Toro and Bickford researched the events depicted in Guerrilla with the idea of exploring Guevara 's attempts to start a revolution in Bolivia . Del Toro has said that he previously only thought of Guevara as a " bad guy " . For his role , Del Toro spent seven years " obsessively researching " Guevara 's life , which made him feel like he " earned his stripes " to interpret the character . Preparation included looking at Guevara 's photographs and reading his personal writings . Del Toro read Don Quixote , one of Guevara 's favorites , and the first book published and given out free after the Cuban Revolution . Del Toro then personally met with people from different stages of Guevara 's life , including Guevara 's younger brother and childhood friends , traveling to Cuba where Del Toro met Guevara 's widow , family , and " tons of people that loved this man " . The visit included a five @-@ minute encounter at a book fair with Fidel Castro , who expressed that he was happy for the " serious " research being undertaken . Such research included collaborating with the three surviving guerrillas from Guevara 's ill @-@ fated Bolivian campaign , and with several guerrillas who fought alongside him in Cuba . While researching for both films , Soderbergh made a documentary of his interviews with many of the people who had fought alongside Guevara . In his encounters with people ranging from fellow guerrillas to Guevara 's driver , Del Toro described the reaction as " always the same " , stating that he was " blown away " by the " bucketful of love " they still harbored for Guevara . In an interview , Del Toro described Guevara as " a weird combination of an intellectual and an action figure , Gregory Peck and Steve McQueen , wrapped in one " . After the film 's production concluded , Del Toro professed that " when you tell the story of Che , you 're telling a story of the history of a country , so you have to be very careful " .
= = = Screenplay = = =
Del Toro and Bickford hired screenwriter Benjamin A. van der Veen to write the screenplay 's first drafts , and their extensive research took them to Cuba where they met with several of the remaining members of Guevara 's team in Bolivia as well as the revolutionary 's wife and children . It was during this phase of development that the filmmakers discovered Terrence Malick had been in Bolivia as a journalist in 1966 working on a story about Che . Malick came on as director and worked on the screenplay with van der Veen and Del Toro , but after a year @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half , the financing had not come together entirely and Malick left to make The New World , a film about Jamestown , Virginia . Afraid that their multi @-@ territory deals would fall apart , Bickford and Del Toro asked Steven Soderbergh , who was previously on board as producer , to direct . The filmmaker was drawn to the contrast of " engagement versus disengagement . Do we want to participate or observe ? Once Che made the decision to engage , he engaged fully . Often people attribute that to a higher power , but as an atheist , he didn 't have that . I found that very interesting " . Furthermore , he remarked that Guevara was " great movie material " and " had one of the most fascinating lives " that he could " imagine in the last century " . Bickford and Del Toro realized that there was no context for what made Guevara decide to go to Bolivia . They began looking for someone to rewrite the screenplay ; Peter Buchman was recommended to them because he had a good reputation for writing about historical figures , based on a script he worked about Alexander the Great . He spent a year reading every available book on Guevara in preparation for writing the script . The project was put on hold when Bickford and Del Toro made Traffic with Soderbergh .
Soderbergh wanted to incorporate Guevara 's experiences in Cuba and at the United Nations in 1964 . Buchman helped with the script 's structure , which he gave three storylines : Guevara 's life and the Cuban Revolution ; his demise in Bolivia ; and his trip to New York to speak at the U.N. Buchman found that the problem with containing all of these stories in one film was that he had to condense time and this distorted history . Soderbergh found the draft Buchman submitted to him " unreadable " and after two weeks decided to split the script into two separate films . Buchman went back and with Del Toro expanded the Cuban story for The Argentine . Additional research included reading Guevara 's diaries and declassified documents from the U.S. State Department about his trip to New York and memos from his time in Bolivia .
Soderbergh found the task of researching such a popular historical figure as Guevara a daunting one : " If you go to any bookstore , you 'll find an entire wall of Che @-@ related material . We tried to go through all of it , we were overwhelmed with information . He means something different to everyone . At a certain point we had to decide for ourselves who Che was " . The original source material for these scripts was Guevara 's diary from the Cuban Revolution , Reminiscences of the Cuban Revolutionary War , and from his time in Bolivia , Bolivian Diary . From there , he drew on interviews with people who knew Guevara from both of those time periods and read every book available that pertained to both Cuba and Bolivia . Bickford and Del Toro met with Harry " Pombo " Villegas , Urbano and Benigno — three men who met Guevara during the Cuban Revolution , followed him to Bolivia , and survived . They interviewed them individually and then Pombo and Benigno together about their experiences in Cuba and Bolivia . Urbano was an adviser while they were filming in Spain and the actors often consulted with him and the others about specific details , like how to hold their guns in a certain situation , and very specific tactical information .
In December 2008 , Ocean Press , in cooperation with the Che Guevara Publishing Project , released Che : The Diaries of Ernesto Che Guevara , with a movie tie @-@ in cover . The book 's aim was to compile all the original letters , diary excerpts , speeches and maps on which Soderbergh relied for the film . The text is interspersed with remarks by Benicio del Toro and Steven Soderbergh .
= = = Financing = = =
Initially , Che was going to be made in English and a strong interest in financing it was met ; however , when the decision was made to make it in Spanish and break it up into two films , the studios ' pay @-@ TV deals , which were for English @-@ language product only , " disappeared " , according to Bickford , " and , at that point , nobody wanted to step up " . The director defended his decision to shoot almost all of the film in Spanish in an interview : " You can 't make a film with any level of credibility in this case unless it 's in Spanish . I hope we 're reaching a time where you go make a movie in another culture , that you shoot in the language of that culture . I 'm hoping the days of that sort of specific brand of cultural imperialism have ended " . Both films were financed without any American money or distribution deal ; Soderbergh remarked , " It was very frustrating to know that this is a zeitgeist movie and that some of the very people who told me how much they now regret passing on Traffic passed on this one too " . Foreign pre @-@ sales covered $ 54 million of the $ 58 million budget . Wild Bunch , a French production , distribution and foreign sales company put up 75 % of the budget for the two films , tapping into a production and acquisition fund from financing and investment company Continental Entertainment Capitol , a subsidiary of the U.S.-based Citigroup . Spain 's Telecinco / Moreno Films supplied the rest of the budget .
= = = Principal photography = = =
In 2006 , shortly before the U.N. Headquarters underwent major renovations , Del Toro and Soderbergh shot the scenes of Guevara speaking to the U.N. General Assembly in 1964 . The director wanted to shoot the first part of The Argentine in Cuba , but was prevented from travelling there by the U.S. government 's embargo . Doubling Santa Clara proved to be difficult because it was a certain size and had a certain look . Soderbergh spent four to five months scouting for a suitable replacement , looking at towns in Veracruz / Yucatán before settling on Campeche , which had the elements they needed .
The original intention was for The Argentine to be shot using anamorphic 16 mm film because , according to the director , it needed " a bit of Bruckheimer but scruffier " . He kept to his plan of shooting The Argentine anamorphically , and Guerrilla with spherical lenses . Soderbergh wanted to use the new RED One rather than 16 mm film because of its ability to replicate film stock digitally but initially , it was not going to be available on time . However , their Spanish work papers and visas were late and Del Toro and Soderbergh were grounded in Los Angeles for a week . The director was meanwhile informed that the prototype cameras were ready .
Each half of the film focuses on a different revolution , both fundamentally the same in theory but vastly different in outcome , reflecting the Marxist notion of dialectics . Soderbergh wanted the film 's two parts to mimic the voice of the two diaries they were based on ; the Cuban diaries were written after the fact and , according to the director , " with a certain hindsight and perspective and a tone that comes from being victorious " , while the Bolivian diaries were " contemporaneous , and they 're very isolated and have no perspective , at all . It 's a much more tense read , because the outcome is totally unclear " .
Soderbergh shot the films back @-@ to @-@ back in the beginning of July 2007 with Guerrilla shot first in Spain for 39 days and The Argentine shot in Puerto Rico and Mexico for 39 days . The director conceived The Argentine as " a Hollywood movie " shot in widescreen ' scope aspect ratio , with the camera either fixed or moving on a dolly or a Steadicam . Guerrilla was shot , according to Soderbergh , " in Super @-@ 16 , 1 @.@ 85 : 1 . No dollies , no cranes , it 's all either handheld or tripods . I want it to look nice but simple . We 'll work with a very small group : basically me , the producer Gregory Jacobs and the unit production manager " . According to the director , the portion set in Cuba was written from the victor 's perspective and as a result he adopted a more traditional look with classical compositions , vibrant color and a warm palette . With Guerrilla , he wanted a sense of foreboding with hand @-@ held camerawork and a muted color palette . Soderbergh told his production designer Antxon Gomez that the first part would have green with a lot of yellow in it and the second part would have green with a lot of blue in it .
At the end of The Argentine , Soderbergh depicts Guevara 's derailment of a freight train during the Battle of Santa Clara . In filming the sequence , Soderbergh balked at the digital effects solution and managed to reallocate $ 500 @,@ 000 from the overall $ 58 million budget to build a real set of tracks and a train powered by two V @-@ 8 car engines . To film the scene , they had six rehearsals , and could only shoot the scene once .
Many aspects of Guevara 's personality and beliefs affected the filming process . For instance , close @-@ ups of Del Toro were avoided due to Guevara 's belief in collectivism , with Soderbergh remarking , " You can 't make a movie about a guy who has these hard @-@ core sort of egalitarian socialist principles and then isolate him with close @-@ ups . " According to Edgar Ramirez , who portrays Ciro Redondo , the cast " were improvising a lot " while making The Argentine , and he describes the project as a " very contemplative movie " , shot chronologically . While filming outdoors , Soderbergh used natural light as much as possible . Del Toro , who speaks Puerto Rican Spanish , tried to speak the best Argentinean Spanish ( Rioplatense Spanish ) he could without sounding " stiff " . Prior to shooting the film 's final scenes that depict Guevara 's time in Bolivia at the end of his life , Del Toro shed 35 pounds to show how ill Guevara had become . The actor shaved the top of his head rather than wear a bald cap for the scenes depicting Guevara 's arrival in Bolivia in disguise .
Soderbergh has said that with Che , he wanted to show everyday tasks , " things that have meaning on a practical level and on an ideological level " , as a " way of showing what it might have been like to be there " . While addressing the issue after at the Toronto International Film Festival , Soderbergh remarked that he was trying to avoid what he felt were typical scenes for a biographical film and that he would tell screenwriter Peter Buchman , that he was " trying to find the scenes that would happen before or after the scene that you would typically see in a movie like this " . Soderbergh was not interested in depicting Guevara 's personal life because he felt that " everybody on these campaigns has a personal life , they all left families behind , that doesn 't make him special and why should I go into his personal life and nobody else 's ? "
Soderbergh decided to omit the post @-@ revolution execution sentences of " suspected war criminals , traitors and informants " that Guevara reviewed at La Cabana Fortress because " there is no amount of accumulated barbarity that would have satisfied the people who hate him " . Soderbergh addressed the criticism for this omission in a post release interview where he stated : " I don 't think anybody now , even in Cuba , is going to sit with a straight face and defend the events . La Cabana was really turned into a Roman circus , where I think even the people in power look back on that as excessive . However , every regime , in order to retain power when it feels threatened , acts excessively ... This is what people do when they feel they need to act in an extreme way to secure themselves " . The filmmaker noted as well that , " with a character this complicated , you ’ re going to have a very polarized reaction " . Furthermore , he was not interested in depicting Guevara 's life as " a bureaucrat " , stating that he was making a diptych about two military campaigns , declaring the pictures " war films " . Soderbergh said , " I 'm sure some people will say , ' That 's convenient because that 's when he was at his worst . ' Yeah , maybe — it just wasn 't interesting to me . I was interested in making a procedural about guerrilla warfare " .
Soderbergh described the Cuban Revolution as " the last analog revolution . I loved that we shot a period film about a type of war that can 't be fought anymore " . Soderbergh has said that he is open to making another film about Guevara 's experiences in the Congo but only if Che makes $ 100 million at the box office .
= = Distribution = =
Theatrical distribution rights were pre @-@ sold to distributors in several major territories , including France , the United Kingdom , Scandinavia , Italy , and Japan ( Nikkatsu ) ; Twentieth Century Fox bought the Spanish theatrical and home video rights . IFC Films paid a low seven @-@ figure sum to acquire all North American rights to Che after production had completed and released it on 12 December 2008 in New York City and Los Angeles in order to qualify it for the Academy Awards . The " special roadshow edition " in N.Y.C. and L.A. was initially planned as a one @-@ week special engagement — complete with intermission and including a full @-@ color printed program — but strong box @-@ office results led to its re @-@ opening for two weeks on 9 January 2009 as two separate films , titled Che Part 1 : The Argentine and Che Part 2 : Guerrilla . Soderbergh said that the program 's inspiration came from the 70 mm engagements for Francis Ford Coppola 's Apocalypse Now . The film was expanded to additional markets on 16 and 22 January both as a single film and as two separate films . IFC made the films available through video on demand on 21 January on all major cable and satellite providers in both standard and high definition versions .
= = = Screenings = = =
Che was screened on 21 May at the 2008 Cannes Film Festival reportedly running over four hours . Following this screening , Soderbergh cut 5 – 7 minutes from each half . It was shown at the 46th New York Film Festival and was shown at the 33rd Toronto International Film Festival as Che with a 15 @-@ minute intermission and as two separate films , The Argentine and Guerrilla , where it was considered the festival 's " must @-@ see " film . Che made its sold @-@ out L.A. premiere at Grauman 's Chinese Theatre on 1 November 2008 as part of the AFI Fest .
Che was screened in Guevara 's homeland of Argentina in November 2008 . To mark the occasion , the streets of Buenos Aires were decorated with large posters of Del Toro in his role as the guerrilla fighter , unprecedented in the city 's history . When questioned by the press on Guevara 's ideas and use of violence , Del Toro stated that if he had lived during the 1960s , he would have agreed with Guevara , and that although he did not support violent revolution now , in the ' 60s he may " have been another person and in agreement with armed war " .
Del Toro and Soderbergh both attended the French premiere in late November 2008 , where they took questions from the press . Del Toro remarked that the " legendary rebel " was still pertinent because " the things that he fought for in the late 1950s and mid 1960s are still relevant today " , adding that " he did not hide behind curtains ... he stood up for the forgotten ones " . When asked why he made the film , Soderbergh stated , " I needed to make the film , and that is a different feeling . I felt like , if I am worth anything , I have to say yes . I can 't say no " . The following day , the Dubai International Film Festival would describe Soderbergh 's narrative as a " magisterial ... compelling experience " , with Del Toro 's performance as " blue @-@ chip " .
Che opened in single theaters in N.Y.C. and L.A. where it made $ 60 @,@ 100 with sellouts of both venues . Based on this success , IFC Films executives added two weekends of exclusive runs for the roadshow version , starting 24 December in N.Y.C. and 26 December in L.A. This successful run prompted IFC Films to show this version in nine additional markets on 16 January . Che will be shown in its entirety , commercial and trailer free with an intermission and limited edition program book at every screening . Soderbergh has said that the film 's roadshow version will not be released on DVD but released in two parts with the animated map that opens the roadshow 's second half missing from Part II , as well as the overture and intermission music .
According to Variety , it had grossed $ 164 @,@ 142 in one weekend , at 35 locations in North America and $ 20 million from a half @-@ dozen major markets around the world , led by Spain at $ 9 @.@ 7 million . As of May 2009 , it has grossed $ 1 @.@ 4 million in North America and $ 29 @.@ 8 million in the rest of the world for a worldwide total of $ 30 million . Eventually , Che made good profit for IFC Films .
= = Reception = =
= = = Cannes reaction = = =
Early reviews were mixed , although there were several critics who spoke glowingly of the project . Cinematical 's James Rocchi described the biopic as " expressive , innovative , striking , and exciting " as well as " bold , beautiful , bleak and brilliant " . Rocchi went on to brand it " a work of art " that 's " not just the story of a revolutionary " but " a revolution in and of itself " . Columnist and critic Jeffrey Wells proclaimed the film " brilliant " , " utterly believable " , and " the most exciting and far @-@ reaching film of the Cannes Film Festival " . In further praise , Wells referred to the film as " politically vibrant and searing " while labeling it a " perfect dream movie " .
Todd McCarthy was more mixed in his reaction to the film in its present form , describing it as " too big a roll of the dice to pass off as an experiment , as it 's got to meet high standards both commercially and artistically . The demanding running time forces comparison to such rare works as Lawrence of Arabia , Reds and other biohistorical epics . Unfortunately , Che doesn 't feel epic — just long " . Anne Thompson wrote that Benicio del Toro " gives a great performance " , but predicted that " it will not be released stateside as it was seen here " . Glenn Kenny wrote , " Che benefits greatly from certain Soderberghian qualities that don 't always serve his other films well , e.g. , detachment , formalism , and intellectual curiosity " .
Peter Bradshaw , in his review for The Guardian , wrote , " Perhaps it will even come to be seen as this director 's flawed masterpiece : enthralling but structurally fractured — the second half is much clearer and more sure @-@ footed than the first — and at times frustratingly reticent , unwilling to attempt any insight into Che 's interior world " . In his less favorable review for Esquire , Stephen Garrett criticized the film for failing to show Guevara 's negative aspects , " the absence of darker , more contradictory revelations of his nature leaves Che bereft of complexity . All that remains is a South American superman : uncomplex , pure of heart , defiantly pious and boring " . Richard Corliss had problems with Del Toro 's portrayal of Guevara : " Del Toro — whose acting style often starts over the top and soars from there , like a hang @-@ glider leaping from a skyscraper roof — is muted , yielding few emotional revelations , seemingly sedated here ... Che is defined less by his rigorous fighting skills and seductive intellect than by his asthma " . In his review for Salon.com , Andrew O 'Hehir praised Soderbergh for making " something that people will be eager to see and eager to talk about all over the world , something that feels strangely urgent , something messy and unfinished and amazing . I 'd be surprised if Che doesn 't win the Palme d 'Or ... but be that as it may , nobody who saw it here will ever forget it " .
Soderbergh replied to the criticism that he made an unconventional film : " I find it hilarious that most of the stuff being written about movies is how conventional they are , and then you have people ... upset that something 's not conventional . The bottom line is we 're just trying to give you a sense of what it was like to hang out around this person . That 's really it . And the scenes were chosen strictly on the basis of , ' Yeah , what does that tell us about his character ? ' " .
After Cannes , Soderbergh made a few minor adjustments to the film . This included adding a moment of Guevara and Fidel Castro shaking hands , tweaking a few transitions , and tacking on an overture and entr 'acte to the limited " road show " version . Moreover , he removed the trial of guerrilla Lalo Sardiñas , which Chicago film critic Ben Kenigsberg found " regrettable " , stating that it was " not only one of the film 's most haunting scenes but a key hint at the darker side of Che 's ideology " .
= = = NYFF reaction = = =
In her review for The New York Times , based on a screening at the New York Film Festival , Manohla Dargis observes that " throughout the movie Mr. Soderbergh mixes the wild beauty of his landscapes with images of Che heroically engaged in battle , thoughtfully scribbling and reading , and tending to ailing peasants and soldiers " . According to Dargis , " Che wins , Che loses , but Che remains the same in what plays like a procedural about a charismatic leader , impossible missions and the pleasures of work and camaraderie " , referring to the " historical epic " as " Ocean 's Eleven with better cigars " . However , Dargis notes that " Mr. Soderbergh cagily evades Che 's ugly side , notably his increasing commitment to violence and seemingly endless war , but the movie is without question political — even if it emphasizes romantic adventure over realpolitik — because , like all films , it is predicated on getting , spending and making money " .
Film critic Glenn Kenny wrote , " Che seems to me almost the polar opposite of agitprop . It flat out does not ask for the kind of emotional engagement that more conventional epic biopics do , and that 's a good thing " . In his review for UGO , Keith Uhlich wrote , " The best to say about Del Toro 's Cannes @-@ honored performance is that it 's exhausting — all exterior , no soul , like watching an android run a gauntlet ( one that includes grueling physical exertions , tendentious political speechifying , and risible Matt Damon cameos ) " . Slant magazine gave Che two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of four and wrote , " The problem is that , despite his desire to sidestep Hollywood bio @-@ hooey , the director is unable to turn his chilly stance into an ideological perspective , like Roberto Rossellini did in his demythologized portraits of Louis XIV , Garibaldi and Pascal " .
In his review for Salon magazine , Andrew O 'Hehir wrote , " What Soderbergh has sought to capture here is a grand process of birth and extinguishment , one that produced a complicated legacy in which John McCain , Barack Obama , and Raúl Castro are still enmeshed . There will be plenty of time to argue about the film 's ( or films ' ) political relevance or lack thereof , to call Soderbergh names for this or that historical omission , for this or that ideological error . He 's made something that people will be eager to see and eager to talk about all over the world , something that feels strangely urgent , something messy and unfinished and amazing " .
= = = Miami screening and protest = = =
On 4 December 2008 , Che premiered at Miami Beach 's Byron Carlyle Theatre , as part of the Art Basel Festival . Taking place only a few miles from Little Havana , which is home to the United States ' largest Cuban American community , the invitation @-@ only screening was met with angry demonstrators . The organization Vigilia Mambisa , led by Miguel Saavedra , amassed an estimated 100 demonstrators to decry what they believed would be a favorable depiction of Guevara . Saavedra told reporters from the El Nuevo Herald that " you cannot offend the sensitivities of the people " , while describing the film as " a disgrace " . A supporter of the demonstration , Miami Beach 's mayor Matti Herrera Bower , lamented that the film was shown , while declaring " we must not allow dissemination of this movie " . When asked days later about the incident , Del Toro remarked that the ability to speak out was " part of what makes America great " while adding " I find it a little weird that they were protesting without having seen the film , but that 's another matter " . For his part , Soderbergh later stated that " you have to separate the Cuban nationalist lobby that is centered in Miami from the rest of the country " .
= = = Cuban homecoming = = =
On 7 December 2008 , Che premiered at Havana 's 5 @,@ 000 + person Karl Marx Theater as part of the Latin American Film Festival . Benicio Del Toro , who was in attendance , referred to the film as " Cuban history " , while remarking that " there 's an audience in there ... that could be the most knowledgeable critics of the historical accuracy of the film " . The official state paper Granma gave Del Toro a glowing review , professing that he " personifies Che " in both his physical appearance and his " masterly interpretation " . After unveiling Che in Havana 's Yara Cinema , Del Toro was treated to a 10 @-@ minute standing ovation from the 2 @,@ 000 + strong audience , many of whom were involved in the revolution .
= = = New York City debut = = =
On 12 December 2008 , Che was screened at New York City 's sold out 1 @,@ 100 person Ziegfeld Theater . Upon seeing the first image on the screen ( a silhouette of Cuba ) , the crowd erupted into a raucous cry of " ¡ Viva , Cuba ! " Following the film , and the standing ovation it received , Soderbergh appeared for a post program Q & A. During the sometimes contentious conversation with the audience , in which Soderbergh alternated between defensiveness and modesty , the director categorized Guevara as " a hard ass " , to which one audience member yelled out , " Bullshit , he was a murderer ! " The filmmaker settled down the crowd and explained , " It doesn 't matter whether I agree with him or not — I was interested in Che as a warrior , Che as a guy who had an ideology , who picked up a gun and this was the result . He died the way you would have him die . He was executed the way you would say he executed other people " . Soderbergh ended the 1 am Q & A session by noting that he was " agnostic " on Che 's standing , but " loyal to the facts " , which he insisted were all rigorously sourced .
= = = Venezuela and President Chávez = = =
On 3 March 2009 , Venezuelan President Hugo Chávez , himself an avowed Marxist and admirer of Che Guevara , greeted Del Toro and co star Bichir at the Presidential Palace in Caracas . The day prior Del Toro attended a screening of the film at a bullfighting ring @-@ turned cultural center , where he was " mobbed by adoring fans " . Del Toro then visited the state @-@ run Cinema Town , a film production facility President Chávez launched to help Venezuela produce its own movies as an alternative to what Chávez calls Hollywood 's cultural imperialism . Del Toro described Che as " a totally Latin American movie " and stated that he had " a good meeting with the President " .
= = = General reviews = = =
Part One has a 67 % rating at Rotten Tomatoes , while Part Two has an 80 % rating . Scott Foundas of the LA Weekly proclaimed Che " nothing if not the movie of the year " . In his review for the Village Voice , J. Hoberman wrote , " At its best , Che is both action film and ongoing argument . Each new camera setup seeks to introduce a specific idea — about Che or his situation — and every choreographed battle sequence is a sort of algorithm where the camera attempts to inscribe the event that is being enacted " . Hoberman compared Soderbergh 's directing style and " non @-@ personalized " historical approach on the film to Otto Preminger 's observational use of the moving camera , or one of Roberto Rossellini 's " serene " documentaries . Armond White , in his review for the New York Press , wrote , " Out @-@ perversing Gus Van Sant 's Milk , Soderbergh makes a four @-@ hour @-@ plus biopic about a historical figure without providing a glimmer of charm or narrative coherence " . In his review for The New York Times , A.O. Scott writes , " Mr. Soderbergh once again offers a master class in filmmaking . As history , though , Che is finally not epic but romance . It takes great care to be true to the factual record , but it is , nonetheless , a fairy tale " . Sheri Linden , in her review for the Los Angeles Times , wrote , " in this flawed work of austere beauty , the logistics of war and the language of revolution give way to something greater , a struggle that may be defined by politics but can 't be contained by it " . In her review for the Washington Post , Ann Hornaday wrote , " The best way to encounter Che , is to let go of words like ' film ' and ' movie ' , words that somehow seem inadequate to the task of describing such a mesmerizing , fully immersive cinematic experience . By the end of Che , viewers will likely emerge as if from a trance , with indelibly vivid , if not more ambivalent feelings about Guevara , than the bumper @-@ sticker image they walked in with " .
Entertainment Weekly gave a " B + " rating to the first half of the film and a " C- " rating to the second half , and Owen Gleiberman wrote , " As political theater , Che moves from faith to impotence , which is certainly a valid reading of Communism in the 20th century . Yet as drama , that makes the second half of the film borderline deadly ... Che is twice as long as it needs to be , but it is also only half the movie it should have been " . James Verniere of The Boston Herald gave the film a B- , describing the work as a new genre of " arthouse guerrilla nostalgia " , while lamenting Che as the film version of Alberto Korda ’ s iconic 1960 photograph Guerrillero Heroico . In Verniere 's view , so much information was missing , that he recommended one first see The Motorcycle Diaries to fill in the background . In her review for USA Today , Claudia Puig wrote , " With its lyrical beauty and strong performances , the film can be riveting . Its excessive length and rambling scenes also make it maddening . It is worth seeing for its attention to visual detail and ambitious filmmaking , but as a psychological portrait of a compelling historical figure , it is oddly bland and unrevealing " . Anthony Lane , in his review for The New Yorker , wrote , " for all the movie ’ s narrative momentum , Che retains the air of a study exercise — of an interest brilliantly explored . How else to explain one ’ s total flatness of feeling at the climax of each movie ? " Taking a more positive stance , film critic Chris Barsanti compared Che to a " guerrilla take on Patton " , calling it " an exceptionally good " war film , which rivaled The Battle of Algiers in its " you @-@ are @-@ there sensibility " . Roger Ebert awarded the film 3 @.@ 5 our of 4 stars and addressed the film 's length : " You may wonder if the film is too long . I think there 's a good reason for its length . Guevara 's experience in Cuba and especially Bolivia was not a series of events and anecdotes , but a trial of endurance that might almost be called mad " .
Film Comment ranked Che as the 22nd best film of 2008 in their " Best Films of 2008 " poll . Film critics Roger Ebert , and James Rocchi went further , naming Che one of the best films of 2008 . The film appeared on several critics ' top ten lists of the best films of 2008 .
Looking back at the experience of making Che , Soderbergh has said that he now wishes that he had not made the film and remarked , " Literally I 'd wake up and think , ' At least I 'm not doing that today . ' " The director blamed piracy for the film 's financial failure and felt that " It 's a film that , to some extent , needs the support of people who write about films . If you 'd had all these guys running around talking in accented English you 'd [ have got ] your head taken off " .
= = Awards = =
Del Toro was awarded the Best Actor Award at the Cannes Film Festival for his performance in Che and in his acceptance speech dedicated his award " to the man himself , Che Guevara and I want to share this with Steven Soderbergh . He was there pushing it even when there [ were lulls ] and pushing all of us " . Guevara 's widow Aleida March , who is president of the Che Guevara Studies Center , sent a congratulatory note to Del Toro upon hearing the news of his award . Del Toro was awarded a 2009 Goya Award as the best Spanish Lead Actor for his depiction of Che . Actor Sean Penn , who won an Oscar for his role in Milk , remarked that he was surprised and disappointed that Che and Del Toro were not also up for any Academy Award nominations . During his acceptance speech for the Best Actor 's trophy at the Screen Actors Guild Awards , Penn expressed his dismay stating , " The fact that there aren 't crowns on Soderbergh 's and Del Toro 's heads right now , I don 't understand ... that is such a sensational movie , Che . " In reference to what Penn deemed a snub , he added " Maybe because it 's in Spanish , maybe the length , maybe the politics " .
On 31 July 2009 , Del Toro was awarded the inaugural Tomas Gutierrez Alea prize at a Havana ceremony attended by U.S. actors Robert Duvall , James Caan and Bill Murray . Named after a prolific Cuban filmmaker , the new award was voted for by the National Union of Writers and Artists of Cuba . Del Toro remarked that it was " an honor " to receive the award and thanked Che director Steven Soderbergh .
Che was also awarded " The White Camel " , the top award handed out at the sixth annual Sahara International Film Festival , whose ceremony took place during the spring of 2009 in the Wilaya of Dakhla at the Sahrawi refugee camps of 30 @,@ 000 residents . Executive producer Alvaro Longoria , attended to accept the award when Del Toro couldn 't because of filming for The Wolf Man . After dismounting the prize ( which was a literal camel ) Longoria remarked that " this is real , this is what Benicio and Steven tried to tell in the movie . It ’ s right here , a people fighting a war for their dignity and their land . The principles of Che Guevara are very important to them . " However , Longoria returned the live animal before departing , opting for a camel statuette in its place .
= = Home media = =
The film was released on Region 1 DVD in January 2009 exclusively from Blockbuster for 60 days as per an agreement with IFC . The Criterion Collection was originally scheduled to release the film on Region 1 Blu @-@ ray Disc in December 2009 . However , the release date was re @-@ scheduled to 19 January 2010 . The two @-@ disc Blu @-@ ray Disc release features 1080p video and a Spanish DTS @-@ HD Master Audio 5 @.@ 1 soundtrack ( with English subtitles ) .
Additional supplements include audio commentaries on both films featuring Jon Lee Anderson — author of Che Guevara : A Revolutionary Life , and a 20 @-@ page booklet featuring an essay by film critic Amy Taubin . There are also three short documentaries on Guevara : Making Che — a documentary about the film 's production , Che and the Digital Revolution — a documentary about the Red One Camera technology that was used in the film 's production , and End of a Revolution — a 1968 documentary by Brian Moser who was in Bolivia looking for Che when Che was executed .
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= Volcanology of Io =
Volcanology of Io , a moon of Jupiter , is the scientific study of lava flows , volcanic pits , and volcanism ( volcanic activity ) on the surface of Io . Its volcanic activity was discovered in 1979 by Voyager 1 imaging scientist Linda Morabito . Observations of Io by passing spacecraft ( the Voyagers , Galileo , Cassini , and New Horizons ) and Earth @-@ based astronomers have revealed more than 150 active volcanoes . Up to 400 such volcanoes are predicted to exist based on these observations . Io 's volcanism makes the satellite one of only four known currently volcanically active worlds in the Solar System ( the other three being Earth , Saturn 's moon Enceladus , and Neptune 's moon Triton ) .
First predicted shortly before the Voyager 1 flyby , the heat source for Io 's volcanism comes from tidal heating produced by its forced orbital eccentricity . This differs from Earth 's internal heating , which is derived primarily from radioactive isotope decay and primordial heat of accretion . Io 's eccentric orbit leads to a slight difference in Jupiter 's gravitational pull on the satellite between its closest and farthest points on its orbit , causing a varying tidal bulge . This variation in the shape of Io causes frictional heating in its interior . Without this tidal heating , Io might have been similar to the Moon , a world of similar size and mass , geologically dead and covered with numerous impact craters .
Io 's volcanism has led to the formation of hundreds of volcanic centres and extensive lava formations , making it the most volcanically active body in the Solar System . Three different types of volcanic eruptions have been identified , differing in duration , intensity , lava effusion rate , and whether the eruption occurs within a volcanic pit ( known as a patera ) . Lava flows on Io , tens or hundreds of kilometres long , have primarily basaltic composition , similar to lavas seen on Earth at shield volcanoes such as Kīlauea in Hawaii . Although most of the lava on Io is made of basalt , a few lava flows consisting of sulfur and sulfur dioxide have been seen . In addition , eruption temperatures as high as 1 @,@ 600 K ( 1 @,@ 300 ° C ; 2 @,@ 400 ° F ) were detected , which can be explained by the eruption of high @-@ temperature ultramafic silicate lavas .
As a result of the presence of significant quantities of sulfurous materials in Io 's crust and on its surface , some eruptions propel sulfur , sulfur dioxide gas , and pyroclastic material up to 500 kilometres ( 310 mi ) into space , producing large , umbrella @-@ shaped volcanic plumes . This material paints the surrounding terrain in red , black , and / or white , and provides material for Io 's patchy atmosphere and Jupiter 's extensive magnetosphere . Spacecraft that have flown by Io since 1979 have observed numerous surface changes as a result of Io 's volcanic activity .
= = Discovery = =
Before the Voyager 1 encounter with Io on March 5 , 1979 , Io was thought to be a dead world much like the Moon . The discovery of a cloud of sodium surrounding Io led to theories that the satellite would be covered in evaporites .
Hints of discoveries to come arose from Earth @-@ based infrared observations taken in the 1970s . An anomalously high thermal flux , compared to the other Galilean satellites , was discovered during measurements taken at an infrared wavelength of 10 μm while Io was in Jupiter 's shadow . At the time , this heat flux was attributed to the surface having a much higher thermal inertia than Europa and Ganymede . These results were considerably different from measurements taken at wavelengths of 20 μm , which suggested that Io had similar surface properties to the other Galilean satellites . It has since been determined that the greater flux at shorter wavelengths was due to the combined flux from Io 's volcanoes and solar heating , whereas solar heating provides a much greater fraction of the flux at longer wavelengths . A sharp increase in Io 's thermal emission at 5 μm was observed on February 20 , 1978 by Witteborn , et al . The group considered volcanic activity at the time , in which case the data was fit into a region on Io 8 @,@ 000 square kilometres ( 3 @,@ 100 sq mi ) in size at 600 K ( 300 ° C ; 600 ° F ) . However , the authors considered that hypothesis unlikely , and instead focused on emission from Io 's interaction with Jupiter 's magnetosphere .
Shortly before the Voyager 1 encounter , Stan Peale , Patrick Cassen , and R. T. Reynolds published a paper in the journal Science predicting a volcanically modified surface and a differentiated interior , with distinct rock types rather than a homogeneous blend . They based this prediction on models of Io 's interior that took into account the massive amount of heat produced by the varying tidal pull of Jupiter on Io caused by its slightly eccentric orbit . Their calculations suggested that the amount of heat generated for an Io with a homogeneous interior would be three times greater than the amount of heat generated by radioactive isotope decay alone . This effect would be even greater with a differentiated Io .
Voyager 1 's first images of Io revealed a lack of impact craters , suggesting a very young surface . Craters are used by geologists to estimate the age of a planetary surface ; the number of impact structures increase with the age of the planetary surface . Instead , Voyager 1 observed a multi @-@ coloured surface , pockmarked with irregular @-@ shaped depressions , which lacked the raised rims characteristic of impact craters . Voyager 1 also observed flow features formed by low @-@ viscosity fluid and tall , isolated mountains that did not resemble terrestrial volcanoes . The surface observed suggested that , just as Peale and colleagues had theorized , Io was heavily modified by volcanism .
On March 8 , 1979 , three days after passing Jupiter , Voyager 1 took images of Jupiter 's moons to help mission controllers determine the spacecraft 's exact location , a process called optical navigation . Although processing images of Io to enhance the visibility of background stars , navigation engineer Linda Morabito found a 300 @-@ kilometre ( 190 mi ) tall cloud along its limb . At first , she suspected the cloud to be a moon behind Io , but no suitably sized body would have been in that location . The feature was determined to be a plume generated by active volcanism at a dark depression later named Pele . Following this discovery , seven other plumes were located in earlier Voyager images of Io . Thermal emission from multiple sources , indicative of cooling lava , were also found . Surface changes were observed when images acquired by Voyager 2 were compared to those taken four months previously by Voyager 1 , including new plume deposits at Aten Patera and Surt .
= = Heat source = =
Io 's main source of internal heat comes from the tidal forces generated by Jupiter 's gravitational pull . This external heating differs from the internal heat source for volcanism on Earth , which is a result of radioactive isotope decay and residual heat from accretion . In the Earth , these internal heat sources drive mantle convection , which in turn causes volcanism through plate tectonics .
The tidal heating of Io is dependent on its distance from Jupiter , its orbital eccentricity , the composition of its interior , and its physical state . Its Laplace orbital resonance with Europa and Ganymede maintains Io 's eccentricity and prevents tidal dissipation within Io from circularizing its orbit . The eccentricity leads to vertical differences in Io 's tidal bulge of as much as 100 metres ( 330 ft ) as Jupiter 's gravitational pull varies between the periapsis and apoapsis points in Io 's orbit . This varying tidal pull also produces friction in Io 's interior , enough to cause significant tidal heating and melting . Unlike Earth , where most of its internal heat is released by conduction through the crust , on Io internal heat is released via volcanic activity and generates the satellite 's high heat flow ( global total : 0 @.@ 6 – 1 @.@ 6 × 1014 W ) . Models of its orbit suggest that the amount of tidal heating within Io changes with time , and that the current heat flow is not representative of the long @-@ term average . The observed release of heat from Io 's interior is greater than estimates for the amount presently generated from tidal heating , suggesting that Io is cooling after a period of greater flexing .
= = Composition = =
Analysis of Voyager images led scientists to believe that the lava flows on Io were composed mostly of various forms of molten elemental sulfur . The colouration of the flows was found to be similar to its various allotropes . Differences in the lava colour and brightness are a function of the temperature of polyatomic sulfur and the packing and bonding of its atoms . An analysis of the flows that radiate out from Ra Patera revealed differently colored materials , all associated with liquid sulfur , at different distances from the vent : dark albedo material close to the vent at 525 K ( 252 ° C ; 485 ° F ) , red material in the central part of each flow at 450 K ( 177 ° C ; 350 ° F ) , and orange material at the farthest ends of each flow at 425 K ( 152 ° C ; 305 ° F ) . This colour pattern corresponds to flows radiating out from a central vent , cooling as the lava travels away from it . In addition , temperature measurements of thermal emission at Loki Patera taken by Voyager 1 's Infrared Interferometer Spectrometer and Radiometer ( IRIS ) instrument were consistent with sulfur volcanism . However , the IRIS instrument was not capable of detecting wavelengths that are indicative of higher temperatures . This meant that temperatures consistent with silicate volcanism were not discovered by Voyager . Despite this , Voyager scientists deduced that silicates must play a role in Io 's youthful appearance , from its high density and the need for silicates to support the steep slopes along patera walls . The contradiction between the structural evidence and the spectral and temperature data following the Voyager flybys led to a debate in the planetary science community regarding the composition of Io 's lava flows , whether they were composed of silicate or sulfurous materials .
Earth @-@ based infrared studies in the 1980s and 1990s shifted the paradigm from one of primarily sulfur volcanism to one where silicate volcanism dominates , and sulfur acts in a secondary role . In 1986 , measurements of a bright eruption on Io 's leading hemisphere revealed temperatures of at least 900 K ( 600 ° C ; 1 @,@ 200 ° F ) . This is higher than the boiling point of sulfur ( 715 K or 442 ° C or 827 ° F ) , indicating a silicate composition for at least some of Io 's lava flows . Similar temperatures were also observed at the Surt eruption in 1979 between the two Voyager encounters , and at the eruption observed by Witteborn and colleagues in 1978 . In addition , modeling of silicate lava flows on Io suggested that they cooled rapidly , causing their thermal emission to be dominated by lower temperature components , such as solidified flows , as opposed to the small areas covered by still molten lava near the actual eruption temperature .
Silicate volcanism , involving basaltic lava with mafic to ultramafic ( magnesium @-@ rich ) compositions , was confirmed by the Galileo spacecraft in the 1990s and 2000s from temperature measurements of Io 's numerous hot spots , locations where thermal emission is detected , and from spectral measurements of Io 's dark material . Temperature measurements from Galileo 's Solid @-@ State Imager ( SSI ) and Near @-@ Infrared Mapping Spectrometer ( NIMS ) revealed numerous hot spots with high @-@ temperature components ranging from at least 1 @,@ 200 K ( 900 ° C ; 1 @,@ 700 ° F ) to a maximum of 1 @,@ 600 K ( 1 @,@ 300 ° C ; 2 @,@ 400 ° F ) , like at the Pillan Patera eruption in 1997 . Initial estimates during the course of the Galileo mission suggesting eruption temperatures approaching 2 @,@ 000 K ( 1 @,@ 700 ° C ; 3 @,@ 100 ° F ) have since proven to be overestimates because the wrong thermal models were used to calculate the temperatures . Spectral observations of Io 's dark material suggested the presence of orthopyroxenes , such as enstatite , magnesium @-@ rich silicate minerals common in mafic and ultramafic basalt . This dark material is seen in volcanic pits , fresh lava flows , and pyroclastic deposits surrounding recent , explosive volcanic eruptions . Based on the measured temperature of the lava and the spectral measurements , some of the lava may be analogous to terrestrial komatiites . Compressional superheating , which could increase the temperature of magma during ascent to the surface during an eruption , may also be a factor in some of the higher temperature eruptions .
Although temperature measurements of Io 's volcanoes settled the sulfur @-@ versus @-@ silicates debate that persisted between the Voyager and Galileo missions at Jupiter , sulfur and sulfur dioxide still play a significant role in the phenomena observed on Io . Both materials have been detected in the plumes generated at Io 's volcanoes , with sulfur being a primary constituent of Pele @-@ type plumes . Bright flows have been identified on Io , at Tsũi Goab Fluctus , Emakong Patera , and Balder Patera for example , that are suggestive of effusive sulfur or sulfur dioxide volcanism .
= = Eruption styles = =
Observations of Io by spacecraft and Earth @-@ based astronomers have led to the identification of differences in the types of eruptions seen on the satellite . The three main types identified include intra @-@ patera , flow @-@ dominated , and explosion @-@ dominated eruptions . They differ in terms of duration , energy released , brightness temperature ( determined from infrared imaging ) , type of lava flow , and whether it is confined within volcanic pits .
= = = Intra @-@ patera eruptions = = =
Intra @-@ patera eruptions occur within volcanic depressions known as paterae , which generally have flat floors bounded by steep walls . Paterae resemble terrestrial calderas , but it is unknown whether they form when an empty lava chamber collapses , like their terrestrial cousins . One hypothesis suggests that they are produced through the exhumation of volcanic sills , with the overlying material either being blasted out or integrated into the sill . Some paterae display evidence for multiple collapses , similar to the calderas atop Olympus Mons on Mars or Kīlauea on Earth , suggesting that they may occasionally form like volcanic calderas . Because the formation mechanism is still uncertain , the general term for these features uses the Latin descriptor term employed by the International Astronomical Union in naming them , paterae . Unlike similar features on Earth and Mars , these depressions generally do not lie at the peak of shield volcanoes and are larger , with an average diameter of 41 kilometres ( 25 mi ) . Patera depths have been measured for only a few paterae and typically exceed 1 km . The largest volcanic depression on Io is Loki Patera at 202 kilometres ( 126 mi ) across . Whatever the formation mechanism , the morphology and distribution of many paterae suggest that they are structurally controlled , with at least half bounded by faults or mountains .
This eruption style can take the form of either lava flows , spreading across the floor of the paterae , or lava lakes . Except for observations by Galileo during its seven close flybys , it can be difficult to tell the difference between a lava lake and a lava flow eruption on a patera floor , due to inadequate resolution and similar thermal emission characteristics . Intra @-@ patera lava flow eruptions , such as the Gish Bar Patera eruption in 2001 , can be just as voluminous as those seen spreading out across the Ionian plains . Flow @-@ like features have also been observed within a number of paterae , like Camaxtli Patera , suggesting that lava flows periodically resurface their floors .
Ionian lava lakes are depressions partially filled with molten lava covered by a thin solidified crust . These lava lakes are directly connected to a magma reservoir lying below . Observations of thermal emission at several Ionian lava lakes reveal glowing molten rock along the patera margin , caused by the lake 's crust breaking up along the edge of the patera . Over time , because the solidified lava is denser than the still @-@ molten magma below , this crust can founder , triggering an increase in thermal emission at the volcano . For some lava lakes , like the one at Pele , this occurs continuously , making Pele one of the brightest emitters of heat in the near @-@ infrared spectrum on Io . At other sites , such as at Loki Patera , this can occur episodically . During an overturning episode at these more quiescent lava lakes , a wave of foundering crust spreads out across the patera at the rate of about 1 kilometre ( 0 @.@ 6 mi ) per day , with new crust forming behind it until the entire lake has been resurfaced . Another eruption would only begin once the new crust has cooled and thickened enough for it to no longer be buoyant over the molten lava . During an overturning episode , Loki can emit up to ten times more heat than when its crust is stable .
= = = Flow @-@ dominated eruptions ( Promethean Volcanism ) = = =
Flow @-@ dominated eruptions are long @-@ lived events that build up extensive , compound lava flows . The extent of these flows makes them a major terrain type on Io . In this style of eruption , magma emerges onto the surface from vents on the floor of paterae , vents surrounding paterae , or from fissures on the plains , producing inflated , compound lava flows similar to those seen at Kīlauea in Hawaii . Images from the Galileo spacecraft revealed that many of Io 's major flows , like those at Prometheus and Amirani , are produced by the build @-@ up of small breakouts of lava on top of older flows . Flow @-@ dominated eruptions differ from explosion @-@ dominated eruptions by their longevity and their lower energy output per unit of time . Lava erupts at a generally steady rate , and flow @-@ dominated eruptions can last for years or decades .
Active flow fields more than 300 kilometres ( 190 mi ) long have been observed on Io at Amirani and Masubi . A relatively inactive flow field named Lei @-@ Kung Fluctus covers more than 125 @,@ 000 square kilometres ( 48 @,@ 000 sq mi ) , an area slightly larger than Nicaragua . The thickness of flow fields was not determined by Galileo , but the individual breakouts on their surface are likely to be 1 m ( 3 ft ) thick . In many cases , active lava breakouts flow out onto the surface at locations tens to hundreds of kilometres from the source vent , with low amounts of thermal emission observed between it and the breakout . This suggests that lava flows through lava tubes from the source vent to the breakout .
Although these eruptions generally have a steady eruption rate , larger outbreaks of lava have been observed at many flow @-@ dominated eruption sites . For example , the leading edge of the Prometheus flow field moved 75 to 95 kilometres ( 47 to 59 mi ) between observations by Voyager in 1979 and Galileo in 1996 . Although generally dwarfed by explosion @-@ dominated eruptions , the average flow rate at these compound flow fields is much greater than what is observed at similar contemporary lava flows on Earth . Average surface coverage rates of 35 – 60 square metres ( 380 – 650 sq ft ) per second were observed at Prometheus and Amirani during the Galileo mission , compared to 0 @.@ 6 square metres ( 6 @.@ 5 sq ft ) per second at Kīlauea .
= = = Explosion @-@ dominated eruptions ( Pillanian Volcanism ) = = =
Explosion @-@ dominated eruptions are the most pronounced of Io 's eruption styles . These eruptions , sometimes called " outburst " eruptions from their Earth @-@ based detections , are characterized by their short duration ( lasting only weeks or months ) , rapid onset , large volumetric flow rates , and high thermal emission . They lead to a short @-@ lived , significant increase in Io 's overall brightness in the near @-@ infrared . The most powerful volcanic eruption observed in historical times was an " outburst " eruption at Surt , observed by Earth @-@ based astronomers on February 22 , 2001 .
Explosion @-@ dominated eruptions occur when a body of magma ( called a dike ) from deep within Io 's partially molten mantle reaches the surface at a fissure . This results in a spectacular display of lava fountains . During the beginning of the outburst eruption , thermal emission is dominated by strong , 1 – 3 μm infrared radiation . It is produced by a large amount of exposed , fresh lava within the fountains at the eruption source vent . Outburst eruptions at Tvashtar in November 1999 and February 2007 centred on a 25 @-@ kilometre ( 16 mi ) long , 1 @-@ kilometre ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) tall lava " curtain " produced at a small patera nested within the larger Tvashtar Paterae complex .
The large amount of exposed molten lava at these lava fountains has provided researchers with their best opportunity to measure the actual temperatures of Ionian lavas . Temperatures suggestive of an ultramafic lava composition similar to Pre @-@ Cambrian komatiites ( about 1 @,@ 600 K or 1 @,@ 300 ° C or 2 @,@ 400 ° F ) are dominant at such eruptions , though superheating of the magma during ascent to the surface cannot be ruled out as a factor in the high eruption temperatures .
Although the more explosive , lava @-@ fountaining stage may last only a few days to a week , explosion @-@ dominated eruptions can continue for weeks to months , producing large , voluminous silicate lava flows . A major eruption in 1997 from a fissure north @-@ west of Pillan Patera produced more than 31 cubic kilometres ( 7 @.@ 4 cu mi ) of fresh lava over a 2 1 ⁄ 2- to 5 1 ⁄ 2 @-@ month period , and later flooded the floor of Pillan Patera . Observations by Galileo suggest lava coverage rates at Pillan between 1 @,@ 000 and 3 @,@ 000 square metres ( 11 @,@ 000 and 32 @,@ 000 sq ft ) per second during the 1997 eruption . The Pillan flow was found to be 10 m ( 33 ft ) thick , compared to the 1 m ( 3 ft ) thick flows observed at the inflated fields at Prometheus and Amirani . Similar , rapidly emplaced lava flows were observed by Galileo at Thor in 2001 . Such flow rates are similar to those seen at Iceland 's Laki eruption in 1783 and in terrestrial flood basalt eruptions .
Explosion @-@ dominated eruptions can produce dramatic ( but often short @-@ lived ) surface changes around the eruption site , such as large pyroclastic and plume deposits produced as gas exsolves from lava fountains . The 1997 Pillan eruption produced a 400 km ( 250 mi ) wide deposit of dark , silicate material and bright sulfur dioxide . The Tvashtar eruptions of 2000 and 2007 generated a 330 km ( 210 mi ) tall plume that deposited a ring of red sulfur and sulfur dioxide 1 @,@ 200 km ( 750 mi ) wide . Despite the dramatic appearance of these features , without continuous resupply of material , the vent surroundings often revert to their pre @-@ eruption appearance over a period of months ( in the case of Grian Patera ) or years ( as at Pillan Patera ) .
= = Plumes = =
The discovery of volcanic plumes at Pele and Loki in 1979 provided conclusive evidence that Io was geologically active . Generally , plumes form when volatiles like sulfur and sulfur dioxide are ejected skyward from Io 's volcanoes at speeds reaching 1 kilometre per second ( 0 @.@ 62 mi / s ) , creating umbrella @-@ shaped clouds of gas and dust . Additional materials that might be found in the volcanic plumes include sodium , potassium , and chlorine . Although striking in appearance , volcanic plumes are relatively uncommon . Of the 150 or so active volcanoes observed on Io , plumes have only been observed at a couple of dozen of them . The limited area of Io 's lava flows suggests that much of the resurfacing needed to erase Io 's cratering record must come from plume deposits .
The most common type of volcanic plume on Io are dust plumes , or Prometheus @-@ type plumes , produced when encroaching lava flows vaporize underlying sulfur dioxide frost , sending the material skyward . Examples of Prometheus @-@ type plumes include Prometheus , Amirani , Zamama , and Masubi . These plumes are usually less than 100 kilometres ( 62 mi ) tall with eruption velocities around 0 @.@ 5 kilometres per second ( 0 @.@ 31 mi / s ) . Prometheus @-@ type plumes are dust @-@ rich , with a dense inner core and upper canopy shock zone , giving them an umbrella @-@ like appearance . These plumes often form bright circular deposits , with a radius ranging between 100 and 250 kilometres ( 62 and 155 mi ) and consisting primarily of sulfur dioxide frost . Prometheus @-@ type plumes are frequently seen at flow @-@ dominated eruptions , helping make this plume type quite long @-@ lived . Four out of the six Prometheus @-@ type plumes observed by Voyager 1 in 1979 were also observed throughout the Galileo mission and by New Horizons in 2007 . Although the dust plume can be clearly seen in sunlit visible @-@ light images of Io acquired by passing spacecraft , many Prometheus @-@ type plumes have an outer halo of fainter , more gas @-@ rich material reaching heights approaching that of the larger , Pele @-@ type plumes .
Io 's largest plumes , Pele @-@ type plumes , are created when sulfur and sulfur dioxide gas exsolve from erupting magma at volcanic vents or lava lakes , carrying silicate pyroclastic material with them . The few Pele @-@ type plumes that have been observed are usually associated with explosion @-@ dominated eruptions , and are short @-@ lived . The exception to this is Pele , which is associated with a long @-@ lived active lava lake eruption , though the plume is thought to be intermittent . The higher vent temperatures and pressures associated with these plumes generate eruption speeds of up to 1 kilometre per second ( 0 @.@ 62 mi / s ) , allowing them to reach heights of between 300 and 500 kilometres ( 190 and 310 mi ) . Pele @-@ type plumes form red ( from short @-@ chain sulfur ) and black ( from silicate pyroclastics ) surface deposits , including large 1 @,@ 000 kilometres ( 620 mi ) -wide red rings , as seen at Pele . The erupted sulfurous components of Pele @-@ type plumes are thought to be the result of an excess amount of sulfur in Io 's crust and a decrease in sulfur solubility at greater depths in Io 's lithosphere . They are generally fainter than Prometheus @-@ type plumes as a result of the low dust content , causing some to be called stealth plumes . These plumes are sometimes only seen in images acquired while Io is in the shadow of Jupiter or those taken in ultraviolet . The little dust that is visible in sunlit images is generated when sulfur and sulfur dioxide condense as the gases reach the top of their ballistic trajectories . That is why these plumes lack the dense central column seen in Prometheus @-@ type plumes , in which dust is generated at the plume source . Examples of Pele @-@ type plumes have been observed at Pele , Tvashtar , and Grian .
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= History of Poland during the Piast dynasty =
The history of Poland during the Piast dynasty is the first major stage in the history of Poland . The Piast period lasted from the 10th through the 14th century , when Poland was established as a state and a nation during the Middle Ages of European history . The history of Poland commences with the founding of the Piast dynasty ( Siemowit , Lestek and Siemomysł were listed by the chronicler as its first dukes ) and the rule of the proper founder of the Polish state Mieszko I , from around 960 AD . The indigenous Piast ruling house was largely responsible for the formation of the state and remained in power until 1370 . Mieszko chose to be baptized in the Western Latin Rite in 966 , which established a major cultural boundary in Europe . He completed the unification of the West Slavic tribal lands fundamental to the existence of the new country of Poland .
Following the emergence of the Polish state , a series of rulers converted the population to Christianity , created a strong kingdom and integrated Poland into the European culture . Mieszko 's son , Bolesław I Chrobry , established a Polish Church province , pursued territorial conquests and was officially crowned in 1025 , becoming the first King of Poland . The first Piast monarchy collapsed with the death of Mieszko II Lambert in 1034 , followed by its restoration under Casimir I. Casimir 's son , Bolesław II the Bold , brought back the military assertiveness of Bolesław I , but became fatally involved in a conflict with Bishop Stanislaus of Szczepanów , and was expelled from the country .
Bolesław III , the last duke of the early period , succeeded in defending his country and recovering territories previously lost . Upon his death in 1138 , Poland was divided among his sons . The resulting internal fragmentation eroded the initial Piast monarchy structure in the 12th and 13th centuries and caused fundamental and lasting changes . Konrad I of Masovia invited the Teutonic Knights to help him fight the Baltic Prussian pagans , which led to centuries of Poland 's warfare with the Knights and the German Prussian state .
The Kingdom was restored under Władysław I the Elbow @-@ high , then strengthened and expanded by his son Casimir III the Great . The western provinces of Silesia and Pomerania were lost after the fragmentation , and Poland began expanding to the east . The period ended with the reigns of two members of the Angevin dynasty . The consolidation in the 14th century laid the base for the new powerful Kingdom of Poland that was to follow .
= = 10th – 12th century = =
= = = Mieszko I ; adoption of Christianity ( ca . 960 – 992 ) = = =
The tribe of the Polans ( Polanie , lit . " people of the fields " ) of what is now Greater Poland , gave rise to a tribal predecessor of the Polish state in the early part of the 10th century , with the Polans settling in the flatlands around the emerging strongholds of Giecz , Poznań , Gniezno and Ostrów Lednicki . Accelerated rebuilding of old tribal fortified settlements , construction of massive new ones and territorial expansion took place during 920 – 950 . The process continued and the Polish state developed from tribal roots in the second half of the century . According to the chronicler Gallus Anonymus , the Polans were ruled by the Piast dynasty . In existing sources , Piast ruler Mieszko I was first mentioned by Widukind of Corvey in his Res gestae saxonicae , a chronicle of 10th @-@ century Germany . Widukind reported that Mieszko 's forces were twice defeated in 963 by the Veleti tribes acting in cooperation with the Saxon exile Wichmann the Younger . Under Mieszko 's rule ( ca . 960 to 992 ) , his tribal state accepted Christianity and became the Polish state .
The viability of the emerging state was assured by the persistent territorial expansion of the early Piast rulers . Beginning with a very small area around Gniezno ( before the town itself existed ) , the Piast expansion lasted throughout most of the 10th century , resulting in a territory approximating that of present @-@ day Poland . The Polanie tribe conquered and merged with other Slavic tribes and formed a tribal federation , and later , a centralized state . After the addition of Lesser Poland , the country of the Vistulans , and of Silesia ( both taken by Mieszko from the Czech state during the later part of the 10th century ) , Mieszko 's state reached its mature form , including the main regions regarded as ethnically Polish .
The Piast lands totaled about 250 @,@ 000 km2 ( 96 @,@ 526 sq mi ) in area , with an approximate population of under one million .
Initially a pagan , Mieszko I was the first ruler of the Polans tribal union known from contemporary written sources . A detailed account of aspects of Mieszko 's early reign was given by Ibrâhîm ibn Ya`qûb , a Jewish traveler , according to whom Mieszko was one of four Slavic " kings " established in central and southern Europe in the 960s . In 965 , Mieszko , who was allied with Boleslaus I , Duke of Bohemia at the time , married the duke 's daughter , Doubravka , a Christian princess . Mieszko 's conversion to Christianity in its Western Latin Rite followed on 14 April 966 , and is considered to be the founding event of the Polish state . In the aftermath of Mieszko 's 967 victory over a force of the Velunzani , which was led by Wichmann , the first missionary bishop was appointed . The action counteracted the intended eastern expansion of the Magdeburg Archdiocese , established at about the same time .
Mieszko 's state had a complex political relationship with the German Holy Roman Empire , as Mieszko was a " friend " , ally and vassal of Otto I , paying him tribute from the western part of his lands . It fought wars with the Polabian Slavs , the margraves of the Saxon Eastern March ( Gero in 963 – 964 and Hodo in 972 , see Battle of Cedynia ) , and the Czechs . The victories over Wichmann and Hodo allowed Mieszko to extend his Pomeranian possessions west to the vicinity of the Oder River and its mouth . After the death of Otto I , and then again after the death of Otto II , Mieszko supported Henry the Quarrelsome , a pretender to the imperial crown . After the death of Dobrawa , Mieszko married ca . 980 a German , Oda von Haldensleben , daughter of Dietrich , Margrave of the Northern March . When fighting the Czechs in 990 , Mieszko was helped by the Holy Roman Empire . By about the year 990 , when Mieszko I officially submitted his country to the authority of the Holy See ( Dagome iudex ) , he had transformed Poland into one of the strongest powers in central @-@ eastern Europe .
= = = Bolesław I ; Church province , conquests , Kingdom of Poland ( 992 – 1025 ) = = =
Mieszko I died in 992 . Contrary to what the first ruler of Poland had intended , when Oda with her ( and Mieszko 's ) minor sons lost the power struggle , Bolesław , Mieszko 's oldest son , became the sole ruler of Poland . A man of high ambition and strong personality , Bolesław embarked on further territorial expansion to the west ( Lusatia region ) , south , and east . While often successful , the campaigns and the gains turned out to be of only passing significance and badly strained the resources of the young nation . Bolesław lost the economically crucial Farther Pomerania , together with its new bishopric in Kołobrzeg ; the region had previously been conquered with great effort by Mieszko .
Bolesław Chrobry ( ruled 992 – 1025 ) began his reign by continuing his father 's policy of alliance with the Holy Roman Empire . Bolesław received and helped Wojciech of the Slavník family , a well @-@ connected Czech bishop in exile and missionary who was killed in 997 while on a mission in Prussia . Bolesław skillfully took advantage of Wojciech 's death : the martyrdom of Wojciech gave Poland a patron saint , St. Adalbert , and resulted in the creation of an independent Polish province of the Church with an archbishop in Gniezno . In the year 1000 , the young Emperor Otto III came as a pilgrim to visit St. Adalbert 's grave and lent his support to Bolesław during the Congress of Gniezno ; the Gniezno Archdiocese and several subordinate dioceses were established on this occasion . The Polish ecclesiastical province effectively served as an essential anchor and an institution to fall back on for the Piast state , helping it to survive in the troubled centuries ahead .
Otto died in 1002 and Bolesław 's relationship with his successor Henry II turned out to be much more difficult , resulting in a series of wars ( 1002 – 1005 , 1007 – 1013 , 1015 – 1018 ) . From 1003 – 1004 Bolesław intervened militarily in Czech dynastic conflicts . After his forces were removed from Bohemia in 1018 , Bolesław retained Moravia . In 1013 the marriage between Bolesław 's son Mieszko and Richeza of Lotharingia , the niece of Emperor Otto III and future mother of Casimir I the Restorer , took place . The conflicts with Germany ended in 1018 with the Peace of Bautzen accord , on favorable terms for Bolesław . In the context of the 1018 Kiev expedition , Bolesław took over the western part of Red Ruthenia . In 1025 , shortly before his death , Bolesław I the Brave finally succeeded in obtaining the papal permission to crown himself , and became the first king of Poland .
= = = Mieszko II ; collapse of the reign ( 1025 – 1039 ) = = =
King Mieszko II Lambert ( 990 – 1034 ) tried to continue the politics of his father using Bolesław 's kingdom as an interventionist great power . Mieszko 's actions reinforced old resentment and hostility on the part of Poland 's neighbors , and his two dispossessed brothers took advantage of it , arranging for Rus ' and German invasions in 1031 ; Mieszko was defeated and was forced to leave the country . Later , Mieszko 's brothers Bezprym and Otto were killed and Mieszko partially recovered . The first Piast monarchy collapsed with Mieszko 's death in 1034 . Deprived of a government , Poland was ravaged by an anti @-@ feudal and pagan rebellion , and in 1039 by the forces of Bretislaus I of Bohemia . The country suffered territorial losses , and the functioning of the Gniezno archdiocese was disrupted .
= = = Restoration under Casimir I ( 1039 – 1058 ) = = =
The nation made a recovery under Mieszko 's son , Duke Casimir I ( 1016 – 1058 ) , properly known as the Restorer . After returning from exile in 1039 , Casimir rebuilt the Polish monarchy and the country 's territorial integrity through several military campaigns : in 1047 , Masovia was taken back from Miecław , and in 1054 Silesia from the Czechs . Casimir was aided by the recent adversaries of Poland , the Holy Roman Empire and Kievan Rus ' , both of whom disliked the chaos in Poland . Casimir introduced a more mature form of feudalism and relieved the burden of financing large army units from the duke 's treasury by settling his warriors on feudal estates . Faced with the widespread destruction of Greater Poland after the Czech expedition , Casimir moved his court to Kraków , replacing the old Piast capitals of Poznań and Gniezno ; Kraków functioned as the nation 's capital for several centuries .
= = = Bolesław II ; conflict with Bishop Stanisław ( 1058 – 1079 ) = = =
Casimir 's son Bolesław II the Bold , also known as the Generous ( ruled 1058 – 1079 ) , developed Polish military strength and waged several foreign campaigns between 1058 and 1077 . As an active supporter of the papal side in its feud with the German emperor , Bolesław crowned himself king in 1076 with the blessing of Pope Gregory VII . In 1079 there was an anti @-@ Bolesław conspiracy or conflict that involved the Bishop of Kraków . Bolesław had Bishop Stanislaus of Szczepanów executed ; subsequently Bolesław was forced to abdicate the Polish throne because of the pressure from the Catholic Church and the pro @-@ imperial faction of the nobility . St. Stanislaus was to become the second martyr and patron saint of Poland , canonized in 1253 .
= = = Władysław I Herman ( 1079 – 1102 ) = = =
After Bolesław 's exile the country found itself under the unstable rule of his younger brother Władysław I Herman ( ruled 1079 – 1102 ) . Władysław was strongly dependent on Palatine Sieciech . When Władysław 's two sons , Zbigniew and Bolesław , finally forced Władysław to remove his hated protégé , Poland was divided among the three of them from 1098 , and after the father 's death from 1102 to 1106 between the two brothers .
= = = Bolesław III ( 1102 – 1138 ) = = =
After a power struggle , Bolesław III the Wry @-@ mouthed ( ruled 1102 – 1138 ) became the Duke of Poland by defeating his half @-@ brother in 1106 – 1107 . Zbigniew had to leave the country , but received support from Emperor Henry V , who attacked Bolesław 's Poland in 1109 . Bolesław was able to defend his country because of his military abilities , determination and alliances , and also because of a national mobilization across the social spectrum ( see Battle of Głogów ) ; Zbigniew who later returned was eliminated . Bolesław 's other major achievement was the conquest of all of Mieszko I 's Pomerania ( of which the remaining eastern part had been lost by Poland from after the death of Mieszko II ) , a task begun by his father and completed by Bolesław around 1123 . Szczecin was subdued in a bloody takeover and Western Pomerania up to Rügen , except for the directly incorporated southern part , became Bolesław 's fief , to be ruled locally by Wartislaw I , the first duke of the Griffin dynasty .
At this time , Christianization of the region was initiated in earnest , an effort crowned by the establishment of the Pomeranian Wolin Diocese after Bolesław 's death in 1140 .
= = = Fragmentation of the realm ( 1138 – c . 1314 ) = = =
Before he died , Bolesław Krzywousty divided the country , in a limited sense , among four of his sons . He made complex arrangements intended to prevent fratricidal warfare and preserve the Polish state 's formal unity , but after Bolesław 's death the plan 's implementation had failed and in reality a long period of fragmentation was ushered in . For nearly two centuries the Piasts were to spar with each other , the clergy , and the nobility for the control over the divided kingdom . The stability of the system was supposedly assured by the institution of the senior or high duke of Poland , based in Kraków and assigned to the special Seniorate Province that was not to be subdivided . Following his concept of seniorate , Bolesław divided the country into five principalities : Silesia , Greater Poland , Masovia , Sandomierz and Kraków . The first four provinces were given to his four sons , who became independent rulers . The fifth province , the Seniorate Province of Kraków , was to be added to the senior among the Princes who , as the Grand Duke of Kraków , was the representative of the whole of Poland . This principle broke down already within the generation of Bolesław III 's sons , when Władysław II the Exile , Bolesław IV the Curly , Mieszko III the Old and Casimir II the Just fought for power and territory in Poland , and in particular over the Kraków throne .
The external borders left by Bolesław III at his death closely resembled the borders left by Mieszko I ; this original early Piast monarchy configuration had not survived the fragmentation period .
= = = Culture = = =
From the time of the baptism of Poland 's ruling elite , foreign churchmen had been arriving and the culture of early Medieval Poland was developing as a part of European Christendom . However , it would be a few generations from the time of Mieszko 's conversion until significant numbers of native clergymen appeared . After the establishment of numerous monasteries in the 12th and 13th centuries , Christianization of the populace was accomplished on a larger scale .
Intellectual and artistic activity was concentrated around the institutions of the Church , the courts of the kings and dukes , and emerged around the households of the rising hereditary elite . Written annals began to be generated in the late 10th century ; leaders like Mieszko II and Casimir the Restorer were considered literate and educated . Along with the Dagome iudex act , the most important written document and source of the period is the Gesta principum Polonorum , a chronicle by Gallus Anonymus , a foreign cleric from the court of Bolesław the Wry @-@ mouthed . A number of Pre @-@ Romanesque stone churches were built beginning in the 10th century , often accompanied by palatium ruler residencies ; Romanesque buildings proper followed . The earliest coins were minted by Bolesław I around 995 . The Gniezno Doors ( 1170s ) of Gniezno Cathedral ( bronze low relief ) are the finest example of Romanesque sculpture . Bruno of Querfurt was one of the pioneering Western clergymen spreading Church literacy ; some of his prominent writings had been produced in eremitic monasteries in Poland . Among the preeminent early monastic religious orders were the Benedictines ( the abbey in Tyniec founded in 1044 ) and the Cistercians .
= = 13th century = =
= = = State and society ; German settlement = = =
The 13th century brought fundamental changes to the structure of Polish society and its political system . Because of the fragmentation and constant internal conflicts , the Piast dukes were unable to stabilize Poland 's external borders of the early Piast rulers . Western Farther Pomerania broke its political ties with Poland in the second half of the 12th century and from 1231 became a fief of the Margraviate of Brandenburg , which in 1307 extended its Pomeranian possessions even further east , taking over the Sławno and Słupsk areas . Pomerelia or Gdańsk Pomerania had been independent of the Polish dukes from 1227 . In mid 13th century , Bolesław II the Bald granted Lubusz Land to the Margraviate , which made possible the creation of the Neumark and had far reaching negative consequences for the integrity of the western border . In the south @-@ east , Leszek the White was unable to preserve Poland 's supremacy over the Halych area of Rus ' , a territory that had changed hands on a number of occasions .
The social status was becoming increasingly based on the size of feudal land possessions . Those included the lands controlled by the Piast princes , their rivals the great lay land owners and church entities , all the way down to the knightly class ; the work force ranged from hired " free " people , through serfs attached to the land , to slaves ( purchased or war and other prisoners ) . The upper layer of the feudal lords , first the Church and then others , were able to acquire economic and legal immunity , which made them exempt to a significant degree from court jurisdiction or economical obligations ( including taxation ) , that had previously been imposed by the ruling dukes .
The civil strife and foreign invasions , such as the Mongol invasions in 1240 / 1241 , 1259 / 1260 and 1287 / 1288 , weakened and depopulated the many small Polish principalities , as the country was becoming progressively more subdivided . The depopulation and the increasing demand for labor in the developing economy caused a massive immigration of West European peasants , mostly German settlers into Poland ( early waves from Germany and Flanders in the 1220s ) . The German , Polish and other new rural settlements were a form of feudal tenancy with immunity and German town laws were often utilized as its legal bases . German immigrants were also important in the rise of the cities and the establishment of the Polish burgher ( city dwelling merchants ) class ; they brought with them West European laws ( Magdeburg rights ) and customs which the Poles adopted . From that time the Germans , who created early strong establishments ( led by patriciates ) especially in the urban centers of Silesia and other regions of western Poland , had been an increasingly influential minority in Poland .
In 1228 , the Acts of Cienia were passed and signed into law by Władysław III Laskonogi . The titular Duke of Poland promised to provide a " just and noble law according to the council of bishops and barons . " Such legal guarantees and privileges included the lower level land owners — knights , who were evolving into the lower and middle nobility class known later as szlachta . The fragmentation period weakened the rulers and established a permanent trend in Polish history , whereby the rights and role of the nobility were expanded at the monarch 's expense .
= = = Teutonic Knights = = =
In 1226 Konrad I of Masovia invited the Teutonic Knights to help him fight the pagan Baltic Prussian people , who lived in a territory adjacent to his lands ; substantial border warfare was taking place and Konrad 's province was suffering from Prussian invasions . On the other hand , the Old Prussians themselves were at that time being subjected to increasingly forced ( including papacy @-@ sponsored crusades ) , but largely ineffective Christianization efforts . The Teutonic Order soon overstepped the authority and moved beyond the area granted them by Konrad ( Chełmno Land or Kulmerland ) . In the following decades they conquered large areas along the Baltic Sea coast and established their monastic state . As virtually all of the Western Baltic pagans became converted or exterminated ( the Prussian conquests were completed by 1283 ) , the Knights confronted Poland and Lithuania , then the last pagan state in Europe . Teutonic wars with Poland and Lithuania continued for most of the 14th and 15th centuries . The Teutonic state in Prussia , populated by German settlers beginning in the 13th century , had been claimed as a fief and protected by the popes and Holy Roman Emperors .
= = = Reunification attempts ; Przemysł II , Václav II ( 1232 – 1305 ) = = =
As the disadvantages of national division were becoming increasingly apparent in various segments of the society , some of the Piast dukes had begun making serious efforts aimed at the reunification of the Polish state . Important among the earlier attempts were the activities of the Silesian dukes Henry I the Bearded , his son Henry II the Pious , who was killed in 1241 while fighting the Mongols at the Battle of Legnica , and Henry IV Probus . In 1295 Przemysł II of Greater Poland became the first , since Bolesław II , Piast duke crowned as King of Poland , but he ruled over only a part of the territory of Poland ( including from 1294 Gdańsk Pomerania ) and was assassinated soon after his coronation . A more extensive unification of Polish lands was accomplished by a foreign ruler , Václav II of Bohemia of the Přemyslid dynasty , who married Przemysł 's daughter and became King of Poland in 1300 . Václav 's heavy @-@ handed policies soon caused him to lose whatever support he had earlier in his reign ; he died in 1305 .
An important factor in the unification process was the Polish Church , which remained a single ecclesiastical province throughout the fragmentation period . Archbishop Jakub Świnka of Gniezno was an ardent proponent of Poland 's reunification ; he performed the crowning ceremonies for both Przemysł II and Wenceslaus II . Świnka supported Władysław Łokietek at various stages of the duke 's career .
= = = Culture = = =
Culturally , the social impact of the Church was considerably broader in the 13th century , as networks of parishes were established and cathedral @-@ type schools became more common . The Dominicans and the Franciscans were the leading monastic orders at this time , and they interacted closely with the general population . A proliferation of narrative annals characterized the period , as well as other written records , laws and documents . More of the clergy were of local origin ; others were expected to know the Polish language . Wincenty Kadłubek , the author of an influential chronicle , was the most recognized representative in the intellectual sphere . Perspectiva , a treatise on optics by Witelo , a Silesian monk , was one of the finest achievements of medieval science . The construction of churches and castles in the Gothic architecture style predominated in the 13th century ; native elements in art forms were increasingly important , with significant advances taking place in agriculture , manufacturing and crafts .
= = 14th century = =
= = = Reunited kingdom of the last Piast rulers = = =
Władysław the Elbow @-@ high and his son Casimir the Great were the last two rulers of the Piast dynasty in the unified Kingdom of Poland of the 14th century . Their rule was not a return to the Polish state as it existed before the period of fragmentation , because of the loss of internal cohesion and territorial integrity . The regional Piast princes remained strong and for economic and cultural reasons some of them gravitated toward Poland 's neighbors . The Kingdom lost Pomerania and Silesia , the most highly developed and economically important of the original ethnically Polish lands ( a disputable designation in case of Slavic Western Pomerania ) , which left half of the Polish population outside the Kingdom 's borders . The western losses had to do with the failure of the unification efforts undertaken by the Silesian Piast dukes and the German expansion processes . These included the Piast principalities developing ( or falling into ) dependencies in respect to the German political structures , settler colonization and gradual Germanization of the Polish ruling circles . The lower Vistula was controlled by the Teutonic Order . Masovia was not to be fully incorporated into the Polish state anytime soon . Casimir stabilized the western and northern borders , tried to regain some of the lost territories , and partially compensated the losses by his new eastern expansion , which placed within his kingdom regions that were East Slavic , and thus ethnically non @-@ Polish .
Despite the territorial truncation , 14th century Poland experienced a period of accelerated economic development and increasing prosperity . This included further expansion and modernization of agricultural settlements , the development of towns and their greater role in briskly growing trade , mining and metallurgy . A great monetary reform was implemented during the reign of Casimir III .
Jewish settlement was taking place in Poland since very early times . In 1264 Duke Bolesław the Pious of Greater Poland granted the Statute of Kalisz privilege , which specified a broad range of freedoms ( of religious practices , movement , trading ) and rights for the Jews , creating a legal precedent of official protection from local harassment and exclusion . The act also exempted the Jews from enslavement or serfdom and was the foundation of future Jewish prosperity in the Polish Kingdom ; it was later followed by many other comparable legal pronouncements . Following a series of expulsions of Jews from Western Europe , Jewish communities were established in Cracow , Kalisz and elsewhere in western and southern Poland in the 13th century ; at Lviv , Brest @-@ Litovsk and Grodno further east in the 14th century . King Casimir received Jewish refugees from Germany in 1349 , helping accelerate the Jewish expansion in Poland that was to continue until World War II . German urban and rural settlements were another long @-@ lasting ethnic feature .
= = = Władysław I the Elbow @-@ high ( 1305 – 1333 ) = = =
Władysław Łokietek ( ruled 1305 – 1333 ) , who began as an obscure Piast duke from Kuyavia , fought a lifelong , uphill battle with powerful adversaries with persistence and determination . When Łokietek died as the king of a partially reunited Poland , he left the Kingdom in a precarious situation . Although the area under King Władysław 's control was limited and many unresolved issues remained , Łokietek may have saved Poland 's existence as a state .
Supported by his Hungarian allies , Władysław returned from exile and challenged Václav II , and after his death Václav III in 1304 – 1306 . Václav III 's murder terminated the Přemyslid dynasty and their involvement in Poland . Afterwards Władysław Łokietek completed the takeover of Lesser Poland , entering Kraków , and took the lands north of there , through Kuyavia all the way to Gdańsk Pomerania . In 1308 , Pomerania was conquered by the Brandenburg state . In a recovery effort , Łokietek agreed to ask for help the Teutonic Knights ; the Knights brutally took over Gdańsk Pomerania and kept it for themselves .
In 1311 – 1312 , a rebellion in Kraków instigated by the city 's patrician leadership seeking a rule by the House of Luxembourg was put down . This event may have had a limiting impact on the emerging political power of towns .
In 1313 – 1314 Władysław conquered Greater Poland . In 1320 , Władysław I Łokietek became the first King of Poland crowned not in Gniezno , but in Kraków 's Wawel Cathedral . The coronation was hesitantly agreed to by Pope John XXII , despite the opposition from John of Bohemia , who had also claimed the Polish crown . John undertook in 1327 an expedition aimed at Kraków , which he was compelled to abort ; in 1328 , he waged a crusade against Lithuania during which he formalized an alliance with the Teutonic Order . The Order was in a state of war with Poland from 1327 to 1332 ( see Battle of Płowce ) ; the Knights captured Dobrzyń Land and Kujawy . Władysław was helped by his alliances with Hungary ( his daughter Elizabeth was married to King Charles Robert in 1320 ) and Lithuania ( 1325 pact against the Teutonic State and the marriage of Łokietek 's son Casimir to Aldona , daughter of Lithuanian ruler Gediminas ) , and from 1329 by a peace agreement with Brandenburg . A lasting achievement of John of Luxembourg ( and Poland 's greatest loss ) was forcing most of the Piast Silesian principalities , often ambivalent about their loyalties , into allegiance ( 1327 – 29 ) .
= = = Casimir III the Great ( 1333 – 1370 ) = = =
After Łokietek 's death , the old monarch 's 23 @-@ year @-@ old son became King Casimir III , later known as Kazimierz the Great ( ruled 1333 – 1370 ) . Unlike his father the new king had no inclination for the hardships of military life . Casimir 's contemporaries did not give him much of a chance for overcoming the country 's mounting difficulties or succeeding as a leader . But from the beginning , Casimir acted prudently , purchasing in 1335 John 's claims to the Polish throne . In 1343 , Casimir settled several high @-@ level arbitration disputes with the Teutonic Order by a territorial compromise , culminating in the Treaty of Kalisz , a peace treaty that concluded the Polish @-@ Teutonic War of 1326 – 1332 . Dobrzyń Land and Kuyavia were recovered by Casimir . At that time Poland started to expand to the east and through a series of military campaigns between 1340 and 1366 Casimir had annexed the Halych – Volodymyr area of Rus ' . The town of Lviv there attracted newcomers of several nationalities , was granted municipal rights in 1356 , and had thus begun its career as Lwów , the main Polish center in the midst of a Rus ' Orthodox population . Supported by Hungary , the Polish king in 1338 promised the Hungarian ruling house the Polish throne in the event he dies without male heirs .
Casimir , who in 1339 formally gave up his rights to several Silesian principalities , unsuccessfully tried to recover the region by conducting military activities against the Luxembourgs between 1343 and 1348 , but then blocked the attempted separation of Silesia from the Gniezno Archdiocese by Charles IV . Later until his death he pursued the Polish claim to Silesia legally by petitioning the pope ; his successors had not continued his efforts .
Allied with Denmark and Western Pomerania ( Gdańsk Pomerania was granted to the Order as an " eternal charity " ) , Casimir was able to impose some corrections on the western border . In 1365 Drezdenko and Santok became Poland 's fiefs , while Wałcz district was in 1368 taken outright , severing the land connection between Brandenburg and the Teutonic state and connecting Poland with Farther Pomerania .
Casimir the Great considerably solidified the country 's position in both foreign and domestic affairs . Domestically , he integrated and centralized the reunited Polish state and helped develop what was considered the " Crown of the Polish Kingdom " — the state within its actual , as well as past or potential ( legal from the Polish point of view ) boundaries . Casimir established or strengthened kingdom @-@ wide institutions ( such as the powerful state treasury ) , independent of the regional , class , or royal court related interests . Internationally , the Polish king was very active diplomatically , cultivated close contacts with other European rulers and was a staunch defender of the Polish national interest . In 1364 he sponsored the Congress of Kraków , in which a number of monarchs participated , and which was concerned with the promotion of peaceful cooperation and political balance in Central Europe .
= = = Louis I and Jadwiga of the Angevin dynasty ( 1370 – 1399 ) = = =
Immediately after Casimir 's death in 1370 , the heirless king 's nephew , Louis of Hungary of the Angevin dynasty , assumed the Polish throne . As Casimir 's actual commitment to the Angevin succession seemed problematic from the beginning ( in 1368 the Polish king adopted his grandson , Casimir of Słupsk ) , Louis engaged in succession negotiations with Polish knights and nobility starting in 1351 . They supported him , exacting in return further guarantees and privileges for themselves ; the formal act was negotiated in Buda in 1355 . After the coronation , Louis returned to Hungary ; he left his mother and Casimir 's sister Elizabeth in Poland as a regent .
With the death of Casimir the Great , the period of hereditary ( Piast ) monarchy in Poland came to an end . The land owners and nobles did not want a strong monarchy ; a constitutional monarchy was established between 1370 and 1493 ( beginnings of general sejm , the dominant bicameral parliament of the future ) .
During the reign of Louis I , Poland formed a union with Hungary . In the pact of 1374 ( the Privilege of Koszyce ) , the Polish nobility were granted extensive concessions and agreed to extend the Angevin succession to Louis ' daughters , as Louis had no sons . Louis ' neglect of Polish affairs resulted in the loss of Casimir 's territorial gains , including Halych Rus ' , recovered by Queen Jadwiga in 1387 . In 1396 , Jadwiga and her husband Jagiełło ( Jogaila ) forcefully annexed the central Polish lands separating Lesser Poland from Greater Poland , previously granted by King Louis to his Silesian Piast ally , Duke Władysław of Opole .
The Hungarian @-@ Polish union lasted for twelve years and ended in war . After Louis ' death in 1382 and an ensuing power struggle , the Polish nobility decided that Jadwiga , Louis ' youngest daughter , should become the next " King of Poland " ; Jadwiga arrived in 1384 and was crowned at the age of eleven . The failure of the union of Poland and Hungary paved the way for the union of Lithuania and Poland .
= = = Culture = = =
In the 14th century , many large scale brick building projects were undertaken during Casimir 's reign , including the construction of Gothic churches , castles , urban fortifications and homes of wealthy city residents . The most notable architecture of the medieval period in Poland are the many churches representing the Polish Gothic style ; medieval sculpture , painting and ornamental smithery are best expressed in the furnishings of churches and liturgical items . Polish law was first codified in the Statutes of Casimir the Great ( Piotrków – Wiślica Statutes ) from 1346 – 1362 . Accordingly , conflict resolution relied on legal proceedings domestically , while bilateral or multilateral negotiations and treaties were increasingly important in international relations . By this time , the network of cathedral and parish schools had become well developed . In 1364 , Casimir the Great , based on a papal concession , established the University of Kraków , the second oldest university in Central Europe . While many still traveled to southern and western Europe for university studies , the Polish language , along with the predominant Latin , is increasingly present in written documents . The Holy Cross Sermons ( ca. early 14th century ) constitute possibly the oldest extant Polish prose manuscript .
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= Welcome Back , Carter =
" Welcome Back , Carter " is the third episode of the ninth season of the animated comedy series Family Guy . It originally aired on Fox in the United States on October 10 , 2010 . The episode follows Peter after he discovers his father @-@ in @-@ law , Carter Pewterschmidt , having an affair with another woman . Deciding to blackmail him , Peter begins taking advantage of his father @-@ in @-@ law 's enormous wealth , before accidentally spilling the beans to Carter 's wife , Barbara , who divorces him soon after . Peter then becomes Carter 's wingman , and helps him in rediscovering his bachelorhood , as he begins navigating through the dating scene .
The episode was written by Wellesley Wild and directed by Cyndi Tang @-@ Loveland . It received mixed reviews from critics for its storyline and many cultural references . According to Nielsen ratings , it was viewed in 7 @.@ 02 million homes in its original airing . The episode featured guest performances by Max Burkholder , Christine Lakin and Rachael MacFarlane , along with several recurring guest voice actors for the series . " Welcome Back , Carter " was released on DVD along with three other episodes from the season on December 13 , 2011 .
= = Plot = =
After deciding to visit her parents , Carter and Barbara Pewterschmidt , Lois , along with her husband , Peter , discover an old photo album showcasing Barbara and Carter 's love for each other , as well as Barbara 's short @-@ lived affair during the " Great War with Alaska " , during which , after returning home from combat , Carter reclaims his wife , and the two 's love is shown to have lasted ever since . Becoming bored , Peter decides to call his father @-@ in @-@ law to dinner , and soon discovers Carter in his yacht , having sex with another woman of Japanese descent . Questioning his father @-@ in @-@ law 's judgment , he eventually promises to keep the affair a secret from Barbara . The next day , at the Drunken Clam , Peter begins discussing the affair with Quagmire and Joe , who suggest Peter blackmail Carter as revenge for his constant mistreatment .
Visiting his wife 's parents during the middle of the night , Peter informs Carter that he is now his personal slave , and must perform any task he wishes , including having a limousine joust and writing witty catchphrases . Noticing Peter and Carter spending time together , Barbara and Lois soon witness the two taking a high @-@ definition television out of the house . Peter then accidentally spills the beans to Barbara about the affair , who runs out of the room sobbing instantly . At the Griffin family home , Carter announces that he and Barbara are getting a divorce , causing Peter to suggest he meet other people . Taking him to the local club , Peter introduces Carter to the dating scene , where he soon meets Paula , an attractive blonde . Going on to demand an African American patron fetch him a drink , Carter is accused of being a racist by Paula , who leaves him . Continuing to desire Barbara , Carter decides to take a bouquet of roses to his former wife . While there , he discovers that Barbara has begun dating the man she had an affair with during the war ( who sings to her in the tune of ' The Miners Mother ' ) . Announcing he has something important to say to Barbara , Carter confesses his love for her , and apologizes . Barbara then allows Carter to earn her trust by letting him move back in , and the two ultimately embrace in a passionate kiss .
= = Production and development = =
The episode was written by series regular Wellesley Wild and directed by series regular Cyndi Tang @-@ Loveland shortly after the conclusion of the eighth production season . Series veterans Peter Shin and James Purdum , both of whom having previously served as animation directors , served as supervising directors for the episode , with Andrew Goldberg , Alex Carter , Elaine Ko , Spencer Porter and Aaron Blitzstein serving as staff writers for the episode . Composer Ron Jones , who has worked on the series since its inception , returned to compose the music for " Welcome Back , Carter " . Series creator and executive producer Seth MacFarlane reprised his role as Carter Pewterschmidt , with main cast member and former series writer Alex Borstein providing the voice of Carter 's wife , Barbara Pewterschmidt .
" Welcome Back , Carter " , along with the two other episodes from Family Guy 's ninth season , was released on a three @-@ disc DVD set in the United States on December 13 , 2011 . The sets include brief audio commentaries by various crew and cast members for several episodes , a collection of deleted scenes and animatics , a special mini @-@ feature which discussed the process behind animating " And Then There Were Fewer " , a mini @-@ feature entitled " The Comical Adventures of Family Guy – Brian & Stewie : The Lost Phone Call " , and footage of the Family Guy panel at the 2010 San Diego Comic @-@ Con International .
In addition to the regular cast , child actor Max Burkholder , actress Christine Lakin , and voice actress Rachael MacFarlane guest starred in the episode . Recurring guest voice actress Alexandra Breckenridge , actor Ralph Garman , and writers Patrick Meighan , Danny Smith , Alec Sulkin and John Viener also made minor appearances . Actor Patrick Warburton appeared in the episode as well .
= = Cultural references = =
In the opening scene of the episode , Peter notices a painting of a ship in his mother @-@ in @-@ law 's living room , and questions whether or not he can change the channel . Lois goes on to instruct Peter that it is not a television , with Barbara interrupting and telling him it is actually the television channel PBS . Peter then interjects his hatred of PBS , after viewing a nine @-@ part series on traffic signs by director and producer Ken Burns , the fourth of which on the yield sign . Later , after returning to dinner , Peter becomes an embarrassment to Lois , who recalls having dinner with Paul McCartney 's ex @-@ wife , Heather Mills , during which Peter began playing footsie with Mills , whose prosthetic leg ultimately falls off .
In an attempt to make Barbara love Carter again , Peter instructs him that he must befriend a cute child in order to win her over . Peter then invites child actor Jonathan Lipnicki to the Griffin family home , but he is immediately shocked by his change in appearance .
= = Reception = =
" Welcome Back , Carter " was broadcast on October 10 , 2010 , as a part of an animated television night on Fox , and was preceded by The Simpsons , and Family Guy creator and executive producer Seth MacFarlane 's spin @-@ off , The Cleveland Show , and followed by an episode of American Dad ! . It was watched by 7 @.@ 02 million viewers , according to Nielsen ratings , despite airing simultaneously with Desperate Housewives on ABC , The Amazing Race on CBS and Sunday Night Football on NBC , and falling only 15 % from the previous week 's broadcast . The episode also acquired a 3 @.@ 4 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , beating The Simpsons , American Dad ! and The Cleveland Show in addition to significantly edging out all three shows in total viewership .
Television critics reacted mostly mixed to " Welcome Back , Carter " , calling the storyline " hit @-@ or @-@ miss . " In a simultaneous review of the episodes of The Simpsons and The Cleveland Show that preceded the show , and the broadcast of American Dad ! that followed it , The A.V. Club 's Rowan Kaiser noted the apparent lack of guest stars in the episode , adding , " I can 't help but feel [ it ] is a good thing in for Family Guy . " In the conclusion of his review Kaiser praised the " shock humor " in the limousine jousting scene , but compared Carter 's catchphrases to " the kind of groan @-@ inducing meta @-@ humor that [ ... ] The Cleveland Show aims for . " He ultimately gave the episode a C rating , the second best rating of the night , beating The Cleveland Show episode " How Cleveland Got His Groove Back " and tying with the American Dad ! episode " Son of Stan " . In a slightly more neutral review of the episode , Jason Hughes of TV Squad praised the episode 's cutaways , stating that they " came back with a vengeance this week . " Hughes went on to comment negatively on the scene involving Carter being woken up and hinting at incest with his daughter , noting , " It 's weird that while the pedophile character of Herbert doesn 't bother me at all , this potential admission really does . Maybe because it adds an element of incest , or seemed more genuine than Herbert 's over @-@ the @-@ top antics . But really , it 's just another throwaway gag in the world of Seth MacFarlane . " Actor Jonathan Lipnicki , who was parodied in the episode , responded to his portrayal by stating , " I don 't feel bad about what they said on Family Guy . It was all in good fun , I 've worked on that show [ before ] . "
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= Castlevania : Harmony of Dissonance =
Castlevania : Harmony of Dissonance , known in Japan as Castlevania : Byakuya no Concerto ( キャッスルヴァニア 白夜の協奏曲 , Kyassuruvania Byakuya no Koncheruto , officially translated Castlevania : Concerto of Midnight Sun ) , is a platform @-@ adventure video game developed and published by Konami for the Game Boy Advance . Belonging to Konami 's Castlevania video game series , it is the second installment of the series on the Game Boy Advance . It was released in Japan in June 2002 , in North America in September 2002 , and in Europe in October 2002 . It was the first Castlevania game to be called " Castlevania " in Japan instead of " Akumajō Dracula " .
Harmony of Dissonance occurs in the fictional universe of the Castlevania series ; the premise of the series centers on the eternal conflict between the vampire hunters of the Belmont clan and the immortal vampire Dracula . Set fifty years after Simon Belmont vanquished Dracula 's curse , Harmony of Dissonance focuses on his grandson Juste Belmont and his quest to rescue a kidnapped childhood friend .
Koji Igarashi produced Harmony of Dissonance with the intent of " creat [ ing ] a game that was similar to Castlevania : Symphony of the Night " , the critically acclaimed PlayStation game that he had worked on . Harmony of Dissonance sold 126 @,@ 000 units in the United States and did not become a " huge hit in Japan " . Critics praised it as an entertaining game with improved graphics as compared to its predecessor Castlevania : Circle of the Moon , but criticized its soundtrack . In January 2006 , Harmony of Dissonance was re @-@ released in North America and later Europe , along with Castlevania : Aria of Sorrow , as part of the Castlevania Double Pack .
= = Gameplay = =
Harmony of Dissonance makes use of a 2D side @-@ scrolling style of gameplay , similar to many of the previous Castlevania video games . The objective of the game is to lead the player @-@ character , Juste Belmont , through the monster @-@ filled castle as he searches for his kidnapped friend . The castle consists of two " layers " : Castle A and B. Structurally , each castle has mostly the same room layout , but monster types , items , and other aspects vary between the two versions . Later , the player can use special warp rooms that can teleport Juste to other castle rooms and between castles . The two castles share a connection ; for example , the destruction of a wall in one castle can cause a change in the other . The game further divides the castle into various , named areas : the Shrine of the Apostates , for example . Relics and keys found within the castle allow Juste to reach previously inaccessible areas . Harmony of Dissonance makes use of the forward dash move , which causes Juste to move forward with a short burst of speed . Unique to Harmony of Dissonance is the ability to collect furniture and collectables to furnish a bare room that Juste finds in the castle . This , under certain circumstances , does affect the ending .
Juste primarily attacks at close quarters using the series ' traditional whip weapon , the Vampire Killer . It can be brandished to deflect projectile attacks , reminiscent of Simon Belmont 's usage of the weapon in Super Castlevania IV . A variety of ranged sub @-@ weapons — holy water , a dagger , a holy book , a cross , a gem , an axe , and a thunder gauntlet — are available , one of which can be carried at any given time and combined with one of the five spell books — Fire Book , Ice Book , Bolt Book , Wind Book , and the Summoning Tome — hidden throughout the castle to create a magical attack . Casting a spell renders the player character invincible for a moment .
Harmony of Dissonance also makes use of elements found in role @-@ playing games . Defeating minor enemies and bosses will procure experience points for Juste , who will level up when statistical requirements are met . Leveling up will increase his statistics : hit points , the amount of damage the character can receive before dying ; magic points , which affects how often he can cast a magical attack ; strength , the power of the physical attack ; defense , the reduction of damage taken from an enemy ; intelligence , the strength of the magical attack ; and luck , which determines the rate of items dropped by enemies . Certain relics will also affect his statistics : the Fang of Vlad increases his defense points , for example . Equipment in the form of weapon modifications , armor and accessories can also be found scattered about the castle and will contribute to his statistics . Occasionally , an enemy will drop an item after being killed . Items can also be bought with in @-@ game money from a merchant who appears in various places throughout the castle .
Additional modes can be unlocked in the game . For Boss Rush Mode , the player is required to complete the game once and can then fight the bosses from the game in order with the number of bosses depending on the level of difficulty selected . Maxim Mode requires the player to finish the game with the best ending and allows the player to take control of Maxim . Unlike Juste , Maxim cannot equip items and can only use his boomerang as a weapon . Finishing with the best ending also unlocks an option to listen to the music of the game .
= = Plot = =
= = = Setting and characters = = =
Harmony of Dissonance takes place in 1748 , fifty years after Simon Belmont ended Dracula 's curse . As result of his battle against Dracula was that the villagers changed their opinion of him and the Belmont family . Producer Koji Igarashi explained : " Simon was regarded as a life @-@ saver , and people started to look upon him as a hero ; little by little , the people started to gather around them . A village , therefore , was formed around Belmonts . Juste Belmont grew up in this environment with his childhood friends Maxim Kischine and Lydie Erlanger . "
The protagonist and primary player character is Juste Belmont , the grandson of Simon Belmont and descendant of Sypha Belnades , who at the age of sixteen , gained the Vampire Killer whip . Together with his amnesiac and injured best friend Maxim Kischine , he sets off to rescue his kidnapped childhood friend , Lydie Erlanger . While exploring the castle , he encounters a merchant who stumbled upon the castle and Death , Dracula 's servant .
= = = Story = = =
Juste meets Maxim at a castle where Lydie is being held captive ; after a brief talk , he leaves Maxim outside and begins to explore the castle . Within the castle , Juste encounters Death , who confirms that the castle is Dracula 's . He then meets up with a dazed Maxim , whose memory is slowly returning to him and they split up to cover more of the castle ground . While trekking through the castle , Juste notices that the castle sometimes has different atmospheres . He also meets Maxim several more times , but is baffled by how his friend seems to change personalities periodically . Regardless , in one of their meetings , Maxim reveals that he went on a journey to find and destroy the remains of Dracula , something Simon Belmont had previously done , but when he collected all six , his memory went blank .
Juste encounters Death again , who explains that the castle has been split in two " layers " to accommodate the two spirits living in Maxim 's body : his original spirit and an evil one created from Dracula 's remains and his suppressed jealousy of Juste . Maxim later confirms this and admits to being Lydie 's kidnapper . Juste meets his friend again in the other layer of the castle where he reveals that he lost his memory to protect Lydie . He then gives Juste his bracelet to help him locate her in the castle . However , when Juste finds her , Death kidnaps her to use her blood as a means to unite the two castles by destroying Maxim 's spirit . Juste defeats Death , and proceeds to search for Maxim . Along the way , he accumulates Dracula 's remains , which are scattered throughout the castle . In the center of the castle , he finds Maxim with an unconscious Lydie .
Three endings exist . In the first , Maxim , possessed , has already bitten Lydie . With Maxim 's defeat , Juste escapes the collapsing castle alone and curses his inability to save either friend . In the second , Maxim struggles against the possession and urges Juste to kill him . In his final moments , he thanks Juste for killing him and reveals that he had wished to save him from his fate as a Belmont . Outside the castle , Lydie awakens , unharmed , and tells Juste not to blame himself for Maxim 's death . The third ending begins the same as the first , except that , during the fight , Maxim notices that Juste wore his bracelet and resists the possession . Dracula flees into a weakened form using the gathered remains and fights Juste , planning to use his blood to return himself to full power . Vanquishing him , Juste escapes the castle together with Maxim and Lydie , whose bite marks disappear by the time she regains consciousness . Outside the castle , the three resolve to return home .
= = Development = =
Produced by Koji Igarashi and developed by Konami Computer Entertainment Tokyo , Castlevania : Harmony of Dissonance is the second installment of Konami 's Castlevania video game series for the Game Boy Advance ( GBA ) . Its predecessor Castlevania : Circle of the Moon had been developed by a different studio , Konami Computer Entertainment Kobe . Igarashi began the game 's development with the intention of making an installment of the series for GBA that shared similarities with Symphony of the Night ( 1997 ) . Ayami Kojima , who had previously worked on the character designs for Symphony of the Night , designed the characters of Harmony of Dissonance .
Harmony of Dissonance departs from the usual structure of the series , in which Dracula is resurrected and a member of the Belmont clan sets out to defeat him , in favor of a plot that takes place in between Dracula 's resurrections . Harmony of Dissonance incorporates other changes : a fusion @-@ spell system replaced the dual @-@ card system introduced in Circle of the Moon , and the graphics were also brightened and controls improved . In production at the same time was Castlevania : Aria of Sorrow ( 2003 ) , and as a result , the two share similar programming engines and gameplay elements . Originally slated for a mid @-@ June release , Harmony of Dissonance was not released until September 2002 . It was released in Japan on June 6 , 2002 , in North America on September 16 , 2002 , and in Europe on October 11 , 2002 . It was published on the Wii U Virtual Console on October 16 , 2014 , in North America .
= = = Audio = = =
On June 26 , 2002 , Konami published Castlevania : Circle of the Moon & Castlevania : Concerto of Midnight Sun Original Soundtrack ( KMCA @-@ 162 ) . Soshiro Hokkai composed the soundtrack for Harmony of Dissonance with Michiru Yamane creating the additional stage music . Igarashi later noted that the quality of the music had been " sacrifice [ d ] " for the graphics of the game .
Notes
Tracks 1 through 19 from Castlevania : Circle of the Moon
Tracks 20 through 45 from Castlevania : Harmony of Dissonance
= = Reception = =
In the United States , about 126 @,@ 000 units of Harmony of Dissonance were sold , and in Japan , it was not considered a " huge hit " by Igarashi . Metacritic assigned it a score of 87 of 100 while GameRankings gave it an 84 % .
At the time of its release , Harmony of Dissonance received positive reviews from English @-@ language critics . GameSpot commended it as " not just a fine Castlevania game--it 's also one of the better Game Boy Advance games to come around in a while " . Gamespy stated : " Despite its unevenness , Castlevania : Harmony of Dissonance is a quality adventure that represents the best attempt yet made at miniaturizing the brilliance of Symphony of the Night . " While worrying about the loss of originality of the franchise and noting that " Harmony of Dissonance almost obsessively copies Symphony of the Night " , GamePro called it " a fun action game and a fine Castlevania game in its own right . " The improved graphics of Harmony of Dissonance , especially the backgrounds , 3D effects , and multi @-@ jointed bosses , received praise from reviewers , who called them " plentiful and visually stunning " , and " top @-@ notch " .
The soundtrack of the game was less well received . Critics panned the music as " easily the worst Castlevania soundtrack " and " muddy , plodding , and reminiscent of the days of four @-@ channel NES soundtracks " . Conversely , GameSpot found that the music was " decent " and occasionally " fitting or even catchy " , but failed to live up to the high expectations of the series . IGN felt that while not " quite as bad as importers have made it out to be " , the songs " aren 't nearly as nice as they have been in past Castlevania adventures . " Reviewers also disliked the lack of difficulty with GamePro describing it as the game 's " biggest flaw " . Other criticism included predictable and easy boss battles , and " a much smaller explorable area and somewhat less compelling map design " .
Retrospective reviews , however , have been more critical of the game . Considering Harmony of Dissonance " one of the more disappointing titles of the series " and " the least @-@ impressive of the three GBA titles , " retrospective critics cited the dull castle design and frequent switching between castle layers as some of the game 's biggest flaws . PALGN 's David Low criticized the inclusion of the " possessed ally " element from previous Castlevania titles along with the game 's easier gameplay , the player character 's badly animated sprite , and the occasionally gaudy environments . Looking back on the series , Mark Bozon of IGN concluded : " Still Harmony of Dissonance shows off some decent visuals as an in @-@ between , mid @-@ generation game , and paved the way for GBA 's strongest Castlevania title , Aria of Sorrow . " Game Informer 's Tim Turi meanwhile felt that its design was among Castlevania 's best despite having among the worst music in the series .
Castlevania : Harmony of Dissonance was re @-@ released in North America in January 2006 , along with Castlevania : Aria of Sorrow , as part of Castlevania Double Pack . Both games are contained on a single GBA Game Pak . This pack also appeared in Europe later that year . It was picked as the IGN Game Boy Game of the Month for January 2006 .
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= Transformers : The Ride =
Transformers : The Ride 3D ( or simply Transformers : The Ride ) is a 3D dark ride located at Universal Studios Singapore , Universal Studios Hollywood and Universal Studios Florida . The ride , based on the Transformers film franchise , was designed by Universal Creative , Oceaneering International , and Industrial Light & Magic . Each installation is reported to have cost US $ 100 million . Universal Studios Singapore was the first to open the ride .
The dark ride consists of vehicle @-@ mounted motion platforms which follow a 2 @,@ 000 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 610 m ) track . Throughout the ride , screens up to 60 feet ( 18 m ) high project 3D images of various Transformers characters as the Autobots attempt to protect the AllSpark from the Decepticons . Transformers : The Ride has been praised by media around the world with some stating it is one of the best theme park attractions in the world .
= = History = =
= = = Announcements = = =
Early planning and design for the ride began in 2007 . In October 2008 , Universal Parks & Resorts announced the addition of Transformers : The Ride to their Singapore and Hollywood theme parks . At the time of the announcement , speculation that the ride would feature an upgraded version of the ride system used in The Amazing Adventures of Spider @-@ Man ride at Islands of Adventure appeared in the press . After the two attractions at Universal Studios Singapore and Hollywood were opened , Universal Orlando Resort announced on November 1 , 2012 , that Transformers : The Ride would open at Universal Studios Florida in mid @-@ 2013 . The announcement was made just prior to that night 's showing of Universal 's Cinematic Spectacular : 100 Years of Movie Memories .
= = = Universal Studios Singapore = = =
Construction started in Singapore in late 2009 in a back @-@ of @-@ house location . Construction continued throughout the soft opening period of the park , which began on March 18 , 2010 . By October 2010 , some of the track for the ride had been installed . It was discovered that the ride will be spread across two levels . On October 27 , 2011 , Universal Studios Singapore announced that Transformers : The Ride would open in Singapore on December 3 , 2011 . On November 19 , 2011 , Universal Studios Singapore opened the ride to the public for " technical rehearsals " ; the ride operated intermittently until the official opening date . The ride debuted at an exclusive evening event on December 2 , 2011 , attended by director Michael Bay and Universal Parks & Resorts CEO Tom Williams . The ride officially opened to the public on December 3 , 2011 .
= = = Universal Studios Hollywood = = =
Installation of Transformers : The Ride at Universal Studios Hollywood , required the removal of two attractions . On April 11 , 2010 , Backdraft and Special Effects Stages closed . The Special Effects Stages were relocated to the Upper Lot and renamed the Special Effects Stage on June 26 , 2010 . Work began almost immediately on the construction of the ride . After a period of construction spanning close to two years , the ride and its gift store , the Transformers Supply Vault , soft opened to the public in late April 2012 . Transformers : The Ride officially opened to the public on May 24 , 2012 .
= = = Universal Studios Florida = = =
A few days after Transformers : The Ride opened at Universal Studios Hollywood , Universal Parks & Resorts decided to open the attraction at Universal Studios Florida . Construction began almost immediately on the site of Soundstage 44 , which was once home of Hercules and Xena : Wizards of the Screen and Murder , She Wrote Mystery Theatre . They were demolished in June 2012 . In July 2012 , construction of a new building began with the installation of a tower crane and the start of excavation . On May 2 , 2013 , the park announced that the ride would open on June 20 , 2013 . On May 30 , 2013 , technical rehearsals for the ride officially began . On June 20 , 2013 , the ride officially opened to the general public . Transformers : The Ride 3D celebrated its One @-@ Millionth Rider in August 2013 .
= = Ride system and experience = =
= = = Ride system = = =
The ride system used on Transformers : The Ride is similar to that used by The Amazing Adventures of Spider @-@ Man at Islands of Adventure in Orlando , Florida , and later at Universal Studios Japan . The ride vehicles , developed by Oceaneering International , are mounted to a track @-@ roaming platform that provides the forward motion to move the vehicle through each show scene . The yaw motor and a stewart platform with six degrees of freedom attaching it to the platform allows the vehicle to move 360 degrees at different angles along the 2 @,@ 000 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 610 m ) track . Each vehicle is fitted with a motor that controls the right side door through which guests board and leave . These vehicles are modeled after an Autobot named Evac and each vehicle accommodates twelve riders . Each row of four riders is restrained by a single lapbar .
= = = Queue and pre @-@ show = = =
Riders enter the queue from the Sci @-@ Fi City themed area of Universal Studios Singapore , the Lower Lot at Universal Studios Hollywood or Production Central at Universal Studios Florida . Riders must be at least 122 centimetres ( 48 in ) to ride alone or 102 centimetres ( 40 in ) if they are with an adult . The first portion of the queue is a large collection of switchbacks . The later part of the queue is themed as a Nonbiological Extraterrestrial Species Treaty ( NEST ) base . A series of signs and video screens are located within this area . The video screens play briefings from General Morshower , Bumblebee , Ironhide , and Ratchet , who explain that the Decepticons have come to Earth in search of the AllSpark . Optimus Prime concludes the briefing by introducing all of the Autobots that are featured in the ride . Towards the end of the queue , guests are given a pair of 3D glasses . Once guests arrive at the loading station , they are grouped and loaded into a ride vehicle modeled on an Autobot named Evac .
= = = Ride = = =
The ride begins with Evac moving out of the loading station and making a turn . The vehicle approaches the first of thirteen 3D high @-@ definition video screens which depicts Ravage grabbing a canister containing the AllSpark . Evac spins 180 ° to face the second screen on which Bumblebee is fighting Sideways for the AllSpark which ends up in Evac 's possession . Evac reverses into one of two elevator shafts which ascend to the second level of the attraction . During the ascent Optimus Prime battles Megatron and Grindor chases Evac who is furiously heading in reverse until Grindor 's arm is broken off by a train . Megatron grabs Evac and the two struggle until Megatron breaks a water pipe , which sprays riders with water . Evac enters a dead end pathway before reversing and turning to face another 3D screen , which shows Megatron firing a missile at Evac while continuing to find Optimus . Hot air and fog generate the illusion of an explosion . Evac then heads through the hole in a building which was caused by the explosion . Inside lies Devastator , who is trying to suck everything out of the building . Ratchet and Ironhide cover fire while Evac reverses and escapes the suction . Here the Autobot Sideswipe helps in the battle against the Decepticon Bonecrusher . Devastator returns to the scene alongside Starscream . Evac escapes from Devastator a second time by going through him , but Starscream grabs Evac and throws him across several city blocks before landing on a construction site and smashing into some drums which release clouds of fog resulting in Evac asking if the riders are okay . Optimus Prime and Megatron continue their battle in the construction site as Evac reverses away in an attempt to protect the AllSpark . Starscream appears for a second time but is chased away by two NEST helicopters . Evac then returns to a second set of two elevators . During the descent to the ground floor , Evac forces the AllSpark into Megatron 's chest causing both to freefall to the ground when Megatron grabs Evac . Bumblebee saves Evac from destruction before Optimus Prime congratulates Evac and the riders on their mission . The last thing guests see before disembarking is the twisted wreckage of Megatron stuck in the ceiling near the exit .
= = = Exit and Transformers Supply Vault = = =
Once the ride is complete , riders dismount the Evac vehicle at the unload station . Upon exiting the ride , guests are greeted with the Transformers Supply Vault gift store , which sells items from the Transformers film franchise , Transformers : The Ride merchandise and a variety of Transformers toys .
= = Cast = =
Andrew Arrabito – Military
Pilar Holland – Sonya Bradley
Corey Klemow – Theodore Stallworth
Ezra Masters – Sergeant Dees
Glenn Morshower – General Morshower
= = = Voices = = =
Charlie Adler – Starscream
Peter Cullen – Optimus Prime
Robert Foxworth – Ratchet
Jess Harnell – Ironhide
Tom Kenny – Wheelie
Dustin Leighton – Evac
James Remar – Sideswipe
Frank Welker – Megatron
John DiMaggio – Grindor
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Transformers : The Ride was primarily developed by Universal Creative , the research and development division of Universal Parks & Resorts . Universal Creative 's Thierry Coup was the Creative Director of the ride , having worked on previous Universal attractions including Harry Potter and the Forbidden Journey , The Amazing Adventures of Spider @-@ Man , and Shrek 4 @-@ D. Michael Bay , director of the Transformers film franchise , collaborated with Universal Creative on the ride , despite an earlier blog post that suggested otherwise : " I don 't support it yet – I 'm not involved and [ I 'm ] not sure the story of the ride works , and I know Optimus is not going to just show up to be directed by some new people that have never worked with him , " he wrote . Bay 's involvement in the attraction 's development was revealed by Mark Woodbury , president of Universal Creative , in an NBC documentary on Islands of Adventure 's Wizarding World of Harry Potter . Industrial Light & Magic developed the special effects for the ride , having previously worked on Transformers , Transformers : Revenge of the Fallen and Transformers : Dark of the Moon . Each installation is reported to have cost US $ 100 million .
= = = Special effects = = =
As well as the motion based vehicle , riders feel wind , water , hot air , fog , air blasts , vibration , and smoke .
= = = Marketing = = =
Initial promotion for the ride began with a blog by Resorts World Sentosa dedicated to the ride . Universal Studios Hollywood launched a website called Prepare For Battle . The ride 's launch at Universal Studios Hollywood saw a 30 @-@ second commercial for Transformers : The Ride premiere during Super Bowl in 2012 and an 80 @-@ foot ( 24 m ) high silhouette of Megatron attached to the Staples Center in Los Angeles . Universal Studios Hollywood also released a 30 @-@ minute documentary about the construction of the ride . Similar to Universal Studios Hollywood 's marketing campaign , Universal Studios Florida utilised the same Prepare For Battle website as well as attaching another silhouette of Megatron to the Fairwinds Credit Union Tower in Downtown Orlando .
= = Reception = =
Transformers : The Ride has been praised by media around the world . Brady MacDonald of the Los Angeles Times said he had high expectations of the ride , and was very pleased with it , and wrote that it " ranks among the top theme park attractions in the world " . Martin Miller , also of the Los Angeles Times , was equally pleased with the ride , and called it " one of Universal 's most sophisticated , satisfying rides " . Miller acknowledged the long queues associated with the ride but commended Universal for the design and theming of the queue to combat this . John Chan of CNET stated Transformers : The Ride " isn 't as heart @-@ stopping as a roller coaster [ but ] the ( relatively ) long 4 @-@ minute ride is every bit as entertaining " . Florida Today 's Tim Walters and Jennifer Sangalang stated the " action @-@ packed ' Transformers ' ride doesn 't disappoint " . Both praised the ride 's " fun factor " giving it a rating of 5 / 5 , with Walters and Sangalang giving ratings of 4 1 / 2 and 4 overall , respectively .
Bob Strauss from the Daily Breeze interviewed some park guests who had experienced the attraction . Their comments included " the 3 @-@ D 's crazy ; I think it 's a step above where the other rides are so far " and " it 's a new way of making these rides " . News.com.au stated " the happy smiles on the faces of visitors as the exit ... say it all " .
The opening of the ride at Universal Studios Hollywood was an immediate success , with record attendance over the Memorial Day weekend . A 15 percent rise in attendance in 2012 was attributed to the ride 's opening . Within days of the ride 's opening executives decided to install the ride at Universal Studios Florida with construction beginning almost immediately .
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= The Last Sam Weiss =
" The Last Sam Weiss " is the penultimate episode of the third season of the Fox science fiction television series Fringe , and the 64th episode overall . The storyline follows the continuing disintegration of the prime universe , as the Fringe team races to prevent the destruction of their world . FBI agent Olivia Dunham recruits Sam Weiss for help while Peter recovers from touching the doomsday machine in the previous episode .
Executive producers Monica Owusu @-@ Breen and Alison Schapker co @-@ wrote the episode , and cinematographer Thomas Yatsko directed . " The Last Sam Weiss " is meant to be the middle of an " epic trilogy , " as the season finale aired the following week . Guest actors Kevin Corrigan and Ryan McDonald returned as Weiss and Brandon Fayette , respectively .
On its initial broadcast on April 29 , 2011 in the United States , an estimated 3 @.@ 49 million viewers tuned in . More viewers in America time shifted the episode than watched it live , leading to a 67 percent increase in the 18 – 49 demographic . This was the highest increase on any network for that week . While the episode received generally positive reviews , television critics were divided about the ending , with some comparing it to the television series Lost .
= = Plot = =
In the prime universe , the doomsday machine creates numerous static lightning storms along the eastern seaboard . As Walter and Astrid see to Peter 's recovery after his failed attempt to enter the machine , Olivia takes Sam Weiss to the machine . Weiss states that the machine is not meant to be a doomsday device and that the strange effects are a byproduct of the machine 's " frustration " due to its believing that Peter is already inside the machine . Weiss suggests finding a proverbial " crowbar " that can be used to break the shield protecting the device to give Peter enough time to enter it . As Olivia travels with Weiss to collect a box and the key containing this crowbar , Weiss explains that he descends from a long unbroken line of men named Sam Weiss whose forebear found the incomplete collection of information on the First People and the device , and have sought to try to find the rest . Upon collecting both the box and key , they open it to find a parchment , revealing that Olivia herself is the crowbar .
Meanwhile , Walter and Astrid determine that most of the effects of the device are occurring in the areas between western Massachusetts and Liberty Island — the locations of the doomsday machines in the prime and parallel universes respectively — aligned like iron filings around the ends of a magnet . Walter convinces Broyles to move the device to Liberty Island to reduce the area affected by the strange events . During this time , Peter wakes with confused memories and leaves the hospital , traveling to a location in New York City and buying a silver dollar coin from a pawn shop .
Olivia and Weiss bring the parchment to Walter , who recognizes that Olivia 's telekinetic powers must be used to turn off the machine in the parallel universe . To prepare Olivia , they use the quantum entangled Selectric typewriter that the shapeshifters had used to contact the parallel universe . Olivia struggles unsuccessfully with trying to activate the typewriter , even with Walter 's support . Peter is soon discovered in New York , about the same time that the machine has been moved into position . Walter and Olivia rejoin him , finding him confused and believing himself to be in the parallel universe . Peter eventually comes to his senses , with Walter believing his confusion to be a temporary result of the head trauma . Astrid calls the trio from the lab , revealing that the typewriter is typing out " Be a better man than your father " , a phrase that Olivia and Peter have talked about before , thus giving them hope that Olivia will be able to disengage the parallel universe 's device . After she does so , Peter takes a moment to recall the events of his life , including his experiences with Walter and Olivia , and then steps into the machine .
Peter wakes up on a chaotic street in New York City . He finds himself in an unfamiliar territory , facing a plaque dedicated to the victims of the September 11 attacks , but falls wounded into the arms of an officer of the militarized Fringe division .
= = Production = =
The episode was co @-@ written by co @-@ executive producers Monica Owusu @-@ Breen and Alison Schapker , while being directed by cinematographer Thomas Yatsko . " The Last Sam Weiss " was the second @-@ to @-@ last episode of the season . Though the season 3 finale was scheduled to be just an hour long , executive producer Jeff Pinkner confirmed that the last three episodes would be " linked in one continuous story arc " . This was a reflection of Pinkner and co @-@ executive producer J.H. Wyman 's intent to have the last three episodes of every season seem like " you 're turning the last page of a chapter in a novel . And usually in a good novel , the last pages [ of a chapter ] compels you forward with a new understanding of what the subject matter is and you get deeper and you can ’ t wait to turn that page . " Some media outlets have referred to the episodes as a " three @-@ part third @-@ season finale " .
Actor John Noble called the beginning scene with Olivia and Walter naked " the funniest thing " yet , explaining " The writers keep throwing challenges at me , because I never say no . They said , ' Okay , John , you ’ ll do a scene naked . ' I said ' Okay . ' And so that was a big surprise . So I do this scene , this strange scene with Anna Torv , without any clothes on . Anna ’ s staying at the Bishop house with Walter running around with no clothes on except for a pair of slippers , getting breakfast . She comes round the corner and catches him in the full monty , going , ' Oh no ! ' Didn ’ t know where to look . That was probably one of the most fun things we ever did . Anna ’ s reaction was priceless to that . I haven ’ t seen the scene yet , but it was hilarious to do it . "
In March 2011 , TVLine 's Michael Ausiello exclusively confirmed that previous guest actor Kevin Corrigan would be returning for the twentieth and twenty @-@ first episodes of the season . Corrigan last appeared in the season 's twelfth episode " Concentrate and Ask Again " ; his role in " The Last Sam Weiss " marked his seventh appearance on Fringe . The actor expressed appreciation that his character 's name was used in the title , but was disappointed it alluded to his final appearance in the show to date . The episode is Corrigan 's last credit on the series , though he previously stated his interest in returning as one of his ancestors or as a doppelganger .
As with other Fringe episodes , Fox released a science lesson plan in collaboration with Science Olympiad for grade school children , focusing on the science seen in " The Last Sam Weiss " , with the intention of having " students learn about static electricity and how it is created and dissipated . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
On its first broadcast in the United States on April 29 , 2011 , the episode was watched by an estimated 3 @.@ 49 million viewers and scored a 1 @.@ 3 ratings share among adults 18 – 49 . More viewers time shifted the episode than watched it live , as its ratings increased 67 percent in the 18 – 49 demographic , resulting in a 2 @.@ 0 rating ; this was the largest increase out of every other television series airing that week .
= = = Reviews = = =
" The Last Sam Weiss " received generally positive reviews from television critics . Ken Tucker from Entertainment Weekly called the episode " equally surprising in its plotting and pacing " , praised Sam and Olivia 's scenes together , and believed the ending to be " mind @-@ blowing " and " both startling and thrilling " . The A.V. Club 's Noel Murray graded the episode with an A- , writing the first half " wasn 't quite as rollicking as last week 's episode , because there was a lot more set @-@ up and explanation required to keep the story moving " but " then the second half brought in all the emotion and tension , topped off by an unexpected gut @-@ punch of an ending . " Murray admitted his " eyes glazed over a bit " during the search for the " crowbar " , believing it to be " little too Lost @-@ y " , but " the quirky Corrigan as Weiss helped put all the mumbo @-@ jumbo over " .
SFScope columnist Sarah Stegall agreed with Murray 's Lost comparison , writing that the ending of the episode was " right out of the Lost playbook , a little too on the nose for my liking . " Stegall did however call it a " good bridge episode , taking us from the setup of last week to the denouement next week , when it all comes together . " IGN writer Ramsey Isler was more positive about the final sequence , explaining that the " last five minutes of this story changed everything , and made me excited about the series again . " While praising the special effects , he also noted his displeasure that Sam Weiss " ends up not being as mystical or magical as previous stories hinted " . Isler wished Corrigan had more screen time in the episode , calling it " under @-@ utilization of a great character the writers have spent a lot of time building up . " He rated it 7 @.@ 5 / 10 , an indication of a " good " episode , but criticized its " slow " pacing .
While Isler was pleased that Olivia appeared on the drawing , Stegall expressed skepticism that this revelation " smacks too much of manipulation , which would render our heroes ' actions and sacrifices meaningless . " TV.com staff highlighted " The Last Sam Weiss " as one of the best television episodes of the 2010 – 11 United States network television schedule .
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= Stanisław Koniecpolski =
Stanisław Koniecpolski ( 1590 or 1594 – 11 March 1646 ) is regarded as one of the most capable military commanders in the history of the Polish @-@ Lithuanian Commonwealth . He was also a magnate , a royal official ( starosta ) , a castellan , a member of the Polish nobility ( szlachta ) , and the voivode ( governor ) of Sandomierz from 1625 until his death . He led many successful military campaigns against rebelling Cossacks and invading Tatars . From 1618 he held the rank of Field Crown Hetman before becoming the Grand Crown Hetman , the military commander second only to the King , in 1632 .
Koniecpolski 's life was one of almost constant warfare . Before he had reached the age of 20 , he had fought in the Dymitriads and the Moldavian Magnate Wars . Later , in 1620 , he took part in the Battle of Cecora , during which he was captured by Ottoman forces . After his release in 1623 , he defeated the Ottomans ' Tatar vassals several times between 1624 and 1626 . With inferior numbers , during the Polish – Swedish War ( 1626 – 29 ) , Koniecpolski stopped the Swedish forces of Gustavus Adolphus from conquering Prussia and Pomerania before the war was concluded with the Truce of Altmark . In 1634 , he defeated a major Turkish invasion at Kamianets @-@ Podilskyi ( Kamieniec Podolski ) , in the Ukraine , while in 1644 , his victory against the Tatars at the Battle of Ochmatów brought him international fame and recognition .
= = Youth = =
The details of Stanisław Koniecpolski 's birth are unclear . Various dates between 1590 and 1594 have been provided , and none of his biographers identify where he was born . What is known , though , is that his father , Aleksander Koniecpolski , was a wealthy magnate belonging to the szlachta ( Polish nobility ) and was also the voviode of Sieradz , and a staunch supporter of King Sigismund III of the Swedish House of Vasa . Koniecpolski 's mother , Anna Sroczycka , was the daughter of Stanisław Sroczycki , the voivode of Kamianets @-@ Podilskyi , and had brought several large Podole estates into the Koniecpolski family upon her marriage to Aleksander . Stanisław 's brothers were Krzysztof , who held the court office of chorąży wielki koronny ( Grand Standard @-@ Bearer of the Crown ) and was voivode of Bełsk from 1641 ; Remigiusz , who was the bishop of Chełm before his death in 1640 ; Jan , a castellan and the voivode of Sieradz ; and Przedbór who died in 1611 .
Although Koniecpolski had a stutter , when he was 15 , through his father 's influence in the royal court , he secured an appointment as starosta ( mayor ) of Wieluń . In 1603 he began studying at the Kraków Academy , and after several years he was sent to the royal court by his father so that he could continue his education in a more practical fashion . He is believed to have stayed there a year or two . He may also have undertaken a tour of Western Europe for several months , spending the majority of his time in France before returning to his family 's estates .
= = Early career : 1610 – 26 = =
From a young age Koniecpolski chose to follow a military career . In 1610 , together with his brother Przedbór , he took part in the Dymitriads against Muscovy , raising a group of 300 men to join the Army of the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth at Smolensk . On 4 July 1610 he participated in the Battle of Klushino before joining the Siege of Smolensk where Przedbór was crushed to death by the fortress ' collapsing walls on 8 July 1611 . After returning to his family mansion at Koniecpol with his brother 's body , the following autumn Koniecpolski rejoined the army . Under the command of Grand Lithuanian Hetman Jan Karol Chodkiewicz , he took part in the effort to relieve and supply the besieged Polish forces in the Moscow Kremlin . During that time , he was entrusted by the Hetman with command of the right flank of the Polish forces .
In 1612 Koniecpolski joined the wojsko kwarciane ( regular Commonwealth army ) in Ukraine under the command of Field Crown Hetman Stanisław Żółkiewski , who greatly influenced his career . In 1614 he was entrusted with destroying rebellious regular units led by Jan Karwacki , and on 17 May , with Stanisław Żółkiewski 's son , Jan , he won the Battle of Rohatyn and captured Karwacki . In 1615 he married Żółkiewski 's daughter Katarzyna ( Catherine ) . Soon after the wedding , he received the official rank of podstoli koronny ( Crown Master of the Pantry ) .
Throughout 1615 and 1616 Koniecpolski gained further experience in Ukraine , fighting the Tatar hordes , but failed to destroy or capture any sizable enemy units . In 1616 , Katarzyna died while giving birth to in labor with Koniecpolski 's first son , Andrzej . The following year , Koniecpolski took part in the Moldavian Magnate Wars alongside Żołkiewski , and stood against Iskender Pasha 's powerful Turkish army . The conflict ended that year with a negotiated cease @-@ fire . Following negotiations with the Cossacks in Olszanica , Koniecpolski reduced the Cossack register to 1 @,@ 000 , thereby limiting the number of positions that the Cossacks could hold in the Commonwealth military . He also banned raids on the Black Sea . Such raids , which pillaged wealthy Ottoman cities , contributed to the Cossacks ' income but provoked retaliatory raids into Commonwealth territory .
In 1618 , during a session of the Sejm — the Commonwealth parliament — King Sigismund III Vasa granted the buława ( ceremonial mace or baton ) of Grand Crown Hetman to Stanisław Żółkiewski and that of Field Crown Hetman to Koniecpolski , disregarding the opposition of magnate Krzysztof Zbaraski and his allies . Soon afterward , Koniecpolski was defeated by the Tatars near Orynin , where he committed the mistake of pursuing the enemy against overwhelming odds and barely made it out of the battle alive . In 1619 , Koniecpolski married Krystyna Lubomirska , who gave birth to a son , Aleksander , the following year .
That year Koniecpolski and Żólkiewski led an army to Moldova to protect Gaspar Graziani , an ally of the Commonwealth . The army numbered over 7 @,@ 000 and included the private regiments of the Korecki , Zasławski , Kazanowski , Kalinowski and Potocki magnates . During the Battle of Cecora ( Ţuţora ) Koniecpolski commanded the right flank of the Commonwealth forces , which were defeated on 19 September by a combined force belonging to Iskender Pasha and Kantymir ( Khan Temir ) . After retreating in good order , the army 's morale fell and while Koniecpolski prevented the army 's disintegration on 20 – 21 September , during the later stages of the retreat its resolve collapsed and the men ran for the river . In the ensuing battle , Żólkiewski was killed and Koniecpolski and many magnates including Samuel Korecki , Mikołaj Struś , Mikołaj Potocki , and Jan and Łukasz Żółkiewski were taken captive . The prisoners were transported to Białograd ( Bilhorod ) , to Iskender Pasha , then to the Castle of Seven Towers at Constantinople , where they were held in the Black Tower . Polish @-@ Ottoman relations stabilized in the wake of the Ottoman defeat at Khotyn in 1621 , and in the spring of 1623 the prisoners returned to Poland after a diplomatic mission by Krzysztof Zbaraski purchased their freedom for 30 @,@ 000 thalers .
In the aftermath of the Battle of Khotyn , a treaty had been signed that aimed to prevent further border hostilities . While Khan Canibek Giray resolved to respect the treaty 's provisions , Kantymir continued to raid the borderlands in an effort to usurp Canibek Giray 's position . Following fresh raids by Kantymir 's forces in June 1623 , Koniecpolski was given command of local Commonwealth forces and ordered to stop the incursions . Early the following year , the Budjak horde , under Kantymir 's command , attacked southern Poland . On 6 February , Koniecpolski intercepted one of the Budjak armies and destroyed it near Szmańkowice and Oryszkowce . Later that year , after Kantymir 's forces crossed the border in early June , Koniecpolski inflicted a further defeat on him at the Battle of Martynów . Using a new strategy that employed light Cossack cavalry to drive Kantymir 's forces towards fortified tabors where they were attacked by small arms and artillery , Koniecpolski forced the khan 's troops to retreat in disarray . His victory was soon celebrated throughout the Commonwealth and , as a reward , Koniecpolski was granted 30 @,@ 000 złoty by the Sejm . He was also appointed voivode of Sandomierz .
In 1625 , during the Zhmailo Uprising the Zaporozhian Cossacks , led by Marek Zhmaylo , rebelled . Joineing forces with Szanhin Girej , they attempted to form an alliance with Moscow . Reasoning that the Tatars had their share of trouble with the Porte and that Kantymir 's Budjak horde would be unable to send major assistance , Koniecpolski gathered a 12 @,@ 000 @-@ strong army of regular and private units to deal with the rebellion . He pledged fair treatment to all Cossacks loyal to the Commonwealth , and death to rebels . On 25 October 1625 , near Kryłów , he launch a cavalry attack against the Cossacks . His initial thrusts were stopped and the Cossacks fell back toward Lake Kurukove where they checked a secondary attack . As the tide of battle went against him , Koniecpolski 's position was at one point described as " grave " ; however , the conflict eventually ended in a negotiated cease @-@ fire . This was formalized by the Treaty of Kurukove on 6 November under which the Cossack register was set at 6 @,@ 000 , and the Cossacks again promised to stop raiding the Black Sea shores and provoking the Tatars .
In late January 1626 the Tatars invaded again . With an army estimated at between 15 @,@ 000 and 20 @,@ 000 , they raided and pillaged territories as far north as the Podole Voivodeship , passing Ternopil and Terebovlia , while some advanced units reached the cities of Lutsk , Volodymyr @-@ Volynskyi and Lviv . In response , Koniecpolski gathered some 13 @,@ 000 troops and moved to intercept the Tatars , but they refused to engage . Eventually Koniecpolski defeated the rear guard of the main Tatar army , which crossed the borders with much treasure and slaves . Later that year , fearing a repeat invasion , Koniecpolski violated a Sejm resolution in recruiting and fielding an army of 8 @,@ 000 against an expected Tatar second wave . During this time , Koniecpolski was aided in a number of battles by a highly capable officer , Bohdan Khmelnytsky ; Khmelnytsky would also score a major victory over the Tatars later that year , after Koniecpolski had departed north to a new battlefield near the Baltic Sea .
= = Fighting Gustavus Adolphus : 1626 – 29 = =
In 1626 the southern threat to the Commonwealth was overshadowed by a northern one , as an incursion by Swedish forces reignited the Polish – Swedish War . In June , Gustavus Adolphus , with a fleet of 125 ships and an army of over 14 @,@ 000 men , approached the Polish coast and began collecting tariffs on trade passing through Gdańsk ( Danzig ) . Having taken Piława and Braniewo , Swedish forces spread through Pomerania , taking Frombork , Tolkmicko , Elbląg , Malbork , Gniew , Tczew and Starograd , while other Swedish forces landed near Puck — the main port of the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth fleet — and captured it . The major city of Gdańsk , however , refused to surrender even in the face of lightning Swedish advances . In a battle that took place between 22 and 30 September 1626 near the village of Gniew , Gustavus defeated a Polish army led by King Sigismund , who retreated and called for reinforcements from other parts of the country . In response , Koniecpolski was tasked with defending Royal Prussia against the Swedish incursion . He was delayed by the unstable situation in the south , though , and it was not until 1 October that he finally departed for Prussia .
Koniecpolski 's force of 4 @,@ 200 light cavalry , 1 @,@ 000 dragoons , and 1 @,@ 000 infantry quickly moved to Prussia . Reinforced by other units , he had 9 @,@ 000 men against the 20 @,@ 000 @-@ strong Swedish force . Employing maneuver warfare , using small mobile units to strike at enemy communication lines and smaller units , he stopped the Swedish attack and forced Axel Oxenstierna into a defensive posture . Meanwhile , the Sejm agreed to raise money for the war . The situation of the Commonwealth forces , short of money and food , was difficult . Lithuanian forces were dealt a serious defeat near Koknese , Inflanty Voivodeship , in December 1626 and they subsequently retreated behind the Dvina River . The Swedes then planned to strike Koniecpolski from two directions : Oxenstierna , from the Vistula River , and Johann Streiff von Lawentstein and Maxymilian Teuffl , from Swedish @-@ held Pomorze . The flooding of the Vistula , however , disrupted their plans and allowed Koniecpolski to intercept the enemy units advancing from Pomerania .
On 2 April 1627 Koniecpolski managed to recapture Puck . He took Czarne ( Hamersztyn ) on 18 April and forced the Swedish forces to retreat into the city . A week later they surrendered , with many mercenaries and some Swedish abandoning their banners and insignia , and changing sides . As a result of the series of Swedish defeats in spring 1627 , they lost all their strongholds on the west bank of the Vistula , and with those , their hopes for a quick and decisive victory . The situation also convinced the Elector of Brandenburg to declare his support for the Commonwealth , and afterwards the Lithuanian forces resumed their offensive in Livonia .
On 17 May Gustavus landed with 8 @,@ 000 reinforcements . On the night of 22 – 23 May , while crossing the Vistula near Kieżmark and Danzig , Gustavus encountered Polish forces . Wounded in the hip , he was forced to retreat . Koniecpolski then decided to take back Gniew and devised a diversionary plan . Polish forces were sent to attempt to take back Braniewo , forcing Gustavus to relieve the siege ; then Gustavus followed the retreating Polish army and laid siege to Orneta . Koniecpolski , who had foreseen this , responded with a sudden attack on Gniew , his primary objective , which he captured . Gustavus was reported to be impressed with the speed of Koniecpolski 's reaction .
Near Tczew , with about 7 @,@ 800 men — including 2 @,@ 500 cavalry and hussars , the Commonwealth 's elite heavy cavalry — Koniecpolski tried to stop the Swedish army from reaching Danzig . On 7 – 8 August , he encountered a Swedish force consisting of 10 @,@ 000 men , which included 5 @,@ 000 infantry , near the swamps of Motława . The Swedes wanted to provoke the Poles into attacking , then destroy them with infantry fire and artillery , but Koniecpolski decided against attacking . The Swedes then went on the attack with cavalry , but were unable to draw the Poles within range of their fire . The Swedish attacks dealt severe damage to the Polish cavalry but did not cripple the Polish army whose morale was kept high by Koniecpolski . The battle ended when Gustavus Adolphus was again wounded and the Swedes retreated .
Koniecpolski now recognized the need to reform his army and strengthen the firepower of its infantry and artillery to match the Swedes ' . The Swedes , on the other hand , had learned the arts of cavalry charges and melée combat from the Poles . Overall the 1627 campaign had been favorable to the Commonwealth ; Puck and Gniew had been retaken , Swedish plans had been thwarted , and the Swedish army had been weakened . The last major engagement of the year saw the surprising defeat of a Swedish flotilla by the small Polish Navy on 28 November 1627 at the Battle of Oliwa .
In 1628 the Polish forces , short of funds , were forced to cease their offensive and go on the defensive . Gustavus Adolphus captured Kwidzyń , Nowe and Brodnica . Koniecpolski counterattacked , putting his small forces to most efficient use — quick cavalry melée attacks , combined with supporting infantry and artillery fire , guerrilla warfare , the use of engineers to raise fortifications , and clever use of terrain advantage . Despite his best efforts , he was hampered by insufficient funds . The Sejm increased funding for the war after the Battle of Górzno , where Stanisław " Rewera " Potocki was defeated . Austria sent the Commonwealth help in the form of forces under Field Marshal Johann Georg Arnheim . Arnheim , however , refused to take orders from Koniecpolski .
The final battle took place on 27 June 1629 near Trzciana ( or Trzcianka ) . The Swedes attacked toward Grudziądz , were halted , and retreated to Sztum and Malbork . Koniecpolski attacked the rear guard , which was led by Jan Wilhelm Reingraff , Count of Ren , and destroyed it . He also repelled a counterattack by Swedish raitars , who were pushed toward Pułkowice , where another counterattack was led by Gustavus Adolphus with 2 @,@ 000 raitars . This counterattack was also fended off , and the Swedish forces were saved from total defeat by the last Swedish reserves , led by Field Marshal Herman Wrangel , who blocked the Polish attack . Gustavus Adolphus was wounded and barely escaped . Of the Swedes , 1 @,@ 200 were killed , and Reingraff and several hundred others were captured . Polish losses were under 200 killed or injured .
Poland did not follow up this victory politically or militarily . A cease @-@ fire contracted at Stary Targ ( the Truce of Altmark ) on 26 October 1629 favored the Swedes , who received the right to tax Polish trade moving over the Baltic ( 3 @.@ 5 % of the value of goods ) , retained control of many cities in Royal Prussia , and were recognized as the dominant power on the southern Baltic coast . Koniecpolski exerted little influence on the negotiations , as he had been called back to Ukraine to crush a Tartar incursion .
= = Grand Crown Hetman : 1630 – 37 = =
In 1630 , the Cossack leader , Taras Fedorovych , executed the moderate Hryhoriy Chorny , and began a Cossack uprising , later dubbed the " Fedorovych Uprising " . Soon afterwards he captured the fortress of Korsun . In an effort to restore the situation , Koniecpolski laid siege to Pereyaslav . Lacking artillery and infantry support , he could not breach its walls , but the Cossacks , needing supplies and having suffered heavy casualties , agreed to negotiate . The Treaty of Pereyaslav , signed in August 1630 , resulted . It granted liberal terms , including amnesty for the rebels . Koniecpolski , as usual , was for harsh punishment , but also argued that in the long run the Cossack situation was better remedied by more equitable treatment , including an increase in the Cossack register and the regular payment of wages . Still , he supported policies aimed at turning the Cossacks into serfs , which was one of the main causes of unrest in Ukraine ; this , along with his decision to settle his soldiers ' living expenses on the local populace instead of paying them wages , led to his extreme unpopularity in Ukraine .
In 1632 , a few months before his death , King Sigismund III Vasa awarded Koniecpolski the post of Grand Crown Hetman . It had stood vacant for 12 years , since the death of Stanisław Żółkiewski ; presumably King Sigismund had feared that Koniecpolski , if given the post earlier , would have become too powerful a magnate . After the King 's death , Koniecpolski played a major role in directing the political affairs of the Commonwealth and in 1632 supported the election of Sigismund 's son , Władysław IV Vasa , as king . In return , a year after his election , King Władysław IV rewarded Koniecpolski with the office of Castellan of Kraków , the most prestigious of the Commonwealth 's district offices . Koniecpolski became an influential adviser to the new king , often encouraging him to direct Polish foreign policy against the Tartars . Koniecpolski also supported King Władysław IV 's military reforms . Though generally seen as a supporter of the King , Koniecpolski opposed some of his plans aimed at increasing royal power in the Commonwealth and weakening the Golden Liberty of the nobility .
In 1633 Koniecpolski thwarted the Turks ' attacks on the Commonwealth , defeating their forces on 4 July at Sasowy Róg . On 22 October that year , he repulsed a superior invading Ottoman force of over 20 @,@ 000 at Kamianets @-@ Podilskyi , his own forces numbering a mere 11 @,@ 000 . The Ottoman defeats and Koniecpolski 's attitude persuaded the Turks to sign a new treaty on 19 August 1634 . The treaty repeated the terms of the Treaty of Chocim of 1621 and ended the Ottoman – Commonwealth War ( 1633 – 34 ) .
In 1635 , in the short lived Sulima Uprising , after Cossacks under Ivan Sulyma captured and destroyed the Polish Kodak Fortress ( near modern Dnipropetrovsk ) , Koniecpolski led an expedition that retook the fort and punished the insurgents . Sulima was taken prisoner and executed .
Later that year Koniecpolski returned to Pomerania to prepare for another war against Sweden , but it was rendered unnecessary by the Treaty of Sztumska Wieś .
Koniecpolski grasped the need to modernize the Commonwealth 's military and worked with King Władysław IV to that end , including the recruitment of mercenaries experienced in western warfare , and further development of artillery ( he supervised the construction of arsenals at Kudak , Bar and Kamieniec Podolski , and built forges on his Ukrainian estates ) . He was patron to many gifted artillery and engineering officers . He may also have sponsored cartographers such as William le Vasseur de Beauplan , who mapped Ukraine , and Sebastian Aders , who mapped Crimea . He also supported plans to create a Commonwealth Baltic Fleet .
= = Last years : 1637 – 45 = =
After 1637 Koniecpolski 's declining health made him reliant on the younger Hetman Mikołaj Potocki , who successfully crushed Cossack uprisings in 1637 and 1638 , and a Tartar uprising in 1639 . Koniecpolski 's influence also protected the outlaw Samuel Łaszcz , whom he saw as another able commander .
One of Koniecpolski 's greatest victories occurred during a winter 1644 campaign against Tatars . With a large army of some 19 @,@ 000 soldiers ( 60 % of them , magnates ' private armies ; Koniecpolski 's own forces numbered 2 @,@ 200 ) he dealt a crushing defeat to Toğay bey 's forces near Ochmatów on 30 January 1644 . Many Tatars drowned near Sina Woda when the ice over the water gave way . The Battle of Ochmatów , the Commonwealth 's greatest victory over the Tatars in the first half of the 17th century , brought international fame to Koniecpolski , who had not only predicted the time and place of their attack but had destroyed their forces before they could deploy their usual tactic of splitting their main forces into multiple highly @-@ mobile units ( czambuls ) .
The victory led King Władysław IV to consider an offensive war against the Turks . Koniecpolski supported a limited war against the Crimean Khanate but opposed the King 's plan to wage war on the entire Ottoman Empire , believing it to be an unrealistic folly . Setting out his strategic views in a plan titled " Dyskurs o zniesieniu Tatarow krymskich i lidze z Moskwą " ( Discourse on Destruction of the Crimean Tartars and on coalition with Moscow ) , Koniecpolski also strongly urged a coalition with Moscow for such a campaign . King Władysław IV continued to push for a crusade against Turkey , but it had little internal support and failed to achieve anything except to spread false hopes among the Cossacks , to whom he promised privileges and money in exchange for their participation .
On 15 June 1645 , Koniecpolski 's wife , Krystyna , died . Koniecpolski remarried soon after , taking the hand of 16 @-@ year @-@ old Zofia Opalińska , daughter of future Crown Marshal Łukasz Opaliński , on 16 January 1646 . The marriage was short lived , though , ending with Koniecpolski 's death in Brody on 11 March 1646 . Sources suggest that his new marriage was the cause of his death ; Joachim Jerlicz wrote in his diary that Koniecpolski had overdosed on an aphrodisiac . His funeral was held in Brody on 30 April 1646 .
= = Wealth and influence = =
Over the course of his life , Koniecpolski accumulated much wealth . Most of his possessions were in Ukraine , and he became Ukraine 's unofficial ruler ; some foreigners referred to him as " viceroy of Ukraine " , though no such Commonwealth position ever existed . King Władysław IV trusted him with most political decisions concerning this southeastern region of the Commonwealth . With the knowledge and support of the King , Koniecpolski sent and received diplomatic missions from Constantinople , carried out negotiations and signed treaties , and as the Grand Crown Hetman he directly controlled a substantial part of the Commonwealth 's military . He had his own private army and an espionage network that stretched from Moscow to the Ottoman Empire .
Koniecpolski inherited some seven or eight villages from his father . At his death , he owned 12 starostwo districts , with over 300 settlements , including dozens of towns , giving him yearly revenues of over 500 @,@ 000 złoty . His holdings of land and serfs in western Ukraine were considerable ; he owned 18 @,@ 548 households in Bratslav . Koniecpolski invested much of his wealth in developing his Ukrainian estates , and supported settlement of underpopulated regions . He founded and sponsored the development of many towns and cities , including the town of Brody , which flourished with his investments , and became an important local commercial center . Koniecpolski fortified the town with a citadel and bastions in 1633 and set up workshops for producing Persian @-@ type samite fabrics , carpets and rugs . He also constructed a fortified palace in Pidhirtsi ( Podhorce ) with beautiful Italian gardens . Like most magnates , Koniecpolski was a patron of the arts , sponsoring painters , sculptors , writers . He also founded many churches and sought to upgrade Brody 's school to an academy . He sponsored the construction of the Koniecpolski Palace ( now the Presidential Palace ) in Warsaw , and military fortifications in Bar and Kudak .
Regarded as a courteous and educated man , Koniecpolski participated in all the Sejm sessions that he could , though he rarely spoke publicly due to his stutter . He was widely respected and highly popular among his szlachta peers .
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= Leopold Report =
The Leopold Report , officially known as Wildlife Management in the National Parks , is a 1963 paper composed of a series of ecosystem management recommendations that were presented by the Special Advisory Board on Wildlife Management to United States Secretary of the Interior Stewart Udall . Named for its chairman and principal author , zoologist and conservationist A. Starker Leopold , the report proved influential for future preservation mandates .
After several years of public controversy regarding the forced reduction of the elk population in Yellowstone National Park , Udall appointed an advisory board to collect scientific data to inform future wildlife management of the national parks . The committee observed that culling programs at other national parks had been ineffective , and recommended different management of Yellowstone 's elk population . In addressing the goals , policies , and methods of managing wildlife in the parks , the report suggested that in addition to protection , wildlife populations should be managed and regulated to prevent habitat degradation . Touching upon predator control , fire ecology , and other issues , the report suggested that the National Park Service ( NPS ) hire scientists to manage the parks using current scientific research .
The Leopold Report became the first concrete plan to manage park visitors and ecosystems under unified principles . It was reprinted in several national publications , and many of its recommendations were incorporated into the official policies of the NPS . Although the report is notable for proposing that park management have a fundamental goal of reflecting " the primitive scene ... a reasonable illusion of primitive America " , some have criticized it for its idealism and limited scope .
= = Background = =
Yellowstone National Park was established by the United States Congress on March 1 , 1872 , as the first U.S. national park , and quickly became a popular tourist destination . At first , national parks were overseen by a variety of agencies and lacked bureaucratic support . In 1916 , more than four decades after Yellowstone 's founding , President Woodrow Wilson signed a bill creating the National Park Service ( NPS ) , giving it the power " to conserve the scenery and the natural and historic objects and wildlife therein , and to provide for the enjoyment of the same in such manner and by such means as will leave them unimpaired for the enjoyment of future generations . " The NPS was tasked with both preservation and tourism , two divergent goals that would prove divisive during the resurgence of the conservation movement in the 1940s and 1950s .
NPS managers became interested in attracting more tourists to Yellowstone during the 1910s and 1920s . Species such as elk and antelope were considered a major attraction for park visitors , and an attempt was made to increase their numbers through winter feeding and predator control . The effort was successful , and the number of elk expanded significantly , but to the detriment of other wildlife such as bighorn sheep . Despite sporadic reductions of elk by hunters , the animals still posed a problem to the northern range ecosystems , mainly because of overgrazing . In the winter of 1961 , park rangers responded to this dilemma by shooting and killing approximately 4 @,@ 300 elk . This aggressive reduction by the Park Service caused a massive public outcry ; network television and newspaper coverage of the culling resulted in public opposition and congressional hearings . The International Association of Game and Fish Commissioners protested the " slaughtering of elk by hired killers " rather than by sportsmen , and schoolchildren from across the country were inspired to write letters of condemnation . Facing public backlash , the NPS announced it would stop killing elk .
= = Advisory Board and reporting = =
The controversy surrounding the reduction of elk in Yellowstone shed a negative light upon the NPS and their management of wildlife populations within the country 's national parks . In response to what was deemed a " crisis in public relations " , Secretary of the Interior Stewart Udall assembled the Special Advisory Board on Wildlife Management in 1962 to conduct thorough studies to be conducted on its science and resource management . The purpose of the board was to collect scientific data and investigate the necessity of wildlife population control . Chairing the board was A. Starker Leopold , the eldest son of noted conservationist Aldo Leopold . A respected zoologist , professor of ecology , and Assistant to the Chancellor at the University of California , Berkeley , Leopold was joined on the board by other prominent scientists and conservationists : Professor Stanley A. Cain of the Department of Conservation at the University of Michigan ; Ira N. Gabrielson , formerly of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service ( FWS ) and President of the Wildlife Management Institute ; Thomas L. Kimball , executive director of the National Wildlife Federation ; and Clarence Cottam , former assistant director of the FWS and director of the Welder Wildlife Foundation .
The formation of the Advisory Board was historically important , as this was the first time an outside group was asked to evaluate wildlife programs within the NPS . The report was officially named " Wildlife Management in the National Parks " when it was first presented on March 4 , 1963 , but it became informally known as the " Leopold Report " . At the same time , a separate Advisory Board was formed by the National Academy of Sciences ( NAS ) to produce " A Report by the Advisory Committee to the National Park Service on Research " . The NAS Report , more commonly known as the Robbins Report , was named after its primary author , biologist William J. Robbins . The Robbins Report was released on August 1 , 1963 , five months after the Leopold Report .
= = Recommendations = =
The report began by arguing that not only was it necessary to control the elk population in Yellowstone National Park , but direct reduction of elk was presented as the most suitable option . According to scientific findings , reduction programs at other national parks had not been implemented on a large enough scale ; as a result , the Advisory Board recommended future reductions of animals should " be larger and in many cases repeated annually " . The report also supported the concept of carrying capacity , and the idea that the elk population could be actively managed to restore its natural balance .
Although the Advisory Board recommendations focused on wildlife and habitat management , they also touched upon the recreation of primitive , uncontrolled conditions . Revisiting fire ecology and the importance of fire , which had long been suppressed in national parks and other federal lands , the report recommended the use of prescribed fire as a cheap and natural tool for shaping the park environment .
Predator control was also reviewed , and deemed unnatural and unpopular . Recreational hunting was strongly opposed , but the report allowed for select members of the public to assist in the " sole purpose of animal removal " . The main goal of the NPS , the report explained , was to preserve national parks primarily for the " aesthetic , spiritual , scientific and educational values they offered to the public " .
The report strayed from arguments based on scientific data and veered into environmental philosophy , concluding that national parks should serve a historical purpose . One of the most popular passages in the report is from the section " The Goal of Park Management in the United States " ; here , the report alludes to recreating an unaltered landscape , a sentiment touching upon a national park ideal : " As a primary goal , we would recommend that the biotic associations within each park be maintained , or where necessary recreated , as nearly as possible in the condition that prevailed when the area was first visited by the white man . A national park should represent a vignette of primitive America . " It continues :
Restoring the primitive scene is not done easily nor can it be done completely . Some species are extinct . Given time , an eastern hardwood forest can be regrown to maturity but the chestnut will be missing and so will the roar of pigeon wings . The colorful drapanid finches are not to be heard again in the lowland forests of Hawaii , nor will the jack @-@ hammer of the ivory @-@ bill ring in southern swamps . The wolf and grizzly bear cannot readily be reintroduced into ranching communities , and the factor of human use of the parks is subject only to regulation , not elimination . Exotic plants , animals , and diseases are here to stay . All these limitations we fully realize . Yet , if the goal cannot be fully achieved it can be approached . A reasonable illusion of primitive America could be recreated , using the utmost in skill , judgment , and ecologic sensitivity . This in our opinion should be the objective of every national park and monument .
Most importantly , the Leopold Report emphasized the need for scientific research and ecological management expertise in the national parks . Acknowledging the harm caused to nature by humans , the Advisory Board asked for the implementation of " a set of ecologic skills unknown in this country today " . A call to arms was raised for exploring new methods of active protection and restoration of plant and animal life in the national parks : " Americans have shown a great capacity for degrading and fragmenting native biotas . So far we have not exercised much imagination or ingenuity in rebuilding damaged biotas . It will not be done by passive protection alone . "
= = Reception and publication = =
The report was first presented on March 4 , 1963 , and originally published in the Transactions of the Twenty @-@ Eighth North American Wildlife and Natural Resources Conference . Conrad L. Wirth , director of the NPS from 1951 to 1964 , stated that the report reworded the Service 's 1916 mandate into " modern language " , using a scientific perspective to redefine the basic purpose of national parks . Secretary Udall supported the report and instructed the NPS to incorporate the findings into the agency 's operations . In a memorandum dated May 2 , 1963 , he reiterated the purpose of the national park in the scope of the Leopold Report : " ... a primary goal of park management is to maintain the biotic associations within each park as nearly as possible in that relationship which existed at a predetermined time period . The goal then is to create or maintain the mood of wild America . "
The Advisory Board was reconstituted in part as a permanent Natural Sciences Advisory Board to the NPS . In 1964 , Wirth 's successor , George B. Hartzog , Jr . , established the Division of Natural Science Studies , naming biologist George Sprugel , Jr. the Service 's chief scientist . The memorable idea of a " vignette of primitive America " drew popular attention from readers and the report received widespread publicity and praise amongst conservationists . It was reprinted in several national publications and was also noted in the Sierra Club Bulletin . Leopold often said that had he known the report would be widely read and dissected , he probably would have written it more carefully .
= = Legacy = =
The Leopold Report was the first concrete plan for managing park visitors and ecosystems under unified principles . With an infusion of scientists and resource programs , it set into motion a series of ecologically positive legislative actions in the 1960s and into the 1970s . While direct management of the elk population in Yellowstone National Park continues to spark debate amongst scientists , the report nonetheless successfully influenced multiple areas of park management . Prior to the report 's publication , California 's Sequoia National Park was beset by a thick underbrush , which the report directly referred to as a " dog @-@ hair thicket ... a direct function of overprotection from natural ground fires " . This underbrush would have been naturally eradicated by lightning storms , but because of policies that supported wildfire suppression , the growth threatened the park 's Giant Sequoia trees . As a direct result of the report 's advice regarding the usefulness of controlled burning , in 1964 the park began performing trial controlled burns , which led to a 1968 policy championing the continuation of burns for the betterment of the park 's forest ecosystems . Fire ecologist Bruce Kilgore credited the Leopold Report as being a true catalyst for change , stating that it was the " document of greatest significance to National Park Service [ fire ] policy " .
Although the Robbins Report did not receive the same recognition as the Leopold Report , it reached similar conclusions . However , unlike the Leopold Report , the Robbins Report criticized the NPS for its lack of scientific research and made recommendations for sweeping changes in the structure of the NPS , with a proposal for a strong focus on a science @-@ based approach . In 1972 , the far more detailed Cain Report was released ; amounting to 207 pages in comparison to the Leopold Report 's scant 28 , its committee was chaired by Stanley A. Cain , who also worked on the Leopold Report . Although this report made similar recommendations to the one primarily written by Leopold , it stated that little had been done to advance the previous report 's findings , especially in terms of predator control . As a result of the Cain Report 's recommendations , President Richard Nixon signed Executive Order 11643 , which restricted the usage of poisons such as strychnine and sodium cyanide for predator control .
The report 's visionary goal for preservation has been both lauded and criticized . Author of the book Searching for Yellowstone : Ecology and Wonder in the Last Wilderness , Paul Schullery , wrote of the report : " Scholars return to it for new interpretations and even inspiration regularly , speakers invoke it on all occasions , and it is trotted out to prove almost every perspective in debates about modern park management . " On the other hand , Alston Chase , a vocal critic of the National Park Service , disapproved of the limited scope of the Leopold Report , arguing that it had " inadvertently replaced science with nostalgia , subverting the goal it had set out to support " . The report 's insistence to return parks to the condition that " prevailed when the area was first visited by the white man " has also been criticized for ignoring the Native Americans ' historical presence in the area . Historian and author Philip Burnham in particular stated in his 2000 book , Indian Country , God 's Country : Native Americans and the National Parks , that although Leopold et al. were more progressive than their predecessors , they " still dismissed native people as passive onlookers " .
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= Battle of P 'ohang @-@ dong =
The Battle of P 'ohang @-@ dong was an engagement between United Nations and North Korean forces early in the Korean War , with fighting continuing from 5 – 20 August 1950 around the town of P 'ohang @-@ dong , South Korea . It was a part of the Battle of Pusan Perimeter , and was one of several large engagements fought simultaneously . The battle ended in a victory for the United Nations after their forces were able to drive off an attempted offensive by three North Korean divisions in the mountainous eastern coast of the country .
Forces of the South Korean Republic of Korea Army , supported by the United States Navy and United States Air Force , defended the eastern coast of the country as a part of the Pusan Perimeter . When several divisions of the North Korean People 's Army crossed through mountainous terrain to push the UN forces back , a complicated battle ensued in the rugged terrain around P 'ohang @-@ dong , which contained the vital supply line to the main UN force at Taegu .
Over two weeks , North Korean and South Korean ground units fought in several bloody back @-@ and @-@ forth battles , taking and retaking ground in which neither was able to gain the upper hand . Finally , following the breakdown of the North Korean supply lines and amidst mounting casualties , the exhausted North Korean troops were forced to retreat .
The battle was a turning point in the war for North Korean forces , which had seen previous victories owing to superior numbers and equipment , with the distances and demands exacted on them at P 'ohang @-@ dong rendering their supply lines untenable .
= = Background = =
= = = Outbreak of war = = =
Following the invasion of the Republic of Korea ( South Korea ) by its northern neighbor , the Democratic People 's Republic of Korea ( North Korea ) and the subsequent outbreak of the Korean War on 25 June 1950 , the United Nations decided to enter the conflict on behalf of South Korea . The United States — a member of the UN — subsequently committed ground forces to the Korean peninsula with the goal of fighting back the North Korean invasion and to prevent South Korea from collapsing . However , U.S. forces in the Far East had been steadily decreasing since the end of World War II , five years earlier , and at the time the closest forces were the 24th Infantry Division , headquartered in Japan .
Advance elements of the 24th Infantry were badly defeated in the Battle of Osan on 5 July , the first encounter between American and North Korean forces . For the first month after the defeat of Task Force Smith , 24th Infantry was repeatedly defeated and forced south by superior North Korean numbers and equipment . The regiments of the 24th Infantry were systematically pushed south in engagements around Chochiwon , Chonan , and Pyongtaek . The 24th made a final stand in the Battle of Taejon , where it was almost completely destroyed but delayed North Korean forces until July 20 . By that time , the 8th Army ′ s force of combat troops were roughly equal to North Korean forces attacking the region , with new UN units arriving every day .
While the 24th Infantry Division was fighting on the Korean western front , the 5th and 12th North Korean Infantry Divisions advanced steadily on the eastern front . The North Korean army , 89 @,@ 000 men strong , had advanced into South Korea in six columns , catching the Republic of Korea Army by surprise , resulting in a complete rout . The smaller South Korean army suffered from widespread lack of organization and equipment , and it was unprepared for war . Numerically superior , North Korean forces destroyed isolated resistance from the 38 @,@ 000 South Korean soldiers on the front before it began moving steadily south .
= = = North Korean advance = = =
With Taejon captured , North Korean forces began surrounding the Pusan Perimeter from all sides in an attempt to envelop it . The 4th and 6th North Korean Infantry Divisions advanced south in a wide flanking maneuver . The two divisions attempted to envelop the UN ′ s left flank , but became extremely spread out in the process . At the same time , the NK 5th and 12th Division pressured the South Koreans on the right flank . They advanced on UN positions with armor and superior numbers , repeatedly defeating U.S. and South Korean forces and forcing them further south . On 21 July , the NK 12th Division was ordered by the II North Korean Corps to capture P 'ohang @-@ dong by 26 July .
Though it was steadily pushed back , South Korean forces on the right flank increased their resistance further south hoping to delay North Korean units as much as possible . North and South Korean units sparred for control of several cities , inflicting heavy casualties on one another . The Republic of Korea Army forces defended Yongdok fiercely before being forced back . They also performed well in the Battle of Andong , forcing the NK 12th Division to delay their attacks on P 'ohang @-@ dong until the early August . The South Korean forces had also undergone significant reorganizations , and after receiving a large number of recruits by 26 July , the South Korean Army had reached an effective strength of 85 @,@ 871 men .
= = = Eastern corridor = = =
Along the South Korean front of the perimeter , on the eastern corridor , the terrain made moving through the area incredibly difficult . A major road ran from Taegu 50 mi ( 80 km ) east , to P ’ ohang @-@ dong on Korea 's east coast . The only major north @-@ south road intersecting this line moves south from Andong through Yongch 'on , midway between Taegu and P 'ohang @-@ dong .
The only other natural entry through the line lies at the town of An 'gang @-@ ni , 12 mi ( 19 km ) west of P 'ohang @-@ dong , which is situated near a valley through the natural rugged terrain to the major rail hub of Kyongju , which was a staging area for moving supplies to Taegu . General Walton Walker — commanding the 8th Army — chose not to heavily reinforce the area as he felt the terrain made meaningful attack impossible , preferring to respond to attack with reinforcements from the transportation routes and air cover from Yonil Airfield , which was south of P 'ohang @-@ dong .
With the exception of the valley between Taegu and P 'ohong @-@ dong , the terrain along the line was extremely rough and mountainous thanks to the Taebaek Mountains which ran from north to south down Korea 's east coast . Northeast of P 'ohong @-@ dong along the South Korean line the terrain was especially treacherous , and movement in the region was extremely difficult . Thus , the UN established the northern line of the Pusan Perimeter using the terrain as a natural defense . However the rough terrain also made communication difficult , particularly for the South Korean forces .
= = Prelude = =
The Republic of Korea Army — a force of 58 @,@ 000 — was organized into two corps and five divisions along the line ; from east to west , ROK I Corps controlled the 8th Infantry Division and Capital Divisions , while the ROK II Corps controlled the 1st Division and 6th Infantry Division . A reconstituted ROK 3rd Division was placed under direct ROK Army control . Morale among the UN units was low due to the large number of defeats at that point in the war . The South Korean Army had lost an estimated 70 @,@ 000 men up to that point in the war .
At the same time , forces of the U.S. 5th Air Force provided 45 P @-@ 51 Mustang fighters to provide cover from Yongil Airfield , and the U.S. Navy provided several ships to provide support by sea . Evacuation of wounded and surrounded troops was carried out by the aircraft carriers USS Valley Forge and Philippine Sea . The heavy cruisers USS Helena and Toledo also provided fire support for troops operating in the town .
The North Korean People 's Army forces were organized into a mechanized combined arms force of ten divisions , originally numbering some 90 @,@ 000 well @-@ trained and well @-@ equipped troops in July , with hundreds of T @-@ 34 Tanks . However , defensive actions by U.S. and South Korean forces had delayed the North Koreans significantly in their invasion of South Korea , costing them 58 @,@ 000 of their troops and a large number of tanks . In order to recoup these losses , the North Koreans had to rely on less experienced replacements and conscripts , many of whom had been taken from the conquered regions of South Korea .
The North Korean forces suffered a shortage of men and equipment ; their divisions were far understrength . Opposing the South Koreans , from west to east , were the 8th , 12th , and 5th Divisions and the 766th Independent Infantry Regiment . On 5 August , the NK 8th Division was estimated to have 8 @,@ 000 men , the NK 5th Division had 6 @,@ 000 men , the NK 12th Division had 6 @,@ 000 men and the 766th Independent Regiment had 1 @,@ 500 men , giving these units a total strength of at least 21 @,@ 500 .
= = Battle = =
In early August , the three North Korean divisions mounted offensives against the three passes through the South Koreans ' line . The NK 8th Division attacked Yongch 'on , the NK 12th Division attacked P ’ ohang @-@ dong and NK 5th Division , in conjunction with the 766th Independent Infantry Regiment , attacked toward An 'gang @-@ ni at Kigye , 6 mi ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) north of the town . The South Korean forces had far less training and were poorly equipped , and so they presented the weakest line on the Pusan Perimeter . The North Koreans knew they could be most successful there .
= = = Opening moves = = =
The NK 8th Division 's attack stalled almost immediately . The division drove for Yongch 'on from Uiseong . However , the attack failed to reach the Taegu @-@ P 'ohang corridor after being surprised and outflanked by the ROK 8th Division . NK 8th Division 's 3rd Regiment was nearly destroyed by South Korean forces immediately , forcing its 2nd Regiment to attempt to relieve it , resulting in at least 700 casualties for the 2nd Regiment . At least six tanks were also destroyed by U.S. Air Force F @-@ 51 Mustangs and mines .
This fighting was so heavy that the NK 8th Division was forced to hold its ground a week before trying to advance . When it finally broke out , it was only able to advance briefly before it was stalled again by South Korean resistance . The division was forced to halt a second time to wait for reinforcements . However the other two attacks were more successful , catching the UN forces by surprise . The North Koreans quickly pushed South Korean forces back .
East of the NK and ROK 8th Divisions , the NK 12th Division crossed the Naktong River at Andong , moving through the mountains in small groups to reach P 'ohang @-@ dong . The division was far under strength and at least one of its artillery batteries had to send its guns back north because it had no ammunition for them . UN planners had not anticipated that the 12th Division would be able to do this effectively , and thus was unprepared when its forces infiltrated the region so heavily .
On 9 August , troops from the ROK 25th Regiment , Capitol Division probed through the mountains from Kigye to establish contact with the ROK 3rd Division south of Yongdok . It advanced 2 @.@ 5 mi ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) north before encountering fierce North Korean resistance , which pushed it almost 5 mi ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) south . It was apparent to the UN forces that the ROK 3rd Division was being outflanked . It held the road 20 mi ( 32 km ) north of P 'ohang @-@ dong but there were no defenses inland in the mountains and North Korean units had penetrated there .
In the meantime , the ROK 3rd Division was heavily engaged with the NK 5th Division along the coastal road to P 'ohang @-@ dong . The divisions clashes centered on the town of Yongdok , with each side capturing and recapturing the town several times . On 5 August , the North Koreans launched their attack , again taking the town from the South Korean forces and pushing them south . At 19 : 30 on 6 August , the South Koreans launched a counteroffensive to retake the hill .
U.S. aircraft and ships pounded the town with rockets , napalm and shells before South Korean troops from the 22nd and 23rd regiments swarmed the town . However , NK 5th Division forces were able to infiltrate the coastal road south of Yongdok at Hunghae . This effectively surrounded the ROK 3rd Division , trapping it several miles above P 'ohang @-@ dong . The NK 766th Independent Regiment advanced around the ROK 3rd Division and took the area around P 'ohang @-@ dong .
Due to severe manpower shortages , ROK commanders had assigned a company of student soldiers to defend P 'ohang @-@ dong Girl 's Middle School to delay the NKPA advance into the town . On August 11 , the squad held their ground and confronted more numerous NK forces . Out of initial 71 squad members 48 died in the 11 @-@ hour @-@ long battle . This part of the battle is depicted in the movie 71 : Into the Fire .
= = = UN counteroffensive = = =
On 10 August , the 8th Army organized Task Force P 'ohang , consisting of the ROK 17th , 25th , and 26th Regiments as well as the ROK 1st Anti @-@ Guerrilla Battalion , Marine Battalion and a battery from the U.S. 18th Field Artillery Battalion . The task force was given the mission to clear out North Korean forces in the mountainous region . At the same time , the 8th Army formed Task Force Bradley , consisting of elements of the U.S. 8th Infantry Regiment , 2nd Infantry Division under the command of Brigadier General Joseph S. Bradley , the 2nd Division ′ s assistant commander . Task Force Bradley was tasked with defending P 'ohang @-@ dong from the North Korean 766th Independent Regiment which was infiltrating the town .
On 11 August , Task Force Bradley struck out from Yongil Airfield to counterattack the North Korean forces around P 'ohang @-@ dong while Task Force P 'ohang attacked from An 'gang @-@ ni area . Both forces immediately met resistance from North Korean forces . By that time , the North Korean forces had captured P 'ohang @-@ dong . What followed was a complicated series of fights through the large region around P 'ohang @-@ dong and An 'gang @-@ ni as South Korean ground forces , aided by U.S. air forces engaged groups of North Korean forces operation all around the vicinity .
The NK 12th Division was operating in the valley west of P 'ohang @-@ dong and was able to push back Task Force P 'ohang and the ROK Capital Division . At the same time , the NK 766th Infantry Regiment and elements of the NK 5th Division fought Task Force Bradley at and south of P 'ohang @-@ dong . U.S. naval fire was able to drive NK troops from the town , but it became a bitterly contested no man 's land as fighting moved to the hills around the town .
= = = UN forces pull back = = =
By 13 August , North Korean troops were operating in the mountains west and southwest of Yongil Airfield . U.S. Air Force commanders — wary of enemy attack — evacuated the 45 P @-@ 51s of the 39th and 40th Fighter Squadron from the airstrip , against complaints of General MacArthur . However , the airstrip remained under the protection of UN ground forces and never came under direct North Korean fire . The squadrons were moved to Tsuiki on the island of Kyushu , Japan .
As the battles at P 'ohang @-@ dong raged to the south , the ROK 3rd Division faced increasing pressure from the NK 5th Division . North Korean officers from the division continued to attack the ROK unit hoping it would collapse , and the North Korean troops were able to slowly erode at the South Korean division ′ s defenses , forcing it into a smaller and smaller pocket . The ROK division was forced further south to the village of Changsa @-@ dong , where U.S. Navy planners began preparations to evacuate the division by LSTs and DUKWs .
The division would sail 20 miles ( 32 km ) south to Yongil bay to join the other UN forces in a coordinated attack to push the North Koreans out of the region . This evacuation was carried out on the night of 16 August under heavy support from the U.S. Navy . In all , 9 @,@ 000 men of the division were evacuated south , as well as 1 @,@ 200 national police and 1 @,@ 000 laborers . Now at the height of their advance , the North Korean divisions had pushed the line to within 12 mi ( 19 km ) of Taegu .
= = = North Korean defeat = = =
By 14 August , large forces from the NK 5th and 12th Divisions , as well was the 766th Independent Regiment were focused entirely on taking P 'ohang @-@ dong . However they were unable to hold it because of U.S. air superiority and naval bombardment on the town . More importantly , the supply chain had completely broken down for the division , and more food , ammunition and supplies were not available . Captured North Korean prisoners claimed the units received no food after 12 August and had been so exhausted that they were completely unable to fight . Opposing them , the ROK Capital Division and Task forces P 'ohang and Bradley which had joined forces to prepare for a final offensive to push the North Koreans out of the region .
UN forces began their final counteroffensive against the stalled North Korean forces on 15 August . Intense fighting around P 'ohang @-@ dong ensued for several days as each side suffered large numbers of casualties in back @-@ and @-@ forth battles . By 17 August , UN forces were able to push North Korean troops out of the Kyongju corridor and An 'gang @-@ ni , putting the supply road to Taegu out of immediate danger . The NK 766th Independent Regiment — now down to 1 @,@ 500 men — was forced to withdraw north to prevent being surrounded .
The NK 12th Division , also down to just 1 @,@ 500 , evacuated P 'ohang @-@ dong after this , having been exhausted from heavy casualties . The two units merged and received replacements , with the NK 12th Division re @-@ forming with 5 @,@ 000 men . By 19 August the North Korean forces had completely withdrawn from the offensive and retreated into the mountains . Troops of the ROK Capital Division advanced to 2 mi ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) north of Kigye , while the ROK 3rd Division retook P 'ohang @-@ dong and advanced north of the town the next day . The ROK line had been pushed back several miles , but it had managed to repel the North Koreans .
= = Aftermath = =
The fight at P 'ohang @-@ dong was the final breaking point for North Korean units already on the verge of exhaustion from continuous combat . North Korean supply lines were overextended to the point of breaking down , causing a collapse in resupply that is seen as a primary factor in turning the tide of the battle . Moreover , U.S. air superiority was also crucial to the engagement , since repeated bombing runs by U.S. aircraft prevented North Korean ground forces from reaching and holding their objectives .
Poor organization among both North and South Korean units made it extremely difficult to estimate total casualties for both sides . Several units were completely destroyed in the fighting , making precise casualty counting difficult . A memo from the South Korean army claimed 3 @,@ 800 North Korean killed and 181 captured in the P 'ohang area from 17 August onward . However , casualty numbers are likely far higher . The NK 12th Division alone likely suffered at least 4 @,@ 500 casualties on top of that number , reporting a strength of 6 @,@ 000 on 5 August and only 1 @,@ 500 on 17 August .
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= Highland cattle =
Highland cattle ( Scottish Gaelic : Bò Ghàidhealach ; Scots : Heilan coo ) are a Scottish cattle breed . They have long horns and long wavy coats that are coloured black , brindle , red , yellow , white , silver ( looks white but with a black nose ) or dun , and they are raised primarily for their meat . They originated in the Highlands and Western Isles of Scotland and were first mentioned in the 6th century AD . The first herd book described two distinct types of Highland cattle but , due to crossbreeding between the two , only one type now exists and is registered . They have since been exported worldwide .
They are a hardy breed due to their native environment , the Highlands of Scotland . This results in long hair , giving the breed its ability to overwinter . Bulls can weigh up to 800 kilograms ( 1 @,@ 800 pounds ) and cows up to 500 kilograms ( 1 @,@ 100 pounds ) . Their milk generally has a very high butterfat content , and their meat , regarded as of the highest quality , is gaining mainstream acceptance as it is lower in cholesterol than other varieties of beef .
= = Breed characteristics = =
They have an unusual double coat of hair . On the outside is the oily outer hair - the longest of any cattle breed - covering a downy undercoat . This makes them well suited to conditions in the Highlands , which have a high annual rainfall and sometimes very strong winds . Their skill in foraging for food allows them to survive in steep mountain areas where they both graze and eat plants that many other cattle avoid . They can dig through the snow with their horns to find buried plants .
Mature bulls can weigh up to 800 kilograms ( 1 @,@ 800 pounds ) and cows can weigh up to 500 kilograms ( 1 @,@ 100 pounds ) . Cows typically have a height of 90 – 106 centimeters ( 3 – 3 @.@ 5 ft ) , and bulls are typically in the range of 106 – 120 centimeters ( 3 @.@ 5 – 4 ft ) . Mating occurs throughout the year with a gestation period of approximately 277 – 290 days . Most commonly a single calf is born , but twins are not unknown . Sexual maturity is reached at about eighteen months . Highland cattle also have a longer expected lifespan than most other breeds of cattle , up to 20 years .
The coat colors are caused by alleles at the MC1R gene ( E locus ) and the PMEL or SILV gene ( D locus ) .
They have a docile temperament and the milk has a high butterfat content , so have traditionally been used as house cows . They are generally good @-@ natured animals but very protective of their young .
= = = Cold tolerance = = =
All European cattle cope relatively well with low temperatures but Highland cattle have been described as " ... almost as cold @-@ tolerant as the arctic @-@ dwelling caribou and reindeer ... " Conversely they are much less tolerant of heat than zebu cattle , which originated in South Asia and are adapted for hot climates . Highland cattle have been successfully established in countries where winters are substantially colder than Scotland such as Norway and Canada .
= = = Social behaviour = = =
A fold of semi @-@ wild Highland cattle was studied , over a period of 4 years . It was found that the cattle have a clear structure and hierarchy of dominance , which reduced aggression . Social standing depended on age and sex , with older cattle being dominant to calves and younger ones and males dominant to females . Young bulls would dominate adult cows when they reached around 2 years of age . Calves from the top ranking cow were given higher social status , despite minimal intervention from their mother . Playfighting , licking and mounting were seen as friendly contact .
Breeding occurred in May and June , with heifers first giving birth at 2 – 3 years old .
= = History = =
= = = Development = = =
The breed was developed in the Highlands and Western Isles of Scotland from two types of now @-@ extinct cattle , one originally black , and the other reddish . The original cattle were brought to Britain by Neolithic farmers . Highland cattle have a history that dates back to at least the 6th century AD , with the first written evidence dating back to the 12th century AD .
The 1885 herd book describes two distinct types of Highland cattle . One was the West Highland , or Kyloe , originating from the islands , which had harsher conditions . These cattle tended to be smaller , to have black coats and , due to their more rugged environment , to have long hair . The other type was the mainland ; these tended to be larger because their pastures provided richer nutrients . They came in a range of colours , most frequently dun or red . These types have now been crossbred so that there is no distinct difference .
Since the early 20th century , breeding stock has been exported to many parts of the world , especially Australia and North America .
It is estimated that there are now around 15 @,@ 000 Highland cattle in the United Kingdom .
= = = Scotland = = =
Originally , small farmers kept Highlands as house cows to produce milk and for meat . The Highland cattle registry ( " herd book " ) was established in 1885 . This is the oldest herd book in the world , which makes them the oldest registered cattle in the world . Although a group of cattle is generally called a herd , a group of Highland cattle is known as a " fold " . This is because in winter , the cattle were kept in open shelters made of stone called folds to protect them from the weather at night . They were also known as kyloes in Scots .
In 1954 , Queen Elizabeth ordered Highland cattle to be kept at Balmoral Castle where they are still kept today .
= = = Australia = = =
Highland cattle were first imported into Australia by the mid @-@ 19th century by Scottish migrants such as Chieftain Areneas Ronaldson MacDonell of Glengarry , Scotland . Arriving in Port Albert , Victoria , in 1841 with his clan , they apparently drove their Highland cattle to a farm at Greenmount , on the Tarra River , preceded by a piper . Samuel Amess , also from Scotland , who made a fortune in the Victorian goldfields and became Mayor of Melbourne in 1869 , kept a small fold of black Highland cattle on Churchill Island . They were seen and survived in Port Victoria during the late 1800s , but other folds were believed to have died out in areas such as New South Wales . In 1988 the Australian Highland Cattle Society was formed . Since then , numbers have been growing and semen is being exported to New Zealand to establish the breed there .
= = = Canada = = =
Highland cattle were first imported into Canada in the 1880s . Both the Honourable Donald A. Smith , Lord Strathcona of Winnipeg , Manitoba , and Robert Campbell of Strathclair , Manitoba , imported one bull each . There were also Highland cattle in Nova Scotia , Canada , in the 1880s . However , their numbers were small until the 1920s when large @-@ scale breeding and importing began . In the 1950s cattle were imported and exported from North America . The Canadian Highland Cattle Society was officially registered in 1964 and currently registers all purebred cattle in Canada . Towards the end of the 1990s , there was a large semen and embryo trade between the UK and Canada . However , that has stopped , largely due to the BSE ( mad cow disease ) outbreaks in the United Kingdom . Today , Highland cattle are mainly found in eastern Canada . The population of Highland cattle for Canada and the United States of America combined is estimated at 11 @,@ 000 .
= = Modern farming = =
The meat of Highland cattle tends to be leaner than most beef because Highlands are largely insulated by their thick , shaggy hair rather than by subcutaneous fat . Highland cattle can produce beef at a reasonable profit from land that would otherwise normally be unsuitable for agriculture . The most profitable way to produce Highland beef is on poor pasture in their native land , the Highlands of Scotland . The meat is also gaining popularity in North America as the beef is low in cholesterol .
= = = Commercial success = = =
The beef from Highland cattle is very tender , but the market for high @-@ quality meat has declined . To address this decline , it is common practice to breed Highland " suckler " cows with a more favourable breed such as a Shorthorn or Limousin bull . This allows the Highland cattle to produce a crossbred beef calf that has the tender beef of its mother on a carcass shape of more commercial value at slaughter . These crossbred beef suckler cows inherit the hardiness , thrift and mothering capabilities of their Highland dams and the improved carcass configuration of their sires . Such crossbred sucklers can be further crossbred with a modern beef bull such as a Limousin or Charolais to produce high quality beef .
= = Showing = =
For show purposes , Highland cattle are sometimes groomed with oils and conditioners to give their coats a fluffy appearance that is more apparent in calves ; it leads some outside the industry to call them " fluffy cows " . Many also call the cows " hairy cows " due to their thick coats .
= = = Breed standard = = =
The breed standard is a set of guidelines which are used to ensure that the animals produced by a breeder or breeding facility conform to the specifics of the standardized breed . All registered Highland cattle must conform to it . The breed standard was created in Inverness on 10 June 1885 . There are four main parts to the standard : the head , the neck , the back and body , and the hair . Below is a concise list of the main points of the breed standard . A judge in a show will judge the cattle against a provided breed standard .
Head
Proportionate to body
Wide between eyes
Must naturally have horns , but may be trimmed in commercial rearing
Neck
Clear , without dewlap
Straight line to body
Back and Body
The back must be rounded
The quarters must be wider than the hips
The legs must be short and straight
Hair
The hair must be straight and waved
Sources : Highland Cattle Society , ScottishHighlandCattle.org
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= Albany Free School =
The Albany Free School is the oldest independent , inner @-@ city alternative school in the United States . Founded by Mary Leue in 1969 based on the English Summerhill School philosophy , the free school lets students learn at their own pace . It has no grades , tests , or firm schedule : students design their own daily plans for learning . The school is self @-@ governed through a weekly , democratic all @-@ school meeting run by students in Robert 's Rules . Students and staff alike receive one equal vote apiece . Unlike Summerhill @-@ style schools , the Albany Free School is a day school that serves predominantly working @-@ class children . Nearly 80 percent of the school is eligible for reduced @-@ price meals in the public schools . About 60 students between the ages of three and fourteen attend , and are staffed by six full @-@ time teachers and a number of volunteers .
The school runs on a shoestring budget as a tradeoff for its financial independence and accessibility to low @-@ income students . Tuition is billed on a sliding scale based on what parents can afford . Revenue from rental properties and fundraising supplements tuition income . The Free School started a high school program in 2006 . It later spun off as the Harriet Tubman Democratic High School and enrolls about 20 students in both self @-@ directed and traditional classes . Alumni of the school have attended a variety of colleges . Journalists have noted the school 's similarity to unschooling and homeschooling , and its work to that of prefigurative politics . The Albany Free School is one of the few schools remaining from the 1960s and 1970s free school movement . It inspired the program of the Brooklyn Free School .
= = History = =
The Albany Free School is the oldest independent , inner @-@ city alternative school in the United States . It was founded in 1969 by Mary Leue , who wanted to start a school that was free both by " democratic principles and accessibility to poor children " . Leue approached A. S. Neill of Summerhill , the democratic school 's progenitor , for advice on how to make a similar school for working @-@ class children , he replied that " she would be mad to try " . The school 's first pupils withdrew from the public school . Chris Mercogliano came to the school in 1973 and became " its co @-@ director and figurehead " . The school is located in a socioeconomically and racially diverse downtown Albany in a building that once housed a parochial school . They purchased a number of buildings in the early 1970s for " next to nothing " in the impoverished neighborhood . The Albany Free School is one of the few free schools to persist from the hundreds once open in the free school movement of the 1960s and 1970s .
Over time , the Albany Free School became a " safety net " for children with special needs who were not fully accommodated in the public schools . The school 's waiting list grew accordingly , and its program was also impacted by the difficult home situations that these students would often bring to school . The school 's " unofficial adage " is , " Never a dull moment , always a dull roar . "
= = Program = =
The school 's philosophy is that students learn best at their own pace . The original curriculum was a cross between " instruction and home life " . The Albany Free School has no firm schedule and does not grade students . The day begins at 8 : 15 a.m. and students are asked what they want to do each day . Students are grouped by age and present their own plan for each day . They pursue various projects including writing , filmmaking , and studying language or history . The school also offers structured math and reading classes for those who want it . Classes tend to have five to seven students per teacher and the school 's teacher – student relationships are close . Teachers report a relative ease in holding students accountable to their stated plans . In 2006 , the school had ten teachers , four interns , and a number of parent volunteers for 58 students between the ages of three and fourteen ( pre @-@ K to eighth grade ) . The school has a " Living and Learning " program between 10 a.m. and noon , followed by lunch , which the students make themselves as part of the program . The children play sports until their 3 p.m. class and school ends at 4 p.m.
The Albany Free School self @-@ governs through a weekly " all @-@ school meeting " where students and teachers each receive single votes of equal weight in deciding school policy . Teachers recommend that children resolve their disputes themselves or through small groups . If a conflict is irreconcilable , any member of the community can call a school @-@ wide meeting . After this person informs the school , everyone sits in a circle in the basement . The group chooses three students to run the meeting in Robert 's Rules . Adults facilitate more than lead , and rarely intervene in the meetings , which are intended to teach " mediation and compromise " . The school prioritizes self @-@ expression , " honesty , and emotions " . One teacher explained the " free " in " free school " to represent the freedom to be oneself without coercion , which comes with the responsibility to listen to others and respect their feelings voices . In the late 2000s , the school expelled a student for the first time by vote at the community meeting .
The school privileges its financial independence and accessibility over sufficient budgeting , a result of Leue 's governance choices . The Free School does not receive government funding and instead subsists on student tuition and supplemental income from rental properties and " extensive fundraising " . Student tuition is billed on a sliding scale : parents give what they can afford . In 2012 , about 80 percent of the school 's families were eligible for free or reduced @-@ price public school meals , and Free School parents paid an average monthly tuition of US $ 160 ( substantially below the US $ 215 cost per child ) . In 2012 , one half the school 's students lived in Albany 's inner @-@ city South End ( mostly black and Latino , with a burgeoning immigrant population ) , one fourth lived in uptown neighborhoods , and one fourth lived in the suburbs . Leue initially struggled to recruit children of upwardly mobile families , who thought the school would limit their children 's chances to join a suitable income bracket . She found that low @-@ income , black families were the most skeptical about the school 's usefulness . The school also provides inexpensive ( or free ) preschool and daycare for young children , operates a car collective ( wherein a dozen people share a minivan ) , and provides low @-@ interest loans through a community credit system .
The school operates on a shoestring budget of US $ 100 @,@ 000 , or US $ 150 @,@ 000 when including the kitchen program . The Free School intentionally foregoes government funding to avoid external control and needless bureaucracy . A volunteer staff performs the school 's administrative duties , and as of 2012 , six teachers are employed full @-@ time at forty @-@ hour weeks for a US $ 11 @,@ 000 yearly stipend . Many take second jobs . Their school 's website notes that it has become harder to keep teachers , who are qualified for salaries at least three times this amount plus fringe benefits at public schools . In 2012 , co @-@ director Chris Mercogliano , who arrived in 1973 , continued to receive the same pay as a new teacher . Teachers report high interest in their work and less interest in the low pay . Younger teachers have expressed more of an interest in racial and social justice , and have tried to increase the school 's diversity . Within the school community , some have " half @-@ jokingly " expressed a mix of philosophies between the school 's " young anarchists and ... old liberals " .
= = = High school and graduation = = =
The Free School began a high school program in late 2006 . It later became the separate Harriet Tubman Democratic High School , and was accredited by the Department of Education . As of 2011 , the school enrolls 17 students , plans to expand to 40 , and employs one full @-@ time teacher , though part @-@ time workers , volunteers , interns , and graduate students keep the ratio of one staff to five students . The school offers both interest @-@ based and " traditional " classes : the former lets students play musical instruments and teach music theory , while the latter prepares students for the state Regents exams . None of the traditional classes enroll more than 11 students . Students are not turned away based on inability to pay tuition , and 80 percent of the school receives tuition aid . As such , the school includes students from the city as well as the suburbs . The pupils also participate in staff hiring and school maintenance chores . The director has said that the school is best suited for independent students .
Free School graduates apply to college with essays and interviews rather than standardized test scores . Tubman High School graduates have attended Clarkson University and Hudson Valley Community College . Albany Free School alumni have continued into occupations including development director at an alternative education organization , and an undersecretary for the Governor of New York .
= = Reception = =
Matthew Appleton wrote that the day school 's existence proved that the Summerhill method could work in non @-@ boarding school environments , and Ron Miller noted the Albany Free School as an " anomaly " and model for American free schools , which tend to serve upper @-@ middle class children . The Albany Free School inspired the program of the Brooklyn Free School .
In contemplating the role of democratic schools in addressing race @-@ based inequities , Astra Taylor saw the Albany Free School " as a microcosm of an American society that had failed to come into existence " . She thought that the school sounded " like unschooling , but in a group setting " , where children are free to cross age lines , learn from older idealists , and manage their own affairs . Children are trusted to " learn responsibility , problem solving , and self @-@ governance in the process " . Taylor added that the practical needs of tending the chicken coop and vegetables turned " necessity into virtue " as lack of money became " self @-@ reliance and simple living " . She compared the school 's work to Rebecca Solnit 's prefigurative politics : one small group models a different way to pursue a principle , such that the group can live by its ideals while affecting a change they seek .
In comparison to the Albany Free School , the City School District of Albany felt that it was better prepared to fit the needs of all students by offering more social services and learning opportunities , such as an elementary school " dual language enrichment program " and the International Baccalaureate . In contrast , a Free School teacher said that the school 's graduates were better able to empathize and emotionally interact , and thus were better equipped to address the fear and mistrust of authority that leads to " laws , judges , courts , prisons " .
The Times Union reported the Tubman High School as an " educational island ... outside the public , charter , and private school sphere " that served as a " refuge " for students who disliked traditional public schools . The newspaper wrote that the school , " perhaps the most unique educational experience in the region " , was closer to homeschooling than traditional schooling , like a college dorm where small roundtable discussions prevailed .
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= Titan Quest : Immortal Throne =
Titan Quest : Immortal Throne is an expansion pack to the 2006 action role @-@ playing hack and slash video game Titan Quest . Developed by Iron Lore Entertainment , it was originally published by THQ in 2007 : it would be Iron Lore 's last original project prior to their closure in 2008 . Following directly on from the events of Titan Quest , Immortal Throne follows the player character as they are confronted by a new wave of monsters attacking the mortal realm from the Underworld . Gameplay is identical to that of Titan Quest , with navigation through locations around the Ancient world and action combat . For Immortal Throne , improvements were made to the inventory system and multiplayer , and a new character class was added .
Development began in July 2006 after work was completed on Titan Quest , with preparatory work beginning prior to this . Staff members returned while assuming different roles to the original game : Michael Verrette produced , Michael Sheidow acted as art director , the script was written by Dean O 'Donnell , while Arthur Bruno took over as main designer . Scott Morton returned to compose new tracks . The concept was to both expand upon the narrative of Titan Quest and improve the gameplay experience . It also went for a darker aesthetic compared to the original . Announced in November 2006 , it released to a positive critical reception and favorable sales .
= = Gameplay = =
Like its predecessor Titan Quest , Immortal Throne is an action role @-@ playing game where the player @-@ created character navigates environments within the Ancient World : in Immortal Throne , the player begins by exploring locations like Rhodes and Epirus , before entering the Underworld and passing through supernatural locations such as the Styx and Elysium . Players progress through the story and different locations by completing quests from non @-@ playable characters ( NPCs ) for various rewards , including money and experience points .
Combat happens in real @-@ time , featuring a hack and slash style where the player character attacks enemies highlighted with the mouse . As the character gains experience levels through completing quests and killing enemies , they can access Mastery skill trees linked to different combat styles , similar to a character class system : players can have access to a primary and secondary skill tree , which grand either passive or active boons upon characters . Items and equipment , which include new armor and weapons alongside healing potions , are acquired from defeated enemies or purchased from merchants . Players of the original Titan Quest can import their current selected character into Immortal Throne , while new players must complete the main campaign before accessing Immortal Throne .
Immortal Throne features multiple additions and alterations over Titan Quest . The main addition is a new Mastery titled Dream Mastery : available to new players from the start of the main campaign , it is a magic @-@ focused skill that relies on illusion and stasis effects to disrupt enemy groups . Among the abilities available are putting nearby enemies to sleep until they are hit by a weapon strike , turning enemies on each other , and effects which make enemies take damage when they strike the player or faster health and energy recovery . In addition to extra quests , new items and equipment are included . An additional item slot for the player character is reserved for Artifacts , charms crafted for the player by Enchanters after the player discovers enough Arcane Formulae after defeating enemies . Artifacts are divided into three levels ( Lesser , Greater and Divine ) , which grant a variety of status effects depending on their level . A separate type of item are Scrolls , expendable items that produce powerful effects and can be equipped in a similar fashion to healing potions . Additional sellers and storage Caravans are included in between towns . Multiplayer functions return from the original game , while adding refinements such as the ability to automatically join parties and engage in player @-@ versus @-@ player matches .
= = Plot = =
Immortal Throne picks up immediately after the events of the main game : after the titan Typhon has been defeated , the Olympian gods hail the player character as humanity 's hero , and decide that the human world can function without their protection . The player is transported to Rhodes , where a new wave of monsters has appeared : this is blamed by Tiresias on the player 's activities creating strife in the Underworld , the source of the monsters . To discover the reason behind the attacks , the player must seek out the sorceress Medea , who sends the player to a region near the Pindos Mountains . Following a path into them , the player finds the path into the Underworld , where the dead are trapped in limbo due to the Judges of the Underworld no longer passing sentence on them . After the player defeats Charon and Cerberus , who have abandoned their original purposes , they head through Elysium . The player learns that Hades , god of the Underworld , is launching an attack on the living world now that the more powerful Olympians have left humanity unprotected . After trapping Hades ' army in the Underworld , the player then defeats Hades himself . Persephone then appears , dubs the player " Godsbane " and declares that humans have earned the right to control both life and death .
= = Development and release = =
Development on Immortal Throne began in early June 2006 , a few weeks after the original Titan Quest went gold . Preparatory work was in progress during the late development stages of Titan Quest , with staff drawing up feature lists and choosing what features to improve and what additions to make . According to producer Michael Verrette , Immortal Throne was considered an extension of Titan Quest , as many of the elements it included were features that could not be included in the original game due to time constraints . Multiple staff from Titan Quest returned , either in their original roles or different roles : Verrette became producer after being a sound designer for the original game , Arthur Bruno became lead gameplay designer , and Michael Sheidow and Scott Morton returned as art director and composer respectively . The original graphics engine was carried over from the original game with some accompanying refinements . The level design was based around the increased vertical elements in environments , giving a wider variety of gameplay spaces and vistas . A big addition to the game was the Dream Mastery character class , which was both designed to fit in among the existing character classes and to be a useful skill in cooperative multiplayer . The level editor , a feature present in the original game , was left mostly intact , although additional development features were added such as lockable day and night cycle and preview features for new elements . Visually , the game was themed around a descent into the Underworld : the deeper the player went on their journey , the darker the environments became . Immortal Throne would be the last original property worked on by Iron Lore Entertainment : after completing work on Soulstorm , an expansion to Warhammer 40 @,@ 000 : Dawn of War , the studio was forced to close in February 2008 due to difficulties in securing any funding for future projects .
The game 's story was born from wanting to expand upon the original game 's theme of the growing rift between mankind and the gods . The Greek Underworld was the one major mythical location that the developers of Titan Quest had not yet approached . As it offered a rich source of material for their creative staff , it was made the location for the expansion . The story concept the team began with was the possibility of a secondary hostile force besides the Titans that had only kept away from humans due to the presence of the Olympians , and now rose up as they retreated from human affairs . With the quests , the team worked to improve on the structure and impact they had in the original , introducing famous places and people from history and mythology . They also expanded the variety of side quests , and included elements such as legends and customs related to the dead . The script was written by Dean O 'Donnell . While an experienced playwright , he encountered new challenges in writing for the video game medium , as he needed to always assume that the player had spoken first to a selected NPC and to contain the necessary information in the first line of dialogue with embellishment in additional lines . Aesthetically , the tone of Immortal Throne was darker than that of its predecessor , with one of the main elements of this change being the cover art : according to designer Arthur Bruno , this was in reaction to the unfavorable impression players received from the surface appearance of Titan Quest when compared to the darker take on Grecian mythology in the God of War series .
Immortal Throne was announced by publisher THQ in November 2006 , four months after the release of Titan Quest . The game went gold in February 2007 . It released in North America and Europe on March 2 , 2007 . In Japan , it released on March 23 . The game was released on Steam on July 17 , 2007 alongside its predecessor by THQ . Immortal Throne was re @-@ released as part of the Titan Quest gold edition : it released on October 22 , 2007 in the West , and on April 25 , 2008 in Japan . Since its release and the closure of Iron Lore , fan patches were created to address issues found within Immortal Throne such as bugs and multiplayer issues . The Titan Quest intellectual property was purchased by Nordic Games after THQ began selling off its shares in the wake of its 2013 bankruptcy . Beginning in 2016 , Nordic Games began supporting the game 's Steam version with patches to fix gameplay and multiplayer issues , along with glitches and bugs . Titan Quest was later ported to mobile devices in 2016 by DotEmu under supervision by Nordic Games : when asked whether Immortal Throne would also be released on the platforms , DotEmu stated that they were focusing on the main game and would hopefully port Immortal Throne at a later date .
= = Reception = =
In its debut month , the NPD Group reported that Immortal Throne reached # 13 in the dedicated PC gaming charts . According to Bruno , the combined worldwide sales of Titan Quest and Immortal Throne totaled over one million units worldwide by late 2008 . It also continued to sell well on Steam , though exact figures were not given .
Titan Quest : Immortal Throne received positive reviews from professional critics upon release . Aggregate review website Metacritic assigned a score of 80 / 100 based on 23 reviews . 1UP.com 's Jeff Green positively noted that Immortal Throne had transformed his character " from bored millionaire to desperate pauper " due to the increased amount of desirable loot and its rebalanced economy . Eurogamer 's Jim Rossignol , while admitting that the expansion would not bring in new players , enjoyed the additional playtime and the improvements it made . Game Informer 's Adam Biessener said that it " breathed new life " into Titan Quest while staying true to the conventions of its genre . Ryan Davis of GameSpot praised the improvements it made to the original game , but noted performance drops on computers that exceeded the game 's recommended specifications .
GameSpy 's Thierry Nguyen enjoyed the expansion and particularly noted the Dream Mastery 's impressive ability roster compared to others in the game , but noted that it retained its formulaic structure from Titan Quest . IGN 's Steve Butts said that , while it would not win new fans due to its similarity to Titan Quest , praised the new additions and tweaks while criticizing the lack of improvements made to multiplayer . PALGN 's Mark Marrow was highly positive , saying that despite its flaws Immortal Throne " further cements [ Titan Quest 's ] position as being a worthy purchase for fans of the genre " . Quintin Smith , writing for PC Gamer UK , admired the effort put into the creation of the new zone and praised the gameplay additions despite elements such as the Dream Mastery not being as innovative .
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= Liberty Bell =
The Liberty Bell is an iconic symbol of American independence , located in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania . Formerly placed in the steeple of the Pennsylvania State House ( now renamed Independence Hall ) , the bell today is located in the Liberty Bell Center in Independence National Historical Park . The bell was commissioned from the London firm of Lester and Pack ( today the Whitechapel Bell Foundry ) in 1752 , and was cast with the lettering " Proclaim LIBERTY throughout all the land unto all the inhabitants thereof , " a Biblical reference from the Book of Leviticus ( 25 : 10 ) . The bell first cracked when rung after its arrival in Philadelphia , and was twice recast by local workmen John Pass and John Stow , whose last names appear on the bell . In its early years , the Liberty Bell was used to summon lawmakers to legislative sessions and to alert citizens to public meetings and proclamations .
No immediate announcement was made of the Second Continental Congress 's vote for independence , and thus the bell could not have rung on July 4 , 1776 , at least not for any reason related to that vote . Bells were rung to mark the reading of the Declaration of Independence on July 8 , 1776 , and while there is no contemporary account of the Liberty Bell ringing , most historians believe it was one of the bells rung . After American independence was secured , it fell into relative obscurity for some years . In the 1830s , the bell was adopted as a symbol by abolitionist societies , who dubbed it the " Liberty Bell . "
The bell acquired its distinctive large crack sometime in the early 19th century — a widespread story claims it cracked while ringing after the death of Chief Justice John Marshall in 1835 . The bell became famous after an 1847 short story claimed that an aged bell @-@ ringer rang it on July 4 , 1776 , upon hearing of the Second Continental Congress 's vote for independence . Despite the fact that the bell did not ring for independence on that July 4 , the tale was widely accepted as fact , even by some historians . Beginning in 1885 , the City of Philadelphia , which owns the bell , allowed it to go to various expositions and patriotic gatherings . The bell attracted huge crowds wherever it went , additional cracking occurred and pieces were chipped away by souvenir hunters . The last such journey occurred in 1915 , after which the city refused further requests .
After World War II , the city allowed the National Park Service to take custody of the bell , while retaining ownership . The bell was used as a symbol of freedom during the Cold War and was a popular site for protests in the 1960s . It was moved from its longtime home in Independence Hall to a nearby glass pavilion on Independence Mall in 1976 , and then to the larger Liberty Bell Center adjacent to the pavilion in 2003 . The bell has been featured on coins and stamps , and its name and image have been widely used by corporations .
= = Founding ( 1751 – 1753 ) = =
Philadelphia 's city bell had been used to alert the public to proclamations or civic danger since the city 's 1682 founding . The original bell hung from a tree behind the Pennsylvania State House ( now known as Independence Hall ) and was said to have been brought to the city by its founder , William Penn . In 1751 , with a bell tower being built in the Pennsylvania State House , civic authorities sought a bell of better quality , which could be heard at a greater distance in the rapidly expanding city . Isaac Norris , speaker of the Pennsylvania Provincial Assembly , gave orders to the colony 's London agent , Robert Charles , to obtain a " good Bell of about two thousands pound weight " .
We hope and rely on thy care and assistance in this affair and that thou wilt procure and forward it by the first good oppo as our workmen inform us it will be much less trouble to hang the Bell before their Scaffolds are struck from the Building where we intend to place it which will not be done ' till the end of next Summer or beginning of the Fall . Let the bell be cast by the best workmen & examined carefully before it is Shipped with the following words well shaped around it vizt . By Order of the Assembly of the Povince [ sic ] of Pensylvania [ sic ] for the State house in the City of Philada 1752
and Underneath
Proclaim Liberty thro ' all the Land to all the Inhabitants thereof.-Levit. XXV . 10 .
Charles duly ordered the bell from Thomas Lester of the London bellfounding firm of Lester and Pack ( today the Whitechapel Bell Foundry ) for the sum of £ 150 13s 8d , ( equivalent to £ 21 @,@ 351 @.@ 87 today ) including freight to Philadelphia and insurance . It arrived in Philadelphia in August 1752 . Norris wrote to Charles that the bell was in good order , but they had not yet sounded it , as they were building a clock for the State House 's tower . The bell was mounted on a stand to test the sound , and at the first strike of the clapper , the bell 's rim cracked . The episode would be used to good account in later stories of the bell ; in 1893 , former President Benjamin Harrison , speaking as the bell passed through Indianapolis , stated , " This old bell was made in England , but it had to be re @-@ cast in America before it was attuned to proclaim the right of self @-@ government and the equal rights of men . " Philadelphia authorities tried to return it by ship , but the master of the vessel which had brought it was unable to take it on board .
Two local founders , John Pass and John Stow , offered to recast the bell . Though they were inexperienced in bell casting , Pass had headed the Mount Holly Iron Foundry in neighboring New Jersey and came from Malta , which had a tradition of bell casting . Stow , on the other hand , was only four years out of his apprenticeship as a brass founder . At Stow 's foundry on Second Street , the bell was broken into small pieces , melted down , and cast into a new bell . The two founders decided that the metal was too brittle , and augmented the bell metal by about ten percent , using copper . The bell was ready in March 1753 , and Norris reported that the lettering ( which included the founders ' names and the year ) was even clearer on the new bell than on the old .
City officials scheduled a public celebration with free food and drink for the testing of the recast bell . When the bell was struck , it did not break , but the sound produced was described by one hearer as like two coal scuttles being banged together . Mocked by the crowd , Pass and Stow hastily took the bell away and again recast it . When the fruit of the two founders ' renewed efforts was brought forth in June 1753 , the sound was deemed satisfactory , though Norris indicated that he did not personally like it . The bell was hung in the steeple of the State House the same month .
The reason for the difficulties with the bell is not certain . The Whitechapel Foundry , still in business today , takes the position that the bell was either damaged in transit or was broken by an inexperienced bell ringer , who incautiously sent the clapper flying against the rim , rather than the body of the bell . In 1975 , the Winterthur Museum conducted an analysis of the metal in the bell , and concluded that " a series of errors made in the construction , reconstruction , and second reconstruction of the Bell resulted in a brittle bell that barely missed being broken up for scrap " . The Museum found a considerably higher level of tin in the Liberty Bell than in other Whitechapel bells of that era , and suggested that Whitechapel made an error in the alloy , perhaps by using scraps with a high level of tin to begin the melt instead of the usual pure copper . The analysis found that , on the second recasting , instead of adding pure tin to the bell metal , Pass and Stow added cheap pewter with a high lead content , and incompletely mixed the new metal into the mold . The result was " an extremely brittle alloy which not only caused the Bell to fail in service but made it easy for early souvenir collectors to knock off substantial trophies from the rim " .
= = Early days ( 1754 – 1846 ) = =
Dissatisfied with the bell , Norris instructed Charles to order a second one , and see if Lester and Pack would take back the first bell and credit the value of the metal towards the bill . In 1754 , the Assembly decided to keep both bells ; the new one was attached to the tower clock while the old bell was , by vote of the Assembly , devoted " to such Uses as this House may hereafter appoint . " The Pass and Stow bell was used to summon the Assembly . One of the earliest documented mentions of the bell 's use is in a letter from Benjamin Franklin to Catherine Ray dated October 16 , 1755 : " Adieu . The Bell rings , and I must go among the Grave ones , and talk Politiks . [ sic ] " The bell was rung in 1760 to mark the accession of George III to the throne . In the early 1760s , the Assembly allowed a local church to use the State House for services and the bell to summon worshipers , while the church 's building was being constructed . The bell was also used to summon people to public meetings , and in 1772 , a group of citizens complained to the Assembly that the bell was being rung too frequently .
Despite the legends that have grown up about the Liberty Bell , it did not ring on July 4 , 1776 ( at least not for any reason connected with independence ) , as no public announcement was made of the Declaration of Independence . When the Declaration was publicly read on July 8 , 1776 , there was a ringing of bells , and while there is no contemporary account of this particular bell ringing , most authorities agree that the Liberty Bell was among the bells that rang . However , there is some chance that the poor condition of the State House bell tower prevented the bell from ringing . According to John C. Paige , who wrote a historical study of the bell for the National Park Service , " We do not know whether or not the steeple was still strong enough to permit the State House bell to ring on this day . If it could possibly be rung , we can assume it was . Whether or not it did , it has come to symbolize all of the bells throughout the United States which proclaimed Independence . "
If the bell was rung , it would have been most likely rung by Andrew McNair , who was the doorkeeper both of the Assembly and of the Congress , and was responsible for ringing the bell . As McNair was absent on two unspecified days between April and November , it might have been rung by William Hurry , who succeeded him as doorkeeper for Congress . Bells were also rung to celebrate the first anniversary of Independence on July 4 , 1777 .
After Washington 's defeat at the Battle of Brandywine on September 11 , 1777 , the revolutionary capital of Philadelphia was defenseless , and the city prepared for what was seen as an inevitable British attack . Bells could easily be recast into munitions , and locals feared the Liberty Bell and other bells would meet this fate . The bell was hastily taken down from the tower , and sent by heavily guarded wagon train to the town of Bethlehem . Local wagoneers transported the bell to the Zion German Reformed Church in Northampton Town , now Allentown , where it waited out the British occupation of Philadelphia under the church floor boards . It was returned to Philadelphia in June 1778 , after the British departure . With the steeple of the State House in poor condition ( the steeple was subsequently torn down and later restored ) , the bell was placed in storage , and it was not until 1785 that it was again mounted for ringing .
Placed on an upper floor of the State House , the bell was rung in the early years of independence on the Fourth of July and on Washington 's Birthday , as well as on Election Day to remind voters to hand in their ballots . It also rang to call students at the University of Pennsylvania to their classes at nearby Philosophical Hall . Until 1799 , when the state capital was moved to Lancaster , it again rang to summon legislators into session . When Pennsylvania , having no further use for its State House , proposed to tear it down and sell the land for building lots , the City of Philadelphia purchased the land , together with the building , including the bell , for $ 70 @,@ 000 , equal to $ 976 @,@ 020 today . In 1828 , the city sold the second Lester and Pack bell to St. Augustine 's Roman Catholic Church , which was burned down by an anti @-@ Catholic mob in the Philadelphia Nativist Riots of 1844 . The remains of the bell were recast ; the new bell is now located at Villanova University .
It is uncertain how the bell came to be cracked ; the damage occurred sometime between 1817 and 1846 . The bell is mentioned in a number of newspaper articles during that time ; no mention of a crack can be found until 1846 . In fact , in 1837 , the bell was depicted in an anti @-@ slavery publication — uncracked . In February 1846 Public Ledger reported that the bell had been rung on February 23 , 1846 in celebration of Washington 's Birthday ( as February 22 fell on a Sunday , the celebration occurred the next day ) , and also reported that the bell had long been cracked , but had been " put in order " by having the sides of the crack filed . The paper reported that around noon , it was discovered that the ringing had caused the crack to be greatly extended , and that " the old Independence Bell ... now hangs in the great city steeple irreparably cracked and forever dumb " .
The most common story about the cracking of the bell is that it happened when the bell was rung upon the 1835 death of the Chief Justice of the United States , John Marshall . This story originated in 1876 , when the volunteer curator of Independence Hall , Colonel Frank Etting , announced that he had ascertained the truth of the story . While there is little evidence to support this view , it has been widely accepted and taught . Other claims regarding the crack in the bell include stories that it was damaged while welcoming Lafayette on his return to the United States in 1824 , that it cracked announcing the passing of the British Catholic Relief Act 1829 , and that some boys had been invited to ring the bell , and inadvertently damaged it . David Kimball , in his book compiled for the National Park Service , suggests that it most likely cracked sometime between 1841 and 1845 , either on the Fourth of July or on Washington 's Birthday .
The Pass and Stow bell was first termed " the Liberty Bell " in the New York Anti @-@ Slavery Society 's journal , Anti @-@ Slavery Record . In an 1835 piece , " The Liberty Bell " , Philadelphians were castigated for not doing more for the abolitionist cause . Two years later , in another work of that society , the journal Liberty featured an image of the bell as its frontispiece , with the words " Proclaim Liberty " . In 1839 , Boston 's Friends of Liberty , another abolitionist group , titled their journal The Liberty Bell . The same year , William Lloyd Garrison 's anti @-@ slavery publication The Liberator reprinted a Boston abolitionist pamphlet containing a poem entitled " The Liberty Bell " , which noted that , at that time , despite its inscription , the bell did not proclaim liberty to all the inhabitants of the land .
= = Becoming a symbol ( 1847 – 1865 ) = =
A great part of the modern image of the bell as a relic of the proclamation of American independence was forged by writer George Lippard . On January 2 , 1847 , his story " Fourth of July , 1776 " appeared in Saturday Review magazine . The short story depicted an aged bellman on July 4 , 1776 , sitting morosely by the bell , fearing that Congress would not have the courage to declare independence . At the most dramatic moment , a young boy appears with instructions for the old man : to ring the bell . The story was widely reprinted and closely linked the Liberty Bell to the Declaration of Independence in the public mind . The elements of the story were reprinted in early historian Benson J. Lossing 's The Pictorial Field Guide to the Revolution ( published in 1850 ) as historical fact , and the tale was widely repeated for generations after in school primers .
In 1848 , with the rise of interest in the bell , the city decided to move it to the Assembly Room ( also known as the Declaration Chamber ) on the first floor , where the Declaration and United States Constitution had been debated and signed . The city constructed an ornate pedestal for the bell . The Liberty Bell was displayed on that pedestal for the next quarter @-@ century , surmounted by an eagle ( originally sculpted , later stuffed ) . In 1853 , President Franklin Pierce visited Philadelphia and the bell , and spoke of the bell as symbolizing the American Revolution and American liberty . At the time , Independence Hall was also used as a courthouse , and African @-@ American newspapers pointed out the incongruity of housing a symbol of liberty in the same building in which federal judges were holding hearings under the Fugitive Slave Act .
In February 1861 , the President @-@ elect , Abraham Lincoln , came to the Assembly Room and delivered an address en route to his inauguration in Washington DC . In 1865 , Lincoln 's body was returned to the Assembly Room after his assassination for a public viewing of his body , en route to his burial in Springfield , Illinois . Due to time constraints , only a small fraction of those wishing to pass by the coffin were able to ; the lines to see the coffin were never less than 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) long . Nevertheless , between 120 @,@ 000 and 140 @,@ 000 people were able to pass by the open casket and then the bell , carefully placed at Lincoln 's head so mourners could read the inscription , " Proclaim Liberty throughout all the land unto all the inhabitants thereof . "
= = Traveling icon of freedom ( 1866 – 1947 ) = =
In 1876 , city officials discussed what role the bell should play in the nation 's Centennial festivities . Some wanted to repair it so it could sound at the Centennial Exposition being held in Philadelphia , but the idea was not adopted ; the bell 's custodians concluded that it was unlikely that the metal could be made into a bell which would have a pleasant sound , and that the crack had become part of the bell 's character . Instead , a replica weighing 13 @,@ 000 pounds ( 5 @,@ 900 kg ) ( 1 @,@ 000 pounds for each of the original states ) was cast . The metal used for what was dubbed " the Centennial Bell " included four melted @-@ down cannons : one used by each side in the American Revolutionary War , and one used by each side in the Civil War . That bell was sounded at the Exposition grounds on July 4 , 1876 , was later recast to improve the sound , and today is the bell attached to the clock in the steeple of Independence Hall . While the Liberty Bell did not go to the Exposition , a great many Exposition visitors came to visit it , and its image was ubiquitous at the Exposition grounds — myriad souvenirs were sold bearing its image or shape , and state pavilions contained replicas of the bell made of substances ranging from stone to tobacco . In 1877 , the bell was hung from the ceiling of the Assembly Room by a chain with thirteen links .
Between 1885 and 1915 , the Liberty Bell made seven trips to various expositions and celebrations . Each time , the bell traveled by rail , making a large number of stops along the way so that local people could view it . By 1885 , the Liberty Bell was widely recognized as a symbol of freedom , and as a treasured relic of Independence , and was growing still more famous as versions of Lippard 's legend were reprinted in history and school books . In early 1885 , the city agreed to let it travel to New Orleans for the World Cotton Centennial exposition . Large crowds mobbed the bell at each stop . In Biloxi , Mississippi , the former President of the Confederate States of America , Jefferson Davis came to the bell . Davis delivered a speech paying homage to it , and urging national unity . In 1893 , it was sent to Chicago 's World Columbian Exposition to be the centerpiece of the state 's exhibit in the Pennsylvania Building . On July 4 , 1893 , in Chicago , the bell was serenaded with the first performance of The Liberty Bell March , conducted by " America 's Bandleader " , John Philip Sousa . Philadelphians began to cool to the idea of sending it to other cities when it returned from Chicago bearing a new crack , and each new proposed journey met with increasing opposition . It was also found that the bell 's private watchman had been cutting off small pieces for souvenirs . The city placed the bell in a glass @-@ fronted oak case . In 1898 , it was taken out of the glass case and hung from its yoke again in the tower hall of Independence Hall , a room which would remain its home until the end of 1975 . A guard was posted to discourage souvenir hunters who might otherwise chip at it .
By 1909 , the bell had made six trips , and not only had the cracking become worse , but souvenir hunters had deprived it of over one percent of its weight . When , in 1912 , the organizers of the Panama @-@ Pacific International Exposition requested the bell for the 1915 fair in San Francisco , the city was reluctant to let it travel again . The city finally decided to let it go as the bell had never been west of St. Louis , and it was a chance to bring it to millions who might never see it otherwise . However , in 1914 , fearing that the cracks might lengthen during the long train ride , the city installed a metal support structure inside the bell , generally called the " spider . " In February 1915 , the bell was tapped gently with wooden mallets to produce sounds which were transmitted to the fair as the signal to open it , a transmission which also inaugurated transcontinental telephone service . Some five million Americans saw the bell on its train journey west . It is estimated that nearly two million kissed it at the fair , with an uncounted number viewing it . The bell was taken on a different route on its way home ; again , five million saw it on the return journey . Since the bell returned to Philadelphia , it has been moved out of doors only five times : three times for patriotic observances during and after World War I , and twice as the bell occupied new homes in 1976 and 2003 . Chicago and San Francisco had obtained its presence after presenting petitions signed by hundreds of thousands of children . Chicago tried again , with a petition signed by 3 @.@ 4 million schoolchildren , for the 1933 Century of Progress Exhibition and New York presented a petition to secure a visit from the bell for the 1939 New York World 's Fair . Both efforts failed .
In 1924 , one of Independence Hall 's exterior doors was replaced by glass , allowing some view of the bell even when the building was closed . When Congress enacted the nation 's first peacetime draft in 1940 , the first Philadelphians required to serve took their oaths of enlistment before the Liberty Bell . Once the war started , the bell was again a symbol , used to sell war bonds . In the early days of World War II , it was feared that the bell might be in danger from saboteurs or enemy bombing , and city officials considered moving the bell to Fort Knox , to be stored with the nation 's gold reserves . The idea provoked a storm of protest from around the nation , and was abandoned . Officials then considered building an underground steel vault above which it would be displayed , and into which it could be lowered if necessary . The project was dropped when studies found that the digging might undermine the foundations of Independence Hall . The bell was again tapped on D @-@ Day , as well as in victory on V @-@ E Day and V @-@ J Day .
= = Park Service administration ( 1948 – present ) = =
After World War II , and following considerable controversy , the City of Philadelphia agreed that it would transfer custody of the bell and Independence Hall , while retaining ownership , to the federal government . The city would also transfer various colonial @-@ era buildings it owned . Congress agreed to the transfer in 1948 , and three years later Independence National Historical Park was founded , incorporating those properties and administered by the National Park Service ( NPS or Park Service ) . The Park Service would be responsible for maintaining and displaying the bell . The NPS would also administer the three blocks just north of Independence Hall , which had been condemned by the state , razed , and developed into a park , Independence Mall .
In the postwar period , the bell became a symbol of freedom used in the Cold War . The bell was chosen for the symbol of a savings bond campaign in 1950 . The purpose of this campaign , as Vice President Alben Barkley put it , was to make the country " so strong that no one can impose ruthless , godless ideologies on us " . In 1955 , former residents of nations behind the Iron Curtain were allowed to tap the bell as a symbol of hope and encouragement to their compatriots . Foreign dignitaries , such as Israeli Prime Minister David Ben @-@ Gurion and West Berlin Mayor Ernst Reuter were brought to the bell , and they commented that the bell symbolized the link between the United States and their nations . During the 1960s , the bell was the site of several protests , both for the civil rights movement , and by various protesters supporting or opposing the Vietnam War .
Almost from the start of its stewardship , the Park Service sought to move the bell from Independence Hall to a structure where it would be easier to care for the bell and accommodate visitors . The first such proposal was withdrawn in 1958 , after considerable public protest . The Park Service tried again as part of the planning for the 1976 United States Bicentennial . The Independence National Historical Park Advisory Committee proposed in 1969 that the bell be moved out of Independence Hall , as the building could not accommodate the millions expected to visit Philadelphia for the Bicentennial . In 1972 , the Park Service announced plans to build a large glass tower for the bell at the new visitors center at South Third Street and Chestnut Street , two blocks east of Independence Hall , at a cost of $ 5 million , but citizens again protested the move . Instead , in 1973 , the Park Service proposed to build a smaller glass pavilion for the bell at the north end of Independence Mall , between Arch and Race Streets . Philadelphia Mayor Frank Rizzo agreed with the pavilion idea , but proposed that the pavilion be built across Chestnut Street from Independence Hall , which the state feared would destroy the view of the historic building from the mall area . Rizzo 's view prevailed , and the bell was moved to a glass @-@ and @-@ steel Liberty Bell Pavilion , about 200 yards ( 180 m ) from its old home at Independence Hall , as the Bicentennial year began .
During the Bicentennial , members of the Procrastinator 's Club of America jokingly picketed the Whitechapel Bell Foundry with signs " We got a lemon " and " What about the warranty ? " The foundry told the protesters that it would be glad to replace the bell — so long as it was returned in the original packaging . In 1958 , the foundry ( then trading under the name Mears and Stainbank Foundry ) had offered to recast the bell , and was told by the Park Service that neither it nor the public wanted the crack removed . The foundry was called upon , in 1976 , to cast a full @-@ size replica of the Liberty Bell ( known as the Bicentennial Bell ) , which was presented to the United States by the British monarch , Queen Elizabeth II , and was housed in the tower once intended for the Liberty Bell , at the former visitor center on South Third Street . The bell was removed and placed in storage in January 2013 in preparation for the demolition of the visitor center , future location of the Museum of the American Revolution .
= = = Liberty Bell Center = = =
In 1995 , the Park Service began preliminary work on a redesign of Independence Mall . Architects Venturi , Scott Brown & Associates developed a master plan with two design alternatives . The first proposed a block @-@ long visitors center on the south side of Market Street , that would also house the Liberty Bell . This would have interrupted the mall 's three @-@ block vista of Independence Hall , and made the bell visible only from the south , i.e. Chestnut Street . The second alternative placed a similar visitors center on the north side of Market Street , also interrupting the mall 's vista , with the bell in a small pavilion on the south side . City planner Edmund Bacon , who had overseen the mall 's design in the 1950s , saw preservation of the vista of Independence Hall as essential . He created his own plan , which included a domed bell pavilion built north of Market Street . Public reaction to the possibility of moving the Liberty Bell so far from Independence Hall was strongly negative . NPS announced that the bell would remain on the block between Chestnut and Market Streets . Other plans were proposed , each had strengths and weaknesses , but the goal of all was to encourage visitors to see more of the historical park than just the Liberty Bell .
The Olin Partnership was hired to create a new master plan for Independence Mall ; its team included architect Bernard Cywinski , who ultimately won a limited design competition to design what was called the Liberty Bell Center ( LBC ) . Cywinski 's design was unveiled in early 1999 . Significantly larger than the existing pavilion , allowing for exhibit space and an interpretive center , the proposed LBC building also would cover about 15 % of the footprint of the long @-@ demolished President 's House , the " White House " of George Washington and John Adams . Archaeologists excavating the LBC 's intended site uncovered remnants of the 1790 – 1800 executive mansion , which were reburied . The project became highly controversial when it was revealed that Washington 's slaves had been housed only feet from the planned LBC 's main entrance . The Park Service refused to redesign the LBC building , or delay its construction . Initially , NPS resisted interpreting the slaves and the slave quarters , but after years of protest by Black activists , agreed . The new facility , which opened hours after the bell was installed on October 9 , 2003 , is adjacent to an outline of Washington 's slave quarters marked in the pavement , with interpretive panels explaining the significance of what was found .
Inside the LBC , visitors pass through a number of exhibits about the bell before reaching the Liberty Bell itself . Due to security concerns following an attack on the bell by a visitor with a hammer in 2001 , the bell is hung out of easy reach of visitors , who are no longer allowed to touch it , and all visitors undergo a security screening .
Today , the Liberty Bell weighs 2 @,@ 080 pounds ( 940 kg ) . Its metal is 70 % copper and 25 % tin , with the remainder consisting of lead , zinc , arsenic , gold and silver . It hangs from what is believed to be its original yoke , made from American elm . While the crack in the bell appears to end at the abbreviation " Philada " in the last line of the inscription , that is merely the 19th century widened crack which was filed out in the hopes of allowing the bell to continue to ring ; a hairline crack , extending through the bell to the inside continues generally right and gradually moving to the top of the bell , through the word " and " in " Pass and Stow , " then through the word " the " before the word " Assembly " in the second line of text , and through the letters " rty " in the word " Liberty " in the first line . The crack ends near the attachment with the yoke .
Professor Constance M. Greiff , in her book tracing the history of Independence National Historical Park , wrote of the Liberty Bell :
[ T ] he Liberty Bell is the most venerated object in the park , a national icon . It is not as beautiful as some other things that were in Independence Hall in those momentous days two hundred years ago , and it is irreparably damaged . Perhaps that is part of its almost mystical appeal . Like our democracy it is fragile and imperfect , but it has weathered threats , and it has endured .
= = Legacy and commemorations = =
In addition to the replicas which are seen at Independence National Historical Park , early replicas of the Liberty Bell include the so @-@ called Justice Bell or Women 's Liberty Bell , commissioned in 1915 by suffragists to advocate for women 's suffrage . This bell had the same legend as the Liberty Bell , with two added words , " establish justice " , words taken from the Preamble to the United States Constitution . It also had the clapper chained to the bell so it could not sound , symbolizing the inability of women , lacking the vote , to influence political events . The Justice Bell toured extensively to publicize the cause . After the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment ( granting women the vote ) , the Justice Bell was brought to the front of Independence Hall on August 26 , 1920 to finally sound . It remained on a platform before Independence Hall for several months before city officials required that it be taken away , and today is at the Washington Memorial Chapel at Valley Forge .
As part of the Liberty Bell Savings Bonds drive in 1950 , 55 replicas of the Liberty Bell ( one each for the 48 states , the District of Columbia , and the territories ) were ordered by the United States Department of the Treasury and were cast in France by the Fonderie Paccard . The bells were to be displayed and rung on patriotic occasions . Many of the bells today are sited near state capitol buildings . Although Wisconsin 's bell is now at its state capitol , initially it was sited on the grounds of the state 's Girls Detention Center . Texas 's bell is at Texas A & M University in College Station . The Texas bell was presented to the university in appreciation of the service of the school 's graduates . Walt Disney World has a replica of the Liberty Bell , which is located in Liberty Square in the Magic Kingdom . The replica was cast from the mold of the actual Liberty Bell in 1989 .
The Liberty Bell appeared on a commemorative coin in 1926 to mark the sesquicentennial of American independence . Its first use on a circulating coin was on the reverse side of the Franklin half dollar , struck between 1948 and 1963 . It also appeared on the Bicentennial design of the Eisenhower dollar , superimposed against the moon .
On the 150th anniversary of the Declaration of Independence in 1926 the U.S. Post Office issued a commemorative stamp depicting the Liberty Bell for the Sesquicentennial Exposition in Philadelphia in 1926 , though this stamp actually depicts the replica bell erected at the entrance to the exposition grounds . The Liberty Bell was chosen for the stamp design theme because the symbol was most representative of the nation 's independence . Since then the Liberty Bell has also appeared on several other U.S. postage stamps , including the first forever stamp , issued since 2007 .
An image of the Liberty Bell appears on the current $ 100 note . The image shifts in color and even disappears , depending on the angle at which it is held .
The name " Liberty Bell " or " Liberty Belle " is commonly used for commercial purposes , and has denoted brands and business names ranging from a life insurance company to a Montana escort service . A large outline of the bell hangs over the right @-@ field bleachers at Citizens Bank Park , home of the Philadelphia Phillies baseball team , and is illuminated whenever one of their players hits a home run . This bell outline replaced one at the Phillies ' former home , Veterans Stadium . On April 1 , 1996 , Taco Bell announced via ads and press releases that it had purchased the Liberty Bell and changed its name to the Taco Liberty Bell . The bell , the ads related , would henceforth spend half the year at Taco Bell corporate headquarters in Irvine , California . Outraged calls flooded Independence National Historical Park , and Park Service officials hastily called a press conference to deny that the bell had been sold . After several hours , Taco Bell admitted that it was an April Fools Day joke . Despite the protests , company sales of tacos , enchiladas , and burritos rose by more than a half million dollars that week .
The Justice Bell ( aka " The Women 's Liberty Bell " ) is a notable replica of the Liberty Bell with a few minor differences . The Justice Bell was created as a symbol for women 's suffrage in 1915 . As a symbol of how women 's voices were being silenced , the bell 's clapper was chained in place until women were permitted to vote . After five years of silence , the Justice Bell was sounded on September 25 , 1920 at a ceremony held on the steps of Independence Hall in Philadelphia , to celebrate the ratification of the 19th Amendment to the United States Constitution . The Justice Bell resides in the Washington Memorial Chapel in Valley Forge National Park .
= = Inscription = =
The inscription on the bell is :
At the time , " Pensylvania " was an accepted alternative spelling for " Pennsylvania . " That spelling was used by Alexander Hamilton , a graduate of King 's College ( now Columbia University ) , in 1787 on the signature page of the United States Constitution .
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= The Destroying Angel and Daemons of Evil Interrupting the Orgies of the Vicious and Intemperate =
The Destroying Angel and Daemons of Evil Interrupting the Orgies of the Vicious and Intemperate , also known as The Destroying Angel and Daemons Inflicting Divine Vengeance on the Wicked and Intemperate and The Destruction of the Temple of Vice , is an oil painting on canvas by English artist William Etty , first exhibited in 1832 . Etty had become famous for nude paintings , and acquired a reputation for tastelessness , indecency and a lack of creativity . With The Destroying Angel he hoped to disprove his critics with an openly moral piece . The painting is 127 @.@ 8 cm by 101 @.@ 9 cm ( 50 in by 40 in ) and depicts a classical temple under attack from a destroying angel and a group of daemons . Some of the human occupants are dead or unconscious , others flee in terror or struggle helplessly against the daemons .
When first exhibited in 1832 , The Destroying Angel was widely praised for its technical brilliance , but critics were divided on the subject matter . Some praised its vividness and ability to mix fear and beauty without lowering into tastelessness ; others criticised its thematic matter as inappropriate , and chastised Etty for wasting his talents . The painting changed the manner in which art critics viewed the artist ; some saw it as indicating previously unseen character depths , others considered it a renunciation of his previous works . In 1854 Henry Payne , who had commissioned the painting , sold it to Sir Joseph Whitworth . Whitworth donated it in 1882 to the Manchester Art Gallery , where it remains .
= = Background = =
William Etty ( 1787 – 1849 ) , the seventh son of a York baker and miller , had originally been an apprentice printer in Hull , but on completing his seven @-@ year apprenticeship at the age of 18 moved to London to become an artist . Strongly influenced by the works of Titian and Rubens , he became famous for painting nude figures in biblical , literary and mythological settings . Many of his peers greatly admired him , and he was elected a full Royal Academician in 1828 , ahead of John Constable .
Between 1820 and 1829 Etty exhibited 15 paintings , of which 14 depicted nude figures . While some nude paintings by foreign artists existed in private collections , England had no tradition of nude painting and the display and distribution of nude material to the public had been suppressed since the 1787 Proclamation for the Discouragement of Vice . Etty was the first British artist to specialise in the nude , and the reaction of the lower classes to these paintings caused concern throughout the 19th century . Although his portraits of male nudes were generally well received , many critics condemned his repeated depictions of female nudity as indecent . Etty 's Youth on the Prow , and Pleasure at the Helm , completed in 1830 and exhibited in 1832 , attracted scathing criticism for its supposed seductive and sensual nature , leading The Morning Chronicle to comment that " [ Etty ] should not persist , with an unhallowed fancy , to pursue Nature to her holy recesses . He is a laborious draughtsman , and a beautiful colourist ; but he has not taste or chastity of mind enough to venture on the naked truth . "
Needled by repeated attacks from The Morning Chronicle on his supposed indecency , poor taste and lack of creativity , Etty determined to produce a work that would prove his detractors wrong . The result was The Destroying Angel and Daemons of Evil Interrupting the Orgies of the Vicious and Intemperate .
The Destroying Angel was commissioned by Henry Payne of Leicester in 1822 , on a promise of 60 guineas ( about £ 5 @,@ 200 in today 's terms ) when complete . Payne had granted Etty complete freedom in the creation of the piece , but Etty had done little with the notion until , stung by The Morning Chronicle 's criticism , he decided to return to the theme , completing it in 1832 . As Etty had become a more prominent painter in the meantime , Payne paid him £ 130 ( about £ 11 @,@ 000 in today 's terms ) for the piece . The work is thought to have been inspired by the works of John Milton and Alexander Pope , by Michelangelo 's The Last Judgment and possibly by the French Revolution of 1830 , in which Etty had been caught up during a visit to Paris to study in the Louvre . The topic was one to which Etty felt particularly close , saying that he had put his " whole soul " into the piece .
= = Composition = =
The Destroying Angel is a visionary work , depicting a wholly imaginary scene rather than a scene from history , literature or mythology . It measures 127 @.@ 8 cm by 101 @.@ 9 cm ( 50 in by 40 in ) , and depicts an ornate imaginary classical temple . The temple and its occupants are under attack from a destroying angel and a group of daemons , who are in the process of abducting its human occupants . The angel itself is wreathed in smoke in the centre of the image . Having destroyed one side of the temple , it is poised to hurl a thunderbolt . Below the angel , daemons attack a group of around 25 semi @-@ naked human figures . Each human is shown in a different position and expresses terror in a different way , and each is deliberately painted in paler tones than those Etty typically used in an effort to suggest death and pallor . As with most of Etty 's works , the figures are a collection of depictions of models in studio poses , later arranged for dramatic effect , rather than painted as a group .
To the right of the painting , daemons drag terrified women away . The woman in the lower right hand corner turns to see flames reflected in the eyes of the daemon who holds her from behind , with a look of horrified guilt on her face . Behind her , other women struggle helplessly with the daemons or are carried away unconscious , having fainted .
In the centre of the foreground is a figure modelled on Caius Gabriel Cibber 's Raving Madness , which at the time was one of two monumental sculptures above the entrance to Bethlem Hospital ( " Bedlam " ) , and a well @-@ known London landmark and symbol of insanity . The chained figure is contorted in agony struggling to escape his bonds , while a daemon pulls on one end of the chain . Beside this lunatic is an unconscious or dead gambler , his winnings spread on the floor beside him .
Behind the central images of the lunatic , daemon and gambler are a group of people who have only just realised what is happening . A male figure in a red Phrygian cap ( a symbol of the French and American Revolutions ) reclines with his arm around the waist of a female figure ( identified as a bacchante by Sarah Burnage of the University of York ) . The female figure shades her eyes , either against the brightness of the angel or to block out the horror taking place in front of her .
On the left @-@ hand side of the painting , in the background , the structure of the temple crumbles and burns in the wake of the angel 's path , while figures in varying stages of undress flee the approaching daemons . In the foreground a drunken man mimics the pose of the Barberini Faun as he clutches his head , alert enough to realise his fate if he does not escape but too intoxicated to flee .
Around the painting lie corpses in various states of undress . The Destroying Angel was painted shortly after Etty 's visit to Paris in which he had witnessed the July Revolution at first hand , and the sight and smell of the dead in the streets had left a strong impression on him . The heaped bodies in The Destroying Angel were probably directly inspired by the events Etty had witnessed in France , and perhaps also by the cholera epidemic which killed thousands in London in 1832 .
= = Reception = =
The Destroying Angel was first exhibited at the Royal Academy Summer Exhibition in 1832 . It immediately generated much critical and public interest , and was compared favourably with The Fall of the Damned by Peter Paul Rubens , Michelangelo 's The Last Judgment and " Breughell 's frightful fancies " .
Although the painting was celebrated as a technical accomplishment , some critics were uncertain if it had the correct moral effect . The Library of the Fine Arts was critical of its " pantomimic " quality , which it considered " calculated to excite any but such ideas as we should wish to see produced by Art " , while The Examiner complained about the depiction of women being attacked , arguing : " Mr Etty should not treat the fair sex in this harsh and wanton manner . We doubt his right to put a single one of them into the hands of a Demon , much less to deliver them over by the dozen to the grasp of the destroyers . " The Times said , " We do not profess to understand what class of compositions that is which originates neither in history nor poetry — no doubt Mr. Etty does ; but as far as we can comprehend his picture , which is much more intelligible than his language , it represents a quantity of able @-@ bodied demons , who appear angry at the ladies for having stayed out so long , and who are come to fetch them home accordingly " , and criticised Etty for a " slovenly manner " and for " abusing his rich gifts , and [ wasting ] upon the wild and unmeaning what might be made subservient to much more worthy purposes " . Despite this , the same critic conceded that " The work is one of extraordinary power " and that " The figures are drawn with exquisite skill , the grouping admirably varied , and yet so combined as to present a complete picture , and the colouring vigorous and harmonious in an eminent degree . "
Other critics admired Etty 's unusual interpretation of apocalyptic religious imagery , his ability to give distinct characters and shapes to the individual demons and their victims , and the vividness of his imagination . The Morning Post particularly praised Etty 's ability to convey " creation conceived and thrown upon the canvas with all the fury of poetical inspiration " by combining the " dauntless spirit of a sketch " with the " powerful impression of a finished picture " . The prominent art critic William Paulet Carey ( writing under the name of ' Ridolfi ' ) championed The Destroying Angel , and in particular Etty 's ability to balance beauty , horror and fear without descending into tastelessness . Carey saw Etty as proof that British artistic traditions were equal to any others in the world , and The Destroying Angel as evidence of Etty 's " redeeming grace and spirit " . Etty 's long @-@ standing adversaries at The Morning Chronicle found little to attack in the painting , their review stating that " The upper part of the picture is masterly , grand and beautiful . The lower part not so well , but some of the figures are in admirable action and fine drawing . " The reticence of The Morning Chronicle prompted Carey to comment that they were in " envious silence " .
Despite some criticism , The Destroying Angel changed the way Etty was perceived by critics . They commonly had viewed Etty 's works as insights into his mind , generally with the aim of discrediting him for supposed sexual deviancies . Confronted with a piece so obviously intended to convey a moral lesson , many of those same critics felt that Etty had revealed a more moral nature than they had previously believed . Many explicitly saw The Destroying Angel as a counterweight to the nude paintings for which Etty was famous , or even a representation of Etty 's own repentance for or renunciation of his previous works . Fraser 's Magazine described the painting as " a sermon to [ Etty 's ] admirers ... where he inflicts poetical justice upon his own gay dames and their gallants , their revels being broken in upon , and they themselves being carried off most unceremoniously , like that little gentleman Don Juan , by sundry grim @-@ looking brawny devils " .
= = Legacy = =
After 1832 , Etty exhibited over 80 more paintings at the Summer Exhibition . He remained a prominent painter of nudes , but from this time made conscious efforts to reflect moral lessons . Yet he remained , in the majority view , a pornographer . Charles Robert Leslie observed shortly after Etty 's death that " [ Etty ] himself , thinking and meaning no evil , was not aware of the manner in which his works were regarded by grosser minds " . Etty remained commercially successful in his lifetime , amassing £ 17 @,@ 000 ( about £ 1 @,@ 600 @,@ 000 in today 's terms ) by his death .
Etty died in 1849 , and his work enjoyed a brief boom in popularity . Interest in him declined over time , and by the end of the 19th century the cost of all his paintings had fallen below their original prices . Henry Payne sold the The Destroying Angel in 1854 for 770 guineas ( about £ 68 @,@ 000 in today 's terms ) to Sir Joseph Whitworth , who donated it in 1882 to the Manchester Art Gallery , where it remains . The painting was exhibited as part of a major retrospective of Etty 's work at the York Art Gallery in 2011 – 12 .
As Etty had rapidly fallen from fashion , his works had little influence on most subsequent painters . William Edward Frost was a great admirer of Etty , and Frost 's Una Alarmed by Fauns ( 1843 ) and Una and the Wood Nymphs ( 1847 ) owe a conscious debt to The Destroying Angel in their depiction of a group of semi @-@ clad daemonic and human figures , as does John Everett Millais 's early work Cymon and Iphigenia ( 1848 ) . As Etty 's style became increasingly unpopular , those artists who had imitated him , other than Frost , soon abandoned the style . Etty 's biographer Leonard Robinson contends that the later fairy paintings of Richard Dadd , which often show large crowds of mythical creatures mingling with humans , were influenced by Etty but concedes that Dadd was likely unconscious of Etty 's influence on his style .
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= Final Fantasy Agito =
Final Fantasy Agito ( Japanese : ファイナルファンタジーアギト , Hepburn : Fainaru Fantajī Agito ) is a role @-@ playing video game developed and published by Square Enix for mobile devices . The game 's story is set in the universe of Final Fantasy Type @-@ 0 , and is an entry in the Fabula Nova Crystallis subseries . A downloadable episodic game similar to Final Fantasy Dimensions , it featured a turn @-@ based combat system encouraging both single @-@ player exploration and multiplayer combat . There was a day @-@ night cycle tied to the real @-@ world time of day , and featured a social element whereby talking with and befriending certain characters advances the player 's ranking in the game .
The game , which acts as a companion to Type @-@ 0 , was set in the world of Orience during a time of war between its four nations . The story is seen through the eyes of a player @-@ created Cadet entering the Rubrum Magical Academy during a time of war , and chosen to become the Agito , a figure destined to save Orience from destruction . The original protagonists of Type @-@ 0 appear in different roles and act as secondary characters . The story was intended to be played repeatedly , tying into the nature of the game 's world and the eventual culmination of a player becoming the Agito .
The game was developed around director Hajime Tabata 's original concept for Final Fantasy Type @-@ 0 as a mobile game which would give players easy access to a universe within the Fabula Nova Crystallis series and would be influenced by player choice . The title stems from Type @-@ 0 's earlier title Final Fantasy Agito XIII . Many of Type @-@ 0 's staff returned , with Takeharu Ishimoto composing new music for the title , and former level designer Masayasu Nishida and texture artist Sayoko Hoshino returning respectively as producer and art director .
The game came online in May 2014 , and remained active until its servers were shut down in November the following year . Upon release in Japan , the game had 500 @,@ 000 registered users within a week , and one million by November of the same year , but apparently numbers dropped after later negative impressions . Japanese and Western journalists were positive at its release . In August 2015 , it was announced that the game could not continue in its current form , and would be replaced by a new version . Planned versions for the PlayStation Vita and Windows devices were scrapped , along with an announced localization . Its successor , an online multiplayer game Final Fantasy Type @-@ 0 Online , is set for release in 2016 .
= = Gameplay = =
Final Fantasy Agito was a role @-@ playing video game where a player @-@ created character , the " Cadet " , sets out on missions across the world of Orience . The player could choose the gender and physical appearance of their character , along with their style of clothing , hair color , skin tone , voice and weapons . During play , the in @-@ game time of day was synchronized with local real @-@ world time . The Cadet began the game by exploring the Rubrum Magical Academy , but was eventually able to explore Orience as a whole . The game employed a leveling system whereby interaction with students and teachers , combined with performance during missions , raised the Cadet from their starting rank within the Academy . Recurring creatures such as small flying Moogles and galliform riding birds called Chocobos appeared . A Moogle accompanied the Cadet around the Peristylium , while Chocobos could be ridden during later parts of the game . Navigation was handled either by a virtual control stick on the touch screen , or by tapping an area of the visible game environment . The Cadet 's bedroom acted as a central hub , while the fountain area within the Academy was where many non @-@ player characters ( NPCs ) could be found and talked with .
Conversations with the previous game 's protagonists increased the Cadet 's standing with them : if the player tapped a special button on @-@ screen during timed sections of the conversation , the bond statistic with the chosen character would be increased . The relationships built up by the player triggered special character interactions during the final chapter . Agito featured sub @-@ missions , the game 's version of side @-@ quests , some of which changed depending on the real @-@ world day of the week . They were given by NPCs , and could range from crafting new spells and equipment to performing certain actions within a combat mission . Completing quests yielded rewards such as new equipment and items .
Unlike Final Fantasy Type @-@ 0 , Agito used a turn @-@ based combat system . The Attack menu , which appeared during battles , featured a gauge , which when full enabled the character to attack the targeted enemy , and buttons displayed for various physical and magical attacks ; these abilities could be chained together into combos that , once used , took time to recharge . Pressing the " Ability " icon triggered assigned skills , while " Chain " abilities enabled the player to preset sequences of attacks and use them consecutively . Using certain setups rewarded the player with in @-@ game bonuses . Also available was Type @-@ 0 's Kill Sight ability , in which precisely timed actions enabled the Cadet to kill an enemy with one hit . The game also gave the option for players to adjust battle speed to their personal preference . Using a special item , players could temporarily summon both NPCs with whom they had a strong relationship and summoned monsters called Eidolons to deal high damage to enemies .
During single @-@ player segments , the player could select two AI companions after selecting missions , which added to the player 's total score at the end of these missions . During missions , the companions could be issued with Team Commands , which could either order them to attack or increase healing abilities while lowering their defensive capabilities . Each attempt at a mission used up the Cadet 's stamina meter , which allowed a maximum of three missions at a time . The game used a job system similar to other entries in the Final Fantasy series , where different equipment and weapons alter a character 's abilities in battle . Specific skills accompanied each job . Players could create multiple equipment sets , with each item and weapon ranked according to its rarity in @-@ game . Materials gathered during missions could be used to upgrade the player 's equipment and abilities .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Setting and characters = = =
Final Fantasy Agito takes place in Orience , a land divided between four nations , or Crystal States , which have existed in a state of near @-@ constant war for the past thousand years : the Dominion of Rubrum , the Militesi Empire , the Kingdom of Concordia and the Lorican Alliance . The cause of the war is the nation 's crystals , objects of magical and political power that bestow different blessings on each nation , and choose people to become magical warriors known as l 'Cie , which serve and protect their respective crystal . The land of Orience is locked in a stable time loop , whereby events repeat constantly , then reset and begin all over again with minor variations . The reason is an experiment set up by the deities Pulse and Lindzei to find the doorway to the afterlife for their creator . The time in which Agito occurs is referred to as " the first cycle that surpasses the spiral of 600 million " , being at the very beginning of Orience 's spiral of repeating history . Agito 's initial events differ from Type @-@ 0 as it was to have been directed to a history were the Agito is born , making it an alternate story using the same setting . The game 's events across its lifetime are split across two " phases " , or cycles of Orience 's history . A key event at the end of each cycle is Tempus Finis , an event in which Orience is destined to end and be reborn .
The main character is a player @-@ created Cadet selected for training as Agito , a prophesied messiah said to prevent Orience 's destruction during an event known as Tempus Finis . Interacting with the Cadet on his journey are Ace , the previous game 's main protagonist ; Miyu Kagerohi , the representative for Cadets within the Vermillion Peristylium ; Lean Hampelmann , a Militesi scientist ; and Tono Mahoroha , a mysterious and cold young woman from Rubrum . The previous game 's main cast , Class Zero , as well as Machina Kunagiri and Rem Tokimiya , former members of Class Zero who acted as Type @-@ 0 's narrators , appear in supporting roles as students in other classes . Other characters include Marshal Cid Aulstyne , leader of the Milites Empire and the game 's central antagonist ; Arecia Al @-@ Rashia , supervisor of magic at the Peirstylim and servant of Pulse ; and Gala , unseen leader of the Lulusath Army and servant of Lindzei .
= = = Plot = = =
In the First Phase , the Cadet is saved from a Behemoth attack by Ace , who brings them to the safety of Akademeia . There they are introduced to everyday life and sent out on a mission against the Behemoth . Then war is declared against Milites after its aggressive actions against Rubrum and Lorica , and the Cadet learns of Class Zero . Concordia forms an alliance with Milites , severely hampering Rubrum 's efforts . Rubrum then musters their forces , including their powerful magical warriors , and conquer all three Crystal States . In the final chapter , Rubrum 's victory over the other Crystal States causes the arrival of Tempus Finis , and Miyu is made into a l 'Cie and renamed Judge Myuria : her mission is to test the Cadet to see if they are worthy of becoming the Agito . The Cadet is victorious , but it is judged the Agito has not appeared and Tempus Finis consumes the world , resetting it for a new cycle of history .
In the Second Phase , events play in vaguely the same fashion , but there are minor variations : Lorica forms an alliance with Milites rather than being conquered , and while Concordia offers an alliance , Imperial sympathizers within Concordia orchestrate the Queen 's death and ally with Concordia . After overcoming Lorica and Concordia , the Rubrum forces storm the Militesi capital and Cid is killed . Before dying , he warns the Cadet and his comrades of the Crystals ' role in Orience 's cycle . When Tempus Finis arrives , Ace goes alone to find the one mentioned by Cid . He is himself marked as a l 'Cie and transformed into Judge Ace . As with the previous cycle , he is defeated , but Tempus Finis arrives and the cycle continues . In a final side story episode , various additional stories revolving around the main cast are revealed . Among the events presented are a talk between Myuria and Arecia as to whether to continue the experiment , and then Lean and Tono are chosen by Arecia to exist outside the cycle and retain their memories . In this new form , the two agree to gather the memories of Orience 's people and find a way of liberating the world from its cycle . The story ends with them wishing the Cadet well , saying that they hope to meet them again in a future cycle .
= = Development = =
The idea for Final Fantasy Agito originated with the early origins of Type @-@ 0 . Originally , Type @-@ 0 was a game for mobiles titled Final Fantasy Agito XIII , but eventually changed platforms and title . Type @-@ 0 's director Hajime Tabata still liked the " Agito " title and the original concepts for the game , which included an episodic storyline that hinged on player choice and day @-@ night cycles linked to real @-@ world time . With this in mind , Tabata decided to revisit it and began development of Agito : eventually , they settled on smartphones as the release platform of choice , partly because the platforms ' progress since Type @-@ 0 started development . One of Tabata 's wishes for the title was that players unfamiliar with Type @-@ 0 would download and play it . Development on the game began in September 2012 . During development , Tabata considered Type @-@ 0 to have become the prototype for Agito , although it did not share much with its predecessor . The game 's story grew out of what he originally conceived for Agito XIII before it evolved into Type @-@ 0 . In contrast to Type @-@ 0 's dark and serious storyline , the team decided to give Agito a lighter atmosphere , although serious dramatic scenes were still present . Along with returning staff , mobile developer Tayutau K. K. helped with development . The previous game 's level designer , Masayasu Nishida , returned to direct , and original character texture artist Sayako Hoshino became art director . To create the characters ' portrait animations for the smartphone environment , the team used Silicon Studio 's Motion Portrait middleware . The game was developed using the Unity engine . The game 's designer was Kensuke Shimoda , an industry veteran who had experience with Unity , and was in charge of designing the game 's battle system . His involvement with the game ended after its release .
= = = Music = = =
The music for Agito was composed by Takeharu Ishimoto , who had composed the score for Type @-@ 0 . At first , no original music was to have been created for the title , but Ishimoto convinced the company to allow him to compose new music . The title still lifted several pieces of music from Type @-@ 0 . Part of Ishimoto 's wish for the title was to incorporate accents from Japanese pop music which would register well with fans . The pop @-@ oriented tunes were also meant to emphasize the lighter atmosphere , although more dramatic music was used for the darker moments . Arrangements were done by Kentaro Sato . The battle music for the weekend multiplayer segments was augmented with vocal work by Japanese rock band Dazzle Vision . Two music tracks from the game were available at the 2014 Tokyo Game Show ( TGS ) in a giveaway CD along with other tracks from future game releases . Tracks from the game were included with tracks from Type @-@ 0 in a special disc included in the collector 's edition of Type @-@ 0 HD . All new tracks from Agito were included in the Blu @-@ ray album for Type @-@ 0 HD , Final Fantasy Type @-@ 0 HD Original Soundtrack .
= = Release = =
The first hint of its existence became public when Square Enix trademarked the name in May 2013 . The game was first announced in the second September issue of Famitsu Weekly , and was demoed during TGS 2013 . Originally scheduled for release in the winter of 2013 , it was delayed due to development problems concerning environment sizes , which needed to be scaled down . It was rescheduled for the first quarter of 2014 , then was pushed forward to spring of that year . Street clothes for the characters were offered as a pre @-@ registration bonus , while a code to download outfits inspired by Kurasame , a supporting character from Type @-@ 0 , were included in the final volume of the spin @-@ off manga Final Fantasy Type @-@ 0 Side Story : Reaper of the Icy Blade . Pre @-@ registration closed on May 7 , 2013 . Chapter delivery began the day after the game 's official release on May 14 , 2014 . The base game was a free download , but players had the option of buying items , restore health and speeding up re @-@ spawn time via microtransactions . The original version also reset individual character experience levels at the end of a playthrough , while an update in 2015 allowed players to carry over experience levels between playthroughs .
= = = Episodes = = =
Final Fantasy Agito was published in chapters , with decisions made by the player base influencing the events of the next installment . The number of chapters was designed to be smaller than that of Tabata 's previous Final Fantasy title for mobiles , Before Crisis : Final Fantasy VII . The intention was to create a high replay value . The projected chapter delivery rate was once a fortnight . Chapters are designed to take around two weeks for players to complete , with the first 10 days involving single @-@ player solo missions . The final portions feature " subjugation " multiplayer missions , requiring players to work together to battle powerful bosses . These battles take place during weekends .
Each chapter comes in four or five named segments , with each containing different story missions . There is a heavy emphasis on player choice in the story , with decisions made during previous episodes of the story affecting future events . The game 's story is meant to be played repeatedly , with different decisions yielding different outcomes . Chapter delivery was projected to , and eventually ended , in September 2014 . After all chapters were released , the team focused on improving the experience , introducing a higher difficulty setting , and incorporating a grander sense of scale . They also developed further scenario choices to expand variation of events in future playthroughs . In the months after the initial release , a second " phase " of the story began release through 2014 into 2015 . In addition to the final chapter , a gaiden episode was released that concluded the events of Agito . Special battles against the Rursus , then against Miyu and multiple Eidolons , were made available during the game 's final month .
= = = Legacy = = =
Agito 's original release was plagued with multiple issues including long load times , which the team sought to rectify through updates . After the initial release , a Club Activities system was going to be added . Similar to the Guilds of previous games , players could ally with them , engage in activities unique to the clubs and compete with rival clubs in contests . From the end of July to mid August during the game 's original release , it was featured in a crossover with Rise of Mana , a mobile installment in Square Enix 's Mana series . An earlier collaboration was also staged between Agito and Square Enix Legend World , a Japan @-@ exclusive browser game . Eventually , it was determined by the developers that Agito was no longer suited for continued updates . The game was shut down on November 30 , 2015 . As part of its announcement of the game 's shutdown , Square Enix said that a new updated version was being prepared that would be better suited for further updates and improved player experience . This updated version was revealed to be Final Fantasy Type @-@ 0 Online , a 2016 multiplayer game for similar platforms to Agito .
The first hint of a localization appeared when the Agito trademark filed for European territories in September 2013 . Later , at TGS 2013 , Tabata said that Agito would definitely be localized , although he refused to clarify whether this meant it would be released in western territories . An official western release was confirmed by Square Enix at Electronic Entertainment Expo 2014 . The plan for the international release was to first release Final Fantasy Type @-@ 0 HD so players in the west could get accustomed to the world and characters , then release Agito as a separate experience rather than a parallel release . With its discontinuance in Japan , Agito 's western release was consequently cancelled , however it was stated that Type @-@ 0 Online was being considered for international release in place of Agito .
A novel based within the continuity of Agito titled Final Fantasy Agito : Change the World -A Whiter Shade of Pale- was released on April 30 , 2015 . Written by Tora Tsukishima , it focuses on the characters of Nine and Rubrum cadet Naghi Minatsuchi . A port for the PlayStation Vita titled Final Fantasy Agito + was announced and demoed during the 2014 Tokyo Game Show . The decision to port the game to this platform was made upon due to popular demand and platform compatibility with the Unity engine . While originally announced for release in January 2015 , it was delayed due to a problem with the development environment with the Vita , which left the team stuck until Sony could update the system and provide them with suitable support . The team also used it as an opportunity to improve the overall quality of the port . The Vita version was to include access to all the content of the mobile version along with added control and gameplay improvements . As part of the physical release , players were to be given codes for downloadable content : the content includes rare in @-@ game armor and items . Save data from the mobile version could not be transferred to the Vita . In September 2015 , it was announced that the Vita port had been cancelled . Tabata later explained that the team had been confronted by a " technical bottleneck " , facing critical problems with the multiplayer functionality , together with problems involving server compatibility . The game was also being ported to Microsoft Windows for operation on the Windows 10 home operating system and Windows 10 Mobile @-@ compatible smartphones and tablets . The mobile version was to have been the continued main focus for the team despite the Windows port . After the cancellation of Agito + and the end of Agito 's service , refunds were offered to customers who had bought items in @-@ game or preordered the Vita port .
= = Reception = =
Roughly a week after Agito 's release , it was announced that the game had 500 @,@ 000 registered users in Japan . By November of that year , the figure had expanded to one million players . Later , Touch Arcade reported that active player numbers had dropped drastically after long @-@ term poor impressions .
Famitsu , in a review of the game shortly after release , praised the combat and graphics , but found the touch controls difficult to handle . The reviewer finished by recommending the game to fans of the Final Fantasy series . Kotaku 's Richard Eisenbeis said that the game went " far beyond what [ he ] expected going in " , noting that he did not feel outclassed by other players despite not using the game 's microtransaction system . Shaun Musgrave of Touch Arcade praised the game 's graphics and combat , comparing the battle missions to Puzzle & Dragons . He did question the general balance , but noted that the game was still young and Square Enix had the chance to smooth things out .
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= Japanese battleship Hiei =
Hiei ( 比叡 ) was a warship of the Imperial Japanese Navy during World War I and World War II . Designed by British naval architect George Thurston , she was the second launched of four Kongō @-@ class battlecruisers , among the most heavily armed ships in any navy when built . Laid down in 1911 at the Yokosuka Naval Arsenal , Hiei was formally commissioned in 1914 . She patrolled off the Chinese coast on several occasions during World War I , and helped with rescue efforts following the 1923 Great Kantō earthquake .
Starting in 1929 , Hiei was converted to a gunnery training ship to avoid being scrapped under the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty . She served as Emperor Hirohito 's transport in the mid @-@ 1930s . Starting in 1937 , she underwent a full @-@ scale reconstruction that completely rebuilt her superstructure , upgraded her powerplant , and equipped her with launch catapults for floatplanes . Now fast enough to accompany Japan 's growing fleet of aircraft carriers , she was reclassified as a fast battleship . On the eve of the US entry into World War II , she sailed as part of Vice @-@ Admiral Chuichi Nagumo 's Combined Fleet , escorting the six carriers that attacked Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941 .
As part of the Third Battleship Division , Hiei participated in many of the Imperial Japanese Navy 's early actions in 1942 , providing support for the invasion of the Dutch East Indies ( now Indonesia ) as well as the Indian Ocean raid of April 1942 . During the Battle of Midway , she sailed in the Invasion Force under Admiral Nobutake Kondō , before being redeployed to the Solomon Islands during the Battle of Guadalcanal . She escorted Japanese carrier forces during the battles of the Eastern Solomons and Santa Cruz Islands , before sailing as part of a bombardment force under Admiral Kondō during the Naval Battle of Guadalcanal . On the evening of 13 November 1942 , Hiei engaged American cruisers and destroyers alongside her sister ship Kirishima . After inflicting heavy damage on American cruisers and destroyers , Hiei was crippled by enemy vessels . Subjected to continuous air attack , she sank on the evening of 14 November 1942 .
= = Design and construction = =
Hiei was the second of the Imperial Japanese Navy 's Kongō @-@ class battlecruisers , a line of capital ships designed by the British naval architect George Thurston . The class was ordered in 1910 in the Japanese Emergency Naval Expansion Bill after the commissioning of HMS Invincible in 1908 . The four battlecruisers of the Kongō class were designed to match the naval capabilities of the other major powers at the time ; they have been called the battlecruiser versions of the British ( formerly Turkish ) battleship HMS Erin . With their heavy armament and armor protection ( the latter of which made up 23 @.@ 3 % of their approximately 30 @,@ 000 ton displacement ) , Hiei and her sister ships were vastly superior to any other Japanese capital ship afloat at the time .
The keel of Hiei was laid down at Yokosuka Naval Arsenal on 4 November 1911 , with most of the parts used in her construction manufactured in Britain . She was launched on 21 November 1912 , and fitting @-@ out began in December 1913 . On 15 December 1913 , Captain Takagi Shichitaro was assigned as her chief equipping officer . She was completed on 4 August 1914 .
= = = Armament = = =
Hiei 's main battery consisted of eight 14 @-@ inch ( 36 cm ) heavy @-@ caliber main guns in four twin turrets , two forward and two aft . The turrets were noted by the US Office of Naval Intelligence to be " similar to the British 15 @-@ inch turrets " , with improvements made in flash @-@ tightness in the gun chambers . Each of her main guns could fire high @-@ explosive or armor @-@ piercing shells 38 @,@ 770 yards ( 19 @.@ 14 nmi ; 35 @.@ 45 km ) at a rate of two shells per minute . In keeping with the Japanese doctrine of deploying more powerful vessels than their opponents , Hiei and her sister ships were the first vessels in the world equipped with 14 @-@ inch ( 36 cm ) guns . The main guns carried ammunition for ninety shots and had an approximate gun @-@ life of 250 – 280 shots . In 1941 , dyes were introduced for the armor @-@ piercing shells of the four Kongo @-@ class battleships to assist their gunners in distinguishing the hits from a distance , with Hiei 's armor @-@ piercing shells using black dye .
Her secondary battery was originally sixteen 6 @-@ inch ( 15 cm ) 50 @-@ caliber medium guns in single casemates ( all located amidships ) , eight 3 @-@ inch ( 7 @.@ 6 cm ) guns and eight submerged 21 @-@ inch ( 53 cm ) torpedo tubes . The sixteen 6 @-@ inch / 50 caliber guns were capable of firing between 5 and 6 rounds per minute , with a barrel life of 500 rounds . The 6 @-@ inch / 50 caliber gun was capable of firing both antiaircraft and antiship shells , though the positioning of the guns on Hiei made antiaircraft firing impractical . The eight 5 @-@ inch / 40 caliber guns added later could fire between 8 and 14 rounds per minute , with a barrel life of 800 – 1500 rounds . These guns had the widest variety of shot type of Hiei 's guns , being designed to fire antiaircraft , antiship , and illumination shells . Hiei was also armed with a large number of 1 @-@ inch ( 2 @.@ 5 cm ) Type 96 antiaircraft autocannons .
= = Service = =
= = = 1914 – 1929 : Battlecruiser = = =
On 4 August 1914 , Hiei was formally commissioned and assigned to the Sasebo Naval District , before being attached to the Third Battleship Division of the First Fleet two weeks later . On 23 August 1914 , Japan declared war on the German Empire , occupying the former German colonies in Palau and in the Caroline , Marshall and Mariana Islands . In October 1914 , Hiei departed Sasebo alongside Kongō to support Imperial Japanese Army units in the Siege of Tsingtao , but she was recalled on 17 October . On 3 October 1915 , Hiei and Kongō participated in the sinking of Imperator Nikolai I , a Russian pre @-@ dreadnought captured in 1905 during the Russo @-@ Japanese War that had subsequently served in the Japanese Navy under the name Iki as a coastal defense ship . In April 1916 , she patrolled the Chinese coast with her newly launched sisters Kirishima and Haruna . From 1917 to the end of World War I , Hiei remained primarily at Sasebo , patrolling the Chinese and Korean coasts with her sister ships on several occasions .
Following the end of World War I , the Japanese Empire gained control of former German possessions in the central Pacific per the terms of the Treaty of Versailles . Due to Japan 's warm relations with the British Empire and the United States at the time , Hiei and other Japanese warships became significantly less active after the war . Other than a patrol alongside Haruna and Kirishima off the Chinese coast in March 1919 , Hiei remained in the Japanese home ports . On 13 October 1920 , she was placed in reserve . Following the Great Kantō earthquake of September 1923 , the capital ships of the Japanese Navy assisted in rescue work until the end of the month . Hiei arrived at Kure Naval Base on 1 December 1923 for a refit which increased the elevation of her main guns from 20 to 33 degrees and rebuilt her foremast .
With the conclusion of World War I , the world powers attempted to stem any militarization that might re @-@ escalate into war . Under the terms of Washington Naval Treaty of 1922 , the Imperial Japanese Navy was significantly reduced , with a ratio of 5 : 5 : 3 required between the capital ships of the United Kingdom , the United States , and Japan . The treaty also banned Japan from building any new capital ships until 1931 , with no capital ship permitted to exceed 35 @,@ 000 tons . Provided that further additions did not exceed 3 @,@ 000 tons , existing capital ships were allowed to be upgraded with improved torpedo bulges and deck armor . By the time the Washington Treaty had been fully implemented in Japan , only three classes of World War I @-@ era capital ships — the Fusō class ( e.g. Yamashiro ) and Ise @-@ class battleships , and the Kongō @-@ class battlecruisers — remained active .
In July 1927 , Crown Prince Takamatsu — Emperor Hirohito 's younger brother — was assigned to Hiei . From October to November 1927 , the ship underwent a minor refit at Sasebo to accommodate two Yokosuka E1Y floatplanes , though no launch catapults were added . On 29 March 1928 , Hiei departed Sasebo alongside Kongō and the battleships Nagato and Fusō to patrol off the Chusan Archipelago , before arriving in the company of Kongō in Port Arthur in April 1928 . In October 1929 , she returned to Kure in preparation for her demilitarization and reconstruction .
= = = 1929 – 1937 : Demilitarization and training ship = = =
To avoid having to scrap Hiei under the terms of the Washington Treaty , the Imperial Japanese Navy decided to convert her into a demilitarized training ship . On 15 October 1929 , she went into drydock at Kure Naval Arsenal . Her aft 14 @-@ inch gun turrets were removed , and she was stripped of all eight of her submerged torpedo tubes , as well as her 6 @-@ inch guns and armor belt . All but nine of her boilers were taken out , reducing her speed to 18 knots ( 33 km / h ) , and one of her three funnels was removed . She was reclassified as a reserve ship at the end of November 1929 . On 24 April 1930 , reconstruction was halted due to the signing of the London Naval Treaty , which further restricted battleship construction and possession amongst the great naval powers , and preservation work was begun at Sasebo . Reconstruction would not resume until July 1931 .
In September 1931 , Japanese army units invaded the Chinese province of Manchuria , transforming it into the puppet state of Manchukuo . In December 1932 , Hiei was reassigned to the Imperial Japanese Navy 's training squadron . On 25 February , the League of Nations ruled that Japan had violated Chinese sovereignty and international law in her invasion of Manchuria . Refusing to accept the League 's judgment , the Empire of Japan withdrew from the League the same day . This also signaled its exit from the Washington and London Naval Treaties , which removed all restrictions on the Imperial Japanese Navy 's construction of capital ships . From the end of May 1933 to 13 August , Hiei received upgrades that allowed her to perform regular duties for the Emperor , and she served as the Emperor 's observation ship for the Imperial Naval Review three days later . From January to March 1934 , her No. 4 turret and ammunition magazine were refitted . In November 1935 , Hiei served as the Emperor 's ship for his official visit to the Kagoshima and Miyazaki Prefectures .
= = = 1937 – 1941 : Reconstruction and fast battleship = = =
No longer bound by the restrictions of the Washington and London Treaties , the Imperial Japanese Navy proceeded to reconstruct Hiei along the same lines as her sisters . She received eight new oil @-@ fired Kampon boilers and geared turbines , while her stern was lengthened by 26 feet ( 7 @.@ 9 m ) to increase speed . Her aft 14 @-@ inch turret was refitted and fire control systems installed for all four main turrets . The elevation of her main and secondary guns was increased , and she was equipped with two Nakajima E8N " Dave " and Kawanishi E7K " Alf " reconnaissance floatplanes . To this end , catapults and launch @-@ rails were also fitted aft of turret # 3 . Fourteen of her 6 @-@ inch guns were refitted , and an antiaircraft suite of eight 5 @-@ inch dual @-@ purpose guns and ten twin mounts of Type 96 25 mm autocannons were mounted . Her superstructure was rebuilt as a prototype of the tower @-@ mast that would eventually be used on the Yamato class , then still in the design phase .
Hiei 's armor was also extensively upgraded . Her main belt was reapplied and strengthened to a uniform thickness of 8 inches ( as opposed to varying thicknesses of 6 – 8 inches before the upgrades ) , while diagonal bulkheads of a depth ranging from 5 to 8 inches ( 127 to 203 mm ) reinforced the main armored belt . The turret armor was strengthened to 10 inches ( 254 mm ) , while 4 inches ( 102 mm ) were added to portions of the deck armor . The armor around her ammunition magazines was also strengthened over the course of the refit . Though still less heavily armored than other Japanese battleships , Hiei was significantly faster . The reconstruction was declared complete on 31 January 1940 . Capable of speeds of up to 30 @.@ 5 knots ( 56 @.@ 5 km / h ; 35 @.@ 1 mph ) , Hiei was reclassified as a fast battleship . She participated in the Imperial Fleet Review in October 1940 , where she was inspected by Emperor Hirohito , members of the royal family , Navy Minister Koshirō Oikawa , and Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto . In November , she was assigned to the Third Battleship Division of the First Fleet .
On 26 November 1941 , Hiei departed Hitokappu Bay , Kurile Islands , in the company of Kirishima and six Japanese fast carriers of the First Air Fleet Striking Force ( Akagi , Kaga , Sōryū , Hiryū , Shōkaku , and Zuikaku ) under the command of Vice @-@ Admiral Chuichi Nagumo . On 7 December 1941 , aircraft from these six carriers attacked the United States Pacific Fleet at their home base of Pearl Harbor , sinking four US Navy battleships and numerous other vessels . Following the attack and the declaration of war by the United States , Hiei returned to Japan .
= = = 1942 : Combat and loss = = =
On 17 January 1942 , Hiei departed Truk Lagoon Naval Base with the Third Battleship Division to support carrier operations against Rabaul and Kavieng . In February , she deployed alongside a force of carriers and destroyers in response to American raids on Japanese bases in the Gilbert and Marshall Islands . On 1 March , following carrier operations against Darwin and Java ( in the Dutch East Indies ) , Hiei , Kirishima and Chikuma — which were acting as escorts for the carrier task force — engaged the destroyer USS Edsall , with Hiei firing 210 14 @-@ inch and seventy 6 @-@ inch shells . When the ships failed to score any hits , dive @-@ bombers from three of Admiral Nagumo 's carriers immobilized the destroyer , which was then sunk by gunfire from the three ships .
In April 1942 , Hiei and the Third Battleship Division joined five fleet carriers and two cruisers in a massive raid against British naval forces in the Indian Ocean . On 5 April — Easter Sunday — the Japanese fleet attacked the harbor at Colombo , Ceylon while seaplanes from the cruiser Tone spotted two fleeing British cruisers , both of which were later sunk by aerial attack . On 8 April , Japanese carrier aircraft attacked the Royal Navy base at Trincomalee , only to find that all of Admiral James Somerville 's remaining warships in the British Eastern Fleet had withdrawn the previous night . Returning from the attack , a floatplane from Hiei 's sister ship Haruna spotted the aircraft carrier HMS Hermes , which was quickly sunk by massive aerial attack . The fleet then returned to Japan , arriving at the home bases on 23 April .
On 27 May 1942 , Hiei sortied with Kongō and the heavy cruisers Atago , Chōkai , Myōkō , and Haguro as part of Admiral Nobutake Kondō 's Invasion Force during the Battle of Midway . Following the disastrous loss of four of the Combined Fleet 's fast carriers on 4 June , Kondō 's force withdrew to Japan . In July , Hiei was drydocked for refits to her aircraft complement and the addition of single and twin 25 mm gun mounts . In August , she escorted the Japanese carrier Shōkaku during the Battle of the Eastern Solomons . In October , Hiei sortied as part of Rear Admiral Abe 's Vanguard Force , and maintained distant cover as Kongō and Haruna nearly destroyed Henderson Field on Guadalcanal on the night of 13 October . From 26 – 30 October , Hiei and her sisters participated in the Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands .
On 10 November 1942 , Hiei departed Truk alongside Kirishima and eleven destroyers in preparation to shell American positions near Henderson Field in advance of a major convoy of Japanese troops . Under the command of Rear Admiral Hiroaki Abe , the force was spotted by US Navy reconnaissance aircraft several days in advance . A force of two heavy cruisers , three light cruisers and eight destroyers was deployed under the command of Rear Admiral Daniel J. Callaghan in Ironbottom Sound to meet them . At 01 : 24 on 13 November , the Japanese force was detected 28 @,@ 000 yards ( 26 km ) out by the light cruiser USS Helena . Because Abe had not anticipated resistance , his battleships ' main guns were loaded with high @-@ explosive shells for bombarding Henderson Field , and thus they were unable to open fire immediately while the switch was made to armor @-@ piercing shells . At 01 : 50 , Hiei activated her searchlights and opened fire on the light cruiser USS Atlanta , commencing the First Naval Battle of Guadalcanal . Though Atlanta 's guns succeeded in disabling the searchlight , Hiei was able to concentrate her main batteries on the bridge , crippling the light cruiser and killing Rear Admiral Norman Scott . Hiei and Kirishima then disabled two American destroyers ( one of which later sank ) . In turn , Hiei became the target of the majority of the American firepower , with the American 5 @-@ inch guns inflicting severe damage on Hiei 's superstructure at close range ; Admiral Abe himself was later injured after USS Laffey shelled the bridge with her own guns , killing his chief of staff , Captain Suzuki Masakane . This concentration enabled Kirishima to evade the American barrage and cripple USS San Francisco , killing Admiral Callaghan . However , shells from San Francisco disabled Hiei 's steering machinery .
With one of his battleships crippled , Abe ordered the remainder of the Japanese fleet to withdraw at 02 : 00 . Kirishima attempted to tow Hiei to safety , but water flooded her steering compartments , jamming her rudder to starboard . Throughout the morning of 14 November , Hiei was subjected to attack from American Army B @-@ 17 Flying Fortress bombers . She continued circling starboard at 5 knots ( 5 @.@ 8 mph ) . At 11 : 30 , two torpedoes launched from Grumman TBF Avenger torpedo @-@ bombers struck Hiei . After suffering several more torpedo and dive @-@ bomber attacks throughout the day , the order was given for her crew to abandon ship before her escorting destroyers scuttled her . Hiei sank sometime in the evening on 14 November with the loss of 188 of her crew , the first battleship ever lost in action by Japan . She was removed from the Navy List on 20 December 1942 .
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= SRI International =
SRI International ( SRI ) is an American nonprofit research institute headquartered in Menlo Park , California . The trustees of Stanford University established SRI in 1946 as a center of innovation to support economic development in the region .
The organization was founded as the Stanford Research Institute . SRI formally separated from Stanford University in 1970 and became known as SRI International in 1977 . SRI describes its mission as creating world @-@ changing solutions to make people safer , healthier , and more productive . It performs client @-@ sponsored research and development for government agencies , commercial businesses , and private foundations . It also licenses its technologies , forms strategic partnerships , sells products , and creates spin @-@ off companies .
SRI 's annual revenue in 2014 was approximately $ 540 million . SRI 's headquarters are located near the Stanford University campus . William A. Jeffrey has served as SRI 's president and CEO since September 2014 .
SRI employs about 2 @,@ 100 people . Sarnoff Corporation , a wholly owned subsidiary of SRI since 1988 , was fully integrated into SRI in January 2011 .
SRI 's focus areas include biomedical sciences , chemistry and materials , computing , Earth and space systems , economic development , education and learning , energy and environmental technology , security and national defense , as well as sensing and devices . SRI has received more than 4 @,@ 000 patents and patent applications worldwide .
= = History = =
= = = Foundation = = =
In the 1920s , Stanford University professor Robert E. Swain proposed creating a research institute in the Western United States . Herbert Hoover , then a trustee of Stanford University , was also an early proponent of an institute , but became less involved with the project after he was elected president of the United States . The development of the institute was delayed by the Great Depression in the 1930s and World War II in the 1940s , with three separate attempts leading to its formation in 1946 .
In August 1945 , Maurice Nelles , Morlan A. Visel , and Ernest L. Black of Lockheed made the first attempt to create the institute with the formation of the " Pacific Research Foundation " in Los Angeles . A second attempt was made by Henry T. Heald , then president of the Illinois Institute of Technology . In 1945 , Heald wrote a report recommending a research institute on the West Coast and a close association with Stanford University with an initial grant of $ 500 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to $ 17 @,@ 099 @,@ 000 in 2015 ) . A third attempt was made by Fred Terman , Stanford University 's dean of engineering . Terman 's proposal followed Heald 's , but focused on faculty and student research more than contract research .
The trustees of Stanford University voted to create the organization in 1946 . It was structured so that its goals were aligned with the charter of the university — to advance scientific knowledge and to benefit the public at large , not just the students of Stanford University . The trustees were named as the corporation 's general members , and elected SRI 's directors ( later known as presidents ) ; if the organization were dissolved , its assets would return to Stanford University .
Research chemist William F. Talbot became the first director of the institute . Stanford University president Donald Tresidder instructed Talbot to avoid work that would conflict with the interests of the university , particularly federal contracts that might attract political pressure . The drive to find work and the lack of support from Stanford faculty caused the new research institute to violate this directive six months later through the pursuit of a contract with the Office of Naval Research . This and other issues , including frustration with Tresidder 's micromanagement of the new organization , caused Talbot to repeatedly offer his resignation , which Tresidder eventually accepted . Talbot was replaced by Jesse Hobson , who had previously led the Armour Research Foundation , but the pursuit of contract work remained .
= = = Early history = = =
SRI 's first research project investigated whether the guayule plant could be used as a source of natural rubber . During World War II , rubber was imported into the U.S. and was subject to shortages and strict rationing . From 1942 to 1946 , the United States Department of Agriculture ( USDA ) supported a project to create a domestic source of natural rubber . Once the war ended , the United States Congress cut funding for the program ; in response , the Office of Naval Research created a grant for the project to continue at SRI , and the USDA staff on the project worked through SRI until Congress reauthorized funding in 1947 .
SRI 's first economic study was for the United States Air Force . In 1947 , the Air Force wanted to determine the expansion potential of the U.S. aircraft industry ; SRI found that it would take too long to escalate production in an emergency . In 1948 , SRI began research and consultation with Chevron Corporation to develop an artificial substitute for tallow and coconut oil in soap production ; SRI 's investigation confirmed the potential of dodecylbenzene as a suitable replacement . Later , Procter & Gamble used the substance as the basis for Tide laundry detergent .
The institute performed much of the early research on air pollution and the formation of ozone in the lower atmosphere . SRI sponsored the First National Air Pollution Symposium in Pasadena , California , in November 1949 . Experts gave presentations on pollution research , exchanged ideas and techniques , and stimulated interest in the field . The event was attended by 400 scientists , business executives , and civic leaders from the U.S. SRI co @-@ sponsored subsequent events on the subject .
In the early 1950s , Walt and Roy Disney consulted with SRI ( and in particular , Harrison Price ) on their proposal for Disneyland in Burbank , California . SRI provided information on location , attendance patterns , and economic feasibility . SRI selected a larger site in Anaheim , prepared reports about operation , and provided on @-@ site administrative support , and acted in an advisory role as the park expanded . In 1955 , SRI was commissioned to select a site and provide design suggestions for the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts .
In 1952 , the Technicolor Corporation contracted with SRI to develop a near @-@ instantaneous , electro @-@ optical alternative to the manual process of timing during film copying . In 1959 , the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences presented the Scientific and Engineering Award jointly to SRI and Technicolor for their work on the design and development of the Technicolor electronic printing timer which greatly benefited the motion picture industry . In 1954 , Southern Pacific asked SRI to investigate ways of reducing damage during rail freight shipments by mitigating shock to railroad box cars . This investigation led to William K. MacCurdy 's development of the Hydra @-@ Cushion technology , which remains standard today .
In the 1950s , SRI worked under the direction of the Bank of America to develop ERMA ( Electronic Recording Machine , Accounting ) and magnetic ink character recognition ( MICR ) . The ERMA project was led by computer scientist Jerre Noe , who was at the time SRI 's assistant director of engineering . As of 2011 , MICR remains the industry standard in automated check processing .
= = = Rapid expansion = = =
Douglas Engelbart , the founder of SRI 's Augmentation Research Center ( ARC ) , was the primary force behind the design and development of the multi @-@ user oN @-@ Line System ( or NLS ) , featuring original versions of modern computer @-@ human interface elements including bit @-@ mapped displays , collaboration software , hypertext , and precursors to the graphical user interface such as the computer mouse . As a pioneer of human @-@ computer interaction , Engelbart is arguably SRI 's most notable alumnus . He was awarded the National Medal of Technology and Innovation in 2000 .
Bill English , then chief engineer at ARC , built the first prototype of a computer mouse from Engelbart 's design in 1964 . SRI also developed inkjet printing ( 1961 ) and optical disc recording ( 1963 ) . Liquid @-@ crystal display ( LCD ) technology was developed at RCA Laboratories in the 1960s , which later became Sarnoff Corporation in 1988 , a wholly owned subsidiary of SRI . Sarnoff was fully integrated into SRI in 2011 .
In the early 1960s , Hewitt Crane and his colleagues developed the world 's first all @-@ magnetic digital computer , based upon extensions to magnetic core memories . The technology was licensed to AMP Inc . , who then used it to build specialized computers for controlling tracks in the New York City Subway and on railroad switching yards .
In 1966 , SRI 's Artificial Intelligence Center began working on " Shakey the robot " , the first mobile robot to reason about its actions . Equipped with a television camera , a triangulating rangefinder , and bump sensors , Shakey used software for perception , world @-@ modeling , and acting . The project ended in 1972 . SRI 's Artificial Intelligence Center marked its 45th anniversary in 2011 .
On October 29 , 1969 , the world 's first electronic computer network , ARPANET , was established between nodes at Leonard Kleinrock 's laboratory at University of California , Los Angeles ( UCLA ) and Douglas Engelbart 's laboratory at SRI . Interface Message Processors at both sites served as the backbone of the first Internet . The following year , Engelbart 's laboratory installed the first TENEX system outside of BBN where it was developed . In addition to SRI and UCLA , University of California , Santa Barbara and the University of Utah were part of the original four network nodes . By December 5 , 1969 , the entire four @-@ node network was connected . In the 1970s , SRI developed packet @-@ switched radio ( a precursor to wireless networking ) , over @-@ the @-@ horizon radar , Deafnet , vacuum microelectronics , and software @-@ implemented fault tolerance .
This first true Internet transmission occurred on November 22 , 1977 , when SRI originated the first connection between three disparate networks . Data flowed seamlessly through the mobile Packet Radio Van between SRI in Menlo Park , California and the University of Southern California in Los Angeles via London , England , across three types of networks : packet radio , satellite , and the ARPANET . In 2007 , the Computer History Museum presented a 30th anniversary celebration of this demonstration , which included several participants from the 1977 event . SRI would go on to run the Network Information Center under the leadership of Jake Feinler .
= = = Split and diversification = = =
The Vietnam War ( 1955 – 1975 ) was an important issue on college campuses across the United States in the 1960s and 1970s . As a belated response to Vietnam War protesters who believed that funding from the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency ( DARPA ) made the university part of the military – industrial complex , the Stanford Research Institute split from Stanford University in 1970 . The organization subsequently changed its name from the Stanford Research Institute to SRI International in 1977 .
In 1972 , physicists Harold E. Puthoff and Russell Targ undertook a series of investigations of psychic phenomena sponsored by the CIA , for which they coined the term remote viewing . Among other activities , the project encompassed the work of consulting " consciousness researchers " including artist / writer Ingo Swann , military intelligence officer Joseph McMoneagle , and psychic / illusionist Uri Geller . This ESP work continued with funding from the US intelligence community until Puthoff and Targ left SRI in the mid @-@ 1980s . For more information , see Parapsychology research at SRI .
Social scientist and consumer futurist Arnold Mitchell created the Values , Attitudes and Lifestyles ( VALS ) psychographic methodology in the late 1970s to explain changing U.S. values and lifestyles . VALS was formally inaugurated as an SRI product in 1978 and was called " one of the ten top market research breakthroughs of the 1980s " by Advertising Age magazine .
Throughout the 1980s , SRI developed Zylon , stealth technologies , improvements to ultrasound imaging , two @-@ dimensional laser fluorescence imaging , and order @-@ sorted algebra . In computing and software , SRI developed a multimedia electronic mail system , a theory of non @-@ interference in computer security , a multilevel secure ( MLS ) relational database system called Seaview , LaTeX , Open Agent Architecture ( OAA ) , a network intrusion detection system , the Maude system , a declarative software language , and PacketHop , a peer @-@ to @-@ peer wireless technology to create scalable ad hoc networks . SRI 's research in network intrusion detection led to the patent infringement case SRI International , Inc. v. Internet Security Systems , Inc . The AI center 's robotics research led to Shakey 's successor , Flakey the robot , which focused on fuzzy logic .
In 1986 , SRI.com became the 8th registered " .com " domain . The Artificial Intelligence Center developed the Procedural Reasoning System ( PRS ) in the late 1980s and into the early 1990s . PRS launched the field of BDI @-@ based intelligent agents . In the 1990s , SRI developed a letter sorting system for the United States Postal Service and several education and economic studies .
Military @-@ related technologies developed by SRI in the 1990s and 2000s include ground- and foliage @-@ penetrating radar , the INCON and REDDE command and control system for the U.S. military , and IGRS ( integrated GPS radio system ) — an advanced military personnel and vehicle tracking system . To train armored combat units during battle exercises , SRI developed the Deployable Force @-@ on @-@ Force Instrumented Range System ( DFIRST ) , which uses GPS satellites , high @-@ speed wireless communications , and digital terrain map displays .
SRI created the Centibots in 2003 , one of the first and largest teams of coordinated , autonomous mobile robots that explore , map , and survey unknown environments .
With DARPA @-@ funded research , SRI contributed to the development of speech recognition and translation products and was an active participant in DARPA 's Global Autonomous Language Exploitation ( GALE ) program . SRI developed DynaSpeak speech recognition technology which was used in the handheld VoxTec Phraselator , allowing U.S. soldiers overseas to communicate with local citizens in near real time . SRI also created translation software for use in the IraqComm , a device which allows two @-@ way , speech @-@ to @-@ speech machine translation between English and colloquial Iraqi Arabic .
In medicine and chemistry , SRI developed dry @-@ powder drugs , laser photocoagulation ( a treatment for some eye maladies ) , remote surgery ( also known as telerobotic surgery ) , bio @-@ agent detection using upconverting phosphor technology , the experimental anticancer drugs Tirapazamine and TAS @-@ 108 , ammonium dinitramide ( an environmentally benign oxidizer for safe and cost @-@ effective disposal of hazardous materials ) , the electroactive polymer ( " artificial muscle " ) , new uses for diamagnetic levitation , and the antimalarial drug Halofantrine .
SRI performed a study in the 1990s for Whirlpool Corporation that led to modern self @-@ cleaning ovens . In the 2000s , SRI worked on Pathway Tools software for use in bioinformatics and systems biology to accelerate drug discovery using artificial intelligence and symbolic computing techniques . The software system generates the BioCyc database collection , SRI 's growing collection of genomic databases used by biologists to visualize genes within a chromosome , complete biochemical pathways , and full metabolic maps of organisms .
= = = Early 21st century = = =
SRI researchers made the first observation of visible light emitted by oxygen atoms in the night @-@ side airglow of Venus , offering new insight into the planet 's atmosphere . SRI education researchers conducted the first national evaluation of the growing U.S. charter schools movement . For the World Golf Foundation , SRI compiled the first @-@ ever estimate of the overall scope of the U.S. golf industry 's goods and services ( $ 62 billion in 2000 ) , providing a framework for monitoring the long @-@ term growth of the industry . In April 2000 , SRI formed Atomic Tangerine , an independent consulting firm designed to bring new technologies and services to market .
In 2006 , SRI was awarded a $ 56 @.@ 9 million contract with the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases to provide preclinical services for the development of drugs and antibodies for anti @-@ infective treatments for avian influenza , SARS , West Nile virus and hepatitis . Also in 2006 , SRI selected St. Petersburg , Florida , as the site for a new marine technology research facility targeted at ocean science , the maritime industry and port security ; the facility is a collaboration with the University of South Florida College of Marine Science and its Center for Ocean Technology . That facility created new a method for underwater mass spectrometry , which has been used to conduct " advanced underwater chemical surveys in oil and gas exploration and production , ocean resource monitoring and protection , and water treatment and management " and was licensed to Spyglass Technologies in March 2014 .
In December 2007 , SRI launched a spin @-@ off company , Siri Inc . , which Apple acquired in April 2010 . In October 2011 , Apple announced the Siri personal assistant as an integrated feature of the Apple iPhone 4S . Siri 's technology was born from SRI 's work on the DARPA @-@ funded CALO project , described by SRI as the largest artificial intelligence project ever launched . Siri was co @-@ founded in December 2007 by Dag Kittlaus ( CEO ) , Adam Cheyer ( vice president , engineering ) , and Tom Gruber ( CTO / vice president , design ) , together with Norman Winarsky ( vice president of SRI Ventures ) . Investors included Menlo Ventures and Morgenthaler Ventures .
For the National Science Foundation ( NSF ) , SRI operates the advanced modular incoherent scatter radar ( AMISR ) , a novel relocatable atmospheric research facility . Other SRI @-@ operated research facilities for the NSF include the Arecibo Observatory in Puerto Rico and the Sondrestrom Upper Atmospheric Research Facility in Greenland . In May 2011 , SRI was awarded a $ 42 million contract to operate the Arecibo Observatory from October 1 , 2011 to September 30 , 2016 .
In February 2014 , SRI announced a " photonics @-@ based testing technology called FASTcell " for the detection and characterization of rare circulating tumor cells from blood samples . The test is aimed at cancer @-@ specific biomarkers for breast , lung , prostate , colorectal and leukemia cancers that circulate in the blood stream in minute quantities , potentially diagnosing those conditions earlier .
= = Description = =
= = = Employees and financials = = =
As of February 2015 , SRI employs approximately 2 @,@ 100 people . In 2014 , SRI had about $ 540 million in revenue . In 2013 , the United States Department of Defense consisted of 63 % of awards by value ; the remainder was composed of the National Institutes of Health ( 11 % ) ; businesses and industry ( 8 % ) ; other United States agencies ( 6 % ) ; the National Science Foundation ( 6 % ) ; the United States Department of Education ( 4 % ) ; and foundations ( 2 % ) .
As of February 2015 , approximately 4 @,@ 000 patents have been granted to SRI International and its employees .
= = = Facilities = = =
SRI is primarily based on a 63 @-@ acre ( 0 @.@ 25 km2 ; 0 @.@ 10 sq mi ) campus located in Menlo Park , California , which is considered part of Silicon Valley . This campus encompasses 1 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 square feet ( 120 @,@ 000 m2 ) of office and lab space . In addition , SRI has a 254 @-@ acre ( 1 @.@ 028 km2 ; 0 @.@ 397 sq mi ) campus in Princeton , New Jersey , with 600 @,@ 000 square feet ( 56 @,@ 000 m2 ) of research space . There are also offices in Washington , D.C. , and Tokyo , Japan . In total , SRI has 2 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 square feet ( 210 @,@ 000 m2 ) of office and laboratory space .
= = = Organization = = =
SRI International is organized into seven units ( generally referred to as divisions ) that focus on specific subject areas .
= = Staff members and alumni = =
SRI has had a chief executive of some form since its establishment . Prior to the split with Stanford University , the position was known as the director ; after the split , it is known as the company 's president and CEO . SRI has had nine so far , including William F. Talbot ( 1946 – 1947 ) , Jesse E. Hobson ( 1947 – 1955 ) , E. Finley Carter ( 1956 – 1963 ) , Charles Anderson ( 1968 – 1979 ) , William F. Miller ( 1979 – 1990 ) , James J. Tietjen ( 1990 – 1993 ) , William P. Sommers ( 1993 – 1998 ) Curtis Carlson ( 1998 – 2014 ) and most recently , William A. Jeffrey ( 2014 – present ) .
SRI also has a board of directors since its inception , which has served to both guide and provide opportunities for the organization . The current board of directors includes Samuel Armacost ( Chairman of the Board Emeritus ) , Mariann Byerwalter ( chairman ) , William A. Jeffrey , Charles A. Holloway ( vice chairman ) , Vern Clark , Robert L. Joss , Leslie F. Kenne , Henry Kressel , David Liddle , Philip J. Quigley , Wendell Wierenga and John J. Young , Jr .
Of its researchers , many notable ones were involved with the Augmentation Research Center . These include Douglas Engelbart , the developer of the modern GUI ; William English , the inventor of the mouse ; Jeff Rulifson , the primary developer of the NLS ; Elizabeth J. Feinler , who ran the Network Information Center ; and David Maynard , who would help found Electronic Arts .
The Artificial Intelligence Center has also produced a large number of notable alumni , many of whom contributed to Shakey the robot ; these include project manager Charles Rosen as well as Nils Nilsson , Bertram Raphael , Richard O. Duda , Peter E. Hart , Richard Fikes and Richard Waldinger . AI researcher Gary Hendrix went on to found Symantec . Current Yahoo ! President and CEO Marissa Mayer performed a research internship in the Center in the 1990s . The CALO project ( and its spin @-@ off , Siri ) also produced notable names including C. Raymond Perrault and Adam Cheyer .
Several SRI projects produced notable researchers and engineers long before computing was mainstream . Early employee Paul M. Cook founded Raychem . William K. MacCurdy developed the Hydra @-@ Cushion freight car for Southern Pacific in 1954 ; Hewitt Crane and Jerre Noe were instrumental in the development of Electronic Recording Machine , Accounting ; Harrison Price helped The Walt Disney Company design Disneyland ; James C. Bliss developed the Optacon ; and Robert Weitbrecht invented the first telecommunications device for the deaf .
= = Spin @-@ off companies = =
Working with investment and venture capital firms , SRI and its former employees have launched more than 60 spin @-@ off ventures in a wide range of fields , including Siri ( acquired by Apple ) , Tempo AI ( acquired by Salesforce.com ) , Redwood Robotics ( acquired by Google ) , Desti ( acquired by HERE ) , Grabit , Kasisto , Artificial Muscle , Inc . ( acquired by Bayer MaterialScience ) , Nuance Communications , Intuitive Surgical , and Orchid Cellmark .
Former SRI staff members have also established new companies . In engineering and analysis , for example , notable companies formed by SRI alumni include Weitbrecht Communications , Exponent and Raychem . Companies in the area of legal , policy and business analysis include Fair Isaac Corporation , Global Business Network and Institute for the Future .
Research in computing and computer science @-@ related areas led to the development of many companies , including Symantec , the Australian Artificial Intelligence Institute , E @-@ Trade , and Verbatim Corporation . Wireless technologies spawned Firetide and venture capital firm enVia Partners . Health systems research inspired Telesensory Systems .
= = = SRI history = = =
Carlson , Curtis R. ; Wilmot , William W. ( 2006 ) . Innovation : The Five Disciplines for Creating What Customers Want . New York : Crown Publishing Group . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 307 @-@ 33669 @-@ 9 .
Lento , Thomas V ( 2006 ) . Inventing the Future : 60 Years of Innovation at Sarnoff . Princeton , New Jersey : Sarnoff Corporation . ISBN 0 @-@ 9785463 @-@ 0 @-@ X.
Gibson , Weldon B. ( 1986 ) . SRI : The Take @-@ Off Days . Los Altos , California : Stanford Research Institute . ISBN 0 @-@ 86576 @-@ 103 @-@ 5 .
= = = Specific topics = = =
Crane , Hewitt ; Kinderman , Edwin ; Malhotra , Ripudaman ( June 2010 ) . A Cubic Mile of Oil . Oxford , New York : Oxford University Press USA . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 532554 @-@ 6 .
Markoff , John ( 2005 ) . What the Dormouse Said : How the 60s Counterculture Shaped the Personal Computer Industry . New York : Viking Adult . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 670 @-@ 03382 @-@ 9 .
Hafner , Katie ( 1996 ) . Where Wizards Stay Up Late : The Origins of the Internet ( with Matthew Lyon ) . New York : Simon & Schuster . ISBN 0 @-@ 684 @-@ 83267 @-@ 4 .
Bowden , Mark ( 2011 ) . WORM : The First Digital World War [ about the Conficker computer worm ] . New York : Atlantic Monthly Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 8021 @-@ 1983 @-@ 2 .
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= Asad ibn Abdallah al @-@ Qasri =
Asad ibn Abdallah ibn Asad al @-@ Qasri ( died 738 ) was a prominent official of the Umayyad Caliphate , serving twice as governor of Khurasan under the Caliph Hisham ibn Abd al @-@ Malik . The descendant of a prominent Arab family , he was the brother of Khalid al @-@ Qasri , the powerful governor of Iraq for most of Hisham 's reign . Asad 's first tenure in 724 – 727 came in the wake of the " Day of Thirst " , a severe defeat at the hands of the Turgesh Turks in Transoxiana . Asad tried to reconcile the local Soghdians to Muslim rule , initiated tax reforms to address the grievances of the native converts to Islam ( mawali ) , and enjoyed good relations with many local nobles , who began to convert to Islam under his influence . His military expeditions during his first tenure were targeted mainly against restive local princes , and avoided a direct confrontation with the Turgesh .
After his dismissal , his successors reversed his policy of reconciliation , resulting in a large @-@ scale anti @-@ Arab rebellion among the Soghdians . Another major defeat against the Turgesh in the Battle of the Defile was followed by the almost complete collapse of the Arab position in Trasoxiana and the outbreak of a major rebellion in Khurasan itself , led by al @-@ Harith ibn Surayj . Appointed for a second time to Khurasan in late 734 , Asad brought in fresh troops to the province and managed to suppress Harith 's uprising in 735 – 736 , although the rebel leader himself escaped capture . An expedition in Khuttal in 737 brought about the intervention of the Turgesh khagan at the head of an army . Despite initial Arab setbacks and the Turgesh invasion of Khurasan , Asad succeeded in inflicting a defeat upon the khagan in person in the Battle of Kharistan and turning back the Turgesh army . Despite Asad 's death a few months later , this success was instrumental in preserving Muslim rule in Central Asia , as the blow to the khagan 's prestige led to his murder soon thereafter and the collapse of Turgesh power . At the same time , Asad 's conciliatory policy towards the native population laid the foundations for its eventual acceptance of Muslim rule and the Islamization of Central Asia .
= = Origin = =
Asad was a member of the Qasr clan , a subtribe of the Banu Bajila . His great @-@ grandfather Asad ibn Kurz al @-@ Qasri is said by some traditions to have been the chief of the Bajila in the times of the Islamic prophet Muhammad , and is accounted as one of Muhammad 's companions . Other traditions , however , hostile to the family , report that Asad was a Jew and a runaway slave . Asad 's grandfather Yazid was an early and prominent supporter of the Umayyads in the First Fitna , while Asad 's father Abdallah sided with Ibn al @-@ Zubayr in the Second Fitna , but was eventually pardoned by the Caliph Abd al @-@ Malik ( reigned 685 – 705 ) .
= = First governorship of Khurasan = =
In 724 , immediately after the rise of Hisham ibn Abd al @-@ Malik ( r . 724 – 743 ) to the throne , Asad 's brother Khalid al @-@ Qasri was appointed to the important post of governor of Iraq , with responsibility over the entire Islamic East , which he held until 738 . Khalid in turn named Asad as governor of Khurasan . The two brothers thus became , according to Patricia Crone , " among the most prominent men of the Marwanid period " . Asad 's arrival in Khurasan found the province in peril : his predecessor , Muslim ibn Sa 'id al @-@ Kilabi , had just attempted a campaign against Ferghana and suffered a major defeat , the so @-@ called " Day of Thirst " , at the hands of the Turgesh Turks and the Soghdian principalities of Transoxiana that had risen up against Muslim rule .
As the historian H.A.R. Gibb wrote , this Muslim defeat " marks a period in the history of the Arab conquests . It was practically the last aggressive expedition of the Arabs into Transoxania for fifteen years , but of much greater importance was the blow which it struck at Arab prestige . The roles were reversed ; from now onwards the Arabs found themselves on the defensive and were gradually ousted from almost every district across the Oxus " . In this situation , Asad followed a policy of consolidation and limited military activity , focusing on enforcing Muslim control on the minor local potentates and avoiding a direct confrontation with the Muslims ' main enemy , the Turgesh . Thus in 107 AH ( 725 or 726 AD ) Asad campaigned against Namrun , King of al @-@ Gharshistan ( northeast of Herat ) , whom he forced to submit and convert to Islam , before going on to subdue the region of Ghur ( central Afghanistan ) . In the next year , Asad campaigned in Khuttal in Tokharistan , where he was confronted by the khagan , who was called upon for aid by the local ruler , al @-@ Sabal . One tradition holds that he retreated over the Oxus and went on to campaign with success in Ghur in the next year , but according to another he suffered a heavy defeat by the Turgesh . Whatever the true events , Asad 's military ventures were only moderately successful , and most importantly failed to address the growing danger of the Turgesh , who with the support of the local princes threatened to expel the Arabs back beyond the Oxus .
At the same time , Asad tried to conciliate the local population , hoping to prevent them from supporting the Turgesh . He continued his predecessor 's policy of appointing men known for their honesty as his fiscal agents . His reforms tried to stop the discrimination especially against the mawali , the native converts to Islam , stopping the collection of the jizya from them . This measure was vehemently opposed by the Arab settlers of Khurasan , but according to Khalid Yahya Blankinship " it may have helped to discourage the Turks for a couple of years by keeping the Transoxianans on the Muslims ' side " . Despite Asad 's efforts and his good relations with the local Iranian land @-@ owning class , the dihqans , taxation remained a heavy burden for the subject populations , and the greed and cruelty of Arab and Iranian tax collectors alike meant that Khurasan became a fertile field for the Shi 'ite and Abbasid missionaries ( da 'wa ) . Among the local nobility , Saman Khuda , the ancestor of the Samanid dynasty , is said to have been converted to Islam by Asad at this time , and Saman 's eldest son was named Asad in the governor 's honour .
In 726 Asad rebuilt the city of Balkh , which had been destroyed by Qutayba ibn Muslim following a revolt , and transferred there the Arab garrison troops from nearby Barukhan . Asad also resumed , after almost a decade , the practice of sending envoys to the Chinese court . This move was obviously linked to the Turgesh threat , as the Turks were Chinese vassals and were regarded by the Transoxianians as the agents of the Chinese emperor , sent to deliver them from Arab rule . Asad is also said to have built the village of Asadabad near Nishapur , which his descendants held until Tahirid times .
Asad was dismissed from his office in Ramadan 109 AH ( December 727 or January 728 AD ) , when in an outburst of anger he had the chief representatives of the four greatest Arab tribes in Khurasan , the Ahl al- ' Aliyah , Azd , Tamim , and Bakr , publicly flogged . Caliph Hisham demanded his dismissal , and after naming al @-@ Hakam ibn ' Awana al @-@ Kalbi as his deputy , Asad returned to his brother in Iraq .
= = Second governorship of Khurasan = =
Asad was replaced by Ashras ibn Abdallah al @-@ Sulami ( 727 – 730 ) . At first he continued Asad 's policy of conciliation , but then reversed it , leading to the outbreak of a full @-@ scale rebellion in Transoxiana , which , coupled with renewed Turgesh attacks , reduced the Arab presence there to Samarkand and its environs . Ashras was able to recover Bukhara , but his successor , Junayd ibn Abd al @-@ Rahman al @-@ Murri , presided over the disaster of the Battle of the Defile in 731 , which crippled the Khurasani army . By the time of Junayd 's death in 734 , the Muslim holdings in Transoxiana had been reduced to Bukhara and parts of Tokharistan . These military defeats , the long @-@ held grievances against the Umayyad government , and the forcible requisition of food by Junayd during the famine of 733 led to the outbreak of a rebellion in early 734 , led by al @-@ Harith ibn Surayj . Harith 's uprising involved both Arabs and native princes , especially from the hitherto loyal principalities of Tokharistan , and spread quickly , with the rebels capturing Balkh . The new governor , Asim ibn Abdallah al @-@ Hilali , managed to check Harith 's advance on the capital , Marw , and forced him to seek terms . Asim 's position remained precarious , however , and he wrote to the Caliph , asking for the placement of Khurasan once again under the purview of Iraq , the appointment of a new governor and the substantial reinforcement of the province with Syrian troops . Hisham accepted the recommendations , and instructed Khalid al @-@ Qasri to send Asad once again as governor to Khurasan . Early in 735 , Harith renewed his rebellion . This time , whether due to pressure from local sympathizers in Marw or as an expedient way to gain time for Asad to arrive , Asim agreed to a truce with Harith , in which he also promised to support Harith 's demands against the Caliph .
Thus , in early 735 Asad arrived once more to take up the governorship of Khurasan , this time accompanied by 20 @,@ 000 Syrian troops , according to the 11th @-@ century historian Gardizi . He imprisoned Asim for embezzling money and failing to campaign against the rebels , and immediately took the field himself . He soon gained the upper hand in a succession of victorious , if costly , battles with Harith 's supporters . Asad 's success was aided by his long @-@ standing personal relations with the local Arab tribal leaders , as well as by the continuing tribal rivalries : as a Yamani opposed to the Mudari Harith , he could count on the support of his fellow tribesmen — thus most of the Rabi 'ah , the traditional enemies of Harith 's Tamim tribe , soon defected to him . Asad divided his forces , sending the Kufan and Syrian troops under Abd al @-@ Rahman ibn Na 'yum towards Marw Rudh , where Harith 's main army was located , while he himself with the Basrans and remaining Khurasanis marched on the fortresses of Amul and Zamm . The rebel forces at Amul surrendered and were pardoned , and the garrison of Balkh followed soon after . Harith himself abandoned Marw Rudh and retreated across the Oxus before Abd al @-@ Rahman , finding refuge with the princes of Tokharistan . With their aid , he laid siege to the major crossing point over the Oxus at Tirmidh . In the face of Harith 's forces , Asad 's troops could not cross the Oxus but retreated to Balkh . However , the Tirmidh garrison managed to defeat Harith , who now retired eastwards to the mountains of Badakhshan . Asad followed up this success by persuading the garrison of Zamm to surrender on promises of amnesty and double pay . Asad then led an expedition to recover Samarkand , which had been lost in the aftermath of the Defile . He failed to take the city , and returned to Balkh after destroying the sluices of the city 's irrigation canals .
In the next year , 736 , Asad 's forces cleared the mountains of Upper Tokharistan from the remnants of Harith 's supporters . Many of the latter , including some of Harith 's relatives , were blockaded in the fortress of Tabushkhan by Asad 's commander Juday ' al @-@ Kirmani with 6 @,@ 000 men , until they surrendered . According to al @-@ Tabari , 400 of the men were executed , and the other defenders , including women and children , were sold into slavery . In the same year , Asad moved the capital of Khurasan to Balkh . This decision was influenced by a number of factors : Balkh was the traditional , pre @-@ Islamic capital and remained so in the eyes of the local population ; it lay closer to Tokharistan , where Asad concentrated his military activities ; and was settled by reliable Syrians and removed from the factional politics of the Khurasani Arabs of Marw . At this time , Asad also captured and executed one of the leaders of the Khurasani Hashimiyya movement , Ammar ibn Yazid , known as Khidash , by crucifixion .
In 737 , Asad led his troops again north of the Oxus in a retaliatory campaign against Khuttal , whose ruler had allied himself with both Harith and the Turgesh . While Asad captured a few fortresses and pillaged the land , the Khuttalan regent , Ibn al @-@ Sa 'iji , called for aid from the Turgesh khagan , Suluk . The Turgesh army 's arrival caught the Arab troops , widely dispersed while ravaging the countryside , by surprise , and precipitated a headlong flight across the Oxus . The Turgesh followed after them and attacked and almost annihilated the Arab baggage train , which Asad had sent ahead . The timely arrival of Asad 's main army saved the baggage train 's remnants , before both sides settled for winter quarters . Ominously for the Arabs , the khagan remained in Khurasan instead of retiring north , and Harith now emerged from hiding and joined him . Harith now counselled the khagan to take advantage of the dispersal of the Arab army to its winter quarters , and resume his advance . In early December the khagan led the Turgesh army , 30 @,@ 000 strong and comprising contingents from virtually every native ruler of Transoxiana and Upper Tokharistan , south . They bypassed Balkh and marched into Juzjan , hoping to raise the Hephthalite princes of Lower Tokharistan in revolt as well . In this the Turgesh failed , as the king of Juzjan joined Asad , who was approaching with what forces he could muster . Asad 's advance caught the khagan and Harith off guard ; Asad came upon them near Kharistan when they were accompanied by only 4 @,@ 000 men , the rest having scattered to plunder and forage . In the ensuing Battle of Kharistan , Asad routed the Turgesh . Harith and the khagan barely escaped themselves and fled north over the Oxus . The Turgesh detachments south of the Oxus were largely destroyed piecemeal by Juday ' al @-@ Kirmani , ending the threat to Khurasan .
After his victory over the Turgesh , Asad sent an expedition against Badr Tarkhan , possibly a prince of Bamiyan in Ghur , who in the turmoil of the previous year had taken the opportunity of capturing Khuttal . The expedition was successful , and Khuttal returned to Arab rule . A short while later , in February 738 , Asad died at Balkh after a brief illness . Ja 'far ibn Hanzala al @-@ Bahrani succeeded him temporarily , until , in July , Nasr ibn Sayyar was named to the governorship .
= = Legacy = =
Asad 's second governorship was of crucial importance to the future of Central Asia . His victory at Kharistan averted a possible collapse of Muslim rule and ended the Turgesh threat to Khurasan and Transoxiana . As Gibb writes , it was not only " the turning @-@ point in the fortunes of the Arabs in Central Asia , but gave the signal for the downfall of Turgesh power " . The khagan ′ s defeat was a serious blow to his prestige , encouraging his domestic rivals ; backed secretly by the Chinese , they assassinated him in early 738 . The Turgesh realm collapsed in civil war , leaving the Muslims without a serious opponent in the region . At the same time , Asad 's excellent personal relationship with the native nobility strengthened their ties to the Arab government . As Gibb writes , " he was able to attract to his side many of the more influential elements in Lower Tokharistan and the Hephthalite lands — to this , in fact , was largely due his success in the struggle with the Turks . " His influence led to the conversion to Islam of several local rulers , like Saman Khuda and possibly also the Barmak . Even though as yet " practically confined to the ruling classes " and limited to the territories under direct Arab control , Gibb credits Asad with beginning a process of " true reconciliation " . For this achievement he was greatly honoured later generations , as attested in the work of the 10th @-@ century Bukharan historian Narshakhi . His successor , Nasr ibn Sayyar , was able to build upon Asad 's work and restore the Arab position over much of Transoxiana ; Muslim pre @-@ eminence over western Central Asia was sealed with the Battle of Talas in 751 , and the withdrawal of Chinese influence after the outbreak of the An Lushan Rebellion .
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= Euphoria ( Usher song ) =
" Euphoria " is a song recorded by American singer Usher for his seventh studio album Looking 4 Myself ( 2012 ) . It was written by Axel Hedfors , Juan Najera , Klas Åhlund , Ryon Lovett , Sebastian Ingrosso , Steve Angello , Terry Lewis and Usher himself . The production of the song was done by Axwell , Angello and Ingrosso under their stage name Swedish House Mafia . After their joint performance at the 2011 American Music Awards , Usher and Swedish House Mafia managed to start working on recording sessions for Usher 's seventh studio album in Atlanta .
" Euphoria " is a dance @-@ pop and euro @-@ trance song which " include the DJs ' glimmering synths while Usher croons in his coolly @-@ controlled falsetto . " The track received generally mixed to positive reviews from contemporary music critics with many of them praising its Ibiza sound which is also present on Usher 's previous singles " OMG " and " DJ Got Us Fallin ' in Love " . Upon the release of Looking 4 Myself , the song debuted at number 60 on the South Korea Gaon International Chart , with sales of 6 @,@ 029 digital copies . This song appears as DLC along with " Twisted " in Dance Central 3 with choreography from both Usher and his choreographer Aakomon “ AJ ” Jones .
= = Production = =
Speaking to The BoomBox , Usher explained that he wanted to work with Swedish House Mafia ever since they both performed together at the 2011 American Music Awards . The group agreed to work with Usher , saying " We 'll see if we can come to Atlanta , and if we can , we 'll start to work on some tracks , writing , and moving the ball forward . " In an interview with MTV News , regarding the collaboration with Usher , Steve Angello commented , [ sic ] " We met Usher couple of years ago , we did the AMA 's together and then we came to hang @-@ out in Ibiza . We were in Atlanta and we were all working together for five days . He has always been a great artist and he always knows what he wants so it is a good collaboration all in all . We rather work with somebody who we respect , than to rather work with just big name . "
= = Composition = =
" Euphoria " is a dance @-@ pop and euro @-@ trance song with a length of four minutes and 20 seconds . It was written by Axel Hedfors , Juan Najera , Klas Åhlund , Ryon Lovett , Sebastian Ingrosso , Steve Angello , Terry Lewis and Usher himself . The production of the song was helmed by Hedfors , Angello and Ingrosso under their stage name Swedish House Mafia . Swedish House Mafia together with disc jockey Alesso also co @-@ produced one more song from Looking 4 Myself entitled " Numb " . According to Lewis Corner of Digital Spy both " Euphoria " and " Numb " " include the DJs ' glimmering synths while he [ Usher ] croons in his coolly @-@ controlled falsetto . " Jim Farber of The New York Daily News wrote that the songs which were produced by Swedish House Mafia propose a possible crossover point from electronica to R & B like Usher ’ s biggest hit " Yeah ! " did from crunk to soul . Mark " Exit " Goodchild recorded the song at Silent Sound Studios in Atlanta and Glenwood Place Studios in Burbank , while Jorge Velasco , Kory Aaron and Randy Warnken served as recording assistants . It was mixed by Manny Marroquin at Larrabee Sound Studio , Universal City , with Chris Galland and Delbert Bowers serving as mixing assistants . Natural did the vocal production of the song while the track 's producers Hedfors , Ingrosso and Angello provided the complete instrumentation of " Euphoria " .
= = Reception = =
In a review of Looking 4 Myself , Matt Cibula of PopMatters commented that Usher " absolutely rips ' Climax ' and ' What Happened to U ' , nails party anthems like ' Scream ' and ' Euphoria ' to the wall , and puts across harder things even while multitracking himself 35 times over with the greatest of ease . " Nathan S. of DJ Booth wrote that " ' Euphoria ' hews even closer to the 4 AM in Ibiza template , as does the essentially identical Scream . " People 's Chuck Arnold wrote that Usher " is an Ibiza @-@ ready club kid on electro thumpers like current single ' Scream ' and the Swedish House Mafia @-@ produced ' Euphoria ' that build on the success of ' OMG ' , ' DJ Got Us Fallin ' in Love ' and ' Without You ' ( with David Guetta ) . " Regarding the song Trent Fitzgerald of PopCrush wrote that " Euphoria " " comes out with a great Ibiza @-@ style dance track that should help him crack the European market . It sounds big and brings euphoria to our ears . "
Erika Ramirez of Billboard concluded that " Euphoria " is grittier , more startling and arguably more powerful than " Numb " and commented that it " leaves listeners with a feeling that reflects the song 's uplifting title " . Alex Macpherson of guardian.co.uk was more critical to the song and labeled it as " eurotrash trance " , while Danny Walker of RWD Magazine called the song pacy . According to Carrie Battan of Pitchfork Media Usher " sounds most uncomfortable and the least sharp on overblown club tracks ' Euphoria ' and ' Numb ' , and the presence of rote numbers is almost comically predictable . " Katherine St Asaph of Popdust stated that the track would sound great in the clubs , however it isn 't standout by any means , further stating " Usher and Swedish House Mafia talk about euphoria , but what they deliver is perfectly passable excitement . "
= = Credits and personnel = =
Recording and mixing
Recorded at Silent Sound Studios , Atlanta , Georgia ; Glenwood Place Studios , Burbank , California ; mixed at Larrabee Sound Studio , Universal City , California
Personnel
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Looking 4 Myself , RCA Records .
= = Charts = =
Upon the release of Looking 4 Myself , due to digital downloads " Euphoria " charted in the lower regions on the singles chart in South Korea . It debuted on the South Korea Gaon International Chart at number 60 on June 10 , 2012 , with sales of 6 @,@ 029 digital copies .
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= Hispanic Americans in World War II =
Hispanic Americans , also referred to as Latinos , served in all elements of the American armed forces in the war . They fought in every major American battle in the war . Between 250 @,@ 000 and 500 @,@ 000 Hispanic Americans served in the U.S. Armed Forces during World War II , out of a total of 12 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 , constituting 2 @.@ 3 % to 4 @.@ 7 % of the U.S. Armed Forces . The exact number is unknown as , at the time , Hispanics were not tabulated separately , but were generally included in the general white population census count . Separate statistics were kept for African Americans and Asian Americans .
On December 7 , 1941 , when the United States officially entered the war , Hispanic Americans were among the many American citizens who joined the ranks of the Army , Navy and Marine Corps as volunteers or through the draft . Not only did Hispanics serve as active combatants in the European and Pacific Theatres of war , but they also served on the home front as civilians . Hundreds of Hispanic women joined the Women 's Army Auxiliary Corps ( WAACs ) and Women Accepted for Volunteer Emergency Service ( WAVES ) , serving as nurses and in administrative positions . Many worked in traditionally male labor jobs in the manufacturing plants that produced munitions and materiel , replacing men who were away at war .
When conscription was increased , some Puerto Ricans from the island were assigned as replacements to units in the Panama Canal Zone and British Caribbean islands , which were made up mostly of continental ( United States mainland ) soldiers . Most Puerto Ricans and Hispanics residing in Puerto Rico were assigned to the 65th Infantry Regiment or to the Puerto Rico National Guard . These were the only all @-@ Hispanic units whose statistics were kept . More than 53 @,@ 000 Puerto Ricans and Hispanics who resided on the island served in the war . According to Senator Robert Menendez , more than 9 @,@ 000 Latinos died in the defense of the United States in World War II . Because of lack of separate documentation , the total number of Hispanic Americans who died in the conflict is unknown .
= = Terminology = =
Hispanic American is an ethnic term used to categorize any citizen or resident of the United States , of any racial background , and of any religion , who has at least one ancestor from the people of Spain or any of the Spanish @-@ speaking countries of the Americas . The three largest Hispanic groups in the United States are the Mexican Americans , Puerto Ricans , and Cuban Americans . Hispanic Americans are also referred to by others , and some Hispanics prefer to be known as " Chicano " .
= = Prelude to World War II = =
Before the United States entered World War II , Hispanic Americans were already fighting on European soil in the Spanish Civil War . The Spanish Civil War was a major conflict in Spain that started after an attempted coup d 'état by parts of the army , led by the Nationalist General Francisco Franco , against the government of the Second Spanish Republic . Hispanic Americans fought on behalf of both of the factions involved , the " Nationalists " as members of the Spanish Army and the " Loyalists " ( Republicans ) either as members of the Abraham Lincoln International Brigade or as aviators in the Yankee Squadron led by Bert Acosta ( 1895 – 1954 ) .
General Manuel Goded Llopis ( 1882 – 1936 ) , who was born in San Juan , Puerto Rico , was a high @-@ ranking officer in the Spanish Army . Llopis was among the first generals to join General Francisco Franco in the uprising against the government of the Second Spanish Republic . Llopis led the fight against the Anarchists in Catalonia , but his troops were outnumbered . He was captured and sentenced to die by firing squad .
Lieutenant Carmelo Delgado Delgado ( 1913 – 1937 ) was among the many Hispanics who fought on behalf of the Second Spanish Republic as members of the Abraham Lincoln Brigade . Delgado fought in the Battle of Madrid , but was captured and sentenced to die by firing squad on April 29 , 1937 . He was amongst the first United States ( US ) citizens to die in that conflict .
= = Pearl Harbor = =
On December 7 , 1941 , when the Empire of Japan attacked the United States Pacific Fleet at Pearl Harbor , many sailors with Hispanic surnames were among those who perished . PFC Richard I. Trujillo of the United States Marine Corps was serving aboard the Battleship USS Nevada ( BB @-@ 36 ) when the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor . The Nevada was among the ships which were in the harbor that day . As her gunners opened fire and her engineers got up steam , she was struck by torpedoes and bombs from the Japanese attackers . Fifty men were killed and 109 wounded . Among those killed was Trujillo , who became the first Hispanic Marine casualty of World War II .
When the United States officially entered World War II , Hispanic Americans were among the many American citizens who joined the ranks of United States Armed Forces as volunteers or through the draft .
In 1941 , Commander Luis de Florez played an instrumental role in the establishment of the Special Devices Division of the Navy 's Bureau of Aeronautics ( what would later become the NAWCTSD ) . He was later assigned as head of the new Special Devices Desk in the Engineering Division of the Navy ’ s Bureau of Aeronautics . De Florez , who has been credited with over sixty inventions , urged the Navy to undertake development of " synthetic training devices " to increase readiness . During World War II , he was promoted to Captain and in 1944 , to Rear Admiral .
= = European Theatre = =
The European Theatre of World War II was an area of heavy fighting between the Allied forces and the Axis powers from September 1 , 1939 , to May 8 , 1945 . The majority of Hispanic Americans served in regular units ; some active combat units recruited from areas of high Hispanic population , such as the 65th Infantry Regiment from Puerto Rico and the 141st Regiment of the 36th Texas Infantry , were made up mostly of Hispanics .
Hispanics of the 141st Regiment of the 36th Infantry Division were some of the first American troops to land on Italian soil at Salerno . Company E of the 141st Regiment was entirely Hispanic . The 36th Infantry Division fought in Italy and France , enduring heavy casualties during the crossing of the Rapido River near Cassino , Italy . This was a controversial event over which military analysts have argued .
= = = 65th Infantry Regiment = = =
A small detachment of insular troops from Puerto Rico was sent to Cuba in late March as a guard for Batista Field . In 1943 , the 65th Infantry was sent to Panama to protect the Pacific and the Atlantic sides of the isthmus and the Panama Canal , critical to oceangoing ships . An increase in the Puerto Rican induction program was immediately authorized . Continental troops such as the 762nd Antiaircraft Artillery Gun Battalion , 766th AAA Gun Battalion and the 891st AAA Gun Battalions were replaced by Puerto Ricans in Panama . They also replaced troops in the bases on British Islands , to the extent permitted by the availability of trained Puerto Rican units . The 295th Infantry Regiment followed the 65th Infantry in 1944 , departing from San Juan , Puerto Rico to the Panama Canal Zone .
That same year , the 65th Infantry was sent to North Africa , where they underwent further training . By April 29 , 1944 , the Regiment had landed in Italy and moved on to Corsica . On September 22 , 1944 , the 65th Infantry landed in France and was committed to action in the Maritime Alps at Peira Cava . On December 13 , 1944 , the 65th Infantry , under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Juan César Cordero Dávila , relieved the 2nd Battalion of the 442nd Infantry Regiment , a regiment which was made up of Japanese Americans under the command of Col. Virgil R. Miller , a native of Puerto Rico .
The 3rd Battalion fought against and defeated Germany 's 34th Infantry Division 's 107th Infantry Regiment . There were 47 battle casualties , including Pvt. Sergio Sanchez @-@ Sanchez and Sergeant Angel Martinez from Sabana Grande , who were the first two Puerto Ricans from the 65th Infantry to be killed in combat action . On March 18 , 1945 , the regiment was sent to the District of Mannheim and assigned to military occupation duties after the end of the war . The regiment suffered 23 soldiers killed in action .
In March 1943 , Private First Class Joseph ( Jose ) R. Martinez , member of Patton 's Seventh Army , destroyed a German Infantry unit and tank in Tunis by providing heavy artillery fire , saving his platoon from being attacked in the process . He received the Distinguished Service Cross , second to the Medal of Honor , from General George S. Patton , thus becoming the first Puerto Rican recipient of said military decoration .
Sergeant First Class Agustín Ramos Calero , a member of the 65th Infantry who was reassigned to the 3rd U.S. Infantry Division because of his ability to speak and understand English , was one of the most decorated Hispanic soldiers in the European Theater . Calero was born and raised in Isabela , in the northern region of Puerto Rico . He joined the U.S. Army in 1941 and was assigned to Puerto Rico 's 65th Infantry Regiment at Camp Las Casas in Santurce , where he received training as a rifleman . At the outbreak of World War II , Calero was reassigned to the 3rd U.S. Infantry Division and sent to Europe .
In 1945 , Calero 's company engaged in combat against a squad of German soldiers in what is known as the Battle of Colmar Pocket in the vicinity of Colmar , France . Calero attacked the enemy squad , killing 10 and capturing 21 before being wounded . For these actions , he was awarded the Silver Star Medal and nicknamed " One @-@ Man Army " by his comrades . Calero was wounded four times during combat in Europe . He was awarded 22 decorations and medals for his actions , making him one of the most decorated Hispanic soldiers in the U.S. military during World War II . Among his many decorations were the Silver Star Medal , four Purple Hearts and the French Croix de guerre .
= = Pacific Theatre = =
The Pacific Theatre of Operations ( PTO ) is the term used in the United States for all military activity between the Allies and Japan , from 1937 to 1945 , in the Pacific Ocean and the countries bordering it , during World War II . Three units of mostly Hispanic Americans served in the Pacific Theatre battlefields : the 200th Coast Artillery and the 515th Anti @-@ Aircraft Artillery Battalions from New Mexico , whose members participated in the infamous Bataan Death March , and the 158th Regimental Combat Team from Arizona .
= = = Bataan Death March = = =
Two National Guard units : the 200th and the 515th Battalions , were activated in New Mexico in 1940 . Made up mostly of Spanish @-@ speaking Hispanics from New Mexico , Arizona and Texas , the two battalions were sent to Clark Field in the Philippine Islands . Shortly after the Imperial Japanese Navy launched its surprise attack on the American Naval Fleet at Pearl Harbor , Japanese forces attacked the American positions in the Philippines . General Douglas MacArthur moved his forces , which included the 200th and 515th , to the Bataan Peninsula , where they fought alongside Filipinos in a three @-@ month stand against the invading forces .
By April 9 , 1942 , rations , medical supplies , and ammunition became scarce ; officers ordered the starving and outnumbered troops of the 200th and 515th Battalions to lay down their arms and surrender to the Japanese . These Hispanic and non @-@ Hispanic soldiers endured the 12 @-@ day , 85 @-@ mile ( 137 km ) Bataan Death March from Bataan to the Japanese prison camps . They were force @-@ marched in scorching heat through the Philippine jungle . Survivors remained interned for 34 months in a prisoner @-@ of @-@ war ( POW ) camp . Others were wounded or killed when unmarked enemy ships transporting prisoners of war to Japan were sunk by U.S. air and naval forces .
Colonel Virgilio N. Cordero , Jr . ( 1893 – 1980 ) was the Battalion Commander of the 31st Infantry Regiment on December 8 , 1941 , when Japanese planes attacked the U.S. military installations in the Philippines . Cordero and his men underwent brutal torture and humiliation during the Bataan Death March and nearly four years of captivity . Cordero was one of nearly 1 @,@ 600 members of the 31st Infantry who were taken as prisoners . Half of these men perished while prisoners of the Japanese forces . After Cordero gained his freedom when the Allied troops defeated the Japanese returned to the United States . Cordero , who retired with the rank of Brigadier General , wrote about his experiences as a prisoner of war and what he went through during the Bataan Death March . He authored My Experiences during the War with Japan , which was published in 1950 . In 1957 , he authored a revised Spanish version titled Bataan y la Marcha de la Muerte ; Volume 7 of Colección Vida e Historia .
Private ( Pvt. ) Ralph Rodriguez , age 25 , of the 200th Coast Artillery Battalion was a Bataan Death March survivor . According to Rodriguez , the Japanese ordered the American soldiers to begin marching . Soldiers who faltered during the march were prodded with bayonets , while those unable to continue were killed . He remembered a sense of brotherhood among the Hispanic soldiers who marched together in groups , and assisted each other along the way . When the soldiers reached their detention center , they were forced into a 30 @-@ by @-@ 100 foot fenced area . Later , the soldiers were forced into boxcars . One hundred soldiers were crammed into a car built to hold 40 or 50 men . The train took the soldiers on a four @-@ hour ride to Camp O 'Donnell where they became prisoners of war .
Corporal Agapito E. " Gap " Silva ( 1919 – 2007 ) , was another member of the 200th Coast Artillery Battalion who survived the Bataan Death March . He was held at Cabanatuan prison camp in the Philippines and assigned to the " burial details " when hundreds of prisoners were dying each month of disease and starvation . He was later transported to Fukuoka POW Camp # 17 , a Japanese prison camp near Omuta , Japan . There he was forced to work as a slave laborer in a coal plant . Silva narrated the following about his experiences as a prisoner of war :
" The POWs ( prisoner of war ) faced constant danger working in the coal mines . It was so unbearable that many of the men would resort to self @-@ inflicted injuries such as breaking their arms and legs to avoid working 10 to 12 hour days . "
Silva and more than 1 @,@ 900 American POWs were forced to work in coal mine camps encircled by electrical fences . Silva would spend 3 ½ years in the Japanese POW camps before the war ended in September 1945 . He was the recipient of the Bronze Star and Purple Heart Medal .
= = = 158th Regimental Combat Team = = =
The 158th Regimental Combat Team , an Arizona National Guard unit of mostly Hispanic soldiers , also fought in the Pacific Theatre . Early in the war , the 158th , nicknamed the " Bushmasters " , had been deployed to protect the Panama Canal and had completed jungle training . The unit later fought the Japanese in the New Guinea area in heavy combat and was involved in the liberation of the Philippine Islands . General MacArthur referred to them as " the greatest fighting combat team ever deployed for battle . " The 158th was selected to spearhead the invasion of Japan and was sent to attack the island of Tanega Shima to silence Japanese air warning stations . The planned invasion of Japan was never realized ; after Japan 's surrender , the unit was sent on October 13 , 1945 to Yokohama , Japan as part of the United States Army of occupation .
= = = PFC Guy Gabaldon = = =
Private First Class Guy Gabaldon was a young Marine who single @-@ handedly persuaded more than 1 @,@ 000 enemy civilians and troops to surrender .
PFC Guy Gabaldon ( 1926 – 2006 ) was adopted at the age of 12 by parents of Japanese @-@ American heritage . At the outbreak of World War II , his adoptive family was placed in a relocation camp . Gabaldon joined the Marines when he was only 17 years old ; he was a Private First Class ( PFC ) when his unit was engaged in the Battle of Saipan in 1944 . Gabaldon , who acted as the Japanese interpreter for the Second Marines , working alone in front of the lines , entered enemy caves , pillboxes , buildings , and jungle brush , frequently in the face of hostile fire , and succeeded not only in obtaining vital military information , but in convincing over 1 @,@ 500 enemy civilians and troops to surrender . He was nominated for the Medal of Honor , but was awarded the Silver Star instead . His medal was later upgraded to the Navy Cross , the Marines second @-@ highest decoration for heroism . He turned in more enemy soldiers than Sergeant Alvin York , who was awarded the Medal of Honor during World War I for having captured 132 enemy German soldiers . Gabaldon 's actions on Saipan were later memorialized in the film Hell to Eternity , in which he was portrayed by actor Jeffrey Hunter .
= = = Guarding the atomic bomb = = =
In 1945 , when Kwajalein of the Marshall Islands was secured by the U.S. forces , Sergeant Fernando Bernacett from Puerto Rico was among the Marines who were sent to guard various essential military installations . Bernacett , a combat veteran of the Battle of Midway , guarded the airport and POWs , as well as the atomic bomb as it was transported to Japan .
= = United States Coast Guard = =
Many Hispanics also served in the United States Coast Guard . Joseph B. Aviles , Sr. , the first Hispanic to be promoted to chief petty officer in the Coast Guard was also the first Hispanic to be promoted to chief warrant officer . He spent most of the war in St. Augustine , Florida training recruits .
Valentin R. Fernandez was awarded a Silver Lifesaving Medal for " maneuvering a Marine landing party ashore under constant Japanese attack " during the invasion of Saipan .
Louis Rua was awarded the Bronze Star Medal for " meritorious achievement at sea December 5 – 6 , 1944 , while serving aboard a U.S. Army large tug en route to the Philippines . His craft went to the rescue of another ship which had been torpedoed by enemy action and saved 277 survivors from the abandoned ship . " Rua was the first known Hispanic @-@ American Coast Guardsman to be awarded with a Bronze Star Medal .
Gunner 's Mate Second Class Joseph Tezanos was awarded a Navy & Marine Corps Medal during World War II for " ... distinguished heroism while serving as a volunteer member of a boat crew engaged in rescue operations during a fire in Pearl Harbor , Oahu , T.H. on 21 May 1944 . Under conditions of great personal danger from fire and explosions and with disregard of his own safety he assisted in the rescuing of approximately 42 survivors some of whom were injured and exhausted from the water and from burning ships . " He was also the first known Hispanic @-@ American to complete OCS training at the Coast Guard Academy .
Not everyone served aboard ships during the war . Some men like Jose R. Zaragoza served on missions on some lonely atolls . When 19 @-@ year @-@ old Zaragoza , a native of Los Angeles , California , joined the Coast Guard , he was sent on patrols in the Pacific coast of the United States defending against sabotage and invasion from the Japanese . Later he received instructions in the then @-@ emerging and secretive field of Loran navigation and sent to Ulithi atoll , located between Guam and the Philippines where he worked in Long Range Aids to Navigation , which is akin to radar work . He served on Ulithi Island for 15 months .
= = Aviators = =
Hispanics not only served in ground and seabound combat units , they also distinguished themselves as fighter pilots and as bombardiers . In 1944 , Puerto Rican aviators were sent to the Tuskegee Army Air Field in Tuskegee , Alabama to train the famed 99th Fighter Squadron of the Tuskegee Airmen . The Tuskegee Airmen were the first African @-@ American military aviators in the United States armed forces . Puerto Ricans were also involved in clerical positions with the Tuskegee unit . Among the Puerto Ricans who helped make the Tuskegee experiment a successful one were T / Sgt. Pablo Diaz Albortt , an NCO ( Non Commissioned Officer ) in charge of the Special Service Office , and Eugene Calderon , who was assigned to the " Red Tail " unit , as the Company Clerk . By the end of the war , the Tuskegee Airmen were credited with 109 Luftwaffe aircraft shot down , a patrol boat run aground by machine @-@ gun fire , and destruction of numerous fuel dumps , trucks and trains .
A " flying ace " or fighter ace is a military aviator credited with shooting down five or more enemy aircraft during aerial combat . The term " ace in a day " is used to designate a fighter pilot who has shot down five or more enemy aircraft in a single day . Since World War I , a number of pilots have been honored as " Ace in a Day " ; however , the honor of being the last " Ace in a Day " for the United States in World War II belongs to First Lieutenant Oscar Francis Perdomo of the 464th Fighter Squadron , 507th Fighter Group .
First Lieutenant Perdomo , ( 1919 – 1976 ) , the son of Mexican parents , was born in El Paso , Texas . When the war broke out , Perdomo joined the United States Army Air Forces ( USAAF ) as an aviation cadet and was trained to pilot the P @-@ 47 Thunderbolt . After receiving his pilot training , he was assigned to the 464th Fighter Squadron , which was part of the 507th Fighter Group that was sent to the Pacific Island of Ie Shima off the west coast of Okinawa .
The atomic bomb was dropped on Nagasaki , Japan on August 9 , 1945 , but while the Allies awaited Japan 's response to the demand to surrender , the war continued . On August 13 , 1945 , 1st Lt. Perdomo shot down four Nakajima Ki @-@ 43 " Oscar " fighters and one Yokosuka K5Y " Willow " Type 93 biplane trainer . This action took place near Keijo / Seoul , Korea when 38 Thunderbolts of the 507th Fighter Wing encountered approximately 50 enemy aircraft . This action was Lt. Perdomo 's tenth and final combat mission , and the five confirmed victories made him an " Ace in a Day " and earned him the distinction of being the last " Ace " of World War II . He was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross for extraordinary heroism in action and the Air Medal with one oak leaf cluster .
Other Hispanics served with distinction in aerial combat , among which are the following men whose names are placed in accordance to their ranks : Commander Eugene A. Valencia , Jr . , Lieutenant Colonel Donald S. Lopez , Sr. , Captain Michael Brezas , Captain Mihiel " Mike " Gilormini , Captain Alberto A. Nido , Captain Robert L. Cardenas , 2nd Lieutenant César Luis González , First Lieutenant Francisco Mercado , Jr , Lieutenant Richard Gomez Candelaria , Lieutenant José Antonio Muñiz , Lieutenant Arthur Van Haren , Jr . , Technical Sergeant Clement Resto and Corporal Frank Medina .
Commander Eugene A. Valencia , Jr . , United States Navy ( USN ) fighter ace , is credited with 23 air victories in the Pacific during World War II . Valencia 's decorations include the Navy Cross , five Distinguished Flying Crosses , and six Air Medals .
Lieutenant Colonel Donald S. Lopez , Sr. , USAAF fighter ace was assigned to the 23rd Fighter Group under the command of General Claire Chennault . The mission of the fighter group ( the " Flying Tigers " ) was to help defend Chinese nationals against Japanese invaders . During 1943 – 1944 , Lopez was credited with shooting down five Japanese fighters , four in a Curtiss P @-@ 40 and one in a North American P @-@ 51 .
Captain Michael Brezas , USAAF fighter ace , arrived in Lucera , Italy during the summer of 1944 , joining the 48th Fighter Squadron of the 14th Fighter Group . Flying the P @-@ 38 aircraft , Lt. Brezas downed 12 enemy planes within two months . He received the Silver Star Medal , the Distinguished Flying Cross , and the Air Medal with eleven oak leaf clusters .
Captain Mihiel " Mike " Gilormini , Royal Air Force and USAAF , was a flight commander whose last combat mission was attacking the airfield at Milano , Italy . His last flight in Italy gave air cover for General George C. Marshall 's visit to Pisa . Gilormini was the recipient of the Silver Star Medal , five Distinguished Flying Crosses , and the Air Medal with four oak leaf clusters . Gilormini later founded the Puerto Rico Air National Guard and retired as Brigadier General .
Captain Alberto A. Nido , Royal Canadian Air Force , the British Royal Air Force and the USAAF . He flew missions as a bomber pilot for the RCAF and as a Supermarine Spitfire fighter pilot for the RAF . As member of the RAF , he belonged to 67th Reconnaissance Squadron who participated in 275 combat missions . Nido later transferred to the USAAF 's 67th Fighter Group as a P @-@ 51 Mustang fighter pilot . He was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross with four oak leaf clusters and the Air Medal with four oak leaf clusters . Nido co @-@ founded the Puerto Rico Air National Guard and , as Gilormini , retired a Brigadier General .
Captain Robert L. Cardenas , USAAF , served as a B @-@ 24 aircraft pilot in the European Theater of Operations with the 506th Bombardment Squadron . He was awarded the Air Medal and two oak leaf clusters for bombing missions before being shot down over Germany in March 1944 . Despite head wounds from flak , he made his way back to Allied control . On October 14 , 1947 , Cardenas flew the B @-@ 29 launch aircraft that released the X @-@ 1 experimental rocket plane in which Charles E. Yeager became the first man to fly faster than the speed of sound . Cardenas retired as Brigadier General .
2nd Lieutenant César Luis González , USAAF , the co @-@ pilot of a C @-@ 47 , was the first Puerto Rican pilot in the United States Army Air Forces . He was one of the initial participants of the invasion of Sicily on July 10 , 1943 also known as Operation Husky . During the invasion of Sicily , he flew on two night missions , the first on July 9 , where his mission was to release paratroops of 82nd Airborne Division on the area of Gela and the second on July 11 , when he dropped reinforcements in the area . His unit was awarded a " DUC " for carrying out this second mission in spite of bad weather and heavy attack by enemy ground and naval forces . González died on November 22 , 1943 , when his plane crashed during training off the end of the runway at Castelvetrano . He was posthumously promoted to First Lieutenant .
Lieutenant Richard Gomez Candelaria , USAAF , was a P @-@ 51 Mustang pilot from the 435th Fighter Squadron of the 479th Fighter Group . With six aerial victories to his credit , Candelaria was the only pilot in his squadron to make " ace " . Most of his victories were achieved on a single mission on April 7 , 1945 , when he found himself the lone escort protecting a formation of USAAF B @-@ 24 Liberators . Candelaria defended the bombers from at least 15 German fighters , single @-@ handedly destroying four before help arrived . He was also credited with a probable victory on an Me 262 during this engagement . Six days later , Candelaria was shot down by ground fire , and spent the rest of the war as a POW . After the war , Candelaria served in the Air National Guard , reaching the rank of Colonel prior to his retirement .
Lieutenant Francisco Mercado , Jr . , USAAF , flew 35 combat missions as a Bombardier over enemy occupied Continental Europe as a member of the 853rd Bomb Squadron , 491st Bomb Group , 8th Air Force . He was awarded the Air Medal with four Oak Leaf Cluster and the Distinguished Flying Cross . He flew ten missions as the Squadron Lead Bombardier , and one as the Group Lead Bombardier on December 30 , 1944 , on a mission to the Railroad Bridge at Altenahr , Germany . On July 21 , 1944 , he earned a membership into the exclusive " Caterpillar Club " after he parachuted over England while returning from a mission with a crippled B @-@ 24 .
Lieutenant José Antonio Muñiz , USAAF , served with distinction in the China @-@ Burma @-@ India Theater . During his tour of duty he flew 20 combat mission against the Imperial Japanese Army Air Force and shot down a Mitsubishi A6M Zero . In 1960 , Muñiz was flying a formation of F @-@ 86s celebrating the 4th of July festivities in Puerto Rico and upon take off his airplane flamed out and crashed . In 1963 , the Air National Guard Base , at the San Juan International airport in Puerto Rico , was renamed " Muñiz Air National Guard Base " in his honor .
Lieutenant Arthur Van Haren , Jr . , USN , was a fighter pilot who was considered the top fighter ace of World War II from Arizona . He was part of the infamous U.S. Navy Fighting Squadron Two ( VF @-@ 2 " Rippers " ) . Based on the USS Hornet , a United States Navy aircraft carrier of the Essex class , Lt. Van Haren , Jr . , flew the F6F Hellcat . He downed nine confirmed enemy planes during grueling combat in the Pacific Theater skies , and had three additional unconfirmed kills . Three of his nine kills occurred in the Marianas Turkey Shoot . Additionally , Van Haren , Jr. was awarded two Distinguished Flying Cross ( United States ) medals .
Technical Sergeant Clement Resto , USAAF , was not an " ace " but served with the 303rd Bomb Group and participated in numerous bombing raids over Germany . During a bombing mission over Duren , Germany , Resto 's plane , a B @-@ 17 , was shot down . He was captured by the Gestapo and sent to Stalag XVII @-@ B where he spent the rest of the war as a prisoner of war . Resto , who lost an eye during his last mission , was awarded a Purple Heart , a POW Medal and an Air Medal with one battle star after he was liberated from captivity .
Corporal Frank Medina , USAAF , was an air crew member on a B @-@ 24 that was shot down over Italy . He was the only crewmember to evade capture . Medina explained that his ability to speak Spanish had allowed him to communicate with friendly Italians who helped him avoid capture for eight months behind enemy lines .
= = Servicewomen = =
Prior to World War II , traditional Hispanic cultural values expected women to be homemakers , thus they rarely left the home to earn an income . As such , women were discouraged from joining the military . Only a small number of Hispanic women joined the military before World War II . However , with the outbreak of World War II , cultural prohibitions began to change . With the creation of the Women 's Army Auxiliary Corps ( WAAC ) , predecessor of the Women 's Army Corps ( WAC ) , and the U.S. Navy Women Accepted for Volunteer Emergency Service ( WAVES ) , women could attend to certain administrative duties left open by the men who were reassigned to combat zones . While most women who served in the military joined the WAACs , a smaller number of women served in the Naval Women 's Reserve ( the WAVES ) . One of the first Hispanic women to serve in the USAAF was Staff Sergeant Eva Romero Jacques . Romero Jacques , who spoke Spanish and English and had three years of college spent two years in the Pacific Theater , 1944 in New Guinea and 1945 in the Philippines , as an administrative aide . She survived a plane disaster when the craft in which she was on crashed in the jungles of New Guinea .
In 1944 , the Army recruited women in Puerto Rico for the Women 's Army Corps ( WAC ) . Over 1 @,@ 000 applications were received for the unit , which was to be composed of only 200 women . After their basic training at Fort Oglethorpe , Georgia , the Puerto Rican WAC unit , Company 6 , 2nd Battalion , 21st Regiment of the Women 's Army Auxiliary Corps , a segregated Hispanic unit , was assigned to the New York Port of Embarkation to work in military offices that planned the shipment of troops around the world . Among them was PFC Carmen García Rosado , who in 2006 , authored and published a book titled " LAS WACS @-@ Participacion de la Mujer Boricua en la Segunda Guerra Mundial " ( The WACs @-@ The participation of the Puerto Rican women in the Second World War ) , the first book to document the experiences of the first 200 Puerto Rican women who participated in said conflict . However , not all of the WAAC units were stationed in the mainland USA . In January 1943 , the 149th WAAC Post Headquarters Company became the first WAAC unit to go overseas when they went to North Africa . Serving overseas was dangerous for women ; if captured , WAACs , as " auxiliaries " serving with the Army rather than in it , did not have the same protections under international law as male soldiers .
One of the members of the 149th WAAC Post Headquarters Company was Tech4 Carmen Contreras @-@ Bozak , who served in Algiers within General Dwight D. Eisenhower 's theatre headquarters . Contreras joined the Women 's Army Auxiliary Corps ( WAAC ) in 1942 and was sent to Fort Lee , Virginia for training . Contreras volunteered to be part of the 149th WAAC Post Headquarters Company , thus becoming the first Hispanic to serve as an interpreter and in numerous administrative positions . The unit was the first WAAC unit to go overseas , setting sail from New York Harbor for Europe on January 1943 .
Contreras ' unit arrived in Northern Africa on January 27 , 1943 , and rendered overseas duties in Algiers within General Dwight D. Eisenhower 's theatre headquarters , dealing with nightly German air raids . Contreras remembers that the women who served abroad were not treated like the regular Army servicemen . They did not receive overseas payment nor could they receive government life insurance . They had no protection if they became ill , wounded or captured . She served until 1945 and earned the European @-@ African Middle Eastern Campaign Medal with 2 Battle Stars , World War II Victory Medal , American Campaign Medal , Women 's Army Corps Service Medal and the Army Good Conduct Medal .
Mercedes O. Cubria , born in Guantanamo , Cuba , became a United States Citizen in 1924 . She joined the WAC 's in 1943 and served in the U.S. Counter Intelligence gathering information against the enemy . She retired in 1973 with the rank of Lieutenant Colonel .
Other Hispanic servicewomen like Contreras and Cubria served either in the WAACs , WAVES or MCWR ( Marine Corps Women 's Reserve ) ; among them Lieutenant Junior Grade Maria Rodriguez @-@ Denton . The Navy assigned Rodriguez @-@ Denton as a library assistant at the Cable and Censorship Office in New York City . It was Rodriguez @-@ Denton who forwarded the news ( through channels ) to President Harry S. Truman that the war had ended .
= = = Female nurses = = =
When the United States entered World War II , the military was in need of nurses . Hispanic female nurses wanted to volunteer for service , however they were not accepted into the Army Nurse Corps or Navy Nurse Corps . As a result , many women went to work in the factories which produced military equipment . As more Hispanic men joined the armed forces , a need for bilingual nurses became apparent and the Army started to recruit Hispanic nurses . In 1944 , the Army Nurse Corps ( ANC ) decided to accept Puerto Rican nurses . Thirteen women submitted applications , were interviewed , underwent physical examinations , and were accepted into the ANC . Eight of these nurses were assigned to the Army Post at San Juan , Puerto Rico where they were valued for their bilingual abilities . Five nurses were assigned to work at the hospital at Camp Tortuguero in Puerto Rico . One of these nurses was Second Lieutenant Carmen Lozano Dumler .
Second Lieutenant Carmen Lozano Dumler was born and raised in San Juan , Puerto Rico , where she also received her primary and secondary education . After graduating from high school , she enrolled in the Presbyterian Hospital School of Nursing in San Juan where she became a certified nurse in 1944 . On August 21 , 1944 , she was sworn in as a Second Lieutenant and assigned to the 161st General Hospital in San Juan , where she received further training . Upon completing her advanced training , she was sent to Camp Tortuguero where she also assisted as an interpreter .
In 1945 , Lozano Dumler was reassigned to the 359th Station Hospital of Ft . Read , Trinidad and Tobago , British West Indies , where she attended wounded soldiers who had returned from Normandy , France . After the war , Lozano , like so many other women in the military , returned to civilian life . She continued her nursing career in Puerto Rico until she retired in 1975 .
Another Hispanic nurse who distinguished herself in service was Lieutenant Maria Roach . Roach , a recipient of two Bronze Star Medals and an Air Medal , served as a flight nurse with the Army Nurse Corps in the China @-@ Burma @-@ India Theater of Operations .
= = Senior Officers = =
Most of the Hispanics serving as senior military officers during World War II were graduates of the United States Naval Academy . The three highest ranking Hispanic officers who played an instrumental role in the war were Major General ( later Lieutenant General ) Pedro Augusto del Valle — the first Hispanic to reach the rank of General in the U.S. Marine Corps — , Brigadier General ( later Lieutenant General ) Elwood R. " Pete " Quesada of the Army Air Forces and Army Major General Terry de la Mesa Allen .
= = = Generals = = =
Major General del Valle
Lieutenant General Pedro Augusto del Valle ( 1893 – 1978 ) , as a Colonel was the Commanding Officer of the 11th Marine Regiment ( artillery ) . Upon the outbreak of World War II , del Valle led his regiment during the seizure and defense of Guadalcanal , providing artillery support for the 1st Marine Division . In the Battle of the Tenaru , the firepower provided by del Valle 's artillery units killed many assaulting Japanese soldiers — almost to the last man — before they reached the Marine positions . As a result of the outcome of the battle Japanese commander , Colonel Ichiki Kiyonao , committed seppuku shortly afterwards . General Alexander Vandegrift , impressed with del Valle 's leadership , recommended his promotion and on October 1 , 1942 , del Valle became a Brigadier General . Vandegrift retained del Valle as head of the 11th Marines , the only time that the 11th Marines has ever had a general as their commanding officer . In 1943 , he served as Commander of Marine Forces overseeing Guadalcanal , Tulagi , and the Russell and Florida Islands .
On April 1 , 1944 , del Valle , as Commanding General of the Third Corps Artillery , III Marine Amphibious Corps , took part in the Battle of Guam and was awarded a Gold Star in lieu of a second Legion of Merit . The men under his command did such a good job with their heavy artillery that no one man could be singled out for commendation . Instead each man was given a letter of commendation by del Valle , which was carried in his record books .
In late October 1944 , del Valle succeeded Major General William Rupertus as Commanding General of the 1st Marine Division , being personally greeted to his new command by Colonel Lewis Burwell " Chesty " Puller . At the time , the 1st Marine Division was training on the island of Pavuvu for the invasion of Okinawa . On May 29 , 1945 , del Valle participated in one of the most important events that led to victory in Okinawa . After five weeks of fighting , del Valle ordered Company A of the 1st Battalion 5th Marines to capture Shuri Castle , a medieval fortress of the ancient Ryukyuan kings . Seizure of Shuri Castle represented a morale blow for the Japanese and was a milestone in the Okinawa campaign . The fighting in Okinawa would continue for 24 more days . Del Valle was awarded a Distinguished Service Medal for his leadership during the battle and the subsequent occupation and reorganization of Okinawa .
Brigadier General Quesada
Lieutenant General Elwood R. " Pete " Quesada , ( 1904 – 1993 ) was assigned as a Brigadier General in October 1940 to intelligence in the Office of the Chief of Air Corps . He became commanding general of the 9th Fighter Command where he established advanced headquarters on the Normandy beachhead on D @-@ Day plus one , and directed his planes in aerial cover and air support for the Allied invasion of the European continent . He was the foremost proponent of " the inherent flexibility of air power " , a principle he helped prove during World War II .
In December 1942 , Quesada took the First Air Defense Wing to North Africa . Shortly thereafter , he was given command of the XII Fighter Command and in this capacity would work out the mechanics of close air support and Army @-@ Air Force cooperation .
The successful integration of air and land forces in the Tunisia campaign forged by Quesada and the Allied leaders became a blueprint for operations incorporated into Army Air Forces field regulations — FM 100 @-@ 20 , " Command and Employment of Air Power " , first published on July 21 , 1943 — and provided the Allies with their first victory in the European war . Principles such as the co @-@ equality of ground and air force commanders , centralized command of tactical aircraft to exploit " the inherent flexibility of air power " , and the attainment of air superiority over the battlefield as a prerequisite for successful ground operations formed the core of tactical air doctrine . In October 1943 , Quesada assumed command of the IX Fighter Command in England , and his forces provided air cover for the landings on Normandy Beach . Among Quesada 's many military decorations were the Distinguished Service Medal with oak leaf cluster ; Distinguished Flying Cross ; Purple Heart and an Air Medal with two silver star devices .
Major General Terry de la Mesa Allen
Major General Terry de la Mesa Allen , Sr. ( 1888 – 1969 ) was the son of Colonel Samuel Edward Allen and Conchita Alvarez de la Mesa . During World War II he was the commanding general of the 1st Infantry Division in North Africa and Sicily , and was made commander of the 104th Infantry Division . While in North Africa Allen and his deputy 1st Division Commander , Brigadier General Theodore Roosevelt Jr. distinguished themselves as combat leaders . Allen was reassigned to the 104th Infantry Division . The 104th Infantry Division landed in France on September 7 , 1944 and fought for 195 consecutive days during World War II . The division 's nickname came from its timberwolf shoulder insignia . Some 34 @,@ 000 men served with the division under Allen who came to be nicknamed " Terrible Terry " . The division was particularly renowned for its night fighting prowess .
= = = Commanders = = =
In 1941 , Commander Luis de Florez played an instrumental role in the establishment of the Special Devices Division of the Navy 's Bureau of Aeronautics ( what would later become the NAWCTSD ) . He was later assigned as head of the new Special Devices Desk in the Engineering Division of the Navy 's Bureau of Aeronautics . De Florez , who has been credited with over sixty inventions , urged the Navy to undertake development of " synthetic training devices " to increase readiness . During World War II , he was promoted to Captain and in 1944 , to Rear Admiral .
A number of Hispanics served in senior leadership positions during World War II , including Admiral Horacio Rivero , Jr . ( USN ) , Rear Admiral Jose M. Cabanillas ( USN ) , Rear Admiral Edmund Ernest García ( USN ) , Rear Admiral Frederick Lois Riefkohl ( USN ) , Rear Admiral Henry G. Sanchez ( USN ) , Colonel Louis Gonzaga Mendez , Jr . ( USA ) , Colonel Virgil R. Miller ( USA ) , Colonel Jaime Sabater , Sr. ( USMC ) and Lieutenant Colonel Chester J. Salazar ( USMC ) .
Admiral Horacio Rivero , Jr . , USN , served aboard the USS San Juan , providing artillery cover for Marines landing on Guadalcanal , Marshall Islands , Iwo Jima , and Okinawa . Rivero eventually reached the rank of Full @-@ Admiral ( four @-@ stars ) and in October 1962 , found himself in the middle of the Cuban Missile Crisis . As Commander of amphibious forces , Atlantic Fleet , he was on the front line of the vessels sent to the Caribbean by President Kennedy to stop the Cold War from escalating into World War III .
Rear Admiral Edmund Ernest García , USN , was the commander of the destroyer USS Sloat and saw action in the invasions of Africa , Sicily , and France .
Rear Admiral Jose M. Cabanillas , USN , was an Executive Officer of the USS Texas , which participated in the invasions of North Africa and Normandy ( D @-@ Day ) during World War II . In 1945 , he became the first Commanding officer of the USS Grundy ( APA @-@ 111 ) .
Rear Admiral Frederick Lois Riefkohl , USN , was a World War I Navy Cross recipient who served as Captain of the USS Vincennes during World War II . The Vincennes was engaged in combat against a fleet of Japanese ships just off Guadalcanal and received 85 direct hits . Riefkohl ordered his men to abandon ship . The sailors manned the life rafts ; among them was Ensign C. Kenneth Ruiz , who later become a submarine commander .
Rear Admiral Henry G. Sanchez , USN , commanded ( as a Lieutenant Commander ) VF @-@ 72 , an F4F squadron of 37 aircraft , on board the USS Hornet from July to October 1942 . His squadron was responsible for shooting down 38 Japanese airplanes during his command tour , which included the Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands .
Colonel Virgilio N. Cordero , Jr . , USA , was the Battalion Commander of the 31st Infantry Regiment in the Philippines . Survivor of the infamous Bataan Death March , he was awarded three Silver Star Medals and a Bronze Star Medal .
Colonel Louis Gonzaga Mendez , Jr . , USA , was dropped behind German lines as a parachute infantry battalion commander in the Army 's elite 82nd Airborne " All American " Division . For leading the attack that captured the town of Pretot , France , Colonel Mendez was awarded the Army 's Distinguished Service Cross . He was also the recipient of 3 Bronze Star Medals .
Colonel Virgil R. Miller , USA , native of San German , Puerto Rico , was the Regimental Commander of the 442d Regimental Combat Team , a unit which was composed of " Nisei " ( second generation Americans of Japanese descent ) , during World War II . He led the 442nd in its rescue of the Lost Texas Battalion of the 36th Infantry Division , in the forests of the Vosges Mountains in northeastern France .
Colonel Jaime Sabater , Sr. , USMC , commanded the 1st Battalion , 9th Marines during the Bougainville amphibious operations of World War II . Sabater also participated in the Battle of Guam ( July 21 , 1944 – August 10 , 1944 ) as Executive officer of the 9th Marines . On July 21 , 1944 , he was wounded in action and awarded the Purple Heart .
Lieutenant Colonel Chester J. Salazar , USMC , Salazar was the Commanding Officer of the 2d Battalion , 18th Marines . Salazar served as commanding officer the unit in the Gilbert Islands which fought in the Battle of Tarawa and later in the Battles of Saipan and Tinian .
= = = Submarine commanders = = =
Captain Marion Frederic Ramírez de Arellano , ( 1913 – 1999 ) USN , the first Hispanic submarine commanding officer , participated in five war patrols . He led the effort to rescue five navy pilots and one enlisted gunner off Wake Island , and contributed to the sinking of two Japanese freighters and damaging a third . For his actions , he was awarded a Silver Stars Medal and a Legion of Merit Medal .
After a brief stint at the Mare Island Naval Shipyard , he was reassigned to the USS Skate , a Balao @-@ class submarine . He participated in the Skate 's first three war patrols and was awarded a second Silver Star Medal for his contribution in sinking the Japanese light cruiser Agano on his third patrol . The Agano had survived a previous torpedo attack by submarine USS Scamp .
In April 1944 , Ramirez de Arellano was named Commanding Officer of the USS Balao . He participated in his boat 's war patrols 5 , 6 and 7 . On July 5 , 1944 , Ramirez de Arellano led the rescue of three downed wavy pilots in the Palau area . On December 4 , 1944 , the Balao departed from Pearl Harbor to patrol in the Yellow Sea . The Balao engaged and sunk the Japanese cargo ship Daigo Maru on January 8 , 1945 . Ramirez de Arellano was awarded a Bronze Star Medal with Combat V and a Letter of Commendation .
Among the Hispanic submarine commanders were Rear Admiral Rafael Celestino Benítez and Captain C. Kenneth Ruiz .
Rear Admiral Rafael Celestino Benítez , USN , was a lieutenant commander who saw action aboard submarines and on various occasions weathered depth charge attacks . For his actions , he was awarded the Silver and Bronze Star Medals . Benitez would go on to play an important role in the first American undersea spy mission of the Cold War as commander of the submarine USS Cochino in what became known as the " Cochino Incident " .
Captain Charles Kenneth Ruiz , USN , was a crew member of the cruiser USS Vincennes , during the Battle of Savo Island . After being rescued at sea and sent to Pearl Harbor , he was invited by Admiral Chester Nimitz to join the Submarine Service . He served with distinction aboard the submarine USS Pollack and participated in eight war patrols in the hostile waters of the Pacific during World War II and on .
= = Military honors = =
= = = Recipients of the Medal of Honor = = =
The Medal of Honor is the highest military decoration in the United States bestowed " for conspicuous gallantry and intrepidity at the risk of life , above and beyond the call of duty , in actual combat against an armed enemy force . " The medal is awarded by the President of the United States on behalf of the Congress . Joe P. Martinez was the first of 17 Hispanic Medal of Honor recipients during World War II . His posthumous award was the first for combat heroism on American soil ( other than Pearl Harbor ) since the American Indian Wars .
Private Joe P. Martinez , whose birth name was Joseph Pantillion Martinez , was one of nine children born to a family of Mexican immigrants . His family moved to Ault , Colorado and on August 1942 , he was drafted into the United States Army and sent to Camp Roberts , California , where he received his basic training .
On May 26 , 1943 , the 32nd Infantry Regiment was pinned down by enemy fire in the vicinity of Fish Hook Ridge , in the Aleutian Islands . On his own account , Martinez led two assaults , firing into the Japanese foxholes and occasionally stopping to urge on his comrades . His example inspired the men of his unit to follow . Martinez was shot in the head as he approached one final foxhole after the second assault , dying of the wound the following day . Because of his actions the pass was taken , and its capture was an important preliminary to the end of organized hostile resistance . Martinez was posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor .
Prior to March 18 , 2014 , 13 was the total of Medals of Honor awarded to Hispanics for their actions in World War II . On April 28 , 1951 , President Barack Obama announced that on March 18 , 2014 , 4 Hispanics who served in World War II will have their Distinguished Service Cross Medal 's upgraded to the Medal of Honor in a ceremony in the White House . They are : Pvt. Pedro Cano , Pvt. Joe Gandara , Pfc. Salvador J. Lara and Staff Sgt. Manuel V. Mendoza . The award comes through the Defense Authorization Act which called for a review of Jewish American and Hispanic American veterans from WWII , the Korean War and the Vietnam War to ensure that no prejudice was shown to those deserving the Medal of Honor .
Of the 17 Medals of Honor awarded to Hispanics , ten were awarded posthumously . Texas accounted for the most Hispanic Medal of Honor recipients in World War II with a total of five ( Marcario Garcia was raised in Sugar Land , Texas ) . The 17 recipients are :
Lucian Adams : United States Army . Born in Port Arthur , Texas . Place and Date of Action : St. Die , France , October 1944 .
Pedro Cano * : United States Army . Born in La Morita , Mexico . For courageous actions during combat operations in Schevenhutte , Germany , on Dec. 3 , 1944 .
Rudolph B. Davila : United States Army . Born in El Paso , Texas . Place and Date of Action : Artena , Italy , May 28 , 1944 . Davila was of Hispanic @-@ Filipino descent and the only person of Filipino ancestry to receive the medal for his actions in the war in Europe .
Joe Gandara * : United States Army . Born in Santa Monica , California . For courageous actions during combat operations in Amfreville , France , on June 9 , 1944 .
Marcario Garcia : United States Army . Born in Villa de Castano , Mexico . Place and Date of Action : Near Grosshau , Germany , November 27 , 1944 . Garcia was the first Mexican national Medal of Honor recipient .
Harold Gonsalves * : United States Marine Corps . Born in Alameda , California . Place and Date of Action : Ryūkyū Chain , Okinawa , April 15 , 1945 .
David M. Gonzales * : United States Army . Born in Pacoima , California . Place and Date of Action : Villa Verde Trail , Luzon , Philippine Islands , April 25 , 1945 .
Silvestre S. Herrera : United States Army . Born in Camargo , Chihuahua , Mexico . Place and Date of Action : Near Mertzwiller , France , March 15 , 1945 . At the time of his death , Herrera had been the only living person authorized to wear the Medal of Honor and Mexico 's equivalent Premier Merito Militar ( Order of Military Merit ) , Mexico 's highest award for valor . Herrera was a Mexican citizen by birth .
Salvador J. Lara * : United States Army . From Riverside , California . For courageous actions during combat operations in Aprilia , Italy , May 27 – 28 , 1944 .
Jose M. Lopez : United States Army . Born in Mission , Texas . Place and Date of Action : Near Krinkelt , Belgium , December 17 , 1944 .
Joe P. Martinez * : United States Army . Born in Taos , New Mexico . Place and Date of Action : Attu , Aleutians , May 26 , 1943 . Martinez was the first Hispanic American posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor for combat heroism on American soil during World War II .
Manuel V. Mendoza * : United States Army . Born in Miami , Arizona . For courageous actions during combat operations on Mount Battaglia , Italy , on Oct. 4 , 1944 .
Manuel Perez Jr . * : United States Army . Born in Oklahoma City , Oklahoma . Place and Date of Action : Fort William McKinley , Luzon , Philippine Islands , February 13 , 1945 .
Cleto L. Rodriguez : United States Army . Born in San Marcos , Texas . Place and Date of Action : Paco Railroad Station , Manila , Philippine Islands , February 9 , 1945 .
Alejandro R. Ruiz : United States Army . Born in Loving , New Mexico . Place and Date of Action : Okinawa , Japan , April 28 , 1945 .
Jose F. Valdez * : United States Army . Born in Governador , New Mexico . Place and Date of Action : Rosenkrantz , France , January 25 , 1945 .
Ysmael R. Villegas * : United States Army . Born in Casa Blanca , California . Place and Date of Action : Villa Verde Trail , Luzon , Philippine Islands , March 20 , 1945 .
* Awarded posthumously .
= = = Top military decorations = = =
Hispanics were recipients of every major U.S. military decoration during World War II ; they have also been honored with military awards from other countries . Thirty @-@ one Hispanic @-@ Americans were awarded the Belgian Croix de guerre and three Hispanic @-@ Americans received the French Croix de guerre . The figures in the following table were derived from the book Undaunted Courage Mexican American Patriots Of World War II published in 2005 by Latino Advocates for Education , Inc. and according to Rogelio C. Rodriguez of the LAE , the figures are based on listings of military service personnel that have been complied from military records , historical documentation , or personal accounts .
= = = Hero Street , USA = = =
In the Midwest town of Silvis , Illinois , the former Second Street is now known as Hero Street USA . The muddy block and a half long street was home to Mexican immigrants who worked for the Rock Island Railroad . The 22 families who lived on the street were a close @-@ knit group . From this small street , 84 men served in World War II , Korea , and Vietnam . The street contributed more men to military services in World War II and Korea than any other street of comparable size in the U.S. In total , eight men from Hero Street gave their lives during World War II — Joseph Gomez , Peter Macias , Johnny Muños , Tony Pompa , Frank Sandoval , Joseph " Joe " Sandoval , William " Willie " Sandoval and Claro Solis . Second Street 's name was changed to Hero Street in honor of these men and their families .
Of the 22 families on Second Street , the two Sandoval families had a total of thirteen men who served in the armed forces . Three died in service during World War II . The Sandovals were two families of Mexican immigrants , with the same surname and lived on Second Street .
Eduvigis and Angelina Sandoval immigrated to the U.S. from Romita , Mexico . Their son , Frank , was a combat engineer assigned to help build the Ledo Road in Burma . He was killed when his unit was sent unexpectedly to the front to fight for control of a key airbase . His older brother , Joe , was assigned to the 41st Armored Infantry Division in Europe . He was killed in April 1944 , just days before the war ended .
Joseph and Carmen Sandoval also immigrated to the United States from Mexico . When the war broke out , their son Willie asked for permission to enlist in the Army and both parents consented to their son 's request . Willie Sandoval was trained as a paratrooper and was assigned to the 82nd Airborne Division . He fought in Italy and Germany , and was killed on October 6 , 1944 , during a combat mission related to Operation Market @-@ Garden , the largest airborne operation of all time .
Other families like the Sandovals had multiple members join the Armed Forces . The Banuelo family , originally from Mexico and who resided in Los Angeles , California , the Garcia family from Los Angeles , California , and the Mora family from Laredo , Texas , each had six siblings who served in the military during the war . The Nevarez family , from Los Angeles , California , had a total of eight siblings serving in the Armed Forces . Seven brothers of the Medina family known as " The fighting Medinas " , fought in the war . They came from Rio Grande , Puerto Rico and Brooklyn , New York .
= = Home front = =
Some Hispanics in the entertainment business served in the United Service Organizations ( USO ) , which provided entertainment to help troop morale . One notable USO entertainer was Desi Arnaz , the Cuban bandleader who starred opposite Lucille Ball in the television show I Love Lucy . When he was drafted into the army in 1943 , he was classified for limited service because of a prior knee injury . As a result , he was assigned to direct the U.S.O. programs at a military hospital in the San Fernando Valley , California , where he served until 1945 .
Hispanic Americans who lived in the mainland benefited from the sudden economic boom as a result of the war , and the doors opened for many of the migrants who were searching for jobs . After the war , many Puerto Ricans migrated to the United States to find work .
Hispanic women were discouraged from working outside the home prior to World War II , even more than other American women . During World War II , the broad changes in the role of women caused by a need for labor on the home front affected the role of Hispanic women , who worked as secretaries and nurses , helped build airplanes , made ammunition in factories , and worked in shipyards .
Isabel Solis @-@ Thomas and Elvia Solis were born in Veracruz , Veracruz , Mexico . The Solis family immigrated to the United States and moved to Brownsville , Texas . When World War II broke out , both sisters volunteered to become " Rosies " , welding pipes and repairing cargo ships by the war 's end with women of all races from all over the country . Mrs. Solis @-@ Thomas said recruiters wanted women who were small , short and thin for crawling into dangerous places in the ships . She said she worked nine @-@ hour days , six days a week , striking and sealing steel rods with precision and purpose .
Josephine Ledesma , from Austin , Texas , was 24 when the war broke out and worked as an airplane mechanic from 1942 to 1944 . When her husband , Alfred , was drafted she decided to volunteer to work as an airplane mechanic . Even though the army waived her husband 's duty , she was sent to train at Randolph Air Force Base , Texas , where she was the only Mexican @-@ American woman on the base . After her training , she was sent to Bergstrom Air Field . There were two other women , both non @-@ Hispanic , at Bergstrom Air Field , and several more in Big Spring , all working in the sheet metal department . At Big Spring , she was the only woman working in the hangar . She worked as a mechanic between from 1942 to 1944 .
= = Discrimination = =
= = = In the military = = =
During World War II , the United States Army was segregated , and Hispanics were categorized as white . Hispanics , including the Puerto Ricans who resided on the mainland , served alongside their " white " counterparts , while those who were " black " served in units mostly made up of African @-@ Americans . The majority of the Puerto Ricans from the island served in Puerto Rico 's segregated units , like the 65th Infantry and the Puerto Rico National Guard 's 285th and 296th regiments .
Discrimination against Hispanics has been documented in several first @-@ person accounts by Hispanic soldiers who fought in World War II . Private First Class Raul Rios Rodriguez , a Puerto Rican , said that one of his drill instructors was particularly harsh on the Hispanic and black soldiers in his unit during his basic training at Fort Bragg . Private First Class Felix Lopez @-@ Santos , another Puerto Rican , said that he observed some racial discrimination against African Americans , but that he never experienced discrimination himself because of his light eyes and fair complexion . Private First Class Norberto Gonzalez , a Cuban @-@ born New Yorker , experienced discrimination in his all @-@ white battalion , where he was frequently asked about his name and place of birth , and found he was treated differently once fellow soldiers learned he was Hispanic . After being transferred to a black battalion on request , he no longer faced the same problems . Corporal Alfonso Rodriguez , a Mexican @-@ American born in Santa Fe , New Mexico , said that he first experienced racial discrimination during recruit training . A white soldier once demanded that the Rodriguez and other Latinos stop speaking Spanish and speak English , " like Americans " , and Rodriguez was involved in several physical altercations stemming from the incident . Rodriguez was also often referred to using racial insults such as " smart @-@ ass Mexican . "
= = = After returning home = = =
After returning home , Hispanic soldiers experienced the same discrimination felt by other Hispanic Americans . According to one former Hispanic soldier , " There was the same discrimination in Grand Falls ( Texas ) , if not worse " than when he had departed . While Hispanics could work for $ 2 per day , whites could get jobs working in petroleum fields that earned $ 18 per day . In his town , signs read " No Mexicans , whites only " , and only one restaurant would serve Hispanics . The American GI Forum was started to ensure the rights of Hispanic World War II veterans .
Discrimination also extended to those killed during the war . In one notable case , the owner of a funeral parlor refused to allow the family of Private Felix Longoria , a soldier killed in action in the Philippines , to use his facility because " whites would not like it " . Then @-@ U.S. Senator Lyndon B. Johnson and Hector P. Garcia , the Mexican @-@ American World War II veteran who founded the American G.I. Forum , intervened on Longoria 's behalf . Johnson , Lady Bird Johnson , Congressman John Lyle , and President Truman 's military aide Gen. Harry H. Vaughan joined the Longoria family for a full military burial with honors at Arlington National Cemetery on February 16 , 1949 . Johnson stated of the incident , " This injustice and prejudice is deplorable . I am happy to have a part seeing that this Texas hero is laid to rest with the honor and dignity his service deserves . "
= = Post @-@ war commemoration = =
The memory of Hispanic American heroes has been honored in various ways : some of their names can be found on ships , in parks and inscribed on monuments . Captain Linda Garcia Cubero ( USAF ) , while serving as Special Assistant to the Deputy Secretary of Defense , supervised the development of a United States commemorative stamp to honor Hispanics who served in America 's defense . The stamp was designed to honor the ten Hispanic Medal of Honor recipients still alive and was unveiled on October 31 , 1984 .
Latino organizations and writers documented the Hispanic experience in World War II , most notably the U.S. Latino & Latina WWII Oral History Project , launched by Professor Maggie Rivas @-@ Rodriguez of the University of Texas .
The failure of the Ken Burns World War II documentary The War , which aired on PBS in September 2007 , to mention Hispanic contributions to the war spurred protests by the Hispanic community . Officials in PBS announced that Burns ' documentary would include additional content incorporating the Hispanic contributions to the war effort as result of public pressure .
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= 3rd Division ( Australia ) =
The 3rd Division was an infantry division of the Australian Army . Existing during various periods between 1916 and 1991 , it is considered the " longest serving Australian Army division " . It was first formed during World War I , as an infantry division of the Australian Imperial Force and saw service on the Western Front in France and Belgium . During this time it fought major battles at Messines , Broodseinde Ridge , Passchendaele , Amiens , and the St Quentin Canal .
After the war the division was demobilised in 1919 before being re @-@ raised in 1921 as part of the Citizen Forces , based in central Victoria . Throughout the 1920s and 1930s , the division 's establishment fluctuated due to the effects of the Great Depression and a general apathy towards military matters .
During World War II , the division was mobilised for war in December 1941 and initially undertook defensive duties in Australia before being deployed to New Guinea in 1943 where they took part in the Salamaua – Lae campaign against the Japanese in 1943 – 44 , before returning to Australia for rest and reorganisation . In late 1944 they were sent to Bougainville to take part in their final campaign of the war . There they undertook a series of advances across the island before the war came to an end in August 1945 .
Following the end of hostilities the division was disbanded in December 1945 as part of the demobilisation process , but was it later re @-@ raised in 1948 as part of the Citizens Military Force . It subsequently served through the Cold War as a reserve formation until 1991 when the division was disbanded for a final time as the Australian Army was restructured and the focus of Australian field force operations shifted from the divisional @-@ level to brigades .
= = History = =
= = = World War I = = =
= = = = Formation and training = = = =
In early 1916 , following the unsuccessful Gallipoli campaign , the decision was made to expand the size of the Australian Imperial Force ( AIF ) . At the time there were two divisions in Egypt — the 1st and 2nd — and of these , one of them ( the 1st ) was split up to provide a cadre upon which to raise the 4th and 5th Divisions . Around this time the decision to raise a fifth division from fresh volunteers in Australia was also made and as a result the 3rd Division was officially raised on 2 February 1916 .
Upon formation , the division drew its personnel from all Australian states and consisted of three four @-@ battalion infantry brigades — the 9th , 10th and the 11th — and a number of supporting elements including engineers , artillery and medical personnel . Only rudimentary initial training was undertaken before elements of the division began the embarkation process in May and June 1916 as they were moved to the United Kingdom , where the individual sub units concentrated for the first time , received arms and other equipment and began the task of undertaking further training at Lark Hill , on Salisbury Plain . In July the division 's artillery component was formed , consisting of three batteries of 18 @-@ pounders and one 4 @.@ 5 inch howitzer battery . The process of raising and training took some time and consequently the division was not transferred to France until mid November 1916 . Prior to this , however , the division endured proposals to break it up to provide reinforcements to the other four Australian divisions that were already in France . Although these threats passed , in early September 1916 , following losses around Pozières , almost 3 @,@ 000 men from the 3rd Division were transferred . Throughout October it seemed likely that further drafts would be siphoned away from the division , however , this did not occur and in early November two divisional exercises were undertaken . Finally , on 21 November 1916 , the 3rd Division crossed the English Channel and arrived in France .
Under the command of Major General John Monash , the division was assigned to II ANZAC Corps . For the next two years they would take part in most of the major battles that the Australians fought on the Western Front . Initially they were deployed around Armentières in a " quiet " sector of the line , where they gained their first experiences of trench warfare , conducting patrols into No Man 's Land and minor raids on the German trenches opposite them during the winter months .
= = = = Early engagements , 1917 = = = =
By January 1917 the 3rd Division 's artillery had been reorganised so that it consisted of two field artillery brigades , each of which consisted of three six @-@ gun 18 @-@ pounder batteries and twelve 4 @.@ 5 inch howitzers . These brigades were the 7th ( consisting of the 25th , 26th , 27th and 107th Batteries ) and the 8th ( 29th , 30th , 31st and 108th Batteries ) . In April 1917 the division was moved to the Messines – Wytschaete Ridge section of the line in Belgium , taking up a position on the extreme right of II ANZAC Corps , with the New Zealand Division to its left . It was here , in early June 1917 , that the division undertook its first major engagement of the war when it was committed to the fighting during the Battle of Messines . Monash tasked the 9th and 10th Brigades to provide the assault force for the 3rd Division 's part of the operation , while the 11th Brigade was to act as the divisional reserve .
As the division 's assault units began their approach march towards the line of departure late on the evening of 6 June , the German artillery opened up with a gas bombardment that severely hindered the march , breaking up the assaulting units as men became lost . Suffering over 2 @,@ 000 casualties before the battle even began , many of the division 's assault units reached their assembly points with less than 200 men , nevertheless they arrived on time and at the appointed hour , after a number of mines were exploded in front of their positions , the assault began . The exploding mines had destroyed a large part of the German line and as a result initial resistance was quickly overcome by the division 's lead battalions — the 33rd , 34th , 38th and 39th — and by 5 am , the division had gained the crest of the Messines ridge and began digging in to defend against a possible counter @-@ attack . In the engagements that followed the division largely played only a supporting role .
Following this , the division 's next major engagement came on 4 October 1917 when it took part in the Battle of Broodseinde Ridge . This time the 9th Brigade was held back in reserve , while the 10th and 11th Brigades led the division forward . Attacking on the left of the Australian 2nd Division and the right of the New Zealand Division , early on the morning of the scheduled start of the attack the German artillery opened up on the division 's eight assaulting infantry battalions as they stood to in the open ready to step off . Conserving their artillery for the main attack , the supporting Allied artillery only provided limited counter @-@ battery fire and the division suffered heavily as they were forced to endure an hour @-@ long barrage before zero hour came at 6 am . As the 37th and 43rd Battalions led the advance towards the German lines , supported by small teams of mortarmen and machine gunners , the Germans launched their own attack , however , the Australian assault had taken them by surprise and after some initial resistance , the German assault troops began to fall back or surrender . As the follow @-@ on battalions exploited the ground gained in the initial assault the advance continued and by 9 : 15 am the 3rd Division had carried the ridge and begun to dig in , having advanced 2 @,@ 000 yards ( 1 @,@ 800 m ) . A counterattack late in the day on the 11th Brigade 's position was turned back , sealing a stunning success for the 3rd Division . Nevertheless , the division 's casualties were high , with over 1 @,@ 800 men killed or wounded . For his actions during the attack , Walter Peeler , a Lewis @-@ gunner from the 3rd Pioneer Battalion who was attached to 37th Battalion for anti @-@ aircraft duties received the Victoria Cross after he personally led the assault on a number of German positions .
They held the line for a further three days before being withdrawn for rest and reorganisation . On 10 October 1917 the division returned to the front and began to make preparations to assault Passchendaele Ridge , an advance of over 3 @,@ 000 yards ( 2 @,@ 700 m ) . Heavy rain , however , had turned the battlefield into a thick , muddy morass and as a result transportation and resupply efforts were hampered as were attempts to reposition the supporting artillery and as a consequence when the attack went in at 5 : 25 am on 12 October the 9th and 10th Brigades had only limited fire support . With only a fraction of the guns required and limited ammunition , the artillery that was supposed to provide a creeping barrage behind which the infantry were to advance could only provide a thin bombardment . Nevertheless , the mud was so thick that the infantry were unable to keep up with the barrage and , unable to maintain the required rate of advance , they eventually they fell behind the barrage and lost any cover that it might otherwise have provided .
Upon reaching the Bellevue Spur , the assaulting infantry , caught in the open upon the barbed wire in front of the German positions , suffered heavily at the hands of the German artillery that was able to fire without answer from the British batteries that had run out of ammunition . Nevertheless , the 10th Brigade managed to reach its first objective , as did the 9th which even pushed on to its second , however , as they began to receive enfilade fire from their left flank where the New Zealand Division 's attack had ground to a halt , the Germans began massing for a counterattack and the Australian positions quickly became untenable . On the division 's right flank another gap had begun to develop as they lost contact with the Australian 4th Division and as a result the order to retire was passed . As they returned to the start line , the assault units were relieved by the 11th Brigade , which had formed the divisional reserve . By the end of the day , the division had lost almost 3 @,@ 200 men killed or wounded . They played no further offensive role in the battle and were eventually removed from the line on 22 October as the Canadians took over from them .
The fighting around Passchendaele proved to be the division 's last offensive actions for 1917 and they spent the winter months in the rear training , or undertaking defensive duties in reasonably quiet sectors of the line as they were reformed and brought back up to strength . Around this time also , the five Australian divisions on the Western Front were reorganised into a unified command structure under the Australian Corps .
= = = = German Spring Offensive , 1918 = = = =
In March 1918 the Germans launched their Spring Offensive near Saint @-@ Quentin and as the Allied line collapsed , the German forces advanced swiftly into the Somme valley . Believing that another attack would be directed against the forces in the Flanders sector , in an effort to reinforce the British forces there , the Allied commanders recalled the 3rd Division was recalled from its quiet sector around Armentières and sent it to Ypres . The attack came , however , at the Somme and so on 24 March the division was transferred south to help stem the advance and defend the approaches towards the important railhead at Amiens . Temporarily placed under the command of the British VII Corps , the division took up position to the east of Amiens in between the Ancre and Somme Rivers .
Lacking any reserves and possessing only limited artillery support , the division 's engineers prepared the bridges over the rivers for detonation . From 27 March onwards minor actions were fought along the line as the German advance began to reach the Australians . On 30 March a serious attempt at penetrating the line around Sailly @-@ Laurette was held and broken up by the 11th Brigade , with German losses being assessed at around one and a half brigades , or roughly between 3 and 4 @,@ 000 men . On 6 April further attempts were made and in the confusion the charges that had been placed on the Bouzencourt Bridge were fired and it was dropped into the Somme Canal . Nevertheless , the attempt was beaten off by the 10th Brigade . Following this the Australians were able to begin taking the initiative and throughout May they began to slowly recapture some of the ground that had been lost earlier as they undertook a series of peaceful penetration operations .
In June 1918 , the 3rd Division 's commander , Monash , was promoted to take over command of the Australian Corps and as a result Major General John Gellibrand took over as divisional commander .
= = = = Battle of Amiens , 1918 = = = =
On 8 August 1918 , the Allies launched their Hundred Days Offensive around Amiens and the 3rd Division was tasked with leading the Australian Corps part in the attack . By this stage , the divisional artillery consisted of three field brigades , and under the cover of a heavy artillery bombardment provided by nine field brigades that were organised in three supporting sub @-@ groups , and supported by tanks and gas , the attack began at 4 : 20 am . The weight of the Allied fire support was intense as over 2 @,@ 000 artillery pieces opened up on the German defences . The assaulting infantry battalions were each assigned a frontage of about 1 @,@ 000 yards ( 910 m ) which they assaulted with two companies forward and two in support . Thick smoke meant that the attackers found it difficult to maintain their spacing and some of the supporting armour was also delayed . Nevertheless , the attack proved successful , as the Australians overwhelmed the German defenders and by the end of the day the division had achieved all of its objectives .
Throughout the rest of August , they continued offensive operations , even launching daylight raids upon the German positions . On 22 August they attacked once more , advancing through the village of Bray , capturing a number of German prisoners . After a brief lull in the fighting , they continued the advance again on 25 August capturing Clery at the end of the week before taking Allaines on 2 September . Throughout September the Germans began to withdraw back towards the Hindenburg Line and the 3rd Division took part in the operations undertaken to follow them up and harass the rearguard . Casualties during this phase had been high , however , and as a result the division 's pioneers were used as infantry and even led the advance towards Buire on 6 September .
As operations continued throughout the month , casualties amongst the Australian Corps became critical and the decision was made to disband some of the 3rd Division 's battalions and use them to reinforce the remaining units . This decision saw the reduction of the strength of division 's infantry brigades from four battalions to three , bringing the Australians into line with the British , who had made a similar decision earlier in the war . Nevertheless , the decision was not popular amongst the soldiers and when the 42nd Battalion received the order to disband , the attempt was rejected by its personnel and the order disobeyed . As a result , the proposed reorganisation was postponed until after the division 's final offensive actions were fought in early October 1918 . These came around the St Quentin Canal when the division attacked the Beaurevoir Line in concert with American troops from the US 27th Division , who would lead the assault in . The attack went awry , however , when the lead assault units failed to adequately clear the forward positions and subsequently when the 3rd Division was committed they came under fire almost immediately and instead of passing through the American positions , they had to complete the mopping up process before they could advance . Nevertheless , by nightfall on 1 October , the division had captured the northern end of the tunnel that ran under the canal .
On 2 October the majority of the 3rd Division was removed from the line for rest and reorganisation , although a number of its artillery batteries would continue to support the operations of the II American Corps until they were withdrawn . Following this they continued to participate in the fighting in support of the British 6th Division . The 27th Battery fired the division 's last shot of the war on 4 November at Wassigny . Nevertheless , the division was out of the line when news of the Armistice came on 11 November 1918 . Following the end of hostilities the demobilisation process began and as men were repatriated back to Australia , the division was eventually disbanded on 28 May 1919 .
= = = Inter @-@ war years = = =
Following the end of the war , the AIF was disbanded and the focus of Australia 's military forces was the units of the Citizens Force . Between 1918 and 1921 , as the demobilisation process was completed , this force existed in a state of flux , however , in 1921 planning for the post war Army was finally completed . On 1 May 1921 the 3rd Division was re @-@ raised in Victoria as part of the 3rd Military District . Upon formation it consisted of three four @-@ battalion brigades — the 4th Brigade , 10th Brigade and 15th Brigade — and various supporting units including artillery , engineers , signals , transport and medical .
At this time , the existing infantry battalions of the Citizens Force were redesignated to perpetuate the numerical designations of the AIF , and although an attempt was made to allocate these designations based on regional considerations , ultimately this was not always possible and ultimately when the 3rd Division was re @-@ established , only two of its component battalions — the 37th and 39th Battalions — had previously been assigned to the division .
With a peacetime establishment of about 16 @,@ 000 personnel ( 18 @,@ 400 upon mobilisation ) , the division was brought up to strength through the compulsory training scheme . Initially the system worked well and a number of the division 's subunits reported being above establishment , however , this did not last long . In 1922 , the Washington Naval Treaty was signed and theoretically alleviated Australia 's security concerns about Japanese expansion in the Pacific . As a result , the Army 's budget was halved and as the scope of the compulsory training scheme was scaled back , the authorised strength of each infantry battalion was reduced to just 409 men of all ranks . The division 's artillery was also reduced , with one field battery in each artillery brigade being disbanded at this time . As a result of the subsequent reorganisation , the 3rd Division 's artillery consisted of three artillery brigades , the 2nd , 4th and 8th .
In 1929 the compulsory training scheme was suspended following the election of the Scullin Labor government . In its place a new system was introduced whereby the Citizens Force would be maintained on a part @-@ time , voluntary basis only . It was also renamed the " Militia " at this time . The decision to suspend compulsory training , coupled with the economic downturn of the Great Depression meant that the manpower of many Militia units dropped considerably and as a result a number of units were amalgamated . As a part of this process , the division was reduced from 12 infantry battalions to nine as six battalions were merged to form new amalgamated units — 29th / 22nd , 37th / 52nd and 57th / 60th Battalions . To a large extent , however , these were hollow structures and by 1931 the 3rd Division 's overall establishment was just 4 @,@ 505 men all ranks .
Throughout the 1930s the number of active personnel remained low and out of necessity training opportunities were limited . After 1936 , however , the Army attempted to improve the conditions of service for its members and to reinvigorate the training program , while individual units began to undertake their own recruiting campaigns . Nevertheless , it was not until 1938 , as tensions grew in Europe and the prospect of war became more likely , that an attempt was made to expand the establishment of the Militia . At this time an effort was made to determine the readiness of the Militia to expand if mobilised . During the continuous training camps undertaken throughout 1938 , each component unit was assessed with mixed results . The following year , 1939 , saw further expansion and by the end of April of that year , the division 's posted strength had grown to 9 @,@ 589 personnel . As a part of this expansion , the divisional artillery was expanded by the re @-@ raising of the batteries that had been disbanded in 1922 .
= = = World War II = = =
= = = = Home duties = = = =
On 3 September 1939 , Australia found itself once again at war , after attempts at finding a diplomatic solution to the German invasion of Poland had failed . Following the outbreak of World War II , mobilisation began slowly as the government called up a force of about 8 @,@ 000 Militia personnel to undertake security duties in the days following the declaration of war . A short time later , the decision was made to raise an all volunteer force for overseas service , known as the Second Australian Imperial Force ( 2nd AIF ) . This was necessary due to the provisions of the Defence Act ( 1903 ) which precluded deploying the Militia outside of Australian territory , and as a result the government decided to use the Militia to provide a small cadre upon which the 2nd AIF would be raised , as well as to provide training to conscripts as part of the compulsory training scheme which was re @-@ established in early 1940 . Nevertheless , during this time large numbers of officers and senior non commissioned officers from the 3rd Division volunteered for service with the 2nd AIF and many units lost a large amount of their experienced personnel at this time .
Throughout 1940 – 41 , the Militia were called up in cohorts for periods of continuous training , and the 3rd Division , still consisting of the 4th , 10th and 15th Brigades , undertook a series of training camps around Seymour , Victoria . In March 1941 , the division 's artillery was reorganised to bring it in line with the British organisational system with each artillery brigade being converted to a field regiment . Numerical designations stayed the same , however , and by late 1941 the division had completed its transition . This saw its infantry brigades once again reduced from four battalions to three , while various supporting elements were inserted at brigade @-@ level , however , training at this time was still rudimentary and limited mainly to individual skills , and the division 's establishment was recorded as being only half of its authorised wartime establishment . There was also a shortage of modern equipment .
With Japan 's entry into the war following the attacks on Pearl Harbor and Malaya , it became more likely that the division would be called upon to undertake active service overseas , and the division was mobilised for war . In early January 1942 , Major General Stanley Savige , an experienced officer who had commanded the 17th Brigade in combat against the Germans in the Middle East earlier in the war , took over command of the division . Savige set about the task of preparing the division for combat and he began by removing officers that he did not think were physically fit enough or competent to lead in battle and replacing them with men who had gained experience in AIF units . A comprehensive training program was established and in April 1942 the division was assigned to the Australian I Corps , and in order to enable divisional exercises to begin , the 3rd Division moved to Bonegilla , Victoria . In order to toughen the men up , Savige decided that they would march on foot to the new camp .
The following month they were relocated once more , this time to Queensland where they undertook training exercises and defensive duties along the coast between Brisbane and Tweed Heads on the New South Wales border . At this time , the Army began to rectify the deficiencies in the division 's equipment lists and battalions began receiving new machine guns , motor transport and Bren carriers . As the situation in New Guinea grew worse , the decision was made to reorganise the 3rd Division and throughout August , four battalions were amalgamated — the 37th , 52nd , 58th and 59th . In September , the 10th Brigade was disbanded and its battalions reallocated to the 4th and 15th Brigades . In October the 29th and 46th Battalions were also amalgamated , leaving the division with just six infantry battalions in two brigades .
= = = = New Guinea , 1943 – 1944 = = = =
In early 1943 the division was despatched to New Guinea , with the 15th Brigade being sent to Port Moresby and the 4th Brigade going to Milne Bay . At this point the 4th Brigade was reassigned to the 5th Division . It would later be replaced within the division by the 29th Brigade . The division 's stay in Port Moresby was brief and in April it began moving to Wau where they subsumed the units assigned to Kanga Force , including the 17th Brigade , a 2nd AIF formation , and began operations as part of the Salamaua – Lae campaign .
Initially operations were limited to the area immediately surrounding Bulolo , but as the division became established the headquarters was shifted to Tambu Bay and brigades were pushed out towards Mubo , and the Komiatum and Bobdui Ridges , while defensive patrols were undertaken through the Wampit Valley , around the Bulwa and Zenag airstrips and towards the Markham River . Stretched across a front of over 75 miles ( 121 km ) , in June the division was reinforced by the US 162nd Infantry Regiment . Following this the division took on primary responsibility for Allied operations in New Guinea . Eventually Lae fell in September and soon afterwards , its elements were moved back to Port Moresby , before being sent to support the 7th Division 's campaign in the Markham and Ramu Valleys and the advance on Madang .
In August 1944 the 3rd Division 's brigades were withdrawn back to Australia for leave and reorganisation . After this , preparations began for the division 's next campaign . Around this time , the 3rd Division adopted the jungle divisional establishment , and was reorganised around three infantry brigades : the 7th , 15th and 29th Brigades . It was also assigned to the Australian II Corps .
= = = = Bougainville 1944 – 1945 = = = =
In late 1944 it was decided that the Australians would take over responsibility for operations against the Japanese on Bougainville from the Americans . From November – December 1944 , the 3rd Division , along with two independent brigades , the 11th and 23rd , began to relieve the units of the US XIV Corps that were to be transferred elsewhere in the Pacific . Allied intelligence of Japanese strengths on the island varied at the time , although it was believed that there were around 17 @,@ 500 Japanese on Bougainville . Although this was later proved to be grossly incorrect , nevertheless the Allies believed that the Japanese formations in the area , despite being under strength , were still capable of carrying out effective combat operations . As a result , it was decided that II Corps would go on the offensive in order to clear the Japanese from the island and a three pronged campaign was planned in the northern , central and southern sectors of the island .
The division was supported by a number of artillery units including the 2nd and 4th Field Regiments and the 2nd Mountain Battery , and various anti @-@ aircraft units . Later , also ' U ' Heavy Battery , with four 155 mm howitzers was transferred from Lae , as was the 2 / 11th Field Regiment . In order to provide organic fire support during the advance , the decision was made at this time to place the divisional artillery assets directly underneath the subunits they were supporting . At the outset , the division 's allocation of engineers consisted of only two field companies , the 5th and 11th , however over the course of the campaign others arrived including the 10th , 15th and the 7th , which was the last to arrive in June 1945 . Ultimately the division had almost 1 @,@ 600 engineers across five field companies and various supporting plant , park and other units . This represented one of the largest engineer contingents within an Australian division during the war . Initially the division was deployed without armoured support , however , in December 1944 , ' B ' Squadron , 2 / 4th Armoured Regiment , equipped with Matilda II tanks , arrived and subsequently took part in operations on the island attached to elements of the division .
The 7th Brigade , supported by the 2nd Field Regiment , was the first to commence operations , as the 9th Battalion launched a surprise attack in the central sector of the island upon a Japanese outpost at Little George Hill on 25 November . The following month the battalion seized control of Artillery Hill , while the 29th Brigade began patrolling operations in the southern sector .
Following the capture of Pearl Ridge by the 25th Battalion , the focus of the 3rd Division 's operations on Bougainville was shifted on the northern and southern sectors . The 11th Brigade , independent of the 3rd Division , assumed control of the drive to the north , while the 3rd Division concentrated on the drive south towards Buin , where the main Japanese force was concentrated . Rotating his brigades , the division 's commander , Major General William Bridgeford , advanced south from Torokina towards the Puriata river . After crossing it , the Japanese launched a significant counterattack around Slater 's Knoll , which was eventually beaten off in early April .
In April 1945 the 15th Brigade took over from the 7th Brigade and resumed the advance on the Hongorai and Mivo rivers . In early July , the 29th Brigade relieved the 15th and continued the advance and as they attempted to cross the Mivo , the Japanese launched a ferocious counter @-@ attack upon the 15th Battalion which was turned back by desperate defence . Following this the advance came to a halt as torrential rain turned the axis of advance into " a sea of mud " and many of the bridges upon which the Australian supply system was dependent were washed away . As the situation became worse , briefly even patrolling operations had to be stopped . These patrols were resumed , however , in late July and into August , as isolated pockets of Japanese began to attack the 3rd Division 's supply lines and support units . As preparations were made to resume the advance , the dropping of two atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki and Japan 's subsequent unconditional surrender brought the fighting on Bougainville to an end and a cease fire came into effect .
Following the end of hostilities , the demobilisation process began and eventually the 3rd Division was disbanded on 4 December 1945 . During the division 's campaign in Bougainville , one of its soldiers , Reg Rattey , earned the Victoria Cross for his actions during the fighting around Slater 's Knoll .
= = = Cold War = = =
In 1948 , with demobilisation of Australia 's wartime army complete , the decision was made to re @-@ raise the part @-@ time forces of the Militia , albeit with the new name of the Citizens Military Force ( CMF ) , and on a reduced establishment of two infantry divisions , an armoured brigade and various corps @-@ level support units . During this time the 3rd Division was re @-@ raised and based around a nucleus of three infantry brigades — the 4th , 6th and 9th Brigades — it was once again based in central Victoria , although subunits were also based in South Australia and Tasmania . Once again the division 's component units bore little resemblance to those that had fought with it during the two World Wars . Service in the post war CMF was initially on a voluntary basis and recruitment remained poor until 1951 when conscription was introduced once again in an effort to improve the readiness of the Australian military during the Korean War . The 3rd Division was not deployed during this time , however , and although national service was instituted , service in Korea was undertaken on a voluntary basis , and conscription was used only as a means to expand the CMF and provide a base upon which mobilisation could be achieved if it proved necessary .
Nevertheless , the resulting influx of manpower revitalised the CMF to the point that during the 1950s the division experienced a remarkable level of manning and resources that saw many units achieve full strength , with full equipment allocations . On 23 March 1958 a divisional parade was conducted at Puckapunyal , bringing together all of the division 's Victorian @-@ based units in a concentration of force not seen in the division since 1916 . The following year the division conducted a live @-@ fire exercise at Puckapunyal based upon the 4th Brigade and involving over 3 @,@ 500 men , tanks , artillery , aircraft , and various supporting arms . Despite the success demonstrated by the exercise , it would be the last time that the division mounted something similar the national service scheme was modified to limit the size of each yearly intake of trainees and the size of the CMF was reduced by over 30 @,@ 000 men in an effort to free up Regular personnel to raise the 1st Brigade . The 1957 reforms , however , did not achieve the efficiencies required in order to free up Regular personnel to meet the strategic requirements to maintain a regular field force that was ready to respond to the exigencies of the Cold War . As a result , in 1959 the decision was made to suspend national service as it was realised that further changes were required to expand the size of the Regular army . Further changes came with the introduction of the Pentropic divisional establishment into the Australian Army . This saw the reduction of the Army to just two divisions , the 1st and 3rd Divisions , and as a part of this the division was reorganised into five battalion @-@ plus sized battle groups , and resulted in the removal of brigade @-@ level formations and the disbandment and amalgamation of a number of smaller regionally based infantry battalions , into larger units that were part of State @-@ based regiments .
With an authorised peacetime establishment of 13 @,@ 621 personnel , the 3rd Division included formations in five different military command districts including Queensland , New South Wales and Western Australia as well as those in South Australia , Tasmania and Victoria . The main infantry components at this time were : 2nd Battalion , Royal Queensland Regiment ( RQR ) ; 1st Battalion , Royal Victoria Regiment ( RVR ) ; 2nd Battalion , RVR ; 1st Battalion , Royal South Australia Regiment ( RSAR ) ; and 1st Battalion , Royal Western Australia Regiment .
The Australian Army 's experiment with the Pentropic establishment did not last long , however , as it created a number of planning issues including lack of interoperability with other Western allies , none of whom used it . As a result , it was abandoned in late 1964 and into early 1965 and the 3rd Division was once again reorganised . The resulting changes saw the establishment of brigade @-@ level formations , briefly known as " task forces " , however , due to other planning considerations only one was raised for the 3rd Division at this time : the 4th Task Force , consisting of four infantry battalions : 1 , 2 , 5 and 6 RVR .
At the same time , the Australian government announced that the national service scheme would be implemented once again , however , instead of focusing upon expanding the CMF , the scheme was set up so that national servicemen would serve limited terms of service in Australian Regular Army ( ARA ) units with a view to service overseas in Vietnam and Malaysia . This highlighted the changing focus of Australia 's military planning towards Regular forces , however , it had a negative impact upon the division as essentially it was forced to compete with the ARA for manpower and although some gains were made from men that chose to serve longer national service terms in the CMF in order to defer their service in ARA units , these were negligible and arguably of limited quality . The government 's decision not to deploy CMF units to these conflicts meant that many of the division 's experienced personnel chose to transfer to ARA units in order to gain operational experience , although some attempts were made to rectify this situation by offering CMF officers the opportunity to undertake a short attachment to an ARA unit serving in Vietnam and a number of 3rd Division officers took up this opportunity , a few even saw combat .
When the national service scheme was ended following the election of the Whitlam Government in late 1972 , the 3rd Division lost a large number of personnel . At this time , the division 's artillery assets included two artillery field regiments , a medium regiment , and a divisional locating battery , and although on paper the division was a large , combined arms formation , in reality many of its units were hollow and inadequately equipped , and in the decades following this the division , and indeed the CMF in general , underwent a period of uncertainty as the government attempted to solve the issues that the organisation faced , the most pressing of which was the question of its role and strategic relevance , as well as those concerning conditions of service , centralisation of training and access to equipment .
In 1976 the division 's combat strength had dropped to the extent that it was really only a brigade @-@ group formation , possessing only two infantry battalions : 1 and 2 RVR , as well as two field artillery regiments , a medium regiment and a locating battery . As a result , in February the division 's headquarters were merged with the 4th Task Force 's headquarters as the 3rd Division was redesignated as the " 3rd Division Field Force Group " . At the same time , the position of formation commander was downgraded to the rank of brigadier rather than major general . This remained the case until April 1984 when the divisional headquarters was re @-@ established .
In the late 1980s the division was given the task of vital asset protection under the Defence of Australia doctrine and the division undertook a number of exercises in the north of Australia , including " Kangaroo 89 " in which more than 3 @,@ 000 of its personnel took part . Nevertheless , in June 1991 , following a force structure review , the 3rd Division was finally removed from the Australian Army 's order of battle , and its remaining units were transferred to the command of the 4th Brigade .
= = Commanding officers = =
The following is a list of the 3rd Division 's commanding officers :
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= Stanton Drew stone circles =
The Stanton Drew stone circles are just outside the village of Stanton Drew in the English county of Somerset . The largest stone circle is the Great Circle , 113 metres ( 371 ft ) in diameter and the second largest stone circle in Britain ( after Avebury ) ; it is considered to be one of the largest Neolithic monuments to have been built . The date of construction is not known but is thought to be between 3000 and 2000 BCE which places it in the Late Neolithic to Early Bronze Age . It was made a scheduled monument in 1982 .
The Great Circle was surrounded by a ditch and is accompanied by smaller stone circles to the north east and south west . There is also a group of three stones , known as The Cove , in the garden of the local pub . Slightly further from the Great Circle is a single stone , known as Hautville 's Quoit . Some of the stones are still vertical , but the majority are now recumbent and some are no longer present .
The stone circles have been studied since John Aubrey 's visit in 1664 with some excavations of the site in the 18th century . In the late 20th and early 21st centuries geophysical surveys have confirmed the size of the stone circles and identified additional pits and postholes . The Cove has been shown to be around one thousand years older than the stone circles . A variety of myths and legends about the stone circles have been recorded , including one about dancers at a celebration who have been turned to stone .
= = Monument = =
The most famous feature is the Great Circle , the second largest stone circle in Britain ( after Avebury ) . The stone circle is 113 metres ( 371 ft ) in diameter and probably consisted of 30 stones , of which 27 survive today . It was recorded by both John Aubrey in 1664 and William Stukeley in 1776 . The Great Circle probably was surrounded by the ditch ( approximately 135 metres ( 443 ft ) outer diameter — now filled in ) of a henge . The North East Circle is 30 metres ( 98 ft ) in diameter and probably consisted of 10 or more stones , of which 8 survive today . The South West Circle is 43 metres ( 141 ft ) in diameter , and has 12 stones surviving today . An avenue extends to the northeast of the Great Circle towards the River Chew and a second avenue meets it from the north eastern stone circle .
A ( now recumbent ) standing stone called Hautville 's Quoit lies across the river to the north on an alignment with the centres of the Great Circle and the southern circle . It is a large stone close to Hautville Quoit Farm , recumbent since at least the mid 17th century but assumed to have originally been upright . Described by Stukeley in 1723 as being 13 feet ( 4 @.@ 0 m ) long , it is now about half that length , Leslie Grinsell suggesting that fragments have occasionally been broken off for mending the roads . Stukeley also referred to the presence of a second stone .
Further to the west is a cove of two standing stones with a recumbent slab between them , which can be found in the garden of the Druid 's Arms public house . All are of different heights , the stone to the north east being 4 @.@ 4 metres ( 14 ft ) the south western 3 @.@ 1 metres ( 10 ft ) , and the north eastern 1 @.@ 4 metres ( 4 ft 7 in ) . The stones of The Cove are mineralogically different from those in the nearby stone circles . A long barrow burial chamber has been found under the stones of The Cove . It is thought that this predates the erection of the stones by approximately a thousand years .
= = Excavations = =
In 1740 the site was surveyed and mapped by John Wood , the Elder , who noted the different stones used . He suggested the layout was based on the Pythagorean planetary system , and thought it was used as the Druid 's " University " .
When one of the stones fell in the mid 17th century , some human bones were discovered accompanied by an object described as a " round bell , like a large horse @-@ bell " . The burial date and the purpose of the bell @-@ like object are unknown .
= = Geophysical survey = =
Geophysical work by English Heritage in 1997 revealed a surrounding ditch and nine concentric rings of postholes within the stone circle . More than four hundred pits , 1 metre ( 3 ft 3 in ) across and at 2 @.@ 5 metres ( 8 ft 2 in ) intervals , stood in rings at the site . The ditch is 135 metres ( 443 ft ) in diameter and about 7 metres ( 23 ft ) wide . A 40 metres ( 130 ft ) wide entrance was visible on the north east side . No surrounding bank has been identified although the site awaits excavation .
The geophysical work transformed the traditional view of Stanton Drew as being a surface monument and the Great Circle is now seen as being one of the largest and most impressive Neolithic monuments to have been built . Analogous with the circles of postholes at sites at Woodhenge , Durrington Walls and The Sanctuary , it is thought that the pits would have held posts which would have either been freestanding or lintelled as they could not have supported a roof at that size . The postholes in nine concentric rings held posts up to 1 metre ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) in diameter .
Nearby and to the north east is a smaller ring of eight stones in the centre of which the geophysical work identified four further pits . A third ring of twelve stones , measuring 43 metres ( 141 ft ) wide , stands to the south west .
A fluxgate gradiometer survey in July 2009 investigated standing stones in the garden of the Druids Arms public house known as The Cove , which showed that the stones date from nearly a thousand years before the stone circles . The conclusion from the study was that these upright stones are likely to have been the portals or façade of a chambered tomb .
In 2010 a further survey was carried out by Bath and Camerton Archaeological Society and the Bath and North East Somerset Archaeological Officer . This involved high data density magnetometer , resistance pseudosection profiles and photographic surveys showed a new henge entrance and further detail of post holes .
= = Myths about Stanton Drew = =
Being a henge and stone circle site , astronomical alignments are a common theory to explain the positioning of the stones at Stanton Drew . Similarly , there are less well evidenced theories relating to ley lines .
Theories suggest the site was dedicated to funerary ritual . There are several local traditional stories about the megalithic complex . The best known tells how a wedding party was turned to stone : the party was held throughout Saturday , but a man clothed in black ( the Devil in disguise ) came and started to play his violin for the merrymakers after midnight , continuing into holy Sunday morning . When dawn broke , everybody had been turned to stone by the Demon : so the stone circles are the dancers , the avenues are the fiddlers and The Cove is the bride and the groom with the drunken churchman at their feet . They are still awaiting the Devil who promised to come back someday and play again for them .
Wade and Wade in their 1929 book " Somerset " suggest :
One of the curiosities of the place is Hautville 's Quoit , which , to save time , should also be looked for on approaching the village . ( Enter iron gate on L. a few hundred yards before reaching tollhouse , and search backwards along the hedge bordering road . ) It is a large stone , which legend says was hurled by Sir J. Hautville ( whose effigy is in Chew Magna Church ) from the top of Maes Knoll . The famous " druidical remains " will be found near the church . About 50 yards from the entrance to the churchyard take a lane to the L. leading to an orchard : the stones will be observed in the field beyond ( admission free , but field closed on Sundays ) . The " remains " consist of three contiguous circles . The first is of considerable area , and is marked out by twelve large stones , only three of which remain upright ; a smaller circle of eight stones lies just beyond ; and a third circle of eight will be found farther away in an orchard on the R. The two larger circles have each a few scattered stones thrown off as a kind of avenue . Standing apart from the circles is a curious group of three stones huddled together in a garden abutting on the churchyard , from which they can be easily seen by looking over the W. boundary wall . These mystic rings probably had the same origin ( whatever that may have been ) as that of the more famous circle at Avebury in Wiltshire , with which they should be compared . The proximity of Maes Knoll is comparable with that of Silbury Hill . A ridiculous theory suggests that the monoliths were erected as a trophy after one of Arthur 's victories . Arthur is connected to the site because a site in the nearby village of Camerley is reputed to be the location of Camelot in an oral tradition . The stones are of a reddish hue similar to that described in the Arthurian legend as connected to Camelot and to a sword that was seen in a stone near to Camelot . The country story is that a local wedding once took place on a Sunday , when the frivolous guests would insist on winding up with a dance . The penalty for a " Sabbath " thus " profaned " was the prompt transformation of the bridal party into stone . Hence the local appellation of " The fiddlers and the maids " .
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= Lecture Circuit =
" Lecture Circuit " is a two @-@ part episode of the American comedy television series The Office . They constituted the sixteenth and seventeenth episodes of the fifth season , and the 88th and 89th overall episodes of the series . The first episode originally aired on NBC on February 5 , 2009 , and the second on February 12 .
During both episodes , Michael and Pam visit the various branches of Dunder Mifflin to make business lectures , and in particular visit the Utica branch - where Jim 's ex @-@ girlfriend Karen is regional manager , and the Nashua branch , where Michael 's ex @-@ girlfriend and the love of his life , Holly is an H.R. rep . In both episodes , Jim and Dwight hit a snag as the new heads of the Party Planning Committee when they forget Kelly 's birthday . In the first episode , Andy develops a crush on a customer , and in the second episode , Angela 's unhealthy obsession with her cats is spotlighted when she installs a nanny cam .
Both episodes were directed by Ken Kwapis and written by Mindy Kaling , who also plays Kelly Kapoor in the show . " Lecture Circuit " included guest appearances by screenwriter Dan Goor , comedian Rob Huebel and actress Rashida Jones , who reprises her role of Karen Filippelli , a regular character from the third season . Although the character Holly Flax played a major part in the storyline , actress Amy Ryan did not appear in " Lecture Circuit " . The episodes received generally positive reviews . According to Nielsen Media Research , the first part was watched by 8 @.@ 4 million viewers and the second part was watched by 8 @.@ 89 million viewers .
= = Plot = =
= = = Part one = = =
Michael ( Steve Carell ) is asked to visit the Dunder Mifflin branches to lecture about his success in Scranton . He and Pam ( Jenna Fischer ) , who is coming along as his assistant and driver , plan to visit every branch except Nashua because Michael is not ready to face his ex @-@ girlfriend Holly , who works there . They first visit the Utica branch , where former Scranton employee Karen ( Rashida Jones ) is now regional manager . Pam , who is engaged to Karen 's ex @-@ boyfriend Jim ( John Krasinski ) , fears the encounter will be awkward . But Karen is now married and pregnant , and the two get along very well - when Pam reveals her and Jim 's engagement , Karen even offers genuine congratulations . Michael 's lecture in Utica proves to be a disaster when he tries to teach the employees a trick for how to memorize names and ends up insulting everybody . Nevertheless , Pam is ecstatic to have found closure with Karen . Later , on the road , Michael tells Pam that he never found closure with Holly and , at Pam 's suggestion , they decide to blow off the other lectures and drive to Nashua to find Holly .
Back in Scranton , Jim and Dwight ( Rainn Wilson ) have been named the reluctant heads of the Party Planning Committee due to previous fights between Phyllis ( Phyllis Smith ) and Angela ( Angela Kinsey ) . Jim and Dwight prove terrible at the job , especially when an upset Kelly ( Mindy Kaling ) chastises them for forgetting her birthday . They try to make it up to her by throwing a party but they do a poor job , choosing horrible decorations and forgetting Kelly 's age . Dwight reads her file and learns Kelly spent time in juvenile hall , but is disappointed to learn it does not affect her job performance . Meanwhile , Andy ( Ed Helms ) finds himself attracted to Julia , a female potential client who is talking with Stanley ( Leslie David Baker ) . Andy repeatedly acts awkwardly in front of Julia , and accidentally sets off her car alarm while trying to look inside and find out what music she likes . Andy admits his attraction to her to Stanley , who then gives the potential client over to Andy in exchange for two of his clients . After walking her out to the car , Andy tries to kiss her , but is immediately rebuked . Andy apologizes and mentions that he just got out of a relationship . The client claims she also just got out of a relationship and Andy starts feeling a connection , but she still rejects him and he loses the account .
= = = Part two = = =
Michael and Pam arrive at the Nashua branch , only to learn Holly is away on a human relations retreat . They also learn Holly is dating one of the Nashua salesmen named A. J. ( Rob Huebel ) . Deeply upset , Michael is at first unable to go forward with the presentation , but Pam tries to comfort him by telling him that she felt the same way when Jim was dating Karen . She encourages Michael to do the best presentation possible so people will tell Holly about it . He starts the presentation , but it falls apart when Michael starts asking A. J. intimate questions about his relationship with Holly . Michael leaves in the middle of the talk , leaving Pam to awkwardly finish the rest of the presentation . When Michael goes to Holly 's desk he cuts a sleeve off her sweater , and notices a document on her computer called " Dear Michael " , which he copies onto his flash drive . Later , at a diner , Michael tells Pam about the letter , but she insists reading it would be violating Holly 's trust . Pam herself reads the letter and does not tell him the exact contents , but she reassures him Holly still has feelings for Michael and it is not over , giving an ecstatic Michael the closure he sought .
Back in Scranton , the party planning continues to go poorly . Dwight publicly and loudly confronts Kelly about her time in juvenile hall , which turns out to be for stealing the boat of an ex @-@ boyfriend when she was 14 . Kelly also declares she hates the cake Jim picked for her , which is completely blank ; he later decorates it and spells her name incorrectly as " Kelley " . When Kelly insists the party needs a theme , Jim and Dwight are unable to think of anything . They finally settle on offering her one hour of napping or one hour of watching television . She loves the idea and chooses the nap . Meanwhile , Angela appears much happier than usual because she bought a new $ 7 @,@ 000 cat with the money she received from selling Andy 's engagement ring . She has also set up a nanny cam so she can monitor the cats from work . However , she is horrified to see one of her other cats having sex with the new cat , and rushes home to stop it . Later , Kevin ( Brian Baumgartner ) and Oscar ( Oscar Nunez ) watch Angela arrive home on the nanny cam screen , and become disgusted when Angela starts licking the cat to help clean it . Angela eventually returns to work and coughs up a hairball . Oscar claims the image will haunt him for the rest of his life .
= = Production = =
" Lecture Circuit " was directed by Ken Kwapis and written by Mindy Kaling , who also plays Kelly Kapoor in the show . The first episode included a cameo performance by Rashida Jones , a regular cast member during the third season , where she played Jim Halpert 's love interest Karen Filippelli . " Lecture Circuit " aired just two months before Jones began her regular role as Ann Perkins in the NBC comedy series Parks and Recreation , which was created by Office producers Greg Daniels and Michael Schur . Dan Goor , a future writer for Parks and Recreation , made a cameo as Karen 's husband in the photographs featured in the part one episode . Rob Huebel , a comedian best known for the MTV sketch comedy series Human Giant , guest starred as Holly 's boyfriend , A.J. Amy Ryan , who played Holly Flax in previous episodes , did not appear in either " Lecture Circuit " episode , although the decision by Michael and Pam to visit Holly at the end of the first episode led to speculation about whether she would appear in the second .
= = Cultural references = =
Michael handing out candy bars during his lectures is a reference to the third season episode , " Business School " , where Michael passed out chocolate bars during his speech to a business school classroom . Michael expresses regret for insulting Tony Gardner , the heavyset man who briefly transferred from the Stamford branch of Dunder Mifflin to the Scranton branch , who Michael drives to quit by trying to lift onto a table for an orientation demonstration in the third season episode , " The Merger " . Among the Dunder Mifflin branches Michael visits is Nashua , New Hampshire , where Holly works , and Utica , New York , where Karen works . Michael said he can only prepare for his lectures by listening to " silence or Sam Kinison " , an American stand @-@ up comedian known for his extreme and vulgar sense of humor . Michael said he learned the Pledge of Allegiance , the lyrical oath of loyalty to the United States flag , by setting the lyrics to the rhythm of " Old McDonald Had a Farm " , a children 's song about the various animals on a farm . During one lecture , Michael and Pam both do impressions of the protagonist from Forrest Gump , the 1994 film starring Tom Hanks as a mentally handicapped man . Michael also uses the title from the films Good Morning , Vietnam ( at his Nashua lecture by saying " Good morning , Vietna ... shua ! " ) The Princess Bride , Gone with the Wind and Jerry Maguire in his lectures . Holly 's computer has a screensaver with images of Ed Grimley , the nerdy character with a cowlick played by comedian Martin Short in the comedy shows SCTV and Saturday Night Live .
Angela said she sold Andy 's engagement ring on eBay , an online auction website . Creed gives Andy romantic advice and says , " This is how I got Squeaky Fromme " , a reference to the Manson family member who tried to assassinate U.S. President Gerald Ford . A picture of President George W. Bush appears on a fake three @-@ dollar bill Creed gives Jim to pay for the party . Creed suggests Kelly watch The Bonnie Hunt Show , a syndicated talk show hosted by actress Bonnie Hunt . Andy puts Splenda , an artificial sweetener , into Stanley 's coffee because he has adult onset diabetes , a disorder characterized by high blood glucose . Andy sings Julia a song by Feist , the Canadian singer and songwriter , after he spots a Feist CD in her car . Michael takes a document file from Holly 's computer that was created with Microsoft Word , the Microsoft word processing program . Pam said she hates the notion of even Al @-@ Qaeda hating her , a reference to the Islamist terrorist organization that organized the September 11 attacks against New York City . Kelly confesses she went to juvenile detention in Berks County , Pennsylvania , at age 14 for doing something " like Thelma & Louise , but with a boat " , a reference to the 1991 road movie starring Geena Davis and Susan Sarandon on the run from their troubled , caged lives . Jim said during a birthday trip to a museum at age seven , his father bought him a plastic toy triceratops , a three @-@ horned dinosaur from the Late Cretaceous Period , which Dwight insists is not a good dinosaur . Pam remembers the name of one audience member by comparing her to k.d. lang , the Canadian singer known for her extremely short hair .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast on February 5 , 2009 , the first part of " Lecture Circuit " was seen by 8 @.@ 4 million viewers , according to Nielsen Media Research . The original broadcast for the second part on February 12 was seen by 8 @.@ 89 million viewers . The second episode received a 4 @.@ 3 rating / 11 share among viewers aged between 18 and 34 , and a 3 @.@ 8 rating / 9 share among viewers aged between 18 and 49 , numbers which were close to the season 's average rating . The first episode received a 5 @.@ 0 rating / 14 share among viewers aged between 18 and 34 , and a 4 @.@ 3 rating / 11 share among viewers aged between 18 and 49 . Both ratings were three @-@ tenths of a drop from the previous episode , " Stress Relief " , which was heavily viewed because it immediately followed the broadcast of Super Bowl XLIII on NBC . The drop in ratings led some media outlets to speculate that the post @-@ Super Bowl ratings boost was only temporary and would not help The Office in the long run .
Both episodes of " Lecture Circuit " received generally positive reviews . Whitney Pastorek of Entertainment Weekly described them as " nearly perfect " , calling them the two best episodes of the season so far : " ( Writer Mindy Kaling ) nailed the characterizations , the interactions , the tossed @-@ off one @-@ liners , the weird @-@ yet @-@ realistic scenarios ... I wonder how much it helps that she 's out on the acting floor every day , getting attuned to her costars ' rhythms ? " Josh McAuliffe of The Times @-@ Tribune of Scranton , Pennsylvania , said the first " Lecture Circuit " episode was his favorite episode of the fifth season so far , which he said provided several laugh @-@ out @-@ loud moments and a poignancy with Michael 's decision to find Holly . McAuliffe described the second episode as a " satisfying wrap @-@ up " and said Michael 's outburst during the lecture was " one of the most painful Michael meltdown moments in the show 's history " . Alan Sepinwall of The Star @-@ Ledger said the first episode perfectly balanced drama and comedy . He particularly complimented the chemistry between both Carell and Fischer and between Krasinski and Wilson , and said he was particularly pleased to receive closure over the Karen character . But Sepinwall said the second episode felt padded with " material I would have been fine seeing as deleted scenes " . Although he said Carell 's reaction to the news that Holly still has feelings for him as a " wonderful performance " , Sepinwall also said the subplot involving Angela 's cat was particularly unfunny and that subplot with Jim and Dwight , " so brilliant last week , ran out of steam quickly here . "
Nathan Rabin of The A.V. Club said the episode " was full of laughs but had a bit of a bittersweet aftertaste " and had " one hell of a cliffhanger " ending . Rabin praised the Jim and Dwight teaming in the first episode , but said the plot line of Michael 's lectures were predictable and " promised more than it delivered " . Rabin said the second episode " wrapped up everything nicely ( and ) delivered laughs aplenty " ; he particularly enjoyed the subplot involving Angela 's cats , and the fact that it " left the door open for Holly 's return " . Will Leitch of New York magazine praised the cliffhanger ending of the first episode and said he was pleased the Holly character was still in the show 's equation . Leitch also praised Ed Helms , who " is nailing the right combination of ridiculous and sad @-@ sack pathos " , although he said he " ( wasn 't ) nearly as inspired " by the Jim and Dwight subplot . Leitch also enjoyed the second episode , particularly the " legitimately sweet moment " when Pam tells Michael that Holly still has feelings for him . Leitch was less praiseworthy of the Angela subplot involving her cats , and said the character " appears to have officially gone batshit insane . " Travis Fickett of IGN criticized the first episode and said , " I 'm starting to wonder if the show is showing signs of winding down . " Fickett said the idea of Michael giving awkward lecture tours felt old and familiar , so much so that " I was convinced it was a repeat " . He also said the Jim and Dwight idea was funny , but " nothing the show hasn 't tapped before " . Likewise , Fickett described the second episode as " average Office and feels overly familiar without really blazing any new ground . " He also said it was disappointing Holly did not appear , and that Angela felt like a " caricature " in her subplot .
The first part of the episode was voted the fifth highest @-@ rated episode out of 26 from the fifth season , according to an episode poll at the fansite OfficeTally ; the episode was rated 8 @.@ 64 out of 10 . The second part of the episode , however , was voted the third @-@ worst of the season , with a rating of 7 @.@ 14 However , the scene with Angela licking her cat was heavily criticized by reviewers , prompting some observers to describe it as the moment when The Office jumped the shark , a phrase used to describe the moment of downturn for a previously successful television show . When asked about this during an interview , actor Oscar Nuñez responded , " No show is ' Jump the Shark ' -proof , but there have been other moments on The Office that I think were more ' Jump the Shark ' than that . " He did not specify what other moments he meant .
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= Fill the Void =
Fill the Void ( Hebrew : למלא את החלל - lemale et ha 'ḥalal ) is a 2012 Israeli drama film written and directed by Rama Burshtein . It focuses on life among the Haredi Jewish community in Tel Aviv , Israel . Hadas Yaron stars as Shira Mendelman , an 18 @-@ year @-@ old girl who is pressured to marry her older sister 's husband following the death of her sister in childbirth .
The film required a lengthy production period , taking over a year for the casting to be completed and another year and three months for editing . Burshtein , who was doubtful as to how much of the process would be completed , took a step @-@ by @-@ step approach , focusing first on the writing , then on accumulating enough funding for the project , followed by the filming and editing . Burshtein became the first Orthodox Jewish woman to direct a film intended for wide distribution . The film premiered at the 69th Venice Film Festival on 1 September 2012 and was later released in the United States on 24 May 2013 .
Fill the Void was well received by critics for its depiction of Orthodox Jews and their lifestyle . It won seven Israeli Academy Awards , and lead actress Hadas Yaron won Best Actress for her portrayal of Shira at the Venice Film Festival .
= = Plot = =
Shira Mendelman , an 18 @-@ year @-@ old Hasidic girl living in Tel Aviv , is looking forward to an arranged marriage with a young man whom she likes . However , on Purim , her family suffers a tragedy when Shira 's older sister Esther dies in childbirth . Shira 's father subsequently delays the engagement so as not to have to deal with an empty house so soon after Esther 's death . Esther 's husband , Yochay , begins to regularly bring their son , Mordechai , to the Mendelman 's house , where Shira cares for him .
One day , Yochay 's mother approaches Shira 's mother , Rivka , about the possibility of Yochay remarrying , believing it to be best for Mordechai . She plans to suggest an offer from a widow in Belgium . Rivka is distraught by the idea of Mordechai being taken out of the country and suggests that Yochay marry Shira instead . He and Shira both initially oppose the prospect , though he eventually warms to it and she agrees to take it into consideration on learning that her previous engagement has been called off due to her father 's delays .
Shortly afterwards , Frieda , a friend of Esther who has never received any marriage proposals , tells Shira that Esther would have preferred that Yochay marry her in the event of her death . As a result , Shira tells Yochay that Frieda is more suitable , which he takes as an affront .
Shira and Yochay remain distant from one another afterwards , and he announces that he plans to move with Mordechai to marry the widow in Belgium . Shira , pressured by her family , agrees to go forward with the engagement to Yochay , believing it to be the best scenario for everyone . However , the rabbi realizes that Shira is acting to please her family and refuses to condone the marriage .
Time passes , and Shira eventually grows to love Yochay of her own accord . She approaches the rabbi and asks again that she and Yochay be married , and he agrees this time . The film closes with their wedding .
= = Cast = =
Hadas Yaron as Shira Mendelman
Chaim Sharir as Aharon Mendelman
Ido Samuel as Yossi Mendelman
Irit Sheleg as Rivka Mendelman
Yiftach Klein as Yochay Goldberg
Hila Feldman as Freida
Razia Israeli as Aunt Hanna
Renana Raz as Esther Goldberg
Yael Tal as Shiffi
Michael David Weigl as Shtreicher
Neta Moran as Bilha
Melech Thal as Rabbi
= = Production = =
= = = Writing and themes = = =
Fill the Void was written and directed by Rama Burshtein , who , in the course of its production , became the first Orthodox Jewish woman to direct a film intended to be viewed outside of the Orthodox community . In doing so , she hoped to create a greater understanding of the Orthodox community , in part by dispelling the common misconceptions that women are often forced into arranged marriages ; despite the differences in structure , the woman is always given the final say in whom she marries . Burshtein also deliberately avoided depicting a divide between the religious and secular Jews , a theme that commonly appears in films about the Orthodox . She explained :
As a people we are thousands of years old and we exist without that conflict of the secular and the religious . The truth is that most of us do not want to leave our communities . All of those films were always about someone either trying to get out or someone from the outside trying to get in and it was very important for me to say that we also just exist and feel and love and struggle and hurt by ourselves , not always because we 're in conflict .
In her director 's notes , Burshtein wrote , " I love Jane Austen . She 's romantic , intelligent , and full of humor . … The parallel is also quite obvious in that ' Fill the Void ' takes place in a world where the rules are rigid and clear . The characters are not looking for some way to burst out of that world . Instead , they are trying to find a way to live within it . " Critics noted the similarities between Austen 's characters and those in Fill the Void , and Stephanie Merry from The Washington Post likened the character of Frieda to Charlotte Lucas from Pride and Prejudice . Frieda , like Charlotte , has never had any marriage prospects and is the subject of others ' pity as a result .
Merry suggested that , regardless of cultural differences , the story is universal due to " its themes of loss and family loyalty , not to mention the realization that life may not align with our idealized expectations " . Boston Globe correspondent Peter Keough agreed that the " themes of love and loss , self @-@ sacrifice and self @-@ preservation " are applicable to audiences both in and outside the Orthodox community . John Podhoretz , an editor of The Weekly Standard , was surprised that the " state of grace " featured prominently in Fill the Void , perceiving it to be an uncommon concept in Jewish movies .
= = = Casting = = =
Casting the film took a full year to complete , largely because , according to Burshtein , she " didn 't know what [ she ] wanted " . She initially considered using " regular people " with no background in acting before realizing that " non @-@ actors couldn 't handle the complexities of their characters " .
Israeli actress Hadas Yaron , then aged 20 , was cast for the role of Shira , the protagonist of the film . She commented that her character " is much more naïve at 18 than I was when I was 18 , and there was something so special about that and it was like going back to the basics " . Yaron was unfamiliar with Orthodox practice prior to participating in Fill the Void . In order to become better acquainted with Shira 's lifestyle , she started memorizing all of the Hebrew blessings , saying , " There 's something so beautiful about it because you 're being so grateful all the time for everything you do and hoping that everything works out okay and I started doing those blessings every day and it sounds silly but it helps you feel that you are closer to the character . "
Yiftach Klein was cast to act alongside her as Yochay Goldberg . Burshtein remarked that Klein " is a big star in Israel , and has played a pimp , a homosexual , and a cop ( among many other roles ) , so I was not sure you could really believe him as this Orthodox guy . But his audition , and then his chemistry with Hadas were just perfect " .
Additional cast members include Hila Feldman as Frieda , Irit Sheleg as Rivka Mendelman , Chaim Sharir as Aharon Mendelman , Razia Israeli as Aunt Hanna , Renana Raz as Esther Goldberg , Ido Samuel as Yossi Mendelman , Yael Tal as Shiffi , Michael David Weigl as Shtreicher , Neta Moran as Bilha , and Melech Thal as Rabbi .
As most of the main cast was not from the Orthodox community , Burshtein instructed them to attend all of the major events that take place within the film , including a wedding and a circumcision . Yaron commented , " [ At the wedding ] it was so intense and [ the bride ] was crying and she was really in it and I felt like she was my sister because I 'm going to be like her in a while . So it was really helpful to experience all these things and to see how it is and to feel a part of it actually . "
= = = Costumes = = =
Chani Gurewitz oversaw costume design for the film , and much of the low budget was spent on the clothing worn by the actors , which was designed to be soft and colorful . Hasidic style of dress was used , including headgear and heavy attire worn by the males and modest dresses and head coverings worn by the females .
= = = Filming = = =
Burshtein found creating a believable relationship between Yiftach Klein and Hadas Yaron to be one of the more challenging aspects of the production . She hoped to keep the relationship between Yochay and Shira enigmatic , with a strong undercurrent of tension , throughout the film . One method of doing so was ensuring that the actors never touched while filming . She explained , " That 's how we see the enigma — the power of wanting and then restraining . The restraining is the power . The passion cannot exist if you have it all the time — the passion is only for something that you don 't have . You have to work to keep the passion . Judaism is all about that . " Burshtein considered including a scene in which Shira and Yochay kissed about halfway through the movie but decided against it , believing that the energy would be lost .
Yaron had never acted in a role with a romance before and at certain points found it difficult to portray the emotions her character felt when interacting with Yochay . Cinematographer Asaf Sudry assisted in conveying to the audience that the marriage between the lead characters would eventually take place by frequently using sunlight for their scenes .
In general , Sudry designed the visual effects in Fill the Void to create a claustrophobic view point . Blurred backgrounds were often utilized to focus on the faces of the characters , and most of the long takes were shot from an interior perspective . Sudry used Arri Alexa cameras and short @-@ range lenses with limited camera movements to maintain the effect . Burshtein explained that this was done to illustrate that " the heart is very colorful and very small " and that " we as human beings only see fragments of the big picture ; God sees the whole thing ! " While a " documentary feel " was retained throughout most the film 's duration , the style was switched for the wedding scene to create a euphoric atmosphere similar to those used in productions by Terrence Malick and David Lynch .
The film relied on subtext , requiring the actors to " read between the lines " for a number of their scenes . Most of the sentiments are understated , and Burshtein avoided having any of the characters break down or openly become angry when pressured . Yaron described a scene between Yochay and Rivka as her favorite , saying , " I think it 's because there is so much pain there ; it touches you the most when people feel something and try to hide it and you see it . "
Following the completion of filming , Burshtein continued to edit the footage for another year and three months until it was declared complete .
= = = Music = = =
Yitzhak Azulay composed the music played in Fill the Void . He chose primarily melodic and traditional pieces , using them frequently throughout the film . Other soundtrack is composed largely of contemporary Orthodox pop music , and the prayers are " regularly chanted rather than spoken " . The song " Im Eshkachech Yerushalayim " ( Hebrew : אם אשכחך ירושלים , ' If I Forget Thee Jerusalem ' ) features prominently in the film , playing at all three of the major events : the funeral , the Bris Milah , and the wedding . Azulay used an acapella version of the song , which is derived from an excerpt of Psalm 137 and expresses the yearnings of the Jewish people in exile following the Babylonian conquest of Jerusalem in 586 BCE : " If I forget you , O Jerusalem , let my right hand wither ; Let my tongue stick to my palate if I cease to think of you , if I do not keep Jerusalem in memory even at my happiest hour . "
Shira is frequently shown playing the accordion , which Hadas Yaron did not know how to play . She described it as a " very difficult instrument " and stated , " There was so much noise in [ one scene ] . It was like rrrrrrnnnnngh [ as I tried to play ] , I was faking the melody and it was ugly , very weird stuff . I had to really switch this button [ in my head ] like don 't listen to it and feel what you ’ ' re feeling . It took a while because at the beginning , I was very aware of playing this horrible melody , if you could call it a melody , and I knew I had to feel something . It took a few takes because I thought , ' oh , how could [ the crew ] listen to that ? The cinematographer ! ' It took a while to ignore that and just be in the moment . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office = = =
First released in Israel in September 2012 , Fill the Void grossed $ 59 @,@ 164 on its opening weekend . It appeared in three theaters with an average of $ 19 @,@ 721 per theater , ranking at # 38 in the country . During the film 's eight @-@ week release , it appeared in 64 theaters and reached a figure of $ 1 @,@ 468 @,@ 587 for total domestic gross . It was later released in the United States in May 2013 , grossing $ 2 @,@ 418 @,@ 587 worldwide .
= = = Critical reviews = = =
Fill the Void received generally positive reviews , garnering an 88 % " fresh " rating based from 64 reviews on review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes ; the consensus states : " Graceful , complex , and beautifully layered , Fill the Void offers a sympathetic portrait of an insulated culture by exploring universal themes . " Several critics compared the female characters to Jane Austen 's novels . The Weekly Standard editor John Podhoretz opinionated , " I don 't know when I 've ever seen a film as eerily perfect in tone and taste as Fill the Void ... There isn 't a moment when Burshtein goes wrong , goes melodramatic , goes didactic , goes false . Working as a woman of faith in a medium looked on with understandable suspicion and skepticism by those who believe as she does , Rama Burshtein has made a work of art of overwhelming beauty and impact . " The New York Post critic Farran Smith Nehme disagreed , writing , " While the social milieu is nicely realized , other parts of the drama are not . Too often Burshtein cuts off a scene prematurely , darting away just as the crucial moment of emotion or confrontation appears . "
The Boston Globe correspondent Peter Keough gave the film a highly favorable review :
Films tend to confirm , not confront , stereotypes . Not so Israeli director Rama Burshtein 's exquisitely acted , radiantly shot , and delicately nuanced " Fill the Void , " a melodrama set in the ultra @-@ Orthodox Haredi Jewish community of Tel Aviv . By bringing to life complex and sympathetic characters in a precisely observed setting and social framework , and by presenting that isolated world as a microcosm , Burshtein has achieved a gripping film without victims or villains , an ambiguous tragedy drawing on universal themes of love and loss , self @-@ sacrifice and self @-@ preservation .
Deborah Young from The Hollywood Reporter also published a good review , adding that it was " more realistic than beautiful , though when the story calls for it she has no trouble injecting poetry into a scene . " A review in Slant Magazine was equally positive , adding that the film used " long static takes , restricting her shots largely to interiors and strategically alternating between depth staging and blurry backgrounds , Rama Burshtein brings a sense of inevitability and constriction to the insular world of Israeli Hassidic Judaism . " More broadly , Screen International suggested that director " Burshtein paints a perfect bubble that can last only as long as it has no contact with the world outside ( no secular presence is allowed in here ) . "
Additionally , critics praised the respect shown to the film 's portrayal of Orthodox Jews . Jane Esiner from The New York Times suggested that , " While the film may deliver a message at odds with contemporary feminism in the eyes of some critics , the movie portrays female characters with a strength that is both subtle and believable . " A. O. Scott , also from The New York Times , added , " Their routines are dominated by prayer , ritual observance and obedience to Jewish law , but their world does not seem narrow and austere . On the contrary , it is at times almost unbearably full of feeling and significance . "
Scott further commended the acting by Hadas Yaron , saying , " Shira is modest and sensible , forthright with her opinions and discreet about expressing emotion , but the way Ms. Yaron composes her features — and the way she is lighted by Ms. Burshtein and the cinematographer , Asaf Sudry — seems to offer direct access to her soul . " Likewise , Los Angeles Times film critic Kenneth Turan found Yaron 's performance " exceptional " . By contrast , Peter Cavanese from Pleasanton Weekly disliked the idea of Shira marrying under the circumstances in the film and wrote that she " comes across as temperamentally battered by her mother and her potential husband , who is himself slow to see the wisdom of marrying Shira " .
= = = Awards = = =
The film won seven Ophir Awards , the Israeli equivalent of the American Oscars , including one for best director and one for best film . It was selected to compete for the Golden Lion award at the 69th Venice International Film Festival , and Hadas Yaron won the Volpi Cup for Best Actress . In September 2012 , the film was selected as the Israeli entry for the Best Foreign Language Oscar at the 85th Academy Awards , but it did not make the final shortlist .
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= Voćin massacre =
The Voćin massacre was the killing of 43 civilians , mostly Croats , by the Serbian White Eagles paramilitary unit in Voćin , Croatia on 13 December 1991 , during the Croatian War of Independence . The massacre was carried out after the unit was ordered to abandon the village before the Croatian Army ( Hrvatska vojska – HV ) recaptured the area in Operation Papuk @-@ 91 . The unit generally targeted Croats living in the village , but also killed a Serb civilian who tried to protect others . Most of the victims were killed by gunfire , but some of them were killed with axes or chainsaws , or were burned to death . The victims exhibited signs of torture and were left unburied . On the night of 13 / 14 December , the unit also demolished a 550 @-@ year @-@ old church in the village using explosives .
The HV secured Voćin on the night of 14 / 15 December , the Serb population having left the previous night . Afterwards , Croatian soldiers torched many homes belonging to the Serbs who had once inhabited the village . The area was toured by US Congressman Frank McCloskey shortly afterwards . McCloskey publicised the killings at a news conference held in Zagreb the next day , deeming them genocide . He then persuaded Jerry Blaskovich , an Associate Clinical Professor at the University of Southern California Los Angeles County Hospital Medical Center to take part in the investigation of the killings . The International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia ( ICTY ) later charged Slobodan Milošević with the killings and Vojislav Šešelj with the deportation of non @-@ Serbs from Voćin . In 2015 , the International Court of Justice ruled that the massacre in Voćin was not an example of genocide , and stated that Croatia had failed to prove that the killings had even occurred .
= = Background = =
Within the 1991 Yugoslav campaign in Croatia , the 5th ( Banja Luka ) Corps of the Yugoslav People 's Army ( Jugoslovenska Narodna Armija – JNA ) was tasked with advancing north through western Slavonia , from Okučani to Daruvar and Virovitica , and with a secondary drive from Okučani towards Kutina . This task was essentially consistent with the line expected to be reached by the main thrust of the JNA advancing from eastern Slavonia in about a week . The linkup was designed to facilitate a further advance west to Zagreb and Varaždin . The JNA was stopped by the Croatian National Guard ( Zbor Narodne Garde – ZNG ) between Novska , Nova Gradiška and Pakrac , although SAO Western Slavonia Territorial Defense Forces ( Teritorijalna odbrana – TO ) units took positions on the Bilogora and Papuk north of Pakrac , near Virovitica and Slatina with no JNA support . The TO was supported by Serbian paramilitaries deploying to the village of Voćin on the Papuk Mountain in October .
The paramilitaries were the White Eagles under the control of Vojislav Šešelj . He visited Voćin in the following month and incited the paramilitaries to persecute the Croat population . According to testimonies of surviving residents of Voćin , the White Eagles and several local Serbs terrorised the Croat population , reduced to 80 by late 1991 . Prior to the war , ethnic Serbs formed eighty percent of the village 's population .
On 29 October , the ZNG launched Operation Hurricane @-@ 91 against positions held by the JNA and the TO near Novska and Nova Gradiška , and Operation Swath @-@ 10 against the TO positions on the Bilogora Mountain south of Virovitica . Aiming to exploit the success of Operation Swath @-@ 10 and recapture Papuk area , Croatian forces , renamed the Croatian Army ( Hrvatska vojska or HV ) on 3 November , launched Operation Papuk @-@ 91 on 28 November .
= = Killings = =
The HV began advancing in the area of Đulovac , located approximately 5 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 1 miles ) west of Voćin , on 12 December , and the TO were forced to retreat from the area . In turn , the White Eagles were to abandon Voćin , but were ordered to take no prisoners . They were also instructed to ensure the evacuation of the Serb population . Those who refused to leave were threatened and one man was killed in front of his home .
The killing of civilians living in Voćin and two nearby smaller villages began on 13 December at noon . The White Eagles infantry , supported by at least one tank , moved through Voćin bombing Croat @-@ owned houses and killing civilians . The killings and the destruction took twelve hours and claimed the lives of 43 civilians . The bodies of the victims were mutilated and left on display , presumably as a warning to others , outside Voćin itself , to flee or perish . All the victims were Croat civilians , except one 77 @-@ year @-@ old Serb who was reported to had tried to protect his neighbours from the paramilitaries . Most of the victims were elderly , including twelve women aged 56 – 76 and eleven men aged 60 – 84 .
Many of those killed were tortured , beaten using chains and burned . Most of the victims were killed by gunshots , but the cause of death proved hard to establish for eight victims whose bodies were severely burned . A couple was bound with chains and burned alive , two women were killed using axes or similar sharp objects , one of them by several axe blows to her head . Another couple was beheaded and their heads were placed in bags . One of the victims was cut by a chain saw while still alive , and another died trapped in her house which was torched by the paramilitaries . The Serb civilian who attempted to protect the others was also beaten , tortured using lighted cigarettes and heated chains , and then flayed .
At 3 : 00 a.m. , the paramilitaries demolished the Roman Catholic church of the Pilgrimage to the Blessed Virgin Mary in Voćin . They used the 550 @-@ year @-@ old structure as an ammunition depot . In the wake of the explosion , a single wall of the structure remained standing . It is estimated that several tons of explosives were used for the purpose . At the same time , approximately 20 other Croat inhabitants of villages of Bokane , Krašković , Miokovićevo and Zvečevo , further to the south , were reportedly killed .
= = Aftermath = =
The HV captured Voćin on the night of 14 / 15 December , the village 's Serb population having withdrawn the night before . Afterwards , Croatian soldiers torched many homes that belonged to the Serbs who had once inhabited the village . One of the first to arrive in the village following its re @-@ capture was US Congressman Frank McCloskey , who was in Croatia on a fact @-@ finding mission .
McCloskey asked his aide , Pat Mackley , to arrange a press conference in Zagreb the next day , while Mackley persuaded Dr. Jerry Blaskovich , an Associate Clinical Professor at the LAC + USC Medical Center , sent to Croatia to investigate alleged use of chemical weapons , to take part in the investigation of the killings . At the conference , McCloskey called the killings genocide . CNN reporter Mark Dalmish refused to attend the press conference as the network distrusted the reports of the killings , and , according to Dr. Blaskovich , only became interested in the event once Blaskovich 's involvement was announced .
The victims ' bodies were taken to the nearby town of Slatina for forensic examination on 17 December . Mackley contacted Croatian authorities and obtained permission to document the autopsies of the victims , but was denied access by authorities in Slatina . Mackley telephoned Croatian Defence Minister Gojko Šušak asking him to intervene on his behalf , but the local police allegedly disobeyed Šušak . The special police was deployed to Slatina to enforce Šušak 's order to cooperate , almost causing an armed clash over the issue . To settle matters , a team was sent to Slatina by Zagreb University 's Institute for Forensic Medicine to perform autopsies , retrieve bodies and perform the rest of the procedures in Zagreb .
Survivors who took shelter in basements or cornfields , as well as a captured member of the paramilitary forces , later testified about the killings and identified the White Eagles as the perpetrators . In addition , the withdrawing paramilitaries left critical evidence behind , including personnel records confirming the force was indeed the White Eagles associated with Šešelj . US investigator for the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia ( ICTY ) John Cencich corroborated the information in an interview with a witness linking Slobodan Milošević , then president of Serbia to the killings . The ICTY charged Milošević with the deaths of 32 civilians in Voćin . Milošević was subsequently arrested and tried , but he died before his trial was completed . The ICTY also charged Šešelj with involvement in the forced deportation of non @-@ Serb civilians from Voćin , but as of August 2013 his trial is still in progress .
In March 2014 , Croatia alleged before the International Court of Justice ( ICJ ) that the massacre in Voćin was part of a larger campaign of genocide targeting the Croat population of Slavonia . In 2015 , the ICJ ruled that Serb forces had not committed genocide in Croatia , and stated that the Croatian legal team had failed to prove that any mass killing had taken place in Voćin .
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= Jon Scheyer =
Jonathan James " Jon " Scheyer ( Hebrew : ג 'ון שייר ; born August 24 , 1987 ) is an American former basketball player , currently an assistant coach of the Duke Blue Devils men 's basketball team . Scheyer led his high school team to an Illinois state basketball championship as a high school All @-@ American , and was one of the starters on the 2009 – 10 Duke Blue Devils that won the 2010 NCAA Basketball Championship , as a college All @-@ American . He was a prolific high school scorer , and later an Atlantic Coast Conference ( ACC ) leader in numerous statistical categories , ranging from free throw percentage and three point shots / game to assists / turnover ratio .
In high school , he once scored 21 points in a game 's final 75 seconds of play in an attempt to spark a comeback . The 4th @-@ leading scorer in Illinois high school history , he led his team to a state championship in 2005 , and was named Illinois Mr. Basketball in 2006 . Also in 2006 , Scheyer was voted as one of the 100 Legends of the IHSA Boys Basketball Tournament , a group of former players and coaches in honor of the 100 anniversary of the IHSA boys basketball tournament .
He chose to attend Duke for college , for whom he moved from shooting guard to point guard towards the end of the 2008 – 09 season , and was the Most Valuable Player ( MVP ) of the 2009 ACC Men 's Basketball Tournament . In his senior year in 2009 – 10 as Duke 's captain , he led the team to ACC regular season and Tournament championships , and to the NCAA National Championship . He led the championship team in points per game , assists , free throw percentage , and steals per game . Scheyer was a 2010 consensus All @-@ American ( Second Team ) , a unanimous 2009 – 10 All @-@ ACC First Team selection , and was named to the 2010 ACC All @-@ Tournament First Team .
He played the most consecutive games in Duke history ( 144 ) , shot the third @-@ highest free throw percentage ( .861 ) , shot the third @-@ most free throws ( 608 ) , shot the fourth @-@ most 3 @-@ pointers ( 297 ) , and is ranked ninth in scoring ( 2 @,@ 077 points ) . He holds the ACC single @-@ season record for minutes ( 1 @,@ 470 ; in 2009 – 10 ) and the Duke freshman free throw record ( 115 ) , shares the Duke record for points off the bench in a game ( 27 ) , and had the third @-@ longest streak of consecutive free throws in Duke history ( 40 ) . He was not drafted in the 2010 NBA Draft , but played for the 2010 Miami Heat Las Vegas summer league team ; however , playing for the team in July he was poked in the eye by Golden State 's Joe Ingles and suffered a serious , life @-@ changing right eye injury in which his eye 's optic nerve was injured , and he suffered a tear in its retina , which was re @-@ attached surgically . He was a 2010 Los Angeles Clippers training camp invitee , but was waived in the team 's reduction to its final roster . In 2011 he played shooting guard for the Rio Grande Valley Vipers of the NBA D @-@ League .
= = Early life = =
Scheyer was born in Northbrook , Illinois and is the youngest of three children of Laury ( née Hitzel ) and Jim Scheyer . He was raised in his father 's Jewish religion , and was Bar Mitzvah . He began dribbling a basketball at age three and played in his first AAU national tournament six years later . As a youth , he played in a league called the Fellowship of Afro @-@ American Men ( FAAM ) , in Evanston , Illinois . He received a scholarship offer from Marquette University 's Tom Crean as an 8th grader .
= = High school career = =
Because Scheyer 's talent was obvious by the time he was set to start high school , many people encouraged his parents to move so he could attend a high school with a powerhouse basketball program . The move was recommended so that he would have a greater chance of success . Scheyer shrugged off the suggestion , telling his parents : " We 'll just do it here . We 'll build the success at Glenbrook North . " His father said : " I get chills thinking about it . That wasn 't my vision . It wasn 't Laury 's . It wasn 't his coaches ' . That was Jon 's vision , and it never occurred to him that anything else would happen . "
Scheyer attended Glenbrook North High School and led the Spartans to an Illinois High School Association Class AA state basketball championship as a junior , a 3rd @-@ place finish in 2003 as a freshman , and an Elite Eight appearance in the state playoffs three out of four years from 2003 – 06 . Scheyer was known as the " Jewish Jordan " , and the Spartans ' state championship team is the only high school state championship basketball squad in the nation known to have included an all @-@ Jewish starting line @-@ up .
As a freshman , Scheyer led Glenbrook North in scoring and assists and was First Team All @-@ State as a sophomore in 2004 . Scheyer was the only non @-@ senior among those First Team All @-@ State selections and was the only underclassman on any of the first three All @-@ State squads . As a junior , he averaged 26 points , 5 rebounds , and 5 assists . His coach David Weber said : " I call him a combination of Larry Bird and ' Pistol ' Pete ( Maravich ) . He 's got the flair , the passing abilities . He 's got good size . He 's a rare player in this day and age . " Scheyer rose to national fame in his senior year by scoring 21 points in 75 seconds of play during a one @-@ man comeback effort in the last minute and a half of a high school game against Proviso West High School , in an effort to keep alive his team 's 35 @-@ game winning streak . It has been called one of the best performances ever on a high school court . He averaged 32 points , 6 rebounds , 5 assists , and 3 steals for the Spartans as a senior .
One example of his dogged pursuit of excellence is that while in high school , Scheyer refused to leave the gym one night until he made 50 consecutive free throws . After finally hitting 49 in a row , he missed on his final attempt . His father encouraged him to join him and go home , but – as his coach recalled – “ Jon looked at him and said , ‘ No . I ’ m starting over . ’ Then he stayed until he made 50 in a row . ”
Scheyer is the 4th @-@ leading scorer in Illinois history with 3 @,@ 034 points , and he is the only player in state history to finish his career ranked in the all @-@ time top 10 in points ( 4th ) , rebounds , assists ( 6th ) , and steals ( 7th ) . He was named Illinois Mr. Basketball in 2006 by an overwhelming margin ( receiving 217 votes , to 17 for the 2nd @-@ place finisher ) , a high school All @-@ American , a two @-@ time Gatorade state Player of the Year , and a three @-@ time All @-@ State selection . He had a reputation as an exceptional 3 @-@ point shooter , a good defensive rebounder , and a big @-@ game performer . In naming him to the Illinois First @-@ Team for the decade , ESPN wrote that he was " one of the greatest Illinois high school players of all @-@ time " . He was also named to the century @-@ list , the " 100 Legends of Illinois Basketball ( 1908 – 2007 ) " . Illinois Warriors coach Larry Butler said : " Jon Scheyer is one of the most prolific scorers I 've seen in Illinois high school basketball . He was just the ultimate team player . Jon Scheyer would take the shirt off his back to win a game . " A Chicago Sun @-@ Times article observed :
Scheyer 's offensive game is amazing ... He hits jumpers from all manner of pogo @-@ stick angles . He can hit runners while shooting back across his body . He can drive and finish in acrobatic ways . His offensive repertoire of ways to score is like a magician 's bag of tricks . Offensively , he is a modern @-@ day ' Pistol ' Pete Maravich .
= = College career = =
Scheyer 's final four college choices were Arizona , Duke , Illinois , and Wisconsin . On the one hand , his connection with Illinois was strengthened by the fact that his high school coach was Illinois coach Bruce Weber 's brother . In addition , when he had been in junior high school , he had really disliked Duke 's team , because all his friends liked Duke and he wanted to be different . Militating in favor of Duke , however , was the fact that its assistant coach Chris Collins had also attended Glenbrook North . He also believed that playing for the Blue Devils provided him with the best chance of playing in the Final Four . He ultimately chose to attend Duke , where he majored in History .
= = = 2006 – 07 = = =
In the 2006 – 07 season he started all 33 Blue Devils games as a freshman , and scored a season @-@ high 26 points in a loss to North Carolina on February 7 , 2007 . He led all freshmen in the ACC with an .846 free throw percentage , and was eighth in the ACC in minutes per game ( 33 @.@ 7 ) . He was an ACC All @-@ Freshman Team selection , and was named " ACC Rookie of the Week " three times . He tied for second on the team with 39 steals , and averaged 12 @.@ 2 points per game ( third @-@ best on the team ) . He also tied the Duke freshman record by making 115 free throws , and holds the third @-@ longest streak for consecutive free throws made in Duke history at 40 . Though not naturally a point guard , Scheyer spent some time playing the point due to lack of depth at that position . " It was a learning experience , " Scheyer said . " It made me more confident bringing the ball up the court . "
= = = 2007 – 08 = = =
Despite the fact that he was a starter as a freshman , Coach Mike Krzyzewski ( Coach K ) chose to start Gerald Henderson , Jr . , in Scheyer 's place for the majority of the season . Scheyer started only once during his sophomore year , but played in all 34 games . On December 20 , 2007 , he grabbed a career @-@ high 12 rebounds against Pittsburgh . He scored 27 points at Miami on February 20 , 2008 , matching the most points by a player off the bench in Duke history . His free throw percentage ( .889 ) was 2nd in the ACC for the season , 12th in the nation , and 5th @-@ best in school history . He had a team @-@ best 2 @.@ 24 : 1 assist @-@ to @-@ turnover ratio , averaged the third @-@ most minutes @-@ per @-@ game on the team ( 28 @.@ 3 ) , was fourth in scoring ( 11 @.@ 7 ) , and was widely hailed as one of the country 's top sixth men . He averaged 3 @.@ 9 rebounds , 2 @.@ 4 assists , and 1 @.@ 4 steals per game .
= = = 2008 – 09 = = =
Scheyer was named one of three captains for the Blue Devils for the 2008 – 09 season . He scored a then @-@ career @-@ high 30 points against Wake Forest on February 22 , 2009 . On February 19 , Scheyer was moved from shooting guard , where he had played 91 games , to point guard ; there he played well for the last 9 games of the season and into the post @-@ season . As a point guard , he averaged 19 @.@ 7 points and 2 @.@ 5 assists per game , and committed 1 turnover a game . Florida State Seminoles men 's basketball coach Leonard Hamilton said he thought Scheyer had a " calming " influence on the team 's offense .
Scheyer was 7th in the ACC in free throw percentage ( .841 ) for the season , 8th in minutes per game ( 32 @.@ 8 ) , tied for 8th in steals per game ( 1 @.@ 6 ) and three @-@ point field goals made per game ( 2 @.@ 1 ) , and 18th in points per game ( 14 @.@ 9 ) . In the team 's 36 games , Scheyer led the Blue Devils in minutes , free throws , free throw percentage , 3 @-@ point field goals , 3 @-@ point field goal percentage ( .395 ) , assists , and assists per game ( 2 @.@ 8 ) . He was named the MVP of the 2009 ACC Tournament after scoring 29 points in the championship game . Krzyzewski said after the season : " He 's a great competitor . He handles the ball real well . He scores — he scored more when he was bringing the ball up than when he didn 't bring the ball up . I think the more the ball is in Jon 's hands , the better . " Reflecting his off @-@ the @-@ court accomplishments , Scheyer was a 2009 ACC Academic Honor Roll selection .
= = = 2009 – 10 = = =
Scheyer was again named captain along with Lance Thomas . Commenting on his play , Coach Krzyzewski said : " He understands , which most kids , believe me , do not , the value of the ball . He makes really good decisions with the ball , whether it 's a pass , a shot , or the time on the clock . " And : " Some of the plays he makes — you might not think he 's that fast , but he has great body control . " On December 2 , 2009 , he became the first Duke player to record 1 @,@ 400 points , 400 rebounds , 250 assists , 200 3 @-@ point field goals , and 150 steals for a career . On December 16 , he scored 24 of a career @-@ high 36 points in the first half to lead Duke past Gardner @-@ Webb . He shot 11 @-@ of @-@ 13 and hit a career @-@ best seven 3 @-@ pointers while grabbing eight rebounds and getting nine assists . Jay Bilas of ESPN picked Scheyer as starting guard on his mid @-@ season First @-@ Team All @-@ American team in January 2010 , writing :
Scheyer had one of the best assist to turnover ratios in the NCAA . No player in the country has been as efficient with the ball as Scheyer has been ... [ H ] e consistently makes good passes and good decisions . Scheyer leads the nation with a 4 @.@ 8 @-@ to @-@ 1 assist @-@ to @-@ turnover ratio , and when guarded by smaller point guards he will work off the ball , and take advantage of defenders not used to playing off the ball .... There are several other guards who are having great seasons ... but there aren 't many who have had comparable seasons to date .
ESPN play @-@ by @-@ play announcer Dan Schulman said : " He 's not your prototypical break @-@ you @-@ down @-@ off @-@ the @-@ dribble with blow @-@ by @-@ speed kind of point guard . I would describe him as a very cerebral player , a very unselfish player ... He 's been one of the most effective point guards in America . " ESPN 's Doug Gottlieb said Scheyer was making an interesting case for national player of the year . On February 15 , Scheyer became the first player to win the ACC Player of the Week award three times in the 2009 – 10 season ; it was the fourth time he had won the award in his career . After facing him , North Carolina point guard Larry Drew said : " He 's as crafty as you can get . You just don 't like playing against players like that . He can shoot the ball well . He 's quick enough . He 's smart . He knows about angles . He 's a good actor . And he can shoot . " University of Maryland coach Gary Williams observed :
Scheyer 's like an old @-@ time guard ... in that he does everything , in terms of handling the ball , shooting the ball , playing defense .... that 's what makes him so tough , because he can do all those things and do them at a very high level for almost 40 minutes every game ... It 's almost like having more than one player on the court .
ESPN college basketball analyst Jay Williams said in March that Scheyer had been great and was deserving of being the NCAA Player of the Year or perhaps a co @-@ Player of the Year with Greivis Vásquez . Commenting on his demeanor , Sports Illustrated sportswriter Stewart Mandel wrote : " Scheyer is one of the shyest Duke stars in recent memory . The next time he brags or trash @-@ talks will be the first . "
After sinking a 3 @-@ pointer with 18 seconds left to seal a win for Duke over Georgia Tech for the ACC championship , Scheyer said : " This is really exciting . I could do this 100 times . This could never get old . " Despite having struggled with his 3 @-@ point shot all game on 1 – 8 shooting , he said : " Even though I wasn 't hitting , I still wanted the opportunity in the end to shoot the ball . " " Scheyer made an unbelievable shot , " said Georgia Tech coach Paul Hewitt . " If you 're a basketball fan , enjoy it for what it is . " Coach Krzyzewski noted : " There ’ s something about Scheyer that produces wins .... He 's never afraid . " Playing Baylor on March 28 in the Elite Eight , he recalled :
There was a TV timeout with under four minutes in the second half . ... [ W ] e were tied , or down by one . There was 3 : 39 on the clock .... I came to the bench , and was kind of looking around . I thought : ' This is it . It is a three @-@ minute game for our season , everything you 've been working for your whole life . ' I smiled , and went for it . That was the most surreal moment . That is a moment I 'll never forget .
With 2 : 37 remaining , he hit a 3 @-@ pointer to put Duke ahead 67 – 61 . The Blue Devils won as he finished with 20 points , 5 rebounds , and 4 assists . In Duke 's Final Four win over West Virginia , he led the team with 23 points while shooting 5 for 9 from 3 @-@ point range , with 6 assists , no turnovers , and 2 steals .
Duke won the national championship with a 61 – 59 victory over Butler , as Scheyer scored 5 of the team 's last 10 points . After Butler 's Gordon Hayward missed a last @-@ second shot , a media member said to Scheyer : " In the movies , that goes in . " Scheyer laughed , and responded : " Good thing this wasn 't the movies then . " Scheyer had 15 points in the win , and led the team with 5 assists . He became the second player to win an Illinois high school state championship and an NCAA Division I championship , the other having been Quinn Buckner , who won state titles at Thornridge High School in 1971 and 1972 , and then was a champion with Indiana in 1976 . Scheyer played a prank after Duke 's win . He tweeted his more than 6 @,@ 700 Twitter followers : " Hollerrrrr at me ! ! ! 847 @-@ 970- .... ! " . But instead of including his own cell number , it was the cell number of his former high school teammate Zach Kelly . Even Sports Illustrated was taken in by the ruse . After Kelly had received more than 2 @,@ 000 text messages and several hundred calls , Scheyer tweeted his fans , begging them to stop texting and calling his friend . Sports Illustrated featured Scheyer on the cover of their April 12 , 2010 , issue .
When the Duke team went to the White House in honor of their championship in late May , President Obama caught Scheyer off guard by calling him " my homeboy , " when he introduced himself to Scheyer , and then saying it again ( " my homeboy from the Chicago area " ) when he said he had been following Scheyer since his high school days in Chicago . Scheyer said : " that was probably the coolest moment of my life . " Obama also noted that Scheyer , Kyle Singler , and Nolan Smith were the top @-@ scoring trio in the NCAA for the year ( at 52 @.@ 4 points per game ) .
= = = = Records and statistics = = = =
Scheyer set the ACC all @-@ time single @-@ season record for minutes played in 2009 – 10 ( with 1 @,@ 470 , passing Dennis Scott ) . Scheyer said : " I feel as though this is what I 've prepared my whole life to do . There 's never a time in a game when I feel I 'm winded . " In the 2009 – 10 season , he also led the ACC in assist / turnover ratio ( 3 @.@ 0 ; 2nd @-@ best in Duke history to Steve Wojciechowski in 1997 ) , free throw percentage ( .878 ; 7th @-@ best in Duke history ) , and 3 @-@ point FGs made ( 2 @.@ 8 per game ) . He also tied for 2nd in games with 20 or more points ( 17 ) , and was 3rd in scoring ( 18 @.@ 2 points per game ) , 4th in assists ( 4 @.@ 9 per game ) and 3 @-@ point FG percentage ( .383 ) , and 7th in steals ( 1 @.@ 6 per game ) .
For the season , he has also led the nation in assist / turnover ratio . He had 38 double @-@ figure scoring games in the single season ( tied for 3rd @-@ most in Duke history with Elton Brand ) , 110 3 @-@ point field goals ( the 6th @-@ highest Duke season total ; behind Trajan Langdon ) , 194 free throws ( 10th in Duke history , behind J. J. Redick ) , and was the 9th player in Duke history to score over 100 points for four seasons . Freshman guard Andre Dawkins said : " Jon ’ s the glue . He takes the big shots . "
In his career , he played in 144 consecutive games ( most in team history , tied with Chris Duhon ) , played 4 @,@ 759 minutes ( 3rd in both Duke and ACC history , behind Bobby Hurley ) , had an .861 free throw percentage ( 3rd in Duke history , and 6th in ACC history ) , sank 604 free throws ( 3rd in Duke history , behind Christian Laettner and Redick ) , 297 3 @-@ pointers ( 4th in school history , ahead of Bobby Hurley , and 10th in ACC history ) , played 144 games ( tied for 4th on Duke 's all @-@ time list with Duhon ) , and had 114 double @-@ figure scoring games ( 5th all @-@ time at Duke , ahead of Mike Gminski and Grant Hill ) . In addition , he had 208 steals ( 8th in school history , behind Grant Hill ) , and had scored 2 @,@ 077 points ( 9th on Duke ’ s all @-@ time list , behind Jason Williams and Gene Banks ) . Asked to comment on his having passed the career 2 @,@ 000 @-@ points mark , he said : " That 's a pretty cool thing . I don 't know all the names [ of those ] who have hit 2 @,@ 000 , but it 's a great list to be part of . It 's not better than a win tonight , and going to the Sweet 16 , but it 's still a great honor . "
He is the only player in Duke history to record at least 2 @,@ 000 points , 500 rebounds , 400 assists , 250 3 @-@ pointers , and 200 steals in a career .
= = = = Awards = = = =
Scheyer was a 2009 – 10 consensus All @-@ American ( Second Team ) , a Wooden and Lowe ’ s Senior First Team All @-@ American , and was named to the 2009 – 10 All @-@ America Second Teams of the AP , National Association of Basketball Coaches ( NABC ) , Sporting News , and U.S. Basketball Writers Association ( USBWA ) . In 2010 he was also a unanimous All @-@ ACC First Team selection , an ACC All @-@ Tournament First Team pick , and an NCAA South All @-@ Regional and All @-@ Final Four Team selection . In addition , he was named to the NABC and USBWA 2009 – 10 All @-@ District teams , and the Jewish Sports Review Division 1 All @-@ America team . He was also awarded the NABC Senior Achievement Award . He was second in voting for the ACC Player of the Year Award , to Maryland 's Greivis Vasquez .
= = = = Award lists = = = =
In 2010 , Scheyer was one of 6 finalists for the Bob Cousy Award ( as top college point guard ; awarded to Greivis Vasquez ) , and one of 10 finalists for the Lowe 's Senior CLASS Award ( as top NCAA Division I basketball senior ; awarded to West Virginia 's Da 'Sean Butler ) . He was also one of 10 finalists for the John R. Wooden Award , one of 16 finalists for the 2010 Oscar Robertson Trophy , and one of 30 mid @-@ season candidates for the 2010 Naismith Trophy , each a national player of the year award that in the end was awarded to Ohio State 's Evan Turner .
= = Professional career = =
Doug Gottlieb of ESPN opined in early January 2010 that Scheyer " is probably not an NBA player , but his Jewish faith allows him to get an Israeli passport , and he would be a highly coveted player for a team like Maccabi Tel Aviv . "
David Thorpe , ESPN 's resident expert on NBA rookies and noted trainer of NBA prospects , differed with Gottlieb . He noted most NBA teams would benefit by having Scheyer on their team as a sixth man . Chad Ford , ESPN 's draft expert , rated Scheyer within the top @-@ 60 NBA prospects . Asked in March 2010 whether he feels he can make it in the NBA , Scheyer said he was confident he can .
By early April , most NBA draft analysts thought he would be selected in the second round , but Larry Butler , his former AAU coach with the Illinois Warriors , thought he might go late in the first round .
He 's shown his toughness , his will to win . He brings all those little intangibles to the table that the elite players do . He 's always making the right pass , always making the big shots , always making the big plays , always making his free throws .... The kid is a winner . He 's always been a winner .
Eamonn Brennan of ESPN announced the results of his College Basketball Production @-@ Only Mock Draft in late May , meant to indicate how NBA teams would draft if they focused only at how college basketballs players played in college . He ranked Scheyer 6th , saying that as a college player , Scheyer was " ruthlessly effective " .
The Chicago Sun @-@ Times opined that coaches Phil Jackson of the Los Angeles Lakers and Gregg Popovich of the San Antonio Spurs might value Scheyer 's ability to move without the ball , pass , and spot up for jumpers . And one scout pointed to his poise , leadership , feel for the game , threat from the perimeter , smooth stroke , textbook form , and the vital role he played in the championship run , saying Scheyer can hold his own in the NBA and could be a solid backup point guard / no @-@ stats @-@ All @-@ Star similar to Shane Battier .
Scheyer signed with Mark Bartelstein of Priority Sports . Scheyer missed the NBA Draft Combine in late May and lost 10 pounds as he battled mononucleosis , which had him out for approximately three weeks and also forced him to miss his graduation . In June he participated in pre @-@ draft workouts for ten teams , including the Chicago Bulls , Los Angeles Lakers , Milwaukee Bucks , New Jersey Nets , San Antonio Spurs , Utah Jazz , Portland Trail Blazers , Sacramento Kings , and Phoenix Suns . " I 've spent more time at airports than with teams " , said Scheyer , " but it 's such a great opportunity . "
The Dallas Morning News reported in May 2010 that a NBA draft projection of NBADraft.net had the Dallas Mavericks selecting Scheyer with their first pick of the draft ( the draft 's 50th overall pick ) . Bleacher Report carried a mock draft article predicting him being drafted 51st by Oklahoma City , and Yahoo carried one predicting he would be drafted 53rd by the Atlanta Hawks .
Draft Express compared 19 top shooting guards in the draft , on the basis of detailed points @-@ per @-@ possession statistics generated by Synergy Sports Technology . It found that Scheyer ranked as the most efficient overall scorer ( at 1 @.@ 054 PPP ) . His jump shooting ability when open gave him success in spot @-@ up situations ( 1 @.@ 16 PPP ) , but he also ranked well above average in isolation ( .938 PPP ; 3rd ) , and was the most effective pick and roll player on the list ( 1 @.@ 16 PPP ) .
Duke Coach K said he could be a second @-@ round pick ,
but I 'm not sure if that 's even the best thing for [ him ] because when you 're a second @-@ round pick , you belong to a team .... I think it would be better to go to the team that really wants [ him ] because there will be teams that want [ him . He 's ] going to be [ a ] good pro .
He was not drafted , however , in the 2010 NBA Draft . Coach K elaborated on what he had said before the draft : " In the second round , it 's better not to be drafted . As soon as the draft is over , if you are good enough , you will be invited by five or six teams , and you will have a chance to choose who you will play summer league ball with . I would be a little bit surprised if [ Scheyer is ] not on an NBA roster playing next season . "
= = = Miami Heat summer league team ; Eye injury = = =
Scheyer played on the Miami Heat 's 19 @-@ man 2010 NBA Las Vegas Summer League team . He hit the game @-@ winning shot in the team 's first game . In the team 's second game , however , in mid @-@ July , he was poked in the eye by Golden State 's Joe Ingles . He suffered a serious , life @-@ changing right eye injury . He needed five stitches to close a cut to his right eyelid , his eye 's optic nerve was injured , and he suffered a tear in its retina , which was re @-@ attached surgically .
Sidelined initially with an eye @-@ patch and incapacitating headaches , he ultimately returned to the court wearing protective goggles to protect his eyes . Maccabi Tel Aviv coach David Blatt also approached Scheyer about playing in Europe .
= = = LA Clippers training camp = = =
On September 22 , 2010 , Scheyer accepted a training camp invitation with the NBA 's Los Angeles Clippers . Coach Vinny Del Negro observed :
He just knows how to play , and that 's a basketball skill . He 's got such a nice feel for the game , and works so hard . There 's not much maintenance with him . He doesn 't make a lot of mistakes . This is a good chance to take a long look , and see what he can do here .
It was just two months following his serious eye injury , however , and he was not 100 % . On October 9 , he was waived .
= = = Rio Grande Valley Vipers = = =
After some additional time off to recover from his injury , on February 17 , 2011 , Scheyer signed a contract with the Rio Grande Valley Vipers , the Houston Rockets D @-@ League team , which had 16 games left in their season . He had turned down several offers from overseas , and offers from other D @-@ League teams .
Scheyer said his eye had healed from the traumatic injury that he suffered in the NBA Summer League . On March 14 , he had a D @-@ League career @-@ high 21 points and 7 assists against Sioux Falls Skyforce , the next night he broke those personal records with 24 points and 8 assists , and four nights later he scored a new career @-@ high 27 points which included five three @-@ pointers . In 24 regular and post @-@ season games , he averaged 13 @.@ 1 points , 4 @.@ 0 assists , and 4 @.@ 0 rebounds as the team finished the season as runner @-@ up in the championship . Coach K said : " He got back on the horse . He did very well .... I 'd like to see him go play internationally and be a key guy . "
= = = Maccabi Tel Aviv = = =
In June 2011 , Scheyer signed a two @-@ year contract worth a reported $ 450 @,@ 000 with Euroleague contender Maccabi Tel Aviv , the European league 's 2011 runner @-@ up and five @-@ time champion . Maccabi Tel Aviv was 26 – 1 in 2010 – 11 , and included NBA guard Jordan Farmar and former American college players Richard Hendrix ( Alabama ) , Shawn James ( Duquesne ) , and David Blu ( University of Southern California ) . He began playing for Maccabi Tel Aviv when its season started on October 1 , 2011 .
The team is limited to no more than four players who are non @-@ Israeli , but because Scheyer has a Jewish father he had the ability to obtain Israeli citizenship relatively quickly , and did so in September 2011 . As an Israeli citizen , Scheyer does not count towards that limit . " I am really excited to take the next step in my basketball career and go play for Maccabi Tel Aviv , " said Scheyer . " I am looking forward to the opportunity to play for a team with such great tradition . "
= = = Philadelphia 76ers summer league team = = =
Scheyer agreed to play with the Philadelphia 76ers in the 2012 Orlando Summer League . Scheyer played in five games in the summer league , averaging 5 @.@ 8 points and 1 @.@ 4 assists per game .
= = = CB Gran Canaria = = =
After playing this league , he signed for Gran Canaria 2014 to play in the Spanish league .
= = Awards = =
= = Coaching career = =
On April 29 , 2013 , Duke Men 's Basketball Head Coach Mike Krzyzewski announced that he had named Scheyer to his staff as a special assistant after the resignation of assistant coach Chris Collins . With the departure of Steve Wojciechowski from the Blue Devil staff , Scheyer was promoted to a full assistant coach on April 18 , 2014 .
= = Hall of Fame = =
Scheyer was a 2006 Inductee into the National Jewish Sports Hall of Fame . Jonah Keri wrote for ESPN in 2007 : " Scheyer , is an honest @-@ to @-@ goodness M.O.T. If he continues to develop his Redick Lite repertoire , he could eventually become one of the all @-@ time great Jewish basketball stars , right there with Dolph Schayes " .
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= John FitzAlan , 14th Earl of Arundel =
John FitzAlan , 14th Earl of Arundel , 4th Baron Maltravers KG ( 14 February 1408 – 12 June 1435 ) was an English nobleman and military commander during the later phases of the Hundred Years ' War . His father , John FitzAlan , 3rd Baron Maltravers , fought a long battle to lay claim to the Arundel earldom , a battle that was not finally resolved until after the father 's death , when John FitzAlan the son was finally confirmed in the title in 1433 .
Already before this , in 1430 , FitzAlan had departed for France , where he held a series of important command positions . He served under John , Duke of Bedford , the uncle of the eight @-@ year @-@ old King Henry VI . FitzAlan was involved in recovering fortresses in the Île @-@ de @-@ France region , and in suppressing local rebellions . His military career ended , however , at the Battle of Gerbevoy in 1435 . Refusing to retreat in the face of superior forces , Arundel was shot in the foot and captured . His leg was later amputated , and he died shortly afterwards from the injury . His final resting place was a matter of dispute until the mid @-@ nineteenth century , when his tomb at Arundel Castle was revealed to contain a skeleton missing one leg .
Arundel was considered a great soldier by his contemporaries . He had been a successful commander in France , in a period of decline for the English , and his death was a great loss to his country . He was succeeded by his son Humphrey , who did not live to adulthood . The title of Earl of Arundel then went to John 's younger brother William .
= = Family background = =
John FitzAlan was born at Lytchett Matravers in Dorset on 14 February 1408 . He was the son of John FitzAlan , 3rd Baron Maltravers ( 1385 – 1421 ) and Eleanor ( d . 1455 ) , daughter of Sir John Berkeley of Beverstone , Gloucestershire . John FitzAlan the elder , through his great @-@ great @-@ grandfather Richard FitzAlan , 4th Earl of Arundel , made a claim on the earldom of Arundel after the death of Thomas FitzAlan , 5th Earl of Arundel , in 1415 . The claim was disputed , however , by Thomas 's three sisters and their families , foremost among these Elizabeth FitzAlan , who had married Thomas de Mowbray , 1st Duke of Norfolk . It is debatable whether Maltravers ever held the title of Earl of Arundel ; he was summoned to parliament under this title once , in 1416 , but never again . When he died in 1421 , the dispute continued under his son , and it was not until in 1433 that the younger John FitzAlan finally had his title confirmed in parliament . Four years earlier , in July 1429 , he had received his late father 's estates and title .
As a child , John FitzAlan was contracted to marry Constance , who was the daughter of John Cornwall , Baron Fanhope , and through her mother Elizabeth granddaughter of John of Gaunt . The two may or may not have married , but Constance was dead by 1429 , when John married Maud , daughter of Robert Lovell . FitzAlan was knighted in 1426 along with the four @-@ year @-@ old King Henry VI , where he was referred to as " Dominus de Maultravers " ( " Lord Maltravers " ) . In the summer of 1429 he was summoned to parliament , this time styled " Johanni Arundell ' Chivaler " , meaning he was now Lord Arundel . In 1430 , however , in an indenture for service with the king in France , he was styled Earl of Arundel , a title he also used himself . When he was finally officially recognised in his title of Earl of Arundel in 1433 , this was based on the recognition that the title went with the possession of Arundel Castle . In reality though , the grant was just as much a reward for the military services he had by that point rendered in France .
= = Service in France = =
John FitzAlan the father had been a prominent soldier in the Hundred Years ' War under King Henry V , and the son followed in his father 's footsteps . On 23 April 1430 , the younger FitzAlan departed for France in the company of the Earl of Huntingdon . There he soon made a name for himself as a soldier , under the command of the king 's uncle , John , Duke of Bedford . In June he took part in the Siege of Compiègne , where Joan of Arc had recently been captured . Later , he raised the siege of Anglure with the help of the Burgundians . On 17 December 1431 , he was present when Henry VI was crowned King of France in Paris , where he distinguished himself at the accompanying tournament . FitzAlan 's military success led to several important appointments of command ; in November 1431 , he was made lieutenant of the Rouen garrison , and shortly after also captain of Vernon . In January 1432 he was appointed captain of Verneuil . On the night of 3 February he was taken by surprise while in bed at the Great Tower of Rouen Castle , when a band of French soldiers from nearby Ricarville managed to take the castle . Arundel was hoisted down the walls in a basket ; and made his escape . The assailants could not hold the castle , because Marshall Boussac refused to garrison the town ; Guillaume de Ricarville was forced to surrender twelve days later . In April 1432 , FitzAlan was rewarded for his actions so far by initiation into the Order of the Garter . In a separate action from Rouen Arundel was sent to rescue Saint Lo. from an attack by the duke of Alençon 's army , after the town 's captain Raoul Tesson had been appointed to replace Suffolk , who was captured at the Battle of Jargeau . The French retreated to the fastness of Mont St Michel , from where they continued to raid Anglo @-@ Normandy towns , like Granville in 1433 .
From early 1432 onwards , FitzAlan held several regional commands in northern France . One of his tasks was recovering fortresses in the Île @-@ de @-@ France region , at which he was mostly successful . At Lagny @-@ sur @-@ Marne he blew up the bridge to prevent the citizens from reaching the castle , but still failed to take the fortification . In December he was appointed to a regional command in Upper Normandy , but had to defend the town of Sées from a siege . On 10 March 1433 , he issued a pardon to the inhabitants when the town was retaken from the Armangnacs .
In July Arundel was instead made lieutenant @-@ general of Lower Normandy . The earl continued his work of recovering lost fortresses that belonged to Ambrose de Loré , Bonsmoulins was taken easily , but de Loré 's family had occupied Saint @-@ Cenery . After three months of culverin bombardment the walls were breached and most of the garrison killed . The remainder were allowed to march out unharmed .
In the County of Alençon , a young , tall and courageous earl led the campaign that probably took place in 1433 , taking back Saint @-@ Célerin , Sillé @-@ le @-@ Guillaume , where there was a short skirmish . The Armagnacs arrived , and demanded the return of the hostages in the castle ; Arundel feigned to agree and departed . As soon as the Armangnacs rode off Arundel returned and took the castle by assault. and by 1434 Beaumont @-@ le @-@ Vicomte . In December 1433 , Bedford again appointed him commander in Upper Normandy , as well as captain of Pont @-@ de @-@ l 'Arche .
By now the Earl of Arundel might have returned briefly to England in May 1434 , when he was in the process of gathering troops for an English expedition to France . But John , Duke of Bedford was forced to raise loans for the soldiers ' pay in the Maine campaign . That Spring he was joined in Paris by Talbot with nearly 1000 reinforcements from England . Later in May he was replaced as lieutenant of Upper Normandy by John Talbot , Earl of Shrewsbury , and instead received a command between the Seine and Loire rivers . This effectively meant that the two shared the command of Normandy , with Talbot east of the Seine and Arundel to the west . But they combined operations capturing Beaumont @-@ sur @-@ Oise , and then Creil , which was finally taken on 20 June 1434 . In the summer Arundel captured the Mantes @-@ Chartres regional fortresses ; it appeared for a time at least the Armagnacs no longer posed a threat to Paris .
On 8 September , Arundel was also made Duke of Touraine – an area held by the French . The grant was made as a reward for his good service , but also in the hope that he would campaign in the area . In October he was made captain of Saint @-@ Lô , where he had to deal with a rebellion in the Bessin area . The Duke of Alençon was trying to exploit the revolt to take control of Avranches , but Arundel managed to prevent the French advance and ended the rebellion .
But in early 1435 the area of western Normandy erupted in popular revolt . Arundel wads summoned to call muster from Rouen in order to protect Caen . Arundel was joined by another lieutenant @-@ general Lord Scales from his base at Domfront , commanded to relieve Avranches . Alençon intended to build a fortress at Savigny , but when the English found out , the bailli of Cotentin was required to demolish it . With 800 men , Arundel was sent to recover Rue was he learnt that La Hire was fortifying Gerberoy , only 37 miles east of Rouen . Talbot had previously cleared out the Picardy , but when Arundel arrived he discovered to his surprise La Hire and Poton de Xantrailles had already occupied the fortress . He was forced to give battle or besiege .
= = Death and aftermath = =
On the night of 31 May / 1 June 1435 , Arundel was at Mantes @-@ la @-@ Jolie in the Île @-@ de @-@ France , when he was ordered to relocate north to Gournay @-@ sur @-@ Epte ( now Gournay @-@ en @-@ Bray ) . When he was informed that the French had taken over the nearby fortress at Gerberoy , he moved quickly to attack it . The English met with a large French force at Gerberoy . Many withdrew to Gournay in panic , but Arundel remained to fight . In the ensuing battle , Arundel lost many of his men and was himself hit in the foot by a shot from a culverin – a primitive musket . Heavily wounded , he was taken to Beauvais as a captive of the French . According to the French historian Thomas Basin , Arundel was humiliated by his defeat and refused to receive medical treatment for the damage to his foot . The leg was eventually amputated , but Arundel 's life could not be saved ; he died of his injuries on 12 June 1435 , depriving the English of one of their youngest , most able and dedicated military leaders . Arundel was replaced in his command by Lord Scales .
There was long uncertainty about what had happened to the earl 's body . The French chronicler Jehan de Waurin claimed that Arundel had simply been buried in Beauvais . In the mid @-@ nineteenth century , however , the chaplain of the Duke of Norfolk came upon the will of Arundel 's squire , Fulk Eyton , when he died later in 1454 . Eyton maintained therein that he had secured the earl 's body and brought it back to England , for which he had been rewarded with a payment of 1400 Marks . The body was disinterred brought back to England , then entombed in the Fitzalan Chapel of Arundel Castle , as Arundel had expressly wished for in his own will . On 16 November 1857 , the tomb in the Arundel chapel carrying the earl 's effigy was opened . In it was found a skeleton measuring over six feet , with a missing leg .
Arundel 's military career coincided with a period of general decline for the English in France . He had been an unusually successful campaigner . His death was lamented in England and celebrated in France . He was referred to as the " English Achilles " ; the historian Polydore Vergil called him " a man of singular valour , constancy , and gravity . " With his wife , Maud , he had a son , Humphrey , who was born on 30 January 1429 . Humphrey succeeded to his father 's title , but died on 24 April 1438 , while still a minor . John FitzAlan 's younger brother , William , was next in line of succession . William was born in 1417 and was created Earl of Arundel in 1438 when he came of age .
= = FitzAlan family tree = =
The following simplified family tree shows the background for the dispute over the Arundel title and inheritance . Solid lines denote children and dashed lines marriages .
= = = Secondary = = =
J Barker , Conquest : The English Kingdom of France 1417 @-@ 1450 , Little , Brown : London , 2009
C de Beaurepaire , Les Etats d e Normandie sous la Domination Anglaise 1422 @-@ 1435 , Évreux 1859
L Douet @-@ D 'Arcq , ( ed . ) , La Chronique d 'Enguerran de Montsrelet , Paris , 1859 – 62 , vols 3 @-@ 6 .
A J R Pollard , John Talbot and the War in France , 1427 @-@ 1453 , London and New Jersey , 1983
Thomas Rymer , ed . , Foedera , Conventiones , Litterae , London , 1726 – 35 , 10 vols .
Very Rev Canon Tierney , Discoery of the Remains of John , 7th Earl of Arundel , Sussex Archaeological Collections , vol.12 , ( 1860 ) , pp. 232 – 9
J H Wylie , The History of England under Henry the Fifth ( 1896 )
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= Ed , Edd n Eddy ( season 2 ) =
The second season of the Canadian @-@ American animated comedy television series Ed , Edd n Eddy , created by Danny Antonucci , originally aired on Cartoon Network from November 26 , 1999 , to December 22 , 2000 , and consists of 26 episodes . The series revolves around three adolescent boys collectively known as " the Eds " , who live in a suburban cul @-@ de @-@ sac . Unofficially led by Eddy , the Eds constantly scheme to make money off their peers in order to purchase their favorite confectionery , jawbreakers . However , their plans usually fail , leaving them in various predicaments .
The first season was a success in Nielsen ratings , prompting Cartoon Network for a November 1999 premiere . While the first season itself received generally positive reviews , the second season proved to be an improvement in reception , garnering acclaim and earning two Leo Awards , while the first received one .
The Complete Second Season DVD was released in Region 1 in 2007 . The Ed , Edd n Eddy DVD volume Edifying Ed @-@ Ventures , also featured season two episodes . Both DVDs were published by Warner Home Video . Many Cartoon Network compilation DVDs featured episodes from the season . It can also be purchased from the iTunes Store . It was written by Antonucci , Jono Howard , Mike Kubat , and Robert Leighton .
= = Development = =
= = = Concept = = =
Ed , Edd n Eddy follows the lives of three adolescent boys who all share variations of the name Ed , but differ greatly in their personalities . In the pursuit of buying jawbreakers and fitting in with the other kids , dimwitted Ed and intellectual Double Dee aid the self @-@ appointed leader , Eddy , in his plans to scam the other children in their cul @-@ de @-@ sac out of their money during a perpetual summer vacation ; however problems always ensue . The other children mostly dislike or show indifference to the Eds , though they all share a common fear of the Kanker Sisters , a group of teenage girls who live in the nearby " Park n ' Flush " trailer park . The series takes place mostly within the fictional town of Peach Creek , and new locations were rarely introduced .
= = = Production and cast = = =
Danny Antonucci , a cartoonist known for his edgy adult work such as Lupo the Butcher and The Brothers Grunt , was dared by someone to prouduce a children 's cartoon . In 1996 , Antonucci pitched Ed , Edd n Eddy , which he conceived while designing a commercial , to Cartoon Network and Nickelodeon . After Cartoon Network agreed to give Antonucci creative control over the show , the series went into production and premiered its first season on January 4 , 1999 .
According to Cartoon Network executive Linda Simensky , the first season did " remarkably well " in ratings ever since its premiere , becoming one of the top @-@ rated series on the network and prompting Cartoon Network to quickly order a second season for a November 1999 premiere , making it one of four seasons which Ed , Edd n Eddy was set to run . Antonucci stated that change in the characters from the first to the second season is " very " noticeable , due to the amount of development they 've went through . Antonucci directed the season , and co @-@ wrote the episodes with Jono Howard and Mike Kubat , although Robert Leighton was credited as a co @-@ writer for " To Sir with Ed " .
The cast mostly remained the same as in season one ; Matt Hill , Samuel Vincent and Tony Sampson were cast as Ed , Double Dee , and Eddy , David Paul Grove as Jonny 2x4 , Keenan Christenson as Jimmy , Janyse Jaud as Sarah and Lee Kanker , Kathleen Barr as Kevin and Marie , Peter Kelamis as Rolf , and Erin Fitzgerald as May Kanker , but Tabitha St. Germain , the voice of Nazz , was replaced by Fitzgerald .
= = Reception = =
= = = Reviews and accolades = = =
The second season of Ed , Edd n Eddy was generally acclaimed by critics and marked an improvement in reception from the first season . In 2000 , the season won Danny Antonucci the Leo Award for Best Director of an Animated Production . In 2001 , Patric Caird was nominated for the Leo Award for Best Musical Score of an Animation Program or Series , for his work on the episode " Ed in a Halfshell " .
In his review of The Complete Second Season DVD , David Cornelius of DVD Talk considered the Eds adolescent equivalents of The Three Stooges , believing : " The series revels in the sort of frantic , often gross humor kids love so much , and there 's just enough oddball insanity at play to make adults giggle just as easily . " Cornelius also concurred that the " animation is colorful and intentionally bizarre ; bold lines forming the characters and backgrounds wiggle and morph in a delirious haze . This is animation that 's , well , really animated . "
= = = Home media = = =
Two Ed , Edd n Eddy DVDs which featured a number of season 2 episodes were released by Warner Home Video in Region 1 from 2005 to 2007 . The DVD volume titled Edifying Ed @-@ Ventures was released on May 10 , 2005 , featuring three season two episodes out of a total six . The Complete Second Season was released on April 24 , 2007 . Both DVDs can also be purchased on the Cartoon Network Shop . The season is also available for download on the iTunes Store . Selected episodes from the season were also featured on several Cartoon Network compilation DVDs .
= = Episodes = =
Note : All episodes directed by Danny Antonucci
= = DVD release = =
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= Albertus Soegijapranata =
This is an Indonesian name ; it does not have a family name . The name Albertus is a baptismal name , and the subject should be referred to by his birth name Soegija or his adult name Soegijapranata , as appropriate .
Mgr . Albertus Soegijapranata , SJ ( [ alˈbərtʊs suˈɡijapraˈnata ] ; Perfected Spelling : Albertus Sugiyapranata ; 25 November 1896 – 22 July 1963 ) , better known by his birth name Soegija , was the Apostolic Vicar of Semarang and later its archbishop . He was the first native Indonesian bishop and known for his pro @-@ nationalistic stance , often expressed as " 100 % Catholic , 100 % Indonesian " .
Soegija was born in Surakarta , Dutch East Indies , to a Muslim courtier and his wife . The family moved to nearby Yogyakarta when Soegija was still young ; there he began his education . Known as a bright child , around 1909 he was asked by Father Frans van Lith to join Xaverius College , a Jesuit school in Muntilan , where Soegija slowly became interested in Catholicism . He was baptised on 24 December 1910 . After graduating from Xaverius in 1915 and spending a year as a teacher there , Soegija spent two years at the on @-@ site seminary before going to the Netherlands in 1919 . He began his two @-@ year novitiate with the Society of Jesus in September 1920 in Grave , and finished his juniorate there in 1923 . After three years studying philosophy at Berchmann College in Oudenbosch , he was sent back to Muntilan as a teacher for a further two years . In 1928 , he returned to the Netherlands to study theology at Maastricht , where he was ordained by Bishop of Roermond Laurentius Schrijnen on 15 August 1931 ; Soegija then added the word " pranata " to the back of his name . He was then sent back to the Indies to preach and became a parochial vicar at the parish in Kidul Loji , Yogyakarta , and in 1934 he was given his own parish in Bintaran . There he focused on creating a sense of Catholicism within the native community , emphasising the need for strong bonds between Catholic families . Soegijapranata was consecrated as the vicar apostolic of the newly established Apostolic Vicariate of Semarang in 1940 .
Although the population of native Catholics expanded greatly in the years following his consecration , Soegijapranata was soon faced with numerous trials . The Empire of Japan invaded the Indies beginning in early 1942 , and during the ensuing occupation numerous churches were seized and clergymen were arrested or killed . Soegijapranata was able to resist several of these seizures , and spent the rest of the occupation serving the Catholics in his vicariate . After President Sukarno proclaimed the country 's independence in August 1945 , Semarang was overcome with unrest . Soegijapranata helped broker a ceasefire after a five @-@ day battle between Japanese and Indonesian troops and called for the central government to send someone to deal with the unrest and food shortages in the city . However , these problems continued to grow , and in 1947 Soegijapranata moved his seat to Yogyakarta . For the remainder of the national revolution Soegijapranata worked to promote international recognition of Indonesia 's independence . Soon after the Dutch , who had returned in late 1945 , recognised the country 's independence , Soegijapranata returned to Semarang . During the post @-@ revolution years he wrote extensively against communism and expanded the church ; he also served as a mediator between several political factions . He was made an archbishop on 3 January 1961 , when Semarang was elevated to an ecclesiastical province . At the time he was in Europe , participating in the first session of the Second Vatican Council . Soegijapranata died in 1963 , in Steyl , the Netherlands . His body was flown back to Indonesia , where he was made a national hero and interred at Giri Tunggal Heroes ' Cemetery in Semarang .
Soegijapranata continues to be viewed with respect by both Catholic and non @-@ Catholic Indonesians . Several biographies have been written , and in 2012 a fictionalised biopic by Garin Nugroho , entitled Soegija , was released to popular acclaim . Soegijapranata Catholic University , a large university in Semarang , is named after him .
= = Early life = =
Soegija was born on 25 November 1896 in Surakarta to Karijosoedarmo , an abdi dalem ( courtier ) at the Sunanate of Surakarta , and his wife Soepiah . The family was abangan Muslim , and Soegija 's grandfather Soepa was a kyai ; Soegija followed their religion . Soegija – whose name was derived from the Javanese word soegih , meaning rich – was the fifth of nine children . The family later moved to Ngabean , Yogyakarta . There , Karijosoedarmo began to serve as a courtier at the Kraton Ngayogyakarta Hadiningrat to Sultan Hamengkubuwono VII , while his wife sold fish ; despite this , the family was poor and sometimes had little food . Soegija was a daring child , quick to fight , skilled at football , and noted for his intellect from a young age . While Soegija was still young , his father made him fast in accordance with Islamic law .
Soegija started his formal education at a school in the Kraton complex , known locally as a Sekolah Angka Loro ( Number Two School ) , where he learned to read and write . He later transferred to a school in Wirogunan , Yogyakarta , near Pakualaman . Beginning in his third year he attended a Dutch @-@ run school for native Indonesian ( Hollands Inlands School ) in Lempuyangan . Outside of school he studied gamelan and singing with his parents . Around 1909 he was asked by Father Frans van Lith to join the Jesuit school in Muntilan , 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) north @-@ west of Yogyakarta . Although his parents were initially worried that Soegija would become too Europeanised , they agreed .
= = Xaverius College = =
In 1909 Soegija started at the Xaverius College in Muntilan , a school for aspiring teachers , and stayed in the dormitory . He was one of 54 students in his year . The boys followed a strict schedule , attending classes in the morning and engaging in other activities , such as gardening , discussions , and chess , in the afternoon . The Catholic students had regular prayers . Although the college did not require students to be Catholic , Soegija was pressured by his Catholic classmates , leading to several fights . Feeling dissatisfied , Soegija complained to his teacher that the Dutch priests were like merchants , thinking only of money . The priest replied that the teachers were unpaid and only hoped for the students ' good . This led Soegija to better respect the priests , and when van Rijckevorsel told the other students that Soegija did not want to be Catholic , they stopped pressuring him .
The following year Soegija asked to join the Catholic @-@ education classes , citing a desire to fully use the facilities at Xaverius . His teacher , Father Mertens , told Soegija that he required permission from his parents first ; although they refused , Soegija was nevertheless allowed to study Catholicism . He was intrigued by the Trinity , and asked several of the priests for clarification . Van Lith cited the works of Thomas Aquinas , while Mertens discussed the Trinity as explained by Augustine of Hippo ; the latter told him that humans were not meant to understand God with their limited knowledge . Soegija , who wanted to learn more , asked to be baptised , quoting the Finding in the Temple to show why he should not need his parents ' permission . The priests agreed , and Soegija was baptised on 24 December 1910 , taking the baptismal name Albertus , for Albertus Magnus . During Christmas holidays , he told his family that he had converted . Although his immediate family eventually accepted this , and may have eventually supported him , Soegija 's other relatives refused to speak to him afterwards .
Soegija and the students continued their education at Xaverius , receiving further instruction . According to Father G. Budi Subanar , a lecturer on theology at Sanata Dharma University , during this period one of the teachers taught the Fourth Commandment , " Honour your father and your mother , that your days may be long in the land which the Lord your God gives you . " , as relating not only to one 's birth father and mother , but all who had come before ; this left the students with nationalistic tendencies . On another occasion , a visit by a Capuchin missionary – who was physically quite different from the Jesuit teachers – led Soegija to consider becoming a priest , an idea which his parents accepted . In 1915 Soegija finished his education at Xaverius , but stayed on as a teacher . The following year he joined the on @-@ site seminary , one of three native Indonesians who entered the seminary that year . He graduated in 1919 , having studied French , Latin , Greek , and literature .
= = Path to priesthood = =
Soegija and his classmates sailed to Uden , in the Netherlands , to further their studies in 1919 . In Uden Soegija spent a year further studying Latin and Greek , necessary for his preaching back in the Indies . He and his classmates adapted to Dutch culture . On 27 September 1920 Soegija began his novitiate to join the Jesuits , the first of his classmates . While completing his studies at Mariëndaal in Grave , he was separated from much of the world and spent his time in introspection . He completed his novitiate on 22 September 1922 and was initiated into the Jesuits , taking their oath of poverty , chastity and obedience .
After joining the Jesuits Soegija spent another year in Mariëndaal in juniorate . Beginning in 1923 he studied philosophy at Berchmann College in Oudenbosch ; during this time he examined the teachings of Thomas Aquinas and began writing on Christianity . In a letter dated 11 August 1923 , he wrote that the Javanese were so far unable to discern between Catholics and Protestants , and that the best way to convert the Javanese was by deeds , not words . He also translated some of the results of the 27th International Eucharistic Congress , held in Amsterdam in 1924 , for the Javanese @-@ language magazine Swaratama , which circulated mainly among Xaverius alumni . Several of Soegija 's other writings were published in St. Claverbond , Berichten uit Java . He graduated from Berchmann in 1926 , then began preparations to return to the Indies .
Soegija arrived in Muntilan in September 1926 , where he began teaching algebra , religion , and Javanese at Xaverius . Little is known about his period as an instructor at the school , although records indicate that he based his teaching style on that of van Lith , who had died in early 1926 , explaining religious concepts in terms based on Javanese tradition . He supervised the school 's gamelan and gardening programs and became the chief editor of Swaratama . Soegijapranata wrote editorials that covered a variety of topics , including condemnations of communism and discussions of various aspects of poverty .
After two years at Xaverius , in August 1928 , Soegija returned to the Netherlands , where he studied theology at Maastricht . On 3 December 1929 he and four other Asian Jesuits joined Jesuit General Wlodzimierz Ledóchowski in a meeting with Pope Pius XI in Vatican City ; the pope told the Asian men that they were to be the " backbones " of Catholicism in their respective nations . Soegija was made a deacon in May 1931 ; he was ordained by Bishop of Roermond Laurentius Schrijnen on 15 August 1931 , while still studying theology . After his ordination , Soegija appended the word pranata , meaning " prayer " or " hope " , as a suffix to his birth name ; such additions were a common practice in Javanese culture after its bearer reached an important milestone . He finished his theology studies in 1932 and in 1933 spent his tertianship in Drongen , Belgium . That year he wrote an autobiography , entitled La Conversione di un Giavanese ( The Conversion of a Javanese ) ; the work was released in Italian , Dutch , and Spanish .
= = Preaching = =
On 8 August 1933 Soegijapranata and two fellow priests departed for the Indies ; Soegijapranata was assigned to preach at Kidul Loji in Yogyakarta , near Kraton . He served as parochial vicar for Father van Driessche , one of his teachers from Xaverius . The elder priest taught Soegijapranata how to better address the needs of his parish , while van Driessche likely used Soegijapranata to preach to the city 's growing native Catholic population . Soegijapranata was , by this point , a short and chubby man with what the Dutch historian Geert Arend van Klinken described as " a boyish sense of humour that won him many friends " .
After the St Yoseph Church in Bintaran , about 1 kilometre ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) from Kidul Loji , opened in April 1934 , Soegijapranata was transferred there to become its priest ; the church primarily served the Javanese Catholic community . Bintaran was one of four centres of Catholic presence in Yogyakarta at the time , along with Kidul Loji , Kotabaru , and Pugeran ; each major church served a wide area , and the priests from the major churches gave sermons in the furthest reaches of their parishes . After van Driessche 's death in June 1934 , Soegijapranata 's duties were extended to include the village of Ganjuran , Bantul , 20 kilometres ( 12 mi ) south of the city , which was home to more than a thousand native Catholics . He was also a spiritual adviser to several local groups and established a Catholic credit union .
The Catholic Church at the time faced difficulty retaining converts . Some Javanese , who had converted as students , returned to Islam after reentering society and facing social ostracism . In a 1935 meeting with other Jesuits , Soegijapranata blamed the problem on the lack of a united Catholic identity , or sensus Catholicus , as well as few intermarriages between native Catholics . Soegijapranata opposed marriage between Catholics and non @-@ Catholics . He counselled young Catholic couples before marriage , believing that these unions helped unite the Catholic families in the city , and continued to write for Swaratama , again serving as its editor in chief . In 1938 , he was chosen to advise the Society of Jesus , coordinating Jesuit work in the Indies .
= = Vicar apostolic = =
The increasing population of Catholics in the Indies led Mgr . Petrus Willekens , then Vicar Apostolic of Batavia , to suggest that a new apostolic vicariate be established in Central Java , headquartered in Semarang , as the area was culturally different and geographically separate from Batavia . The Apolistic Vicariate of Batavia was split in two on 25 June 1940 ; the eastern half became the Apostolic Vicariate of Semarang . On 1 August 1940 Willekens received a telegram from Pro @-@ Secretary of State Giovanni Battista Montini ordering that Soegijapranata be put in charge of the newly established apostolic vicariate . This was forwarded to Soegijapranata in Yogyakarta , who agreed to the appointment , despite being surprised and nervous . His assistant Hardjosoewarno later recalled that Soegijapranata cried after reading the telegram – an uncharacteristic response – and , when eating a bowl of soto , asked if Hardjosoewarno had ever seen a bishop eating the dish .
Soegijapranata left for Semarang on 30 September 1940 and was consecrated by Willekens on 6 October at the Holy Rosary Church in Randusari , which later became his seat ; this consecration made Soegijapranata the first native Indonesian bishop . The ceremony was attended by numerous political figures and sultans from Batavia , Semarang , Yogyakarta , and Surakarta , as well as clergy from Malang and Lampung ; Soegijapranata 's first act as vicar was to issue a pastoral letter with Willekens that outlined the historical background that led to his appointment , including Pope Benedict XV 's apolistic letter Maximum Illud , which called for more local clergy , and Pope Pius XI and Pope Pius XII 's efforts to appoint more pastors and bishops from native ethnic groups worldwide . Soegijapranata began working on the Church hierarchy in the region , establishing new parishes .
In Soegijapranata 's apostolic vicariate were 84 pastors ( 73 European and 11 native ) , 137 brothers ( 103 European and 34 native ) , and 330 nuns ( 251 European and 79 native ) . The vicariate included Semarang , Yogyakarta , Surakarta , Kudus , Magelang , Salatiga , Pati , and Ambarawa ; its geographic conditions ranged from the fertile lowlands of the Kedu Plain to the arid Gunung Sewu mountainous area . The vast majority of its population was ethnic Javanese , consisting of more than 15 @,@ 000 native Catholics , as well as a similar number of European Catholics . The number of native Catholics quickly outpaced the number of European ones , and had doubled by 1942 . There were also several Catholic groups , mostly working in education . However , the Indonesian Catholics were less prominent than the Protestants .
= = = Japanese occupation = = =
After the Japanese occupied the Indies in early 1942 , on 9 March 1942 Governor @-@ General Tjarda van Starkenborgh Stachouwer and head of the Royal Netherlands East Indies Army General Hein ter Poorten capitulated . This brought numerous changes in the governance of the archipelago , reducing the quality of life for non @-@ Japanese . In his diary , Soegijapranata wrote of the invasion that " fires were everywhere ... no soldiers , no police , no workers . The streets are full of burnt out vehicles . ... Luckily least there are still some lawmakers and Catholics out there . They work as representatives of their groups to ensure the city is in order . "
The occupation government captured numerous ( mostly Dutch ) men and women , both clergy and laymen , and instituted policies that changed how services were held . They forbade the use of Dutch in services and in writing , and seized several church properties . Soegijapranata attempted to resist these seizures , at times filling the locations with people to make them unmanageable or indicating that other buildings , such as cinemas , would serve Japanese needs better . When the Japanese attempted to seize Randusari Cathedral , Soegijapranata replied that they could take it only after decapitating him ; the Japanese later found another location for their office . He prevented the Japanese from taking Gedangan Presbytery , where he lived , and assigned guardians for schools and other facilities to prevent seizure . These efforts were not always successful , however , and several Church @-@ run institutions were seized , as were church funds .
Soegijapranata was unable to prevent Japanese torture of prisoners of war , including the clergy , but was himself well @-@ treated by the Japanese forces ; he was often invited to Japanese ceremonies , but never attended , sending bouquets in his stead . He used this position of respect to lobby for fair treatment of those interned . He successfully petitioned the Japanese overlords to exempt nuns from the paramilitary draft and allow them to work at hospitals . He and the Catholic populace also gathered food and other supplies for interned clergy , and Soegijapranata kept in contact with the prisoners , supplying and receiving news , such as recent deaths , and other information .
As the number of clergy was severely limited , Soegijapranata roamed from church to church to attend to parishioners , actively preaching and serving as the de facto head of the Catholic Church in the country ; this was in part to counteract rumours of his detention by the Japanese . He travelled by foot , bicycle , and carriage , as his car had been seized . He sent pastors to apostolic prefectures in Bandung , Surabaya , and Malang to deal with the lack of clergy there . Soegijapranata worked to ensure that the seminary would continue to produce new pastors and appointed the recently ordained Father Hardjawasita as its rector . He also granted native priests the authority to perform marriages . To calm the Catholic populace , he visited their homes and convinced them that the streets were safe .
= = = Indonesian National Revolution = = =
After the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki and the proclamation of Indonesian independence in August 1945 , the Japanese began withdrawing from the country . In support of the new Republic , Soegijapranata had an Indonesian flag flown in front of the Gedangan Rectory ; however , he did not formally recognise the nation 's independence , owing to his correspondence with Willekens regarding the Church 's neutrality . He and his clergy treated injured Dutch missionaries , who had recently been released from internment , at the rectory . The Dutch clergy were malnourished , and several required treatment at a hospital . Some were later taken to Indonesian @-@ run internment camps , but the Catholics were still allowed to look after them . Meanwhile , inter @-@ religious strife led to the burning of several mission buildings and the murder of some clergymen . The government also took several buildings , and some that had been seized by the Japanese were not returned .
Allied forces sent to disarm the Japanese and repatriate prisoners of war arrived in Indonesia in September 1945 . In Semarang , this led to a conflict between Japanese forces and Indonesian rebels , that began on 15 October ; the Indonesians aimed to confiscate the Japanese weapons . Allied forces began landing in the city on 20 October 1945 ; a small group was sent to Gedangan to speak with Soegijapranata . Concerned with civilian suffering , the vicar apostolic told the Allies that they must stop the battle ; the Allies could not comply as they did not know the Japanese commander . Soegijapranata then contacted the Japanese and , that afternoon , brokered a cease @-@ fire agreement in his office at Gedangan , despite Indonesian forces ' firing at the Gurkha soldiers posted in front of the building .
Military conflicts throughout the area and an ongoing Allied presence led to food shortages throughout the city , as well as constant blackouts and the establishment of a curfew . Civilian @-@ run groups attempted to deal with the food shortages but were unable to cope . In an attempt to deal with these issues , Soegijapranata sent a local man , Dwidjosewojo , to the capital at Jakarta – renamed from Batavia during the Japanese occupation – to speak with the central government . Dwidjosewojo met with Prime Minister Sutan Sjahrir , who sent Wongsonegoro to help establish a civilian government , installing Moch . Ikhsan as mayor . The city 's government was , however , still unable to handle the crisis , and the major figures in this government were later captured by the Dutch @-@ run Netherlands @-@ Indies Civil Administration ( Nederlandsch Indië Civil Administratie , or NICA ) and imprisoned ; Soegijapranata , although he at times harboured Indonesian revolutionaries , was spared .
In January 1946 the Indonesian government moved from Jakarta – by then under Dutch control – to Yogyakarta . This was followed by a widespread exodus of civilians fleeing the advancing NICA soldiers . Soegijapranata at first stayed in Semarang , working to establish patrols and watches . He also corresponded with Willekens in Jakarta , although the elder bishop considered the revolution an internal security matter for the Dutch and not an issue for the Church . However , in early 1947 Soegijapranata moved to Yogyakarta , allowing easy communication with the political leadership . He established his seat at St Yoseph in Bintaran and counselled young Catholics to fight for their country , saying that they should only return " once they were dead " . Soegijapranata was present during several battles that arose where he was preaching .
After the Linggadjati Agreement failed to solve conflicts between Indonesia and the Netherlands and the Dutch attacked republicans on 21 July 1947 , Soegijapranata declared that Indonesia 's Catholics would work with the Indonesians and called for an end to the war in a speech on Radio Republik Indonesia ; van Klinken describes the address as " passionate " and considers it to have boosted the Catholic populace 's morale . Soegijapranata wrote extensively to the Holy See . In response , the Church leadership sent Georges de Jonghe d 'Ardoye to Indonesia as its delegate , initiating formal relations between the Vatican and Indonesia . D 'Ardoye arrived in the new republic in December 1947 and met with President Sukarno ; however , formal diplomatic relations were not opened until 1950 . Soegijapranata later became a friend of the president .
After the Dutch captured the capital during Operation Kraai on 19 December 1948 , Soegijapranata ordered that the Christmas festivities be kept simple to represent the Indonesian people 's suffering . During the Dutch occupation Soegijapranata smuggled some of his writings out of the country ; the works , later published in Commonweal with the help of George McTurnan Kahin , described Indonesians ' daily lives under Dutch rule and called for international condemnation of the occupation . Soegijapranata further opined that the Dutch blockade on Indonesia , aside from strangling the new country 's economy , increased the influence of its communist groups . After the Dutch retreated in the wake of the General Attack of 1 March 1949 , Soegijapranata began working to ensure Catholic representation in the government . With I. J. Kasimo , he organised the All @-@ Indonesia Catholic Congress ( Kongres Umat Katolik Seluruh Indonesia ) . Held between 7 and 12 December , the congress resulted in the union of seven Catholic political parties into the Catholic Party . Soegijapranata continued his efforts to consolidate the Party after the revolution .
= = = Post @-@ revolution = = =
After the Dutch recognised Indonesia 's independence on 27 December 1949 , following a several month @-@ long conference in the Hague , Soegijapranata returned to Semarang . The post @-@ revolution period was marked by a drastic increase in enrolment at the nation 's seminary ; the 100th native Indonesian clergyman was ordained in 1956 . The government , however , enacted several laws that limited the Church 's ability to expand . In 1953 the Ministry for Religion decreed that no foreign missionaries would be allowed into the country , and a subsequent law prohibited those already in Indonesia from teaching . In response , Soegijapranata encouraged eligible clergy to apply for Indonesian citizenship , circumventing the new laws .
Aside from overseeing the new clergy , Soegijapranata continued to work towards Catholic education and prosperity , similar to his pre @-@ war work . He emphasised that students must not only be good Catholics , but also good Indonesians . The Church began further development of its schools , ranging from elementary schools to universities . Soegijapranata also began reforming the Church in his apostolic vicariate , making it more Indonesian . He advocated the use of local languages and Indonesian during mass , allowing it throughout his diocese beginning in 1956 . In addition , he pressed for the use of gamelan music to accompany services , and agreed to the use of wayang shows to teach the Bible to children .
As the Cold War heated up , tensions developed between the Church in Indonesia and the Indonesian Communist Party ( Partai Komunis Indonesia , or PKI ) . Soegijapranata believed that the PKI was making progress with the poor through its promises of workers ' rights in a communist @-@ led union . To combat this , he worked with other Catholics to establish labour groups , open to both Catholics and non @-@ Catholics . He hoped that these would empower workers and thus limit the PKI 's influence . One such labour group was Buruh Pancasila , which was formed on 19 June 1954 ; through the organisation Soegijapranata helped promote the state philosophy of Pancasila , literally " the five tenets " . The following year the Church Representatives Conference of Indonesia ( Konferensi Waligereja Indonesia , or KWI ) , recognising Soegijapranata 's devotion to the poor , put him in charge of establishing social @-@ support programmes throughout the archipelago . On 2 November 1955 , he and several other bishops issued a decree denouncing communism , Marxism , and materialism , and asking the government to ensure fair and equitable treatment for all citizens . Relations between Indonesia and the Netherlands continued to be poor , specifically in regard to control of West Papua , historically under Dutch control but claimed by Indonesia . Soegijapranata firmly supported the Indonesian position ; West Papua was annexed in 1963 .
There was also friction within the Catholic groups , first over Sukarno 's 1957 decree that he was president for life and establishment of a guided democracy policy . A faction , led by Soegijapranata , supported this decree , while Catholic Party leader I. J. Kasimo 's faction was heavily against it . Sukarno , who had a good working relationship with Soegijapranata , asked the vicar to join the National Council , a request that Soegijapranata refused ; he did , however , assign two delegates to the Council , ensuring Catholic representation . This , along with Soegijapranata 's support of Sukarno 's decree on 5 July 1949 calling for a return to the 1945 constitution , resulted in Bishop of Jakarta Adrianus Djajasepoetra 's denunciation of Soegijapranata as a sycophant . However , Soegijapranata was strongly against Sukarno 's idea of Nasakom , which based part of the nation 's government on communism .
= = Archbishop of Semarang and death = =
During the latter half of the 1950s , the KWI met several times to discuss the need for a self @-@ determined Indonesian Roman Catholic hierarchy . At these annual meetings , they touched on administrative and pastoral issues , including the translation of songs into Indonesian languages . In 1959 Cardinal Grégoire @-@ Pierre Agagianian visited the country to see the Church 's preparations . The KWI formally requested their own hierarchy in a May 1960 letter ; this letter received a reply from Pope John XXIII dated 20 March 1961 , which divided the archipelago into six ecclesiastical provinces : two in Java , one in Sumatra , one in Flores , one in Sulawesi and Maluku , and one in Borneo . Semarang became the seat of the province of Semarang , and Soegijapranata its archbishop . He was elevated on 3 January 1961 .
When this happened , Soegijapranata was in Europe to attend the Second Vatican Council as part of the Central Preparatory Commission ; he was one of eleven diocesan bishops and archbishops from Asia . He was able to attend the first session , where he voiced concerns about declining quality of pastoral work and called for the modernisation of the Church . He then returned to Indonesia , but his health , poor since the late 1950s , quickly declined .
After a stay at Elisabeth Candi Hospital in Semarang in 1963 , Soegijapranata was forbidden from undertaking active duties . Justinus Darmojuwono , a former internee of the Japanese army and vicar general of Semarang since 1 August 1962 , served as acting bishop . On 30 May 1963 Soegijapranata left Indonesia for Europe to attend the election of Pope Paul VI . Soegijapranata then went to Canisius Hospital in Nijmegen , where he underwent treatment from 29 June until 6 July ; this was unsuccessful . He died on 22 July 1963 , at a nunnery in Steyl , the Netherlands , having had a heart attack shortly before his death .
As Sukarno did not want Soegijapranata buried in the Netherlands , his body was flown to Indonesia after last rites were performed by Cardinal Bernardus Johannes Alfrink . Soegijapranata was declared a National Hero of Indonesia on 26 July 1963 , through Presidential Decree No. 152 / 1963 , while his body was still in transit . Soegijapranata 's body arrived at Kemayoran Airport in Jakarta on 28 July and was brought to the Jakarta Cathedral for further rites , including a speech by Sukarno , presided by Bishop of Jakarta Adrianus Djajasepoetra . The following day Soegijapranata 's body was flown to Semarang , accompanied by several Church and government luminaries . He was buried at Giri Tunggal Heroes ' Cemetery in a military funeral on 30 July , after several further rites . Darmojuwono was appointed as the new archbishop in December 1963 ; he was consecrated on 6 April 1964 by Archbishop Ottavio De Liva .
= = Legacy = =
Soegijapranata is remembered with pride by Javanese Catholics , who praise his strength of will during the occupation and national revolution . The historian Anhar Gonggong described Soegijapranata as not just a bishop , but an Indonesian leader who " was tested as a good leader and deserved the hero status " . The Indonesian historian Anton Haryono described Soegijapranata 's ascension to bishophood as " monumental " , considering that Soegijapranata had only been ordained nine years previously and was chosen ahead of non @-@ Indonesian priests several years his senior . Henricia Moeryantini , a nun in the Order of Carolus Borromeus , writes that the Catholic Church became nationally influential under Soegijapranata , and that the archbishop cared too much for the people to take an outsider 's approach . Van Klinken writes that Soegijapranata eventually became like a priyayi , or Javanese nobleman , within the church , as " committed to hierarchy and the status quo as to the God who created them " . According to van Klinken , by coming to the nascent republic Soegijapranata had been willing to see " the coming Javanese paradise " at a great personal risk .
Soegijapranata is the namesake of a large Catholic university in Semarang . Streets in several Indonesian cities are named after him , including in Semarang , Malang , and Medan . His grave in Giritunggal is often the site of pilgrimage for Indonesian Catholics , who hold graveside masses .
In June 2012 director Garin Nugroho released a biopic on Soegijapranata entitled Soegija . Starring Nirwan Dewanto in the titular role , the film followed Soegijapranata 's activities during the 1940s , amidst a backdrop of the Japanese occupation and the war for Indonesian independence . The film , which had a Rp 12 billion ( US $ 1 @.@ 3 million ) budget , sold over 100 @,@ 000 tickets on its first day . Its launch was accompanied by a semi @-@ fictional novelisation of Soegija 's life , written by Catholic author Ayu Utami . Several non @-@ fiction biographies of Soegija , by both Catholic and non @-@ Catholic writers , were released concurrently .
In Indonesian popular culture , Soegijapranata is known for his motto " 100 % Catholic , 100 % Indonesian " ( " 100 % Katolik , 100 % Indonesia " ) . The motto , which has been used to advertise several biographies and the film Soegija , is derived from Soegijapranata 's opening speech at the 1954 All @-@ Indonesia Catholic Congress in Semarang , as follows :
If we consider ourselves good Christians , than we should also become good patriots . As such , we should feel 100 % patriotic because we are 100 % Catholic . According to the Fourth Commandment , as written in the Catechism , we must love the Catholic Church and , it follows , that we must love our country with all our hearts .
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= Reel Affirmations =
Reel Affirmations ( RA ) is a non @-@ profit , all @-@ volunteer LGBT film festival in Washington , D.C. Founded in 1991 and held every year in mid @-@ October , as of 2011 Reel Affirmations was one of the largest LGBT film festivals ( in terms of attendance ) in the United States . Baltimore 's Gay Life newspaper called it " one of the top three films festivals for the entire LGBT community . " A 2007 guidebook claims it was one of the largest LGBT film festivals in the world . A listing of LGBT film festivals claims it is the largest all @-@ volunteer film festival in the world .
= = Organization = =
Reel Affirmations is a program of One In Ten , a Washington , D.C.-based LGBT non @-@ profit arts organization . One In Ten is overseen by a board of four officers and nine board members . Until 2009 , a full @-@ time , paid executive director oversaw the day @-@ to @-@ day operations of the organization . But as of 2011 , its operations were run by the board and three volunteer directors . All One In Ten programs , including Reel Affirmations , are conceived , organized , and implemented by volunteers .
Planning for Reel Affirmations begins after the conclusion of each year 's festival . Deposits are placed to secure venues , and corporate sponsors are secured ( an ongoing process which lasts until August ) . Programming teams for feature films , women 's shorts , men 's shorts , and documentaries begin researching and screening films in February . Films are secured by contract beginning as early as May , although most contracts are not finalized until early July . A coordinating committee oversees implementation of VIP relations , hospitality , volunteer coordination , marketing , embassy relations , public relations , and other aspects of the film festival .
Most funding for Reel Affirmations comes from corporate sponsorships and ticket sales . Additional support comes from grants provided by the D.C. city government .
Reel Affirmations previously sponsored a two @-@ day film festival which coincided with Capital Pride . The program began sponsoring monthly film screenings titled RA Xtra beginning in 2000 , but stopped these events after RA15 in 2005 . RA Xtra resumed in November 2010 . The organization also formerly sponsored " Divas Outdoors " , a two @-@ movie outdoor screening of classic gay @-@ related movies at Hillwood Estate , Museum & Gardens , the former home of Marjorie Merriweather Post ( heiress to the Post cereal fortune ) .
= = History = =
= = = Early years = = =
Reel Affirmations was co @-@ founded by Barry Becker , Mark Betchkal , Matthew Cibellis and Keith Clark , gay residents of Washington , D.C. , who wished to found a gay arts organization . They began meeting in 1990 , and founded the LGBT arts organization One In Ten , with Reel Affirmations as the organization 's first program . The four sought the advice and input of Frameline , then the largest LGBT gay film festival in the U.S. With financial and administrative assistance from Frameline , the first Reel Affirmations film festival opened on October 11 , 1991 . The first festival venue was the Biograph Theater in Georgetown . The 10 @-@ day festival screened 62 feature films , short subjects and documentaries to 2 @,@ 500 attendees . The opening night film was My Father Is Coming , and the closing night film was Together Alone .
In 1992 , the festival expanded to screen its opening night film at the Cineplex Odeon Embassy Theatre in the District . Author Armistead Maupin opened the festival . RA2 screened 76 short and feature @-@ length works shown at the Biograph .
The following year , the festival screened 24 features and 44 shorts and added screenings at the Goethe @-@ Institut and Charles Sumner School . With the film festival on firm financial footing , Frameline did not provide administrative and financial support for RA3 .
The festival continued to expand in 1994 , screening 130 films and dropping smaller venues ( Biograph , Sumner School ) while adding larger ones ( such as the West End 1 @-@ 4 cinema ) . The festival also conducted a screening at the Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden — one of the first gay events to be held in a federal building . 1994 was also the year the festival scored its first U.S premiere .
By its fifth anniversary in 1995 , Reel Affirmations was the fourth @-@ largest LGBT film festival in the United States in attendance , with more than 12 @,@ 000 attendees . Although the festival screened only 102 films that year , it expanded to a fifth large venue ( the AMC Courthouse Theatre in Virginia ) . A year later , it dropped two of its smaller venues in favor of the 275 @-@ seat Goldman Theatre in the D.C. Jewish Community Center in Dupont Circle .
= = = Lincoln Theatre years = = =
Reel Affirmations ' growth led it to move out of the Cineplex Odeon Embassy and West End theaters in 1998 . The film fest moved into the 1 @,@ 200 @-@ seat historic Lincoln Theatre located near U and 14th Streets , N.W. RA8 screened more than 140 feature films , shorts and documentaries at the two venues .
1999 was a turning point for Reel Affirmations . Several years of declining attendance by women led festival director Sarah Kellogg to create a special women 's program . The event , known as the Women Filmmakers Brunch , has continued ever since and features women filmmakers , screenings , and a discussion of films with particular appeal to women . RA9 also was the only LGBT film festival of the season to screen Boys Don 't Cry . The award @-@ winning film debuted in New York City , screened at Reel Affirmations , and then opened in theaters nationwide .
In honor of the festival 's continuing success , the Gay and Lesbian Activists Alliance bestowed its 2004 Distinguished Service Award on Reel Affirmations festival director Sarah Kellogg . In 2006 , RA 16 screened more than 100 movies to more than 30 @,@ 000 attendees during its 10 @-@ day run .
= = = Post @-@ 2008 festival = = =
In 2008 , in addition to the Lincoln Theatre , the film festival used several locations including the Goethe @-@ Institut , Sixth & I Synagogue , and Landmark E Street Cinema ( all in Washington , D.C. ) , as well as the AFI Silver theater in Silver Spring , Maryland .
In 2009 , Reel Affirmations struck a relationship with the Shakespeare Theatre Company . The film festival did not use the Lincoln Theatre , holding its larger film screenings at the company 's Sidney Harman Hall . Festival executive director Margaret Murray left in November 2009 after four years as RA head — leaving the festival with about $ 40 @,@ 000 in debt . According to the Washington Blade , an LGBTQ newspaper in D.C. , a number of factors were responsible for the debt : A diminishing number of corporate sponsors , the timing of Murray 's resignation ( just as donor recruitment was beginning for the following year ) , lack of preparation by RA for Murray 's departure , an increasing number of popular LGBTQ events competing with the festival in October , fewer advertisers in the festival 's program booklet , poor weather during several days of the 2009 festival , discontinuation of the festival 's VIP program ( which left it dependent on single ticket sales ) , and a heavy drop in single ticket sales . Many board members left the organization , new board members were recruited , and three volunteers took over RA 's day @-@ to @-@ day operations .
In July 2010 , RA organizers announced that the film festival would move from October 2010 to April 2011 because of funding shortfalls . One news source reported that RA organizers had intended to hold an October film festival , but a community fundraiser brought in only $ 5 @,@ 000 — far less than hoped , and not enough to allow an October festival to occur . The move to April was prompted , in part , by the hope that a $ 75 @,@ 000 D.C. government grant would allow the festival to occur . However , on March 8 , 2011 , RA officials cancelled the April event because of continuing heavy debt and because several grants had not been awarded to the organization . Festival organizers scheduled the 20th Reel Affirmations LGBTQ film festival for October 13 – 22 , 2011 .
Additional changes occurred during the 20th film festival . The film festival no longer held events at the Shakespeare Theatre Company . The primary film festival venue was Lisner Auditorium at George Washington University ( GWU ) . Other venues included GWU 's Documentary Center , GWU 's Marvin Center Amphitheatre , Atlas Performing Arts Center , the FHI 360 Globe Theater , and the West End Cinema ( one of the original venues for the film festival in the early 1990s ) . The festival also instituted an " Embassy Screening Series , " in which LGBTQ films from a specific country were screened at that nation 's embassy in Washington , D.C. Screenings occurred at the Embassy of Israel and Embassy of France , and by the Embassy of Germany at the Goethe @-@ Institut . The Women and Filmmakers ' Brunch continued to be held , although the venue was now the U.S. Navy Memorial Heritage Center 's Arleigh Burke Theater . Festival volunteer coordinator Mark Heckathorn estimated that the festival would draw 20 @,@ 000 attendees in 2011 .
Reel Affirmations continued to recover from its financial crisis in 2012 . In March 2012 , it held an " Oscar Party " ( with muscular men covered in gold welcoming patrons ) in which the public was invited to view the Academy Awards in a gay @-@ friendly setting . Reel Affirmations hosted a truncated four @-@ day festival ( November 1 – 4 ) in 2012 . Once more , its venues changed . The festival returned to its long @-@ time venue at the D.C. Jewish Community Center and the Goethe Institut as well as its RA Xtra venue at the Carnegie Institution for Science .
= = = End of annual festival = = =
Reel Affirmations ceased to offer an annual film festival at the conclusion of the 2012 event . One In Ten turned the Reel Affirmations program over to The DC Center , a nonprofit organization offering several different programs to the local LGBTQ community . The DC Center reestablished the RA Xtra program of monthly film screenings , which it offered beginning in 2015 .
Reel Affirmations planned a three @-@ day film festival for August 28 @-@ 30 , 2015 , at the Gala Hispanic / Tivoli Theatre .
= = Awards = =
Reel Affirmations presents four major awards each year . Each award is bestowed based on audience balloting . Honors are given for Best Feature , Best Documentary , Best Male Short , and Best Female Short . Beginning in 2011 , Reel Affirmations added two new awards . These included a First Time Director and a Best International Movie award .
Reel Affirmations formerly distributed a Plant @-@ A @-@ Seed filmmaker grant at the end of each festival . The grant was established in 2000 . It was supported by audience donations and a silent auction held throughout each year 's festival , and varied in amount from year to year . The grant was awarded by the One In Ten board to a filmmaker or filmmakers who had previously produced a feature film , short or documentary , and was intended to help the filmmaker complete a current work in progress . This grant was discontinued in 2008 . The festival re @-@ established its filmmaker 's grant award in 2011 , renaming it the Keith Clark & Barry Becker Filmmaker Award ( in honor of the co @-@ founders of the festival ) .
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= Siege of Fort Ticonderoga ( 1777 ) =
The 1777 Siege of Fort Ticonderoga ' occurred between 2 and 6 July 1777 at Fort Ticonderoga , near the Sothern end of Lake Champlain in the state of New York . Lieutenant General John Burgoyne 's 8 @,@ 000 @-@ man army occupied high ground above the fort , and nearly surrounded the defences . These movements precipitated the occupying Continental Army , an under @-@ strength force of 3 @,@ 000 under the command of General Arthur St. Clair , to withdraw from Ticonderoga and the surrounding defences . Some gunfire was exchanged , and there were some casualties , but there was no formal siege and no pitched battle . Burgoyne 's army occupied Fort Ticonderoga and Mount Independence , the extensive fortifications on the Vermont side of the lake , without opposition on 6 July . Advance units pursued the retreating Americans .
The uncontested surrender of Ticonderoga caused an uproar in the American public and in its military circles , as Ticonderoga was widely believed to be virtually impregnable , and a vital point of defence . General St. Clair and his superior , General Philip Schuyler , were vilified by Congress . Both were eventually exonerated in courts martial , but their careers were adversely affected . Schuyler had already lost his command to Horatio Gates by the time of the court martial , and St. Clair held no more field commands for the remainder of the war .
= = Background = =
In September 1775 , early in the American Revolutionary War , the American Continental Army embarked on an invasion of Quebec . The invasion ended in disaster in July 1776 , with the army chased back to Fort Ticonderoga by a large British army that arrived in Quebec in May 1776 . A small Continental Navy fleet on Lake Champlain was defeated in the October 1776 Battle of Valcour Island . The delay required by the British to build their fleet on Lake Champlain caused General Guy Carleton to hold off on attempting an assault on Ticonderoga in 1776 . Although his advance forces came within three miles of Ticonderoga , the lateness of the season and the difficulty of maintaining supply lines along the lake in winter caused him to withdraw his forces back into Quebec .
= = = British forces = = =
General John Burgoyne arrived in Quebec in May 1777 and prepared to lead the British forces assembled there south with the aim of gaining control of Ticonderoga and the Hudson River valley , dividing the rebellious provinces . His British Army troops consisted of the 9th , 20th , 21st , 24th , 47th , 53rd and 62nd regiments , along with the flank companies of other regiments left as a garrison in Quebec . The light infantry and flank companies formed the army 's advance force , and were commanded by Brigadier General Simon Fraser . The remaining regulars , under the leadership of Major General William Phillips , formed the right wing of the army , while the left was composed of Hessians under the command of Baron Riedesel . His forces consisted of the Rhetz , Riedesel , Specht , Barner , and Hesse @-@ Hanau regiments , along with one regiment of grenadiers and another of horseless dragoons . Most of these forces had arrived in 1776 , and many participated in the campaign that drove the American army out of Quebec .
The total size of Burgoyne 's regular army was about 7 @,@ 000 . In addition to the regulars , there were about 800 Indians , and a relatively small number of Canadiens and Loyalists , who acted primarily as scouts and screening reconnaissance . The army was also accompanied by more than 1 @,@ 000 civilians , including a pregnant woman , and Baroness Riedesel with her three small children . Including these non @-@ military personnel , the total number of people in Burgoyne 's army was more than 10 @,@ 000 .
Burgoyne and General Carlton recited the troops at Fort Saint @-@ Jean , near the northern end of Lake Champlain , on 14 June . By 21 June , the armada carrying the army was on the lake , and they had arrived at the unoccupied Fort Crown Point by 30 June . The Indians and other elements of the advance force laid down such an effective screen that the American defenders at Ticonderoga were unaware of either the exact location or strength of the force moving along the lake . While en route , Burgoyne authored a proclamation to the Americans , written in the turgid , pompous style for which he was well @-@ known , and frequently criticized and parodied .
= = = American defences = = =
American forces had occupied the forts at Ticonderoga and Crown Point since they captured them in May 1775 from a small garrison . In 1776 and 1777 , they undertook significant efforts to improve the defenses surrounding Ticonderoga . A peninsula on the east side of the lake , renamed Mount Independence , was heavily fortified . To the north of old Fort Ticonderoga , the Americans built numerous redoubts , a large fort at the site earlier French fortifications , and a fort on Mount Hope . A quarter @-@ mile long floating bridge was constructed across the lake to facilitate communication between Ticonderoga and Mount Independence .
Command at Ticonderoga went through a variety of changes early in 1777 . Until 1777 , General Philip Schuyler had headed the Continental Army 's Northern Department , with General Horatio Gates in charge of Ticonderoga . In March 1777 the Continental Congress gave command of the whole department to Gates . Schuyler protested this action , which Congress reversed in May , at which point Gates , no longer willing to serve under Schuyler , left for Philadelphia . Command of the fort was then given to General Arthur St. Clair , who arrived only three weeks before Burgoyne 's army .
The entire complex was manned by several under @-@ strength regiments of the Continental Army and militia units from New York and nearby states . A war council held by Generals St. Clair and Schuyler on 20 June concluded that " the number of troops now at this post , which are under 2 @,@ 500 effectives , rank and file , are greatly inadequate to the defense " , and that " it is prudent to provide for a retreat " . Consequently , plans were made for retreat along two routes . The first was by water to Skenesboro , the southernmost navigable point on the lake . The second was overland by a rough road leading east toward Hubbardton in the New Hampshire Grants ( present @-@ day Vermont ) .
= = = Sugar Loaf = = =
A height called Sugar Loaf ( now known as Mount Defiance ) overlooked both Ticonderoga and Independence , and large cannons on that height would make the fort impossible to defend . This tactical problem had been pointed out by John Trumbull when Gates was in command . It was believed to be impossible for the British to place cannons on the heights , even though Trumbull , Anthony Wayne , and an injured Benedict Arnold climbed to the top and noted that gun carriages could probably be dragged up .
The defence , or lack thereof , of Sugar Loaf was complicated by the widespread perception that Fort Ticonderoga , with a reputation as the " Gibraltar of the North " , had to be held . Neither abandoning the fort nor garrisoning it with a small force ( sufficient to respond to a feint but not to an attack in strength ) was viewed as a politically viable option . Defending the fort and the associated outer works would require all the troops currently there , leaving none to defend Sugar Loaf . Furthermore , George Washington and the Congress were of the opinion that Burgoyne , who was known to be in Quebec , was more likely to strike from the south , moving his troops by sea to New York City .
Following the war council of 20 June , Schuyler ordered St. Clair to hold out as long as he could , and to avoid having his avenues of retreat cut off . Schuyler took command of a reserve force of 700 at Albany , and Washington ordered four regiments to be held in readiness at Peekskill , further down the Hudson River .
= = Battle = =
= = = British advance = = =
On 1 July , General St. Clair was still unaware of the full strength of Burgoyne 's army , which lay just 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) away . Burgoyne had deployed Fraser 's advance force and right column on the west side of the lake , hoping to cut off the defences at Mount Hope . Riedesel and the German column were deployed on the east side of the lake , where their objective was Mount Independence and the road to Hubbardton . Burgoyne gave the order to advance on 2 July .
On the morning of 2 July , St. Clair decided to withdraw the men occupying the defence post at Mount Hope , which was exposed and subject to capture . The detachment there set fire to the works and retreated to the old French lines ( so called because they were the site of the French defence in the 1758 Battle of Carillon ) , getting away not long before the arrival of Burgoyne 's advance guard . That afternoon , a company of British soldiers and Indians came toward those lines , but not near enough to do significant damage , and opened fire . St. Clair ordered his men to hold their fire until the enemy was closer , but James Wilkinson fired at a British soldier , spurring the untrained defenders to follow suit . The soldier Wilkinson fired at fell , and the British troops fled . When the man was captured , it turned out he was uninjured , and that he had fallen down because he was drunk . Through the deception of placing him with a man posing as a captured Loyalist , St. Clair learned the nature of the opposing forces .
Fraser 's advance forces occupied Mount Hope on 3 July . Burgoyne ordered some of the scouts and Indians over to the east side of the lake for reconnaissance ahead of the German column , and brought some of the Germans over to the west side . Some of the British camp was placed close enough to the American lines that they were harassed by gunfire . This did not prevent the British from making repairs to the bridges on the portage road between Ticonderoga and Lake George .
British engineers discovered the strategic position of Sugar Loaf , and realized that the American withdrawal from Mount Hope gave them access to it . Starting on 2 July , they began clearing and building gun emplacements on top of that height , working carefully to avoid notice by the Americans . They spent several days drawing some of their larger guns up the slope . Burgoyne 's objective was to spring the trap only when Riedesel 's Germans were in position to cut off the American retreat .
= = = American retreat = = =
On 4 July , the Americans held a quiet celebration with some toasts to commemorate the previous year 's Declaration of Independence . That night the British lost their element of surprise when some Indians lit fires on Sugar Loaf , alerting the Americans to their presence there . On the morning of 5 July , St. Clair held a war council in which the decision was made to retreat . Since their position was completely exposed , they delayed departure until nightfall , when their movements would be concealed . In a conversation with one of his quartermasters , St. Clair observed that he could " save his character and lose the army " by holding the fort , or " save the army and lose his character " if he retreated , giving a clear indication of the political reaction he was expecting to his decision .
All possible armaments , as well as invalids , camp followers , and supplies were loaded onto a fleet of more than 200 boats that began to move up the lake toward Skenesboro , accompanied by Colonel Pierse Long 's regiment . Owing to a shortage of boats , four invalids were left behind , as were the very largest cannons and a variety of supplies — everything from tents to cattle . The rest of the army crossed to Mount Independence and headed down the Hubbardton road , which Riedesel 's forces had not yet reached . A handful of men were left at the pontoon bridge with loaded cannons to fire on British attempts to cross it , but they were drunk when the British arrived the next morning .
The British occupied the forts without firing a single shot , and detachments from Fraser 's and Riedesel 's troops set out in pursuit of the retreating Americans on the Hubbardton road , while Burgoyne hurried some of his troops up the lake toward Skenesboro .
= = Aftermath = =
At least seven Americans were killed and 11 wounded in skirmishing prior to the American retreat . British casualties were not tallied , but at least five were killed in skirmishes .
The Americans made good time on the Hubbardton road . Most of the force reached Castleton — a march of 30 miles ( 50 km ) — on the evening of 6 July . The British pursuit resulted in the Battle of Hubbardton when they caught up with the rear guard on the morning of 7 July , but this enabled the main American body to escape , eventually joining forces with Schuyler at Fort Edward . The smaller American force that had fled by boat to Skenesboro fought off Burgoyne 's advance force in the Battle of Fort Anne , but was forced to abandon equipment and many sick and wounded in skirmishing at Skenesboro .
The confrontation at Ticonderoga did not substantially slow Burgoyne 's advance , but he was forced to leave a garrison of more than 900 men in the Ticonderoga area , and wait until 11 July for the dispersed elements of his army to regroup at Skenesboro . He then encountered delays in traveling the heavily wooded road between Skenesboro and Fort Edward , which General Schuyler 's forces had effectively ruined by felling trees across it and destroying all its bridges in the swampy terrain . Burgoyne 's campaign ultimately failed and he was forced to surrender after the Battles of Saratoga . General Gates reported to Governor George Clinton on 20 November that Ticonderoga and Independence had been abandoned and burned by the retreating British .
= = = Political and public outcry = = =
The political and public outcry after the withdrawal was significant . The Congress was appalled , and criticized both Schuyler and St. Clair for the loss . John Adams wrote , " I think we shall never be able to defend a post until we shoot a general " , and George Washington said it was " an event of chagrin and surprise , not apprehended nor within the compass of my reasoning " . Rumors circulated that St. Clair and Schuyler were traitors who had taken bribes in exchange for the retreat .
Schuyler was eventually removed as commander of the Northern Department , replaced by General Gates ; the fall of Ticonderoga was among the reasons cited . St. Clair was removed from his command and sent to headquarters for an inquiry . He maintained that his conduct had been honorable , and demanded a review by court martial . The court martial was not held until September 1778 due to political intrigues against Washington ; St. Clair was completely exonerated , although he was never given another field command . Schuyler was also cleared of any wrongdoing by a court martial .
The news made headlines in Europe . King George is reported to have burst into the chambers of the scantily clad Queen , exclaiming , " I have beat them ! I have beat all the Americans ! " The French and Spanish courts were less happy with the news , as they had been supporting the Americans , allowing them to use their ports , and engaging in trade with them . The action emboldened the British to demand that France and Spain close their ports to the Americans ; this demand was rejected , heightening tensions between the European powers .
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= Dante ( Devil May Cry ) =
Dante ( ダンテ ) is a fictional character and the primary protagonist of the Devil May Cry series created and published by Capcom . In the first four games , Dante is a mercenary , private investigator , and demon hunting vigilante dedicated to exterminating them and other malevolent supernatural foes , a mission he follows in pursuit of those that killed his mother and corrupted his brother . He is the son of Sparda , a demon of great power and as a result of his heritage , he possesses numerous powers beyond that of any human , which he uses in combination with a variety of weapons to accomplish his goals . The character also appears in several Devil May Cry novels and manga volumes ; and is featured in the 2007 anime TV series . A reboot of the series by Ninja Theory features him in an alternate universe as a young adult fighting against demons . Dante has also appeared as a guest character in multiple crossover games .
Named after the Italian poet Dante Alighieri , the character was designed to fit Devil May Cry game designer Hideki Kamiya 's vision of a " cool and stylish " man , and his personality was based on the title character of the manga series Cobra . Across the series , Dante 's portrayal has been modified to appeal to criticism aimed towards his role in the first sequel with Devil May Cry 3 featuring a younger and cockier Dante while Devil May Cry 4 offered an older yet cocky characterization . While Capcom handled the character in the first four games , Ninja Theory was in charge of his persona in the reboot .
Dante has become one of the most popular characters in gaming , having been recognized for his role in the Devil May Cry series and various characteristics that have attracted gamers . However , Dante 's redesign and characterization in the reboot was the subject of controversy amongst gamers .
= = Characteristics = =
Dante is a mercenary and private investigator specializing in paranormal cases , preferring those that call for demon slaying . He is muscular , has white / silver hair , icy @-@ blue eyes and is usually seen wearing red dusters / trench coats . Dante 's arsenal usually consists of firearms and melee weapons , including " Ebony and Ivory " , twin handguns that never need reloading , as well as a variety of swords such as the " Rebellion " and " Force Edge " , Devil Arms created by his father . The guns are handmade with " For Tony Redgrave , By.45 Art Warks " written on them ( Tony Redgrave is the alias used by Dante ) . He possesses superhuman strength , agility , stamina , reflexes , coordination , and resistance to injury that approaches invulnerability as a result of his half @-@ demon heritage . This gives him the ability to enter a heightened state called " Devil Trigger " . In this state , Dante possesses greater strength and speed , his health regenerates at a steady pace , and further abilities with his equipped melee weapon , including flight .
Dante is one of the twin sons of Sparda , the demon knight who sided with humanity and drove back an invasion of the human world by demons roughly 2 @,@ 000 years prior to the events of the series . After Sparda 's death , Dante and his identical twin brother Vergil were raised by their human mother , Eva . When Dante and Vergil were children , the family was attacked by demons , resulting in Eva 's death . This event led to Dante 's commitment to hunting demons in pursuit of those that killed his mother . Dante is confident in his encounters with opponents , and frequently taunts enemies before battling them . With the exception of Devil May Cry 4 , Dante says the phrase " Devils never cry " in every game , implying that no matter how much of a demon he may prove to be , his ability to cry makes his human side precious to him .
= = Appearances = =
= = = Devil May Cry video games = = =
In the original Devil May Cry , Dante is hired by Trish , a mysterious woman who looks similar to his deceased mother , to stop the return of the devil king Mundus . However , she is actually setting up events for Mundus ' agents to kill Dante as he makes his way to Mundus himself . During the course of the game Dante is also reunited with his brother Vergil , who , under the control of Mundus , attempts to kill him . Trish eventually betrays Mundus to save Dante , and the pair work together to lock Mundus in the demon world . Afterwards , they become partners in Dante 's demon @-@ slaying business , now renamed " Devil Never Cry " .
In the first sequel , Devil May Cry 2 , Dante is shown to have a habit of flipping a coin to make his decisions , although it is revealed at the end of the game that both sides of the coin are heads . Set some time after the first game , Devil May Cry 2 focuses on aiding the character Lucia in defeating Arius , an international businessman who uses demonic power and seeks to conquer the world . At the end of the game , Dante must go into the demon world to stop a demon lord from escaping , but the gate closes behind him and he is trapped . With no way back to the human world , Dante heads even deeper into the demon world on his motorcycle .
The third game , Devil May Cry 3 : Dante 's Awakening , serves as a prequel to the first game and features a cockier and younger Dante . In the story , Dante is drawn out by his brother Vergil , who is attempting to reopen the portal to the demon world in order to obtain the full power of Sparda , which remains on the other side contained within the sword Force Edge . Along the way , Dante encounters Lady , who is in pursuit of her father Arkham , who is working with Vergil , but has plans of his own . In the end , Dante claims ownership of the Force Edge , while Vergil chooses to remain in the demon world . Inspired by Lady 's courage and commitment to her own family , Dante continues his business with a greater sense of purpose . They become friends , and he decides to call his shop " Devil May Cry " , after something Lady had said to comfort him .
Released in 2008 , Devil May Cry 4 is the first game in the series not to feature Dante as the primary character . Dante is seen as an antagonist by the game 's lead character , Nero , after he presumably kills Sanctus , the leader from The Order of the Sword in charge of hunting demons . Across the story , Dante befriends Nero when he decides to face The Order . When Nero is kidnapped by Sanctus , the player controls Dante once again as he continues his fight against the Order . After Nero is saved and Sanctus defeated , Dante entrusts Nero with Vergil 's sword he has been wielding .
= = = Reboot = = =
A reboot of Devil May Cry franchise , DmC : Devil May Cry , features an alternative universe Dante with a very different appearance . Dante is featured as a young adult in his early twenties who is attacked by a seemingly sentient town known as Limbo City populated by demons . During the reboot , Dante meets his brother Vergil , who is the leader of The Order – a rogue vigilante group trying to free the world from the demons . The city is controlled by the demon king , Mundus , who killed Dante 's mother Eva ( an angel ) and later imprisoned his father ( Sparda , a demon and Mundus ' former lieutenant ) in an attempt to kill the children , since Nephilim ( half @-@ angel , half @-@ demon offspring ) held the power to kill Mundus . Dante joins Vergil 's group to oppose Mundus , eventually taking him down and freeing humanity from the demons ; however , Vergil 's intentions to take Mundus ' place cause a fight between the brothers which Dante wins and Vergil escapes . In the downloadable content sequel , Vergil 's Downfall , a replica of Dante appears to oppose Vergil in his quest for power but is killed in combat .
= = = Other appearances = = =
Dante has playable appearances in several games outside of the Devil May Cry series of games . In the Viewtiful Joe series , also created by Hideki Kamiya , Dante is playable in the PlayStation 2 version of Viewtiful Joe and the PSP version of Viewtiful Joe : Red Hot Rumble . In both games , he frequently has dialogue with Alastor , who is revealed to be the embodiment of the identically @-@ named sword from Devil May Cry . He appears as an enemy and optional ally in the director 's cut release of Shin Megami Tensei : Nocturne . His inclusion was suggested by the Atlus staff due to how well Dante would fit in the game 's plot and convinced Capcom to include him . There is a Dante character card in SNK vs. Capcom : Card Fighters DS . He makes his second fighting game appearance as a playable character in Marvel vs. Capcom 3 : Fate of Two Worlds . He was also set to appear in Soulcalibur III , but did not make it into the final game . He appears as a playable character in the tactical role @-@ playing game Project X Zone , with Demitri Maximoff from Darkstalkers as his partner . He will return in the sequel , Project X Zone 2 , with Vergil as his partner . Hideki Kamiya , now in Platinum Games , has stated he was approached about having Sega character Bayonetta included in this game , to which he refused as he wanted Bayonetta and Dante from Devil May Cry to meet " on his own terms " . However , he has stated he has come to regret this decision due to realizing how the fans would have loved the two interacting , and that if there is a Project X Zone 3 he would be all for Bayonetta 's inclusion . Dante is a playable character in PlayStation All @-@ Stars Battle Royale , using his appearance from DmC : Devil May Cry . The inclusion of his DmC persona over the classic one generated criticism by fans and SuperBot Entertainment responded to them expecting them to enjoy the character 's gameplay mechanics .
Dante also appears in many other pieces of media based on the video games . These include two light novels written by Shinya Goikeda featuring original stories ; The first has a young Dante under the alias of " Tony Redgrave " as he is chased by assassins and Devil May Cry 2 prequel that has him searching for a demonic statue known as the Beastheads . A Devil May Cry 4 novel by writer Bingo Morihashi reprises Dante 's role from the game but reveals his interest in Nero after finding him very similar to his brother , Vergil . There is also a Devil May Cry 3 manga that follows Dante before the game 's events , a comic of the first game published by Dreamwave Productions , and an anime titled Devil May Cry : The Animated Series that follows his daily life as he solves cases involving demons . The reboot version of Dante also appears in the prequel comic The Chronicles of Vergil when he receives the sword Rebellion to fight demons . In the Sengoku Basara vs. Devil May Cry stage he will be portrayed by Hiroki Suzuki .
The popularity of the Devil May Cry series lead to a line of action figures produced by Toycom . Japanese company Kaiyodo produced a similar line for Devil May Cry 2 and a Devil May Cry 3 Dante action figure .
= = Conception and design = =
Dante debuted in Devil May Cry , a game originally intended to be a part of Capcom 's Resident Evil franchise . Series ' creator Hideki Kamiya wrote his name after rewriting the story and took it from Dante Alighieri 's poem Divine Comedy . Kamiya has said that the title character from the manga series Cobra by Buichi Terasawa served as the basis for Dante 's personality . Kamiya based his idea of Dante on what he perceived as " Stylish " – wearing a long coat to make the character " showy " and a non @-@ smoker , as Kamiya saw that as " more cool " . The character wears red because in Japan it is a traditional color for a heroic figure . Kamiya has also stated he perceives Dante as " a character that you would want to go out drinking with " , someone who was not a show @-@ off but would instead " pull some ridiculous , mischievous joke " to endear people to him . He added that this aspect was intended to make the character feel familiar to audiences . Although Kamiya was not the main writer from the first two Devil May Cry novels he viewed Shinya Goikeda 's depiction of Dante similar to the one he wrote .
In the prequel game Devil May Cry 3 , Dante 's attitude was emphasized to reflect a younger and more arrogant character than in previous installments . The Devil Trigger forms for Dante was designed by Kazuma Kaneko from Atlus . Gameplay @-@ wise he was made to be easy to control contrasting Vergil who was harder yet stronger . Devil May Cry 4 's producer Hiroyuki Kobayashi noted prior to the release of that game that they wanted to make Dante seem significantly more powerful than the game 's other protagonist , Nero . This was done in order to create an evident difference between the strength of a " veteran " when compared to a " rookie " . Another reason for this portrayal is based on the series ' continuity , which dictated that Dante display the power he would possess after the events of the first game and its prequel , Devil May Cry 3 . In this game Dante was designed by Tatsuya Yoshikawa who enjoyed the character in his original appearance to the point of calling him " the ultimate Hollywood action superstar . " Yoshikawa discussed with the staff to make Dante older , more mature and more experienced to and have him look between his 30s and 40s . The design included multiple details such as Dante 's stubble that reflected his cool personality as he did not care about shaving .
For both Devil May Cry 3 and Devil May Cry 4 Dante was voiced by Reuben Langdon who also did the motion capture for certain scenes . During the development of Devil May Cry 3 , Langdon found that doing the motion capture of Dante was difficult to the multiple moves the character makes . Langdon often discussed with the staff about Dante 's characterization that was different from the original one as they wanted " a different spin . " Eventually , Langdon decided to do his own rendition of Dante as he was confused with the staff 's suggestions . In retrospective , Langdon finds Dante " the most difficult , frustrating and yet rewarding character " he has ever played and stated he grew attached with him . Langdon was told to make Devil May Cry 4 's Dante similar to his Devil May Cry 3 persona albeit more mature . Despite the staff 's concerns for the difficulties of such portrayal , Langdon had no issues after choosing Roy Focker from the anime series The Super Dimension Fortress Macross as his character model and noting he had almost the same age as Dante during production of the game .
= = = Redesign = = =
For DmC : Devil May Cry , a reboot of the series , Dante was completely redesigned as a result of comments by the Capcom staff . Dante 's original design was originally meant to be similar to the ones from previous games , but Capcom told the Ninja Theory staff it had to be completely different in order to appeal to a younger demographic . Motohide Eshiro stated this Dante was completely set apart from the previous Dantes which they expected would generate major criticism . While the original Dante was design from a Japanese perspective , the new one was made from a Western perspective . After several drafts of Dante 's new character , the designers settled on a look as inspired by Christopher Nolan 's film The Dark Knight . Dante 's coat is not long , only coming down to his lower @-@ back , his hair is shorter and is black ; he has a Devil Trigger form which makes him look close to the classic Dante . Art designer Alessandro Taini drew the character as a child and explain with reboot 's origin story why he has white hair . Director Tameem Antoniades denied rumors that his design was modelled after him .
For this game , Dante was made young , consumed by hatred and inexperienced resulting in a fighting style similar to a street brawler rather than that of a skilled swordsman . As a result of the reboot 's theme being " rebellion " most of Dante 's actions are based around it . Antoniades stated that Dante is about " being cool and making you feel cool when you 're playing it , " and , as such , they felt that his attire from previous games would be found comical . Antoniades added he felt the classic Dante was not appealing anymore and when comparing the new Dante with the title character from Bayonetta he did not see her style to be what he wanted for the reboot . Antoniades responded to criticism stating they would not change it as it is supposed to fit within the game 's setting . Additionally , he stated he would have liked this Dante in response to the criticism .
= = Reception = =
Dante 's confident and fearless attitude has gained him widespread popularity . When first introduced , Game Informer described him as " one of the most bad @-@ ass characters around , " citing the contrast between his character and those previously seen in the Resident Evil series . His design and personality received praise from numerous reviews , such as IGN , who referred to him as " a dark antihero kind of guy even a down @-@ in @-@ the @-@ dumps , disgruntled teenager would love . " GameSpy described his appearance as " awe @-@ inspiring to look at " , feeling his attire was reminiscent of Vincent Price . Empire also ranked Dante on their list of the 50 greatest video game characters as 38th , adding Dante is " surely one of the coolest " ones in the history of video gaming .
GamesRadar named him " Mister 2001 " in their article on the sexiest new characters of the decade , stating that compared to the female characters in Devil May Cry , Dante was the " hottest " of them all , due to his muscular build , hair , his fighting abilities , and his attitude . Dante was ranked third in ScrewAttack 's list of the " coolest " video game characters in 2007 . GameDaily named him one of their favorite Capcom characters , ranking him seventh and stating that the various aspects of the character made him an " unstoppable force " . GamesRadar also listed him as one of the 25 best new characters of the decade , calling him " unforgettable " , as well as stating that he had set the template for " smartass action heroes " . In 2010 , Dante came 23rd in a Famitsu poll featuring the most popular video game characters in Japan . He was also voted by Game Informer as the 13th best character from the 2000s . In 2012 , GamesRadar stated that despite Dante 's multiple characterizations " he 's a guy who you 'll always have a hell of a time playing with . " Dante and Trish were also included in The Inquirer 's list of the most memorable video game love teams , with comments focused on how the two join forces to defeat their enemies . In 2014 , La Nueva España included this " ephebe that exudes testosterone from every pore " among the top ten sexiest video game characters of both genders .
Additionally , Dante has also often been compared with the title character from Bayonetta especially in his Devil May Cry 4 persona based on their personalities and actions that made the two of them appealing . Reuben Langdon 's performance as Dante in Devil May Cry 3 and Devil May Cry 4 received praise by GamesRadar for being the character 's best voice actor noting that the two actors did not fit the character well .
On the other hand , Dante 's characterization has often resulted in criticism . In Devil May Cry 2 , Dante 's cocky attitude was largely absent , which was one of the main criticisms of the game . Fan reactions to the new design of Dante in DmC : Devil May Cry were mostly negative . Hideki Kamiya found him based on the modern 's rebellious youth and said he missed the original Dante , but he still hoped that people would try it . Dave Riley from Anime News Network compared the reboot 's Dante with the young Dante from Devil May Cry 3 but criticized him for being " pretty generic adolescent power fantasy " as well as his use of swearing when confronting enemies . Dante 's voice actor , Reuben Langdon , expressed disappointment with Dante 's characterization in the reboot despite his anticipation to it . On the other hand , several websites writers criticized the fanbase 's negative reactions stating they were solely influenced by the character 's look and that his personality was very close to the classic Dante .
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= Danny Deever =
" Danny Deever " is an 1890 poem by Rudyard Kipling , one of the first of the Barrack @-@ Room Ballads . It received wide critical and popular acclaim , and is often regarded as one of the most significant pieces of Kipling 's early verse . The poem , a ballad , describes the execution of a British soldier in India for murder . His execution is viewed by his regiment , paraded to watch it , and the poem is composed of the comments they exchange as they see him hanged .
= = Context = =
The poem was first published on 22 February 1890 in the Scots Observer , in America later in the year , and printed as part of the Barrack @-@ Room Ballads shortly thereafter .
It is generally read as being set in India , though it gives no details of the actual situation . Some research has suggested that the poem was written with a specific incident in mind , the execution of one Private Flaxman of The Leicestershire Regiment , at Lucknow in 1887 . A number of details of this execution correspond to the occasion described by Kipling in the poem , and he later used a story similar to that of Flaxman 's as a basis for the story Black Jack .
Kipling apparently wrote the various Barrack @-@ Room Ballads in early 1890 , about a year since he had last been in India , and three years since Flaxman 's execution . Though he wrote large amounts of occasional verse , he usually added a note beneath the title giving the context of the poem . Danny Deever does not have any such notes , but " Cleared " ( a topical poem on the Parnell Commission ) , written in the same month as Danny Deever , does . This suggests that it was not thought by Kipling to be inspired by a specific incident , though it is quite possible that he remembered the Flaxman case .
= = Summary = =
The form is a dialogue , between a young and inexperienced soldier ( or soldiers ; he is given as " Files @-@ on @-@ Parade " , suggesting a group ) and a more experienced and older NCO ( " the Colour @-@ Sergeant " ) . The setting is an execution , generally presumed to be somewhere in India ; a soldier , one Danny Deever , has been tried and sentenced to death for murdering a fellow soldier in his sleep , and his battalion is paraded to see the hanging . This procedure strengthened discipline in the unit , by a process of deterrence , and helped inure inexperienced soldiers to the sight of death .
The young soldier is unaware of what is happening , at first – he asks why the bugles are blowing , and why the Sergeant looks so pale , but is told that Deever is being hanged , and that the regiment is drawn up in " [ h ] ollow square " to see it . He presses the Sergeant further , in the second verse – why are people breathing so hard ? why are some men collapsing ? These signs of the effect that watching the hanging has upon the men of the regiment are explained away by the Sergeant as being due to the cold weather or the bright sun . The voice is reassuring , keeping the young soldier calm in the sight of death , just as the Sergeant will calm him with his voice in combat . In the third verse , Files thinks of Deever , saying that he slept alongside him , and drank with him , but the Sergeant reminds him that Deever is now alone , that he sleeps " out an ' far to @-@ night " , and reminds the soldier of the magnitude of Deever 's crime –
For ' e shot a comrade sleepin ' – you must look ' im in the face ;
Nine ' undred of ' is county an ' the regiment 's disgrace ,
( Nine hundred was roughly the number of men in a single infantry battalion , and as regiments were formed on local lines , most would have been from the same county ; it is thus emphasised that his crime is a black mark against both the regiment , as a whole , and against his comrades . ) The fourth verse comes to the hanging ; Files sees the body against the sun , and then feels his soul as it " whimpers " overhead ; the term reflects a shudder in the ranks as they watch Deever die . Finally , the Sergeant moves the men away ; though it is not directly mentioned in the poem , they would be marched past the corpse on the gallows – reflecting that the recruits are shaking after their ordeal , and that " they 'll want their beer to @-@ day " .
= = Structure = =
The poem is composed of four eight @-@ line verses , containing a dialogue between two ( or three ) voices :
" What are the bugles blowin ' for ? " said Files @-@ on @-@ Parade .
" To turn you out , to turn you out " , the Colour @-@ Sergeant said .
" What makes you look so white , so white ? " said Files @-@ on @-@ Parade .
" I 'm dreadin ' what I 've got to watch " , the Colour @-@ Sergeant said .
For they 're hangin ' Danny Deever , you can hear the Dead March play ,
The regiment 's in ' ollow square – they 're hangin ' him to @-@ day ;
They 've taken of his buttons off an ' cut his stripes away ,
An ' they 're hangin ' Danny Deever in the mornin ' .
It is immediately noticeable that the poem is written in a vernacular English . Though the Barrack @-@ Room Ballads have made this appear a common feature of Kipling 's work , at the time it was quite unusual ; this was the first of his published works to be written in the voice of the common soldier . The speech is not a direct representation of any single dialect , but it serves to give a very clear effect of a working class English voice of the period . Note the " taken of his buttons off " , a deliberate error , to add to the stylised speech ; it refers to the ceremony of military degradation , where the man to be executed is formally stripped of any marks of rank , such as his stripes , or of significant parts of his uniform – the buttons bore the regimental crest .
The four verses each consist of two questions asked by " Files " and answered by the Sergeant- a call @-@ and @-@ response form – and then another four lines of the Sergeant explaining , as above . In some interpretations , the second four lines are taken to be spoken by a third voice , another " file @-@ on @-@ parade " . Both the poem 's rhythm and its rhyme scheme reinforce the idea of drilling infantry by giving the effect of feet marching generally but not perfectly in unison : Although the poem 's overall meter is iambic , each line in the verses and , to the slightly lesser extent , the chorus features syllables with additional grammatical and phonetic emphasis that fit the rhythm of the " left , left , left right left " marching cadence . The first four lines always end with the same word , and the last four feature an aaab rhyme scheme with slightly lighter syllables that force the pace into a brisk march despite its somber mood ( cf. the text of the poem 's final chorus ) . Eliot noted the imperfect rhyme scheme – parade and said do not quite rhyme – as strongly contributing to this effect , with the slight interruption supporting the feel of a large number of men marching together , not quite in harmony .
= = Critical reaction = =
Danny Deever is often seen as one of Kipling 's most powerful early works , and was greeted with acclaim when first published . David Masson , a professor of literature at the University of Edinburgh , is often reported ( perhaps apocryphally ) to have waved the magazine in which it appeared at his students , crying " Here 's literature ! Here 's literature at last ! " . William Henley , the editor of the Scots Observer , is even said to have danced on his wooden leg when he first received the text .
It was later commented on by William Butler Yeats , who noted that " [ Kipling ] interests a critical audience today by the grotesque tragedy of Danny Deever " . T. S. Eliot called the poem " technically ( as well as in content ) remarkable " , holding it up as one of the best of Kipling 's ballads . Both Yeats and Eliot were writing shortly after Kipling 's death , in 1936 and 1941 , when critical opinion of his poetry was at a low point ; both , nonetheless , drew out Danny Deever for attention as a significant work .
Discussing that low critical opinion in a 1942 essay , George Orwell considered Danny Deever as an example of Kipling " at his worst , and also his most vital ... almost a shameful pleasure , like the taste for cheap sweets that some people secretly carry into middle life " . He felt the work was an example of what he described as " good bad poetry " ; verse which is essentially vulgar , yet undeniably seductive and " a sign of the emotional overlap between the intellectual and the ordinary man . "
= = Music = =
The Barrack @-@ Room Ballads , as the name suggests , are songs of soldiers . Written by Kipling , they share a form and a style with traditional Army songs . Kipling was one of the first to pay attention to these works ; Charles Carrington noted that in contrast to the songs of sailors , " no @-@ one had thought of collecting genuine soldiers ' songs , and when Kipling wrote in this traditional style it was not recognised as traditional " . Kipling himself was fond of singing his poetry , of writing it to fit the rhythm of a particular tune . In this specific case , the musical source has been suggested as the Army 's " grotesque bawdy song " Barnacle Bill the Sailor , but it is possible that some other popular tune of the period was used .
However , the ballads were not published with any music , and though they were quickly adapted to be sung , new musical settings were written ; a musical setting by Walter Damrosch was described as " Teddy Roosevelt 's favourite song " , and is sometimes encountered on its own as a tune entitled They 're Hanging Danny Deever in the Morning . To date , at least a dozen published recordings are known , made from 1893 to 1985 .
The tune " They 're Hanging Danny Deever in the Morning " was played from the Campanile at UC Berkeley at the end of the last day of classes for the Spring Semester of 1930 , and has been repeated every year since , making it one of the oldest campus traditions .
The song is referenced in the book Starship Troopers when the Mobile Infantry hangs Dillinger for murder while the main character is in basic training .
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= Spyro : Year of the Dragon =
Spyro : Year of the Dragon is a platform video game developed by Insomniac Games and published by Sony Computer Entertainment for the PlayStation in 2000 . Year of the Dragon is the third installment in the Spyro series and the last Spyro game to be released for the first generation PlayStation . The game was also the last Spyro game Insomniac developed ; their next title would be Ratchet & Clank for the PlayStation 2 .
Named after the animal of the Chinese zodiac , which was the symbol at the time of the game 's release , Year of the Dragon follows the titular purple dragon Spyro as he travels to the " Forgotten Worlds " after 150 magical dragon eggs are stolen from the land of the dragons by an evil sorceress . Players travel across thirty different worlds gathering gems and eggs . Year of the Dragon introduced new characters and minigames to the series , as well as offering improved graphics and music .
Upon release , the game sold more than two million units in the United States and received positive critical response . Reviewers noted the game built on the successful formula of its predecessors by adding more games and expansive environments . It was followed by the multiplatform title Spyro : Enter the Dragonfly , and was later released for download on the PlayStation Store in 2009 in North America and in 2012 in Europe , the latter date coincidentally being another Year of the Dragon in the real @-@ world Chinese zodiac .
= = Gameplay = =
Year of the Dragon is set primarily in the third @-@ person ; its gameplay makes few deviations from that of its predecessors . The main objective of the game is to collect special dragon eggs which are scattered across 37 worlds . These eggs are hidden , or are given as rewards for completing certain tasks and levels . The worlds of Spyro are linked together by " homeworlds " or " hubs " , large worlds which contain gateways to many other levels . To proceed to the next hub , the character must complete five worlds , gather a certain number of eggs , and defeat a boss . Players do not need to gather every egg to complete the main portion of the game or gain access to new levels ; in fact , certain eggs can only be found by returning to the world at a later time . Gems are scattered across the worlds , hidden in crates and jars . These gems are used to bribe a bear named Moneybags to release captured " critters " and activate things which help Spyro progress through levels ( Such as bridges ) . Gems , along with the number of eggs collected , count to the total completion percentage of the game .
For most of the game , the player controls the dragon Spyro . Spyro 's health is measured by his companion , a dragonfly named Sparx ; Sparx changes color and then disappears after taking progressively more damage . If the player has no Sparx , then the next hit would cause the player to lose a life and restart at the last saved checkpoint . Consuming small wildlife known as " fodder " regenerates Sparx . Spyro has several abilities , including breathing fire , swimming and diving , gliding , and headbutting , which he can use to explore and combat a variety of enemies , most of which are rhinoceros @-@ like creatures called Rhynocs . Some foes are only vulnerable to certain moves . Spyro can run into " Powerup Gates " , which give him special abilities for a limited period .
Year of the Dragon introduced playable characters other than Spyro , known as " critters " , which are gradually unlocked as the player proceeds through the game . Critters can be found blocking the level they are played in until released from Moneybags . Subsequently , the player plays as the character in specially marked sections of levels . Each homeworld features one world which is played through entirely by a non @-@ Spyro character . There are a total of seven playable characters , which all have their own special moves and abilities . Sheila the Kangaroo , for example , can double jump , while Sgt. Byrd is armed with rocket launchers and can fly indefinitely .
Besides the primary quest to find dragon eggs , Year of the Dragon features an extensive set of minigames , which are split off from the levels into smaller zones . Some of the minigames were featured in Spyro 2 : Ripto 's Rage ! and were subsequently expanded for Year of the Dragon , while others are entirely new to the series . These minigames are played by Spyro or the other playable characters .
= = Plot = =
= = = Setting and characters = = =
Spyro is assisted by many characters during the course of Year of the Dragon . Spyro is the game 's protagonist , and Sparx is his dragonfly sidekick . Sparx functions as the player 's health meter and assists the player in gathering gems ; Sparx is a playable character in certain levels . Also aiding Spyro is Hunter the Cheetah , who teaches the player game mechanics and is a playable character at special racing levels . Four other playable characters are freed from Moneybags during the game ; Sheila the kangaroo , Sergeant Byrd the penguin , Bentley the yeti , and Agent 9 the space monkey . The primary antagonist of the game is the Sorceress , a tyrant who rules over the Forgotten Worlds with her forces . Aiding her is the apprentice Bianca the Rabbit , who attempts to hinder Spyro on his mission .
= = = Story = = =
The game opens with a celebration in the land of the dragons , where Spyro and his kin are celebrating the " Year of the Dragon " , an event that occurs every twelve years when new dragon eggs are brought to the realm . During the celebration however , a cloaked rabbit girl named Bianca invades the Dragon Realms with an army of creatures called Rhynocs and steals all of the Dragon eggs , bringing them back to the Sorceress , who scatters the eggs throughout several worlds . The worlds are split up into four realms : Sunrise Spring , Midday Gardens , Evening Lake , and Midnight Mountain . Spyro , along with Sparx and Hunter , are sent down a hole to find the thieves and recover the dragon eggs .
While pursuing the thief , Spyro discovers a world once inhabited by the dragons , but long abandoned and forgotten . This world is ruled by the Sorceress and her Rhynoc army . Only a few creatures stand and fight against the Sorceress ' rule . Spyro learns from one such inhabitant named Sheila the Kangaroo that when the dragons left the realm , the magic of the world began to dry up . Spyro travels through each world in the forgotten realm , acquiring aid from the local inhabitants and rescuing the dragon eggs . It is revealed that the Sorceress is seeking not the baby dragons themselves , but merely their wings to concoct a spell that can grant her immortality . Once Bianca discovers this , she sympathizes for the baby dragons and decides to side with Spyro and his allies . Spyro eventually fights and defeats the Sorceress and celebrations occur throughout the realm .
The Sorceress survives her battle with Spyro , however , and waits for Spyro with the last of the dragon eggs . Spyro and the Sorceress battle again where the Sorceress is finally defeated , allowing Spyro to return all the baby dragons to the Dragon Realms .
= = Development = =
Development of Spyro : Year of the Dragon spanned about ten and a half months , from November 1999 to September 2000 ; the development team was influenced by a host of other games , including Doom and Crash Bandicoot . Among the new features touted before the game 's release was " Auto Challenge Tuning " , which Insomniac CEO Ted Price described as " invented to even out the gameplay difficulty curve for players of different abilities " . The levels were made much larger than those in Spyro 2 , so that more areas for minigames could be added ; to prevent player confusion on where to go next , these areas were designed to load separately from the main hubs . Price stated that the addition of critters was a way to make the game more enjoyable and varied , instead of just adding more moves for Spyro . The game was named " Year of the Dragon " simply because it was released during 2000 , the year of the Dragon in the Chinese zodiac .
In previews , publications such as IGN and GameSpot noted that the graphics had been improved , and that there were many new characters and locations . The new minigames were previewed , and IGN pointed out that they offered enough complexity to back up the simple gameplay . In an interview with GameSpot , Ted Price stated that the emphasis for the title was on the new critters , but that Spyro would not be left behind in the story . Year of the Dragon also implemented crack protection , in addition to the copy protection previous games had contained . This helped prevent hackers from cracking the game until two months after release .
Despite the positive response the game would go on to receive , Year of the Dragon was developer Insomniac Games ' last Spyro title . In an interview , CEO Ted Price said that the company stopped producing the games because they couldn 't do anything new with the character , and that after five years of development on a single series the team wanted to do something different . Future Spyro games were produced by , among other developers , Digital Eclipse , Equinox Digital Entertainment , Eurocom , Krome Studios , Étranges Libellules , and Tantalus Media .
= = = Music = = =
The music for Year of the Dragon was composed and produced by Stewart Copeland , former drummer for the rock band The Police , with additional contributions by Ryan Beveridge . During the band 's hiatus , Copeland composed several movie soundtracks , and composed the scores for the previous Spyro titles ; Price stated that Copeland 's offering for the third installment was his best work to date .
In an interview , Copeland stated his creative process for writing the music for the Spyro series always began by playing through the levels , trying to get a feel for each world 's " atmosphere " . Copeland noted the challenge of writing for games was to create music that would both be interesting to listen to and complemented the gameplay ; his approach was to incorporate more complicated harmonies and basslines so that the music could seem fresh for players , even after repeated listening . He complimented the compact disc format of the PlayStation and its support for high quality audio ; there were no technical constraints that stopped him from producing the sound he wanted . Copeland recorded entire orchestral scores for extra flourish when the visuals called for an expansive sound , but used more percussive and beat @-@ driven melodies for " high @-@ energy " moments in the game .
= = Release = =
Year of the Dragon was critically acclaimed , with the game receiving an average ranking of 91 % at Game Rankings , and a similar score based on fifteen reviews at Metacritic . According to GameRankings , Year of the Dragon is the fourteenth highest rated PlayStation game of all time . The game sold more than two million units in the United States .
GameSpot noted that while Year of the Dragon made no significant changes to the formula of its predecessors , the combination of new playable characters , more detailed graphics , and the variety of minigames made the game worth the buy . IGN praised the game 's appeal to all ages and the polished levels , as well as the successful multi @-@ character focus . Game Revolution thought that while the game 's premise itself was simply a rehash of previous titles , " the story that unfolds as you actually play the game is flawlessly interwoven and quite entertaining " . GamePro noted that the ability of the game to automatically drop the difficulty if players get stuck was an excellent feature . Next Generation Magazine 's Kevin Rice provided one of the most positive reviews in which he stated the top @-@ notch level design , intuitive controls and excellent graphics made the title the best Spyro game to date , and arguably the best PlayStation game overall .
Copeland 's score was generally well @-@ received , though several critics sharply disagreed with the general consensus . Publications like PSXExtreme thought the music helped bring atmosphere to the varied worlds , and Allgame enthused that " Insomniac should be commended for realizing the importance of music in games ; it seems to enhance the whole experience . " Others , such as Joseph Parazen of Game Revolution , thought the background music sounded " identical to every other 3D , cartoony , action platformer I 've ever played " . Other points of praise were the voice acting and character development . Among the few complaints aside from the story included the game camera , which could be difficult to control and led to unjustified enemy attacks . Some publications warned that the game might feel too much like its predecessors , with a similar plot and objectives .
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= Gordon Gollob =
Gordon Mac Gollob ( 16 June 1912 – 7 September 1987 ) was a German Luftwaffe military aviator during World War II , a fighter ace credited with 150 enemy aircraft shot down in over 340 combat missions . Originally from Austria , he claimed the majority of his victories over the Eastern Front , and six over the Western Front , five of which he claimed as a Messerschmitt Bf 110 fighter pilot .
Gollob volunteered for military service in the Austrian Austrian Armed Forces in 1933 . In March 1938 , following the Anschluss , the annexation of Austria into Nazi Germany , Gollob was transferred to the Luftwaffe . In 1939 , Gollob was posted to Zerstörergeschwader 76 ( ZG 76 — 76th Destroyer Wing ) , a twin @-@ engined heavy fighter wing . Following the outbreak of World War II , he claimed his first aerial victory on 5 September 1939 during the invasion of Poland . Gollob claimed one victory during the Battle of the Heligoland Bight and two victories during the Norwegian Campaign . He then transferred to Jagdgeschwader 3 ( JG 3 — 3rd Fighter Wing ) , flying the single @-@ engined Messerschmitt Bf 109 . In the aftermath of the Battle of Britain on the Channel Front , he claimed his sixth and final victory on the Western Front .
Gollob then fought in the aerial battles of Operation Barbarossa , the German invasion of the Soviet Union . On 27 June 1941 , Gollob was appointed Gruppenkommandeur ( group commander ) of the II . Gruppe ( 2nd group ) of JG 3 . He claimed 18 aerial victories in August , and following his 42nd victory was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross on 18 September . On 26 October 1941 , his total then at 85 aerial victories , he was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves . In December 1941 , Gollob was temporarily transferred to a Luftwaffe test facility at Rechlin . Following a commander @-@ in @-@ training assignment to the Stabsschwarm ( headquarters unit ) of Jagdgeschwader 54 ( JG 54 — 54th Fighter Wing ) on 13 March 1942 , Gollob was appointed Geschwaderkommodore of Jagdgeschwader 77 ( JG 77 — 77th Fighter Wing ) on 16 May 1942 . He claimed his 100th victory on 20 May , and on 23 June he was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords following his 107th aerial victory . On 29 August , Gollob became the first fighter pilot to claim 150 enemy aircraft destroyed and was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves , Swords and Diamonds the next day . At the time of its presentation to Gollob it was Germany 's highest military decoration .
Due to concerns that he would be killed in action , Gollob was prohibited from flying further combat missions . On 15 October 1942 , he was appointed as Jagdfliegerführer 3 on the Western Front , then on 6 September 1943 he was appointed as Jagdfliegerführer 5 , responsible for the tactical fighter command of northwestern France . In April 1944 , he was transferred to the staff of the Inspector of Fighters . In January 1945 , he succeeded Generalleutnant ( Major General ) Adolf Galland as Inspector of Fighters , a position he held until the end of hostilities . Following World War II , he became General Secretary of the Federation of Independents , a political party in Austria . He then worked in a sales position for the Deutz AG . Gollob , married and father of three children , died on 7 September 1987 .
= = Early life and career = =
Gollob was born on 16 June 1912 in Vienna , the capital of Austria @-@ Hungary . His father , Heinrich Gollob , worked as an academic painter . His mother , Johanna ( née Reininghaus ) , was the daughter of Zoe von Karajan , a distant relative of Herbert von Karajan and wife of Carl Reininghaus . Gollob was the first of five children . Both his parents had studied at the Academy of Fine Arts Vienna , where they mutually befriended Gordon Mallet McCouch , an American artist of Scottish descent . McCouch was his godfather and the namesake for his first and middle names , Gordon Mac . In his youth , Gollob already wanted to become an engineer and pilot . In 1930 , as a student at an Oberrealschule , a secondary school , he built his first primary glider in Tirol , experimenting with it at the old airfield at Innsbruck . He also completed his A- and B @-@ license to fly glider aircraft and became an instructor as well as a construction and airframe inspector .
Following four semesters of mechanical engineering at the University of Graz , Gollob joined the Austrian Bundesheer ( Austrian Armed Forces ) in 1933 as an officer cadet in the artillery . For three years he was trained at the Maria Theresia Military Academy at Wiener Neustadt and was promoted to Leutnant ( second lieutenant ) on 1 September 1936 . He then served as an instructor in the Luftstreitkräfte ( Austrian Air Force ) and commander of Schulstaffel A ( Training Squadron A ) . Following the Anschluss in March 1938 , the forced incorporation of Austria into Nazi Germany , Gollob was transferred to the Luftwaffe ( the Nazi German Air Force ) . There , he was promoted to Oberleutnant ( first lieutenant ) on 1 June 1938 . On 15 March 1939 , Gollob was posted to the 3 . Staffel ( 3rd squadron ) of Zerstörergeschwader 76 ( ZG 76 — 76th Destroyer Wing ) flying the Messerschmitt Bf 110 twin @-@ engined heavy fighter .
= = World War II = =
World War II in Europe began on Friday , 1 September 1939 , when German forces invaded Poland . ZG 76 had been stationed at the Polish border prior to the invasion . Gollob scored the first of his aerial victories over Poland on 5 September 1939 , shooting down a PWS 56 ( Podlaska Wytwórnia Samolotów — Podlasie Aircraft Factory ) biplane . He also flew a number of ground support missions , attacking an airfield and destroying a number of aircraft on the ground . On 21 September 1939 , Gollob was awarded the Iron Cross 2nd Class ( Eisernes Kreuz zweiter Klasse ) for his service in Poland . Following the campaign in Poland , ZG 76 was moved to Germany to defend the Reich . The 1 . Gruppe of ZG 76 first relocated to the Stuttgart area on 29 September 1939 to defend the western border against the French and British , who had declared war with Germany on 3 September 1939 . From early October to middle December , I. Gruppe operated from a number of airfields in the Stuttgart and Ruhr regions before relocating north to Jever on 16 December 1939 . There , on 18 December 1939 , Gollob claimed his second aerial victory over a Royal Air Force ( RAF ) Vickers Wellington bomber in what became to be known as the Battle of the Heligoland Bight . During the battle , he shot down and killed Squadron Leader Archibald Guthrie , of No. 9 Squadron .
= = = Norwegian Campaign and Battle of Britain = = =
On 8 April 1940 , Gollob was appointed Staffelkapitän ( squadron leader ) of 3 . Staffel of ZG 76 . The unit took part in Operation Weserübung , Germany 's assault on Denmark and Norway in the opening operation of the Norwegian Campaign . In June 1940 , I. Gruppe was based at Trondheim @-@ Værnes , when the Allied expeditionary force composed of British , French , and Free Polish , were being evacuated from Narvik . In support of the evacuation , the RAF was targeting German shipping in Norwegian waters and Luftwaffe occupied airfields along the coast . On 13 June , fifteen Blackburn Skua dive bombers , six from 800 Naval Air Squadron and nine from 803 Naval Air Squadron , launched from the Royal Navy aircraft carrier Ark Royal attempted to attack the battleship Scharnhorst in the Trondheimsfjord . The flight was intercepted by the Luftwaffe and in the resulting aerial encounter , eight Skuas were shot down , the first by Gollob . That day , he was awarded the Iron Cross 1st Class ( Eisernes Kreuz erster Klasse ) .
Gollob then received night fighter training . At the time , he made a few recommendations for technical improvement of the Messerschmitt Bf 109 single @-@ engined fighter . Based on these recommendations , he was transferred to the Erprobungstelle Rechlin , the Luftwaffe test facility at Rechlin in June 1940 . At 14 : 47 on 9 July 1940 , Gollob intercepted and shot down Short Sunderland flying boat " Y " ( N6133 ) from No. 201 Squadron . The Sunderland , piloted by Flight Lieutenant J.D. Middleton , was on patrol off Norway and crashed 140 kilometers ( 90 mi ) southwest of Sumburgh Head . That same day at 17 : 20 , Gollob , together with Oberfeldwebel ( Staff Sergeant ) Herbert Schob and Oberleutnant Gerhard Böhmel , shot down a patrolling Lockheed Hudson reconnaissance aircraft " J " ( N7377 ) from No. 233 Squadron off Shetland .
On 7 September 1940 during the Battle of Britain , Gollob was transferred to the Gruppenstab ( headquarters unit ) of II . Gruppe Jagdgeschwader 3 ( JG 3 — 3rd Fighter Wing ) based at Arques in northern France . On 8 October , Oberleutnant Werner Voigt , Staffelkapitän of 4 . Staffel was shot down over England and taken prisoner of war . Four days later , Gollob took command of 4 . Staffel . In February 1941 , the entire II . Gruppe returned to Germany for a period of rest . The pilots went on a ski vacation in Kitzbühel from 9 to 28 March 1941 . 4 . Staffel was housed at the foot of the Ehrenbachhöhe , the highest point of the Hahnenkamm . The Gruppe then reassembled at Darmstadt @-@ Griesheim where they received a complement of the new Bf 109 F @-@ 2 fighter aircraft . On 25 April 1941 , II . Gruppe began relocating back to the English Channel Front at Monchy @-@ Breton . The Gruppe completed relocation on 4 May and flew its first mission on 7 May 1941 . That day , the RAF flew several fighter sweeps over the French coast and Gollob was credited with shooting down a Supermarine Spitfire fighter , his sixth of the war and last on the Western Front . On 1 June 1941 , Gollob was promoted to Hauptmann ( captain ) and II . Gruppe began its relocation to the Eastern Front . The ground elements moved immediately while the air elements followed on 8 June . On that day , they flew to Saint @-@ Dizier and then to Böblingen . On the following day , they continued to Breslau @-@ Gandau , now the Wrocław – Copernicus Airport in Poland , via Straubing .
= = = War against the Soviet Union = = =
In preparation for Operation Barbarossa , the German invasion of the Soviet Union , II . Gruppe headed further east on 18 June . Following a stopover at Kraków , the unit was moved to Hostynne . At the start of the campaign , JG 3 under the command of Major ( Major ) Günther Lützow was subordinated to the V. Fliegerkorps ( 5th Air Corps ) , under the command of General der Flieger ( General of the Aviators ) Robert Ritter von Greim , itself part of Luftflotte 4 ( 4th Air Fleet ) , under the command of Generaloberst ( Colonel General ) Alexander Löhr . These air elements supported Generalfeldmarschall ( Field Marshal ) Gerd von Rundstedt 's Heeresgruppe Süd ( Army Group South ) , with the objective of capturing Ukraine and its capital Kiev . At 17 : 00 on 21 June 1941 , V. Fliegerkorps , based at Lipsko , briefed the various unit commanders of the upcoming attack . That evening , Hauptmann Lothar Keller , Gruppenkommandeur ( group commander ) of II . Gruppe , informed his subordinates of the attack .
The invasion of the Soviet Union began on 22 June 1941 . II . Gruppe flew its first missions on the Eastern Front shortly before 04 : 00 , flying low attacks against Soviet airfields in the vicinity of Lvov , now Lviv in Ukraine . At 06 : 30 the Gruppe fought its first aerial battles . 4 . Staffel claimed three victories and the Gruppenstab four . One of these victories was credited to Gollob , who claimed a Polikarpov I @-@ 16 fighter shot down at 07 : 00 . On 25 June , II . Gruppe claimed 17 victories , 6 of which were credited to 4 . Staffel . The Staffel engaged Ilyushin DB @-@ 3 bombers escorted by I @-@ 16 " Ratas " on a free chase mission west of Lutsk . The Soviet bombers targeted the German advance roads from Hrubieszów through Volodymyr @-@ Volynskyi to Lusk . Gollob was credited with two victories over DB @-@ 3s in this encounter . On 26 June 1941 , Gruppenkommandeur Keller was killed in a mid @-@ air collision . The next day , Gollop succeeded Keller in this position and turned over command of 4 . Staffel to Oberleutnant Karl Faust . In the beginning of July 1941 , the front in the vicinity of the northern sector of Heeresgruppe Süd became increasingly fluid . This necessitated the relocation of II . Gruppe to Volodymyr @-@ Volynskyi . By this time the war of attrition had reduced the Gruppe to 50 percent of its authorized strength . One reason for this was the almost complete lack of new aircraft or of engines and other spare parts . Another factor was overwork of the ground crews and signs of exhaustion were apparent . Flying combat air patrols over Berdychiv and Zhytomyr on 1 July , II . Gruppe claimed four victories . On this day at 19 : 42 , Gollob claimed his tenth aerial victory over a Petlyakov Pe @-@ 2 light bomber . The following day , the Gruppe claimed 23 aerial victories for the loss of one in combat . The first victory of the day was claimed by Gollob who shot down a ZKB @-@ 19 — a German alias for the Polikarpov I @-@ 17 fighter , possibly a misidentified Mikoyan @-@ Gurevich MiG @-@ 1 or Mikoyan @-@ Gurevich MiG @-@ 3 — at 05 : 52 in the morning . On another mission that day , he claimed two Vultee V @-@ 11 attack aircraft shot down at 11 : 30 and 11 : 43 .
The rapid advance of German ground forces required II . Gruppe to move to Lutsk on 5 July , then to Dubno that evening and to Miropol on 10 July . Flying missions east of Zhytomyr , Gollob claimed his 14th victory over a Polikarpov I @-@ 153 at 06 : 30 on 13 July 1941 . A victory over a DB @-@ 3 at 11 : 42 and a further victory over a Tupolev SB @-@ 2 bomber at 11 : 44 , both claimed on 16 July , took his total to 16 aerial victories . On 20 July 1941 , II . Gruppe relocated from Miropol to Berdychiv . One day later , Gollob was awarded the Honor Goblet of the Luftwaffe ( Ehrenpokal der Luftwaffe ) for 16 aerial victories . On 23 July 1941 at 16 : 35 , Gollob claimed a Polikarpov R @-@ 5 reconnaissance bomber , his 17th aerial victory . That day , II . Gruppe received orders to turn over its remaining aircraft to I. Gruppe of Jagdgeschwader 53 ( JG 53 — 53rd Fighter Wing ) . Gollob 's Gruppe was re @-@ equipped with the Bf 109 F @-@ 4 . On 28 July , the pilots were flown to Krosno on a Junkers Ju 52 where they received a full complement of Bf 109 F @-@ 4s . After a single familiarization flight , they departed to Berdychiv and on the following morning they were transferred to Bila Tserkva . During the first days in August 1941 , II . Gruppe flew missions over the combat areas along the Dnieper in support of the main German attack to encircle Soviet forces near Uman , approximately 200 km ( 120 mi ) south of Kiev . Most II . Gruppe missions were subsequently in the greater Kiev area and to the north near Malyn , where Soviet forces were still holding onto the west bank of the Dnieper . Until 6 August 1941 , II . Gruppe claimed five victories without loss . Two victories claimed on 5 August took Gollob 's total to 20 aerial victories . He was victorious over a I @-@ 153 at 17 : 46 and a I @-@ 17 at 18 : 22 .
On 7 August , II . Gruppe moved again , from Bila Tserkva the Gruppe moved to Signajewka , a forward airfield near Shpola . In the days to come , the Gruppe flew combat missions over the Dnieper , between Kaniv and Kremenchuk as well to the south . Flying from Signajewka for the next 10 days , II . Gruppe claimed 64 aerial victories , including 11 on 8 August , 7 on 9 August , 8 on 12 August and 27 on 17 August 1941 , the Gruppe 's most successful day of the entire 1941 summer campaign . In the same timeframe , Gollob increased his number of aerial victories to 26 . II . Gruppe had to relocate again in order to keep up with the German advance . On the afternoon of 17 August parts of the air elements flew to Kirovohrad @-@ North airfield . Their primary mission was to protect the armored spearheads in the Dnipropetrovsk area . On 21 August 1941 , II . Gruppe claimed 17 victories , five of which were by Gollob . This " ace @-@ in @-@ a @-@ day " achievement , the first of six during his combat career , took his total to 33 aerial victories . On 25 August , III . Armeekorps ( 3rd Army Corps ) took Dnipropetrovsk and captured the first bridgehead across the Dnieper . Until the end of August 1941 , II . Gruppe primary objective was to help secure the bridgehead on the east bank of the Dnieper . In support of these battles , Gollob scored a I @-@ 17 on 22 August , a Polikarpov I @-@ 180 fighter aircraft on 24 August and a Tupolev TB @-@ 3 heavy bomber on 31 August 1941 , taking his total to 36 aerial victories . On 1 September 1941 , the 17 . Armee ( 17th Army ) began crossing the Dnieper in force and II . Gruppe was moved to Myronivka . Flying from Myronivka was characterized by poor weather conditions with rain and fog , as a result operations were kept to a minimum . At the time , II . Gruppe 's primary objective was the defense of the Dnieper crossing . In these defensive battles , Gollob score his 37th victory on 8 September . His opponent was classified as an I @-@ 26 fighter aircraft , later referred to as Yakovlev Yak @-@ 1 . One day later , he claimed a Ilyushin Il @-@ 2 ground @-@ attack aircraft . On 12 September weather conditions improved and flight operations increased . II . Gruppe flew missions in support of the armored spearheads as well as fighter escort missions for Junkers Ju 87 dive bombers . That day , Gollob claimed two victories , a Il @-@ 2 and a I @-@ 26 , taking his total to 40 aerial victories . On 13 September , the Gruppe claimed 20 victories over Soviet bombers and ground @-@ attack aircraft , including a V @-@ 11 shot down by Gollob at 17 : 19 . On 14 September 1941 , the German airfield at Myronivka came under Soviet air attack . Following the attack , Gollob and his wingman Oberleutnant Walther Dahl managed to pursue the attackers , and both shot down one of them . This victory over an I @-@ 153 claimed at 05 : 47 in the morning took his total to 42 aerial victories . II . Gruppe was again forced to relocate , on 15 September it moved to an airfield at Kremenchuk . On 18 September , Gollob was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes ) for 42 victories . On 19 September 1941 , II . Gruppe was tasked with strafing Soviet airfields in the Poltava area . That day , Gollob claimed his 43rd aerial victory over an R @-@ 5 at 13 : 55 . He became an " ace @-@ in @-@ a @-@ day " again on 28 September 1941 which took his score to 48 aerial victories . That day he had claimed three Pe @-@ 2s and two I @-@ 61s , a designation for the MiG @-@ 1 fighter aircraft .
= = = Battle of Moscow and Crimean Campaign = = =
On 30 September 1941 , the Gruppe was temporarily transferred from the southern sector of the Eastern Front . Their new area of operation was Sechtschinskaja , approximately 40 km ( 25 mi ) southeast of Roslavl . The Gruppe was then subordinated to the II . Fliegerkorps ( 2nd Air Corps ) under the command of General der Flieger Bruno Loerzer and was part of the preparations for Operation Taifun , the planned assault on Moscow . All available German forces were concentrated under the command of Generalfeldmarschall Fedor von Bock 's Heeresgruppe Mitte ( Army Group Centre ) for the attack which began on 2 October 1941 . In the first days of this campaign , II . Gruppe supported the advance northeast by Panzergruppe 4 ( 4th Panzer Group ) and the 4 . Armee ( 4th Army ) towards Vyazma and Yukhnov . Predominantly flying escort missions for Ju 87 dive bombers and combat air patrols over the battle zone east of Desna , Gollob claimed one enemy aircraft shot down on 4 October and two more the following day , including his 50th aerial victory over a I @-@ 61 .
Gollob claimed two Pe @-@ 2s shot down on 6 October , the first at 10 : 15 and the second two hours later . The following day , he was victorious over two further Pe @-@ 2s and one Il @-@ 2 , taking his total to 56 aerial victories . On that night , the first snow fell , worsening road conditions . By 9 October German units had encircled major Soviet forces in two separate pockets at Vyazma and Bryansk . In support of German ground forces , II . Gruppe detached a Schwärme — two pairs of two fighter aircraft — to a forward airfield at Syevsk , approximately 100 km ( 62 mi ) south of Bryansk . From 9 to 11 October the air elements operated from the Kirov and Oryol airfields , which had been captured by German forces on 3 October . Operating from these airfields , Gollob claimed his 57th and 58th victories on 10 October , both aircraft were I @-@ 61s shot down at 12 : 40 and 12 : 43 . The missions on 11 October 1941 were II . Gruppe 's last in support of Operation Taifun . Orders had been received to transfer the air element and a small technical ground crew detachment , which was airlifted by several Ju 52s to Chaplynka . From there , the Gruppe participated in the Crimean Campaign , the conquest of the Crimean peninsula . The transfer began on 13 October , but due to bad weather conditions , it was only completed on 16 October . At Chaplynka , the Gruppe was placed under the command of the Geschwaderstab ( headquarters unit ) of Jagdgeschwader 77 ( JG 77 — 77th Fighter Wing ) .
The first missions over the battle zone in front of Perekop and over the Crimea were flown on 17 October 1941 , either flying Ju 87 escort missions or combat air patrols . On two separate missions that day , Gollob claimed two I @-@ 61s and one I @-@ 16 shot down . On 18 October 1941 , the 11 . Armee ( 11th Army ) began its attack on the Isthmus of Perekop and Ishun . II . Gruppe flew a number of combat air patrols that day and reported 16 aerial victories for the loss of two Bf 109s damaged in combat . Gollob alone accounted for nine of these 16 claimed victories . This was the third time he had become an " ace @-@ in @-@ a @-@ day " and was the most successful day of his combat career . During the course of three combat missions , he increased his personal score to 70 . That day he filed a claim for nine I @-@ 61s shot down , two at 07 : 18 and 07 : 20 , five more at 10 : 05 , 10 : 07 , 10 : 19 , 10 : 20 and 10 : 29 and two more at 14 : 46 and 14 : 48 . On 19 October , Gollob again achieved " ace @-@ in @-@ a @-@ day " for the fourth time , claiming a I @-@ 61 at 08 : 55 , three P @-@ 2s at 12 : 36 , 12 : 37 and 12 : 42 , and another I @-@ 61 at 15 : 35 . The next day , he was credited with one further I @-@ 61 , taking his total to 76 victories . Two days later , on 22 October , Gollob made " ace @-@ in @-@ a @-@ day " for the fifth time and surpassed eighty victories . That day he claimed three I @-@ 16s , one Pe @-@ 2 and one I @-@ 61 . One day later , he claimed three aerial victories , all I @-@ 61s , and on 24 October , he was credited with his 85th victory after he shot down a I @-@ 153 . Following this streak of 37 aerial victories in October 1941 , he was mentioned in the Wehrmachtbericht , a propaganda radio report , the first of three such mentions , on 25 October 1941 . The following day , he was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes mit Eichenlaub ) after reaching 85 victories . He was the 38th member of the German armed forces to be so honored . Gollob , together with Oberleutnant Erbo Graf von Kageneck , received the Oak Leaves from Adolf Hitler personally at the Wolf 's Lair , Hitler 's headquarters in Rastenburg , present @-@ day Kętrzyn in Poland , on 5 November 1941 .
On 31 October 1941 , II . Gruppe flew its last combat missions over the northern Crimea . The Gruppe was then ordered to return to Germany , to be stationed at the Wiesbaden @-@ Erbenheim airfield where it arrived in early November . Prior to departure , all of the remaining aircraft where handed over to III . Gruppe of JG 77 . Since the start of Operation Barbarossa on 22 June 1941 , II . Gruppe had claimed 504 aerial victories for the loss of ten pilots killed or missing in action , and a further nine pilots who had been injured . In addition , 27 aircraft were lost or damaged beyond repair , a further 21 aircraft received heavy damaged and another 27 were lightly damaged . On 20 November 1941 , Gollob was again posted to the test facility Erprobungstelle Rechlin . Gollob was replaced by Hauptmann Karl @-@ Heinz Krahl as commander of II . Gruppe of JG 3 . At Rechlin , he flew numerous test and comparison flights with the latest version of the Bf 109 and Focke @-@ Wulf Fw 190 fighter aircraft , as well as a variety of types which never went beyond a prototype variant .
= = = Wing Commander = = =
In early 1942 , the General der Jagdflieger ( General of Fighters ) , Oberst ( Colonel ) Adolf Galland recommended Gollob for the Geschwaderkommodore ( wing commander ) position of JG 77 . Subsequently Gollob was sent to the Geschwaderstab of Jagdgeschwader 54 ( JG 54 — 54th Fighter Wing ) as a commander @-@ in @-@ training under Major Hannes Trautloft . On 1 May 1942 , Gollob was officially appointed Geschwaderkommodore of JG 77 , replacing Major Gotthard Handrick . He took operational command of the Geschwader after he arrived on 16 May 1942 . On the same day of his arrival , Gollob flew his first combat mission as Geschwaderkommodore . That day , he claimed his aerial victories 87 to 89 , shooting down three Lavochkin @-@ Gorbunov @-@ Gudkov LaGG @-@ 3 fighter aircraft . Gollob 's success continued the following day , when he was credited with three R @-@ 5s and one LaGG @-@ 3 destroyed .
JG 77 had been given the task of supporting the German ground forces in the Crimean Campaign over the Kerch Strait on the Crimean Peninsula . An anonymous JG 77 pilot described Gollob 's methods ; " Gollob flew from Kerch together with his wingman . They positioned themselves at a low altitude beneath a Soviet formation . Then they started climbing in spirals , carefully maintaining their position beneath the enemy formation . Before the peacefully flying Soviets had even suspected any mischief , the two planes at the bottom of their formation had been shot down and the two Germans were gone . " On 18 May 1942 , Gollob claimed his 94th to 96th aerial victories over Kerch and the Caucasus coast ; all three were Polikarpov R @-@ 5 reconnaissance bombers . JG 77 , led by Gollob , and its I. Gruppe , led by Hauptmann Heinrich Bär , were engaged in an intense rivalry , each striving to outperform the other , and both eager to achieve the century mark first . Bär claimed his 100th aerial victory on 19 May . That day , Gollob claimed three more R @-@ 5 shot down , taking his total to 99 aerial victories . One day later , on 20 May 1942 , Gollob shot down two aircraft , a DB @-@ 3 and a LaGG @-@ 3 , and thereby exceeded 100 aerial victories . He was the 10th Luftwaffe pilot to achieve the century mark . This achievement earned him his second mention in the Wehrmachtbericht radio report on Saturday 20 June 1942 .
On 7 June 1942 , German and Romanian forces began Operation Störfang ( Sturgeon Catch ) , the second assault on the port city Sevastopol , which resulted in its capture on 4 July 1942 . On the first day of this operation , Gollob claimed his 102nd victory , a LaGG @-@ 3 shot down over Sevastopol . The attack on Sevastopol was still making slow progress on 9 June , largely due to the artillery deployed within the fortress . Over the battle zone , Gollob claimed a I @-@ 153 shot down that day . Gollob did not claim any further victories until 18 June . The fighting over Sevastopol was still ongoing and Gollob claimed a Il @-@ 2 and a LaGG @-@ 3 over the southern sector of Sevastopol . These two victories took his total to 105 . On 21 June 1942 , Gollob was credited with two victories over LaGG @-@ 3 fighter aircraft . For this achievement , on 23 June , he was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes mit Eichenlaub und Schwertern ) , after his score had increased to 107 aerial victories . This was the 13th presentation of this award . On 1 July 1942 , he was promoted to Major .
On 22 July 1942 , the Geschwaderkommodore of Jagdgeschwader 52 ( JG 52 — 52nd Fighter Wing ) , Major Herbert Ihlefeld , was severely injured in a flight accident and had to surrender command during his convalescence . At the time , all three Gruppen of JG 77 were lent out to other units , and Gollob had time to spare , so temporarily took over command of JG 52 as acting Geschwaderkommodore . On this or one of the following days , he departed and flew to the Geschwaderstab of JG 52 . On 28 June 1942 , the Wehrmacht had initiated Fall Blau ( Case Blue ) , the 1942 strategic summer offensive in southern Russia . The objective was to secure the oil fields of Baku as well as an advance in the direction of Stalingrad along the Volga River , to cover the flanks of the advance towards Baku . Tasked with aerial support of this offensive was Luftflotte 4 to which JG 52 was subordinated . By the time Gollob joined the Geschwader in late July 1942 , the offensive had been renamed Operation Braunschweig and JG 52 was located at Rostov @-@ on @-@ Don . Gollob claimed his first victory with the Stab of JG 52 on 26 July 1942 , a I @-@ 16 and his 108th in total . The next day , he shot down two I @-@ 153 biplane fighters . He claimed the first aerial victory of August 1942 , his last month of combat operations , on 4 August over a Yakovlev Yak @-@ 1 fighter aircraft . He was then credited with four victories on 6 August , two Il @-@ 2 , one Yak @-@ 1 and one R @-@ 5 took his score to 115 aerial victories . He claimed one Yak @-@ 1 on each of the next two days . On 14 August , he was credited with two LaGG @-@ 3 and one Douglas A @-@ 20 Havoc , referred to as a Boston . For the last time in his combat career , Gollob achieved " ace @-@ in @-@ a @-@ day " for the sixth time on 16 August 1941 . That day he claimed two LaGG @-@ 3 , two I @-@ 16 and one Il @-@ 2 . His success as a fighter pilot continued , as he shot down two LaGG @-@ 3 on 17 August , three I @-@ 16 on 18 August , and two Il @-@ 2 and a I @-@ 153 on 19 August , taking his overall total to 133 aerial victories .
Following three victories on 20 August , two I @-@ 153 and a I @-@ 16 , Gollob shot down two Bostons on 22 August . On 24 August 1941 , he took his total to 142 aerial victories by claiming three LaGG @-@ 3 and one Boston . Over the course of the next four days , he scored one victory on each day , a Boston on 25 August , a Pe @-@ 2 on 26 August , a I @-@ 16 on 27 August , and another Boston on 28 August . After three victories over LaGG @-@ 3s and one Pe @-@ 2 on 29 August 1942 , he reached 150 aerial victories and became the Luftwaffe 's highest scoring pilot at that point . For this he was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves , Swords and Diamonds ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes mit Eichenlaub , Schwertern und Brillanten ) on 30 August . Gollob was the third member of the Wehrmacht and the third fighter pilot who had received this award . Fearing he would be lost in combat , Hitler imposed a flying ban on him . The next day , he was again mentioned in the Wehrmachtbericht radio report , his third and last of such mentions . Der Adler , a biweekly Nazi propaganda magazine published by the Luftwaffe , also reported his actions in volume 19 of 1942 . On 30 September 1942 , Gollob was officially replaced in command of JG 77 by Hauptmann Joachim Müncheberg . Gollob was then posted to the Stab of Jagdfliegerführer 3 ( Jafü 3 — 3rd Fighter Pilot Leader ) at Brest @-@ Guipavas on the English Channel Front .
= = = High command = = =
On 15 October 1942 , Gollob was made Jagdfliegerführer 3 , responsible for tactical fighter command over northwestern France . Jagdfliegerführer 3 was renamed Jagdfliegerführer 5 ( Jafü 5 — 5th Fighter Pilot Leader ) on 6 September 1943 . In this command position , he was promoted to Oberstleutnant ( lieutenant colonel ) on 20 April 1943 , effective as of 1 April , and to Oberst on 1 May 1944 . When he became Jafü 5 he frequently submitted reports to his superiors at the 5 . Jagd @-@ Division ( 5th Fighter Division ) about the suitability of the Bf 109 on the Western Front . He indicated that in its present state the Bf 109 G @-@ 3 to G @-@ 6 were no longer adequate for service in the West and that the Fw 190 and Bf 109 were inferior to enemy aircraft . Learning about the Messerschmitt Me 262 jet @-@ powered aircraft , Gollob became a strong advocate of it and its employment as fighter aircraft . Hitler had become interested in the idea of using the Me 262 in a fighter @-@ bomber role , which contributed to the delays in preparing the aircraft for operational readiness as an interceptor .
In April 1944 , Gollob was transferred to the personal staff of General der Jagdflieger Galland , to advise on the development of the Me 262 jet and Messerschmitt Me 163 rocket aircraft projects . Gollob quarrelled with Galland in September and was transferred to Kommando der Erprobungstellen ( headquarters of test units ) , which two years previously had been put under the command of Oberst Edgar Petersen . Gollob was also involved in the development and testing of the Neptun " J " airborne radar and air @-@ to @-@ air rockets , such as the R4M . In November 1944 , Gollob was appointed commander of the Jäger @-@ Sonderstab — or special fighter command — for the Ardennes offensive and the ill @-@ fated Operation Bodenplatte .
Reichsführer @-@ SS Heinrich Himmler had suggested to Hitler that he appoint Gollob as General der Jagerflieger . Himmler 's intervention in Luftwaffe affairs had been an irritation to Reichsmarschall ( Marshal of the Reich ) Hermann Göring , the Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the Oberkommando der Luftwaffe ( Air Force High Command ) . Himmler had ambitions to expand his influence and power base into the Luftwaffe . One aspect of this was to put jet fighter units under control of the SS and later , Göring ordered Galland to prepare a report on Gollob . Galland 's conclusion was that Gollob required close supervision in a responsible post . In early January 1945 , Göring summoned Gollob to Karinhall , Göring 's estate northeast of Berlin , and read out selected excerpts from Galland 's report to him and Gollob became infuriated with Galland . Göring then ordered Galland to Karinhall and informed him of his dismissal . During the meeting , Göring postponed his decision as to what position Galland would receive and sent Galland on vacation . News of Galland 's dismissal soon spread , leading to the failed Fighter Pilots ' Revolt , an insurrection of a small group of high @-@ ranking Luftwaffe pilots , including Oberst Johannes Steinhoff who after the war became Chairman of the NATO Military Committee , aimed at re @-@ instating Galland as General der Jagerflieger . On 31 January 1945 , Gollob was officially appointed as General der Jagerflieger .
In his new role , Gollob worked with General der Flieger Josef Kammhuber , responsible for fighting against the enemy four @-@ engined bombers , and SS @-@ Obergruppenführer Hans Kammler , responsible for air armament and manufacturing of the Me 262 . Gollob 's objective was to deploy and arm the Me 262 as a defensive weapon against the Allied air offensive . Hitler 's decision to use the Me 262 in a fighter bomber role had not been revised . Gollob gathered data and hoped to meet Hitler in order to convince him that the Me 262 was better suited as a fighter aircraft and not as a fighter bomber , but this meeting never occurred . On 7 April 1945 , frustrated over the lack of progress made , Gollob submitted his written request to be released from office as General der Jagerflieger , but the request was not approved by Göring . Gollob left Berlin on 10 April 1945 after his staff had left for southern Germany . At that time he needed urgent hospitalization to treat his appendicitis . Gollob underwent surgery by Prof. Dr. Burghard Breitner at a hospital in Igls , in the present @-@ day a borough of Innsbruck , eight days after his departure from Berlin . On 24 April , he was transferred to the Luftwaffe hospital at Kitzbühel , which was in the middle of the so called Alpenfestung ( Alpine Fortress ) . At Kitzbühel , he met with the last Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the Luftwaffe , Generalfeldmarschall Greim and the female pilot Hanna Reitsch . Greim was convalescing from an injury sustained during a flight by Reitsch into the encircled city of Berlin on 26 April . At Kitzbühel , Gollob was taken prisoner of war by elements of the 36th Infantry Division of the United States Army under the command of General John E. Dahlquist . Shortly after , he was transferred into the custody of the US 42nd Infantry Division commanded by Major General Harry J. Collins .
= = Prisoner of war and later life = =
On 1 June 1945 , Gollob , who had been released on parole , was arrested at his home by the Austrian Gendarmerie acting for the US authorities . From Kitzbühel , he was taken via Pass Strub , and other internment camps , to Ludwigsburg in Württemberg , and then flown to England . In England , he was held at Latimer and interrogated at the Combined Services Detailed Interrogation Centre regarding combat operations . He was released by US forces in 1946 and was then imprisoned by the French , as his home region of North Tyrol had become part of the French Occupation Zone . After finally being released from captivity , Gollob made a living as a contributor to aircraft magazines and lecturing . In 1948 , he became General Secretary of the Federation of Independents ( VDU — Verband der Unabhängigen ) , an Austrian political party . In 1950 , the VDU dismissed Gollob from the party following the internal strife between the more liberal approach of the founders Herbert Kraus and Viktor Reimann and the German nationalist faction centered on Gollob .
Gollob and his wife Elisabeth Lüning , had married on 14 February 1943 , and had two sons and a daughter . Their first son , Ulrik , was born on 30 November 1943 in Kitzbühel , their second son , Gerald was born on 9 January 1946 , also in Kitzbühel , and their daughter Cornelia was born on 16 March 1954 in Sulingen . Following his dismissal from the VDU , the family had moved to his wife 's hometown of Sulingen . There , from November 1951 , he started working in a sales role for the Klöckner Humboldt Deutz AG , a company making motors and vehicles . Until a myocardial infarction impeded his health in 1975 , he regularly flew powered and glider aircraft . Gollob died in Sulingen , Diepholz , Lower Saxony on 7 September 1987 .
= = Aerial victory credits = =
Gollob was credited with 150 aerial victories claimed in 340 combat missions , 144 of which were on the Eastern Front . He never lost a wingman in combat , nor was he shot down .
This and the ♠ ( Ace of spades ) indicates those aerial victories which made Gollob an " ace @-@ in @-@ a @-@ day " , a term which designates a fighter pilot who has shot down five or more airplanes in a single day .
= = Awards = =
Iron Cross ( 1939 )
2nd Class ( 21 September 1939 )
1st Class ( 13 June 1940 )
Narvik Shield ( 30 January 1941 )
Front Flying Clasp of the Luftwaffe in Gold ( 11 May 1941 )
Ehrenpokal der Luftwaffe ( 21 July 1941 )
Combined Pilots @-@ Observation Badge in Gold with Diamonds
Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves , Swords and Diamonds
Knight 's Cross on 18 September 1941 as Hauptmann and Gruppenkommandeur of II . / Jagdgeschwader 3
38th Oak Leaves on 26 October 1941 as Hauptmann and Gruppenkommandeur of II . / Jagdgeschwader 3
13th Swords on 23 June 1942 as Hauptmann and Geschwaderkommodore of Jagdgeschwader 77
3rd Diamonds on 30 August 1942 as Major and Geschwaderkommodore of Jagdgeschwader 77
Mentioned three times in the Wehrmachtbericht ( 25 October 1941 , 20 June 1942 and 31 August 1942 )
Crimea Shield ( 15 March 1943 )
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= Rusty Kuntz =
Russell Jay Kuntz ( / ˈkuːnts / ; born February 4 , 1955 ) is a retired American Major League Baseball ( MLB ) outfielder . He played for the Chicago White Sox , Minnesota Twins and Detroit Tigers between 1979 and 1985 . He never appeared in more than 84 games in any season during his playing career . In the final game of the 1984 World Series , Kuntz hit a pop fly to the second baseman that became the deciding run batted in ( RBI ) .
Kuntz grew up in Kansas and California , playing three sports in high school and community college . He went to the Division III World Series twice with California State University , Stanislaus before being selected by the White Sox in the 11th round of the 1977 MLB Draft . After the 1984 season , Kuntz was unable to return to form the next year . He was demoted to the minor leagues early in the 1985 season and was out of professional baseball as a player shortly thereafter .
Since his playing career ended , Kuntz has worked with several MLB organizations , including the Houston Astros , Seattle Mariners , Florida Marlins , Kansas City Royals , Atlanta Braves and Pittsburgh Pirates . He has worked as an assistant to the general manager , minor league coach , roving instructor and major league base coach . Since 2012 , he has served as the first base coach for the Kansas City Royals , and has received substantial praise for his contributions to the team 's success during that period . " Rusty Kuntz , " Royals manager Ned Yost has said , " is the best first base coach in baseball . "
= = Early life = =
Kuntz was born on February 4 , 1955 in Orange , California . He was born to Chet and Willie Kuntz . His father was a bricklayer who later became an auto mechanic . The family moved from Orange to Wichita , Kansas when Rusty was young , then moved to Paso Robles , California a few years later . He attended Paso Robles High School in California , where he played baseball , basketball , and football . He said that baseball was his least favorite of the three sports at the time and that he was drawn to basketball because of the game 's pace .
Continuing his education , Kuntz attended Cuesta College and California State University , Stanislaus . At Cuesta College , Kuntz played center field on the baseball team , quarterbacked the football team and was the center on the basketball team . After hitting for .402 and .442 batting averages in two seasons at Cuesta , Kuntz 's father encouraged him to focus on baseball . At CSU Stanislaus , Kuntz played on two teams that went to the Division III World Series . He was later inducted into the university 's Warrior Athletics Hall of Fame . Kuntz was drafted by the Chicago White Sox as the first pick in the 11th round of the 1977 MLB Draft .
Kuntz played 51 games for the rookie @-@ level Gulf Coast League White Sox in the 1977 season . He hit for .287 as the team finished first in the Gulf Coast League standings . The next season , Kuntz was promoted to the Class AA team , the Knoxville Sox . He bypassed the Class A affiliate because the Knoxville center fielder was suffering from migraine headaches , and he won the starting center field position . He hit .263 for Knoxville with 10 home runs in 113 games ; the team was managed by Tony LaRussa for part of the season and won first place in the Southern League . Starting the 1979 season with Chicago 's Class AAA affiliate , the Iowa Oaks , Kuntz played 122 games , batted .294 and hit 15 home runs in 394 at bats .
= = MLB playing career = =
= = = Early career = = =
Kuntz stood 6 feet 3 inches ( 1 @.@ 91 m ) and weighed 190 pounds ( 86 kg ) during his playing career . He batted and threw right @-@ handed . Kuntz made his MLB debut with the White Sox on September 1 , 1979 . He spent all of the 1980 and 1981 seasons with the White Sox , but he was used sparingly , registering less than 120 plate appearances in the two seasons combined . He started 1982 in the minor leagues with the Edmonton Trappers of the Pacific Coast League , hitting .269 with 7 home runs and 34 RBI in 193 at bats . He walked 50 times in 249 plate appearances for Edmonton . He was called back up to the major league team near the end of that season .
He was traded to the Minnesota Twins in June 1983 , with the White Sox receiving minor leaguer Mike Sodders in exchange . He was traded to the Detroit Tigers for pitcher Larry Pashnick after the 1983 season . The Pashnick @-@ Kuntz trade was prompted because future Baseball Hall of Fame outfielder Kirby Puckett was playing in the minor leagues for Minnesota 's Class AA affiliate and was expected to quickly join the Twins as an impact player . In 1984 with Detroit , Kuntz had the best numbers of his career : a .286 average and a .393 on @-@ base percentage . He appeared in a career @-@ high 84 major league games that season , mostly as a pinch @-@ hitter and outfielder .
= = = 1984 World Series = = =
In the fifth and deciding game of the 1984 World Series against the San Diego Padres , Kuntz pinch @-@ hit for designated hitter Johnny Grubb with the bases loaded and the score tied at three . Kuntz hit a pop @-@ up to short right field that Tony Gwynn was unable to see . Second baseman Alan Wiggins made the catch , but was unable to prevent Kirk Gibson from racing home from third with the go @-@ ahead run . The Tigers maintained their lead after that , giving Kuntz an unlikely game @-@ winning RBI .
The 1984 American League Championship Series and the ensuing World Series represented Kuntz 's only career postseason appearances . In a 2010 Baseball Prospectus article , Steven Goldman wrote that the 1984 Tigers were " a great team that relied on a lot of fluke elements ... The club had no regular first baseman , no regular third baseman , and the primary left fielder hit .239 / .302 / .342 against right @-@ handers . The club made up for this in part by getting terrific production out of role players like Ruppert Jones , Johnny Grubb , and Rusty Kuntz , players who wouldn 't synch up again ... "
= = = Later career = = =
Kuntz returned to the Tigers in 1985 but appeared in just five games ( last on April 24 , 1985 ) before being sent back to the minor leagues . After batting .222 for Detroit 's AAA affiliate , the Nashville Sounds , he was released by the Detroit organization . He signed with the Oakland Athletics a couple of months later , but he did not play any games with them . Kuntz retired as a player with 277 games played , a .236 career batting average , 5 home runs and 38 RBI .
= = Post @-@ playing career = =
Kuntz was out of baseball in 1986 , working for the United Parcel Service . He worked as a coach in the Houston Astros organization during the 1987 and 1988 seasons , then moved to the Seattle Mariners . With Seattle , he served as a first @-@ base coach between 1989 and 1992 . Kuntz joined the Florida Marlins organization in 1993 as a minor league baserunning and outfield coach . He became the team 's first @-@ base coach after the 1994 season . In 1997 , Kuntz moved into a role as roving instructor with the Marlins organization . In August of that year he worked on defensive skills with Gary Sheffield when the major league slugger was struggling with injuries .
In late 2000 , Kuntz decided not to return to his role as first @-@ base coach and outfield instructor . Instead , he went back to his position as a roving instructor with the team , which allowed for more time to be spent with his family . At that time , Marlins players including Cliff Floyd and Mark Kotsay praised Kuntz for the amount of preparation that he put into his coaching . Kotsay gave Kuntz credit for the stolen bases he had accrued . Floyd said , " " I don 't know what I 'm going to do . I 'm telling you , he 's meant everything . He tells me about every pitcher we 're facing . He keeps me going when I 'm down . You don 't get that too often in this game . You 're expected just to be strong , handle everything . But it ain 't that easy sometimes . He 's a players ' man . He loves us . "
Kuntz was dismissed from his position with the Marlins before spring training in 2002 . The move was part of a mass firing of Marlins personnel in player development and scouting after the team 's change in ownership . Kuntz , who was paid for the 2002 season in any case due to the terms of his contract , kept a job working on the grounds crew at the team 's spring training site . He had performed ground crew duties at the site for several years in the offseasons . Late in the 2002 season , the Atlanta Braves hired Kuntz as a roving instructor . After the season , he was hired by the Pittsburgh Pirates as a first @-@ base coach . In October 2005 , the Pirates offered minor league positions to Kuntz and fellow coaches Gerald Perry and Alvaro Espinoza . He spent the next two seasons coaching between the Class AAA Indianapolis Indians and the major league club .
After the 2007 season , the Kansas City Royals named him their first @-@ base coach . In October 2009 , the team reassigned him , designating him field instructor and special assistant to the team 's general manager , Dayton Moore . In August 2012 , he was named the Royals ' first base coach after the dismissal of Doug Sisson . Sisson had replaced Kuntz as the Royals ' first base coach after the 2010 season . At the conclusion of the 2012 season , the Royals announced that they would retain Kuntz for the 2013 season . In a January 2014 article , the Boston Globe listed Kuntz as one of the baserunning / outfield coaches who had the most respect among his peers in the major leagues . " Kuntz ’ s outfielders are fundamentally sound and get great jumps on balls . Kuntz has been able to improve arm accuracy " .
= = Personal = =
Kuntz 's son Kevin was drafted by the Royals in the 2009 MLB Draft but he chose to play baseball at the University of Kansas . He was selected again by the Royals in the 28th round of the 2013 MLB Draft . Kevin spent the 2013 season in the minor leagues at the team 's rookie @-@ level affiliate , the Burlington Royals .
The coach 's name has been the subject of some media coverage . A 2010 Bleacher Report article said that his name was " hands down the best name ever . So many jokes , so little time . " In April 2013 , The Big Lead wrote about the name after a photo depicted Kuntz standing to the right of White Sox first baseman Paul Konerko and Royals baserunner Chris Getz . The resulting image seemed to display the phrase " Konerko Getz Kuntz " on the backs of their uniform jerseys .
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= Pelvic inflammatory disease =
Pelvic inflammatory disease or pelvic inflammatory disorder ( PID ) is an infection of the upper part of the female reproductive system namely the uterus , fallopian tubes , and ovaries , and inside of the pelvis . Often there may be no symptoms . Signs and symptoms , when present may include lower abdominal pain , vaginal discharge , fever , burning with urination , pain with sex , or irregular menstruation . Untreated PID can result in long term complications including infertility , ectopic pregnancy , chronic pelvic pain , and cancer .
The disease is caused by bacteria that spread from the vagina and cervix . Infections by Neisseria gonorrhoeae or Chlamydia trachomatis are present in 75 to 90 percent of cases . Often multiple different bacteria are involved . Without treatment about 10 percent of those with a chlamydial infection and 40 percent of those with a gonorrhea infection will develop PID . Risk factors are similar to those of sexually transmitted infections generally and include a high number of sexual partners and drug use . Vaginal douching may also increase the risk . The diagnosis is typically based on the presenting signs and symptoms . It is recommended that the disease be considered in all women of childbearing age who have lower abdominal pain . A definitive diagnosis of PID is made by finding pus involving the fallopian tubes during surgery . Ultrasound may also be useful in diagnosis .
Efforts to prevent the disease include not having sex or having few sexual partners and using condoms . Screening women at risk for chlamydial infection followed by treatment decreases the risk of PID . If the diagnosis is suspected , treatment is typically advised . Treating a woman 's sexual partners should also occur . In those with mild or moderate symptoms a single injection of the antibiotic ceftriaxone along with two weeks of doxycycline and possibly metronidazole by mouth is recommended . For those who do not improve after three days or who have severe disease intravenous antibiotics should be used .
Globally about 106 million cases of chlamydia and 106 million cases of gonorrhea occurred in 2008 . The number of cases of PID however , is not clear . It is estimated to affect about 1 @.@ 5 percent of young women yearly . In the United States PID is estimated to affect about one million people yearly . A type of intrauterine device ( IUD ) known as the Dalkon shield led to increased rates of PID in the 1970s . Current IUDs are not associated with this problem after the first month .
= = Signs and symptoms = =
Symptoms in PID range from none to severe . If there are symptoms , then fever , cervical motion tenderness , lower abdominal pain , new or different discharge , painful intercourse , uterine tenderness , adnexal tenderness , or irregular menstruation may be noted .
Other complications include endometritis , salpingitis , tubo @-@ ovarian abscess , pelvic peritonitis , periappendicitis , and perihepatitis .
= = Cause = =
Chlamydia trachomatis and Neisseria gonorrhoeae are usually the main cause of PID . Data suggest that PID is often polymicrobial . Isolated anaerobes and facultative microorganisms have been obtained from the upper genital tract . N. gonorrhoeae has been isolated from fallopian tubes , facultative and anaerobic organisms were recovered from endometrial tissues .
The anatomical structure of the internal organs and tissues of the female reproductive tract provides a pathway for pathogens to ascend from the vagina to the pelvic cavity thorough the infundibulum . The disturbance of the naturally occurring vaginal microbiota associated with bacterial vaginosis increases the risk of PID .
N. gonorrhoea and C. trachomatis are the most common organisms . The least common were infections caused exclusively by anaerobes and facultative organisms . Anaerobes and facultative bacteria were also isolated from 50 percent of the patients from whom Chlamydia and Neisseria were recovered ; thus , anaerobes and facultative bacteria were present in the upper genital tract of nearly two @-@ thirds of the PID patients . PCR and serological tests have associated extremely fastidious organism with endometritis , PID , and tubal factor infertility . Microorganisms associated with PID are listed below .
= = = Bacteria involved = = =
= = Diagnosis = =
Upon a pelvic examination , cervical motion , uterine , or adnexal tenderness will be experienced . Mucopurulent cervicitis and or urethritis may be observed . In severe cases more testing may be required such as laproscopy , intra @-@ abdominal bacteria sampling and culturing , or tissue biopsy .
Laproscopy can visualize " violin @-@ string " adhesions , characteristic of Fitz @-@ Hugh – Curtis perihepatitis and other absesses that may be present .
Other imaging methods , such as ulstrasonography , computed tomography ( CT ) , and magnetic imaging ( MRI ) , can aid in diagnosis . Blood tests can also help identify the presence of infection : the erythrocyte sedimentation rate ( ESR ) , the C @-@ reactive protein ( CRP ) level , and chlamydial and gonococcal DNA probes .
Nucleaic acid amplification tests ( NAATs ) , direct fluorescein tests ( DFA ) , and enszyme linked immunosorbent assays ( ELISA ) are highly sensitive tests that can identify specific pathogens present . Serology testing for antibodies is not as useful since the presence of the microorganisms in healthy people can confound interpreting the antibody titer levels , although antibody levels can indicate whether an infection is recent or long term .
Definitive criteria include histopathologic evidence of endometritis , thickened filled Fallopian tubes , or laparoscopic findings . Gram stain / smear becomes definitive in the identification of rare , atypical or and possibly more serious organisms . Two thirds of patients with laparoscopic evidence of previous PID were not aware they had PID , however even asymptomatic PID can cause serious harm .
Laparoscopic identification is helpful in diagnosing tubal disease ; a 65 percent to 90 percent positive predictive value exists in patients with presumed PID .
Upon gynecologic ultrasound , a potential finding is tubo @-@ ovarian complex , which is edematous and dilated pelvic structures as evidenced by vague margins , but without abscess formation .
= = = Differential diagnosis = = =
A number of other causes may produce similar symptoms including appendicitis , ectopic pregnancy , hemorrhagic or ruptured ovarian cysts , ovarian torsion , and endometriosis and gastroenteritis , peritonitis , and bacterial vaginosis among others .
Pelvic inflammatory disease is more likely to reoccur when there is a prior history of the infection , recent sexual contact , recent onset of menses , or an IUD ( intrauterine device ) in place or if the partner has a sexually transmitted infection .
Acute pelvic inflammatory disease is highly unlikely when recent intercourse has not taken place or an IUD is not being used . A sensitive serum pregnancy test is typically obtained to rule out ectopic pregnancy . Culdocentesis will differentiate hemoperitoneum ( ruptured ectopic pregnancy or hemorrhagic cyst ) from pelvic sepsis ( salpingitis , ruptured pelvic abscess , or ruptured appendix ) .
Pelvic and vaginal ultrasounds are helpful in the diagnosis of PID . In the early stages of infection , the ultrasound may appear normal . As the disease progresses , nonspecific findings can include free pelvic fluid , endometrial thickening , uterine cavity distension by fluid or gas . In some instances the borders of the uterus and ovaries appear indistinct . Enlarged ovaries accompanied by increased numbers of small cysts correlates with PID .
Laparoscopy is infrequently used to diagnose pelvic inflammatory disease since it is not readily available . Moreover , it might not detect subtle inflammation of the fallopian tubes , and it fails to detect endometritis . Nevertheless , laparoscopy is conducted if the diagnosis is not certain or if the person has not responded to antibiotic therapy after 48 hours .
No single test has adequate sensitivity and specificity to diagnose pelvic inflammatory disease . A large multisite U.S. study found that cervical motion tenderness as a minimum clinical criterion increases the sensitivity of the CDC diagnostic criteria from 83 percent to 95 percent . However , even the modified 2002 CDC criteria do not identify women with subclinical disease .
= = Prevention = =
Regular testing for sexually transmitted infections is encouraged for prevention . The risk of contracting pelvic inflammatory disease can be reduced by the following :
Using barrier methods such as condoms ; see human sexual behavior for other listings .
Seeking medical attention if you are experiencing symptoms of PID .
Using hormonal combined contraceptive pills also helps in reducing the chances of PID by thickening the cervical mucosal plug & hence preventing the ascent of causative organisms from the lower genital tract .
Seeking medical attention after learning that a current or former sex partner has , or might have had a sexually transmitted infection .
Getting a STI history from your current partner and strongly encouraging they be tested and treated before intercourse .
Diligence in avoiding vaginal activity , particularly intercourse , after the end of a pregnancy ( delivery , miscarriage , or abortion ) or certain gynecological procedures , to ensure that the cervix closes .
Sexual monogamy that restricts sexual activities to two ' virgins ' or partners remaining sexually exclusive with each other and having no outside sex partners .
Abstinence
= = Treatment = =
Treatment is often started without confirmation of infection because of the serious complications that may result from delayed treatment . Treatment depends on the infectious agent and generally involves the use of antibiotic therapy . If there is no improvement within two to three days , the patient is typically advised to seek further medical attention . Hospitalization sometimes becomes necessary if there are other complications . Treating sexual partners for possible STIs can help in treatment and prevention .
For women with PID of mild to moderate severity , parenteral and oral therapies appear to be effective . It does not matter to their short- or long @-@ term outcome whether antibiotics are administered to them as inpatients or outpatients . Typical regimens include cefoxitin or cefotetan plus doxycycline , and clindamycin plus gentamicin . An alternative parenteral regimen is ampicillin / sulbactam plus doxycycline . Another alternative is to use a parenteral regimen with ceftriaxone or cefoxitin plus doxycycline . Clinical experience guides decisions regarding transition from parenteral to oral therapy , which usually can be initiated within 24 – 48 hours of clinical improvement .
= = Prognosis = =
Even when the PID infection is cured , effects of the infection may be permanent . This makes early identification essential . Treatment resulting in cure is very important in the prevention of damage to the reproductive system . Formation of scar tissue due to one or episodes of PID can lead to tubal blockage , increasing the risk of the inability to get pregnant and long @-@ term pelvic / abdominal pain . Since certain occurrences such as a post pelvic operation , the period of time immediately after childbirth ( postpartum ) , miscarriage or abortion increases the risk of acquiring another infection leading to PID .
= = = Complications = = =
PID can cause scarring inside the reproductive system , which can later cause serious complications , including chronic pelvic pain , infertility , ectopic pregnancy ( the leading cause of pregnancy @-@ related deaths in adult females ) , and other complications of pregnancy . Occasionally , the infection can spread to in the peritoneum causing inflammation and the formation of scar tissue on the external surface of the liver ( Fitz @-@ Hugh – Curtis syndrome ) .
= = Epidemiology = =
Globally about 106 million cases of chlamydia and 106 million cases of gonorrhea occurred in 2008 . The number of cases of PID ; however , is not clear . It is estimated to affect about 1 @.@ 5 percent of young women yearly . In the United States PID is estimated to affect about one million people yearly . Rates are highest with teenagers and first time mothers . PID causes over 100 @,@ 000 women to become infertile in the US each year .
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= Phellinus ellipsoideus =
Phellinus ellipsoideus ( formerly Fomitiporia ellipsoidea ) is a species of polypore fungus in the family Hymenochaetaceae , a specimen of which produced the largest fungal fruit body ever recorded . Found in China , the fruit bodies produced by the species are brown , woody basidiocarps that grow on dead wood , where the fungus feeds as a saprotroph . The basidiocarps are perennial , allowing them to grow very large under favourable circumstances . They are resupinate , measuring 30 centimetres ( 12 in ) or more in length , though typically extending less than a centimetre from the surface of the wood . P. ellipsoideus produces distinct ellipsoidal spores , after which it is named , and unusual setae . These two features allow it to be readily differentiated microscopically from other , similar species . Chemical compounds isolated from the species include several steroidal compounds . These may have pharmacological applications , but further research is needed .
The species was named in 2008 by Bao @-@ Kai Cui and Yu @-@ Cheng Dai based on collections made in Fujian Province . It was placed in the genus Fomitiporia , but later analysis suggests that it is more closely related to Phellinus species . It was revealed in 2011 that a very large fruit body , measuring up to 1 @,@ 085 cm ( 427 in ) in length , had been found on Hainan Island . The specimen , which was 20 years old , was estimated to weigh between 400 and 500 kilograms ( 880 and 1 @,@ 100 lb ) . This was markedly larger than the previously largest recorded fungal fruit body , a specimen of Rigidoporus ulmarius found in the United Kingdom that had a circumference of 425 cm ( 167 in ) . The findings were formally published in September 2011 , but attracted international attention from the mainstream press prior to this .
= = Taxonomy and phylogenetics = =
The species was first described in 2008 by Bao @-@ Kai Cui and Yu @-@ Cheng Dai , both of the Beijing Forestry University . Five specimens of the then @-@ unknown species were collected during field work in the Wanmulin Nature Reserve ( 27 ° 03 ′ N 118 ° 08 ′ E ) , Jian 'ou , Fujian Province . The pair named the species Fomitiporia ellipsoidea in an article in the journal Mycotaxon . The specific name ellipsoidea is from the Latin meaning " ellipsoid " , and refers to the shape of the spores . Species of the order Hymenochaetales , to which this taxon belongs , make up 25 % of the over 700 species of polypore found in China .
Phylogenetic analysis of large subunit and internal transcribed spacer DNA sequence data , the results of which were published in 2012 , concluded that the species then known as F. ellipsoidea was closely related to Phellinus gabonensis , P. caribaeo @-@ quercicolus and the newly described P. castanopsidis . The four species share morphological characteristics , and form a monophyletic clade . This clade resolved more closely with the Phellinus type species P. igniarius than it did with the Fomitiporia type species F. langloisii , and so the authors proposed a transference of F. ellipsoidea to Phellinus , naming the new combination Phellinus ellipsoideus . While the taxonomic database Index Fungorum follows the 2012 study , MycoBank continues to list Fomitiporia ellipsoidea as the correct binomial . Some mycologists consider Fomitiporia to be a synonym of Phellinus anyway .
= = Description = =
Phellinus ellipsoideus produces resupinate fruit bodies that are hard and woody , whether fresh or dry . The original description characterized them as measuring up to 30 centimetres ( 12 in ) " or more " in length , 20 cm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) in width , and extending 8 mm ( 0 @.@ 3 in ) from the wood on which they grow at their thickest point . The outermost layer is typically yellow to yellowish @-@ brown , measuring 2 mm ( 0 @.@ 08 in ) in thickness . The shiny surface of the hymenium , the spore @-@ producing section of the fruit body , is covered in pores and ranges in colour from yellow @-@ brown to rust @-@ brown . There are between 5 and 8 pores per millimetre . The tubes are up to 8 mm ( 0 @.@ 3 in ) in depth , have the same colouration as the surface of the hymenium , and are distinctively layered . They are also hard and woody . The very thin yellow @-@ brown layer of flesh measures less than 0 @.@ 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 02 in ) in width . As with much of the rest of the fruit body , it is firm , solid , and reminiscent of wood . The fruit bodies lack any odour or taste .
= = = Microscopic features = = =
Phellinus ellipsoideus produces basidiospores that are ellipsoidal or broadly ellipsoidal in shape . The spore shape is one of the features that makes the species readily recognisable microscopically , and the spores measure from 4 @.@ 5 to 6 @.@ 1 by 3 @.@ 5 to 5 micrometres ( μm ) . The average spore length is 5 @.@ 25 μm , while the average width is 4 @.@ 14 μm . The spores have thick cell walls , and are hyaline . They are strongly cyanophilous , meaning that the cell walls will readily absorb methyl blue stain . In addition , they are weakly dextrinoid , meaning that they will stain slightly reddish @-@ brown in Melzer 's reagent or Lugol 's solution . The spores are borne on barrel @-@ shaped basidia , with four spores per basidium , measuring 8 to 12 by 6 to 7 μm . There are also basidioles , which are similar in shape to the basidia , but slightly smaller .
In addition to the spore shape , the species is readily identified with the use of a microscope because of its setae . Setae are a kind of unusual cystidia unique to the family Hymenochaetaceae , and , in P. ellipsoideus , are found in the hymenium . In shape , the setae are ventricose , with distinctive hooks on their tips . In colour , they are yellow @-@ brown , and they have thick cell walls . They measure 20 to 30 by 10 to 14 μm . Neither more standard cystidia nor cystidioles ( underdeveloped cystidia ) can be found in the species , but there are a number of rhomboid crystals throughout the hymenium and the flesh .
Most of the tissue of a fungal fruit body is made up of hyphae , which can be of three forms : generative , skeletal and binding . In P. ellipsoideus , the tissue is dominated by skeletal hyphae , but also has generative hyphae ; it lacks binding hyphae . For this reason , the hyphal structure of P. ellipsoideus is referred to as " dimitic " . The hyphae are divided into separate cells by septae , and lack clamp connections . The skeletal hyphae do not react with Melzer 's reagent or Lugol 's solution , and are not cyanophilous . While the hyphae will darken when a solution of potassium hydroxide is applied ( the KOH test ) , they remain otherwise unchanged .
The main structure of the fruit body consists primarily of an agglutination ( mass ) of interwoven skeletal hyphae , which are golden- to rust @-@ brown . The hyphae are unbranched , forming long tubes 2 to 3 @.@ 6 μm in diameter , enveloping a lumen of variable thickness . There are also hyaline generative hyphae . These hyphae have thinner walls than the skeletal hyphae , and are also septate ( possessing of septa ) , but are sometimes branched . They measure 2 to 3 μm in diameter . The flesh , again , is primarily made up of skeletal hyphae with some generative hyphae . The thick @-@ walled skeletal hyphae are a yellow @-@ brown to rust brown , and are slightly less agglutinate . The hyphae in the flesh are a little smaller ; the skeletal hyphae measure 1 @.@ 8 to 3 @.@ 4 μm in diameter , while the generative hyphae measure 1 @.@ 5 to 2 @.@ 6 μm in diameter .
= = = Similar species = = =
A cogeneric species potentially similar to Phellinus ellipsoideus is P. caribaeo @-@ quercicola . The latter species shares the hooked hymenial setae and ellipsoidal to broadly ellipsoidal spores . However , details of the fruit body differ , and the spores are hyaline to yellowish , and not dextrinoid . Further , the species is known only from tropical America , where it grows on the Cuban oak . P. castanopsidis , newly described in 2013 , is not perennial , and has a pale greyish @-@ brown pore surface . The spores are also slightly larger than those of P. ellipsoideus .
Phellinus ellipsoideus differs from species of Fomitiporia in two key respects . Its spores are less dextrinoid than those of the genus and their shape is atypical . Other than this , it is typical of the genus , according to the original description . Five species of Fomitiporia , F. bannaensis , F. pseudopunctata , F. sonorae , F. sublaevigata and F. tenuis , share with P. ellipsoideus the resupinate fruit bodies and the setae in the hymenium . Despite this , all of them but P. ellipsoideus have straight hymenial setae , and all of them have spores that are spherical or almost spherical , which is much more typical of the genus . F. uncinata ( formerly Phellinus uncinatus ) has hooked hymenial setae , and the spores are , as with P. ellipsoideus , thick @-@ walled and dextrinoid . The species can be differentiated by the fact the spores are spherical or nearly so , and somewhat larger than those of P. ellipsoideus , measuring 5 @.@ 5 to 7 by 5 to 6 @.@ 5 μm . The species is also known only from tropical America , where it grows on bamboo .
= = Distribution and ecology = =
Phellinus ellipsoideus has been recorded growing on the fallen wood of oaks of the subgenus Cyclobalanopsis , as well as the wood of other flowering plants . The species favours the trunks of trees , where it feeds as a saprotroph , causing white rot . P. ellipsoideus fruit bodies are perennial growers , allowing them to , in the correct circumstances , grow very large . The species is found in the tropical and subtropical areas of China ; it has been recorded in Fujian Province and Hainan Province . It is not a common species , and fruit bodies are only occasionally encountered .
= = = Largest fruit body = = =
In 2010 , Cui and Dai were performing field work in tropical woodland on Hainan Island , China , studying wood @-@ rotting fungi . The pair uncovered a very large P. ellipsoideus fruit body on a fallen Quercus asymetrica log , which turned out to be the largest fungal fruit body ever documented . The fruit body was found at an altitude of 958 metres ( 3 @,@ 143 ft ) , in old @-@ growth forest . They were initially unable to identify the specimen as P. ellipsoideus , because of its large size , but tests revealed its identity after samples were taken for analysis . After their initial encounter with the large fruit body , Cui and Dai returned to it on two subsequent occasions , so that they could study it further . Nicholas P. Money , executive editor of Fungal Biology , in which the findings were published , praised the pair for not removing the fruit body , thereby allowing it " to continue its business and to marvel visitors to Hainan Island " . The discovery was formally published in Fungal Biology in September 2011 , but gained attention in the mainstream press worldwide prior to this .
The fruit body was 20 years old , and up to 1 @,@ 085 cm ( 35 @.@ 60 ft ) long . It was between 82 and 88 cm ( 32 and 35 in ) wide , and between 4 @.@ 6 and 5 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 8 and 2 @.@ 2 in ) thick . The total volume of the fruit body was somewhere between 409 @,@ 000 and 525 @,@ 000 cubic centimetres ( 25 @,@ 000 and 32 @,@ 000 in3 ) . It was estimated to weigh between 400 and 500 kilograms ( 880 and 1 @,@ 100 lb ) , based on three samples from different areas of the fruit body . The specimen had an average of 49 pores per square millimetre , roughly equivalent to 425 million pores . Money estimated that , based on spore output from other polypore species , the fruit body would be able to release a trillion spores a day .
Prior to this discovery , the largest recorded fruit body of any fungus was a specimen of Rigidoporus ulmarius , found in Kew Gardens , United Kingdom . It measured 150 by 133 cm ( 59 by 52 in ) in diameter , and had a circumference of 425 cm ( 167 in ) . While the largest individual fruit bodies belong to polypores , individual organisms belonging to certain Armillaria species can grow extremely large . In 2003 , a large specimen of A. solidipes ( synonymous with A. ostoyae ) was recorded in the Blue Mountains , Oregon , covering an area of 965 hectares ( 2 @,@ 380 acres ) . At the time , the organism was estimated to be 8650 years old . Prior to this , an A. gallica ( synonymous with A. bulbosa ) organism was the largest recorded , covering 15 hectares ( 37 acres ) , weighing approximately 9 @,@ 700 kilograms ( 21 @,@ 400 lb ) . However , whilst these organisms cover a large area , the individual fruit bodies ( the mushrooms ) are not remarkably large , typically with stems of up to 10 centimetres ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) in height and caps less than 15 centimetres ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) in diameter , weighing from 40 to 100 grams ( 1 @.@ 4 to 3 @.@ 5 oz ) each .
= = Medicinal uses and biochemistry = =
The fruit bodies of both Phellinus and Fomitiporia species have seen use in traditional medicine for gastrointestinal cancer and heart disease . P. ellipsoideus fruit bodies are used for medicinal purposes as " sanhhuang " ( a name which typically refers to P. linteus ) in the north of Fujian Province .
In 2011 , research into the chemistry of P. ellipsoideus was published in the journal Mycosystema by Cui , along with Hai @-@ Ying Bao and Bao @-@ Kai Liu of the Jilin Agricultural University . The research discussed how several chemical compounds could be isolated from P. ellipsoideus with petroleum ether and ( after defatting ) chloroform . The nine compounds isolated from these extracts included the common ergosterol and its derivative ergosterol peroxide . Two of the compounds , ergosta @-@ 7 @,@ 22 @,@ 25 @-@ triene @-@ 3 @-@ one and benzo [ 1 @,@ 2 @-@ b : 5 @,@ 4 @-@ b ' ] difuran @-@ 3 @,@ 5 @-@ dione @-@ 8 @-@ methyl formate , were new to science . All of these chemicals were steroidal ; such compounds play important physiological roles in cell membranes . P. ellipsoideus has been used as a source of ergosterol for biochemical research .
Steroidal compounds , like those isolated from P. ellipsoideus , can have pharmacological or taxonomical applications ; for instance , some can act as anti @-@ inflammatories ( including ergosterol ) or inhibit tumour growth . The 2011 study concluded that , as P. ellipsoideus contained a large number of diverse steroidal compounds , there may be comparatively high pharmacological activity in the fungus ; however , more research would be needed to confirm this . Later publications echoed this research , claiming that the fungus has " potential medicinal functions " . Research published in 2012 named fomitiporiaester A , a natural furan derivative isolated from methanolic extract of P. ellipsoideus fruit bodies . The chemical , methyl 3 @,@ 5 @-@ dioxo @-@ 1 @,@ 3 @,@ 5 @,@ 7 @-@ tetrahydrobenzo [ 1 @,@ 2 @-@ c : 4 @,@ 5 @-@ c ' ] difuran @-@ 4 @-@ carboxylate , displayed significant antitumour ability in a mouse model .
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= Kanak people =
Kanak ( French spelling : Kanak since 1984 ; earlier Canaque ) are the indigenous Melanesian inhabitants of New Caledonia , an overseas collectivity of France in the southwest Pacific . According to the 2009 census , they constitute 40 @.@ 3 % of the total population of New Caledonia with 99 @,@ 078 people . Though Melanesian settlement is recorded on Grande Terre 's Presqu 'île de Foué peninsula as far back as the Lapita culture , the origin of Kanak people is unclear . Ethnographic research has shown that Polynesian seafarers have intermarried with the Kanaks over the centuries . The Kanaks refer to the European inhabitants of New Caledonia as Caldoches .
New Caledonia was annexed to France in 1853 , and became an overseas territory of France in 1956 . An independence movement led to a failed revolt in 1967 , and was restarted in 1984 , pursuing total independence status from the French rule . A 2014 referendum will decide whether or not the territory will achieve sovereign status . When the 1988 Matignon agreements were signed between the representatives of France and New Caledonia to decide on holding the referendum for independence , Jean @-@ Marie Tjibaou , the Kanak leader of the independence movement , had mooted a proposal to set up an Agency for the Development of Kanak Culture ( ADCK ) . After Tjibaou 's assassination in 1989 , the French President François Mitterrand ordered that a cultural centre on the lines suggested by Tjibaou be set up in Nouméa , the capital of New Caledonia ; it was to be the last of Mitterrand 's Grands Projets . The Jean @-@ Marie Tjibaou Cultural Centre was formally established in May 1998 .
Although ancient Lapita potteries date back to 1500 BC , and the people of the island have long been involved in the arts , since the establishment of the ADCK , Kanak arts and crafts have become more popular in New Caledonia . Wooden carvings in the shape of hawks , ancient gods , serpents and turtles are popular as is flèche faîtière , a carving which resembles a small totem pole with symbolic shapes . Music , dance and singing are part of many a Kanak ceremonial function and dances are performed during the traditional Kanak gatherings with the objective of cementing relationships within the clan and with ancestors .
= = Etymology = =
The word ' Kanak ' is derived from kanaka maoli , a Hawaiian word which was at one time applied indiscriminately by European explorers , traders and missionaries in Oceania to any non @-@ European Pacific islander . Prior to European contact , there were no unified states in New Caledonia , and no single self @-@ appellation used to refer to its inhabitants . Other words have been coined from Kanak in the past few generations : Kanaky is an ethno @-@ political name for the island or the entire territory . Kanéka is a musical genre associated with the Kanak , stylistically a form of reggae with added flutes , percussion and harmonies . Kaneka often has political lyrics and is sung in Drehu , Paici or other Melanesian languages , or in French . The word " kanak " is grammatically invariable . The German racial epithet Kanake — which is now applied to all non @-@ whites , even southern Europeans in some cases , and especially to Turkish immigrants — also derives from the same source , and was originally applied to people from German colonial possessions in Oceania .
= = History = =
= = = Origin = = =
Melanesian settlement on Grande Terre dates back at least as far as the Lapita culture . However , the origin of Kanak people is unclear . Obsidian transported from New Guinea was found with the earliest New Caledonian Lapita pottery . In addition , some researchers have claimed there is evidence of New Caledonian human habitation dating from 3000 BC ( predating Lapita culture by 1500 years ) , while others claim to have found pre @-@ Lapita pottery . At the Fourth Lapita Conference , held in June 2000 , in Canberra , Australia , the question was posed : " Is Lapita Kanak , or is Lapita the oldest and first ancestor of a later culture that is labelled Kanak ? " Still another problem in determining the origin and early history of Kanak people is that the archaeological interpretation is in conflict with the views of Kanak people which have become politicized subsequent to colonial rule .
= = = Early colonial rule = = =
The earliest history of Europeans arriving on these islands is when Captain Cook of the United Kingdom landed in these islands in 1775 at a time when there were reportedly 70 @,@ 000 Kanaks living in the archipelago . Cook gave the name " New Caledonia " to these islands , after Caledonia , his Scottish highlands .
Fifty years later , the Protestants of London Missionary Society came to New Caledonia , which was followed by entry of the French Catholics to the island , in 1843 . This resulted in a conflict between the two religious factions and eventually the French Catholics ' control of the islands prevailed . The island nation was thereafter annexed by France , in 1853 .
During the colonial period , in the 19th century , Kanaks were recruited or enslaved , to perform unfree labour in places such as Australia , California , Canada , Chile and Fiji ( with the inter @-@ Asian slave trade to India , Japan , South Africa , and what is now Malaysia ) . During the 3 @,@ 000 years that Kanaks lived in the remote islands , they were unprepared for the arrival of European viruses and bacteria . The Kanaks were uprooted from the land and were employed as forced labour on French plantations , ranches and public works .
= = = Revolt = = =
When Kanaks were forced to move to reserve areas of the island , closer to the mountains , they occupied only 10 percent of the area of their ancestral territories given that their population had declined so dramatically due to disease , and their living conditions became very hard . This situation arose consequent to induction of 20 @,@ 000 convicts by the French government between 1864 and 1897 , most of whom settled permanently in the country , and who were employed to extract nickel ( beginning with 1864 ) and copper from 1875 onwards . This caused serious resentment among the Kanaks who revolted in 1878 against the French colonial rule , which was suppressed by the French who were better armed . The Kanak leader was decapitated , and his head was put on display in the Museum of Natural History .
= = = After World War II = = =
After World War II , the Kanak independence movement again picked up momentum when the United Nations placed New Caledonia on its Decolonisation List of Non @-@ Self @-@ Governing Territories in 1946 . A major progression occurred when Kanaks and French settlers in the country obtained voting rights in 1951 , shortly before it became an overseas territory of France in 1956 . The Kanaks were then also allowed to move out of their reserve areas . This was followed by the establishment of the Territorial Assembly in 1957 , but this was short @-@ lived ; Charles de Gaulle abolished it after he became the President of France , in 1958 .
= = = Agitation for independence = = =
In 1981 the movement for Independence began , following the murder of Pierre Declercq , the secretary general of the Caledonian Union ( French : Union calédonienne , UC ) on 19 September 1981 . A national forum titled " Front de Liberation Nationale Kanak Socialiste ( FLNKS ) ” was established in 1984 . This forum refused to participate in elections to the Territorial Assembly and even declared its own Provincial Government ; it met with opposition by the French . FLNKS " organized a boycott of the territorial elections in New Caledonia , smashing ballot boxes and setting up roadblocks to prevent people from voting . " The FLNKS persisted with their agitation and unilaterally announced on 7 January 1985 that a referendum on independence would be conducted in July 1985 . After the death of Kanak leader Eloi Machoro in 1985 , Kanak activists took 27 gendarmes hostage on the island of Ouvea , igniting a French response .
The Kanak movement proposed a self @-@ government in January 1986 . An interim arrangement was announced by Mitterrand who moved to give greater autonomy in the colony . However , the French prime minister Chirac stationed troops in the islands and the autonomy issue was shelved . The FLNKS , backed in their campaign for a referendum by regional organizations such as the " Groupe du fer de lance mélanesien " ( the Melanesian Spearhead Group ) , the Pacific Forum , and the Nonaligned Countries Movement , were successful in getting the UN Resolution 41 @-@ 41 A of 2 December 1986 passed ; it re @-@ inscribed New Caledonia on the Decolonisation List of Non @-@ Self @-@ Governing Territories . But this resolution did not mitigate the violence as what ensued was more confrontations with the authorities : the " Ouvéa cave hostage taking " resulted in 21 deaths including 19 Kanaks . Following the battle , there was an international outcry that resulted in initiation of talks for settlement between the French government , the Kanaks and the French settlers .
= = = Matignon Accord = = =
An agreement called the Matignon Accord followed on 6 November 1988 between the French and the Kanaks , which had the majority support of 80 % of the French people . According to the Matignon Accord ( or Matignon Agreement ) a referendum on independence was proposed to be held by 1998 . However , two of the Kanak leaders who had signed the agreement , Jean @-@ Marie Tjibaou and Yeiwene Yeiwene , were assassinated on 4 May 1989 by a Kanak activist . The Kanak independence activists were unhappy with the situation as they felt that France would never allow them independence .
= = = Nouméa Accord = = =
A subsequent agreement , the " Nouméa Accord " , was signed between the FLNKS President and the French Government on 5 May 1998 , allowing for a degree of autonomy to New Caledonia over a transition period of up to 20 years . A referendum for independence from France is to be held between 2014 and 2019 . Progressive changes that were expected of this agreement were in the local political control and structure ; the Kanaks would have greater say over internal and regional affairs while France would retain sovereign rights including control over military and foreign affairs . In a speech made before the Fourth Commission of the United Nations on 10 October 2005 , the FLNKS Vice President , Léopold Jorédié , urged the UN " to establish a monitoring and follow @-@ up system for the previous contracts signed between multinationals and municipalities , by drawing on the initiatives of Global Witness and asking the UN to put in place an ad hoc commission in order to protect the wealth of New Caledonia , following the example of what was done for Congo . "
= = = Present status = = =
The Caledonian Union , one of the political parties within the pro @-@ independence FLNKS group had , in 2010 , appealed for a national committee to evaluate progress and prepare New Caledonia for the change in leadership before the planned referendum in 2014 . In this appeal , the UC also argued that , according to the Nouméa Accord , it was obligatory for the French government to train and build the capacity of Kanaks to be able to take over the government in 2014 and urged them to respond swiftly .
= = Population = =
= = = Demographics = = =
New Caledonia or Territoire des Nouvelle @-@ Caledonie et Dependances , is approximately 1 @,@ 200 kilometres ( 750 mi ) off the northeast coast of Australia . Of its 500 islands , the five main ones are inhabited , are spread across an area 30 miles ( 48 km ) wide and over 250 miles ( 400 km ) in length . As of 2009 , the Melanesian Kanak people constituted 40 @.@ 3 % ( 99 @,@ 078 ) of the population of 245 @,@ 580 in New Caledonia , a minority in their ancestral land . The other groups consist of Europeans ( mostly French ) at 29 % , Wallisian 9 % , people of mixed ancestry ( 8 % ) , and other groups including Polynesians , Indonesians , Vietnamese and those ( believed to be chiefly of European ancestry ) who identified simply as " Caledonian . " In 1774 , Cook landed in Balade and estimated a population of around 50 @,@ 000 for the whole island . A minimum of 100 @,@ 000 is more likely , considering the amount of land that can be shown to have been cultivated pre @-@ colonially . This declined to 27 @,@ 000 during early colonial rule as a result of disease . Kanaks were historically associated with tribes , including the Bwaarhat , Tiendanite , Goa , and Goosana , as well as clans , such as the Poowe .
There are significant populations of ethnic Kanaks living in Australia , particularly in sugar cane growing areas in Queensland , where they were brought to work in the fields . There are many social links and intermarriages between these people and local Australian Aboriginal groups .
= = = Languages = = =
Kanak languages are extremely diverse , and French serves as the official language of New Caledonia . There are 28 distinct Kanak languages , as well as many dialects , out of the 1 @,@ 200 Melanesian languages spoken throughout the Pacific . They are mutually incomprehensible . All are a part of the Oceanic branch of the Austronesian family . They all belong to the New Caledonian subgroup – except for Fagauvea , which is a Polynesian language .
New Caledonia languages are divided into several groups . The Northern language group is tonal and includes 12 languages : Caac , Cemuhî , Fwâi , Jawe , Kumak , Nemi , Paicî , Pije , Pwaamei , Pwapwa , Yalayu , and Yuaga . Approximately 60 @,@ 000 residents of New Caledonia speak at least one of the Kanak languages . Most of these languages are only in spoken form . There is no one unified language among the Kanaks ; however , the largest group of Kanaks speak Drehu .
Coming from an oral tradition , the written word was nonexistent until the missionary arrival . Kanak knowledge was passed orally in the form of poems , legends , and stories . Children 's oral history is provided by parents and other relatives who also use tickling and onomatopoeic noise to hold the child 's attention . Of the Kanak authors , some of the notable ones are Tjibaou who wrote La Présence Kanak ; Susanna Ounei @-@ Small , a Kanak author from Ouvéa who wrote about the Matignon Accords ; and Kaloombat Tein , author of Hwanfalik – Sayings from the Hienghene Valley which provides insight into Hienghène legends and is written in Hienghène , with English language translation .
Tjibaou was involved in the establishment of the Écoles populaires kanak , which was taught in a local Kanak language and educated children in spiritual and practical knowledge , while including French and English language instruction . Since 2006 , pre @-@ school children have been given the opportunity to learn indigenous Kanak languages . While the Kanak languages have been taught in high schools across the Loyalty Islands and North Province , the language education has not been as common in the more European South Province . The establishment of the Kanak Language Academy ( KLA ) was a provision of the Nouméa Accord .
= = Culture = =
= = = Traditional beliefs and religion = = =
The Kanaks were known to worship their ancestors . This worship was embodied in the sepulchre , sacred stones , and devotional hearths where they offered sacrifices . Today , most Kanaks are Christians . Religion is an important aspect of Kanaks ' life . Kanaks attend the Catholic Church in Nouméa. and they form nearly 50 percent of the population of Catholics in New Caledonia , next only to the Europeans . Also , the majority of Protestants are Kanaks . However , there are a few who follow traditional beliefs .
According to the traditional beliefs of the Kanak people , the sea is sacred as it provides them with " fish for food " , so they treat it with great reverence . The folk stories created by the Kanak people not only attest to this fact but are also strictly followed as unwritten laws . Some of the important aspects of the oral laws relate to environmental protection and conservation , such as the closure of fishing operations when the fish stocks are on the decline , and fishing rights in certain areas are strictly observed with respect to locals .
= = = Conservation = = =
Following these beliefs and traditions , Kanak people and Conservation International ( CI ) have been jointly involved in conserving the ancestral waters and natural resources . According to a rapid assessment survey conducted with help from the Kanaks , 42 coral reefs have been identified for protection near Nord 's Mont Pani Province . Its rich biodiversity reserves also include sea cucumbers , molluscs , crustaceans , herrings , groupers , and snappers . Supporting Kanak traditions , the Coral Reef Initiative for the South Pacific 's ( CRISP ) partnership with CI provided recommendations and underwater species guides to the Kanak people . In 2004 , a proposal was put forward to promote the entire coastal region as a World Heritage Site . Further work on this initiative has been pursued by CI 's Center for Applied Biodiversity Science , the Coral Reef Initiative for the South Pacific ( CRISP ) , and the French Government , in collaboration with WWF to assess marine resources used by both Kanak tribes and people of European descent across three coastlines of the Nord Province .
= = = Cuisine = = =
Bougna is a traditional Kanak casserole , considered a national food by many Kanaks . It is made of sliced root vegetables which might include taro , manioc , yams and coconut milk . Pork , chicken or seafood may be used in the filling which is then wrapped in poingo banana leaves before being cooked over hot stones in an earthen oven . Other local ingredients used in Kanak cuisine include Rousettus ( flying foxes ) and local deer ; marine staples such as lagoon and coral reef fish ( including dawa ) , as well as crabs and lobsters . Paita beans are locally grown haricots , while custard @-@ apple , lime and saffron are other local ingredients .
= = = Fine arts = = =
The Kanak arts of sculpture , dance , music and theatre have become more popular since the 1990s with the efforts of the Agency for Development of Kanak Culture ADCK . Art forms in Kanak culture comprise :
Lapita pottery
The ancient Lapita potteries date to 1500 BC . Essentially a women ’ s craft , the pottery is generally decorated with geometric patterns and stylised human faces , although there is variation between northern and southern New Caledonian pottery . The various handles and glazes have pinhole @-@ incised designs made from tooth combs . The pottery was made from clay deposits found in the islands .
Paintings
Painting is a recent art form common among women artists . Famous artists include Yvette Bouquet from Koumac who has produced paintings with Pacific and Oceania themes , Paula Boi , whose paintings are of more abstract scenes , and Denise Tuvouane and Maryline Thydjepache who use mixed art forms . Bus stop shelters are common places where their paintings are illustrated .
Wood sculpture
Wood sculpture represents the spirit of Kanak culture of which the Flèche faîtière , which resembles a small totem pole with symbolic shapes , is the most common . A mini Stonehenge @-@ looking religious memorial near the village in L 'Île @-@ des @-@ Pins has a display of religious carvings . Other wooden objects include war clubs carved from the strongest wood , made in the form of a phallic head ( casse @-@ tete ) , a lethal bird 's beak club ( bec d 'oiseau ) , and spears made from niaouli trees used to burn enemy houses .
Wooden carvings in the shape of hawks , ancient gods , serpents and turtles are also popular . The Grand Huts , also known as grande case ( chef 's hut ) , are decorated with the filial of fleche faitiere representing the ancestral spirits , symbolic of transition between the world of the dead and the world of the living . The wood carving is shaped like the spear @-@ like carving that adorns the top of the grande case . It comprises three parts ; the flat crowned face representing the ancestor with a long , the rounded pole run through by conch shells mounted on it that represents the ancestor ’ s voice , and a base with the pole fixed to it to symbolise the link between the clan and the chief . The central piece is also flanked by wooden pieces with sharp points ( facing downwards ) that are intended to prevent bad spirits enveloping the ancestor in the central part . As it represented the power of the chiefs over their subjects , it was adopted as flag of the Kanaks by the organization leading the independent movement in New Caledonia . The arrow or the spear normally has a needle at the end to insert threaded shells from bottom to top . After the death of a Kanak chief , the fleche faitière is removed and his family takes it to their home . Though it was allowed to be used again as a sign of respect it is normally kept at burial grounds of noted citizens or at the mounds of abandoned grand houses .
Stone carving
Stone carvings made of jade or serpentinite are in the form of ceremonial axe representing clan 's strength and power . These were used to behead enemies during war and during ancestor celebrations known as Pilou . The bottom of the handle represents the particular clan and is embellished with stones and shells . The axe is polished smooth like a disc . Carvings made of soapstone are also popular .
Bamboo carvings
A meter in length canes , dated between 1850 and 1920 , are used to make an entry into a village or in dance ceremonies . The canes were fired to give black patina over the engraved parts ; the engraving designs consist of geometrical real images from the pilou dance , agricultural motifs and village scenes of fishing or building a Grand Hut or case . These were also stuffed with magic herbs to ward off evil spirits .
Tapa
Tapa is a bark cloth made into small pieces , often from banyan trees used to wrap up Kanak ancient bead money .
Boats
Kanaks living on the islands made canoes out of hollowed – out trunks and large double – hulled outriggers with triangular sails , known as pirogues , traditionally used for fishing .
= = = Dances = = =
Dances are performed during the traditional Kanak gatherings with the objective of cementing relationships within the clan and with ancestors . Dance is performed in the form of a message or a legend , often related to their daily activities or important events such as birth , marriage , circumcision , the death of a chief and so forth . Dancers paint themselves colourfully to please the ancestors watching over them . Wooden masks made of local materials such as bark , feathers and leaves adorn them representing a physical link with the invisible world .
The Festival des Arts du Pacifique , the Festival of Pacific Arts , is organized every four years . Dancers are trained in traditional dances in special workshops . Welcome dances performed by groups are very popular . Of the various dance forms , the pilou @-@ pilou dance is a unique dance form of the Kanaks , which recounts many stories of the clans . The pilou @-@ pilou dance form of the Kanaks , now almost extinct , was so named by the early French missionaries of New Caledonia and involved stomping with bamboo tubes and beating of bark @-@ clappers accompanied by singing in duets with shrieks and whistles of hundreds of dancers . However , in view of very strong nature of this form of dance , with a trance @-@ like status attained by the dancers , these have been banned ; the last such dance reported was in 1951 .
= = = Music = = =
Music , dance and singing are part of many a Kanak ceremonial function such as initiation , courting and mourning . Conch shells are blown by an appointed person to represent a clan chief ’ s arrival or the voice of an ancestor . Rhythm instruments used include Bwanjep , used during ceremonies by a group of men ; Jew 's harp , ( wadohnu in the Nengone language where it originated ) made of dried piece of coconut palm leaf held between the teeth and an attached segment of soft nerve leaf ; coconut @-@ leaf whizzer , a piece of coconut leaf attached to a string and twirled that produces a noise like a humming bee ; oboe , made of hollow grass stems or bamboo ; end @-@ blown flute , made of 50 cm long hollowed pawpaw leaf stem ; bamboo stamping tubes that are struck vertically against the ground and played at major events ; percussion instruments ( hitting sticks , palm sheaths ) ; rattles that are worn on the legs made of coconut leaves , shells and certain fruits . Kanak groups such as Bethela first made the recordings on cassette around 1975 or 1976 .
= = = Arts festivals = = =
In 1971 the women 's association , Smiling Melanesian Village Women 's Groups was formed and advocated the idea of a cultural festival to promote Kanak arts . As a result of this movement the first festival of Melanesian arts , " Melanesia 2000 " , was held in Nouméa in September 1975 , supported by Jean @-@ Marie Tjibaou . Kanak arts festivals became popular with two international events held early in the 1990s that created the awareness of Kanak arts . The first exhibition of modern @-@ day wood sculptors and painters was held at Ko i Neva , which was also published as contemporary Kanak arts . This was followed by a large exhibition of Kanak arts in Paris known as " De Jade et de Nacre - Patrimoine Artistique Kanak ( Jade and Mother of Pearl - Kanak Artistic Heritage " .
The Centre Cultural Tjibaou also stages occasional art exhibitions . A popular quadrennial event is the Festival of Pacific Arts where the indigenous people of all Pacific nations and people gather to display the Pacific 's cultural heritage .
= = Kanak Art = =
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= Clare Stevenson =
Clare Grant Stevenson , AM , MBE ( 18 July 1903 – 22 October 1988 ) was the inaugural Director of the Women 's Auxiliary Australian Air Force ( WAAAF ) . As such , she has been described as " the most significant woman in the history of the Air Force " . Formed as a branch of the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) in 1941 , the WAAAF was the first and largest uniformed women 's service in Australia during World War II , numbering more than 18 @,@ 000 members by late 1944 and making up over thirty per cent of RAAF ground staff .
Born and educated in Victoria , Stevenson was an executive with the Berlei company when she was appointed Director WAAAF . Initially ranked squadron officer , she rose to become group officer by 1942 . Stevenson resumed her civilian career following her discharge from the Air Force in 1946 . Long active in education and social welfare , she helped form aid organisations including the Carers Association of New South Wales ( now Carers NSW ) after retiring from Berlei in 1960 . Stevenson was appointed a Member of the Order of the British Empire and a Member of the Order of Australia for her services to the community and to female veterans .
= = Education and early career = =
Born on 18 July 1903 in Wangaratta , Victoria , Clare Grant Stevenson was the fifth of six children of Robert Logan Grant Stevenson and his wife Ada Pollie , née Griffiths . When Clare was four her family moved to Essendon , where she attended Winstow Girls ' Grammar School and Essendon High School , completing her intermediate and leaving certificates . In 1922 , she entered the Faculty of Science at the University of Melbourne , but switched to education after failing chemistry in her final year . Stevenson was a hockey blue and was active in several campus groups , including the Students ' Representative Council and the Science Club . She became President of the Committee of Melbourne University Women , and graduated in 1925 with a Diploma of Education .
Stevenson began working with the YWCA in 1926 . A strong advocate for continuing education , during her first two years with the association she organised night classes for workers in Sydney . She served as General Secretary of the Rockhampton , Queensland , branch from 1929 to 1931 . In 1932 she took up a position as a training and research officer at Berlei , and from 1935 to 1939 represented the company in London as a senior executive . Stevenson was based in Sydney , supervising product research and the training of sales staff , at the outbreak of World War II .
= = Director WAAAF = =
= = = Appointment = = =
Late in 1940 , Stevenson was nominated to be the first Director of the planned Women 's Auxiliary Australian Air Force ( WAAAF ) . Although keen to support the war effort in some capacity , she demurred owing to the administrative and social obstacles she foresaw in the role , but her appointment went ahead regardless on 21 May 1941 . The Air Member for Personnel , Air Vice Marshal Henry Wrigley , had recommended Stevenson on the basis of her management background and because she was not a " socialite " . Despite her initial misgivings , Stevenson decided not to fight the appointment , which took effect on 9 June .
Established on 25 March 1941 in response to lobbying by women wanting to serve in the war , and to free more male ground crew for overseas postings , the WAAAF was the first uniformed women 's branch of an armed service in Australia , predating similar organisations in the Army and Navy . Fewer than two hundred personnel had been recruited when Stevenson became Director in June ; this number would grow to around a thousand by the end of the year . For the first three months of its existence the WAAAF had been under the temporary command of Flight Officer Mary Bell , wife of an RAAF group captain and former Australian Commandant of the Women 's Air Training Corps , an organisation of female pilots and ground staff that had been formed in 1939 and had been providing voluntary support to the Air Force . Bell chose to resign on learning of Stevenson 's appointment , rather than stay on as Deputy Director and report to someone from outside the service fraternity ; she later rejoined on the condition that she would receive no promotion higher than flight officer .
= = = Early challenges = = =
In her role as Director , Stevenson was responsible for training , morale and welfare of all WAAAF staff . Philosophically committed to equal opportunity regardless of gender and social background , from the outset she had to deal with discrimination by government authorities , many of whom had been against the creation of such a service . One @-@ time Minister for Defence , Harold Thorby , declared that " aviation takes women out of their natural environment , the home and the training of the family " , and various senior Air Force officers , including the man subsequently known as the " Father of the RAAF " , Air Marshal Richard Williams , and the Director of Personnel Services , Group Captain Joe Hewitt , also fought the proposal . The Chief of the Air Staff , Air Chief Marshal Sir Charles Burnett , a Royal Air Force commander who appreciated how the Women 's Auxiliary Air Force ( WAAF ) had proved itself during the Battle of Britain in 1940 , supported its establishment but lost some interest after his preferred choice as Director , his daughter Sybil @-@ Jean , a serving WAAF officer , was ruled out . The Federal government decreed that WAAAF staff would be paid two @-@ thirds of what a male doing the equivalent trade received , while their right of appeal in disciplinary matters and the deference shown to their rank was more comparable to that of " uniformed civilians " than to servicemen . Women were at first enrolled for renewable twelve @-@ month periods rather than enlisted as permanent staff ; only in 1943 did the WAAAF become part of the Permanent Air Force .
Stevenson considered housing , uniforms , and recruit training as her first priorities after taking up her appointment . She said that on arriving at No. 1 WAAAF Depot in Malvern , Victoria , she was " shattered at the prison @-@ like atmosphere of the place " . She drew on her retail experience to both organise the WAAAF and design its uniform . Stevenson was promoted to wing officer on 1 October 1941 , and group officer on 1 April 1942 , which was to be the highest rank attained by a serving WAAAF member . She took an active interest in recruitment , her liberal social outlook evinced by her determination that single women with children should not be barred from entry to the WAAAF . In order to establish high standards , Stevenson personally interviewed all WAAAF officer trainees and briefed as many of her officers as was possible before they were posted to a new job . She also worked to maintain the morale of personnel , encouraging officers to attend group leadership courses and organise leisure and sporting activities for their staff . Colonel Sybil Irving , the head of the Australian Women 's Army Service ( AWAS ) , who observed first hand the WAAAF 's training methods before large @-@ scale AWAS recruitment commenced , later declared that Stevenson " did the most pertinent pioneering work " in gaining acceptance for women in the armed forces . For her part , Stevenson considered the role of Director " a difficult job and often a lonely one " .
= = = Later service = = =
Early in 1943 a policy change was mooted to remove female officers from the technical musterings they had so far filled in the WAAAF , and substitute male officers in these roles . In opposing this , Stevenson went around the new Air Member for Personnel , Air Commodore Frank Lukis , and wrote directly to the Deputy Chief of the Air Staff , Air Commodore John McCauley . She told McCauley , " I contend that it is a waste of money and training to take women cipher officers , women from Signals ( S4 ) and casualty ... when they have learnt their work and substitute these women by men who have to learn the job " , and recommended that he direct the Air Member for Personnel to ensure that female officers continued to be employed in technical positions , and not simply for administration and welfare . McCauley agreed with Stevenson but Lukis appealed to the Chief of the Air Staff , Air Vice Marshal George Jones . Jones backed Lukis ' authority , and the latter sent a " stinging rebuke " to Stevenson , who was forced to apologize . In the event , women officers continued to be employed in technical positions as the WAAAF expanded over the next two years , peaking in strength at 18 @,@ 667 members in October 1944 . By the end of the war a total of 27 @,@ 000 women had served in the WAAAF , comprising some thirty @-@ one per cent of Air Force ground staff and filling sixty @-@ one trades , all previously occupied by men .
Stevenson continued to lead the WAAAF following the cessation of hostilities , retiring on medical grounds on 22 March 1946 . Suffering reduced muscle function in her left arm and pain on the left side of her face and neck , she was diagnosed with brachial neuritis , traced to typhus , tetanus and smallpox injections received the previous May in preparation for a proposed visit to Manila that never eventuated . In her last annual address to the WAAAF as its Director , Stevenson encouraged its members to make use of their service experience when they returned to civilian life :
These are the things we shall miss — the comradeship , the knowledge of a common aim , the feeling that one is not alone — they all make life in the WAAAF very different from life in the outside world ... We must find a common aim — not of winning a war and working to free our prisoners of war — but winning something for our district from an unenlightened council or a disinterested public ...
Presented with a jewelled brooch as a farewell gift by her fellow officers , Stevenson asked that its value instead be put towards a scholarship for an ex @-@ WAAAF member to study social work at the University of Sydney . The WAAAF itself , the first and largest of Australia 's wartime women 's services , was disbanded on 30 September 1946 . It was succeeded in 1950 by a new organisation with a separate charter to the RAAF , the Women 's Royal Australian Air Force ( WRAAF ) . WRAAF members achieved a pay scale equal to the male service in 1972 , and five years later were integrated with the RAAF .
= = Post @-@ war work and legacy = =
Following her discharge from the WAAAF , Stevenson resumed her career as a senior executive with Berlei , and remained with the company until her retirement in 1960 . Parallel to her work at Berlei , she was a trustee of the Services Canteens Trust Fund in Melbourne , maintaining her links with the organisation for the next forty years . A founding patron of the Council of Ex @-@ Servicewomen 's Associations , Stevenson was appointed a Member of the Order of the British Empire in the 1960 Queen 's Birthday Honours for her welfare work on behalf of female veterans . She helped set up the Scholarship Trust Fund for Civilian Widows ' Children in 1963 , and was a research officer with the New South Wales Council on the Ageing ( COTA ) from 1969 to 1978 . In 1975 , Stevenson was involved in establishing the Kings Cross Community Aid and Information Service , serving for a time as President and as a member of the Management Committee until 1987 .
Stevenson founded the Carers Association of New South Wales , and became its first President , in 1980 . While serving with COTA in 1974 , she had prepared a report titled " Dedication " concerning the levels of assistance given to the elderly by their family and friends . This led to her forming in 1976 a subcommittee of COTA made up of carers , from which she later created the Carers Association as an independent organisation . As President of the association , Stevenson lobbied for the establishment of a Carers Pension in New South Wales , which was legislated in 1985 . She is commemorated at the Carers Association ( now Carers NSW ) by the Clare Stevenson Memorial Lectures .
In 1984 Stevenson , together with Honor Darling , published The WAAAF Book , a collection of reminiscences by former members of the service . Stevenson was appointed a Member of the Order of Australia in the 1988 Australia Day Honours for her services to the community and her welfare work with veterans . Her hobbies included reading , classical music and , in her younger days , surfing . Unmarried , Clare Stevenson died in Mona Vale on 22 October 1988 , leaving her body to the University of Sydney .
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= Painted turtle =
The painted turtle ( Chrysemys picta ) is the most widespread native turtle of North America . It lives in slow @-@ moving fresh waters , from southern Canada to Louisiana and northern Mexico , and from the Atlantic to the Pacific . The turtle is the only species of the genus Chrysemys , which is part of the pond turtle family Emydidae . Fossils show that the painted turtle existed 15 million years ago . Four regionally based subspecies ( the eastern , midland , southern , and western ) evolved during the last ice age .
The adult painted turtle female is 10 – 25 cm ( 4 – 10 in ) long ; the male is smaller . The turtle 's top shell is dark and smooth , without a ridge . Its skin is olive to black with red , orange , or yellow stripes on its extremities . The subspecies can be distinguished by their shells : the eastern has straight @-@ aligned top shell segments ; the midland has a large gray mark on the bottom shell ; the southern has a red line on the top shell ; the western has a red pattern on the bottom shell .
The turtle eats aquatic vegetation , algae , and small water creatures including insects , crustaceans , and fish . Although they are frequently consumed as eggs or hatchlings by rodents , canines , and snakes , the adult turtles ' hard shells protect them from most predators . Reliant on warmth from its surroundings , the painted turtle is active only during the day when it basks for hours on logs or rocks . During winter , the turtle hibernates , usually in the mud at the bottom of water bodies . The turtles mate in spring and autumn . Females dig nests on land and lay eggs between late spring and mid @-@ summer . Hatched turtles grow until sexual maturity : 2 – 9 years for males , 6 – 16 for females .
In the traditional tales of Algonquian tribes , the colorful turtle played the part of a trickster . In modern times , four U.S. states have named the painted turtle their official reptile . While habitat loss and road killings have reduced the turtle 's population , its ability to live in human @-@ disturbed settings has helped it remain the most abundant turtle in North America . Adults in the wild can live for more than 55 years .
= = Description = =
The painted turtle 's shell is 10 – 25 cm ( 4 – 10 in ) long , oval , smooth with little grooves where the large scale @-@ like plates overlap , and flat @-@ bottomed . The color of the top shell ( carapace ) varies from olive to black . Darker specimens are more common where the bottom of the water body is darker . The bottom shell ( plastron ) is yellow , sometimes red , sometimes with dark markings in the center . Similar to the top shell , the turtle 's skin is olive to black , but with red and yellow stripes on its neck , legs , and tail . As with other pond turtles , such as the bog turtle , the painted turtle 's feet are webbed to aid swimming .
The head of the turtle is distinctive . The face has only yellow stripes , with a large yellow spot and streak behind each eye , and on the chin two wide yellow stripes that meet at the tip of the jaw . The turtle 's upper jaw is shaped into an inverted " V " ( philtrum ) , with a downward @-@ facing , tooth @-@ like projection on each side .
The hatchling has a proportionally larger head , eyes , and tail , and a more circular shell than the adult . The adult female is generally longer than the male , 10 – 25 cm ( 4 – 10 in ) versus 7 – 15 cm ( 3 – 6 in ) . For a given length , the female has a higher ( more rounded , less flat ) top shell . The female weighs around 500 g ( 18 oz ) on average , against the males ' average adult weight of roughly 300 g ( 11 oz ) . The female 's greater body volume supports her egg @-@ production . The male has longer foreclaws and a longer , thicker tail , with the anus ( cloaca ) located further out on the tail .
= = = Subspecies = = =
Although the subspecies of painted turtle intergrade ( blend together ) at range boundaries they are distinct within the hearts of their ranges .
The male eastern painted turtle ( C. p. picta ) is 13 – 17 cm ( 5 – 7 in ) long , while the female is 14 – 17 cm ( 6 – 7 in ) . The upper shell is olive green to black and may possess a pale stripe down the middle and red markings on the periphery . The segments ( scutes ) of the top shell have pale leading edges and occur in straight rows across the back , unlike all other North American turtles , including the other three subspecies of painted turtle , which have alternating segments . The bottom shell is plain yellow or lightly spotted . Sometimes as few as one dark grey spot near the lower center of the shell .
The midland painted turtle ( C. p. marginata ) is 10 – 25 cm ( 4 – 10 in ) long . The centrally located midland is the hardest to distinguish from the other three subspecies . Its bottom shell has a characteristic symmetrical dark shadow in the center which varies in size and prominence .
The southern painted turtle ( C. p. dorsalis ) , the smallest subspecies , is 10 – 14 cm ( 4 – 6 in ) long . Its top stripe is a prominent red , and its bottom shell is tan and spotless or nearly so .
The largest subspecies is the western painted turtle ( C. p. bellii ) , which grows up to 26 @.@ 6 cm ( 10 in ) long . Its top shell has a mesh @-@ like pattern of light lines , and the top stripe present in other subspecies is missing or faint . Its bottom shell has a large colored splotch that spreads to the edges ( further than the midland ) and often has red hues .
= = = Similar species = = =
The painted turtle has a very similar appearance to the red @-@ eared slider ( the most common pet turtle ) and the two are often confused . The painted turtle can be distinguished because it is flatter than the slider . Also , the slider has a prominent red marking on the side of its head ( the " ear " ) and a spotted bottom shell , both features missing in the painted turtle .
= = Ecology = =
= = = Diet = = =
The painted turtle hunts along water bottoms . It quickly juts its head into and out of vegetation to stir potential victims out into the open water , where they are pursued . The turtle holds large prey in its mouth and tears the prey apart with its forefeet . It also consumes plants and skims the surface of the water with its mouth open to catch small particles of food .
Although all subspecies of painted turtle eat both plants and animals , their specific diets vary .
The eastern painted turtle 's diet is the least studied . It prefers to eat in the water , but has been observed eating on land . The fish it consumes are typically dead or injured .
The midland painted turtle eats mostly aquatic insects and both vascular and non @-@ vascular plants .
The southern painted turtle 's diet changes with age . Juveniles ' diet consists of 13 % vegetation , while the adults eat 88 % vegetation . This perhaps shows that the turtle prefers small larvae and other prey , but can only obtain significant amounts while young . The reversal of feeding habits with age has also been seen in the false map turtle , which inhabits some of the same range . The most common plants eaten by adult southern painted turtles are duckweed and algae , and the most common prey items are dragonfly larvae and crayfish .
The western painted turtle 's consumption of plants and animals changes seasonally . In early summer , 60 % of its diet comprises insects . In late summer , 55 % includes plants . Of note , the western painted turtle aids in the dispersal of white water @-@ lily seeds . The turtle consumes the hard @-@ coated seeds , which remain viable after passing through the turtle , and disperses them through its feces .
= = = Predators = = =
Painted turtles are most vulnerable to predators when young . Nests are frequently ransacked and the eggs eaten by garter snakes , crows , chipmunks , thirteen @-@ lined ground and gray squirrels , skunks , groundhogs , raccoons , badgers , gray and red fox , and humans . The small and sometimes bite @-@ size , numerous hatchlings fall prey to water bugs , bass , catfish , bullfrogs , snapping turtles , three types of snakes ( copperheads , racers and water snakes ) , herons , rice rats , weasels , muskrats , minks , and raccoons . As adults , the turtles ' armored shells protect them from many potential predators , but they still occasionally fall prey to alligators , ospreys , crows , red @-@ shouldered hawks , bald eagles , and especially raccoons .
Painted turtles defend themselves by kicking , scratching , biting , or urinating . In contrast to land tortoises , painted turtles can right themselves if they are flipped upside down .
= = Life cycle = =
= = = Mating = = =
The painted turtles mate in spring and fall in waters of 10 – 25 ° C ( 50 – 77 ° F ) . Males start producing sperm in early spring , when they can bask to an internal temperature of 17 ° C ( 63 ° F ) . Females begin their reproductive cycles in mid @-@ summer , and ovulate the following spring .
Courtship begins when a male follows a female until he meets her face @-@ to @-@ face . He then strokes her face and neck with his elongated front claws , a gesture returned by a receptive female . The pair repeat the process several times , with the male retreating from and then returning to the female until she swims to the bottom , where they copulate . As the male is smaller than the female , he is not dominant . The female stores sperm , to be used for up to three clutches , in her oviducts ; the sperm may remain viable for up to three years . A single clutch may have multiple fathers .
= = = Egg @-@ laying = = =
Nesting is done , by the females only , between late May and mid @-@ July . The nests are vase @-@ shaped and are usually dug in sandy soil , often at sites with southern exposures . Nests are often within 200 m ( 220 yd ) of water , but may be as far away as 600 m ( 660 yd ) , with older females tending to nest further inland . Nest sizes vary depending on female sizes and locations but are about 5 – 11 cm ( 2 – 4 in ) deep . Females may return to the same sites several consecutive years , but if several females make their nests close together , the eggs become more vulnerable to predators .
The female 's optimal body temperature while digging her nest is 29 – 30 ° C ( 84 – 86 ° F ) . If the weather is unsuitable , for instance a too hot night in the Southeast , she delays the process until later at night . Painted turtles in Virginia have been observed waiting three weeks to nest because of a hot drought .
While preparing to dig her nest , the female sometimes exhibits a mysterious preliminary behavior . She presses her throat against the ground of different potential sites , perhaps sensing moisture , warmth , texture , or smell , although her exact motivation is unknown . She may further temporize by excavating several false nests as the wood turtles also do .
The female relies on her hind feet for digging . She may accumulate so much sand and mud on her feet that her mobility is reduced , making her vulnerable to predators . To lighten her labors , she lubricates the area with her bladder water . Once the nest is complete , the female deposits into the hole . The freshly laid eggs are white , elliptical , porous , and flexible . From start to finish , the female 's work may take four hours . Sometimes she remains on land overnight afterwards , before returning to her home water .
Females can lay five clutches per year , but two is a normal average after including the 30 – 50 % of a population 's females that do not produce any clutches in a given year . In some northern populations , no females lay more than one clutch per year . Bigger females tend to lay bigger eggs and more eggs per clutch . Clutch sizes of the subspecies vary , although the differences may reflect different environments , rather than different genetics . The two more northerly subspecies , western and midland , are larger and have more eggs per clutch — 11 @.@ 9 and 7 @.@ 6 , respectively — than the two more southerly subspecies , southern ( 4 @.@ 2 ) and eastern ( 4 @.@ 9 ) . Within subspecies , also , the more northerly females lay larger clutches .
= = = Growth = = =
Incubation lasts 72 – 80 days in the wild and for a similar period in artificial conditions . In August and September , the young turtle breaks out from its egg , using a special projection of its jaw called the egg tooth . Not all offspring leave the nest immediately , though . Hatchlings north of a line from Nebraska to northern Illinois to New Jersey typically arrange themselves symmetrically in the nest and overwinter to emerge the following spring .
The hatchling 's ability to survive winter in the nest has allowed the painted turtle to extend its range further north than any other American turtle . The painted turtle is genetically adapted to survive extended periods of subfreezing temperatures with blood that can remain supercooled and skin that resists penetration from ice crystals in the surrounding ground . The hardest freezes nevertheless kill many hatchlings .
Immediately after hatching , turtles are dependent on egg yolk material for sustenance . About a week to a week and a half after emerging from their eggs ( or the following spring if emergence is delayed ) , hatchlings begin feeding to support growth . The young turtles grow rapidly at first , sometimes doubling their size in the first year . Growth slows sharply at sexual maturity and may stop completely . Likely owing to differences of habitat and food by water body , growth rates often differ from population to population in the same area . Among the subspecies , the western painted turtles are the quickest growers .
Females grow faster than males overall , and must be larger to mature sexually . In most populations males reach sexual maturity at 2 – 4 years old , and females at 6 – 10 . Size and age at maturity increase with latitude ; at the northern edge of their range , males reach sexual maturity at 7 – 9 years of age and females at 11 – 16 .
= = Behavior = =
= = = Daily routine and basking = = =
A cold @-@ blooded reptile , the painted turtle regulates its temperature through its environment , notably by basking . All ages bask for warmth , often alongside other species of turtle . Sometimes more than 50 individuals are seen on one log together . Turtles bask on a variety of objects , often logs , but have even been seen basking on top of common loons that were covering eggs .
The turtle starts its day at sunrise , emerging from the water to bask for several hours . Warmed for activity , it returns to the water to forage . After becoming chilled , the turtle re @-@ emerges for one to two more cycles of basking and feeding . At night , the turtle drops to the bottom of its water body or perches on an underwater object and sleeps .
To be active , the turtle must maintain an internal body temperature between 17 – 23 ° C ( 63 – 73 ° F ) . When fighting infection , it manipulates its temperature up to 5 ° C ( 8 ° F ) higher than normal .
= = = Seasonal routine and hibernation = = =
In the spring , when the water reaches 15 – 18 ° C ( 59 – 64 ° F ) , the turtle begins actively foraging . However , if the water temperature exceeds 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) , the turtle will not feed . In fall , the turtle stops foraging when temperatures drop below the spring set @-@ point .
During the winter , the turtle hibernates . In the north , the inactive season may be as long as from October to March , while the southernmost populations may not hibernate at all . While hibernating , the body temperature of the painted turtle averages 6 ° C ( 43 ° F ) . Periods of warm weather bring the turtle out of hibernation , and even in the north , individuals have been seen basking in February .
The painted turtle hibernates by burying itself , either on the bottom of a body of water , near water in the shore @-@ bank or the burrow of a muskrat , or in woods or pastures . When hibernating underwater , the turtle prefers shallow depths , no more than 2 m ( 7 ft ) . Within the mud , it may dig down an additional 1 m ( 3 ft ) . In this state , the turtle does not breathe , although if surroundings allow , it may get some oxygen through its skin . The species is one of the best @-@ studied vertebrates able to survive long periods without oxygen . Adaptations of its blood chemistry , brain , heart , and particularly its shell allow the turtle to survive extreme lactic acid buildup while oxygen @-@ deprived .
= = = Movement = = =
Searching for water , food , or mates , the painted turtles travel up to several kilometers at a time . During summer , in response to heat and water @-@ clogging vegetation , the turtles may vacate shallow marshes for more permanent waters . Short overland migrations may involve hundreds of turtles together . If heat and drought are prolonged , the turtles will bury themselves and , in extreme cases , die .
Foraging turtles frequently cross lakes or travel linearly down creeks . Daily crossings of large ponds have been observed . Tag and release studies show that sex also drives turtle movement . Males travel the most , up to 26 km ( 16 mi ) , between captures ; females the second most , up to 8 km ( 5 mi ) , between captures ; and juveniles the least , less than 2 km ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) , between captures . Males move the most and are most likely to change wetlands because they seek mates .
The painted turtles , through visual recognition , have homing capabilities . Many individuals can return to their collection points after being released elsewhere , trips that may require them to traverse land . One experiment placed 98 turtles varying several @-@ kilometer distances from their home wetland ; 41 returned . When living in a single large body of water , the painted turtles can home from up to 6 km ( 4 mi ) away . Females may use homing to help locate suitable nesting sites .
= = Distribution = =
= = = Range = = =
The most widespread North American turtle , the painted turtle is the only turtle whose native range extends from the Atlantic to the Pacific . It is native to eight of Canada 's ten provinces , forty @-@ five of the fifty United States , and one of Mexico 's thirty @-@ one states . On the East Coast , it lives from the Canadian Maritimes to the U.S. state of Georgia . On the West Coast , it lives in British Columbia , Washington , and Oregon and offshore on southeast Vancouver Island . The northernmost American turtle , its range includes much of southern Canada . To the south , its range reaches the U.S. Gulf Coast in Louisiana and Alabama . In the southwestern United States there are only dispersed populations . It is found in one river in extreme northern Mexico . It is absent in a part of southwestern Virginia and the adjacent states as well as in north @-@ central Alabama .
The borders between the four subspecies are not sharp , because the subspecies interbreed . Many studies have been performed in the border regions to assess the intermediate turtles , usually by comparing the anatomical features of hybrids that result from intergradation of the classical subspecies . Despite the imprecision , the subspecies are assigned nominal ranges .
= = = = Eastern painted turtle = = = =
The eastern painted turtle ranges from southeastern Canada to Georgia with a western boundary at approximately the Appalachians . At its northern extremes , the turtle tends to be restricted to the warmer areas closer to the Atlantic Ocean . It is uncommon in far north New Hampshire and in Maine is common only in a strip about 50 miles from the coast . In Canada , it lives in New Brunswick and Nova Scotia but not in Quebec or Prince Edward Island . To the south it is not found in the coastal lowlands of southern North Carolina , South Carolina , or Georgia , or in southern Georgia in general or at all in Florida .
The eastern subspecies 's range extends slightly into east central Alabama , where it intergrades with the southern subspecies . In the northeast , there is extensive mixing with the midland subspecies , and some writers have called these turtles a " hybrid swarm " . In the southeast , the border between the eastern and midland is more sharp as mountain chains separate the subspecies to different drainage basins .
= = = = Midland painted turtle = = = =
The midland painted turtle lives from southern Ontario and Quebec , through the eastern U.S. Midwest states , to Kentucky , Tennessee and northwestern Alabama , where it intergrades with the southern painted turtle . It also is found eastward through West Virginia , western Maryland and Pennsylvania . The midland painted turtle appears to be moving east , especially in Pennsylvania . To the northeast it is found in western New York and much of Vermont , and it intergrades extensively with the eastern subspecies .
= = = = Southern painted turtle = = = =
The southern painted turtle ranges from extreme southern Illinois and Missouri , roughly along the Mississippi River Valley , to the south . In Arkansas , it branches out to the west towards Texas , where it is found in the far northeast part of that state ( Caddo Lake region ) as well as extreme southeastern Oklahoma ( McCurtain County ) . It is found in much of Louisiana , where it reaches the Gulf of Mexico ( in fresh water ) . Eastward it is found in western Tennessee , northern Mississippi and much of Alabama , including the Gulf Coast city of Mobile An isolated population in central Texas has been reported but is now believed to be non @-@ native .
= = = = Western painted turtle = = = =
The western painted turtle 's northern range includes southern parts of western Canada from Ontario through Manitoba , Saskatchewan , Alberta and British Columbia . In Ontario , the western subspecies is found north of Minnesota and directly north of Lake Superior , but there is a 130 km ( 80 mi ) gap to the east of Lake Superior ( in the area of harshest winter climate ) where no painted turtles of any subspecies occur . Thus Ontario 's western subspecies does not intergrade with the midland painted turtle of southeastern Ontario . In Manitoba , the turtle is numerous and ranges north to Lake Manitoba and the lower part of Lake Winnipeg . The turtle is also common in south Saskatchewan , but in Alberta , there may only be 100 individuals , all found very near the U.S. border , mostly in the southeast .
In British Columbia , populations exist in the interior in the vicinity of the Kootenai , Columbia , Okanagan , and Thompson river valleys . At the coast , turtles occur near the mouth of the Fraser and a bit further north , as well as the bottom of Vancouver Island , and some other nearby islands . Within British Columbia , the turtle 's range is not continuous and can better be understood as northward extensions of the range from the United States . High mountains present barriers to east @-@ west movement of the turtles within the province or from Alberta . Some literature has shown isolated populations much further north in British Columbia and Alberta , but these were probably pet @-@ releases .
In the United States , the western subspecies forms a wide intergrade area with the midland subspecies covering much of Illinois as well as a strip of Wisconsin along Lake Michigan and part of the Upper Peninsula of Michigan ( UP ) . Further west , the rest of Illinois , Wisconsin and the UP are part of the range proper , as are all of Minnesota and Iowa , as well as all of Missouri except a narrow strip in the south . All of North Dakota is within range , all of South Dakota except a very small area in the west , and all of Nebraska . Almost all of Kansas is in range ; the border of that state with Oklahoma is roughly the species range border , but the turtle is found in three counties of north central Oklahoma .
To the northwest , almost all of Montana is in range . Only a narrow strip in the west , along most of the Idaho border ( which is at the Continental Divide ) lacks turtles . Wyoming is almost entirely out of range ; only the lower elevation areas near the eastern and northern borders have painted turtles . In Idaho , the turtles are found throughout the far north ( upper half of the Idaho Panhandle ) . Recently , separate Idaho populations have been observed in the southwest ( near the Payette and Boise rivers ) and the southeast ( near St. Anthony ) . In Washington state , turtles are common throughout the state within lower elevation river valleys . In Oregon , the turtle is native to the northern part of the state throughout the Columbia River Valley as well as the Willamette River Valley north of Salem .
To the southwest , the painted turtle 's range is fragmented . In Colorado , while range is continuous in the eastern , prairie , half of the state , it is absent in most of the western , mountainous , part of the state . However , the turtle is confirmed present in the lower elevation southwest part of the state ( Archuleta and La Plata counties ) , where a population ranges into northern New Mexico in the San Juan River basin . There are also some unconfirmed sightings in parts of the far west of the state ( e.g. Mesa County ) . In New Mexico , the main distribution follows the Rio Grande and the Pecos River , two waterways that run in a north @-@ south direction through the state . Within the aforementioned rivers , it is also found in the northern part of Far West Texas . In Utah , the painted turtle lives in an area to the south ( Kane County ) in streams draining into the Colorado River , although it is disputed if they are native . In Arizona , the painted turtle is native to an area in the east , Lyman Lake . The painted turtle is not native to Nevada or California .
In Mexico , painted turtles have been found about 50 miles south of New Mexico near Galeana in the state of Chihuahua . There , two expeditions found the turtles in the Rio Santa Maria which is in a closed basin .
= = = = Human @-@ introduced range = = = =
Pet releases are starting to establish the painted turtle outside its native range . In California , it is an invasive species that endangers the local western pond turtle , although competition from similarly released red @-@ eared sliders is a greater threat . It has also been introduced into waterways near Phoenix , Arizona , and Miami , Florida , and to Germany , Indonesia , the Philippines , and Spain .
= = = Habitat = = =
To thrive , painted turtles need fresh waters with soft bottoms , basking sites , and aquatic vegetation . They find their homes in shallow waters with slow @-@ moving currents , such as creeks , marshes , ponds , and the shores of lakes . The subspecies have evolved different habitat preferences .
The eastern painted turtle is very aquatic , leaving the immediate vicinity of its water body only when forced by drought to migrate . Along the Atlantic , painted turtles have appeared in brackish waters .
The midland and southern painted turtles seek especially quiet waters , usually shores and coves . They favor shallows that contain dense vegetation and have an unusual toleration of pollution .
The western painted turtle lives in streams and lakes , similar to the other painted turtles , but also inhabits pasture ponds and roadside pools . It is found as high as 1 @,@ 800 m ( 5 @,@ 900 ft ) .
= = = Population features = = =
Within much of its range , the painted turtle is the most abundant turtle species . Population densities range from 10 to 840 turtles per hectare ( 2 @.@ 5 acres ) of water surface . Warmer climates produce higher relative densities among populations , and habitat desirability also influences density . Rivers and large lakes have lower densities because only the shore is desirable habitat ; the central , deep waters skew the surface @-@ based estimates . Also , lake and river turtles have to make longer linear trips to access equivalent amounts of foraging space .
Adults outnumber juveniles in most populations , but gauging the ratios is difficult because juveniles are harder to catch ; with current sampling methods , estimates of age distribution vary widely . Annual survival rate of painted turtles increases with age . The probability of a painted turtle surviving from the egg to its first birthday is only 19 % . For females , the annual survival rate rises to 45 % for juveniles and 95 % for adults . The male survival rates follow a similar pattern , but are lower overall than females , creating an average male age lower than that of the female . Natural disasters can confound age distributions . For instance , a hurricane can destroy many nests in a region , resulting in fewer hatchlings the next year . Age distributions may also be skewed by migrations of adults .
To understand painted turtle adult age distributions , researchers require reliable methods . Turtles younger than four years ( up to 12 years in some populations ) can be aged based on " growth rings " in their shells . For older turtles , some attempts have been made to determine age based on size and shape of their shells or legs using mathematical models , but this method is more uncertain . The most reliable method to study the long @-@ lived turtles is to capture them , permanently mark their shells by notching with a drill , release the turtles , and then recapture them in later years . The longest @-@ running study , in Michigan , has shown that painted turtles can live more than 55 years .
Adult sex ratios of painted turtle populations average around 1 : 1 . Many populations are slightly male @-@ heavy , but some are strongly female @-@ imbalanced ; one population in Ontario has a female to male ratio of 4 : 1 . Hatchling sex ratio varies based on egg temperature . During the middle third of incubation , temperatures of 23 – 27 ° C ( 73 – 81 ° F ) produce males , and anything above or below that , females . It does not appear that females choose nesting sites to influence the sex of the hatchlings ; within a population , nests will vary sufficiently to give both male and female @-@ heavy broods .
= = Taxonomy and evolution = =
The painted turtle ( C. picta ) is the only species in the genus Chrysemys . The parent family for Chrysemys is Emydidae : the pond turtles . Emydidae is split into two sub families ; Chrysemys is part of the Deirochelyinae ( Western Hemisphere ) branch . The four subspecies of the painted turtle are the eastern ( C. p. picta ) , midland ( C. p. marginata ) , southern ( C. p. dorsalis ) , and western ( C. p. bellii ) .
The painted turtle 's generic name is derived from the Ancient Greek words for " gold " ( chryso ) and " freshwater tortoise " ( emys ) ; the species name originates from the Latin for " colored " ( pictus ) . The subspecies name , marginata , derives from the Latin for " border " and refers to the red markings on the outer ( marginal ) part of the upper shell ; dorsalis is from the Latin for " back " , referring to the prominent dorsal stripe ; and bellii honors zoologist Thomas Bell , a collaborator of Charles Darwin . An alternate East Coast common name for the painted turtle is " skilpot " , from the Dutch for turtle , schildpad .
= = = Classification = = =
Originally described in 1783 by Johann Gottlob Schneider as Testudo picta , the painted turtle was called Chrysemys picta first by John Edward Gray in 1855 . The four subspecies were then recognized : the eastern by Schneider in 1783 , the western by Gray in 1831 , and the midland and southern by Louis Agassiz in 1857 .
Until the 1930s many of the subspecies of the painted turtle were labeled by biologists as full species within Chrysemys , but this varied by the researcher . The painted turtles in the border region between the western and midland subspecies were sometimes considered a full species , treleasei . In 1931 , Bishop and Schmidt defined the current " four in one " taxonomy of species and subspecies . Based on comparative measurements of turtles from throughout the range , they subordinated species to subspecies and eliminated treleasei .
Since at least 1958 , the subspecies were thought to have evolved in response to geographic isolation during the last ice age , 100 @,@ 000 to 11 @,@ 000 years ago . At that time painted turtles were divided into three different populations : eastern painted turtles along the southeastern Atlantic coast ; southern painted turtles around the southern Mississippi River ; and western painted turtles in the southwestern United States . The populations were not completely isolated for sufficiently long , hence wholly different species never evolved . When the glaciers retreated , about 11 @,@ 000 years ago , all three subspecies moved north . The western and southern subspecies met in Missouri and hybridized to produce the midland painted turtle , which then moved east and north through the Ohio and Tennessee river basins .
Biologists have long debated the genera of closely related subfamily @-@ mates Chrysemys , Pseudemys ( cooters ) , and Trachemys ( sliders ) . After 1952 , some combined Pseudemys and Chrysemys because of similar appearance . In 1964 , based on measurements of the skull and feet , Samuel B. McDowell proposed all three genera be merged into one . However , further measurements , in 1967 , contradicted this taxonomic arrangement . Also in 1967 , J. Alan Holman , a paleontologist and herpetologist , pointed out that , although the three turtles were often found together in nature and had similar mating patterns , they did not crossbreed . In the 1980s , studies of turtles ' cell structures , biochemistries , and parasites further indicated that Chrysemys , Pseudemys , and Trachemys should remain in separate genera .
David E. Starkey and collaborators advanced a new view of the subspecies in 2003 . Based on a study of the mitochondrial DNA , they rejected the glacial development theory and argued that the southern painted turtle should be elevated to a separate species , C. dorsalis , while the other subspecies should be collapsed into one and not differentiated . However , this proposition was largely unrecognized because successful breeding between all subspecies was documented wherever they overlapped . Nevertheless , in 2010 , the IUCN recognized both C. dorsalis and C. p. dorsalis as valid names for the southern painted turtle .
= = = Fossils = = =
Although its evolutionary history — what the forerunner to the species was and how the close relatives branched off — is not well understood , the painted turtle is common in the fossil record . The oldest samples , found in Nebraska , date to about 15 million years ago . Fossils from 15 million to about 5 million years ago are restricted to the Nebraska @-@ Kansas area , but more recent fossils are gradually more widely distributed . Fossils newer than 300 @,@ 000 years old are found in almost all the United States and southern Canada .
= = = DNA = = =
The turtle 's karyotype ( nuclear DNA , rather than mitochondrial DNA ) consists of 50 chromosomes , the same number as the rest of its subfamily @-@ mates and the most common number for Emydidae turtles in general . Less well @-@ related turtles have from 26 to 66 chromosomes . Little systematic study of variations of the painted turtle 's karotype among populations has been done . ( However , in 1967 , research on protein structure of offshore island populations in New England , showed differences from mainland turtles . )
Comparison of subspecies chromosomal DNA has been discussed , to help address the debate over Starkey 's proposed taxonomy , but as of 2009 had not been reported . Interestingly , the complete sequencing of the genetic code for the painted turtle was at a " draft assembled " state in 2010 . The turtle was one of two reptiles chosen to be first sequenced .
= = Interaction with humans = =
= = = Conservation = = =
The decline in painted turtle populations is not a simple matter of dramatic range reduction , like that of the American bison . Instead the turtle is classified as G5 ( demonstrably widespread ) in its Natural Heritage Global Rank , and the IUCN rates it as a species of least concern . The painted turtle 's high reproduction rate and its ability to survive in polluted wetlands and artificially made ponds have allowed it to maintain its range , but the post @-@ Columbus settlement of North America has reduced its numbers .
Only within the Pacific Northwest is the turtle 's range eroding . Even there , in Washington , the painted turtle is designated S5 ( demonstrably widespread ) . However , in Oregon , the painted turtle is designated S2 ( imperiled ) , and in British Columbia , the turtle 's populations in the Coast and Interior regions are labeled " endangered " and " of special concern " , respectively .
Much is written about the different factors that threaten the painted turtle , but they are unquantified , with only inferences of relative importance . A primary threat category is habitat loss in various forms . Related to water habitat , there is drying of wetlands , clearing of aquatic logs or rocks ( basking sites ) , and clearing of shoreline vegetation , which allows more predator access or increased human foot traffic . Related to nesting habitat , urbanization or planting can remove needed sunny soils .
Another significant human impact is roadkill — dead turtles , especially females , are commonly seen on summer roads . In addition to direct killing , roads genetically isolate some populations . Localities have tried to limit roadkill by constructing underpasses , highway barriers , and crossing signs . Oregon has introduced public education on turtle awareness , safe swerving , and safely assisting turtles across the road .
In the West , human @-@ introduced bass , bullfrogs , and especially snapping turtles , have increased the predation of hatchlings . Outside the Southeast , where sliders are native , released pet red @-@ eared slider turtles increasingly compete with painted turtles . In cities , increased urban predators ( raccoons , canines , and felines ) may impact painted turtles by eating their eggs .
Other factors of concern for the painted turtles include over @-@ collection from the wild , released pets introducing diseases or reducing genetic variability , pollution , boating traffic , angler 's hooks ( the turtles are noteworthy bait @-@ thieves ) , wanton shooting , and crushing by agricultural machines or golf course lawnmowers or all @-@ terrain vehicles . Gervais and colleagues note that research itself impacts the populations and that much funded turtle trapping work has not been published . They advocate discriminating more on what studies are done , thereby putting fewer turtles into scientists ' traps . Global warming represents an uncharacterized future threat .
= = = Pets and other uses = = =
According to a trade data study , painted turtles were the second most popular pet turtles after red @-@ eared sliders in the early 1990s . As of 2010 , most U.S. states allow , but discourage , painted turtle pets , although Oregon forbids keeping them as pets , and Indiana prohibits their sale . U.S. federal law prohibits sale or transport of any turtle less than 10 cm ( 4 in ) , to limit human contact to salmonella . However , a loophole for scientific samples allows some small turtles to be sold , and illegal trafficking also occurs .
Painted turtle pet @-@ keeping requirements are similar to those of the red @-@ eared slider . Keepers are urged to provide them with adequate space and a basking site , and water that is regularly filtered and changed . According to Petco , the animals are described as being somewhat unsuitable for children as they do not enjoy being held . Hobbyists have kept turtles alive for decades .
The painted turtle is sometimes eaten but is not highly regarded as food , as even the largest subspecies , the western painted turtle , is inconveniently small and larger turtles are available . Schools frequently dissect painted turtles , which are sold by biological supply companies ; specimens often come from the wild but may be captive @-@ bred . In the Midwest , turtle racing is popular at summer fairs .
= = = Capture = = =
Commercial harvesting of painted turtles in the wild is controversial and , increasingly , restricted . Wisconsin formerly had virtually unrestricted trapping of painted turtles but based on qualitative observations forbade all commercial harvesting in 1997 . Neighboring Minnesota , where trappers collected more than 300 @,@ 000 painted turtles during the 1990s , commissioned a study of painted turtle harvesting . Scientists found that harvested lakes averaged half the painted turtle density of off @-@ limit lakes , and population modeling suggested that unrestricted harvests could produce a large decline in turtle populations . In response , Minnesota forbade new harvesters in 2002 and limited trap numbers . Although harvesting continued , subsequent takes averaged half those of the 1990s . As of 2009 , painted turtles faced virtually unlimited harvesting in Arkansas , Iowa , Missouri , Ohio , and Oklahoma ; since then , Missouri has prohibited their harvesting .
Individuals who trap painted turtles typically do so to earn additional income , selling a few thousand a year at $ 1 – 2 each . Many trappers have been involved in the trade for generations , and value it as a family activity . Some harvesters disagree with limiting the catch , saying the populations are not dropping .
Many U.S. state fish and game departments allow non @-@ commercial taking of painted turtles under a creel limit , and require a fishing ( sometimes hunting ) license ; others completely forbid the recreational capture of painted turtles . Trapping is not allowed in Oregon , where western painted turtle populations are in decline , and in Missouri , where there are populations of both southern and western subspecies . In Canada , Ontario protects both subspecies present , the midland and western , and British Columbia protects its dwindling western painted turtles .
Capture methods are also regulated by locality . Typically trappers use either floating " basking traps " or partially submerged , baited " hoop traps " . Trapper opinions , commercial records , and scientific studies show that basking traps are more effective for collecting painted turtles , while the hoop traps work better for collecting " meat turtles " ( snapping turtles and soft @-@ shell turtles ) . Nets , hand capture , and fishing with set lines are generally legal , but shooting , chemicals , and explosives are forbidden .
= = = Culture = = =
Indian tribes were familiar with the painted turtle — young braves were trained to recognize its splashing into water as an alarm — and incorporated it in folklore . A Potawatomi myth describes how the talking turtles , " Painted Turtle " and allies " Snapping Turtle " and " Box Turtle " , outwit the village women . Painted Turtle is the star of the legend and uses his distinctive markings to trick a woman into holding him so he can bite her . An Illini myth recounts how Painted Turtle put his paint on to entice a chief 's daughter into the water .
As of 2010 , four U.S. states designated the painted turtle as official reptile . Vermont honored the reptile in 1994 , following the suggestion of Cornwall Elementary School students . In 1995 , Michigan followed , based on the recommendation of Niles fifth graders , who discovered the state lacked an official reptile . Illinois citizens , in 2004 , voted to select the painted turtle as their state reptile and the legislature made it official in 2005 . Colorado chose the western painted turtle in 2008 , following the efforts of two succeeding years of Jay Biachi 's fourth grade classes . In New York , the painted turtle narrowly lost ( 5 @,@ 048 to 5 @,@ 005 , versus the common snapping turtle ) a 2006 statewide student election for state reptile .
In the border town of Boissevain , Manitoba , a 10 @,@ 000 lb ( 4 @,@ 500 kg ) western painted turtle , Tommy the Turtle , is a roadside attraction . The statue was built in 1974 to celebrate the Canadian Turtle Derby , a festival including turtle races that ran from 1972 – 2001 .
Another Canadian admirer of the painted turtle is Jon Montgomery , who won the 2010 Olympic gold medal in skeleton ( a form of sled ) racing , while wearing a painted turtle painting on the crown of his helmet , prominently visible when he slid downhill . Montgomery , who also iconically tattoed his chest with a maple @-@ leaf , explained his visual promotion of the turtle , saying that he had assisted one to cross the road . BC Hydro referred to Montgomery 's action when describing its own sponsorship of conservation research for the turtle in British Columbia .
Several private entities use the painted turtle as a symbol . Wayne State University Press operates an imprint " named after the Michigan state reptile " that " publishes books on regional topics of cultural and historical interest " . In California , The Painted Turtle is a camp for ill children , founded by Paul Newman . Painted Turtle Winery of British Columbia trades on the " laid back and casual lifestyle " of the turtle with a " job description to bask in the sun " . Also , there are two Internet companies in Michigan , a guesthouse in British Columbia , and a café in Maine that use the painted turtle commercially .
In children 's books , the painted turtle is a popular subject , with at least seven books published between 2000 and 2010 . " Painted turtle : state reptile of Michigan " is a short song for children .
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= Chen Guangcheng =
Chen Guangcheng ( born 12 November 1971 ) is a Chinese civil rights activist who has worked on human rights issues in rural areas of the People 's Republic of China . Blind from an early age and self @-@ taught in the law , Chen is frequently described as a " barefoot lawyer " who advocates for women 's rights , land rights , and the welfare of the poor . He is best known for accusing people of abuses in official family @-@ planning practices , often involving claims of violence and forced abortions .
In 2005 , Chen gained international recognition for organising a landmark class @-@ action lawsuit against authorities in Linyi , Shandong province , for the excessive enforcement of the one @-@ child policy . As a result of this lawsuit , Chen was placed under house arrest from September 2005 to March 2006 , with a formal arrest in June 2006 . On 24 August 2006 , Chen was sentenced to four years and three months for " damaging property and organising a mob to disturb traffic . " He was released from prison in 2010 after serving his full sentence , but remained under house arrest or " soft detention " at his home in Dongshigu Village . Chen and his wife were reportedly beaten shortly after a human rights group released a video of their home under intense police surveillance in February 2011 .
Chen 's case received sustained international attention , with the U.S. State Department , the British Foreign Secretary , Human Rights Watch , and Amnesty International issuing appeals for his release ; the latter group designated him a prisoner of conscience . Chen is a 2007 laureate of the Ramon Magsaysay Award and in 2006 was named to the Time 100 .
In April 2012 , Chen escaped his house arrest and fled to the U.S. Embassy in Beijing . After negotiations with the Chinese government , he left the embassy for medical treatment in early May 2012 , and it was reported that China would consider allowing him to travel to the United States to study . On 19 May 2012 , Chen , his wife , and his two children were granted U.S. visas and departed Beijing for New York City . In October 2013 , Chen accepted a position with the conservative research group Witherspoon Institute , and a position at the Catholic University of America .
= = Early life and family = =
Chen is the youngest of five brothers of a peasant family from the village of Dongshigu , Yinan County , Shandong Province , approximately 200 kilometres ( 120 mi ) from the city of Jinan . When Chen was about six months old , he lost his sight due to a fever that destroyed his optical nerves . In an interview for the New York Review of Books , Chen said that although his family did not identify with an organized religion , his upbringing was informed by a " traditional belief in virtue that ’ s present in Chinese culture — that might have some Buddhist content , but not necessarily that one believes in Buddhism . " His village was poor , with many families living at a subsistence level . " When I went to school I ’ d be happy if I just got enough to eat , " he recalled .
Chen 's father worked as an instructor at a Communist Party school , earning the equivalent of about $ 60 annually . When Chen was a child , his father would read literary works aloud to him , and reportedly helped impart to his son an appreciation of the values of democracy and freedom . In 1991 , Chen 's father gave him a copy of " The Law Protecting the Disabled , " which elaborated on the legal rights and protections in place for disabled persons in the PRC .
In 1989 , at the age of 18 , Chen began attending school as a grade one student at the Elementary School for the Blind in Linyi city . In 1994 , he enrolled at the Qingdao High School for the Blind , where he studied until 1998 . He had already begun developing an interest in law , and would often ask his brothers to read legal texts to him . He earned a position at the Nanjing University of Traditional Chinese Medicine in 1998 but because his family was poor , they had to borrow $ 340 to cover tuition costs . They still fell short of the required $ 400 and university authorities reportedly had to be pleaded with before allowing Chen to enroll . He studied in Nanjing from 1998 to 2001 , specializing in acupuncture and massage — the only programs available to the blind . Chen also audited legal courses , gaining a sufficient understanding of the law to allow him to aid his fellow villagers when they sought his assistance . After graduation he returned to his home region and found a job as a masseur in the hospital of Yinan County .
Chen met his wife , Yuan Weijing , in 2001 , after listening to a radio talk show . Yuan had called into the show to discuss her difficulties in landing a job after graduating from the foreign language department of Shandong 's Chemistry Institute . Chen , who listened to the program , later contacted Yuan and relayed his own story of hardship as a blind man living on just 400 Yuan per year . Yuan was moved by the exchange , and later that year , she traveled to Chen 's village to meet him . The couple eloped in 2003 . Their son , Chen Kerui , was born later that year . In 2005 they had a second child — a daughter named Chen Kesi — in violation of China 's one @-@ child policy . Yuan , who had been working as an English teacher at the time of the marriage , left her job in 2003 in order to assist her husband in his legal work .
= = Activism = =
Chen first petitioned authorities in 1996 , when he traveled to Beijing to complain about taxes that were incorrectly being levied on his family ( people with disabilities , such as Chen , are supposed to be exempt from taxation and fees ) . The complaint was successful , and Chen began petitioning for other individuals with disabilities . With funding from a British foundation , Chen became an outspoken activist for disability rights within the China Law Society . His reputation as a disability rights advocate was solidified when agreed to advocate for an elderly blind couple whose grandchildren suffered from paralysis . The family had been paying all of the regular taxes and fees , but Chen believed that , under the law , the family should have received government assistance and exemption from taxation . When the case went to court , blind citizens from surrounding counties were in attendance as a show of solidarity . The case was successful , and the outcome became well @-@ known .
In 1997 , the leaders of Chen 's village began implementing a land use plan that gave authorities control over 60 percent of land , which they then rented out at high cost to the villages . The plan , known as the " two @-@ field system , " was a major source of enrichment for the local government . While studying in Nanjing the following year , however , Chen learned that the program was illegal , and he petitioned central authorities in Beijing to end the system , thereby irritating local officials .
In 2000 , Chen returned from his studies in Nanjing to his village of Dongshigu in an effort to confront environmental pollution . A paper mill constructed in 1988 had been dumping toxic wastewater into the Meng river , destroying crops and harming wildlife . The chemicals also reportedly caused skin and digestive problems among villagers living downstream from the mill . Chen organized villagers in his hometown and 78 other villages to petition against the mill . The effort was successful , and resulted in the suspension of the paper mill . In addition , Chen contacted the British embassy in Beijing , informing them of the situation and requesting funding for a well to supply clean water to locals . The British government responded by providing £ 15 @,@ 000 towards a deep water well , irrigation systems and water pipelines .
In March 2004 , more than 300 residents from Chen 's village of Dongshigu filed a petition to the village government demanding that they release the village accounts — which hadn 't been made public for over ten years — and address the issue of illegal land requisitions . When village authorities failed to respond , villagers escalated their appeals to the township , county and municipal governments , still without response . Village authorities then began to publicly threaten villagers . In November 2004 , Chen acted on behalf of villagers to file a lawsuit in the Qi 'nan County Court against the local Public Security Bureau for negligence . The case was accepted , and proceedings began in early 2005 .
In 2005 , Chen spent several months surveying residents of Shandong Province , collecting accounts of forced , late @-@ term abortions and forced sterilization of women who stood in violation of China ’ s one @-@ child policy . His survey was based in Linyi and included surrounding rural suburbs . Chen later recalled that his survey would have been significantly larger in scope were he not limited by a lack of financial resources .
Though Chinese central authorities have sought to curb the coercive enforcement of the one @-@ child policy since 1990 by replacing measures such as forced abortions and sterilizations with a system of financial incentives and fines , Chen found that coercive practices remained widespread , and he documented numerous cases of abuse . One of the women he interviewed in Maxiagou village , 36 @-@ year @-@ old Feng Zhongxia , said that local officials detained and beat her relatives , and indicated they would not be released until she turned herself in and submitted to a forced abortion . She said she was later subjected to forced sterilization . Chen also solicited the help of prominent legal scholar Teng Biao , who conducted his own interviews in Linyi . Teng and Chen later released a report claiming that an estimated 130 @,@ 000 residents in the city had been forced into ' study sessions ' for refusing abortions or violating the one @-@ child policy ; residents would be held for days or weeks in the study sessions , and were allegedly beaten .
In 2005 , Chen filed a class @-@ action lawsuit on behalf of women from Linyi against the city 's family planning staff . And in June , he traveled to Beijing to file the complaint and meet with foreign reporters to publicize the case . Although there had been prior instances of Chinese citizens filing complaints about abuses under the one @-@ child policy , Chen ’ s initiative was the first class @-@ action lawsuit to challenge its implementation .
Although the suit he filed was rejected , the case garnered international media attention . Responding to questions about Chen ’ s allegation , a senior official with the National Population and Family Planning Commission told the Washington Post that the practice of forced abortions and sterilizations was “ definitely illegal , ” and indicated that the complaints were being investigated . “ If the Linyi complaints are true , or even partly true , it 's because local officials do not understand the new demands of the Chinese leadership regarding family planning work , ” said the official . In September 2005 , the Commission announced that several Linyi officials had been detained . But local authorities in Linyi retaliated against Chen , placing him under house arrest in September 2005 and embarking on a campaign to undermine his reputation ; the Linyi officials portrayed him as working for " foreign anti @-@ China forces " , pointing out that he had received foreign funding for his advocacy on behalf of the disabled .
= = Detention and trial = =
On 7 September 2005 , while Chen was in Beijing to publicize his class action lawsuit against the Linyi city family planning staff , he was reportedly abducted by security agents from Linyi and held for 38 hours . Recounting the incident to foreign journalists , Chen said that authorities threatened to levy criminal charges against him for providing state secrets or intelligence to foreign organizations . After Chen refused negotiations with local officials to cease his activism , Linyi authorities placed him under effective house arrest beginning in September 2005 . When he attempted to escape in October , he was beaten .
Xinhua , the news agency of the Chinese government , stated that on 5 February 2006 , Chen instigated others " to damage and smash cars belonging to the Shuanghou Police Station and the town government " as well as attack local government officials . Time reported that witnesses to Chen 's protest disputed the government 's version of events , and his lawyers argued that it was unlikely he could have committed the crimes due to his constant surveillance by police . Chen was removed from his house in March 2006 and was formally detained in June 2006 by Yinan county officials . He was scheduled to stand trial on 17 July 2006 on charges of destruction of property and assembling a crowd to disrupt traffic , but this was delayed at the request of the prosecution . According to Radio Free Asia and Chinese Human Rights Defenders , the prosecution delayed the trial because a crowd of Chen supporters gathered outside the courthouse . With only a few days ' notice , authorities rescheduled Chen 's trial for 18 August 2006 .
On the eve of his trial , all three of his lawyers , including Xu Zhiyong of the Yitong Law Firm , were detained by Yinan police ; two were released after being questioned . Neither Chen 's lawyers nor his wife were allowed in the courtroom for the trial . Authorities appointed their own public defender for Chen just before the trial began . The trial lasted only two hours . On 24 August 2006 , Chen was sentenced to four years and three months for " damaging property and organizing a mob to disturb traffic " .
As a result of Chen 's trial , British Foreign Secretary Margaret Beckett selected his case for the cover of the British government 's 2006 human rights report , stating concern over the handling of Chen 's case and calling for the Chinese government " to prove its commitment to building rule of law . " A Globe and Mail columnist also criticized the verdict , writing that " Even assuming [ Chen ] did damage ' doors and windows , ' as well as cars , and interrupt traffic for three hours , it is difficult to argue a four @-@ year prison sentence is somehow proportionate to the offence . "
On 30 November 2006 , Yinan County court upheld Chen 's sentence , and on 12 January 2007 , the Linyi Intermediate Court in Shandong Province rejected his final appeal . The same court had overturned his original conviction in December 2006 , citing lack of evidence . However , Chen was convicted in a second trial on identical charges and given an identical sentence by the Yinan court . Following the trial , Amnesty International declared him to be a prisoner of conscience , " jailed solely for his peaceful activities in defence of human rights " .
= = House arrest = =
After his release from prison in 2010 , Chen was placed under house arrest against Chinese law , and was closely monitored by security forces . Legally , he was proclaimed by the government to be a free man , but in reality the local government offered no explanation for the hundreds of unidentified agents monitoring his house and preventing visitors or escape . The national propaganda organ , the Global Times , expressed confusion over the issue , and suggested that the local government may not know how to handle it , but no disciplinary action was taken at the national level .
He and his wife attempted to communicate with the outside world via video tape and letters . Letters described beatings Chen and his wife were subjected to , seizure of documents and communication devices , cutting off of electric power to their residence , and placing of metal sheets over the windows of their house . Harassment of Chen 's family continued throughout his house arrest , and extended to Chen 's six @-@ year @-@ old daughter , who was briefly banned from attending school and had her toys confiscated by guards , and to Chen 's mother , who was harassed while working in the fields . Authorities reportedly told Chen that they had spent 60 million yuan ( $ 9 @.@ 5 million ) to keep him under house arrest .
In 2011 , The New York Times reported that a number of supporters and admirers had attempted to penetrate the security monitoring Chen 's home , but were unsuccessful . In some instances , his supporters were pummeled , beaten , or robbed by security agents . U.S. Congressman Chris Smith attempted to visit Chen in November 2011 , but was not granted permission . U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton described the U.S. government as " alarmed " by Chen 's continued detention and called on China " to embrace a different path " . Human Rights Watch described his house arrest as " unlawful " and called on authorities to give Chen his freedom .
In December 2011 , actor Christian Bale attempted to visit Chen along with a CNN crew , but was punched , shoved , and denied access by Chinese security guards . Bale later stated that he had wanted " to meet the man , shake his hand and say what an inspiration he is . " Video footage also showed Bale and the CNN crew having stones thrown at them , and being pursued in their minivan for more than 40 minutes .
= = Escape and emigration = =
On 22 April 2012 , Chen escaped from house arrest . Chen 's fellow activist Hu Jia stated that Chen had been planning escape for a long time , and had previously attempted to dig a tunnel for escape . In the weeks leading up to his escape , Chen gave his guards the impression that he was ill in bed , and stopped appearing outside the house , which allowed him several days before any absence would be discovered . Under cover of darkness and with the help of his wife , Chen climbed over the wall around his house , breaking his foot in the process .
When he came upon the Meng River , he found it to be guarded , but crossed anyway and was not stopped ; he later stated that he believed the guards had been asleep . Though he recollected his immediate surroundings from his childhood explorations , he eventually passed into less familiar territory ; he later told his supporters that he fell more than 200 times during his escape . Communicating with a network of activists via a cell phone , he reached a pre @-@ determined rendezvous point where He Peirong , an English teacher and activist , was waiting for him . A chain of human rights activists then escorted him to Beijing . Several of the activists reported to be involved were detained or disappeared in the days following the announcement of Chen 's escape .
Chen was given refuge at the U.S. Embassy in Beijing , though the Embassy initially declined to confirm or deny reports that they were sheltering him . The Embassy later said they had accepted Chen on humanitarian grounds and offered him medical assistance . On 27 April , Chen appeared in an internet video in which he expressed his concern that the authorities would carry out " insane retribution " on his family and made three demands of Premier Wen Jiabao : 1 ) that local officials who allegedly assaulted his family be prosecuted ; 2 ) that his family 's safety be guaranteed ; and 3 ) that the Chinese government prosecute corruption cases under the law .
The New York Times described the situation as a " diplomatic quandary " at a time when the U.S. was seeking to improve relations with China and seeks its support with respect to crises in Iran , Sudan , Syria , and North Korea . BBC News described Chen 's escape as coming at " an unwelcome time for China 's leaders , " who were still dealing with a high @-@ profile corruption scandal that resulted in the removal of politburo member Bo Xilai . Within twenty @-@ four hours , Chen 's name as well as the phrases " CGC " and " the blind man " had been blocked by Chinese online censors in an effort to quell Internet discussion of the case . On the day Chen announced his escape , Chinese state media did not carry " a single line of news " referring to it . The New York Times wrote that news of the escape " electrified China ’ s rights activists " .
= = = Negotiations and exit from U.S. embassy = = =
Kurt M. Campbell , an assistant secretary of state , quietly arrived in Beijing on 29 April for negotiations with representatives of China 's Ministry of Foreign Affairs . After several days of media speculation as to his whereabouts , Chen was confirmed on 2 May to have been under U.S diplomatic protection at the Embassy . According to embassy representatives , the agreement brokered with Chinese authorities provided that Chen would be freed from soft detention , relocated , and be permitted to finish his legal education at one of several law schools in China . Chinese officials also promised to investigate " extra @-@ legal activities " taken by Shandong province authorities against Chen and his family . Chen left the embassy of his own accord on 2 May , was reunited with his family , and admitted to Beijing 's Chaoyang Hospital for medical treatment .
During the initial negotiations in the U.S. embassy , Chen did not request asylum in the United States or considered leaving China , but instead demanded to remain there as a free man . However , soon after leaving the embassy , Chen feared that Chinese authorities would renege on their promises or take punitive actions against his family members . While in the hospital , Chinese security personnel barred U.S. diplomatic staff from meeting with him . Rumors emerged that Chinese officials had coerced Chen into leaving the embassy by threatening his family . U.S. negotiators stated that while in the embassy , Chen had been told by Chinese officials that if he sought asylum in the United States , his wife and daughter would likely remain under house arrest in Shandong . However , they maintained that they had not heard of the threats from local officials that his family would be beaten , and that they had not communicated such a message to Chen . On 3 May , Chen clarified to the BBC that he had become aware of the threats against his family after leaving the embassy , and at that point changed his mind about wishing to stay in China .
On 2 May , a spokesperson of China 's Ministry of Foreign Affairs demanded that the U.S. apologize for the Chen incident , investigate its acts and never interfere in China 's domestic matters in such a way again . In an editorial on 4 May , Beijing Daily described Chen as " a tool and a pawn for American politicians to denigrate China " . The daily also accused US Ambassador Gary Locke of stirring up trouble by sheltering Chen , and questioned Locke 's motives .
On 4 May , after Chen made clear his desire to leave China for the United States , a Chinese foreign ministry spokesperson indicated that , if he wished to study abroad , he could " apply through normal channels to the relevant departments in accordance with the law , just like any other Chinese citizen . " On the same day , Chen was offered a visiting scholar position at New York University . On 19 May , Chen , his wife , and his two children , having been granted U.S. visas , departed Beijing on a commercial flight for Newark , New Jersey .
= = = Treatment of family and associates = = =
While Chen was living under house arrest , several of his family members also reportedly faced harassment and confinement by authorities . His elderly mother , Wang Jinxiang , recalled being continuously followed by three security agents . The BBC reported in May 2012 that she remained under house arrest . Before leaving China in the spring of 2012 , Chen expressed concern that his relatives and other activists who had helped him evade capture would be punished by Chinese officials after his departure .
On 27 April 2012 , soon after Chen escaped house arrest , plainclothes security agents forced entry into the home of his eldest brother , Chen Guangfu . Believing that the elder brother had information on Chen 's escape , police took him to a police station for interrogation , and reportedly chained his feet , slapped him , and struck him with a belt . Police officers then allegedly returned to the family 's home and proceeded to beat Guangfu 's wife and son . His son , Chen Kegui , pulled a knife and slashed at three of the officers , causing minor injuries . He was taken into custody and faces criminal charges for attempted murder . On 24 May , it was reported that Chen Guangfu had escaped to Beijing from his guarded village to advocate on behalf of his son . In November 2012 , Chen Kegui was sentenced to more than three years in prison .
On 4 November 2013 , Chen Guangfu said he would fly to New York City with his mother two days later for a reunion with his brother Chen Guangcheng .
= = In the United States = =
Following his arrival in the U.S. , Chen , his wife , and the couple 's two children settled in a housing complex for students and faculty of New York University , located in Greenwich Village . He reportedly began studying English for two hours per day , in addition to having regular meetings with American legal scholars . His memoir , The Barefoot Lawyer , was published in March 2015 by Henry Holt and Company .
On 29 May 2012 , Chen published an editorial in the New York Times criticizing the Chinese government and the Communist Party for the " lawless punishment inflicted on ( himself ) and ( his ) family over the past seven years . " He said that " those who handled my case were able to openly flout the nation ’ s laws in many ways for many years . " In an April 2013 testimony before the House Foreign Affairs Committee , Chen said that Chinese authorities had failed to deliver on promises to investigate allegations of mistreatment against him and his family . Chen issued a statement in June saying NYU is forcing him to leave at the end of June because of pressure from the Chinese government . This claim was denied by the university , as well as by professor Jerome A. Cohen , Chen 's mentor who arranged for his placement at NYU . Chen 's close association with conservative Christian and pro @-@ life figures since coming to the United States , including representative Chris Smith , pastor Bob Fu , and media consultant Mark Corallo , has concerned old supporters like Cohen .
In October 2013 , Chen accepted an offer from the Witherspoon Institute in Princeton , New Jersey , which opposes abortion and gay marriage . Chen will serve as Distinguished Senior Fellow in Human Rights at the Witherspoon Institute , as well as Visiting Fellow of the Institute for Policy Research and Catholic Studies at the Catholic University of America and Senior Distinguished Advisor to the Lantos Foundation for Human Rights and Justice .
On 16 October 2013 , Chen made his first public appearance in his role as a Distinguished Senior Fellow at the Witherspoon Institute . He delivered a public lecture at Princeton University entitled " China and the World in the 21st Century : The Next Human Rights Revolution , " which was co @-@ sponsored by the Witherspoon Institute and the James Madison Program in American Ideals and Institutions . The text of Chen 's speech , translated into English , was then published online . In the speech , Chen called on the American people to support the Chinese people by fighting against the oppressive Communist government of China . He reminded the audience that even small actions undertaken in defense of human rights can have a large impact , because “ Every person has infinite strength . Every action has an important impact . We must believe in the value of our own actions . ”
= = Awards and recognition = =
Chen began attracting international media attention for his civil rights activism in the early 2000s . In March 2002 , Newsweek magazine ran a cover story on Chen and the " barefoot lawyer " movement in China , detailing his advocacy on behalf of villagers and the disabled . His profile rose further in 2005 when he filed a landmark class @-@ action suit taking on abuses of the one @-@ child policy . In 2007 , Chen Guangcheng was named one of the Time 100 , Time 's annual list of " 100 men and women whose power , talent or moral example is transforming our world " . The citation stated , " He may have lost his sight as a child , but Chen Guangcheng 's legal vision has helped illuminate the plight of thousands of Chinese villagers . "
Later that year , Chen won the Ramon Magsaysay Award while still in detention . The award , often called the " Asian Nobel Prize " , was bestowed for " his irrepressible passion for justice in leading ordinary Chinese citizens to assert their legitimate rights under the law " . According to AIDS activist Hu Jia , Chen 's wife Yuan Weijing attempted to attend the Magsaysay Award ceremony on her husband 's behalf , her passport was revoked and her mobile phone was confiscated by Chinese authorities at Beijing Capital International Airport .
The National Endowment for Democracy honored Chen with the 2008 Democracy Award . Chen was one of seven Chinese lawyers and civil rights activists to be named as recipients of the award .
In 2012 , Chen was chosen as the recipient of the Human Rights Award from the New York @-@ based NGO Human Rights First . In explaining the choice , the organization 's president Elisa Massimino stated , " Mr. Chen 's activism has reignited an international conversation about the need to protect human rights lawyers around the world who face great danger for their courageous work . " In 2014 he received the Geneva Summit Courage Award .
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= Sea Cloud =
Sea Cloud is a sailing cruise ship of the Sea Cloud Cruises line . Initially built as a private yacht , it subsequently served as a weather ship for the United States Coast Guard and United States Navy during World War II . The ship served as the first racially integrated warship in the United States Armed Forces since the American Civil War . Following the war , Sea Cloud was returned to private ownership , serving as a yacht for numerous people , including as presidential yacht of the Dominican Republic . The ship currently sails in Europe and the Caribbean as part of a fleet of sail cruise ships operated by Sea Cloud Cruises GmbH of Hamburg , Germany , often under contract to the National Geographic Society .
= = Private yacht = =
Sea Cloud was built in Kiel , Germany , as a barque for Marjorie Merriweather Post and her second husband Edward F. Hutton of Wall Street fame E. F. Hutton & Co .. She was launched in 1931 as Hussar II ; at the time of her construction , she was the largest private yacht in the world . In 1935 , the United States Ambassador to the Soviet Union , Joseph E. Davies , married Marjorie Merriweather Post . Mr. and Mrs. Davies renamed the ship Sea Cloud . Although Mrs. Davies owned the ship , she allowed Mr. Davies to claim ownership of the vessel . As a man with political influence , Davies entertained many high profile people on the ship , including Queen Elisabeth of Belgium . The ship even served as an informal embassy , as Soviet and United States officials stayed and met on the vessel .
= = Coast Guard service = =
Mrs. Davies had first offered the ship to the U.S. Department of the Navy in 1941 , but the Navy turned her down . President Franklin Delano Roosevelt objected to the ship entering service , remarking that she was too beautiful to be sacrificed . However , on January 7 , 1942 , the Navy reassessed their position , chartering the ship for $ 1 per year . The Navy sent Sea Cloud from Georgetown , South Carolina , to the United States Coast Guard Yard in Curtis Bay , Maryland , to be refitted as a " weather observation station vessel " , and had its four masts removed and hull painted battleship gray . Sea Cloud was commissioned as a United States Coast Guard Cutter on April 4 , 1942 , and assigned to the Eastern Sea Frontier , with a permanent home port in Boston .
During 1942 , Sea Cloud mostly served as a weather ship at Weather Patrol Station Number Two ( position 52 ° 0 ′ N 42 ° 30 ′ W ) . On June 6 , 1942 , the ship rescued eight survivors from the schooner Maria da Gloria . On August 3 , 1942 and August 4 , 1942 , Sea Cloud served at Weather Patrol Station Number One while USS Manhasset was converted to a weather ship .
= = Naval service = =
In 1943 , the Navy asked for control of Sea Cloud and Nourmahal , another former yacht converted into a weather ship . On April 9 , 1943 , the United States Navy commissioned Sea Cloud as USS Sea Cloud ( IX @-@ 99 ) , though she maintained a Coast Guard crew . She was assigned to Task Force 24 .
Relieving USCGC Conifer in February 1944 , Sea Cloud patrolled a 100 @-@ square @-@ mile ( 260 km2 ) area near the New England coast , generating weather reports for the First Naval District . On February 27 , 1944 , Sea Cloud traveled to be refurbished at Atlantic Yard in East Boston , afterwards taking over a new one @-@ hundred square mile area at Weather Station Number One .
On April 5 , 1944 , Sea Cloud received radar indication of a small target at position 39 ° 27 ′ N 62 ° 30 ′ W , bearing 350 ° at 3 @,@ 000 yards ( 2 @,@ 700 m ) . General quarters were sounded and battle stations manned , but contact was lost ten minutes later . The target was identified as a submarine , but after Sea Cloud carried out standard anti @-@ submarine drills with no evidence of damage being inflicted , she returned to port .
After minor repairs , Sea Cloud was rebased to Argentia , Newfoundland , where she was assigned to Weather Station Number Three . While patrolling the area on June 11 , 1944 , the crew spotted a Navy Grumman TBF Avenger , exchanging recognition signals . Sea Cloud received orders to report to the escort carrier Croatan and join the five other escort ships under her command . The envoy searched for a raft reported in the area , but returned with no sightings . After this event , Sea Cloud was once again reassigned to Weather Station Number Four . After a search for a downed aircraft , she returned to port in Boston . Sea Cloud was decommissioned on November 4 , 1944 , at the Bethlehem Steel Atlantic Yard and returned to Davies , along with $ 175 @,@ 000 for conversion to pre @-@ war appearance .
For her wartime service , Sea Cloud was awarded the American Campaign Medal and the World War Two Victory Medal .
= = = Racial integration = = =
In late 1944 , Lieutenant Carlton Skinner took command of the ship , after previously serving as executive officer in November 1944 . At that time , black seamen were only permitted to serve as ship stewards . After witnessing a black man save the crew of Northland yet still be denied promotion because of the rule , Skinner proposed an experiment . Skinner submitted his plan to the U.S. Secretary of the Navy and was allowed to sail his first weather patrol with a fully integrated crew . Within a few months , fifty black sailors , including two officers , were stationed aboard Sea Cloud . Skinner requested that the experiment not be publicized and the ship not be treated differently from other ships in the task force . Skinner showed that his integrated crew could work just as efficiently as a segregated crew , if not more so , when his crew passed two fleet inspections with no deficiencies .
Under Skinner 's command when the ship was integrated , American painter Jacob Lawrence served on the Sea Cloud . He was able to paint and sketch while in the Coast Guard , notably his War Series .
= = Return to civilian service = =
Following its return , Sea Cloud received a reassembled rigging in 1947 , and a new set of twenty @-@ nine sails in 1949 . The vessel was painted white , and a gold eagle painted on the bow . The ship 's reconstruction took nearly four years . Marjorie Merriweather Post retained ownership of Sea Cloud in the aftermath of her divorce from Mr. Davies , since she had originally brought the ship into the marriage . After evaluating the cost of running a year round crew of seventy @-@ two , Marjorie Merriweather Post decided to sell the ship .
In the beginning Sea Cloud featured royal @-@ sails over single topgallant- and double top @-@ sails on the fore and mizzen masts . The main mast was equipped with a royal @-@ sail over double topgallant- and double top @-@ sails . Today the first three masts are rigged with double top @-@ sails , single topgallants , royals and a main skysail .
= = = Presidential yacht Angelita = = =
Rafael Trujillo , ruler of the Dominican Republic , purchased Sea Cloud in 1955 , trading a secondhand Vickers Viscount for it . He renamed the ship Angelita after his daughter . The yacht served as a houseboat and government office . Following Trujillo 's assassination on May 30 , 1961 , his family attempted to smuggle themselves and Trujillo 's body to the Canary Islands aboard Angelita , but were forced back by the Dominican Republic 's new government .
= = = School ship Patria = = =
Five years after Trujillo 's death , the ship , now named Patria , was sold to Operation Sea Cruises , Inc. in 1966 . Company president John Blue registered her in Panama and sent her to Naples , Italy , to recondition and outfit her for charters . Sold to Antarna Inc . , Miami , in 1969 the ship was renamed Antarna . Blue brought the vessel to the United States , but port authorities docked the boat after a dispute in Colón , Panama . Charles and Stephanie Gallagher paid the fees to get the ship free and set her to sea , even though Blue still held the ship 's papers . The two dreamed of making the ship an " oceanic school " where students would supplement their traditional learning with at @-@ sea education . Blue eventually retrieved his ship after a confrontation in Panama .
= = = Cruise ship Sea Cloud = = =
After the ship stayed in port for eight years , Hartmut Paschberg and a group of Hamburg associates purchased her , once again naming her Sea Cloud . Paschberg and thirty @-@ eight other men sailed the ship to Europe , arriving in the Port of Hamburg on November 15 , 1978 . Sea Cloud spent eight months undergoing repairs in the now @-@ named Howaldtswerke @-@ Deutsche Werft shipyard , the very yard she was built in . She was redesigned with a sixty @-@ four passenger capacity for a crew of sixty . The ship set sail on her first cruise in 1979 , and has since been described by the Berlitz Complete Guide to Cruising & Cruise Ships as " the most romantic sailing ship afloat " . In 2011 , the Sea Cloud underwent extensive renovations at the MWB @-@ Werft , Bremerhaven . She is still operating as a cruise ship .
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= Second Crusade =
The Second Crusade ( 1147 – 1149 ) was the second major crusade launched from Europe as Catholic ( ' Latin ' ) holy war against Islam . The Second Crusade was started in response to the fall of the County of Edessa the previous year to the forces of Zengi . The county had been founded during the First Crusade ( 1096 – 1099 ) by King Baldwin of Boulogne in 1098 . While it was the first Crusader state to be founded , it was also the first to fall .
The Second Crusade was announced by Pope Eugene III , and was the first of the crusades to be led by European kings , namely Louis VII of France and Conrad III of Germany , with help from a number of other European nobles . The armies of the two kings marched separately across Europe . After crossing Byzantine territory into Anatolia , both armies were separately defeated by the Seljuk Turks . The main Western Christian source , Odo of Deuil , and Syriac Christian sources claim that the Byzantine Emperor Manuel I Komnenos secretly hindered the crusaders ' progress , particularly in Anatolia , where he is alleged to have deliberately ordered Turks to attack them . Louis and Conrad and the remnants of their armies reached Jerusalem and participated in 1148 in an ill @-@ advised attack on Damascus . The crusade in the east was a failure for the crusaders and a great victory for the Muslims . It would ultimately have a key influence on the fall of Jerusalem and give rise to the Third Crusade at the end of the 12th century .
The only Christian success of the Second Crusade came to a combined force of 13 @,@ 000 Flemish , Frisian , Norman , English , Scottish , and German crusaders in 1147 . Travelling from England , by ship , to the Holy Land , the army stopped and helped the smaller ( 7 @,@ 000 ) Portuguese army in the capture of Lisbon , expelling its Moorish occupants .
= = Background : the fall of Edessa = =
After the First Crusade and the minor Crusade of 1101 there were three crusader states established in the east : the Kingdom of Jerusalem , the Principality of Antioch and the County of Edessa . A fourth , the County of Tripoli , was established in 1109 . Edessa was the most northerly of these , and also the weakest and least populated ; as such , it was subject to frequent attacks from the surrounding Muslim states ruled by the Ortoqids , Danishmends and Seljuq Turks . Count Baldwin II and future count Joscelin of Courtenay were taken captive after their defeat at the Battle of Harran in 1104 . Baldwin and Joscelin were both captured a second time in 1122 , and although Edessa recovered somewhat after the Battle of Azaz in 1125 , Joscelin was killed in battle in 1131 . His successor Joscelin II was forced into an alliance with the Byzantine Empire , but in 1143 both the Byzantine emperor John II Comnenus and the King of Jerusalem Fulk of Anjou died . Joscelin had also quarreled with the Count of Tripoli and the Prince of Antioch , leaving Edessa with no powerful allies .
Meanwhile , the Seljuq Zengi , Atabeg of Mosul , had added to his rule in 1128 Aleppo , the key to power in Syria , contested between the rulers of Mosul and Damascus . Both Zengi and King Baldwin II turned their attention towards Damascus ; Baldwin was defeated outside the great city in 1129 . Damascus , ruled by the Burid Dynasty , later allied with King Fulk when Zengi besieged the city in 1139 and 1140 ; the alliance was negotiated by the chronicler Usamah ibn Munqidh .
In late 1144 , Joscelin II allied with the Ortoqids and marched out of Edessa with almost his entire army to support the Ortoqid army against Aleppo . Zengi , already seeking to take advantage of Fulk 's death in 1143 , hurried north to besiege Edessa , which fell to him after a month on 24 December 1144 . Manasses of Hierges , Philip of Milly and others were sent from Jerusalem to assist , but arrived too late . Joscelin II continued to rule the remnants of the county from Turbessel , but little by little the rest of the territory was captured by Muslims or sold to the Byzantines . Zengi himself was praised throughout Islam as " defender of the faith " and al @-@ Malik al @-@ Mansur , " the victorious king " . He did not pursue an attack on the remaining territory of Edessa , or the Principality of Antioch , as was feared . Events in Mosul compelled him to return home , and he once again set his sights on Damascus . However , he was assassinated by a slave in 1146 and was succeeded in Aleppo by his son Nur ad @-@ Din .
= = = Quantum praedecessores = = =
The news of the fall of Edessa was brought back to Europe first by pilgrims early in 1145 , and then by embassies from Antioch , Jerusalem and Armenia . Bishop Hugh of Jabala reported the news to Pope Eugene III , who issued the bull Quantum praedecessores on 1 December of that year , calling for a second crusade . Hugh also told the Pope of an eastern Christian king , who , it was hoped , would bring relief to the crusader states : this is the first documented mention of Prester John . Eugene did not control Rome and lived instead at Viterbo , but nevertheless the Second Crusade was meant to be more organized and centrally controlled than the First : the armies would be led by the strongest kings of Europe and a route would be planned beforehand .
The initial response to the new crusade bull was poor , and it in fact had to be reissued when it was clear that Louis VII of France would be taking part in the expedition . Louis VII had also been considering a new expedition independently of the Pope , which he announced to his Christmas court at Bourges in 1145 . It is debatable whether Louis was planning a crusade of his own or in fact a pilgrimage , as he wanted to fulfil a vow made by his dead brother Philip to go to the Holy Land . It is probable that Louis had made this decision independently of hearing about Quantum Praedecessores . In any case , Abbot Suger and other nobles were not in favour of Louis ' plans , as he would be gone from the kingdom for several years . Louis consulted Bernard of Clairvaux , who referred him back to Eugene . By now Louis would have definitely heard about the papal bull , and Eugene enthusiastically supported Louis ' crusade . The bull was reissued on 1 March 1146 , and Eugene authorized Bernard to preach the news throughout France .
= = Saint Bernard of Clairvaux = =
The Pope commissioned Bernard to preach the Second Crusade , and granted the same indulgences for it which Pope Urban II had accorded to the First Crusade . A parliament was convoked at Vezelay in Burgundy in 1146 , and Bernard preached before the assembly on March 31 . Louis VII of France , his wife , Eleanor of Aquitaine , and the princes and lords present prostrated themselves at the feet of Bernard to receive the pilgrims ' cross . Bernard then passed into Germany , and the reported miracles which multiplied almost at his every step undoubtedly contributed to the success of his mission . At Speyer , Conrad III of Germany and his nephew , Holy Roman Emperor Frederick Barbarossa , received the cross from the hand of Bernard . Pope Eugene came in person to France to encourage the enterprise .
For all his overmastering zeal , Bernard was by nature neither a bigot nor a persecutor . As in the First Crusade , the preaching inadvertently led to attacks on Jews ; a fanatical French monk named Rudolf was apparently inspiring massacres of Jews in the Rhineland , Cologne , Mainz , Worms and Speyer , with Rudolf claiming Jews were not contributing financially to the rescue of the Holy Land . Bernard , the Archbishop of Cologne and the Archbishop of Mainz were vehemently opposed to these attacks , and so Bernard traveled from Flanders to Germany to deal with the problem and quiet the mobs . Bernard then found Rudolf in Mainz and was able to silence him , returning him to his monastery .
= = Wendish Crusade = =
When the Second Crusade was called , many south Germans volunteered to crusade in the Holy Land . The north German Saxons were reluctant . They told St Bernard of their desire to campaign against the Slavs at an Imperial Diet meeting in Frankfurt on 13 March 1147 . Approving of the Saxons ' plan , Eugenius issued a papal bull known as the Divina dispensatione on 13 April . This bull stated that there was to be no difference between the spiritual rewards of the different crusaders . Those who volunteered to crusade against the Slavs were primarily Danes , Saxons and Poles , although there were also some Bohemians . The Papal legate , Anselm of Havelberg , was placed in overall command . The campaign itself was led by Saxon families such as the Ascanians , Wettin and Schauenburgers .
Upset by German participation in the crusade , the Obotrites preemptively invaded Wagria in Holstein in June 1147 , leading to the march of the crusaders in late summer 1147 . After expelling the Obodrites from Christian territory , the crusaders targeted the Obodrite fort at Dobin and the Liutizian fort at Demmin . The forces attacking Dobin included those of the Danes Canute V and Sweyn III , Adalbert II , Archbishop of Bremen and Duke Henry the Lion of Saxony . When some crusaders advocated ravaging the countryside , others objected by asking , " Is not the land we are devastating our land , and the people we are fighting our people ? " The Saxon army under Henry the Lion withdrew after the pagan chief , Niklot , agreed to have Dobin 's garrison undergo baptism .
After an unsuccessful siege of Demmin , a contingent of crusaders was diverted by the margraves to attack Pomerania instead . They reached the already Christian city Stettin , whereupon the crusaders dispersed after meeting with Bishop Adalbert of Pomerania and Prince Ratibor I of Pomerania . According to Bernard of Clairvaux , the goal of the crusade was to battle the pagan Slavs " until such a time as , by God 's help , they shall either be converted or deleted " .
However , the crusade failed to achieve the conversion of most of the Wends . The Saxons achieved largely token conversions at Dobin , as the Slavs resorted to their pagan beliefs once the Christian armies dispersed . Albert of Pomerania explained , " If they had come to strengthen the Christian faith ... they should do so by preaching , not by arms " .
By the end of the crusade , the countryside of Mecklenburg and Pomerania was plundered and depopulated with much bloodshed , especially by the troops of Henry the Lion . This was to help bring about more Christian victories in the future decades . The Slavic inhabitants also lost much of their methods of production , limiting their resistance in the future .
= = Reconquista and the fall of Lisbon = =
In the spring of 1147 , the Pope authorized the expansion of the crusade into the Iberian peninsula , in the context of the Reconquista . He also authorized Alfonso VII of León and Castile to equate his campaigns against the Moors with the rest of the Second Crusade . In May 1147 , the first contingents of crusaders left from Dartmouth in England for the Holy Land . Bad weather forced the ships to stop on the Portuguese coast , at the northern city of Porto on 16 June 1147 . There they were convinced to meet with King Afonso I of Portugal .
The crusaders agreed to help the King attack Lisbon , with a solemn agreement that offered to them the pillage of the city 's goods and the ransom money for expected prisoners . The Siege of Lisbon lasted from 1 July to 25 October 1147 when , after four months , the Moorish rulers agreed to surrender , primarily due to hunger within the city . Most of the crusaders settled in the newly captured city , but some of them set sail and continued to the Holy Land . Some of them , who had departed earlier , helped capture Santarém earlier in the same year . Later they also helped to conquer Sintra , Almada , Palmela and Setúbal , and they were allowed to stay in the conquered lands , where they settled down and had offspring .
Elsewhere on the Iberian peninsula , almost at the same time , Alfonso VII of León , Ramon Berenguer IV , Count of Barcelona , and others led a mixed army of Catalans , Leonese , Castilians and French crusaders against the rich port city of Almería . With support from a Genoese – Pisan navy , the city was occupied in October 1147 .
Ramon Berenger then invaded the lands of the Almoravid taifa kingdom of Valencia and Murcia . In December 1148 , he captured Tortosa after a five @-@ month siege again with the help of French , Anglo @-@ Normans and Genoese crusaders . The next year , Fraga , Lleida and Mequinenza in the confluence of the Segre and Ebro rivers fell to his army .
= = Forces = =
= = = Islamic = = =
Muslim forces in this period comprised small bodies of professional troops , which were augmented by volunteers and conscripts in times of war . The largest of the Muslim states at the time , the Turkish Great Seljuk Sultanate , which ruled most of what is modern Iran and Iraq had about 10 @,@ 000 full @-@ term soldiers . The number of troops available to the Syrian states was much smaller . The core of the professional troops were the ghulam or mamluk , who were trained for war since childhood . The cost of raising and training a mamluk was about 30 dinars ( by contrast , a good horse in Syria went for about 100 dinars ) .
To compensate for their quantitative weaknesses , the Muslim states sought qualitative superiority . The professional soldiers of the Muslim states , who were usually ethnic Turks , tended to be very well @-@ trained and equipped . The basis of the military system in the Islamic Middle East was the iqta ' system of fiefs , which supported a certain number of troops in every district . In the event of war , the ahdath militias , based in the cities under the command of the ra ’ is ( chief ) , and who were usually ethnic Arabs , were called upon to increase the number of troops . The ahdath militia , though less well trained than the Turkish professional troops , were often very strongly motivated by religion , especially the concept of jihad . Further support came from Turkoman and Kurdish auxiliaries , who could be called upon in times of war , though these forces were prone to indiscipline .
The principal Islamic commander was Mu 'in al @-@ Din Anur , the atabeg of Damascus from 1138 to 1149 . Damascus was supposedly ruled by the Burid amirs of Damascus , but Anur , who commanded the military , was the real ruler of the city . The historian David Nicolle described Anur as an able general and diplomat , also well known as a patron of the arts . Because the Burid dynasty was displaced in 1154 by the Zangid dynasty , Anur 's role in repulsing the Second Crusade has been largely erased with historians and chroniclers loyal to the Zangids giving the credit to Anur 's rival , Nur ad @-@ Din Zangi , the amir of Aleppo .
= = = Christian Crusaders = = =
The German contingent comprised about 2 @,@ 000 knights ; the French contingent had about 700 knights from the king ’ s lands while the nobility raised smaller numbers of knights ; and the Kingdom of Jerusalem had about 550 knights and 6 @,@ 000 infantrymen .
Both the French and German contingents had a huge numbers of camp followers , most of whom did not survive the Crusade . As the monk , Odo of Deuil , noted " the weak and helpless are always a burden to their commanders and a source of prey to their enemies " .
The French knights preferred to fight on horseback , while the German knights liked to fight on foot . The Roman chronicler John Kinnamos wrote " the French are particularly capable of riding horseback in good order and attacking with the spear , and their cavalry surpasses that of the Germans in speed . The Germans , however , are able to fight on foot better than the French and excel in using the great sword " .
Conrad III was considered to be a brave knight , though often described as indecisive in moments of crisis . Louis VII was a devout Christian with a sensitive side who was often attacked by contemporaries like Bernard of Clairvaux for being more in love with his wife , Eleanor of Aquitaine , than being interested in war or politics .
= = Crusade in the East = =
Joscelin tried to take back Edessa following Zengi 's murder , but Nur ad @-@ Din defeated him in November 1146 . On 16 February 1147 , the French crusaders met at Étampes to discuss their route . The Germans had already decided to travel overland through Hungary , as the sea route was politically impractical because Roger II , King of Sicily , was an enemy of Conrad . Many of the French nobles distrusted the land route , which would take them through the Byzantine Empire , the reputation of which still suffered from the accounts of the First Crusaders . Nevertheless , it was decided to follow Conrad , and to set out on 15 June . Roger II was offended and refused to participate any longer . In France , Abbot Suger and Count William II of Nevers were elected as regents while the king would be on crusade . In Germany , further preaching was done by Adam of Ebrach , and Otto of Freising also took the cross . The Germans planned to set out at Easter , but did not leave until May .
= = = German route = = =
The German crusaders , accompanied by the papal legate and cardinal Theodwin , intended to meet the French in Constantinople . Ottokar III of Styria joined Conrad at Vienna , and Conrad 's enemy Géza II of Hungary allowed them to pass through unharmed . When the German army of 20 @,@ 000 men arrived in Byzantine territory , Emperor Manuel I Komnenos feared they were going to attack him , and Byzantine troops were posted to ensure that there was no trouble . There was a brief skirmish with some of the more unruly Germans near Philippopolis and in Adrianople , where the Byzantine general Prosouch fought with Conrad 's nephew , the future emperor Frederick . To make matters worse , some of the German soldiers were killed in a flood at the beginning of September . On 10 September , however , they arrived at Constantinople , where relations with Manuel were poor , resulting in a battle , after which the Germans were convinced that they should cross into Asia Minor as quickly as possible . Manuel wanted Conrad to leave some of his troops behind , to assist in defending against attacks from Roger II , who had taken the opportunity to plunder the cities of Greece , but Conrad did not agree , despite being a fellow enemy of Roger .
In Asia Minor , Conrad decided not to wait for the French , and marched towards Iconium , capital of the Seljuq Sultanate of Rûm . Conrad split his army into two divisions . Much of the authority of the Byzantine Empire in the western provinces of Asia Minor was more nominal than real , with much of the provinces being a no @-@ man 's land controlled by Turkish nomads . Conrad underestimated the length of the march against Anatolia , and anyhow assumed that the authority of Emperor Manuel was greater in Anatolia than was in fact the case . Conrad took the knights and the best troops with himself to march overland while sending the camp followers with Otto of Freising to follow the coastal road . The king led one of these , which was almost totally destroyed by the Seljuqs on 25 October 1147 at the second battle of Dorylaeum .
In battle , the Turks used their typical tactic of pretending to retreat , and then returning to attack the small force of German cavalry which had separated from the main army to chase them . Conrad began a slow retreat back to Constantinople , and his army was harassed daily by the Turks , who attacked stragglers and defeated the rearguard . Even Conrad was wounded in a skirmish with them . The other division , led by the King 's half @-@ brother , Bishop Otto of Freising , had marched south to the Mediterranean coast and was similarly defeated early in 1148 . The force led by Otto ran out of food while crossing inhospitable countryside and was ambushed by the Seluq Turks near Laodicea on 16 November 1147 . The majority of Otto 's force were either killed in battle or captured and sold into slavery .
= = = French route = = =
The French crusaders had departed from Metz in June 1147 , led by Louis , Thierry of Alsace , Renaut I of Bar , Amadeus III , Count of Savoy and his half @-@ brother William V of Montferrat , William VII of Auvergne , and others , along with armies from Lorraine , Brittany , Burgundy and Aquitaine . A force from Provence , led by Alphonse of Toulouse , chose to wait until August , and to cross by sea . At Worms , Louis joined with crusaders from Normandy and England .
They followed Conrad 's route fairly peacefully , although Louis came into conflict with king Geza of Hungary when Geza discovered Louis had allowed an attempted Hungarian usurper to join his army . Relations within Byzantine territory were also grim , and the Lorrainers , who had marched ahead of the rest of the French , also came into conflict with the slower Germans whom they met on the way .
Since the original negotiations between Louis and Manuel I , Manuel had broken off his military campaign against the Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm , signing a truce with his enemy Sultan Mesud I. This was done so that Manuel would be free to concentrate on defending his empire from the Crusaders , who had gained a reputation for theft and treachery since the First Crusade and were widely suspected of harbouring sinister designs on Constantinople . Nevertheless , Manuel 's relations with the French army were somewhat better than with the Germans , and Louis was entertained lavishly in Constantinople . Some of the French were outraged by Manuel 's truce with the Seljuqs and called for an alliance with Roger II and an attack on Constantinople , but they were restrained by Louis .
When the armies from Savoy , Auvergne and Montferrat joined Louis in Constantinople , having taken the land route through Italy and crossing from Brindisi to Durazzo , the entire army was shipped across the Bosporus to Asia Minor . The Greeks were encouraged by rumours that the Germans had captured Iconium ( Konya ) , but Manuel refused to give Louis any Byzantine troops . Byzantium had just been invaded by Roger II of Sicily , and all of Manuel 's army was needed in the Peloponnese . Both the Germans and French therefore entered Asia without any Byzantine assistance , unlike the armies of the First Crusade . In the tradition set by his grandfather Alexios I , Manuel also had the French swear to return to the Empire any territory they captured .
The French met the remnants of Conrad 's army at Lopadion , and Conrad joined Louis ' force . They followed Otto of Freising 's route , moving closer to the Mediterranean coast , and they arrived at Ephesus in December , where they learned that the Turks were preparing to attack them . Manuel also sent ambassadors complaining about the pillaging and plundering that Louis had done along the way , and there was no guarantee that the Byzantines would assist them against the Turks . Meanwhile , Conrad fell sick and returned to Constantinople , where Manuel attended to him personally , and Louis , paying no attention to the warnings of a Turkish attack , marched out from Ephesus with the French and German survivors . The Turks were indeed waiting to attack , but in a small battle outside Ephesus , the French were victorious . The French fended off another Turkish ambush at the Meander River .
They reached Laodicea on the Lycus early in January 1148 , around the same time Otto of Freising 's army had been destroyed in the same area . Resuming the march , the vanguard under Amadeus of Savoy became separated from the rest of the army at Mount Cadmus , and Louis ’ troops suffered heavy losses from the Turks . Louis himself , according to Odo of Deuil , climbed a rock and was ignored by the Turks , who did not recognize him . The Turks did not bother to attack further and the French marched on to Adalia , continually harassed from afar by the Turks , who had also burned the land to prevent the French from replenishing their food , both for themselves and their horses . Louis no longer wanted to continue by land , and it was decided to gather a fleet at Adalia and sail for Antioch . After being delayed for a month by storms , most of the promised ships did not arrive at all . Louis and his associates claimed the ships for themselves , while the rest of the army had to resume the long march to Antioch . The army was almost entirely destroyed , either by the Turks or by sickness .
= = = Journey to Jerusalem = = =
Louis eventually arrived in Antioch on March 19 after being delayed by storms ; Amadeus of Savoy had died on Cyprus along the way . Louis was welcomed by Eleanor 's uncle Raymond of Poitiers . Raymond expected him to help defend against the Turks and to accompany him on an expedition against Aleppo , the Muslim city that was the gateway to Edessa , but Louis refused , preferring instead to finish his pilgrimage to Jerusalem rather than focus on the military aspect of the crusade . Eleanor enjoyed her stay , but her uncle implored her to remain to enlarge family lands and divorce Louis if the king refused to help what was assuredly the military cause of the Crusade . During this period , there were rumours of an affair between Raymond and Eleanor , which caused tensions in the marriage between Louis and Eleanor . Louis quickly left Antioch for Tripoli with Eleanor in arrest .
Meanwhile , Otto of Freising and the remnant of his troops arrived in Jerusalem early in April , and Conrad soon after . Fulk , Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem , was sent to invite Louis to join them . The fleet that had stopped at Lisbon arrived around this time , as well as the Provençals who had left Europe under the command of Alfonso Jordan , Count of Toulouse . Alphonso himself did not make it to Jerusalem as he died at Caesarea . He was supposedly poisoned by Raymond II of Tripoli , the nephew who feared his political aspirations in the county . The claim that Raymond had poisoned Alphonso caused much of the Provençal force to turn back and go home . The original focus of the crusade was Edessa , but the preferred target of King Baldwin III and the Knights Templar was Damascus .
In response to the arrival of the Crusaders , the regent of Damascus , Mu 'in ad @-@ Din Unur , started making feverish preparations for war , strengthening the fortifications of Damascus , ordering troops to his city and having the water sources along the road to Damascus destroyed or diverted . Anur sought help from the Zangid rulers of Aleppo and Mosul ( who were normally his rivals ) , though forces from these states did not arrive in time to see combat outside of Damascus . It is almost certain that the Zangid rulers delayed sending troops to Damascus out of the hope that their rival Anur might lose his city to the Crusaders .
= = = Council of Acre = = =
The nobility of Jerusalem welcomed the arrival of troops from Europe , and it was announced that a council should meet to decide on the best target for the crusaders . This took place on 24 June 1148 , when the Haute Cour of Jerusalem met with the recently arrived crusaders from Europe at Palmarea , near Acre , a major city of the crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem . This was the most spectacular meeting of the Court in its existence . " it seems well worth while and quite in harmony with the present history that the names of the nobles who were present at the council ... should be recorded here for the benefit of posterity . " He lists these and numerous others ; " to name each one individually would take far too long . "
In the end , the decision was made to attack the city of Damascus , a former ally of the Kingdom of Jerusalem that had shifted its allegiance to that of the Zengids , and attacked the Kingdom 's allied city of Bosra in 1147 . Historians have long seen the decision to besiege Damascus rather than Edessa as " an act of inexplicable folly " . Noting the tensions between Anur , the atabeg of Damascus , and the growing power of the Zangids , many historians have argued that it would have been better for the Crusaders to focus their energy against the Zangids . More recently , historians such as David Nicolle have defended the decision to attack Damascus , arguing that Damascus was the most powerful Muslim state in southern Syria , and that if the Christians held Damascus , they would have been in a better position to resist the rising power of Nur ad @-@ Din . Since Anur was clearly the weaker of the two Muslim rulers , it was believed that it was inevitable that Nur ad @-@ Din would take Damascus sometime in the near future , and thus it was better for the Crusaders to hold that city rather than the Zangids . In July their armies assembled at Tiberias and marched to Damascus , around the Sea of Galilee by way of Banyas . There were perhaps 50 @,@ 000 troops in total .
= = = Siege of Damascus = = =
The crusaders decided to attack Damascus from the west , where orchards would provide them with a constant food supply . They arrived at Daraiya on 23 July . The following day , the Muslims were prepared for the attack and constantly attacked the army advancing through the orchards outside Damascus . The defenders had sought help from Saif ad @-@ Din Ghazi I of Mosul and Nur ad @-@ Din of Aleppo , who personally led an attack on the crusader camp . The crusaders were pushed back from the walls into the orchards , where they were prone to ambushes and guerrilla attacks .
According to William of Tyre , on 27 July the crusaders decided to move to the plain on the eastern side of the city , which was less heavily fortified but had much less food and water . It was recorded by some that Unur had bribed the leaders to move to a less defensible position , and that Unur had promised to break off his alliance with Nur ad @-@ Din if the crusaders went home . Meanwhile , Nur ad @-@ Din and Saif ad @-@ Din had by now arrived . With Nur ad @-@ Din in the field it was impossible to return to their better position . The local crusader lords refused to carry on with the siege , and the three kings had no choice but to abandon the city . First Conrad , then the rest of the army , decided to retreat to Jerusalem on 28 July , though for their entire retreat they were followed by Turkish archers who constantly harassed them .
= = Aftermath = =
Each of the Christian forces felt betrayed by the other . A new plan was made to attack Ascalon and Conrad took his troops there , but no further help arrived , due to the lack of trust that had resulted from the failed siege . This mutual distrust would linger for a generation due to the defeat , to the ruin of the Christian kingdoms in the Holy Land . After quitting Ascalon , Conrad returned to Constantinople to further his alliance with Manuel . Louis remained behind in Jerusalem until 1149 . The discord also extended to the marriage of Louis and Eleanor , which had been falling apart during the course of the Crusade . In April 1149 , Louis and Eleanor , who were barely on speaking terms by this time , pointedly boarded separate ships to take them back to France .
Back in Europe , Bernard of Clairvaux was humiliated by the defeat . Bernard considered it his duty to send an apology to the Pope and it is inserted in the second part of his Book of Consideration . There he explains how the sins of the crusaders were the cause of their misfortune and failures . When his attempt to call a new crusade failed , he tried to disassociate himself from the fiasco of the Second Crusade altogether . He would die in 1153 .
In Germany , the Crusade was seen as a huge debacle with many monks writing that it could only have been the work of the Devil . The anonymous monk who wrote the Annales Herbipolenses chronicle in Würzburg mentioned that for decades afterwards , noble families in Germany were ransoming back knights who had been taken prisoner in Anatolia using Armenian middle @-@ men . The camp followers who had been taken prisoner and sold into slavery by the Turks were not so lucky . Of the 113 individuals known by name to have been involved in the Crusade , 22 died , 42 returned home while the fate of the last 49 is a mystery . Despite the distaste for the memory of the Second Crusade , the experience of the crusade had notable impact on German literature , with many epic poems of the late 12th century featuring battle scenes clearly inspired by the fighting in the crusade .
The cultural impact of the Second Crusade was even greater in France , with many troubadours fascinated by the alleged affair between Eleanor and Raymond , which helped to feed the theme of courtly love . Unlike Conrad , the image of Louis was improved by the Crusade with many of the French seeing him as a suffering pilgrim king who quietly bore God 's punishments .
Relations between the Eastern Roman Empire and the French were badly damaged by the Crusade . Louis and other French leaders openly accused the Emperor Manuel I of colluding with Turkish attacks on them during the march across Asia Minor . The memory of the Second Crusade was to color French views of the Byzantines for the rest of the 12th and 13th centuries . Within the empire itself , the crusade was remembered as a triumph of diplomacy . In the eulogy for the Emperor Manuel by Archbishop Eustathious of Thessalonika , it was declared :
" He was able to deal with his enemies with enviable skill , playing off one against the other with the aim of bringing peace and tranquility " .
The preliminary Wendish Crusade achieved mixed results . While the Saxons affirmed their possession of Wagria and Polabia , pagans retained control of the Obodrite land east of Lübeck . The Saxons also received tribute from Chief Niklot , enabled the colonization of the Bishopric of Havelberg , and freed some Danish prisoners . However , the disparate Christian leaders regarded their counterparts with suspicion and accused each other of sabotaging the campaign .
In Iberia , the campaigns in Spain , along with the siege of Lisbon , were some of the few lasting Christian victories of the Second Crusade . They are seen as pivotal battles of the wider Reconquista , which would be completed in 1492 .
In the East the situation was much darker for the Christians . In the Holy Land , the Second Crusade had disastrous long @-@ term consequences for Jerusalem . In 1149 , the atabeg Anur died , at which point the amir Abu Sa 'id Mujir al @-@ Din Abaq Ibn Muhammad finally began to rule . The ra 'is of Damascus and commander of the ahdath milita Mu 'ayad al @-@ Dawhal Ibn al @-@ Sufi feel that since his ahdath had played a major role in defeating the Second Crusade that he deserved a greater share of the power , and within two months of Anur 's death was leading a rebellion against Abaq . The in @-@ fighting within Damascus was to lead to the end of the Burid state within five years . Damascus no longer trusted the crusader kingdom and was taken by Nur ad @-@ Din after a short siege in 1154 .
Baldwin III finally seized Ascalon in 1153 , which brought Egypt into the sphere of conflict . Jerusalem was able to make further advances into Egypt , briefly occupying Cairo in the 1160s . However , relations with the Byzantine Empire were mixed , and reinforcements from Europe were sparse after the disaster of the Second Crusade . King Amalric I of Jerusalem allied with the Byzantines and participated in a combined invasion of Egypt in 1169 , but the expedition ultimately failed . In 1171 , Saladin , nephew of one of Nur ad @-@ Din 's generals , was proclaimed Sultan of Egypt , uniting Egypt and Syria and completely surrounding the crusader kingdom . Meanwhile , the Byzantine alliance ended with the death of emperor Manuel I in 1180 , and in 1187 , Jerusalem capitulated to Saladin . His forces then spread north to capture all but the capital cities of the Crusader States , precipitating the Third Crusade .
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= World Painted Blood =
World Painted Blood is the eleventh studio album by American thrash metal band Slayer . It was released through American Recordings and Sony Music on November 3 , 2009 and was produced by Greg Fidelman and executively produced by Rick Rubin . It is the band 's only album produced by Greg Fidelman . With much anticipation for the album after 2006 's Christ Illusion , members of Slayer were revealing information about the album since early 2009 . There were four different artworks released for the album , each which completed one @-@ fourth of a map , that when put together , illustrates the earth painted with red . There are eleven tracks on the album , with origins illustrating death and destruction , war , serial killers , and the Apocalypse . It is the band 's first studio album to be played mostly in E @-@ flat tuning since Divine Intervention . World Painted Blood is the last Slayer album to feature the band 's original lineup ; drummer Dave Lombardo was fired from the band and guitarist Jeff Hanneman died of liver failure , both in 2013 .
Three singles were released from the album : " Psychopathy Red " , " Hate Worldwide " , and " World Painted Blood " . " Psychopathy Red " leaked onto the internet over a year before its release , and was released as a seven – inch single on April 18 , 2009 . The album received generally positive reviews from music critics . It was praised by The A.V. Club , who said that the " resounding success in that regard : It 's eclectic , but never self @-@ consciously so . " " Hate Worldwide " and " World Painted Blood " were both nominated for Best Metal Performance at the 53rd and 54th Grammy Awards , respectively . The album peaked at number two on the US Top Hard Rock Albums chart , as well as twelve on the Billboard 200 and forty @-@ one on the United Kingdom album chart .
= = Writing and recording = =
World Painted Blood marked the first time that the band wrote material in the studio rather than entering the studio fully prepared with lyrics . The fact that they were not prepared made guitarist Kerry King skeptical . King related : " I was kind of thinking , ' Man , this could be the first record in a long time that 's got a little bit of filler , ' " he acknowledges . " But I think every song came out great . I was concerned some would sound similar , and every one is completely different . It 's cool how it worked out . " The majority of the lyrics and music were written by guitarist Jeff Hanneman . Kerry King stated : " I like when Jeff writes as much as he did for this record . When you have one guy doing most of the writing you only get one perspective . A lot of Jeff 's stuff has a very punky vibe this time ; the stuff I write sounds thrashy but with a hint of punk , and when Jeff writes the stuff is more punk with a hint of thrash . It works together well . " Unlike 2006 's Christ Illusion , the band was " under @-@ ready " with their lyrics and music .
The album was recorded in Los Angeles , California with producer Greg Fidelman during October 2008 and then recorded from late January and March 2009 . There were 13 songs recorded for the album , but only 11 appear on the album . In May 2009 , King said of the album : " I think this one has a little bit of everything — more so than anything we 've done since Seasons . So I would imagine people are gonna compare it to that one . " The band had recorded thirteen songs for the album , seven written by lead guitarist Jeff Hanneman and six by King , although not all of them were included . King later confirmed the album 's release date was pushed back to late summer 2009 . An article on Slayer 's website confirmed the album 's name . On August 20 , 2009 , Roadrunner Records confirmed the track listing . Thom Jurek of Allmusic said the production " takes a different tack altogether for this guitar @-@ manic crew . " A listening party for World Painted Blood was held on October 30 , 2009 at Duff 's Brooklyn in Williamsburg , New York . The event started at 9 : 00 pm
During the recording of World Painted Blood , King used BC Rich Guitars , Marshall Amplifiers and Cabs , Dunlop strings and picks , EMG pickups , and Korg tuners . Hanneman used ESP guitars , Marshall Amplifiers and Cabs , Dunlop strings and picks , Monster Cables , and Shure Wireless System . Vocalist / bassist Araya used ESP basses , Marshall Bass Amplifiers and Cabs , EMG Pick @-@ Ups , Dunlop Picks and accessories , and MXR Effects . Lombardo used Tama Drums , Paiste cymbals , Pro @-@ Mark drum sticks , and Evans drum heads .
= = Music and lyrics = =
Record producer Greg Fidelman said that " the fact that the songs were still new and fresh to them , and they hadn 't been playing them for six months in rehearsal , kept the vibe and excitement in the studio very high . " Vocalist Tom Araya said that there " are two principal music writers in this band , so you 're going to get a combination of speed and heaviness , " and later said that the " writing is really aggressive and fast , while Jeff likes things to be fast , but with melodies and grooves . In making this album , we seemed to share the same vision from song ideas to titles ; when we get together as Slayer , it just happens , nothing is contrived , it 's not thought out , we just do it , and we did that with this new album . " Lombardo said that Hanneman 's writing and performance had " gone back to this great punk energy , especially with ' Psychopathy Red ' . "
Allmusic said that it expressed moods such as Harshness , Fiery , Confidence , Rowdiness , Aggressiveness , Rebellious , Cathartic , Anger , and Hostility . It also is categorized in genres like speed metal and heavy metal . Thom Jurek said Lombardo 's percussion beats " are WAAAAAAAY up in the mix , " and said that " you can understand every word , even on the thrashers " about Tom Araya 's vocal style . " [ T ] he guitars are simply further down in the mix and sometimes it becomes difficult to discern Araya 's bass . Therefore , the first listen or two to World Painted Blood might be a bit confusing for the seasoned Slayer fan , but that changes quickly , and the sound of those drums blasting in one 's head will become a more than welcome presence in the mix . "
The album 's title track was said by band members to be the continuation of " Final Six " , which was an outtake from their previous album . " Final Six " origins deal with the apocalypse . " Human Strain " deals with apocalyptic origins as well . The track was explained by guitarist Jeff Hanneman to initially be about the human race dying off by a mutative disease . The title of " Public Display of Dismemberment " refers to the consequences that countries outside of the United States give to citizens for crimes . Tom Araya said that " Unit 731 " is " very similar to Josef Mengele in the sense that it was a medical unit in the military , which was a Japanese military unit , actually . They did kind of the same thing ; they tested the limits of the human body and recorded it for scientific purposes . " " Playing With Dolls " is about a child witnessing a serial killer . " Beauty Through Order " is about Elizabeth Báthory , the most prolific female serial killer . Jeff Hanneman explained : " I 've been meaning to write a song about that for a long time . I couldn 't figure out the angle , I was thinking , ' How does a woman write ? I can 't write like a woman I 'm a guy ! ' Then I just figured , ' Well , she 's evil ; she has lots of power and killed people . ' So I just started writing and the lyrics and they came out . " Slayer revealed to Revolver that the track " Snuff " has no lyrical concept . " Psychopathy Red " was inspired by the Russian serial killer Andrei Chikatilo .
= = Singles = =
" Psychopathy Red " , a song inspired by the Soviet serial killer Andrei Chikatilo , was made available as a " limited edition , blood @-@ red vinyl seven @-@ inch vinyl " disc on April 18 , 2009 as part of the third annual Record Store Day . The song premiered on October 29 , 2008 , on a YouTube stream . Originally , " Psychopathy Red " was going to be a b @-@ side of World Painted Blood , but after there was access to it on the internet , they decided to add it to the album 's track list .
On July 28 , the song " Hate Worldwide " was released as a CD @-@ single , exclusively available at Hot Topic stores . The song was available on the internet before November 2008 and until July 2009 , it had been streamed more than a half @-@ million times . " Hate Worldwide " was released as a limited @-@ edition single on October 20 , 2009 , through Columbia Records as a CD . The song was made available exclusively at Hot Topic stores and was streamed at Hot Topic 's ShockHound.com. The composition was written by Kerry King who said " It 's a really cool track , and Tom 's voice sounds incredible on it . The last line in the song 's chorus is ' .. spread a little hate worldwide , ' and that 's what we 've been doing for 25 years . " Along with five other songs , " Hate Worldwide " was nominated for a Best Metal Performance Grammy Award , but lost to " Dissident Aggressor " by Judas Priest .
The title track , " World Painted Blood " , was released as a seven @-@ inch single on November 26 , 2010 , and was limited to 2500 copies . It included the b @-@ side " Atrocity Vendor " . A music video for the song had already been released on June 16 , 2010 . The single was exclusively released through the Metal Club record store chain . The song itself was said by the band to be a continuation of " Final Six " , a bonus track on the special edition of Slayer 's 2006 album Christ Illusion , and deals with the end of the world . Araya and Hanneman have said " World Painted Blood " is " one of the more classic Slayer songs " .
A music video has been made for " Beauty Through Order " , however , it has been removed from most online sources .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical = = =
World Painted Blood generally received positive reviews from critics . On Metacritic , it has been given a score of 78 out of 100 based on 11 reviews .
Greg Moffitt from the BBC said that the album " is their best in years . " He also noted that " a few of the songs command the attention with the insistence of old , but quite frankly we were beginning to wonder if they still had an album like this left in them . " Moffitt also said the album was " a deliciously wicked ride . " Thom Jurek of AllMusic rewarded the album three and a half stars , saying " in many ways it could be Reign In Blood Revisited " , and later said that " some compositions on this new recording have more of the band 's early – style melody in them , with lightning flare – up riffs between verses : quick unexpected guitar pyrotechnics ; and blastbeat power drumming from Dave Lombardo pushing it all into red . " Blabbermouth.net 's Ryan Ogle gave the album 7 @.@ 5 out of 10 and said that it " jumps into fairly aggressive thrash gallop , but doesn 't really have that ' straight @-@ for @-@ the @-@ throat ' feel you 'd expect from track one . "
Leonard Pierce of The A.V. Club described the album as " burden " , and said it " weighs particularly heavy on bands that made their reps with intensity and innovation ; Slayer , in particular , was perceived as wandering in the wilderness during the years Paul Bostaph sat behind the drum kit , and expectations were high for the group . " Pierce rewarded the album with an A – , and said that the album was " eclectic , but never self @-@ consciously so . It rarely flags in intensity , and it 's good enough that if it were inserted in Slayer ’ s discography right after Seasons In The Abyss — the record it most resembles — it would be an almost seamless transition . " Adrien Begrand from PopMatters gave the album eight out of ten stars , saying " it 's a slight improvement on Christ Illusion , as more than on any of their previous five albums , the foursome of guitarists Jeff Hanneman and Kerry King , bassist / vocalist Tom Araya , and drummer Dave Lombardo find themselves revisiting the seminal styles of their 1986 – 88 heyday . " About.com 's Chad Bowar and MusicOMH gave the album four out of five stars .
= = = Commercial = = =
World Painted Blood sold 41 @,@ 000 copies in the United States in its first week , landing it a number twelve spot on the Billboard 200 . It has sold 160 @,@ 000 copies in the United States as of February 2015 .
The album peaked number seven on the German music chart . The album also debuted number forty – one on the UK Albums Chart . " Hate Worldwide " was nominated for Best Metal Performance in 2009 , and the title track " World Painted Blood " was nominated for the same award a year later , but lost to Iron Maiden 's " El Dorado " .
= = Release = =
= = = Marketing and artwork = = =
In June 2009 , it was announced that the album would be released in the late summer of 2009 . The album was released on November 3 , 2009 . The album 's artwork was revealed on September 15 , 2009 . Four different covers were equally shipped for a standard that when put together , they create a world map covered in blood . The album has four special collector 's edition CD covers , and each of them " display one @-@ fourth of a provocative continental map illustrated with human skulls and bones ; when placed together , the four images form a complete and grisly map of the world . " Each album has a blood @-@ red , transparent top panel , with the map displayed beneath it . The full map is also seen in a sleeve of the double @-@ digipak edition of World Painted Blood .
= = = Release history = = =
= = Track listing = =
= = Personnel = =
Credits are adapted from AllMusic .
= = = Band members = = =
Tom Araya – bass , lead vocals
Jeff Hanneman – lead and rhythm guitar
Kerry King – lead and rhythm guitar
Dave Lombardo – drums
= = = Production = = =
Greg Fidelman – production , engineering , mixing
Rick Rubin – executive production
Dana Nielsen - engineer
Sara Killion – assistant engineer
Vlado Meller – mastering
Rick Sales , Kristen Mulderig , and Andrew Stuart – manager
Dan Monti – digital editor
= = Charts = =
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= Main Quad ( Stanford University ) =
The Main Quadrangle , or more commonly Main Quad or simply Quad , is the heart and oldest part of Stanford University in California . The collection of connected buildings was started in 1887 and completed in 1906 . The Quad was damaged in the 1906 earthquake , repaired , less severely damaged in an 1989 earthquake , and repaired again . The exteriors have remained almost the same since the beginning , though the interiors of most of the buildings have changed radically . The Main Quad is still used for its original purposes of teaching , research , and administration .
= = Description = =
The Main Quad is built on a slight slope so that though the back of the structure is level with the ground , the front is elevated . It is oriented slightly east of north along the Memorial Church – Memorial Court – Palm Drive axis . The front approach is at the end of a mile @-@ long road , Palm Drive , which leads from the main entrance onto the university grounds and is lined with Canary Island palm trees . At its southwestern ( campus ) end , Palm Drive becomes a one @-@ way loop that encircles a large lawn called the Oval . Immediately in front perpendicular to Palm Drive is Serra Street , which is restricted to official vehicles and bicycles . Between Serra Street and the Main Quad are another lawn , some bicycle parking , a long sandstone balustrade originally built in 1902 , and steps up to the level of the quad : the main steps to Memorial Court , the east steps to Wallenberg Hall ( building 160 ) , and the west steps to Jordan Hall ( building 420 ) .
The Inner Quad consists of a large courtyard surrounded by twelve connected buildings ( numbered clockwise , 1 through 110 ) and Stanford Memorial Church . Around that are 14 additional connected buildings ( 120 through 460 ) that make up the Outer Quad . The Outer Quad buildings create several additional courtyards . Memorial Court , the most important , is the front entrance of the structure . Besides the front entrance there are also the east and west entrances with gatehouses over them where they enter the inner courtyard . The four corners of the Outer Quad are named , clockwise from Memorial Court , the History Corner with its courtyard of citrus trees , the Engineering Corner with the Oregon Courtyard of flowering cherry trees , the Geology Corner with a garden designed by Thomas Church , and the Math Corner . Other than Engineering , which now houses the Division of Literatures , Cultures , and Languages ( hence is often now referred to as the Language Corner ) , the respective disciplines are still in their corners . Besides the gardens in the minor courtyards , the main inner courtyard has eight large raised planting circles with a variety of trees and bushes .
The Main Quad also has open covered walkways around the Inner Quad courtyard , Memorial Court , and around the exterior of the entire structure except for the main entrance , the east and west gateways , and part of the back . Each year 's graduating class buries a time capsule and marks it with a plaque in the walkway around Inner Quad , starting with the class of 1896 right in front of Memorial Church ( the classes of 1892 to 1895 put theirs in later ) ; the plaques now reach nearly halfway up the western walkway . Under the west gatehouse is a time capsule and plaque marking the centennial of the opening of the university , and the cornerstone ( building 60 ) also has a time capsule .
= = = Points of interest = = =
Wallenberg Hall ( building 160 ) on east side of the front ( History Corner ) is named for the Wallenberg family who gave much of the money for renovating it in 1999 . In the early days it housed the University library and was originally built in 1900 with funds from Thomas Welton Stanford , brother of university founder Leland Stanford and uncle of Leland Stanford Junior for whom the university is named . The second story has two white statues of Benjamin Franklin and Johann Gutenberg . The corresponding building on the west side ( Math Corner ) , Jordan Hall , is named for David Starr Jordan , the first president of the university . It has statues of Louis Agassiz and Alexander von Humboldt . The original statues were created by Antonio Frilli , but Franklin and Gutenberg went missing after renovation work in 1949 and were never found ; recreations were done by a local sculptor , Oleg Lobykin , and installed in 2013 .
Only a few of the other buildings have names . Building 200 is officially the Lane History Corner , named for Bill and Jean Lane in 1998 . At about the same time Building 320 ( aka Geology Corner ) became Braun Corner after the Braun family and Building 260 ( aka Language Corner ) became Pigott Hall after the Pigott family ; both families have long connections with Stanford University . Building 460 is Margaret Jacks Hall , named in 1980 for the daughter ( who died in 1962 and left a bequest to the university ) of David Jacks . Building 120 is named McClatchy Hall .
Memorial Court features several sculptures by Auguste Rodin from his grouping The Burghers of Calais .
Adjacent to the Main Quad at the Math Corner is a casting of George Segal 's Gay Liberation sculpture . The statue , consisting of four life @-@ sized figures , was commissioned in 1979 ( the 10th anniversary of the Stonewall riots ) and created in 1980 . It was the first piece of public art dedicated to LGBT rights . Two castings were made and originally intended for installation in New York and Los Angeles , but the statue proved too controversial for either city . The second casting was offered to Stanford , which accepted it as a long @-@ term loan and installed it in 1984 . The sculpture was vandalized several times over the next 10 years but eventually became an accepted part of the public art at Stanford . New York in 1992 finally installed the first casting in Christopher Park .
Between the church and building 60 is the Amy Blue Garden with benches , a sundial , and a small birdbath dedicated to the memory of Barbara Jordan , daughter of the university 's first president who died aged 9 in 1901 of scarlet fever ; the garden as a whole is in memory of Amy Blue , a university staffer who died in 1988 at the age of 44 . Also in that area is the Frances C. Arrillaga Memorial , named after the wife of John Arrillaga ; it has unusual acoustic properties .
Behind the church is the Keith Memorial Terrace with its roses and fountain , designed by Thomas D. Church who created many other public spaces and gardens at Stanford , and dedicated to the memory of Captain Willard W. Keith , Jr . ( class of 1941 ) , who was killed at Guadalcanal in November 1942 .
= = History = =
Architect Frederick Law Olmsted , who created the university 's first Master Plan , called for the university to be primarily housed in an inner and outer quadrangle . To design the quadrangle itself , the Stanfords in 1886 hired the firm of " the greatest American architect of his generation , " Henry Hobson Richardson . ( Richardson himself had died earlier that year , and his three main associates were carrying on his work as the firm Shepley , Rutan and Coolidge . ) This group of architects are noted for the Richardsonian Romanesque style , and features of that style including " round low arches , sturdy piers , massive walls , simple silhouettes , and sheltering roofs " are prominent in the Quad . The style was adapted to a California Mission theme . The primary building materials were local yellow sandstone and red tile roofs . The sandstone was quarried at the Graystone Quarry in San Jose , California , and transported to the building site via a private railway spur . Hundreds of unskilled laborers received the sandstone , cut it to size , dressed it , and finished it ; skilled stonecutters and sculptors , primarily from Italy , installed it and embellished it with friezes . Over the objections of the architects , the Stanfords insisted that the main entrance to the Quad be " a large memorial arch with an enormously large approach " . The arch was built and was topped with an elaborate frieze representing " The Progress of Civilization in America " ; however , the arch was destroyed in the 1906 San Francisco earthquake and was not rebuilt .
The cornerstone was laid at what is now Building 60 on May 14 , 1887 , which would have been Leland Stanford Junior 's 19th birthday . The Inner Quad was mostly finished ( except for the church ) by the time the university opened in 1891 . The Outer Quad and Memorial Church were completed by 1906 , but the entire structure was severely damaged in the 1906 San Francisco earthquake . Restoration of the Quad began immediately , but several original features of the Quad that collapsed in the earthquake were never rebuilt : the huge Memorial Arch over the entrance to Memorial Court , and a spire on Memorial Church . The Quad , which was originally built of unreinforced masonry , has been seismically retrofitted several times since then .
The 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake also damaged some of the Quad buildings . Language Corner and Geology Corner were closed for repairs for more than five years ; most of that time was spent negotiating with the Federal Emergency Management Agency over paying for the repairs . Memorial Church was also damaged but was repaired more quickly via private donations .
Most of the University 's other , more recent buildings echo the Quad 's basic pattern of buff @-@ colored walls , red roofs , and arcades , giving Stanford 's campus its distinctive look . The original university plan was to add additional quadrangles of buildings , initially to the left and right of the Main Quad . However , this part of the plan was put aside for many decades until the Science and Engineering Quad was built to the west , starting in the 1980s and completed in 2013 .
= = Current use = =
The Main Quad now houses many departments and classrooms and also the offices of the President , Provost , and administrative offices of the School of Humanities and Sciences . The main courtyard is used for University functions , in particular the Baccalaureate service held on the day before the main graduation ceremony , departmental graduation ceremonies , and the annual alumni reunion dinner . A long @-@ standing tradition is Full Moon in the Quad . In its oldest form it was an event at which " a Stanford girl becomes a Stanford woman ... when kissed by a senior man in front of Memorial Church under the light of a full moon " ; now it is a party with much kissing held on the first full moon of the school year .
= = Namesakes = =
The university 's annual yearbook is called the Stanford Quad .
The Stanford Historical Society 's journal is called Sandstone and Tile , named for the materials from which the Quad is built .
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= Episode 523 ( Neighbours ) =
" Episode 523 " is the 523rd episode of the Australian soap opera Neighbours . It premiered on Network Ten on 1 July 1987 . The episode was written by Ray Harding , directed by Rod Hardy , and executively produced by the serial 's creator Reg Watson . " Episode 523 " focuses on the wedding of popular couple Scott Robinson ( Jason Donovan ) and Charlene Mitchell ( Kylie Minogue ) . The storyline was devised by the producers after some viewers became outraged by the idea of an unwed couple moving in together . They also believed that the wedding would be " the perfect climax " to the character 's long @-@ running relationship and an instant ratings hit .
The episode was filmed in secrecy and with a limited budget three months before it was broadcast . The wedding ceremony was filmed in the nave of The Holy Trinity Church in Doncaster . " Episode 523 " is one of only a few Neighbours episodes to include the entire cast . A new romantic style wedding dress made from ivory silk , organza and chantilly lace was made for Minogue 's character . The ballad " Suddenly " , which was written and sung by Angry Anderson , was chosen as the theme to the episode . Prior to its broadcast , Minogue and Donovan promoted the episode by making several appearances at shopping centres around Australia .
" Episode 523 " became one of the most watched soap opera episodes upon its broadcast in Australia . When it aired in the United Kingdom in November 1988 , it attracted an audience of 19 @.@ 6 million . The episode was well received by critics and viewers . TV Week 's Kelly Bourne stated that the wedding would be the most exciting television soap opera event of 1987 , while Network Ten 's head of drama thought it was " a major turning point for Neighbours " . The wedding has been voted one of the most memorable soap moments and is often included in lists featuring the greatest television weddings of all time .
= = Plot = =
The episode opens with Hilary Robinson ( Anne Scott @-@ Pendlebury ) bringing breakfast to newlyweds Paul ( Stefan Dennis ) and Gail Robinson ( Fiona Corke ) . She is surprised to find that they have spent the night in separate bedrooms . To hide the fact that they only married for business purposes , Gail tells Hilary that she and Paul had an argument the night before . Hilary tells them to sort things out and she tends to the bouquets . At the Robinson house , Scott ( Jason Donovan ) begins to panic about getting married , while his father , Jim ( Alan Dale ) , and best friend , Mike Young ( Guy Pearce ) , set up tables for the reception . Meanwhile , Lucy Robinson ( Sasha Close ) tries to find her pet mice . Over at the Ramsay house , Scott 's fiancée , Charlene ( Kylie Minogue ) , is getting ready . Her mother , Madge ( Anne Charleston ) , asks her brother Henry ( Craig McLachlan ) not to race up the altar . Hilary brings in the wedding bouquet , while Charlene 's friend and bridesmaid , Jane ( Annie Jones ) arrives . After receiving a blue garter from her grandmother , Charlene becomes excited about the wedding . Scott arrives at the church with Mike , Paul and Jim . He is greeted by his old school friends and Mike explains that he and Jane arranged for them to attend to make up for the absence of Charlene 's extended family .
After the guests take their seats , Scott starts to worry that Charlene will not show up , but Paul and Mike assure him that she will be there . Reverend Sampson ( Howard Bell ) then invites everyone to stand as Charlene and Henry begin their walk up the aisle . Scott and Charlene exchange vows and Reverend Sampson pronounces them man and wife . At the reception , Jim tells Scott that he is proud of him and welcomes Charlene to the family . Harold Bishop ( Ian Smith ) finds Madge crying in the kitchen and he comforts her . They are interrupted by Mrs. Mangel ( Vivean Gray ) who informs them that the telegrams from Max and Maria , Clive and Rosemary , who all are unable to attend , are being read out . Dan Ramsay ( Syd Conabere ) spots a mouse and tries to pick it up , but hits Mrs. Mangel 's foot . She accuses Dan of groping her and as he protests his innocence , an argument breaks out among the guests . Scott and Charlene go to his bedroom and Gail brings them a gift from her father . Jane comes to tell Charlene that it is time to get changed for the honeymoon , while Paul takes their bags out to the car . Lucy tells Scott that she will miss him and he gives her his skateboard . Everyone gathers in the street to wave the couple off . Mrs. Mangel catches Charlene 's bouquet , as the couple drive out of Ramsay Street .
= = Production = =
= = = Conception = = =
By 1987 , Scott Robinson ( Jason Donovan ) and Charlene Mitchell ( Kylie Minogue ) had become a popular couple with Neighbours viewers , who dubbed them " TV 's Romeo and Juliet " because they were from feuding families . Following months of dating , Scott asked Charlene to move in with him . After " stuffier viewers " became outraged at the idea of the unwed couple moving in together , the producers decided that they should get married instead . Donovan recalled that the producers thought a wedding would be " the perfect climax " to Scott and Charlene 's long @-@ running relationship , as well as an instant ratings winner .
Speaking to James Oram , author of Neighbours : Behind the Scenes , Minogue thought the marriage would bring controversial subjects , such as pre @-@ marital sex and HIV / AIDS , into focus . Donovan agreed , saying there was " a valid moral point behind it . " Executive producer Reg Watson noted how each character in the show expressed a different point of view about the wedding . Some , like Scott 's father Jim ( Alan Dale ) , thought it was " stupid " for a couple just out of school to get married , while others , like Charlene 's mother Madge ( Anne Charleston ) , believed it was romantic . Watson believed the storyline would have repercussions for everyone .
= = = Filming = = =
Ray Harding wrote the script for " Episode 523 " . Bruce Andrews from Charles Sturt University noted that it is one of only a few Neighbours episodes to include the entire cast . The producers asked Rod Hardy to direct the episode , due to his experience of directing other television weddings . Hardy believed that " the magic of the episode " is captured best in two close @-@ up shots of Scott and Charlene . The director recalled " The image that stays with me is the close @-@ up of Kylie as she arrives and then the close @-@ up on Jason 's face , and those two looks epitomised what the whole scene was about . " The episode was shot " in great secrecy " three months before it was broadcast on Australian television . The shoot was initially delayed due to bad weather . Due to a limited budget , there were very few extras on set and crew were asked to stand in at the church instead . The scenes were shot in soft focus , creating " a halo effect " around Charlene as she walked up the aisle .
The Holy Trinity Church in Doncaster was used as the location for the wedding . The scenes were shot in the old nave of the church , which was surrounded by " rough @-@ hewn sandstone and glowing stained glass windows . " Liz Guiver , the former vicar 's secretary and administrator , revealed that many of the church 's parishioners were excited at the prospect of seeing the actors on set . Speaking to Guy Blackman from The Age , Guiver recalled " The person who played the vicar , and wore the vicar 's robe , he smoked cigarettes , so we had to be careful that they were dry @-@ cleaned before services on Sunday . Then we waited for months until the episode was aired , and most parishioners were glued to the set . " Scenes featuring the character 's family homes and Ramsay Street were shot at the show 's studio in Forest Hill and at Pin Oak Court in Vermont South respectively . Recalling the shoot , Donovan told the Herald Sun 's Nui Te Koha , " I don 't remember that particular day well , but when you do set ups like weddings it takes a long , long time to put things together . "
= = = Costumes and music = = =
Charlene 's new romantic style wedding dress was designed and made by Isis of Melbourne , a local bridal salon . A writer for the Tasmanian Museum and Art Gallery 's website observed that it was " in keeping with Charlene 's character as the suburban girl @-@ next @-@ door . " The dress was made from ivory silk , organza and chantilly lace . When asked what made the dress memorable , fashion designer Alex Perry , stated " There are so many things going on that it 's hard not to remember it ! The see @-@ through sleeves with a hint of lace , the romantic era @-@ style shoulders , the high neckline and hem . " Knowing how popular Minogue and Charlene were at the time , Perry was sure that the dress would have been copied by viewers . Charlene 's bridesmaids wore peach taffeta dresses , while the groom and his ushers wore charcoal grey tails .
Minogue was asked by the producers to choose a romantic song to be played in the episode and she chose " Suddenly " by Angry Anderson . Anderson had written the song a long time before it was used in " Episode 523 " . He explained that it is about a man coming to a certain point in his life when he realises that he does not mind being vulnerable . Minogue told Anderson that she loved the song and how the lyrics resonated with her . She later revealed that she wanted the song played at her own wedding . After " Episode 523 " was broadcast in the UK , " Suddenly " reached number 3 on the Singles Chart .
= = Promotion and broadcast = =
Network Ten 's national publicity director , Brian Walsh , believed the wedding episode would be an ideal marketing opportunity . He arranged for Minogue and Donovan to attend a wedding breakfast at the Park Royal Hotel in Parramatta and invited four hundred competition winners to join them . Minogue and Donovan later made an appearance with the wedding cake at Westfield Parramatta . Walsh recalled " I 'd never seen anything like it ; there would have been 6000 people . Security had to prevent any more going inside . It was as simple as Jason and Kylie and a wedding cake on stage . There was a speech and the cutting of the cake . Then there was this near riot . We had to stop the appearance at this point to prevent people getting crushed . " The actors made several more appearances with replica cakes in shopping centres throughout Sydney and Melbourne . They would cut the cakes and then hand out slices to thousands of fans . The episode later become the main focus on covers of TV Week and the Australian edition of Time magazine .
" Episode 523 " was first broadcast in Australia on 1 July 1987 . Just over a year later , the episode aired in the United Kingdom on 8 November 1988 .
= = = Home media = = =
In 1989 , Scott and Charlene 's wedding was included on a VHS titled The Neighbours Wedding Collection . In 2002 , FremantleMedia included the episode on the Neighbours : Defining Moments DVD box set . The episode was also featured on the Neighbours : The Iconic Episodes Volume 2 DVD box set and the collector 's DVD The Charlene Years – Volume 1 released in 2009 and 2012 respectively .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Episode 523 " was seen by two million viewers upon its broadcast in Australia , making it one of the highest rating soap opera episodes . When it aired in the United Kingdom , the episode attracted an audience of 19 @.@ 6 million , making it the third most watched programme in the country that year .
= = = Critical response = = =
Kelly Bourne from TV Week described the episode as " the television wedding of the year " and " a fairytale ceremony . " Bourne observed that the wedding would be the most exciting soap opera event of 1987 . The head of drama at Network Ten , Rick Maier , stated " Scott and Charlene 's wedding was the biggest television event of 1987 . ... Not only a major turning point for Neighbours , but a wedding that stopped a nation . " The Sydney Morning Herald 's Michael Idato observed that " Australians packed the aisles for the nuptials of star @-@ crossed teenagers Scott and Charlene " and added that " the nation wept " while " Suddenly " played . Sarah Megginson from SheKnows quipped " Scott and Charlene 's wedding episode is practically the defining episode of what Neighbours was all about in the 80s . This episode featured the entire cast , and audiences loved watching the romance of off @-@ screen couple Jason Donovan ( Scott ) and Kylie Minogue ( Charlene ) spill over on to the small screen . " Andrew Mercado , author of Super Aussie Soaps , called the episode " The biggest event ever in Aussie soap history . "
Elizabeth Day , writing for The Guardian , commented " For many , the quintessential on @-@ screen wedding remains the 1987 marriage of Scott and Charlene in Australian daytime soap Neighbours . It was the apotheosis of a romantic teenage love story which brought together two feuding families – the Robinsons and the Ramsays – in much the same way as the Montagues and the Capulets , albeit with fewer deaths and more shoulder pads . " The Birmingham Post 's Gemma Quade named the wedding one of her five most memorable Neighbours storylines , calling it a " tearjerker episode " . Josephine Monroe , author of The Neighbours Programme Guide , wrote that the episode showed the " soap wedding of the century ! " , adding " Teenagers Scott and Charlene tied the knot in a traditional and emotional church service " . During a feature on how to celebrate a wedding ceremony in the style of a soap opera , Tom Cole from the Radio Times said " Who needs Mendelssohn and Bach when you can process down the aisle to power ballad ' Suddenly ' by Australian rocker Angry Anderson ? Sounds unorthodox , but it put pep in the step of Scott and Charlene in Neighbours . Note to groom : we can 't all swan around like we 're Jason Donovan , so give the feathered mullet a miss . "
= = = Impact and legacy = = =
The Holy Trinity Church experienced an increase in interest after the episode aired , with some viewers holding their own weddings there . Backpackers also visit the church during their holidays to see the nave where Scott and Charlene were married . The church has since been used again by Neighbours to film the weddings of Harold and Madge , Libby Kennedy ( Kym Valentine ) and Drew Kirk ( Dan Paris ) and Vanessa Villante ( Alin Sumarwata ) and Lucas Fitzgerald ( Scott Major ) . Charlene 's wedding dress was donated to the Tasmanian Museum and Art Gallery by Grundy television in 1989 . It has since gone on display in the Powerhouse Museum and travelled to Victoria and the UK . A copy of the episode 's script , autographed by Harding , fetched £ 2 @,@ 000 when it came up for auction in London .
In October 1997 , the serial 's longest serving character , Helen Daniels ( Anne Haddy ) , was seen watching a video of Scott and Charlene 's wedding , before she died . Kathleen Morgan from the Daily Record commented " The wedding video brought back memories of the soap 's golden years " . Footage of the wedding was later shown during the soap 's 20th anniversary episode , " Friends for Twenty Years " . Charlene became an iconic bridal image , and when Jane Turner and Gina Riley were writing the 2004 season finale of Kath & Kim , they asked Minogue to play the character of Epponnee Rae who was due to get married . Executive producer , Rick McKenna , thought that it would be funny for Minogue to dress up as Charlene and the singer agreed . She appeared as a futuristic version of the character , complete with a lacy dress and 80 's style hair .
In October 2006 , Australia Post brought out five stamps celebrating fifty years of television . Network Ten 's stamp featured Charlene and Scott in their wedding attire . In 2007 , Herald Sun readers voted Scott and Charlene 's wedding as their top Neighbours moment . A Herald Sun reporter said " No other wedding in soap history in Australia has captured the attention like Scott and Charlene 's nuptials late in 1987 . " The episode became FremantleMedia 's seventh most requested television clip in 2008 . To celebrate the soap 's 25th anniversary and its 6000th episode , producers decided to " recreate the magic " of Scott and Charlene 's wedding through the marriage of Ringo Brown ( Sam Clark ) and Donna Freedman ( Margot Robbie ) . Robbie said " People are saying that my wedding is this generation 's Kylie ( Minogue ) and Jason ( Donovan ) wedding – that 's big shoes to fill . "
Scott and Charlene 's wedding ceremony has often been included in lists about the best television weddings or soap opera moments . It was voted the " Most Romantic TV Nuptials of all Time " and the " Top TV Wedding of all Time " in a Radio Times poll . The following year saw the wedding place ninth in a list of the most memorable soap moments . In 2011 , the wedding placed third in Channel 5 's Greatest TV Weddings programme . It also came third in Virgin Media 's " 10 Best On @-@ screen Nuptials " list . Sky Living included the ceremony in their 2012 feature on the best TV weddings , with a reporter noting that it is probably Neighbours ' most iconic moment . After including the ceremony in their list of best TV weddings , a writer for MSN New Zealand stated that " it set the standard up to which TV weddings ( and terrible mullets ) are held . "
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= Antibody =
An antibody ( Ab ) , also known as an immunoglobulin ( Ig ) , is a large , Y @-@ shaped protein produced mainly by plasma cells that is used by the immune system to identify and neutralize pathogens such as bacteria and viruses . The antibody recognizes a unique molecule of the harmful agent , called an antigen , via the variable region . Each tip of the " Y " of an antibody contains a paratope ( analogous to a lock ) that is specific for one particular epitope ( similarly analogous to a key ) on an antigen , allowing these two structures to bind together with precision . Using this binding mechanism , an antibody can tag a microbe or an infected cell for attack by other parts of the immune system , or can neutralize its target directly ( for example , by blocking a part of a microbe that is essential for its invasion and survival ) . Depending on the antigen , the binding may impede the biological process causing the disease or may recruit macrophages to destroy the foreign substance . The ability of an antibody to communicate with the other components of the immune system is mediated via its Fc region ( located at the base of the " Y " ) , which contains a conserved glycosylation site involved in these interactions . The production of antibodies is the main function of the humoral immune system .
Antibodies are secreted by B cells of the adaptive immune system , mostly by differentiated B cells called plasma cells . Antibodies can occur in two physical forms , a soluble form that is secreted from the cell to be free in the blood plasma , and a membrane @-@ bound form that is attached to the surface of a B cell and is referred to as the B @-@ cell receptor ( BCR ) . The BCR is found only on the surface of B cells and facilitates the activation of these cells and their subsequent differentiation into either antibody factories called plasma cells or memory B cells that will survive in the body and remember that same antigen so the B cells can respond faster upon future exposure . In most cases , interaction of the B cell with a T helper cell is necessary to produce full activation of the B cell and , therefore , antibody generation following antigen binding . Soluble antibodies are released into the blood and tissue fluids , as well as many secretions to continue to survey for invading microorganisms .
Antibodies are glycoproteins belonging to the immunoglobulin superfamily . They constitute most of the gamma globulin fraction of the blood proteins . They are typically made of basic structural units — each with two large heavy chains and two small light chains . There are several different types of antibody heavy chains that define the five different types of crystallisable fragments ( Fc ) that may be attached to the antigen @-@ binding fragments . The five different types of Fc regions allow antibodies to be grouped into five isotypes . Each Fc region of a particular antibody isotype is able to bind to its specific Fc Receptor ( except for IgD , which is essentially the BCR ) , thus allowing the antigen @-@ antibody complex to mediate different roles depending on which FcR it binds . The ability of an antibody to bind to its corresponding FcR is further modulated by the structure of the glycan ( s ) present at conserved sites within its Fc region . The ability of antibodies to bind to FcRs helps to direct the appropriate immune response for each different type of foreign object they encounter . For example , IgE is responsible for an allergic response consisting of mast cell degranulation and histamine release . IgE 's Fab paratope binds to allergic antigen , for example house dust mite particles , while its Fc region binds to Fc receptor ε . The allergen @-@ IgE @-@ FcRε interaction mediates allergic signal transduction to induce conditions such as asthma .
Though the general structure of all antibodies is very similar , a small region at the tip of the protein is extremely variable , allowing millions of antibodies with slightly different tip structures , or antigen @-@ binding sites , to exist . This region is known as the hypervariable region . Each of these variants can bind to a different antigen . This enormous diversity of antibody paratopes on the antigen @-@ binding fragments allows the immune system to recognize an equally wide variety of antigens . The large and diverse population of antibody paratope is generated by random recombination events of a set of gene segments that encode different antigen @-@ binding sites ( or paratopes ) , followed by random mutations in this area of the antibody gene , which create further diversity . This recombinational process that produces clonal antibody paratope diversity is called V ( D ) J or VJ recombination . Basically , the antibody paratope is polygenic , made up of three genes , V , D , and J. Each paratope locus is also polymorphic , such that during antibody production , one allele of V , one of D , and one of J is chosen . These gene segments are then joined together using random genetic recombination to produce the paratope . The regions where the genes are randomly recombined together is the hyper variable region used to recognise different antigens on a clonal basis .
Antibody genes also re @-@ organize in a process called class switching that changes the one type of heavy chain Fc fragment to another , creating a different isotype of the antibody that retains the antigen @-@ specific variable region . This allows a single antibody to be used by different types of Fc receptors , expressed on different parts of the immune system .
= = Forms = =
The membrane @-@ bound form of an antibody may be called a surface immunoglobulin ( sIg ) or a membrane immunoglobulin ( mIg ) . It is part of the B cell receptor ( BCR ) , which allows a B cell to detect when a specific antigen is present in the body and triggers B cell activation . The BCR is composed of surface @-@ bound IgD or IgM antibodies and associated Ig @-@ α and Ig @-@ β heterodimers , which are capable of signal transduction . A typical human B cell will have 50 @,@ 000 to 100 @,@ 000 antibodies bound to its surface . Upon antigen binding , they cluster in large patches , which can exceed 1 micrometer in diameter , on lipid rafts that isolate the BCRs from most other cell signaling receptors . These patches may improve the efficiency of the cellular immune response . In humans , the cell surface is bare around the B cell receptors for several hundred nanometers , which further isolates the BCRs from competing influences .
= = Antibody – antigen interactions = =
The antibody 's paratope interacts with the antigen 's epitope . An antigen usually contains different epitopes along its surface arranged discontinuously , and dominant epitopes on a given antigen are called determinants .
Antibody and antigen interact by spatial complementarity ( lock and key ) . The molecular forces involved in the Fab @-@ epitope interaction are weak and non @-@ specific – for example electrostatic forces , hydrogen bonds , hydrophobic interactions , and van der Waals forces . This means binding between antibody and antigen is reversible , and the antibody 's affinity towards an antigen is relative rather than absolute . Relatively weak binding also means it is possible for an antibody to cross @-@ react with different antigens of different relative affinities .
Often , once an antibody and antigen bind , they become an immune complex , which functions as a unitary object and can act as an antigen in its own right , being countered by other antibodies . Similarly , haptens are small molecules that provoke no immune response by themselves , but once they bind to proteins , the resulting complex or hapten @-@ carrier adduct is antigenic .
= = Isotypes = =
Antibodies can come in different varieties known as isotypes or classes . In placental mammals there are five antibody isotypes known as IgA , IgD , IgE , IgG , and IgM . They are each named with an " Ig " prefix that stands for immunoglobulin , a name sometimes used interchangeably with antibody , and differ in their biological properties , functional locations and ability to deal with different antigens , as depicted in the table . The different suffixes of the antibody isotypes denote the different types of heavy chains the antibody contains , with each heavy chain class named alphabetically : α , γ , δ , ε , and μ . This gives rise to IgA , IgG , IgD , IgE , and IgM , respectively .
The antibody isotype of a B cell changes during cell development and activation . Immature B cells , which have never been exposed to an antigen , express only the IgM + isotype in a cell surface bound form . The B lymphocyte , in this ready @-@ to @-@ respond form , is known as a " naive B lymphocyte . " The naive B lymphocyte expresses both surface IgM + and IgD + . The co @-@ expression of both of these immunoglobulin isotypes renders the B cell ready to respond to antigen . B cell activation follows engagement of the cell @-@ bound antibody molecule with an antigen , causing the cell to divide and differentiate into an antibody @-@ producing cell called a plasma cell . In this activated form , the B cell starts to produce antibody in a secreted form rather than a membrane @-@ bound form . Some daughter cells of the activated B cells undergo isotype switching , a mechanism that causes the production of antibodies to change from IgM or IgD to the other antibody isotypes , IgE , IgA , or IgG , that have defined roles in the immune system .
= = Structure = =
Antibodies are heavy ( ~ 150 kDa ) globular plasma proteins . They have sugar chains ( glycans ) added to conserved amino acid residues . In other words , antibodies are glycoproteins . The attached glycans are critically important to the structure and function of the antibody . Among other things the expressed glycans can modulate an antibody 's affinity for its corresponding FcR ( s ) .
The basic functional unit of each antibody is an immunoglobulin ( Ig ) monomer ( containing only one Ig unit ) ; secreted antibodies can also be dimeric with two Ig units as with IgA , tetrameric with four Ig units like teleost fish IgM , or pentameric with five Ig units , like mammalian IgM .
The variable parts of an antibody are its V regions , and the constant part is its C region .
= = = Immunoglobulin domains = = =
The Ig monomer is a " Y " -shaped molecule that consists of four polypeptide chains ; two identical heavy chains and two identical light chains connected by disulfide bonds . Each chain is composed of structural domains called immunoglobulin domains . These domains contain about 70 – 110 amino acids and are classified into different categories ( for example , variable or IgV , and constant or IgC ) according to their size and function . They have a characteristic immunoglobulin fold in which two beta sheets create a " sandwich " shape , held together by interactions between conserved cysteines and other charged amino acids .
= = = Heavy chain = = =
There are five types of mammalian Ig heavy chain denoted by the Greek letters : α , δ , ε , γ , and μ . The type of heavy chain present defines the class of antibody ; these chains are found in IgA , IgD , IgE , IgG , and IgM antibodies , respectively . Distinct heavy chains differ in size and composition ; α and γ contain approximately 450 amino acids , whereas μ and ε have approximately 550 amino acids .
Each heavy chain has two regions , the constant region and the variable region . The constant region is identical in all antibodies of the same isotype , but differs in antibodies of different isotypes . Heavy chains γ , α and δ have a constant region composed of three tandem ( in a line ) Ig domains , and a hinge region for added flexibility ; heavy chains μ and ε have a constant region composed of four immunoglobulin domains . The variable region of the heavy chain differs in antibodies produced by different B cells , but is the same for all antibodies produced by a single B cell or B cell clone . The variable region of each heavy chain is approximately 110 amino acids long and is composed of a single Ig domain .
= = = Light chain = = =
In mammals there are two types of immunoglobulin light chain , which are called lambda ( λ ) and kappa ( κ ) . A light chain has two successive domains : one constant domain and one variable domain . The approximate length of a light chain is 211 to 217 amino acids . Each antibody contains two light chains that are always identical ; only one type of light chain , κ or λ , is present per antibody in mammals . Other types of light chains , such as the iota ( ι ) chain , are found in other vertebrates like sharks ( Chondrichthyes ) and bony fishes ( Teleostei ) .
= = = CDRs , Fv , Fab and Fc regions = = =
Some parts of an antibody have the same functions . The arms of the Y , for example , contain the sites that can bind to antigens ( in general , identical ) and , therefore , recognize specific foreign objects . This region of the antibody is called the Fab ( fragment , antigen @-@ binding ) region . It is composed of one constant and one variable domain from each heavy and light chain of the antibody . The paratope is shaped at the amino terminal end of the antibody monomer by the variable domains from the heavy and light chains . The variable domain is also referred to as the FV region and is the most important region for binding to antigens . To be specific , variable loops of β @-@ strands , three each on the light ( VL ) and heavy ( VH ) chains are responsible for binding to the antigen . These loops are referred to as the complementarity determining regions ( CDRs ) . The structures of these CDRs have been clustered and classified by Chothia et al. and more recently by North et al. and Nikoloudis et al . In the framework of the immune network theory , CDRs are also called idiotypes . According to immune network theory , the adaptive immune system is regulated by interactions between idiotypes .
The base of the Y plays a role in modulating immune cell activity . This region is called the Fc ( Fragment , crystallizable ) region , and is composed of two heavy chains that contribute two or three constant domains depending on the class of the antibody . Thus , the Fc region ensures that each antibody generates an appropriate immune response for a given antigen , by binding to a specific class of Fc receptors , and other immune molecules , such as complement proteins . By doing this , it mediates different physiological effects including recognition of opsonized particles ( binding to FcγR ) , lysis of cells ( binding to complement ) , and degranulation of mast cells , basophils , and eosinophils ( binding to FcεR ) .
In summary , the Fab region of the antibody determines antigen specificity while the Fc region of the antibody determines the antibody 's class effect . Since only the constant domains of the heavy chains make up the Fc region of an antibody , the classes of heavy chain in antibodies determine their class effects . Possible classes of heavy chains in antibodies include alpha , gamma , delta , epsilon , and mu , and they define the antibody 's isotypes IgA , G , D , E , and M , respectively . This infers different isotypes of antibodies have different class effects due to their different Fc regions binding and activating different types of receptors . Possible class effects of antibodies include : Opsonisation , agglutination , haemolysis , complement activation , mast cell degranulation , and neutralisation ( though this class effect may be mediated by the Fab region rather than the Fc region ) . It also implies that Fab @-@ mediated effects are directed at microbes or toxins , whilst Fc mediated effects are directed at effector cells or effector molecules ( see below ) .
= = Function = =
The main categories of antibody action include the following :
Neutralisation , in which neutralizing antibodies block parts of the surface of a bacterial cell or virion to render its attack ineffective
Agglutination , in which antibodies " glue together " foreign cells into clumps that are attractive targets for phagocytosis
Precipitation , in which antibodies " glue together " serum @-@ soluble antigens , forcing them to precipitate out of solution in clumps that are attractive targets for phagocytosis
Complement activation ( fixation ) , in which antibodies that are latched onto a foreign cell encourage complement to attack it with a membrane attack complex , which leads to the following :
Lysis of the foreign cell
Encouragement of inflammation by chemotactically attracting inflammatory cells
Activated B cells differentiate into either antibody @-@ producing cells called plasma cells that secrete soluble antibody or memory cells that survive in the body for years afterward in order to allow the immune system to remember an antigen and respond faster upon future exposures .
At the prenatal and neonatal stages of life , the presence of antibodies is provided by passive immunization from the mother . Early endogenous antibody production varies for different kinds of antibodies , and usually appear within the first years of life . Since antibodies exist freely in the bloodstream , they are said to be part of the humoral immune system . Circulating antibodies are produced by clonal B cells that specifically respond to only one antigen ( an example is a virus capsid protein fragment ) . Antibodies contribute to immunity in three ways : They prevent pathogens from entering or damaging cells by binding to them ; they stimulate removal of pathogens by macrophages and other cells by coating the pathogen ; and they trigger destruction of pathogens by stimulating other immune responses such as the complement pathway . Antibodies will also trigger vasoactive amine degranulation to contribute to immunity against certain types of antigens ( helminths , allergens ) .
= = = Activation of complement = = =
Antibodies that bind to surface antigens ( for example , on bacteria ) will attract the first component of the complement cascade with their Fc region and initiate activation of the " classical " complement system . This results in the killing of bacteria in two ways . First , the binding of the antibody and complement molecules marks the microbe for ingestion by phagocytes in a process called opsonization ; these phagocytes are attracted by certain complement molecules generated in the complement cascade . Second , some complement system components form a membrane attack complex to assist antibodies to kill the bacterium directly ( bacteriolysis ) .
= = = Activation of effector cells = = =
To combat pathogens that replicate outside cells , antibodies bind to pathogens to link them together , causing them to agglutinate . Since an antibody has at least two paratopes , it can bind more than one antigen by binding identical epitopes carried on the surfaces of these antigens . By coating the pathogen , antibodies stimulate effector functions against the pathogen in cells that recognize their Fc region .
Those cells that recognize coated pathogens have Fc receptors , which , as the name suggests , interact with the Fc region of IgA , IgG , and IgE antibodies . The engagement of a particular antibody with the Fc receptor on a particular cell triggers an effector function of that cell ; phagocytes will phagocytose , mast cells and neutrophils will degranulate , natural killer cells will release cytokines and cytotoxic molecules ; that will ultimately result in destruction of the invading microbe . The activation of natural killer cells by antibodies initiates a cytotoxic mechanism known as antibody @-@ dependent cell @-@ mediated cytotoxicity ( ADCC ) – this process may explain the efficacy of monoclonal antibodies used in biological therapies against cancer . The Fc receptors are isotype @-@ specific , which gives greater flexibility to the immune system , invoking only the appropriate immune mechanisms for distinct pathogens .
= = = Natural antibodies = = =
Humans and higher primates also produce " natural antibodies " that are present in serum before viral infection . Natural antibodies have been defined as antibodies that are produced without any previous infection , vaccination , other foreign antigen exposure or passive immunization . These antibodies can activate the classical complement pathway leading to lysis of enveloped virus particles long before the adaptive immune response is activated . Many natural antibodies are directed against the disaccharide galactose α ( 1 @,@ 3 ) -galactose ( α @-@ Gal ) , which is found as a terminal sugar on glycosylated cell surface proteins , and generated in response to production of this sugar by bacteria contained in the human gut . Rejection of xenotransplantated organs is thought to be , in part , the result of natural antibodies circulating in the serum of the recipient binding to α @-@ Gal antigens expressed on the donor tissue .
= = Immunoglobulin diversity = =
Virtually all microbes can trigger an antibody response . Successful recognition and eradication of many different types of microbes requires diversity among antibodies ; their amino acid composition varies allowing them to interact with many different antigens . It has been estimated that humans generate about 10 billion different antibodies , each capable of binding a distinct epitope of an antigen . Although a huge repertoire of different antibodies is generated in a single individual , the number of genes available to make these proteins is limited by the size of the human genome . Several complex genetic mechanisms have evolved that allow vertebrate B cells to generate a diverse pool of antibodies from a relatively small number of antibody genes .
= = = Domain variability = = =
The chromosomal region that encodes an antibody is large and contains several distinct gene loci for each domain of the antibody — the chromosome region containing heavy chain genes ( IGH @ ) is found on chromosome 14 , and the loci containing lambda and kappa light chain genes ( IGL @ and IGK @ ) are found on chromosomes 22 and 2 in humans . One of these domains is called the variable domain , which is present in each heavy and light chain of every antibody , but can differ in different antibodies generated from distinct B cells . Differences , between the variable domains , are located on three loops known as hypervariable regions ( HV @-@ 1 , HV @-@ 2 and HV @-@ 3 ) or complementarity determining regions ( CDR1 , CDR2 and CDR3 ) . CDRs are supported within the variable domains by conserved framework regions . The heavy chain locus contains about 65 different variable domain genes that all differ in their CDRs . Combining these genes with an array of genes for other domains of the antibody generates a large cavalry of antibodies with a high degree of variability . This combination is called V ( D ) J recombination discussed below .
= = = V ( D ) J recombination = = =
Somatic recombination of immunoglobulins , also known as V ( D ) J recombination , involves the generation of a unique immunoglobulin variable region . The variable region of each immunoglobulin heavy or light chain is encoded in several pieces — known as gene segments ( subgenes ) . These segments are called variable ( V ) , diversity ( D ) and joining ( J ) segments . V , D and J segments are found in Ig heavy chains , but only V and J segments are found in Ig light chains . Multiple copies of the V , D and J gene segments exist , and are tandemly arranged in the genomes of mammals . In the bone marrow , each developing B cell will assemble an immunoglobulin variable region by randomly selecting and combining one V , one D and one J gene segment ( or one V and one J segment in the light chain ) . As there are multiple copies of each type of gene segment , and different combinations of gene segments can be used to generate each immunoglobulin variable region , this process generates a huge number of antibodies , each with different paratopes , and thus different antigen specificities . Interestingly , the rearrangement of several subgenes ( i.e. V2 family ) for lambda light chain immunoglobulin is coupled with the activation of microRNA miR @-@ 650 , which further influences biology of B @-@ cells .
RAG proteins play an important role with V ( D ) J recombination in cutting DNA at a particular region . Without the presence of these proteins , V ( D ) J recombination would not occur .
After a B cell produces a functional immunoglobulin gene during V ( D ) J recombination , it cannot express any other variable region ( a process known as allelic exclusion ) thus each B cell can produce antibodies containing only one kind of variable chain .
= = = Somatic hypermutation and affinity maturation = = =
Following activation with antigen , B cells begin to proliferate rapidly . In these rapidly dividing cells , the genes encoding the variable domains of the heavy and light chains undergo a high rate of point mutation , by a process called somatic hypermutation ( SHM ) . SHM results in approximately one nucleotide change per variable gene , per cell division . As a consequence , any daughter B cells will acquire slight amino acid differences in the variable domains of their antibody chains .
This serves to increase the diversity of the antibody pool and impacts the antibody 's antigen @-@ binding affinity . Some point mutations will result in the production of antibodies that have a weaker interaction ( low affinity ) with their antigen than the original antibody , and some mutations will generate antibodies with a stronger interaction ( high affinity ) . B cells that express high affinity antibodies on their surface will receive a strong survival signal during interactions with other cells , whereas those with low affinity antibodies will not , and will die by apoptosis . Thus , B cells expressing antibodies with a higher affinity for the antigen will outcompete those with weaker affinities for function and survival . The process of generating antibodies with increased binding affinities is called affinity maturation . Affinity maturation occurs in mature B cells after V ( D ) J recombination , and is dependent on help from helper T cells .
= = = Class switching = = =
Isotype or class switching is a biological process occurring after activation of the B cell , which allows the cell to produce different classes of antibody ( IgA , IgE , or IgG ) . The different classes of antibody , and thus effector functions , are defined by the constant ( C ) regions of the immunoglobulin heavy chain . Initially , naive B cells express only cell @-@ surface IgM and IgD with identical antigen binding regions . Each isotype is adapted for a distinct function ; therefore , after activation , an antibody with an IgG , IgA , or IgE effector function might be required to effectively eliminate an antigen . Class switching allows different daughter cells from the same activated B cell to produce antibodies of different isotypes . Only the constant region of the antibody heavy chain changes during class switching ; the variable regions , and therefore antigen specificity , remain unchanged . Thus the progeny of a single B cell can produce antibodies , all specific for the same antigen , but with the ability to produce the effector function appropriate for each antigenic challenge . Class switching is triggered by cytokines ; the isotype generated depends on which cytokines are present in the B cell environment .
Class switching occurs in the heavy chain gene locus by a mechanism called class switch recombination ( CSR ) . This mechanism relies on conserved nucleotide motifs , called switch ( S ) regions , found in DNA upstream of each constant region gene ( except in the δ @-@ chain ) . The DNA strand is broken by the activity of a series of enzymes at two selected S @-@ regions . The variable domain exon is rejoined through a process called non @-@ homologous end joining ( NHEJ ) to the desired constant region ( γ , α or ε ) . This process results in an immunoglobulin gene that encodes an antibody of a different isotype .
= = = Affinity designations = = =
A group of antibodies can be called monovalent ( or specific ) if they have affinity for the same epitope , or for the same antigen ( but potentially different epitopes on the molecule ) , or for the same strain of microorganism ( but potentially different antigens on or in it ) . In contrast , a group of antibodies can be called polyvalent ( or unspecific ) if they have affinity for various antigens or microorganisms . Intravenous immunoglobulin , if not otherwise noted , consists of polyvalent IgG . In contrast , monoclonal antibodies are monovalent for the same epitope .
= = = Asymmetrical antibodies = = =
Heterodimeric antibodies , which are also asymmetrical and antibodies , allow for greater flexibility and new formats for attaching a variety of drugs to the antibody arms . One of the general formats for a heterodimeric antibody is the “ knobs @-@ into @-@ holes ” format . This format is specific to the heavy chain part of the constant region in antibodies . The “ knobs ” part is engineered by replacing a small amino acid with a larger one . It fits into the “ hole ” , which is engineered by replacing a large amino acid with a smaller one . What connects the “ knobs ” to the “ holes ” are the disulfide bonds between each chain . The “ knobs @-@ into @-@ holes ” shape facilitates antibody dependent cell mediated cytotoxicity . Single chain variable fragments ( scFv ) are connected to the variable domain of the heavy and light chain via a short linker peptide . The linker is rich in glycine , which gives it more flexibility , and serine / threonine , which gives it specificity . Two different scFv fragments can be connected together , via a hinge region , to the constant domain of the heavy chain or the constant domain of the light chain . This gives the antibody bispecificity , allowing for the binding specificities of two different antigens . The “ knobs @-@ into @-@ holes ” format enhances heterodimer formation but doesn ’ t suppress homodimer formation .
To further improve the function of heterodimeric antibodies , many scientists are looking towards artificial constructs . Artificial antibodies are largely diverse protein motifs that use the functional strategy of the antibody molecule , but aren ’ t limited by the loop and framework structural constraints of the natural antibody . Being able to control the combinational design of the sequence and three @-@ dimensional space could transcend the natural design and allow for the attachment of different combinations of drugs to the arms .
Heterodimeric antibodies have a greater range in shapes they can take and the drugs that are attached to the arms don ’ t have to be the same on each arm , allowing for different combinations of drugs to be used in cancer treatment . Pharmaceuticals are able to produce highly functional bispecific , and even multispecific , antibodies . The degree to which they can function is impressive given that such a change shape from the natural form should lead to decreased functionality .
= = Medical applications = =
= = = Disease diagnosis = = =
Detection of particular antibodies is a very common form of medical diagnostics , and applications such as serology depend on these methods . For example , in biochemical assays for disease diagnosis , a titer of antibodies directed against Epstein @-@ Barr virus or Lyme disease is estimated from the blood . If those antibodies are not present , either the person is not infected or the infection occurred a very long time ago , and the B cells generating these specific antibodies have naturally decayed .
In clinical immunology , levels of individual classes of immunoglobulins are measured by nephelometry ( or turbidimetry ) to characterize the antibody profile of patient . Elevations in different classes of immunoglobulins are sometimes useful in determining the cause of liver damage in patients for whom the diagnosis is unclear . For example , elevated IgA indicates alcoholic cirrhosis , elevated IgM indicates viral hepatitis and primary biliary cirrhosis , while IgG is elevated in viral hepatitis , autoimmune hepatitis and cirrhosis .
Autoimmune disorders can often be traced to antibodies that bind the body 's own epitopes ; many can be detected through blood tests . Antibodies directed against red blood cell surface antigens in immune mediated hemolytic anemia are detected with the Coombs test . The Coombs test is also used for antibody screening in blood transfusion preparation and also for antibody screening in antenatal women .
Practically , several immunodiagnostic methods based on detection of complex antigen @-@ antibody are used to diagnose infectious diseases , for example ELISA , immunofluorescence , Western blot , immunodiffusion , immunoelectrophoresis , and magnetic immunoassay . Antibodies raised against human chorionic gonadotropin are used in over the counter pregnancy tests .
= = = Disease therapy = = =
Targeted monoclonal antibody therapy is employed to treat diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis , multiple sclerosis , psoriasis , and many forms of cancer including non @-@ Hodgkin 's lymphoma , colorectal cancer , head and neck cancer and breast cancer .
Some immune deficiencies , such as X @-@ linked agammaglobulinemia and hypogammaglobulinemia , result in partial or complete lack of antibodies . These diseases are often treated by inducing a short term form of immunity called passive immunity . Passive immunity is achieved through the transfer of ready @-@ made antibodies in the form of human or animal serum , pooled immunoglobulin or monoclonal antibodies , into the affected individual .
= = = Prenatal therapy = = =
Rhesus factor , also known as Rhesus D ( RhD ) antigen , is an antigen found on red blood cells ; individuals that are Rhesus @-@ positive ( Rh + ) have this antigen on their red blood cells and individuals that are Rhesus @-@ negative ( Rh – ) do not . During normal childbirth , delivery trauma or complications during pregnancy , blood from a fetus can enter the mother 's system . In the case of an Rh @-@ incompatible mother and child , consequential blood mixing may sensitize an Rh- mother to the Rh antigen on the blood cells of the Rh + child , putting the remainder of the pregnancy , and any subsequent pregnancies , at risk for hemolytic disease of the newborn .
Rho ( D ) immune globulin antibodies are specific for human Rhesus D ( RhD ) antigen . Anti @-@ RhD antibodies are administered as part of a prenatal treatment regimen to prevent sensitization that may occur when a Rhesus @-@ negative mother has a Rhesus @-@ positive fetus . Treatment of a mother with Anti @-@ RhD antibodies prior to and immediately after trauma and delivery destroys Rh antigen in the mother 's system from the fetus . It is important to note that this occurs before the antigen can stimulate maternal B cells to " remember " Rh antigen by generating memory B cells . Therefore , her humoral immune system will not make anti @-@ Rh antibodies , and will not attack the Rhesus antigens of the current or subsequent babies . Rho ( D ) Immune Globulin treatment prevents sensitization that can lead to Rh disease , but does not prevent or treat the underlying disease itself .
= = Research applications = =
Specific antibodies are produced by injecting an antigen into a mammal , such as a mouse , rat , rabbit , goat , sheep , or horse for large quantities of antibody . Blood isolated from these animals contains polyclonal antibodies — multiple antibodies that bind to the same antigen — in the serum , which can now be called antiserum . Antigens are also injected into chickens for generation of polyclonal antibodies in egg yolk . To obtain antibody that is specific for a single epitope of an antigen , antibody @-@ secreting lymphocytes are isolated from the animal and immortalized by fusing them with a cancer cell line . The fused cells are called hybridomas , and will continually grow and secrete antibody in culture . Single hybridoma cells are isolated by dilution cloning to generate cell clones that all produce the same antibody ; these antibodies are called monoclonal antibodies . Polyclonal and monoclonal antibodies are often purified using Protein A / G or antigen @-@ affinity chromatography .
In research , purified antibodies are used in many applications . Antibodies for research applications can be found directly from antibody suppliers , or through use of a specialist search engine . Research antibodies are most commonly used to identify and locate intracellular and extracellular proteins . Antibodies are used in flow cytometry to differentiate cell types by the proteins they express ; different types of cell express different combinations of cluster of differentiation molecules on their surface , and produce different intracellular and secretable proteins . They are also used in immunoprecipitation to separate proteins and anything bound to them ( co @-@ immunoprecipitation ) from other molecules in a cell lysate , in Western blot analyses to identify proteins separated by electrophoresis , and in immunohistochemistry or immunofluorescence to examine protein expression in tissue sections or to locate proteins within cells with the assistance of a microscope . Proteins can also be detected and quantified with antibodies , using ELISA and ELISPOT techniques .
Researchers using antibodies in their work need to record them correctly in order to allow their research to be reproducible ( and therefore tested , and qualified by other researchers ) . Less than half of research antibodies referenced in academic papers can be easily identified . A paper published in F1000 in 2014 provided researchers with a guide for reporting research antibody use .
= = Regulatory validation of monoclonal antibody products for human use = =
Production and testing :
Traditionally , most antibodies are produced by hybridoma cell lines through immortalization of antibody @-@ producing cells by chemically @-@ induced fusion with myeloma cells . In some cases , additional fusions with other lines have created " triomas " and " quadromas " . The manufacturing process should be appropriately described and validated . Validation studies should at least include :
The demonstration that the process is able to produce in good quality ( the process should be validated )
The efficiency of the antibody purification ( all impurities and virus must be eliminated )
The characterization of purified antibody ( physicochemical characterization , immunological properties , biological activities , contaminants , ... )
Determination of the virus clearance studies
Before clinical trials , studies of product safety and feasibility have to be performed :
Product safety testing : Sterility ( bacteria and fungi ) , In vitro and in vivo testing for adventitious viruses , Murine retrovirus testing ... Product safety data needed before the initiation of feasibility trials in serious or immediately life @-@ threatening conditions , it serves to evaluate dangerous potential of the product .
Feasibility testing : These are pilot studies whose objectives include , among others , early characterization of safety and initial proof of concept in a small specific patient population ( in vito or in vivo testing ) .
Preclinical studies :
Testing cross @-@ reactivity of antibody : to highlight unwanted interactions ( toxicity ) of antibodies with previously characterized tissues . This study can be performed in vitro ( Reactivity of the antibody or immunoconjugate should be determined with a quick @-@ frozen adult tissues ) or in vivo ( with appropriates animal models ) . More informations about in vitro cross @-@ reactivity testing .
Preclinical pharmacology and toxicity testing : Preclinical safety testing of antibody is designed to identify possible toxicities in humans , to estimate the likelihood and severity of potential adverse events in humans , and to identify a safe starting dose and dose escalation , when possible .
Animal toxicity studies : Acute toxicity testing , Repeat @-@ dose toxicity testing , Long @-@ term toxicity testing http : / / www.animalresearch.info / en / drug @-@ development / safety @-@ testing /
Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics testing : Use for determinate clinical dosages , antibody activities ( AUC , pharmacodynamics , biodistribution , ... ) , evaluation of the potential clinical effects
= = Structure prediction = =
The importance of antibodies in health care and the biotechnology industry demands knowledge of their structures at high resolution . This information is used for protein engineering , modifying the antigen binding affinity , and identifying an epitope , of a given antibody . X @-@ ray crystallography is one commonly used method for determining antibody structures . However , crystallizing an antibody is often laborious and time @-@ consuming . Computational approaches provide a cheaper and faster alternative to crystallography , but their results are more equivocal , since they do not produce empirical structures . Online web servers such as Web Antibody Modeling ( WAM ) and Prediction of Immunoglobulin Structure ( PIGS ) enables computational modeling of antibody variable regions . Rosetta Antibody is a novel antibody FV region structure prediction server , which incorporates sophisticated techniques to minimize CDR loops and optimize the relative orientation of the light and heavy chains , as well as homology models that predict successful docking of antibodies with their unique antigen .
The ability to describe the antibody through binding affinity to the antigen is supplemented by information on antibody structure and amino acid sequences for the purpose of patent claims .
= = History = =
The first use of the term " antibody " occurred in a text by Paul Ehrlich . The term Antikörper ( the German word for antibody ) appears in the conclusion of his article " Experimental Studies on Immunity " , published in October 1891 , which states that , " if two substances give rise to two different antikörper , then they themselves must be different " . However , the term was not accepted immediately and several other terms for antibody were proposed ; these included Immunkörper , Amboceptor , Zwischenkörper , substance sensibilisatrice , copula , Desmon , philocytase , fixateur , and Immunisin . The word antibody has formal analogy to the word antitoxin and a similar concept to Immunkörper ( immune body in English ) . As such , the original construction of the word contains a logical flaw ; the antitoxin is something directed against a toxin , while the antibody is a body directed against something .
The study of antibodies began in 1890 when Kitasato Shibasaburō described antibody activity against diphtheria and tetanus toxins . Kitasato put forward the theory of humoral immunity , proposing that a mediator in serum could react with a foreign antigen . His idea prompted Paul Ehrlich to propose the side @-@ chain theory for antibody and antigen interaction in 1897 , when he hypothesized that receptors ( described as " side @-@ chains " ) on the surface of cells could bind specifically to toxins – in a " lock @-@ and @-@ key " interaction – and that this binding reaction is the trigger for the production of antibodies . Other researchers believed that antibodies existed freely in the blood and , in 1904 , Almroth Wright suggested that soluble antibodies coated bacteria to label them for phagocytosis and killing ; a process that he named opsoninization .
In the 1920s , Michael Heidelberger and Oswald Avery observed that antigens could be precipitated by antibodies and went on to show that antibodies are made of protein . The biochemical properties of antigen @-@ antibody @-@ binding interactions were examined in more detail in the late 1930s by John Marrack . The next major advance was in the 1940s , when Linus Pauling confirmed the lock @-@ and @-@ key theory proposed by Ehrlich by showing that the interactions between antibodies and antigens depend more on their shape than their chemical composition . In 1948 , Astrid Fagreaus discovered that B cells , in the form of plasma cells , were responsible for generating antibodies .
Further work concentrated on characterizing the structures of the antibody proteins . A major advance in these structural studies was the discovery in the early 1960s by Gerald Edelman and Joseph Gally of the antibody light chain , and their realization that this protein is the same as the Bence @-@ Jones protein described in 1845 by Henry Bence Jones . Edelman went on to discover that antibodies are composed of disulfide bond @-@ linked heavy and light chains . Around the same time , antibody @-@ binding ( Fab ) and antibody tail ( Fc ) regions of IgG were characterized by Rodney Porter . Together , these scientists deduced the structure and complete amino acid sequence of IgG , a feat for which they were jointly awarded the 1972 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine . The Fv fragment was prepared and characterized by David Givol . While most of these early studies focused on IgM and IgG , other immunoglobulin isotypes were identified in the 1960s : Thomas Tomasi discovered secretory antibody ( IgA ) ; David S. Rowe and John L. Fahey discovered IgD ; and Kimishige Ishizaka and Teruko Ishizaka discovered IgE and showed it was a class of antibodies involved in allergic reactions . In a landmark series of experiments beginning in 1976 , Susumu Tonegawa showed that genetic material can rearrange itself to form the vast array of available antibodies .
= = Antibody mimetic = =
Antibody mimetics are organic compounds that , like antibodies , can specifically bind antigens . They are usually artificial peptides or proteins with a molar mass of about 3 to 20 kDa . Nucleic acids and small molecules are sometimes considered antibody mimetics , but not artificial antibodies , antibody fragments and fusion proteins are composed from these . Common advantages over antibodies are better solubility , tissue penetration , stability towards heat and enzymes , and comparatively low production costs . Antibody mimetics such as the Affimer and the DARPin have being developed and commercialised as research , diagnostic and therapeutic agents .
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= Charodeika @-@ class monitor =
The Charodeika class was a pair of monitors built for the Imperial Russian Navy in the late 1860s . They were designed by the British shipbuilder Charles Mitchell and built in Saint Petersburg . Both ships were assigned to the Baltic Fleet and had fairly uneventful careers mostly assigned to training units . Rusalka struck a rock in 1869 and had to be run aground lest she sink . They were reclassified as coast @-@ defense ironclads in 1892 and Rusalka sank during a storm in the Gulf of Finland the next year with the loss of all hands . Her sister ship Charodeika continued in service until 1907 and was eventually scrapped in 1911 – 12 . Rusalka 's wreck was discovered in 2003 by an expedition sponsored by the Estonian Maritime Museum .
= = Design and description = =
By late 1863 , the Russian Admiralty Board had begun planning for the second generation of ironclads to succeed those ships then under construction and issued a requirement on 12 November for a twin @-@ screw low @-@ freeboard ship that could sail throughout the Baltic Sea . It was to be armed with 15 @-@ inch ( 381 mm ) smoothbore Dahlgren guns and protected by up to 6 in ( 152 mm ) of armor . Before even deciding which designs to accept , the Admiralty decided to order eight ships of various types in March 1864 . Charles Mitchell was allocated only one of the eight ships before he submitted four different designs for the competition in May – June . Two ships of his simplest design were awarded to a new builder , S. G. Kudriavtsev , who was provided facilities at the state @-@ owned Galernyi Island Shipyard . In addition the Admiralty committed itself to furnishing the armament , armor , engines and boilers as well as a variety of smaller components for the two ships .
The Charodeika @-@ class monitors were significantly larger than their predecessor , Smerch , and were 206 feet ( 62 @.@ 8 m ) long at the waterline . They had a beam of 42 feet ( 12 @.@ 8 m ) and a maximum draft of 12 feet 7 inches ( 3 @.@ 8 m ) . The ships were designed to displace 1 @,@ 882 long tons ( 1 @,@ 912 t ) , but turned out to be overweight and actually displaced 2 @,@ 100 long tons ( 2 @,@ 100 t ) . They were fitted with a plough @-@ shaped ram that projected four feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) forward of the bow . The Charodeikas were fitted with a double bottom and their hulls were subdivided by watertight bulkheads into 25 compartments . Their crew numbered 13 officers and 171 crewmen in 1877 .
The ships had a freeboard of only two feet ( 0 @.@ 6 m ) and their decks were often awash in any sort of moderate sea . They rolled heavily and were very unmaneuverable , often not responding to the ship 's wheel until 20 degrees of rudder was applied . The monitors were fitted with three iron pole masts , probably fore @-@ and @-@ aft rigged , and used to steady the ship rather than for propulsion .
= = = Propulsion = = =
The Charodeika class had two simple horizontal direct @-@ acting steam engines , built by the Baird Works of Saint Petersburg . The engines had a bore of 38 inches ( 0 @.@ 97 m ) and a stroke of 18 inches ( 0 @.@ 46 m ) and each drove a single four @-@ bladed 8 @-@ foot @-@ 6 @-@ inch ( 2 @.@ 59 m ) propeller . Steam was provided by two rectangular boilers at a pressure of 1 @.@ 6 atm ( 162 kPa ; 24 psi ) . The engines were designed to produce a total of 875 indicated horsepower ( 652 kW ) , but only produced 705 – 786 ihp ( 526 – 586 kW ) which gave the ships speeds between 8 @.@ 5 – 9 knots ( 15 @.@ 7 – 16 @.@ 7 km / h ; 9 @.@ 8 – 10 @.@ 4 mph ) when they ran their sea trials in 1869 . The monitors also had a donkey boiler for the small steam engine that powered the ventilation fans and pumps . The Charodeika class carried a maximum of 250 long tons ( 254 t ) ; their range , however , is unknown .
= = = Armament = = =
The monitors were designed to be armed with four Obukhov 9 @-@ inch ( 229 mm ) rifled guns , a pair in each Coles @-@ type turret . Various deckhouses and ventilation hatches prevented the turrets from firing directly forward or aft , so that each turret could bear approximately 150 ° to each side . Difficulties in manufacturing the guns and the delayed construction of the monitors themselves forced the Admiralty to change the armament to a pair of the 9 @-@ inch guns in the forward turret and a pair of 15 @-@ inch ( 380 mm ) smoothbore muzzle @-@ loading Rodman guns in the aft turret . These guns were replaced by another pair of 9 @-@ inch rifled guns beginning in 1871 . They were replaced in their turn in 1878 – 79 by two longer , more powerful 9 @-@ inch Obukhov guns . The ship carried 75 rounds for each gun .
Light guns for use against torpedo boats are not known to have been fitted aboard the Charodeika @-@ class ships before the 1870s when a variety of guns were added , although their numbers , calibers , and locations are only partially known . Charodeika received four 4 @-@ pounder 3 @.@ 4 @-@ inch ( 86 mm ) guns , two mounted on the roofs of each gun turret while Rusalka had a total of three guns with only one gun on her aft turret . Other guns known have been fitted included 45 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 8 in ) Engström quick @-@ firing ( QF ) guns , 47 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) QF Hotchkiss guns , 37 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) QF Hotchkiss five @-@ barreled revolving cannon , and 1 @-@ inch ( 25 mm ) Nordenfelt guns .
= = = Armor = = =
The Charodeika @-@ class monitors had a complete waterline belt of wrought iron that was 4 @.@ 5 inches ( 114 mm ) thick amidships and thinned to 3 @.@ 25 inches ( 83 mm ) aft and 3 @.@ 75 inches ( 95 mm ) forward . It was 7 feet 6 inches ( 2 m ) high and completely covered the hull to 5 feet 6 inches ( 2 m ) below the waterline . The armor was backed by 12 to 18 inches ( 305 to 457 mm ) of teak . The turrets had 5 @.@ 5 inches ( 140 mm ) of armor , also backed by teak , and the conning tower was 4 @.@ 5 inches thick . Amidships , the deck was 1 inch thick , although it thinned to 0 @.@ 25 – 0 @.@ 5 inches ( 6 – 13 mm ) at the ends of the ship .
= = Ships = =
= = Construction and service = =
The monitors were intended to be delivered by 27 May 1867 , but construction was held up by delays in delivery of the blueprints , armor , changes made while under construction and the untimely death of Kudriavtsev in August 1865 . The contract was transferred to Mitchell who completed them in 1869 , two years after their scheduled delivery date for the cost of 762 @,@ 000 roubles each . Both ships spent their entire careers with the Baltic Fleet . In June , Charodeika ripped a 28 @-@ foot ( 8 @.@ 5 m ) long hole in her hull when she struck an uncharted rock in the Gulf of Finland and had to be deliberately run aground to prevent her sinking . She was assigned to the Artillery Training Detachment of the Baltic Fleet in March 1870 and Charodeika was later assigned to the Mine ( Torpedo ) Training Detachment .
Both monitors were reclassified as coast @-@ defense ironclads on 13 February 1892 and Rusalka sank in a storm on 7 September 1893 during a voyage between Reval ( Tallinn ) and Helsingfors ( Helsinki ) with the loss of her entire crew of 177 officers and enlisted men . Despite an extensive search , the only traces of her found were one body and some debris that washed ashore . Charodeika remained in service until 31 March 1907 when she was turned over to the Port of Kronstadt for disposal . The ship was stricken from the Navy List on 7 April and was finally scrapped in 1911 – 12 .
Rusalka 's wreck was discovered on 22 July 2003 in the Gulf of Finland , 25 kilometers ( 13 nmi ) south of Helsinki , by a joint expedition of the Estonian Maritime Museum and the commercial diving company Tuukritööde OÜ . The wreck is generally intact although draped with snagged fishing nets . The aft turret , however , has fallen out of the ship .
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= Overprotected =
" Overprotected " is a song recorded by American singer Britney Spears for her third studio album , Britney ( 2001 ) . It was written and produced by Max Martin and Rami . The song was released on December 12 , 2001 by Jive Records , as the second single from Britney . " Overprotected " is a dance @-@ pop and teen pop song that is about a girl who is tired of being overprotected and just wants to be herself . The song received mixed reviews from contemporary music critics and was released to United States radio on April 1 , 2002 .
While it did not perform well on the Billboard charts in the United States , " Overprotected " peaked at number 22 in Canada , while reaching the top five in Italy , Romania , Sweden and United Kingdom . An accompanying music video , directed by Billie Woodruff , portrays Spears dancing inside an abandoned factory , while singing about being overprotected ; the music video for " The Darkchild Remix " , directed by Chris Applebaum , portrays Spears dancing and having fun with her friends . Spears has performed " Overprotected " a number of times including at the Dream Within a Dream Tour ( 2001 ) and The Onyx Hotel Tour ( 2004 ) . In 2003 , the song received a nomination for a Grammy Award for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance . The song was also featured in the animated film Hotel Transylvania .
= = Background = =
During the Oops ! ... I Did It Again Tour ( 2000 ) , Spears revealed she felt inspired by hip hop artists such as Jay @-@ Z and The Neptunes and wanted to create a record with a funkier sound . In February 2001 , Spears signed a $ 7 – 8 million promotional deal with Pepsi , and released another book co @-@ written with her mother , entitled A Mother 's Gift . On the same month , Spears started to record material for her third studio album , with " Overprotected " being recorded at Maratone Studios in Stockholm , Sweden . Additional recording was done in April 2001 at Maratone in Sweden , in which the song 's vocals were completed . Background vocals were provided by Spears and Bosslady , with the track being mixed by Martin and Rami at Maratone Studios . Her third studio album , Britney , was released in November 2001 . In an interview with the Daily Record , Spears concluded she can relate to " Overprotected " " on a personal basis , because I feel kind of overprotected . When I want to go out , everything has to be organized in advance . I think that other kids of my age can relate to it to a certain extent . "
= = Composition = =
" Oveprotected " is a teen pop and dance @-@ pop song that lasts for three minutes and 18 seconds . David Browne of Entertainment Weekly noticed Europop influences on the song , while other critics compared it to previous songs released by Spears . According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Universal Music Publishing Group , " Overprotected " is composed in the key of C minor and is set in time signature of common time , with a moderate tempo of 96 beats per minute . Spears vocal range spans from A ♭ 3 to C5 .
Lyrically , the track is about a girl who is tired of being manipulated by people around her and doesn 't need to be told what to do , which is perceived in lines such as " You 're gonna have to see through my perspective / I need to make mistakes just to learn who I am / And I don 't want to be so damn protected " . Dana Alice Heller , author of Makeover television : realities remodelled ( 2007 ) , said that , with " Overprotected " , " Spears addresses the problem of being a teen star whose personal and professional are handled by others . " She also compared " Overprotected " with the singer 's first reality show , Britney & Kevin : Chaotic ( 2005 ) , saying that " Britney frames her makeover as a move toward to independence , a rebellion against overly controlling parents and their stand @-@ ins . "
= = Remixes = =
After being hired by Jive Records to create a remix for " Oveprotected " , Rodney Jerkins revealed that the label " needed a remix that 's crazy . " Jerkins said the remix has " an old @-@ school @-@ type rhythm , which I think is kinda cool because it 's an element [ that Spears ] never had , but I still gave it her edge . I was up all night rocking that joint . [ It has the ] same lyrics , I just reproduced the track . " " The Darkchild Remix " was initially being sent to radio stations in the United States in mid @-@ March 2002 and then became the opening track of the compilation album Now That 's What I Call Music ! 10 later that year ; however , it was only released on April 1 , 2002 . The remix was heavily played in dance clubs , and Jerkins said he wasn 't surprised with the popularity of it , since " [ Britney ] reinvented herself . Everybody thought she was gonna come back with another ' Oops ! ... I Did It Again ' , but she went left and came with the ' I 'm a Slave 4 U ' joint , which is basically a club banger . You gotta big up people who reinvent themselves . I always said she was gonna be one of the people that 's gonna be around for a minute , because I see that in her . " Finnish musician and record producer Jaakko Salovaara also created two remixes for the track , titled " JS16 Dub " and " JS16 Remix " . The latter was included on the promotional soundtrack of Spears ' debut movie , Crossroads ( 2002 ) .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
" Overprotected " received generally positive reviews from music critics . Jocelyn Vena of MTV said that " with songs like " Overprotected " and " Let Me Be , " Spears seemed to be letting out her adolescent angst , " while Kyle Anderson of MTV Newsroom said , " the real first blush with emancipation from [ the singer ] teen pop past came with [ ' Overprotected ' ] " . While reviewing Spears ' third studio album Britney ( 2001 ) , Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic said the track , along with " I 'm Not a Girl , Not Yet a Woman " and " What It 's Like to Be Me " , " are pivotal moments on Britney Spears ' third album , the record where she strives to deepen her persona ( not the same thing as her character , of course ) , making it more adult while still recognizably Britney " .
Critic Robert Christgau also considered " Overprotected " and " Cinderella " as the highlights of Britney , while saying , " hardly the first not @-@ terribly @-@ bright teenager to approach self @-@ knowledge via the words of others " . Nikki Tranker of PopMatters said the song " is an absolute belter reminiscent of Britney ’ s previous big @-@ bang singles , ' Oops ! I Did It Again ' and ' You Drive Me Crazy ' [ sic ] " , while commenting that Spears " sings about ridding herself of the girlie chains around her , gripes about her need for space in the whirlwind that is her life , and lets us know she don ’ t need nobody telling her what to do . " In 2003 , the song received a Grammy nomination for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance .
= = = Chart performance = = =
" Overprotected " attained commercial success in Europe . In France , it peaked at number 15 , and was later certified Silver by the Syndicat National de l 'Édition Phonographique ( SNEP ) , for selling over 125 @,@ 000 units of the single . In Sweden , the song reached number two , and was later certified Gold by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry ( IFPI ) , for selling over 15 @,@ 000 units .
" Overprotected " also reached the top five in Italy , Romania , and United Kingdom , while reaching the top ten in Belgium ( Flanders ) , Finland , Ireland , and Norway . In the United States , on the week of May 4 , 2002 , " The Darkchild Remix " peaked at number 86 on Billboard Hot 100 , where it stayed on the chart for five weeks . It also entered on the Pop Songs chart , where it peaked at number 37 on the week of May 25 , 2002 , before dropping the chart in the following chart issue . In Canada , the song peaked at number 22 on the Canadian Hot 100 .
= = Music videos = =
= = = Original version = = =
The music video for " Overprotected " was directed by Billie Woodruff and produced under Geneva Films , while choreographed by Brian Friedman . In an interview with Harper 's Bazaar in 2011 , Spears recalled the music video , saying , " I just think it says a lot . It was directed so well , it was really colorful and the dancing was amazing " . It begins with Spears driving away from the paparazzi , with a part of the instrumental version of the song " Bombastic Love " , featured on the album Britney , playing . She makes her way into an alleyway and decides to enter an abandoned factory , hoping her pursuers will be thrown off course . When she enters the building she begins to dance her way around the warehouse . Britney 's dancers , having spotted her walking into the factory , follow her inside . They find Britney dancing around and joke about it , before heading into a heavy dance routine . Towards the end of the video , segments of Spears in a room with walls covered in pictures and articles about herself are also shown . These walls move in and out before the video ends , signifying that she is " overprotected " . At the end of the video , Britney walks to a wall , and exits the building .
= = = The Darkchild Remix = = =
The music video for " The Darkchild Remix " was directed by Chris Applebaum and filmed in the first weekend of March 2002 in Los Angeles , California . It was produced under A Band Apart Productions , while the choreography for this version was also created by Brian Friedman . The full shooting took 23 hours , and Applebaum was said to be impressed with Spears ' " stamina and patience through the marathon shoot , which wrapped 5 a.m. " According to Joe D 'Angelo of MTV , " the clip furthers her ' I 'm Not a Girl , Not Yet a Woman ' crusade to shirk her adolescent image , as she and five friends outsmart her bodyguard with the old ' you 're wanted elsewhere ' trick and sneak out of a hotel and into an underground dance club . " It was released on March 26 , 2002 .
Spears directly referenced Janet Jackson 's " Son of a Gun ( I Betcha Think This Song Is About You ) " music video in the " Overprotected ( Darkchild Remix ) " video during the elevator scenes and scenes of her and her dancers walking down the hotel lobby . Both videos also use the same hotel setting , filmed at Los Angeles ' Millennium Biltmore Hotel . Spears also references and draws inspiration from Janet Jackson in several other music videos , including " Stronger " , " Circus " , and " Womanizer " , which she mentioned in her " For the Record " documentary .
The video opens with Spears and her friends in a hotel room , where a tabloid reporter on television criticizes her for the sexy , revealing outfits she 's often seen wearing publicly . Spears and her friends express their disagreement with the report . Spears , determined to be self @-@ sufficient and unaffected by media comments , then makes a phone call to her bodyguard , and using a cloth to disguise the sound of her voice , coaxes him to leave the area so that her group may sneak out of the hotel and enjoy the day . They run into an elevator and fool around briefly with the security cameras before going up to the main lobby . A strut down the lobby of the hotel and a short dance sequence follows . As they leave the hotel , they follow towards the dance club . However , before they arrive , they 're caught in an alley by several paparazzi , and start to perform a dance routine in the middle of the rain . As they make their entrance , they 're dripping wet , an image which makes for more sensationalist fodder for the tabloid reporter .
= = Live performances = =
" Overprotected " was performed for the first time on 2001 's Dream Within a Dream Tour . During the performance , Spears was dancing to the song surrounded by laser lights . The video backdrop showed images of a bald Spears , with her hair growing as the song went along . However , the backdrop was later removed for unknown reasons . After the announcement of the 2002 extension of the tour , some changes were made to the setlist , replacing the original mix of the song by " The Darkchild Remix " . The remix was later performed on The Onyx Hotel Tour ( 2004 ) , during the opening act , right after the performance of " Toxic " ( 2003 ) . Spears ' debut film , Crossroads ( 2002 ) , features a performance of the song during the credits .
= = Track listings = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits for " Overprotected " are adapted from Britney liner notes .
Technical
Recorded and mixed at Maratone Studios in Stockholm , Sweden .
Additional recording at Battery Studios in New York City , New York .
Personnel
Britney Spears — vocals
Max Martin — songwriting , production , mixing , guitar
Rami Yacoub — songwriting , production , mixing
Boss Lady — background vocals
Rodney Jerkins — remixing
Britney Spears – background vocals
Michel Tucker — pro @-@ tools engineer
Daniel Savio — turntables
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
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= Clevedon Court =
Clevedon Court is a manor house on Court Hill in Clevedon , North Somerset , England , dating from the early 14th century . It is now owned by the National Trust . It is designated as a Grade I listed building .
The house was built and added to over many years . The great hall and chapel block are the earliest surviving parts of the structure with the west wing being added around 1570 , when the windows and decoration of the rest of the building were changed . Further construction and adaptation was undertaken in the 18th century when it was owned by the Elton baronets . The house was acquired by the nation and was given to the National Trust in part @-@ payment for death duties in 1960 . The Elton family is still resident in the house , which is now open to the public .
In addition to the main house , the grounds include a selection of walls and outbuildings , some of which date back to the 13th century . The gardens are listed ( Grade II * ) on the National Register of Historic Parks and Gardens .
= = History = =
Much of the present house was built in the early 14th century by Sir John de Clevedon . There is speculation that it may lie on the site of a Roman building , based on excavations to the south of the house in 1961 / 62 . The house incorporates remnants of a 13th @-@ century building which lie at an angle to the rest of the house . It was situated nearly two miles inland from the parish church of St Andrew , which stands on the coast .
After the Norman Conquest of 1066 , the manor of Clevedon was granted by the King to Matthew de Mortagne , who in turn granted it to his sub @-@ tenant , Hildebert . It is thought that Sir John was a descendant of either Matthew or Hildebert . Perhaps because of the distance to the parish church , the manor house included a chapel dedicated , in the 1320s , to Saint Peter . The house has undergone considerable change since it was built , almost every century seeing structural alterations , but it still retains many features of a mediaeval manor house .
The de Clevedon family line ended in 1376 , and the manor eventually passed , by marriage , to the Northamptonshire family of Wake , who were Lords of the Manor until 1630 . John Wake made major additions to the house in the late 16th century , including a new west wing . The manor was sold by Sir John Wake to Sir John Digby in 1630 . Digby 's estates were confiscated during the English Civil War , but were recovered after the Restoration by his heir . In 1709 the house was bought by Abraham Elton , a merchant from Bristol .
The Eltons were a prominent Bristol family , and Abraham 1st was Sheriff of Bristol in 1702 , a member of the Society of Merchant Venturers becoming Master in 1708 , Mayor of Bristol in 1710 , and High Sheriff of Gloucestershire in 1716 . He became a member of parliament for the five years preceding his death in 1728 . He was created a baronet in 1717 as the first of the Elton baronets . The family wealth originally came from copper and brass ( including mining in the Mendip Hills ) and other commerce , and property . His descendants , not only at Clevedon , also profited from the slave trade .
Sir Abraham Elton was succeeded by four further Sir Abraham Eltons . Sir Abraham Elton , 2nd Baronet , and his son Sir Abraham Elton , 3rd Baronet , were also Sheriff and Mayor of Bristol in their time , and the second Baronet was also MP for Taunton 1722 – 1727 , succeeding to his father 's seat of Bristol in 1727 until his own death in 1742 , despite being nearly ruined in the South Seas Bubble crisis . The third Baronet died bankrupt , and the estate ( which had been entailed to protect it from his creditors ) passed in 1761 to his brother , Sir Abraham Isaac Elton , 4th Baronet . He made substantial changes to the house and grounds in the then fashionable Gothic revival style , and was succeeded in 1790 by his son , Sir Abraham Elton , 5th Baronet . He was ordained as a young man , and was a curate in West Bromwich before inheriting the title . He was a supporter of Hannah More , and a fervent opponent of Methodism , at one time inducing the vicar of Blagdon to sack his curate , causing a national scandal . His second wife , Mary , made further alterations to the house in the early 19th century , and also made many improvements to the town , including a school . One of the town 's modern primary schools is named after her .
The line of Abrahams came to an end in 1842 when Sir Charles Abraham Elton , 6th Baronet , succeeded his father . Sir Charles was a writer , and contributed to several periodicals including The Gentleman 's Magazine . Sir Charles ' sister Julia was married to the historian Henry Hallam , and his nephew Arthur Hallam is buried in the Elton family vault at St Andrew 's church . Arthur Hallam is the subject of Alfred Tennyson 's poem In Memoriam A.H.H .. Tennyson visited Clevedon Court in 1850 , the year in which the poem was published , and also in which he was created Poet Laureate . William Makepeace Thackeray was a visitor to the court during Sir Charles 's time and it was the inspiration for the house Castlewood which featured in his novel The History of Henry Esmond although , contrary to common belief , it is improbable that he wrote any of it at Clevedon Court . Samuel Taylor Coleridge lived in Clevedon briefly during this period and may have visited the Court .
Sir Arthur Elton , 7th Baronet , inherited the house and title in 1853 and , like his father , was a writer . He resigned as MP for Bath in 1859 and spent the rest of his life improving the town , setting up a lending library and allotments , and building and funding the cottage hospital ( still in existence ) . All Saints ' Church , near the Court , was built in 1860 on the orders of Sir Arthur , and he also made additions to the fabric of the Court itself . The West Wing of the house was largely destroyed by a fire in 1882 . It was rebuilt , with C. E. Davis as the architect . During these building works , the chapel was rediscovered , the East window having been filled and altar broken off ( perhaps during the English Protestant Reformation ) , and the room having been known until then as the " Lady 's Bower " .
Sir Edmund Elton , 8th Baronet , nephew and son @-@ in @-@ law of Sir Arthur , inherited the estate and title in 1883 . He was an enthusiastic voluntary fireman , and inventor of one of the first forked bicycle brakes , as well as a device to prevent ladies ' skirts from becoming entangled in bicycle wheels . He was also a well @-@ known potter , setting up his " Sunflower Pottery " in the Court grounds with the help of a local boy called George Masters . " Elton ware " became popular , especially in America where it was marketed by Tiffany & Co . Elton and Masters ' work typically has a variety of rich colours , bas @-@ relief decoration of flowers in a style similar to Art Nouveau , and in the later works metallic glazes are often used .
Sir Edmund 's son Sir Ambrose succeeded him in 1920 . His son Sir Arthur was one of the pioneers of documentary film making in the years prior to , during and after the Second World War , working with John Grierson . He inherited the title on his father 's death in 1951 . The house was acquired by the Nation , and was given to the National Trust , in part @-@ payment of death duties , in 1960 . The West Wing was immediately demolished , being considered to have no architectural or historical significance , to reduce running costs and to return the house to its supposed mediaeval ground plan . Sir Arthur died in 1973 and was succeeded by his son Sir Charles . The Elton family is still resident in the house , which is now open to the public .
= = Architecture — the house = =
The site faces south , with its back to Court Hill , and the road may have passed east @-@ west within 15 metres ( 49 ft ) of the front door . The great hall , screens passage , porches and chapel blocks have all survived from the early 14th century and the square headed chapel windows contain reticulated tracery of the decorated period . These buildings were probably complete by 1322 although the parapets of the porches and chapel may have been remodelled at a later date . The 14th @-@ century building embodied older structures including a small four @-@ storey tower that dates , perhaps , to the mid to late 13th century , and the building that became the 14th @-@ century kitchen ( now the museum ) was probably the earlier hall .
Alterations during the late mediaeval period were limited to the addition of a two @-@ storey latrine tower at the rear of the house and some rearrangement of the rooms around it . In about 1570 a substantial west wing was added , adjoining and parallel to the solar wing . Apparently typical of its period , it would have transformed the living arrangements of the Wake family who built it . Presumably at the same time , the front of the solar block and east wing were " Elizabethanised " with new windows , and the gable end of the kitchen block at the eastern end was decorated with finials .
There is little evidence of the building work that must have been done in the early 1700s following a period of near @-@ disuse and it may have been restricted to repairs . Substantial alterations in the 1760s and 1770s included the replacement and repitching of the great hall roof , the new gothic south window of the great hall complete with the ogee parapet above it and the provision of a ceiling within the hall . At the same time , the west wing façade was remodelled in " Chinese Gothic " style .
Sir Arthur Elton ( 7th Bt ) began updating the house before 1850 ( and the lodge at the gate dates from 1851 ) but it was in 1860s that he made major changes . The west wing was extended and remodelled , this time with an Elizabethan style façade . Less obvious alterations to the east end ( where the servants lived and worked ) probably also date to this period . The fire of 1882 destroyed much of the western end of the house . In the rebuilding that followed , an even larger west end was constructed but Sir Arthur took pains to ensure that its Elizabethan south front was conserved and retained . Postcards of Clevedon reveal that the last change to the great hall window was made in about 1912 , when it was given a square head again , in Elizabethan style .
In the late 1950s , when the National Trust agreed to take on the house , the Victorian west wing ( but not its Elizabethan south front ) were demolished as were a plethora of minor 18th- and 19th @-@ century buildings at the rear . The new west front was given a stonework façade and incorporated the Elizabethan south front .
= = Architecture — outbuildings = =
In the grounds , the only certain survivor from the medieval period is the small crenellated drum tower . Its original purpose is unknown . It adjoins a substantial wall that may also have origins in the 13th century . The other garden walls have unknown dates of origin but mostly pre @-@ date around 1730 , when the stables were built . All of the other buildings , including the lodge at the South entrance ( 1851 ) are Georgian or Victorian . The medieval appearance of the eastern barn resulting from incorporation of stone from the former medieval barn that stood in front of the house .
An early picture of the court shows a building known as Wake 's Tower on Court Hill . It is included in Saxton 's map of 1570 but was demolished before 1738 . Towers such as this were popular Elizabethan features and were lookouts or summer houses . A summerhouse was built on the site but this too was in ruins by the early 19th century .
= = Interior = =
The central and largest room in the house is the great hall which was the original dining room and the accompanying screens passage which gave access to the hall from the service rooms . The staircase to the north of the hall was added in the 18th century . The state room on the western side of the first floor was damaged by fire in 1882 ; the oak panelling around the fireplace was brought from the Eltons ' former house in Queen Square , Bristol . The chapel on the first floor has a rectangular window with reticulated tracery , which dominates the front of the house . The stained glass in the window was added after the 1882 fire . The justice room has had a variety of uses but takes its name from its function as the manorial court until the 18th century . The house contains many family portraits and other pictures as well as collections of Eltonware and Nailsea Glass and prints of bridges and railways .
= = Gardens = =
The gardens of Clevedon Court are listed ( Grade II * ) on the National Register of Historic Parks and Gardens .
Nestling at the foot of Court Hill , on a sheltered south @-@ facing site largely protected from the winds which blow off the Bristol Channel , the front lawns of Clevedon Court run gently down to the perimeter wall . The bulk of the house conceals the dramatic architectural quality of the garden behind , carved out of the hillside in a series of terraces , which rise steeply back to merge with the woodland above . They are surrounded by what Gertrude Jekyll described as " One of the noblest ranges of terrace walls in England . "
Although a court roll of 1389 mentions two gardens , there is no record of where these were sited , nor is there any record of when the terraces were constructed . The basic layout as known today was certainly in place by about 1730 , as can be seen in a portrait of the house from that period . Later in the 18th century , the space behind the great pilastered wall was infilled to make the top terrace , which has wide views across the valley to the Mendip Hills beyond . The Octagon , a garden pavilion , was built about the same time , as was the more rustic summer house which faces it down the long grassy walk of the Pretty Terrace . Further modifications involved facing the lower retaining wall with rosy pink bricks , which were also used to build a double flight of steps below the Octagon . The garden is still largely in its 18th @-@ century form , though small ponds and fountains were added in the 19th century and the once open hillside behind is now thickly wooded . A single rose arbour remained from the Edwardian garden but was on the verge of collapse when it was replaced with a new one in 2009 , marking 300 years of the Elton family 's presence at Clevedon Court .
Very little is known about the mid @-@ 18th century planting , although there remains , in front of the house , a gnarled black mulberry tree , which was described as ancient in 1822 . However , 19th @-@ century drawings and photographs record increasingly elaborate and fussy bedding schemes , finally swept away in the 1960s . Today there is a more informal style , emphasising the architectural character of the garden with its long straight sweeps of wall ; it is also an easier style to maintain . In recent years , native wild plants have been allowed to mingle with rare and exotic specimens and continual thought is being given to contrasting textures and colours of foliage . The lower garden , below the front of the house , now has the air of a small arboretum with a number of fine specimen trees , such as a splendid late @-@ leafing catalpa ( an oriental plane tree ) dominates this part of the garden and the grass at its foot is left uncut during the Spring , allowing camassias and bluebells to make a fine showing .
As with many English gardens , this one is at its best in May and June , when the magnolias are in bloom and luxurious plants , such as peonies and alliums , are flowering . An ongoing initiative is being made to put in plants which provide interest throughout the season or are at their best in the late summer . There are now many species and colours of lavender and plenty of agapanthus , crinum , nerines and day lilies , together with such rarities as a Heptacodium and an Arbutus menziesii .
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= Persona 2 : Innocent Sin =
Persona 2 : Innocent Sin ( ペルソナ2 罪 , Perusona Tsū : Tsumi ) is a Japanese role @-@ playing video game developed and released by Atlus for the PlayStation in 1999 . It is the second entry in the Persona series , itself a subseries of the Megami Tensei franchise , and acts as a sequel to the original Persona . The game was re @-@ released in 2011 for the PlayStation Portable . The original version was not localized for western territories , however the PSP version was released in North America and Europe under the title Shin Megami Tensei : Persona 2 : Innocent Sin .
Innocent Sin takes place in the fictional Sumaru City , focusing on a group of high school students from Seven Sisters High School . The protagonist , Tatsuya Suou , and a group of friends must confront a villainous figure called the Joker , who is causing the spread of reality @-@ warping rumors through the city . The group are aided in their quest by their Personas , personified aspects of their personalities . The gameplay features turn @-@ based battle gameplay , where characters use their Personas in battle against demons , and a separate Rumor system , where rumors spread around the city can influence events in the characters ' favor .
Development on Innocent Sin began after the release of the original Persona , and retained most of the original 's staff . The game carried over the story themes and basic gameplay mechanics of Persona , while changing and improving on some of the mechanics . The characters were designed by Kazuma Kaneko and Shigenori Soejima . The original release was not localized due to staff shortages and concerns over its content . Reception to the game was generally positive for its original release , but reviews were more mixed for its remake due to its age . A direct sequel to Innocent Sin , Persona 2 : Eternal Punishment , was released in 2000 in Japan and North America .
= = Gameplay = =
Persona 2 : Innocent Sin is a role @-@ playing game where the player takes control of a group of high school students as they explore the fictional city of Sumaru . The camera follows the party from an adjustable angled overhead perspective . The city in general is navigated using an overworld map . The game 's main party holds up to five characters . Whenever the party is in a " safe " area ( i.e. a room with no demon encounters ) , each party member can be conversed with . The party 's route through dungeons can be traced using the Auto @-@ Map , a basic floor plan of the current dungeon . As the main character moves around , the map will automatically mark new areas . A key gameplay and story element is the Rumor system : if the party hears a rumor from an NPC , they can spread that rumor using the Kuzunoha detective agency , making the rumor become real and creating effects on the environment . These effects can range from making an accessory or character @-@ specific weapon appear , to triggering the appearance of new shops for the party 's use .
Battles include both story @-@ triggered encounters and random encounters inside dungeons : during these encounters , the party is assigned a set of commands and performs them within a turn , then is given the option to change their strategy during the next turn . During battle , characters fight using melee attacks , use items purchased from shops outside battle , and cast a variety of spells using their Personas . Each character has a starting Persona , and each Persona has different elemental strengths and weaknesses . Different Personas can be used for defense , healing or elemental attacks . While a Persona is originally quite weak , if it is used enough , it will achieve a higher rank . In addition to individual actions , the player can align characters to trigger a Fusion Spell : when two or more party members use a certain sequence of spells , they will automatically summon multiple Personas to generate a powerful attack . The party can be manually controlled or act using an Auto @-@ battle option .
During battles , players can converse with most enemies : depending on which character talks with which enemy , they will trigger a different response . If the enemy is talked with in the right way , they will leave either items or spell cards ( tarot cards linked to a certain Arcanum or Persona family group ) , items used to summon new Personas : certain cards give access to different Persona family groups . After a Persona is summoned and assigned to a character , that character 's stats and abilities change . Active Personas can also be fused with spell cards to create more powerful versions . These Persona summonings and fusions take place in the Velvet Room , a special location separate from the rest of the game 's environments . In addition to pre @-@ set spell cards , the player can also obtain blank skill cards by forming contracts with enemies through the right conversation . These blank skill cards can be tailored to fit a chosen Persona family .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Setting and characters = = =
Innocent Sin takes place in 1999 in Sumaru ( 珠閒瑠 ) , a fictional seaside city in Japan with a population over 1 @.@ 28 million . Most of the protagonists come from two high schools in Sumaru : Seven Sisters ( 七姉妹学園 ) , a prestigious school which the protagonist attends , and the less @-@ prestigious Kasugayama ( 春日山 ) . During the course of the game , popular rumors of various kinds around the city begin to come true , sometimes with dire consequences . The party wields the power to summon Personas : they are defined in the game 's instruction manual as " another side of [ the protagonists ] " . The power of Persona is granted to the party by Philemon ( フィレモン , Firemon ) , a being from the collective unconscious who acts as a spiritual guide and helper . A key element of the story is the Oracle of Maia , a prophecy foretelling of a series of events which will lead to the world 's end during a planetary conjunction called the Grand Cross .
The protagonist of Innocent Sin is Tatsuya Suou , a senior student at Seven Sisters : popular with most students , he keeps himself isolated from the rest of the school . He later joins with other students to investigate the happenings around Sumaru : Lisa " Ginko " Silverman , whose parents were originally from overseas before becoming Japanese nationals ; Eikichi " Michel " Mishina , a second @-@ year from Kasugayama High who is the leader of a band ; Maya Amano , a reporter for a teen magazine ; and Yukino " Yukki " Mayuzumi , a former student of St. Hermelin High and Maya 's photographer . They are later joined by Jun Kurosu , a former childhood friend of Tatsuya 's . Other important characters include members of the Masked Circle , a group influencing the rumors around Sumaru ; and Nyarlathotep , a representative of the collective unconscious who acts as Philemon 's opposite .
= = = Plot = = =
Innocent Sin begins with Tatsuya and Lisa being lured by Eikichi to where his band is rehearsing in an effort to get Tatsuya to join his band . During the ensuing argument , their Personas reveal themselves and Philemon contacts them , warning them that rumors are becoming reality in Sumaru . The group then act out a game where a figure called the Joker is summoned to grant a wish . When Eikichi and his band do this , the Joker is summoned , then drains all the players but Lisa of their " Ideal Energy " ( the essence of hopes and dreams ) using a crystal skull . The Joker then attacks Tatsuya , Lisa and Eikichi , accusing them of some unspecified " sin " , but leaves when they cannot remember that sin . As the group attempt to learn the Joker 's identity , they are joined by Maya and Yukino , the latter of whom is able to explain their Persona abilities . They are eventually brought into conflict with the executives of the Masked Circle , a cult led by the Joker who are gathering Ideal Energy using assigned crystal skills . They are King Leo ( Tatsuya Sudou ) , a deranged man whose eye was burnt out ; Prince Taurus ( Ginji Sasaki ) , a record producer who manipulates Lisa 's budding girl group for his own ends ; and Lady Scorpio ( Anna Yoshizaka ) , a former student at Seven Sisters who is brainwashed by the group . The group are gradually fulfilling the Oracle of Maia , recorded by Akinari Kashihara ( Jun 's father ) under the influence of Nyarlathotep .
After defeating Sasaki and Sudou , the group are contacted by Philemon , who directs them into caverns beneath the city 's Alaya Shrine , where the group are gradually told about their " sin " . Ten years prior , Tatsuya , Eikichi , Lisa , and Jun were part of a group named the Masked Circle , where many of them sought solace from their awkward home lives . After Maya announced that she needed to leave , Eikichi and Lisa locked her in the town 's Alaya Shrine in an attempt to force her to stay . In a tragic twist of fate , the deranged Tatsuya Sudou set fire to the shrine , and it was only Maya awakening to her Persona that saved her from death . Sudou attempted to kill Maya in his madness , and Tatsuya burnt out his eye with his own Persona . These events were so traumatic that everyone but Sudou willingly forgot them . Jun , manipulated by Nyarlathotep into believing Maya had died in the fire , took on the mantle of the Joker to punish his former friends and make people 's wishes come true . Confronting the Joker and the final member of the Circle , Jun 's estranged mother Junko , they and the Circle are attacked by group of rumor @-@ generated Nazis called the Last Battalion , led by a resurrected " Fuhrer " . Junko , realizing what she and Jun have done , dies protecting Jun from an attack by the Fuhrer using the Spear of Destiny . After battling him , Jun repents , causing his " Ideal Father " to remove his Persona ability and take control of the Masked Circle . Sumaru City is then raised into the sky as part of Xibalba , a spacecraft manifested through rumors surrounding Kashihara 's writings , fulfilling part of the Masked Circle 's plans .
After being rescued , Yukino grants Jun her Persona powers with Philemon 's help . With the Masked Circle and the Last Battalion waging war with each other , the party decide to return the city to normal by removing the five elemental crystal skulls being fought over by the two factions , then confront the Ideal Father . As they collect the crystal skulls , all the party but Jun confront Shadow Selves , manifestations of their suppressed insecurities . On the way to collect the final skull from the heart of Xibalba , they are forced to stop Maya Okamura , a former colleague of Kashihara who has been driven insane by events , from fulfilling the Oracle . Upon reaching the heart of Xibalba , they battle the Fuhrer and the Ideal Father , who turn out to be Nyarlathotep in disguise . After their fight , Philemon appears and explains their status as manifestations of humanity 's opposing feelings , and that they have been competing over whether humans can find a higher purpose while holding contradictory feelings . Maya is then fatally wounded by Okamura using the Spear of Destiny , the Oracle is fulfilled , and all the world but Sumaru City is decimated . After Nyarlathotep and Okamura leave , Philemon tells the remaining group that they can reverse Nyarlathotep 's work by willing the day the five first met as children from existence : in exchange , they must give up their shared memories . The group agree , and a new timeline is created where each character 's life has been improved , though their friendship is forgotten .
= = Development = =
Development of Innocent Sin began after the release and success of Persona . The main staff from the previous game returned , including Koji Okada ( who acted as producer ) , designer Kazuma Kaneko , and writer Tadashi Satomi . From a technical standpoint , the game not only changed to an overhead view from the first Persona 's mixture of overhead and first person navigation , but also made improvements to elements that were criticized in Persona , such as load times and save point frequency . To separate the Persona series from the Megami Tensei series , the first game 's banner title Megami Ibunroku was dropped . The theme of Innocent Sin , as with the previous entry , was exploration of the human psyche and the main characters discovering their true selves . The central character theme of Innocent Sin was the growth of teenagers and how they overcome their personal troubles . Another key element was the " power of Kotodama " , the Japanese belief that words can influence the physical and spiritual world , with this power manifesting in the world of Persona 2 through the spreading of rumors . Terms and concepts used in the games , including Persona , Shadows and the character Philemon , were drawn from Jungian psychology and archetypes . The character of Nyarlathotep , who had made a cameo appearance as a Persona in the original game , was inspired by the character of the same name from H. P. Lovecraft 's Cthulhu Mythos . Other antagonists and enemy creatures in the games were also drawn from the Cthulhu Mythos and played a key role in the narrative .
The main characters were designed by Kaneko , while secondary characters were designed by Shigenori Soejima . While designing the main characters , Kaneko needed to take the character focus into account . The protagonists of Innocent Sin all wore the same school uniform and were given personal items to help distinguish them . The character of the Joker was based on a tradition of flamboyantly @-@ dressed mystery men , along with attacks on people by masked assailants . To emphasize his flamboyant appearance and link him aesthetically to the source of his power , Joker was clad in a strangely colored school uniform . His appearance as a demonic clown was inspired by his actions of absorbing people 's dreams . The flower the original Joker holds , an Iris , symbolizes revenge , and connects directly to the Joker 's true identity . The various districts of Sumaru City were based on various regions around Japan , including Shibuya , Yamate and Odaiba . In addition to relationships with the female characters in Innocent Sin , Tatsuya could also foster a same @-@ sex relationship with Jun. This was done as an experiment by the team to gauge audience reaction to such a relationship , and an attempt to appeal to fans of yaoi anime and manga .
= = = Port and localization = = =
There was a debate at Atlus over whether to localize Innocent Sin : in addition to concerns that American audiences might not understand references to Japanese culture , there were concerns over potentially controversial content including symbolic allusions to Nazis , Adolf Hitler , and the appearance of Nazi Swastikas . In the end , it was decided to not to localize Innocent Sin . Later , it was stated by Atlus staff that the main reason for this choice was a shortage of staff and resources , as most of the team needed to localize Innocent Sin were already working on its sequel Eternal Punishment , though the localization team did attempt to change this decision . Despite this , it was reported in 2001 that there was still a chance of Innocent Sin being localized , with its release depending on whether Eternal Punishment was successful in North America . Years after its release , a fan translation of the original version was developed .
A remake of Innocent Sin for the PlayStation Portable was announced by Famitsu in 2010 . As with the previous PSP port of Persona , the remake was directed by Shoji Meguro . Due to the unexpected success of Persona 's port , the production team was allotted a higher budget to work with , and they decided to use the additional funding to add more features to the game . There were plans to include both Innocent Sin and its sequel in a single game , but they could not fit both games in a single UMD . A new opening movie was produced by animation studio Satelight , who had become famous in Japan through their work on Macross Frontier and Basquash ! . While most game openings were intended as a simple introduction , the team wanted this one to be about the re @-@ imagination the game had undergone , so they decided to have an experienced outside studio work on it rather than internal staff . One of the biggest challenges while creating the movie was remaining faithful to Kaneko 's character artwork while establishing its own look and style . Meguro and Kaneko were both heavily involved with how the characters were portrayed during the opening .
For the remake , the gameplay was adjusted to resemble its sequel , along with adjusting it to a 16 : 9 screen ratio from the original 4 : 3 , and interface adjustments for ease of play . The character artwork was redone by Soejima . The voice work was remastered instead of being rerecorded as some of the characters ' voice actors had retired . In addition to these changes , a new story quest set in Karukozaka High School , the setting for Shin Megami Tensei If ... , was added . The storyline for the new quest was written by Kazuyuki Yamai . The remake was announced for a western release in May 2011 . Until this point , Innocent Sin was the only Persona game not to be released overseas . For its European release , the game was published by Ghostlight . The western release did suffer a few content cuts : namely , the ability to create custom quests in the Climax Theater and additional DLC episodes for the Climax Theater that included several former Persona and Shin Megami Tensei settings . They were removed due to what were described as " a number of challenges — technical and otherwise " .
= = = Music = = =
The music for Innocent Sin was composed by Toshiko Tasaki , Kenichi Tsuchiya , Masaki Kurokawa . Tsuchiya had previously done minor sound work on the original Persona . While he worked on future Persona titles , Shoji Meguro , who had composed music for Persona , was busy composing music for Maken X and so was unable to work on the title or its sequel . Tsuchiya found working on the title difficult , retrospectively calling it his most difficult task until his work on Shin Megami Tensei IV . While he found the CD @-@ based recording medium gave more freedom than the cartridge @-@ based SNES , he had difficulties adjusting the pitches of overlapping instruments and managing memory space . The game 's theme song , " Kimi no Tonari " ( 君のとなり , " Next to You " ) , was written and sung by Hitomi Furuya . Innocent Sin was one of the first Megami Tensei titles to feature voice acting .
The music was remixed by Toshiki Konishi , Ryota Kozuka and Atsushi Kitajoh . The reason for this was that Meguro , in addition to directing the remake , was handling the music for Catherine , so had to give the task to others . Meguro had also asked Tsuchiya due to his involvement with the original version , but he declined . The amount of music that needed remixing was very large , consisting of over 100 tracks . The majority of remixing was to add subtle effects to tracks that could not be included for the original version . Due to player feedback about the music for the Persona port , the team included the option to switch to the original versions . The new opening 's theme song , " Unbreakable Tie " , was written by Japanese hip @-@ hop artist and long @-@ time collaborator Lotus Juice and sung by J @-@ pop singer Asami Izawa .
= = Reception = =
In its year of release , Innocent Sin reached # 62 in the Japanese sales charts , selling 274 @,@ 798 copies . The PSP remake reached # 6 in the Japanese sales chart during its first week of release , selling 62 @,@ 721 units . It dropped to # 11 by the following week , selling a further 10 @,@ 400 units . By October 2011 , the game had sold 110 @,@ 000 units in Japan , placing among Atlus ' best @-@ selling titles for that year . During its first week on sale in North America , it reached second place in the sales charts .
Famitsu was positive about the story in both its reviews , saying that it was highly enjoyable for newcomers and those who had played Persona , while the reviewers for the PSP version said that the story " is still innovative even today . " RPGFan 's Neal Chandran was generally positive in his review of the PlayStation version , particularly noting how the characters confronted their past as well as fighting the main threat , and feeling impressed by the game 's ability to move him despite him not understanding much of the dialogue . John McCarroll , writing for the same site , said that the story was one of the few aspects of the game that had not become dated . GameSpot 's Peter Bartholow , reviewing the original , gave the game similar praise , saying " [ Innocent Sin ] ' s story is darker , stranger , and more involving than most of the fluffy fantasy fare crowding today 's marketplace . " This opinion was generally shared by Carolyn Petit in her review of the PSP version , with her saying that despite a very slow start , the story and characters became interesting for her . IGN 's Vince Ingenito , while noting the game 's differences from later Persona titles , called it " a wonderfully original story " , and praised the localization . RPGamer 's Zach Welhouse said that the game " uses its grand , cosmic backdrop to magnify the adolescent concerns of its protagonists until they pop with energy . "
The gameplay was praised by Bartholow , calling the Persona system " Surprisingly simple and well balanced " , and admired the game 's polish despite its limited use of the PlayStation hardware . Ingenito found the gameplay entertaining , saying that it would appeal to fans of the Pokémon series due to its Persona @-@ collecting mechanic . Famitsu , reviewing the original , said that the genera ; gameplay was " quite orthodox " , but found the battle system stood out from other RPGs and praised the Rumor system 's story and gameplay role . Chandran found many parts of the gameplay enjoyable despite noting the lack of its sequel 's more autonomous Fusion Spells , saying that " had loads of fun playing [ Innocent Sin ] . " Welhouse was generally elss enthusiastic in his review of the PSP remake , citing the battles as slow and dungeons as boring .
The original audio was lauded by Bartholow , stating the voice acting " [ added ] dimension to the already @-@ excellent characterizations " , and called the music " almost always appropriate and exciting " with its blending of rock and techno music genres . Ingenito was less positive about the voice acting for the remake , but generally praised the music . Chandran generally praised the music , although noting that some of the game 's looped themes were repetitive . He also called the voice acting " generally pretty good " , despite finding Tatsuya and Maya 's inconsistent .
One of the Famitsu reviewers for the PSP remake was a little critical , saying that long load times when entering battles and the lack of guidance were among minor things that " niggled me " . Despite this , features such as the ability to switch soundtracks and the Theatre Mode were praised . Petit was highly critical of the remake , citing the gameplay as " Tedious [ and ] repetitive " , referred to the Rumor system as " dull " , and generally felt that the game had not aged well . Ingenito also noted long loading times , along with a very high encounter rate and low @-@ quality graphics carried over from the original . McCarroll commented that many of the remake 's faults stemmed from the expectations for an RPG when the original was released . Welhouse shared multiple criticisms with other reviewers , despite generally enjoying the experience .
= = Legacy = =
During the development of Innocent Sin , the writer Tadashi Satomi felt that the story needed an alternate viewpoint to that of the main hero . This formed the basis for Persona 2 : Eternal Punishment . Localized for the west , Eternal Punishment was released in 2000 in Japan and North America . The game , along with Eternal Punishment , received a spin @-@ off manga titled Persona : Tsumi to Batsu ( ペルソナ 罪と罰 , Persona : Sin and Punishment ) , featuring new characters from Seven Sisters . Its 2011 reprint featured new content connecting the manga to Innocent Sin . In 2007 , Atlus and Bbmf created and published a mobile version of Innocent Sin . Titled Persona 2 : Innocent Sin - Lost Memories ( ペルソナ2 罪 ロストメモリーズ , Perusona Tsū : Tsumi Rosuto Memorīzu ) , it carried over the crucial systems of Innocent Sin , including the Persona and Rumor systems , while tailoring them for a mobile format . Maya Amano and Lisa Silverman were later featured in an internal tech demo for the graphics engine used in Shin Megami Tensei : Nocturne .
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= Tropical Storm Bill ( 2003 ) =
Tropical Storm Bill was a tropical storm that affected the Gulf Coast of the United States in the summer of 2003 . The second storm of the 2003 Atlantic hurricane season , Bill developed from a tropical wave on June 29 to the north of the Yucatán Peninsula . It slowly organized as it moved northward , and reached a peak of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) shortly before making landfall in south @-@ central Louisiana . Bill quickly weakened over land , and as it accelerated to the northeast , moisture from the storm , combined with cold air from an approaching cold front , produced an outbreak of 34 tornadoes . Bill became extratropical on July 2 , and was absorbed by the cold front later that day .
Upon making landfall on Louisiana , the storm produced a moderate storm surge , causing tidal flooding . In a city in the northeastern portion of the state , the surge breached a levee , which flooded many homes in the town . Moderate winds combined with wet soil knocked down trees , which then hit a few houses and power lines , and left hundreds of thousands without electric power . Two people drowned from rough surf in Florida . Further inland , tornadoes from the storm produced localized moderate damage . Throughout its path , Tropical Storm Bill caused around $ 50 million in damage ( 2003 USD , $ 64 @.@ 3 million 2016 USD ) and four deaths .
= = Meteorological history = =
A tropical wave developed scattered convection in the central Caribbean Sea on June 24 , while interacting with an upper @-@ level low . It moved slowly northwestward , and remained disorganized due to strong upper level wind shear . Late on June 27 , the convection became slightly better organized around a broad low pressure area , though land interaction prevented further development as it moved towards the Yucatán Peninsula . The area of low pressure became better defined over the central Yucatán Peninsula , and after the system turned to the northwest , convection quickly organized while located over the warm waters of the Gulf of Mexico . On June 29 , following the development of a closed circulation , the system organized into Tropical Depression Three while located about 40 miles ( 60 km ) north of Progreso , Yucatán .
The depression quickly strengthened to become Tropical Storm Bill later on June 29 . Operationally , the National Hurricane Center did not begin issuing advisories until it attained tropical storm status . Initially , the system resembled a subtropical cyclone , with the strongest winds and deep convection located far from the center , though it was classified tropical due to its tropical origins . The storm steadily intensified as wind shear decreased , and early forecasts from the National Hurricane Center mentioned the possibility of Bill intensifying to hurricane status if the low level circulation organized beneath the area of deepest convection . Bill turned to the north @-@ northwest , and later to the north , as it moved around the periphery of a ridge of high pressure . On June 30 , Tropical Storm Bill reached a peak intensity of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) , one hour before making landfall in southwestern Terrebonne Parish , Louisiana . It moved onshore at peak intensity , and quickly weakened to a depression over land as it accelerated to the northeast . Bill remained a tropical cyclone as it moved through the southeast United States , until it became attached to an approaching cold front on July 2 near the Tennessee / Virginia border . The remnant extratropical storm was absorbed by the cold front on July 3 near central Virginia , while the remnant low pressure area continued northeastward until reaching the Atlantic Ocean later on July 3 .
= = Preparations = =
Shortly after forming , the National Hurricane Center issued a tropical storm watch from the southern end of Galveston Island to Morgan City , Louisiana . As a more northward motion occurred , the watch was canceled and replaced with a tropical storm warning from High Island , Texas to Pascagoula , Mississippi . Shortly before the storm made landfall , the warning was discontinued between High Island and Cameron , Louisiana . The National Hurricane Center briefly issued a hurricane watch from Intracoastal City to Morgan City , Louisiana , but it was discontinued when Tropical Storm Bill failed to strengthen . Prior the storm making landfall , local National Weather Service offices issued flash flood watches and a tornado watch for large portions of the Gulf Coast .
The threat of Tropical Storm Bill caused 41 oil platforms and 11 oil rigs to evacuate . This resulted in a loss of production of over 71 trillion barrels ( 1 @.@ 13 × 1013 m3 ) of oil and 610 million cubic feet ( 17 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 m3 ) of gas .
The American Red Cross mobilized workers and brought food , water , and other supplies to Louisiana prior to the storm 's arrival . At the request of Louisiana emergency management officials , the organization opened two shelters for residents in low @-@ lying areas . Several floodgates in New Orleans were closed before the storm made landfall , and many universities and government offices were closed as well . Parishes along the coastline closed summer camps and prepared sand bags , boats , and high @-@ wheeled vehicles . Officials declared a voluntary evacuation for Grand Isle , though few residents heeded the recommendation . Louisiana Governor Mike Foster declared a statewide state of emergency to easily make state resources available , and Mississippi Governor Ronnie Musgrove made a similar declaration for Harrison , Hancock , and Jackson Counties , where shelters were also opened . Officials in Mississippi ordered the evacuation of flood @-@ prone areas in anticipation for a moderate storm surge and above @-@ normal tides .
= = Impact = =
Bill caused four direct deaths along its path , as well as minor to moderate damage . Damage estimates totaled to over $ 50 million ( 2003 USD , $ 55 million 2007 USD ) , primarily as a result of flooding or tornadic damage . Throughout its path , Bill spawned 34 tornadoes , ranking it fourteenth in the list of North Atlantic hurricanes generating the most tornadoes . The tornado outbreak was caused by wind shear , moist air from the storm , and cool air from an approaching cold front . In spite of the large numbers of tornadoes , most were weak and short @-@ lived . Prior to forming , the storm produced rainfall along coastal areas of Mexico along the Bay of Campeche , peaking at nearly 4 inches ( 100 mm ) in Yucatán , and over 3 inches ( 75 mm ) in Campeche .
= = = Western Gulf Coast = = =
The outer bands of Bill dropped light rain across southeastern Texas , peaking at 1 @.@ 07 inches ( 27 mm ) in Jamaica Beach . Sustained winds from the storm remained weak , and peak wind gusts were 20 mph ( 32 km / h ) in eastern Galveston County . Upon making landfall , Bill caused a storm surge of up to 3 @.@ 81 feet ( 1 @.@ 1 m ) at Pleasure Pier . Effects in Texas were minimal , limited to minor beach erosion on the Bolivar Peninsula .
A moderate storm surge accompanied Tropical Storm Bill as it made landfall on Louisiana . In the state , the maximum reported surge was 5 @.@ 8 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) , and it occurred at the Louisiana Universities Marine Consortium facility in Chauvin . In Montegut , the surge breached a levee still was damaged from the effects of Hurricane Lili 9 months before . The breach flooded many homes in the town , forcing the evacuation of an entire neighborhood . As a result , 150 homes in the town were damaged , with half of them severely . The storm surge affected numerous low @-@ lying cities in southeastern Louisiana by flooding roadways , including the only road to Grand Isle , stranding residents and visitors . The road was opened a day after the storm as floodwaters receded . The floodwaters entered a few homes and businesses in St. Tammany Parish . Damage from the storm surge totaled to $ 4 @.@ 1 million ( 2003 USD ) . Rough waves sank two boats offshore , though their occupants were rescued .
The tornado outbreak associated with the storm began with an F0 in St. Bernard Parish that destroyed a boat house . A short @-@ lived F1 tornado touched down in Reserve , striking a private high school , where it destroyed one @-@ half of one classroom and damaged several others . Later , the F1 tornado passed through a trailer park and severely damaged or destroyed 20 trailers . One trailer with a woman and three children was lifted into the air and dropped 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) away ; although all four occupants were injured none of them was wounded seriously . Damage from the tornado amounted to $ 2 million ( 2003 USD , $ 2 @.@ 57 million 2016 USD ) . A third tornado , rated an F0 , struck Orleans Parish , damaging a car and a portion of a roof .
Winds of 35 to 45 mph ( 55 to 70 km / h ) were common across southeastern Louisiana , with the highest sustained wind being 53 mph ( 85 km / h ) in Chauvin and a peak gust of 62 mph ( 100 km / h ) on the northern end of the Lake Pontchartrain Causeway . The winds knocked trees and tree branches into power lines , leaving 224 @,@ 000 residents without power . The storm dropped moderate to heavy amounts of precipitation , peaking at 10 @.@ 2 inches ( 259 mm ) at a location 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 6 km ) south of Folsom . The rainfall led to flash flooding , which inundated roads and cars and overwhelmed local drainage capacities . The rainfall also led to overflown rivers and creeks , resulting in flooding along the Tangipahoa River in southern Tangipahoa Parish , and the Bogue Falaya and Tchefuncte River in St. Tammany Parish . The Bogue Falaya River crested at 57 feet ( 17 @.@ 4 m ) on July 1 , 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) above flood stage , which became a record for the recording station . The flooding damaged several structures and roadways . Less severe river flooding occurred in Washington and Livingston Parishes . In all , damage in Louisiana totaled to $ 44 million ( 2003 USD , $ 56 @.@ 6 million 2016 USD ) .
= = = Eastern Gulf Coast = = =
Upon making landfall , Bill produced a peak storm surge of 4 @.@ 99 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) in Waveland , Mississippi . The storm surge led to beach erosion , damage to piers , and flooded roadways , with damage from the surge amounting to around $ 1 million ( 2003 USD , $ 1 @.@ 29 million 2016 USD ) . The maximum sustained wind from the storm recorded in Mississippi was 43 mph ( 69 km / h ) , at the Gulfport @-@ Biloxi International Airport , while the airport and Keesler Air Force Base both reported a peak wind gust of 52 mph ( 84 km / h ) . Tropical Storm Bill dropped moderate to heavy rainfall across the state , peaking at 9 @.@ 49 inches ( 241 mm ) in Van Cleave . The moderate wind gusts , along with the saturated ground , downed trees in several locations . 34 roads in Pike and Walthall Counties were blocked by fallen trees , and two homes were damaged . Additionally , power outages were reported near the coast . The rainfall flooded streets in various portions of the state and led to overflown rivers . An overflown creek in Pearl River County flooded structures and roadways . The outer rainbands of Bill produced a weak tornado that touched down briefly in Waveland , blowing down several trees which resulted in minor damage to roofs . Statewide damage accrued to $ 5 million ( 2003 USD , $ 6 @.@ 43 million 2016 USD ) , primarily from flooding .
As Tropical Storm Bill made landfall on Louisiana , its effects were felt in the Alabama coast as well , as heavy surf and tidal flooding pounded the coastline of the state . High waters closed a road to Dauphin Island and portions of a road along Mobile Bay . Bill dropped over 3 inches ( 25 mm ) of rain across the southern half of Alabama , with isolated locations receiving over 8 inches ( 205 mm ) . Due to wet conditions for months preceding the storm , rainfall from Bill led to flash flooding in many counties . The deluge led to overflown rivers and streams , and left several roadways temporarily impassable from high floodwaters . Saturated grounds and wind gusts of 30 to 35 mph ( 45 to 55 km / h ) downed numerous trees . Many downed trees landed on power lines , which caused power outages for around 19 @,@ 000 people . One downed tree destroyed a car , and another damaged a roof of a house . In Lee County , a man was required to be rescued after driving through high flood waters . Roadway flooding resulted in a few minor traffic accidents . Also , the outer bands of the storm spawned an F1 tornado in Crenshaw County . Early in its path , it was narrow , and damage was limited to downed trees , two destroyed sheds , and a few houses experiencing light shingle damage or damage from fallen trees . Later , it expanded to reach a width of 1 @,@ 800 feet ( 548 m ) as it moved northwestward . The tornado destroyed the roofs of two houses , one of which experienced damage to its walls . The tornado dissipated eight minutes after its 3 mile ( 5 km ) path began , resulting in $ 200 @,@ 000 in damage ( 2003 USD , $ 257 thousand 2016 USD ) and only slight injuries A second tornado , rated F0 in the Fujita scale , occurred in southwestern Montgomery County . A small tornado with a width of only 180 feet ( 55 m ) , it moved to the northwest and tore down a few trees that fell onto a mobile home , a house , and two cars . The tornado dissipated six minutes after its 5 mile ( 8 km ) path began . Throughout Alabama , Tropical Storm Bill caused around $ 300 @,@ 000 in damage ( 2003 USD , $ 386 thousand 2016 USD ) .
Rainfall from the storm began affecting Florida a few days before the storm formed , and locations in the southern portion of the state received over 3 inches ( 75 mm ) of rain . Along the Florida Panhandle , Bill dropped over 8 inches ( 205 mm ) of rain as it made landfall , closing several roads or leaving them impassable due to flooding . A stationary line of thunderstorms in Okaloosa County produced downpours of up to 6 inches ( 150 mm ) in one hour , resulting in flash flooding which washed out a portion of a bridge . In Bay County , heavy rainfall and flooding damaged 40 homes , while several residents in an apartment in Parker needed to be rescued by boat from the floodwaters . Rough surf produced by the storm killed two swimmers at Panama City Beach , while a dozen had to be rescued . Part of the tornado outbreak spawned by the storm extended into northern Florida . Damage in Florida totaled to around $ 1 million ( 2003 USD , $ 1 @.@ 29 million 2016 USD ) .
= = = Southeastern U.S. = = =
Tropical Storm Bill dropped light rainfall of around 1 inch ( 25 mm ) in northeastern Arkansas and southeastern Missouri , and over 5 inches ( 125 mm ) in isolated parts of eastern Tennessee . The storm also produced moderate rainfall in northwestern Georgia , which peaked at 7 @.@ 1 inches ( 180 mm ) in Monroe . Areas in southeastern Georgia received generally around 1 inch ( 25 mm ) , although some coastal areas did not receive any precipitation from the storm . Rainfall resulted in flooding in numerous locations around the Atlanta metropolitan area , leaving some roads impassable or closed . The combination of moist air from the south , cool temperatures from a cold front to the north , and low pressures led to the development of supercells throughout Georgia and South Carolina , several of which produced tornadoes . An F1 tornado touched down 3 miles ( 5 km ) north @-@ northeast of Pennington ; first it passed through a farm , causing severe damage to two dairy sheds , a John Deere tractor , and three metal storage buildings . The tornado destroyed a hay barn , a carport , and a car inside the carport as well , while also causing a tree to fall and kill one cow . The tornado passed through a forested area , where it toppled or sheared off hundreds of trees . As it entered a more urban area , it downed 30 isolated trees , some of which fell on a portion of Interstate 20 , temporarily closing the roadway . The tornado damaged seven houses , primarily to roof damage , although one experienced damage to several windows , while another had a utility trailer and a car damaged by fallen trees ; a commercial building was damaged as well . An F2 tornado was reported in Clito , which knocked down trees and damaged mobile homes . Severe thunderstorms from the remnants of Bill caused considerable damage to a house near Louisville and knocked down several trees . Moreover , a tornado was briefly associated with the storms . Bill also caused thunderstorms in Kite which uprooted several trees onto a car and a house . One man in Atlanta died due to a falling tree . Damage in Georgia totaled to $ 244 @,@ 500 ( 2003 USD , $ 315 thousand 2016 USD ) .
The tornado outbreak spawned by Bill was the greatest in the Charleston , South Carolina National Weather Service area since the outbreak provoked by Hurricane Earl in 1998 . One such tornado was an F1 that struck Hampton , which uprooted trees and downed power lines . The tornado severely damaged a Dollar General store , while several houses were damaged from fallen trees . An F1 tornado also touched down near Smoaks , which uprooted several trees , resulted in a crush car due to a fallen tree , caused severe roof damage to a mobile home , and killed one dog . The storm produced heavy rainfall in the northern portion of the state , with some locations reporting over 7 inches ( 175 mm ) . The rainfall resulted in flash flooding in areas , which caused some damage .
In North Carolina , the remnants of the storm dropped around 5 inches ( 125 mm ) in the east @-@ central part of the state , while the southwestern portion of the state received totals of over 7 inches ( 175 mm ) . In Raleigh , a boy drowned from the floodwaters . The tornado outbreak from the storm extended into North Carolina , though specifics are unknown . Bill produced light to moderate precipitation in the Mid @-@ Atlantic , including over 5 inches ( 125 mm ) in central Virginia . In Virginia , a line of thunderstorms from the system produced small amounts of hail in Falls Church . The tornado outbreak associated with Bill ended in New Jersey ; a narrow F0 tornado briefly touched down in a marsh near Goshen . The tornado remained away from the city , and caused no damage or injuries .
= = Aftermath = =
By one day after the storm , power companies restored electricity to 151 @,@ 000 customers . Citizens in Montegut circulated a petition for a class @-@ action lawsuit in response to the levee failure . The American Red Cross set up a church in Reserve as an emergency shelter . Only five people stayed the first night , resulting in the organization to convert it to a family services center . Over 100 families asked for food assistance . The Red Cross also set up a shelter in Houma , where 14 people stayed .
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= Losh , Wilson and Bell =
Losh , Wilson and Bell , later Bells , Goodman , then Bells , Lightfoot and finally Bell Brothers , was a leading Northeast England manufacturing company , founded in 1809 by the partners William Losh , Thomas Wilson , and Thomas Bell .
The firm was founded at Newcastle @-@ upon @-@ Tyne with an ironworks and an alkali works nearby at Walker . The alkali works was the first in England to make soda using the Leblanc process ; the ironworks was the first to use Cleveland Ironstone , presaging the 1850s boom in ironmaking on Teesside .
The so @-@ called discoverer of Cleveland Ironstone , the mining engineer John Vaughan , ran a rolling mill for the company before leaving to found the major rival firm Bolckow Vaughan . The other key figure in the company was Lowthian Bell , son of Thomas Bell ; he became perhaps the best known ironmaster in England .
As Bell Brothers , the firm continued until 1931 , when it was taken over by rival Dorman Long .
= = History = =
= = = Founders = = =
The company was named after William Losh , Thomas Wilson , and Thomas Bell .
William Losh ( 1770 Carlisle – 4 August 1861 , Ellison Place , Newcastle ) came from a rich family that owned coal mines in Northeast England . He was educated in Hamburg , and trained in Newcastle , Sweden and France . He married Alice Wilkinson of Carlisle on 1 March 1798 at Gateshead . He was a friend of the explorer Alexander von Humboldt and a one @-@ time business partner of rail pioneer George Stephenson . His brother James Losh was also a partner in the firm , and kept a diary recording his anxieties about the firm during the Napoleonic wars .
Thomas Wilson ( 1773 – 9 May 1858 ) of Low Fell , Gateshead joined the Losh , Lubbin counting house . In 1807 , Wilson became a partner and the firm took the name Losh , Wilson and Bell . In 1810 he married Mrs Fell of Kirklinton .
Thomas Bell , ( 5 March 1784 – 20 April 1845 ) partner , was married to Katherine Lowthian of Newbiggin , Cumberland on 25 March 1815 . Bell 's father was a blacksmith .
= = = Origins : from alkali to iron = = =
The firm 's origins can be traced back to 1790 when Archibald Dundonald , with John and William Losh , experimented on how to produce soda from salt . In about 1793 they opened a works at Bells Close , near Newcastle . Dundonald sent William Losh to Paris to study Nicolas Leblanc 's process for making soda from salt . In 1807 , the Loshes opened an alkali works at Walker , Newcastle upon Tyne , Northumberland . It was the first in England to use the Leblanc process . Dundonald left the partnership and the business continued as Walker Alkali Works .
Losh , Wilson & Bell 's first ironworks was founded in 1809 at Walker , beside the alkali works , carrying out a mixture of engineering work but not building steam engines . By 1818 , George Stephenson 's original wooden wagonway was completely relaid with cast @-@ iron edge @-@ rails made in collaboration between Stephenson , who owned the patent , and Losh , Wilson and Bell . Around 1821 , George Stephenson was briefly a partner in the Walker Ironworks .
= = = Wealth = = =
In 1827 a rolling mill capable of 100 tons of bar iron per week was installed at the Walker Ironworks ; in the same year , Losh , Wilson and Bell 's Walker foundry was listed in Parson and White 's gazetteer of Durham and Northumberland as a steam engine manufacturer . In 1833 , the iron puddling process was installed at Walker . In 1835 , while working as an inspector of construction on the Whitby & Pickering Railway , Thomas Wilson noted the presence of ironstone in a railway cutting at Grosmont , and arranged for drift mines to exploit the find ; the new railway carried the ore to Whitby . In that year , at the age of nineteen , Thomas Bell 's son Lowthian Bell entered the firm 's Newcastle office under his father . In 1836 he joined his father at the firm 's ironworks at Walker .
In 1838 , a second mill for rolling rails was added , run by the engineer John Vaughan ( who went on to found Bolckow Vaughan ) ; he strongly influenced Lowthian Bell to become an ironmaster . In the same year , The Athenaeum Journal reported that the Losh , Wilson & Bell works was manufacturing tin and iron plate in large quantities , along with iron bars for making railway @-@ carriage wheels . The firm 's adjacent alkali works was one of several such operations on the Tyne that were collectively producing more than 250 tons of crystallised soda and about 100 tons of soda ash weekly . The journal called William Losh " the father of soda @-@ making on the Tyne " and described him as the head of the firm ( although it was a partnership ) .
In 1842 , the shortage of pig iron persuaded Bell to install its own blast furnace for smelting mill cinder ; this was a key decision , enabling the firm to expand . Only two years later , in 1844 , the firm installed a second furnace at Walker for Cleveland Ironstone from Grosmont , six years before the boom in Cleveland iron when Vaughan and Marley discovered ironstone in the Eston Hills in 1850 . From 1849 , Losh , Wilson and Bell were subcontractors on the Newcastle @-@ Gateshead High Level Bridge , responsible for constructing the bridge approaches .
On 25 January 1851 , Lowthian Bell left the partnership with William Losh , Thomas Wilson , Catherine Bell , Thomas Bell and John Bell . The business at that time was described in the London Gazette as " Iron Manufacturers , and Ship and Insurance Brokers , under the style or firm of Losh , Wilson , and Bell " . He went on to have a career in chemistry and politics , becoming a member of parliament among many other distinctions .
On 8 October 1855 , there was a serious boiler explosion at the Walker Iron Works , which killed at least seven workers . According to a contemporary account , the boiler
unfurled like a sail , was blown upwards , carrying with it two roofings of the sheds , and blowing down two furnaces , with their chimneys , and scattering the molten metal and red hot bricks around , while one end of it was hurled into the midst of the works , and the other about 200 yards over the hill top , into the lumber @-@ yard .
All the dead were aged between 19 and 33 , and the event created something of a sensation at the time . In 1857 , John Marley , in his account of the Cleveland Ironstone , described the Bell Ironworks as follows :
These iron @-@ works , situate on the Tyne , and belonging to Messrs. Losh , Wilson , & Bell , originally consisted of only one furnace , being the first blast furnace that was specially erected for this bed of ironstone ( in connection with Scotch , and other ores , for mixing ) , viz . , about the year 1842 or 1843 , and which ironstone was purchased from the aforesaid mines belonging to Mrs. Clark , in the Whitby district , the first cargo being sent in June or July , 1843 , since which time these works have been increased by one extra furnace , built for the Whitby district ironstone in 1844 , and by other three [ at Port Clarence ] for the north part of Cleveland , about 1852 , making now a total of five furnaces .
= = = Bells , Goodman = = =
From 1869 at the latest , the company owning the Walker Engine Works was Bells , Goodman & Co . In that year the firm made the tunnelling shield and iron castings to line the Tower subway tunnels . In 1871 the firm made pumping and winding engines for Seghill Colliery . In 1875 it made machinery to condense smoke and gases for Clyde Lead Works of Glasgow .
= = = Bells , Lightfoot = = =
In 1875 , the Bells , Goodman partnership was dissolved when Alfred Goodman retired . The firm became known as Bells , Lightfoot & Co . In 1876 it supplied a 90 " Cornish beam engine for Springhead Pumping Station near Anlaby in the East Riding of Yorkshire ; it had an unusual box @-@ section wrought iron beam , and continued running until 1952 . On 30 November 1876 , Thomas Bell Lightfoot , Managing Partner , was granted a patent for his developments on machines for squeezing metals into shape . However , on 28 August 1883 , Thomas Bell moved to Bilbao , Spain , where he continued to describe himself as an Ironmaster , and by mutual consent his partnership with Henry Bell and Thomas Bell the younger was dissolved . The deed was witnessed on 7 December 1883 .
= = = Bell Brothers = = =
By 1873 , Bell Brothers owned 9 coal mines in County Durham and Yorkshire . There were 10 mines in 1882 ; in 1888 the " Clarence Salt Works " was also recorded . In 1896 and 1902 the company had 11 mines . In 1914 there are 12 ; in 1921 there are 14 . The 1881 – 1891 Arts and Crafts classical style Bell Brothers office building at Zetland Road in Middlesbrough was designed by architect Philip Webb ; it was his only commercial development . According to English Heritage it is architecturally the most important building in Middlesbrough .
In 1903 , Isaac Lowthian Bell , then aged 87 , sold a majority holding of the Bell companies to the rival firm Dorman Long . It was not a comfortable merger . Bell Brothers , along with the plate maker Consett Iron Company and another family ironmaking firm of Northeast England , Bolckow Vaughan , the companies
had expanded their capacity during World War I and the boom that immediately followed . As in other regions , expansion had come in a piecemeal fashion . Inefficient plant , excess capacity , and low profits had increased these firms ' debts and brought creditors onto their boards .
Further , as regards the Bells and the Dormans ,
Over the years the two families rarely agreed as to how the firm should be run . Indeed , the company was known locally not as Dorman Long but as " Dorman versus Bell " .
Bell Brothers was recorded in the Colliery Year Book and Coal Trades Directory of 1923 as having an annual output of 600 @,@ 000 tons of coal for coking and manufacturing . Sir Hugh Bell was chairman and managing director ; Arthur Dorman and Charles Dorman were directors . That same year , Bell Brothers , described in the Sydney Morning Herald as " owners of coal and ironstone mines and blast furnaces and rolling mills " , was finally merged completely with Dorman Long . Sir Arthur Dorman was chairman ; both Hugh Bell and his son Maurice Bell were among the directors . When Arthur Dorman died in 1931 , Hugh Bell , aged 87 , briefly became chairman of ' Dorman versus Bell ' ; he died on 29 June 1931 .
= = Wages and social conditions = =
John Roby Leifchild wrote a report in 1842 for the Children 's Employment Commission entitled " Employment of Children and Young Persons in the Collieries , Lead Mines , and Iron Works of Northumberland and the North of Durham ; and on the Condition , Treatment , and Education of such Children and Young Persons " . Leifchild found that Losh , Wilson & Bell paid its workers 30 to 36 shillings per week for a scrap @-@ puddler ; £ 2 5 shillings per week for a pudler ; 18 shillings per week for a plate mill @-@ furnace man ; and 25 shillings per week for an engineman . The boiler engineer 's family of wife and four children spent 18 shillings per week on provisions and 3 shillings per week on rent , leaving only 4 shillings for all other expenditure .
In sport , an iron puddler , Robert Chambers of the company 's Walker works , won the sculling championship at the 1857 Thames Regatta . The heavy work stirring the iron was said to have strengthened his arms and shoulders . Chambers also won the return match , held on the Tyne on 19 April 1859 , even after a collision with a moored boat left him a hundred yards behind .
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= Metroid Prime =
Metroid Prime is a first @-@ person action @-@ adventure video game developed by Retro Studios and Nintendo for the GameCube console . It was released in North America on November 17 , 2002 , and in Japan and Europe the following year . Metroid Prime is the fifth main installment and the first 3D game in the Metroid series . Because exploration takes precedence over combat , Nintendo classifies Metroid Prime as a first @-@ person adventure rather than a first @-@ person shooter . On the same day as its North American release , Nintendo also released the Game Boy Advance game Metroid Fusion , marking the return of the Metroid series after an eight @-@ year hiatus following Super Metroid ( 1994 ) . In 2009 , an enhanced version was released for Wii as a standalone game in Japan and as part of Metroid Prime : Trilogy internationally .
Metroid Prime is the first of the three @-@ part Prime storyline , which takes place between the original Metroid and Metroid II : Return of Samus . Like previous games in the series , Metroid Prime has a science fiction setting in which players control the bounty hunter Samus Aran . The story follows Samus as she battles the Space Pirates and their biological experiments on the planet Tallon IV .
The game was a collaboration between Retro 's staff in Austin , Texas , and Japanese Nintendo employees , including producer Shigeru Miyamoto , who suggested the project after visiting Retro 's headquarters in 2000 . Despite initial backlash against the game 's first @-@ person perspective , the game garnered critical praise and commercial success , selling more than a million units in North America alone . It won a number of Game of the Year awards , and it is considered by many critics and gamers to be one of the greatest video games ever made , remaining one of the highest @-@ rated games on Metacritic .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Background and setting = = =
Metroid Prime is the first of the three @-@ part Prime storyline . Retro Studios wrote an extensive storyline for Metroid Prime , which was considered a major difference from previous Metroid games . Short cutscenes appear before important battles , and a scanner in the heads @-@ up display extracts backstory @-@ related information from objects .
The Prime trilogy is set between the events of Metroid and Metroid II , but according to some sources , including Gradiente — Brazil 's former Nintendo distributor — and the Nintendo Power comics adaptation of Metroid Prime , the events in the Prime games occur after Super Metroid . The Brazilian publicity states that the Phazon meteor is a piece of Zebes , which was destroyed after Super Metroid . In Metroid Prime 3 : Corruption , however , it was confirmed that the meteor was a " Leviathan " from the planet Phaaze .
The game takes place on planet Tallon IV , formerly inhabited by the Chozo race . Five decades before the game 's events , the Chozo civilization fell after a meteor collided into Tallon IV . The said meteor contaminated the planet with a corrupting substance that the Space Pirates named " Phazon " , and also brought with it a creature known to the Chozo as " The Worm " . A large containment field emitter of the " Artifact Temple " in the Tallon Overworld area was designed as a seal to the meteor 's energies and influence within the crater where it landed , which the Space Pirates attempt to disable or bypass in order to gain better access in order to extract the Phazon . The containment field is controlled by twelve Chozo artifacts that are scattered around the planet . The player assumes the role of the bounty hunter Samus Aran , who receives a distress signal from Space Pirate Frigate Orpheon and travels to Tallon IV to investigate and stop the Space Pirate activity she found . Her investigation leads her to stop the Space Pirates from exploiting Phazon and stop the spread of Phazon on Tallon IV .
= = = Plot = = =
Samus intercepts a distress signal from the Space Pirate frigate Orpheon , whose crew have been slaughtered by the Pirates ' own genetically modified , experimental subjects . At the ship 's core , she battles with the Parasite Queen — a giant version of the tiny parasites aboard the ship . The Parasite Queen is defeated and falls into the ship 's reactor core , initiating the destruction of the ship . While Samus is escaping from the doomed frigate , she encounters a cybernetic version of Ridley called Meta Ridley . During her escape , an electrical surge and explosion destroys her suit upgrades , forcing her to revert to her original Power Suit . Samus escapes the frigate and chases her nemesis in her gunship towards the nearby planet Tallon IV .
Samus initially lands on Tallon IV at a rainforest location referred to as " Tallon Overworld " . After a brief period of exploring , she discovers the Chozo Ruins , the remains of the Chozo civilization . After further investigation , Samus learns that many years ago , the planet was struck by a meteor , which carried with it a substance the Chozo and Space Pirates call Phazon . The meteor also contained a creature called " The Worm " . The Chozo built an Artifact Temple over the crater to contain " The Worm " and to stop the Phazon from spreading over the planet . The temple 's sealed entrance is controlled by twelve Chozo artifacts , which must be found to gain access to the crater . After obtaining the Varia Suit in the ruins , Samus finds her way to the Magmoor Caverns , a series of magma @-@ filled underground tunnels , which are used by the Space Pirates as a source of geothermal power and connect the game 's areas together . Following the tunnels , Samus travels to the Phendrana Drifts , a cold , mountainous location which is home to an ancient Chozo ruin and Space Pirate research labs used to study Metroids , as well as ice caves and valleys home to electrical and ice @-@ creatures . After obtaining the Gravity Suit in Phendrana , Samus explores the interior of the crashed Orpheon , then infiltrates the Phazon Mines — the mining and research complex which is the center of the Space Pirates ' Tallon IV operations . Here she battles Phazon @-@ enhanced Space Pirates and obtains the Phazon Suit after defeating the monstrous , Phazon @-@ mutated Omega Pirate .
During her exploration of Tallon IV , Samus finds the twelve keys to the Artifact Temple and lore recorded by the Chozo and the Space Pirates , providing insight into the history of the planet and the two races ' colonization of it . As Samus puts the final key in place , Meta Ridley appears and attacks her . Samus defeats it with help from the temple 's defensive artillery . The Chozo Artifacts and Phazon Suit allow Samus to enter the Impact Crater , where she finds the so @-@ called " Worm " : the Metroid Prime , the source of the Phazon on Tallon IV . After she defeats it , all the Phazon on Tallon IV disappears , but the Metroid Prime absorbs Samus 's Phazon Suit in a final effort to survive , reverting her armor to the Gravity Suit . Samus escapes the collapsing crater and leaves Tallon IV in her ship . In a post @-@ credits scene , only viewable if the player has collected all of the items , Metroid Prime uses the Phazon Suit to reconstruct its body , becoming the entity known as Dark Samus — one of the antagonists of Metroid Prime 2 : Echoes and the main antagonist of Metroid Prime 3 : Corruption .
= = Gameplay = =
As in previous Metroid games , Metroid Prime takes place in a large , open @-@ ended world in which regions are connected by elevators . Each region has a set of rooms separated by doors that can be opened with a shot from the correct beam . The gameplay involves solving puzzles to reveal secrets , platform jumping , and shooting foes with the help of a " lock @-@ on " mechanism that allows circle strafing while staying aimed at the enemy . Metroid Prime is the first game in the Metroid series to use a first @-@ person view instead of side @-@ scrolling , except in Morph Ball mode , when Samus ' suit transforms into an armored ball and the game uses a third @-@ person camera .
The protagonist , Samus Aran , must travel through the world of Tallon IV searching for twelve Chozo Artifacts that will open the path to the Phazon meteor impact crater , while collecting power @-@ ups that enable the player to reach previously inaccessible areas . The Varia Suit , for example , protects Samus ' armor against dangerously high temperatures , allowing her to enter volcanic regions . Some of the items are obtained after boss and mini @-@ boss fights , which are encountered in all regions except Magmoor Caverns . Items must be collected in a specific order so that the player may progress . For example , players cannot access certain areas until they find a certain Beam to open doors , or discover new ordnance with which to beat bosses . Like the rest of the series , players are incentivized to explore the open world to find upgrades such as ammunition packs and extra health .
The heads @-@ up display , which simulates the inside of Samus ' helmet , features a radar display , a map , ammunition for missiles , a health meter , a danger meter for negotiating hazardous landscape or materials , and a health bar and name display for bosses . The display can be altered by exchanging visors ; one uses thermal imaging , another has x @-@ ray vision , and another features a scanner that searches for enemy weaknesses and interfaces with mechanisms such as force fields and elevators . Metroid Prime introduces a hint system that provides the player with clues about ways to progress through the game .
= = = Items = = =
Throughout the game , players must find and collect items that improve Samus 's arsenal and suit , including weapons , armor upgrades for Samus 's Power Suit and items that grant abilities — including the Morph Ball which allows Samus to roll into narrow passages and drop energy bombs , and the Grapple Beam which works by latching onto special hooks called grapple points , allowing Samus to swing across gaps . Unlike those in earlier games in the series , the beam weapons in Metroid Prime have no stacking ability , in which the traits of each beam merge . Instead , the player must cycle the four beam weapons ; there are charge combos with radically different effects for each .
Items from previous Metroid games appear with altered functions . Art galleries and different endings are unlockable if the player collects a high percentage of items and Scan Visor logs . Prime is one of the first Metroid games to address the reason Samus does not start with power @-@ ups acquired in previous games ; she begins the game with some upgrades , including the Varia Suit , Missiles and Grapple Beam , but they are lost during an explosion on the Space Pirate frigate Orpheon . The producers stated that starting with some power @-@ ups was a way to give the player " different things to do " and to learn the functions of these items before settling into the core gameplay .
Players can gain two features by connecting Prime with Metroid Fusion using a Nintendo GameCube – Game Boy Advance link cable : use of the Fusion Suit that Samus wears in Fusion and the ability to play the original Metroid .
= = Development = =
After Super Metroid , fans of the series eagerly awaited a sequel . It was allegedly due for release for the Nintendo 64 , but while the game was mentioned several times , it never entered production . Producer Shigeru Miyamoto said this was because Nintendo " couldn 't come out with any concrete ideas " . Metroid co @-@ creator Yoshio Sakamoto said that he considered creating a new installment for the Nintendo 64 , but was not interested in being part of its development , mainly because of the console 's controller . He said , " I just couldn 't imagine how it could be used to move Samus around " . Sakamoto also said Nintendo approached another company to make an N64 Metroid , but the offer was declined because the developers thought they could not make a game that could equal Super Metroid 's standards .
Metroid Prime was a collaboration between Retro Studios and important Nintendo EAD and R & D1 members . The overall game design was a collaborative effort , while the art and engineering was done entirely at Retro , and the music was fully handled in Japan . Retro Studios was created in 1998 by an alliance between Nintendo and Iguana Entertainment founder Jeff Spangenberg . The studio would create games for the forthcoming GameCube targeted at a mature demographic . After establishing its offices in Austin , Texas in 1999 , Retro started working on four different GameCube projects . When producer Shigeru Miyamoto visited Retro in 2000 , he suggested the development of a new Metroid game after seeing the prototype of a first @-@ person shooter engine they created . In 2000 and early 2001 , three games in development at Retro were canceled , and in July 2001 , an RPG called Raven Blade was terminated , leaving Prime as the only game in development there . During the last nine months of development , Retro 's staff worked 80- to 100 @-@ hour weeks to reach the deadline imposed by Nintendo .
The Japanese crew , which included producers Miyamoto , Kensuke Tanabe , Kenji Miki and game designer and Metroid co @-@ creator Yoshio Sakamoto , communicated with the Texas @-@ based studio through e @-@ mails , telephone conferences and personal gatherings . The game was originally planned as having third @-@ person perspective gameplay , but after Miyamoto intervened this was changed to first @-@ person perspective and almost everything already developed was scrapped . The change from third @-@ person perspective was prompted by camera problems experienced by Rare Ltd . , which was developing Jet Force Gemini . According to game director Mark Pacini , Miyamoto " felt that shooting in third person was not very intuitive " ; Pacini also said that exploration is easier using first @-@ person . Pacini said that after picking that perspective , the crew decided not to make a traditional first @-@ person shooter . He said , " We weren 't trying to fit in that genre . We had to break down the stereotypes of what a first @-@ person game is and make a fun Metroid game .
Pacini stated that Retro tried to design the game so that the only difficult parts would be boss battles and players would not be afraid to explore because " the challenge of the game was finding your way around " . Senior designer Mike Wikan also said that the focus on exploration led the development team to spend much time making the platform jumping " approachable to the player " , and to ensure the resulting gameplay had " shooting [ as ] a very important , though secondary , consideration " . Retro Studios developed the storyline of Metroid Prime under the supervision of Yoshio Sakamoto , who verified that the plot ideas were consistent with the lore of the series ' earlier games . The developers intended that Kraid , a boss from Metroid and Super Metroid , would appear in Prime ; designer Gene Kohler modeled and skinned him for that purpose . However , time constraints prevented Kraid from being included in the final version of the game . The development team considered implementing the Speed Booster power @-@ up from Super Metroid but concluded it would not work well because of the first @-@ person perspective and " limitations imposed by the scale of our environment " , and discarded it .
The first public appearance of the game was a ten @-@ second video at SpaceWorld 2000 . In November of the same year , Retro Studios confirmed its involvement with the game in the " job application " part of its website . In February 2001 , the game was confirmed by Nintendo , which also announced that because of its emphasis on exploration and despite the first @-@ person perspective , Metroid Prime would be a first @-@ person adventure rather than a first @-@ person shooter . In May 2001 , the game was showcased at E3 2001 , with its name confirmed as Metroid Prime . The first views of the game drew a mixed reactions from fans because of the change from 2D side @-@ scrolling to 3D first @-@ person navigation .
= = = Audio = = =
Kenji Yamamoto , assisted by Kouichi Kyuma , composed the music for Prime . The soundtrack contains arrangements of tracks from previous games in the series because Yamamoto wanted " to satisfy old Metroid fans . It 's like a present for them " , he said . The initial Tallon Overworld theme is a reinterpretation of Metroid 's Brinstar theme , the music heard in Magmoor Caverns is a new version of the music from Super Metroid 's Lower Norfair area , and the music heard during the fight with Meta Ridley is a fast @-@ paced reimagining of the Ridley boss music first featured in Super Metroid — which has reappeared in most Metroid games since . Tommy Tallarico Studios initially provided sound effects for the game , but Shigeru Miyamoto thought they were not yet good enough for an extended presentation at SpaceWorld 2001 . The game supports Dolby Pro Logic II setups and can be played in surround sound . The official soundtrack to the game was released on an album called Metroid Prime & Fusion Original Soundtracks , which was published by Scitron on June 18 , 2003 .
= = = Versions = = =
Prime was released for the GameCube in five versions . The original North American and Japanese NTSC versions and the second North American version , which contained minor changes , all used a loader that sometimes caused the game to crash in specific rooms . The European PAL version resolved these glitches and contained altered elements of the gameplay to prevent sequence breaking , a slower loader that prevented the occasional crashes , slightly different story details , and narration in the opening and closing scenes . Some of these changes were carried over from the PAL version to the NTSC region 's Player 's Choice re @-@ release , along with additional changes not made in other releases . This version , which was bundled with a silver GameCube , also contained a second disc featuring a preview trailer and a demo for Metroid Prime 2 : Echoes , a timeline of Metroid games , and an art gallery .
Metroid Prime was re @-@ released in Japan in 2009 for Wii as part of the New Play Control ! series . It has improved controls that use the Wii Remote 's pointing functionality . The credit system from Metroid Prime 3 : Corruption is also included to unlock the original bonus content and the ability to take snapshots of gameplay . Internationally , the Wii version was released in Metroid Prime : Trilogy , a single @-@ disc compilation containing Prime , Echoes , and Corruption for Wii . On January 29 , 2015 , the compilation became available for download from the Wii U 's Nintendo eShop .
= = Reception = =
Metroid Prime became one of the best @-@ selling games on the GameCube . It was the second best @-@ selling game of November 2002 in North America , behind Grand Theft Auto : Vice City ; 250 @,@ 000 units were sold in the first week of its release . As of July 2006 , the game had sold more than 1 @.@ 49 million copies in the U.S. alone , and had earned more than US $ 50 million . It was also the eighth best @-@ selling GameCube game in Australia . More than 78 @,@ 000 copies were sold in Japan , and Nintendo added the game to its Player 's Choice line in the PAL region .
Metroid Prime was met with critical acclaim . Electronic Gaming Monthly awarded the game a perfect review score . It won numerous Game of the Year awards and was praised for its detailed graphics , special effects , varied environments , moody soundtrack and sound effects , level design , immersive atmosphere and innovative gameplay centered on exploration in contrast with action games such as Halo , while staying faithful to the Metroid formula . Criticisms included the unusual control scheme , lack of focus on the story , and repetitive backtracking . Game Informer considered the control scheme awkward , Entertainment Weekly compared the game to a " 1990s arcade game , filled with over the top battle sequences , spectacular visual effects — and a pretty weak plot " , and GamePro stated that inexperienced players " might find it exhausting to keep revisiting the same old places over and over and over " .
On GameRankings , Metroid Prime is the 11th @-@ highest rated game ever reviewed , with an average score of 96 @.@ 35 % as of April 2014 , making it the second @-@ highest reviewed game of the sixth generation after Soulcalibur for the Sega Dreamcast . In 2004 the video game countdown show Filter said Metroid Prime had the best graphics of all time .
Metroid Prime appeared on several lists of best games ; it was ranked 23rd in IGN 's Top 100 , 29th in a 100 @-@ game list chosen by GameFAQs users , and 10th in Nintendo Power 's " Top 200 Nintendo Games Ever " . IGN named Metroid Prime the best GameCube title of all time , while GameSpy ranked it third in a similar list , behind The Legend of Zelda : The Wind Waker and Resident Evil 4 . Nintendo Power also ranked Metroid Prime as the sixth @-@ best game of the 2000s . Wired ranked the game 10th in its list of " The 15 Most Influential Games of the Decade " for popularizing " exploration , puzzle @-@ solving , platforming and story " among first @-@ person shooters , saying that the game was " breaking the genre free from the clutches of Doom " . Wired 's writer continued ; " This GameCube title took one massive stride forward for first @-@ person games . " Metroid Prime also became popular among players for speedrunning ; specialized communities were formed to share these speedruns .
= = = Franchise and other media = = =
After Metroid Prime , three more games in the first @-@ person perspective and a pinball spin @-@ off were released . The sequel Metroid Prime 2 : Echoes — in which Samus travels to planet Aether and discovers that a Phazon meteor crashed there , creating an alternate reality and Samus fights a mysterious enemy called Dark Samus — was released in November 2004 for the GameCube . It was followed by Metroid Prime Pinball , a spin @-@ off game featuring the locations and bosses of Metroid Prime , developed by Fuse Games and released in 2005 for the Nintendo DS .
The next game released was Metroid Prime Hunters for the Nintendo DS ; its storyline takes place between the events of Prime and Echoes . A demo of the game , titled Metroid Prime Hunters — First Hunt , was bundled with the Nintendo DS , and the full game was released on March 20 , 2006 , in North America and May 5 , 2006 , in Europe . In its narrative , Samus tries to discover an " ultimate power " while facing six rival bounty hunters . Hunters was not developed by Retro Studios , but by Nintendo 's Redmond @-@ based subsidiary Nintendo Software Technology . The game contains more first @-@ person shooter aspects than Prime and Echoes , with removal of assisted aiming , more action @-@ oriented gameplay , and various multiplayer modes .
Metroid Prime 's second full sequel is Metroid Prime 3 : Corruption , which closes the Prime series . It was released on August 27 , 2007 , for Nintendo 's Wii console . In Corruption 's story , Samus is corrupted by Phazon after being attacked by Dark Samus , who has become the leader of a Space Pirate group and is sending Phazon Seeds to corrupt planets . Corruption 's gameplay differs from that of Prime and Echoes ; the assisted aiming is replaced with free aiming with the Wii Remote , and the interchangeable beams is replaced with a stackable upgrade system .
Elements of Metroid Prime have appeared in other games , such as Super Smash Bros. Brawl in which the frigate Orpheon is a playable stage , featuring the Parasite Queen in the background and several music tracks from Metroid Prime as background music . Metroid Prime 's style of gameplay and HUDs also influenced and was compared to later first @-@ person shooters , such as Geist and Star Wars : Republic Commando .
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= 5to Piso =
5to Piso ( Quinto Piso , 5th Floor ) is the eleventh studio album by Guatemalan singer @-@ songwriter Ricardo Arjona , released on 18 November 2008 . Produced by Arjona , Jorge Amaro , Dan Warner , Lee Levin , Fernando de Santiago and Puerto Rican singer @-@ songwriter Tommy Torres , the album was recorded in various studios between the United States and Mexico . It is the first release by the artist under Warner Music . Arjona commented that with this album , he " tried to recoup some of the freshness " of his past releases , stating that " it makes good to the songs " . Jason Birchmeier from Allmusic named it " an eagerly awaited album with a phenomenal lead single . " 5to Piso marks the third album in which the singer collaborates with Tommy Torres , after Adentro and Quién Dijo Ayer .
Commercially and critically successful , 5to Piso became Arjona 's second number @-@ one set on the Billboard Top Latin Albums . It received gold and platinum certifications from several Latin American countries , as well as a Grammy Award nomination for Best Latin Pop Album . Six singles were released from the album . " Como Duele " , considered his " biggest hit in years " , became a critical and commercial success , reaching number two on the Billboard Top Latin Songs chart . " Sin Ti ... Sin Mi " and " Tocando Fondo " , the second and fourth singles , respectively , also became commercial hits . To promote the album , the singer embarked on his second major world tour following the Adentro Tour , which he named the Quinto Piso Tour .
= = Background = =
After spending the majority of his career signed to Sony , and later , Sony BMG , Arjona signed a long @-@ term recording deal with Warner Music Latina . The deal was closed in September 2008 . Iñigo Zabala , chairman of Warner Music Latin America commented that " He 's an artist that fits perfectly with our company , " and that they are a label which has many top @-@ Latin pop artist signed along with Arjona . Arjona started development of 5to Piso in 2005 . He stated in an interview that the inspiration behind the album was the thought of recouping some of the " freshness " of his previous releases . The singer additionally stated that he believed each additional album is the result of an evolution , as well as contradictions that he went through , which he celebrates as part of life .
= = Music and lyrics = =
" Quinto Piso " has been categorized as an analytic song — a prologue to the album holding autobiographical tendencies . " Sin Ti ... Sin Mi " is about missing someone who has left , with analogical lyrics talking about absence of one 's beloved person . " El Del Espejo " includes lyrics influenced by " self @-@ criticism " that makes people confront themselves , crafted inside a " rhythmic sound " . Lead single " Como Duele " was highly praised . Jason Birchmeier from Allmusic named it Arjona 's " biggest hit in years " , as well as a standout track of the album alongside " Sin Ti .. Sin Mi " and " El Del Espejo " . El Mercurio Online stated that " Como Duele " is " a ballad of merciless chords and lyrics plagued of contradictions made metaphors . " It was also compared to his past song " Olvidarte " , from Sin Daños a Terceros .
In " Que Nadie Vea " , the singer writes about homosexuality for the first time in his career . In the song , Arjona became the witness of this character , from his childhood until his adulthood , always hiding his true identity with the goal of being socially accepted . Arjona commented in an interview that " Que Nadie Vea " was not intended to be a " judgemental " song , further stating that it was " just a chronicle " that he wrote for this album because he never did so before and found the subject to be fascinating .
" Tocando Fondo " is about " those feelings which can make a person fall off a precipice . " " La Vailarina Vecina " was inspired by a true story that happened to Arjona while he lived in Madrid . The singer commented about a woman : " She was to do her trials and ' tickled ' , as the song says , all my roof , and those tickles didn 't let me sleep . " He further commented that when he planned to meet her , he discovered that she was " very beautiful " . " Vuelo " is a piano ballad themed about tenderness , poetry and romanticism .
" Nadie Sabe A Donde Va " is inspired by the bombings which occurred on 11 March 2004 in Madrid at the Atocha train station . " El Demonio En Casa " has been considered the " most witty and funny " song of the album . The lyrics of the song are about a man recounting how his woman changed his life . " La Vida Está De Luto " is inspired by the actual situation of the planet , a place where man is accustomed to taking advantage of those weaker . " Ni Tu Ni Yo " is the only duet on the album , as it features Mexican ranchera singer Paquita la del Barrio . The song was composed so that when it is heard , it " gives and immediate desire of drinking tequila " according to Arjona . In an interview with newspaper Reforma , Arjona talked about the collaboration with Barrio , stating that " it was very special , because she does not make duets with someone she does not like " , agreeing that he did not duet either . " Niña Buena " is dedicated to women who cannot stay in the same place and dislike having a boring life .
= = Release and promotion = =
= = = Singles = = =
The lead single off the album was " Como Duele " , a Latin pop and ballad song with soft rock and orchestral arrangements , with the main sound being a piano . It was released on 4 November 2008 , and became the first single Arjona released under his new label , Warner Music . The song was a critical and commercial hit for the singer , reaching No. 2 on the Billboard Latin Songs chart , and topping the Latin Pop Songs component chart . The music video for " Como Duele " was shot in Mexico City . It was released on 20 October and was directed by the Mexican filmmaker Ricardo Calderón . " Sin Ti ... Sin Mi " was chosen as the second single of the album , and was released on January 2009 . The song reached No. 4 on both the Latin Songs and Latin Pop Songs chart . Its music video was filmed at the Argentinian Boxing Federation in Buenos Aires . It was directed by Joaquín Cambre . " Ni Tú Ni Yo " , featuring Mexican singer Paquita la del Barrio , was released as the third single in some regions , and failed to appear on the US and other national charts . The music video for the song was filmed in black @-@ and @-@ white and features both artists singing around a buffet . Pop ballad " Tocando Fondo " followed as fourth single . The song managed to reach No. 20 on the Latin Songs chart , becoming the third top ten single off 5to Piso on the Latin Pop Songs chart , reaching No. 6 . Its music video was filmed in Mexico City . Two other singles , " Suavecito " and " Por Si Regresas " were released in promotion of the album .
= = = Tour = = =
To promote the album , the singer embarked on his second major world tour , the Quinto Piso Tour . Starting on 24 April 2009 , the tour included 123 shows between the United States , Spain , Argentina , Guatemala , Colombia , Venezuela , Mexico , among many other countries in Latin America . It ended on 18 June 2010 . During the first North American leg of the tour , Arjona expressed interest in singing in Cuba , though showed no political commitment for the matter , a clear reference of the charity event Colombian singer Juanes was planning to hold in that country in 2009 . Later that year , Arjona cancelled the planning of a concert in the country , and spoke heavily about Juanes ' charity concert influence on the decision . The Quinto Piso Tour has been one of the most successful tours made by a Latin artist , with an attendance of more than one million people from 19 countries . Also , Arjona received in 2010 a Billboard Latin Music Award for " Latin Tour of the Year " . The tour grossed more than $ 15 million .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Jason Birchmeier from Allmusic gave a mostly positive review of the album , commenting that " fans of Arjona 's straight @-@ ahead rock style are sure to be disappointed with much of 5to Piso , as piano and strings drive much of the music rather than the electric guitar and drums of years past . " Billboard 's Leila Cobo , on her review of the album , commented that the singer had " an uncanny knack for marrying sophisticated lyrics with catchy hooks and mass @-@ appeal messages " , stating that songs like " Ni Tu Ni Yo " , a duet with Paquita la del Barrio , " underscores how universal " his songs and themes are , " even in the most regional arrangements . " 5to Piso received a Grammy Award nomination for Best Latin Pop Album and a Latin Grammy Award nomination for Best Singer @-@ Songwriter Album though lost to Sin Frenos and Caetano Veloso respectively .
= = = Commercial performance = = =
5to Piso debuted atop the Billboard Top Latin Albums chart the week ending 6 December 2008 , going ahead of Wisin & Yandel 's La Mente Maestra . The following week , it stayed at No. 1 . On its third week , it fell to No. 2 , being replaced at the top by Vicente Fernández ' Primera Fila . On the Latin Pop Albums component chart , the album debuted at No. 1 the same week it did on the Latin Albums chart . The album stayed at the top of that chart for four consecutive weeks . On its fifth week , it fell to No. 2 , being replaced at the top by Luis Fonsi 's Palabras del Silencio . Almost one year later , on the week ending 12 September 2009 , 5to Piso reached No. 1 , with a total of six weeks at the top . It was the most weeks at No. 1 by any of Arjona 's albums until Independiente stayed 11 weeks at the top between 2011 and 2012 .
On the week it debuted atop both Latin Albums and Latin Pop Albums charts , 5to Piso also appeared at No. 55 on the Billboard 200 . It is his third consecutive album to chart on that list , after Adentro ( 2005 ) and Quién Dijo Ayer ( 2007 ) , and it was his highest entry until Poquita Ropa reached No. 43 in 2010 . On the Mexican Albums Chart , 5to Piso debuted at No. 40 the week ending 8 November 2008 . The following week it jumped to No. 4 , and on its third week , the album reached No. 1 position on the country . It stayed at that position for one week , falling to No. 4 again on its fourth week . It also reached No. 21 on the Spanish Albums Chart .
The album followed the success of his past releases , receiving Gold and Platinum certifications in Mexico , United States , Spain , Argentina , Venezuela , Colombia , Guatemala , and many other countries . It debuted at No. 1 on the Billboard Top Latin Albums chart , becoming his second chart @-@ topper on that chart , and has sold more than one million copies worldwide .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Ricardo Arjona .
= = Personnel = =
The credits are taken from the iTunes exclusive digital booklet .
= = Chart performance = =
= = Release history = =
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= William W. Powers State Recreation Area =
William W. Powers State Recreation Area is an Illinois state park administered by the Illinois Department of Natural Resources on 580 acres ( 230 ha ) in the Hegewisch community area of the City of Chicago in Cook County , Illinois , United States . The area includes 419 acres ( 170 ha ) of water in Wolf Lake that provides about 6 miles ( 10 km ) of shoreline to fishermen . The park hosts about half a million visitors annually . The park contains numerous species , and is one of the most important biological sites in the Chicago region .
= = History = =
Wolf Lake in Illinois has a storied history that somehow has lost track of the origins of the name that goes back over 150 years . Part of this history includes visits by Abraham Lincoln in which Mary Todd Lincoln nearly drowned . In 1947 , the state acquired a 160 acres ( 65 ha ) parcel known as the Wolf Lake State Recreation Area . Later acquisitions were added to the property and have increased the area which was known as Wolf Lake Conservation Area . In 1965 , the Illinois General Assembly named the area after William W. Powers . Powers had been a Chicago alderman on the Chicago City Council and Illinois General Assembly legislator in the 1920s , and used the site for picnics to feed the needy during the Great Depression .
The park also has a military history . There is a defunct Nike Ajax missile honoring the missile site that occupied the area during the Cold War years . Memorial Day , Independence Day , and Veterans Day ceremonies attract veterans who place flags at markers near a former re @-@ dedication ceremony site that featured the Moving Vietnam Wall .
Unlike the Lake Michigan shoreline which has been reshaped by sand and clay , Wolf Lake has been filled in large part with slag from steel mills .
= = Wildlife = =
Wolf Lake contains largemouth bass , northern pike , bluegill , redear sunfish , crappie , bullhead , carp , walleye , hybrid muskie , and yellow perch . There is also an occasional salmon and rainbow trout caught in the lake . Salmon can access the lake via the Calumet River and its Indian Creek tributary .
Native trumpeter ( Cygnus buccinator ) and tundra swans ( Cygnus columbianus ) and non @-@ native mute swans ( Cygnus olor ) may all be found on the lake in winter . Tundra swans are absent in summer as they migrate to the arctic and subarctic to nest , however , the non @-@ native , Eurasian mute swans compete for habitat with the non @-@ migrating trumpeter swan population and is an impediment to restoration of the native trumpeters around the Great Lakes . Additional native birds hosted by the lake include cardinals , blue jays , finches , orioles , woodpeckers , teal , mallards , resident and migratory Canada geese , and an occasional bald eagle .
Birdwatchers enjoy the non @-@ native monk parakeet , which is a South American parrot , that nests in the park . Hunters enjoy the seasonal waterfowl . The South American monk parakeets arrived at the site in 1999 and have since established two nests with seven or eight birds each . They are presumed to have migrated from the Hyde Park community area .
The park contains many willow and cottonwood trees .
The park also attracts city dwelling mammals such as squirrels , rabbits , raccoons , muskrats , opossums , and the occasional coyote and white @-@ tailed deer . Beaver sign indicates that there are beaver on the lake currently .
On August 23 , 2002 , Wolf Lake was one of three neighboring regions that hosted the Calumet BioBlitz . This bioblitz convened over 150 expert scientists to identify and record as many living organisms as possible within 24 hours . The purpose was to demonstrate the resilience of the extraordinary range of organisms in nature 's battle against the South Side of Chicago 's collage of factories , warehouses , forest preserves , residences , and highways as well as its battle of survival against killer pest species . Unofficially , the BioBlitz counted 1 @,@ 815 species . The BioBlitz included teams of scientists from Eastern Illinois University , Field Museum , Forest Preserve District of Cook County , Illinois Natural History Survey , Indiana Department of Natural Resources , University of Illinois - Champaign , U.S. Environmental Protection Agency , and U.S. Fish & Wildlife .
Lake sturgeon , endangered in both Indiana and Illinois , as well as banded killifish , threatened in Illinois , are both part of the Wolf Lake ecology . The lake supports the nesting habitat for four species of endangered birds : little blue heron , yellow @-@ crowned night heron , black @-@ crowned night heron , and yellow @-@ headed blackbird .
= = Conservation = =
The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and the Illinois Water Survey are studying ways to halt degradation of the lake and the USDA Forest Service is helping with a study of public interests in recreation at Wolf Lake . The Wolf Lake water level determines the drainage to Lake Michigan because the connecting Calumet River flows southward during elevated levels and northward during lowered levels . The water in Wolf Lake was about 18 inches higher until 1998 when the Illinois Department of Natural Resources removed several beavers and their dams that had been built across Indian Creek . The subsequent drop in water depth encouraged weed growth and changed fishing conditions .
The Illinois Department of Natural Resources and the City of Hammond , IN initiated the Reconnaissance Report in December 1998 . It was approved in September 2000 . An environmental assessment was held in 2002 . The Project Cooperation Agreement commenced in 2005 . The Wolf Lake ecosystem degradation problem is multifaceted . It includes exotic plant species proliferation , low diversity of plant and fish species , water depth inadequacy , poor aquatic habitat , contaminant impact , and shoreline erosion . Proposed project features include new aquatic and wetland habitat plantings ; shoreline restoration ; creating deep holes to locally diversify the lake bottom ; herbicidal and biological controls ; channels clearing , and dikes and causeways construction to restore natural water levels .
= = Use = =
The park offers stoves and has shelters available by reservation for picnicking . Two of the shelters each have capacity for 50 people , and two others each have capacity for 100 people . Fishing and hunting is permitted in accordance with regulations , but camping is not allowed . Ice fishing is permitted in the winter and 10 horsepower ( 7 @.@ 5 kW ) motorboats are permitted during the summer . The lake has several dikes that temper the wave height . There are 25 hunting blinds to hunt waterfowl . These sites are awarded in yearly lotteries held in late July . During the season , daily drawings are held to allocate blinds of absentee blind holders .
The use of the park is protected by several types of volunteers . For example , at the 14th Annual Earth Day Wolf Lake Cleanup on April 21 , 2001 , more than 350 volunteers , including Hammond , IN Mayor Duane Dedelow , Jr . , helped clean up and remove an estimated 36 @,@ 000 pounds ( 16 t ) of waste . A week later , Friends of Wolf Lake and associates collected more than 3 @,@ 000 discarded tires from the lake and its shoreline . Semi @-@ annual cleanups are organized by the Southeast Sportsmen 's Club and the Wolf Lake Rod and Gun Club who work with the scouts , community organizations and the Hegewisch Chamber of Commerce .
= = Geography = =
Wolf Lake extends across the Illinois and Indiana State line between 120th and 134th streets . It is an 804 acres ( 325 ha ) lake that has 419 acres ( 170 ha ) within the city of Chicago and the remainder in the city of Hammond . Its maximum depth is 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) . Wetlands adjacent to the lake include the 250 acres ( 100 ha ) Eggers Woods Forest Preserve , 175 acres ( 71 ha ) Powderhorn Lake Prairie , and 40 acres ( 16 ha ) Hyde Lake Wetland . William W. Powers State Recreation Area is on Chicago 's far southeast side , off highways 94 , 90 , and 41 . The main park entrance is at 12949 South Avenue O.
At one time , the Wolf lake was connected to Lake Michigan by a creek running through Hammond on the Indiana side , but the creek has long since been blocked by development . On the Illinois side , Wolf Lake empties into Indian Creek , which feeds into the Calumet River . The Illinois and Indiana are separated by State Line Road , which is a road elsewhere along the border , but it is only represented by a rock @-@ and @-@ gravel dike that passes through the lake . State Line Road ends in foot bridges where water enters from the Indiana side .
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= Alex Tanguay =
Alex Joseph Jean Tanguay ( born November 21 , 1979 ) is a Canadian professional ice hockey winger currently an unrestricted free agent who last played with the Arizona Coyotes of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . He has also played for the Colorado Avalanche , Calgary Flames , Montreal Canadiens and Tampa Bay Lightning in the NHL and briefly for HC Lugano in the Swiss National League A in 2004 . An offensive player , he is best known for his passing and playmaking ability .
An alumnus of the Halifax Mooseheads of the Quebec Major Junior Hockey League ( QMJHL ) , Tanguay is the team 's all @-@ time leading scorer and had his jersey retired . During his junior career , he was also a member of Canada 's under @-@ 20 team at the 1998 World Junior Championships . Selected in the first round , 12th overall , by the Colorado Avalanche at the 1998 NHL Entry Draft , he began his NHL career with Colorado in 1999 . Tanguay won a Stanley Cup with Colorado in 2001 , scoring the championship @-@ winning goal in Game 7 against the New Jersey Devils . Individually , he was nominated for the Calder Memorial Trophy following his rookie season and was chosen to the 2004 All @-@ Star Game during his six @-@ year tenure with Colorado . In July 2006 , he was traded to the Flames and spent two years with the club before single @-@ season stints with the Montreal Canadiens and Tampa Bay Lightning . In July 2010 , he returned to Calgary , signing as an unrestricted free agent . After three seasons with Calgary , he returned to Colorado for the 2013 – 14 season . In February 2016 , Tanguay was traded from the Avalanche to the Arizona Coyotes .
= = Playing career = =
= = = Junior = = =
Following a season of midget AAA hockey with the Cap @-@ de @-@ Madeleine Estacades , Tanguay joined the Halifax Mooseheads of the Quebec Major Junior Hockey League ( QMJHL ) for the 1996 – 97 season . He played 70 games , scored 27 goals and 68 points and was named to the QMJHL All @-@ Rookie Team . The following season , he improved to 47 goals and 85 points in 51 league games . He was a member of the eighth place Canadian junior team at the 1998 World Junior Hockey Championship , finishing second in team @-@ scoring with three points in seven games .
In a draft in which they had four first @-@ round selections , the Colorado Avalanche made Tanguay their first pick , 12th overall , at the 1998 NHL Entry Draft . He was invited to Colorado 's training camp that fall , and impressed the team such that he made the team as an 18 @-@ year @-@ old . Tanguay and the Avalanche , however , were unable to come to terms on a contract and he was instead returned to Halifax for the 1998 – 99 season .
A few games into his third season with the Mooseheads , he tied a franchise record with five points in one game , an 11 – 3 victory over the Baie @-@ Comeau Drakkar on October 9 , 1998 , then tied another record with four goals in a 6 – 1 defeat of the Drummondville Voltigeurs six nights later . However , he suffered a concussion early in the season which forced him out of the lineup for 28 games . Though he was limited to 31 contests in 1998 – 99 , he scored 27 goals and 61 points . Tanguay finished his junior career as the Mooseheads ' all @-@ time leader in goals ( 101 ) , assists ( 113 ) and points ( 214 ) . In honour of his accomplishments , the team retired his # 18 jersey in 2005 .
Having replaced his agent following his earlier inability to sign with Colorado , Tanguay agreed to a contract with the Avalanche during the season and was assigned to Colorado 's American Hockey League ( AHL ) affiliate , the Lake Erie Monsters , after his junior season ended . He scored one goal and two assists in five regular season games and added two assists in five playoff games .
= = = Colorado Avalanche = = =
Tanguay made his NHL debut on October 5 , 1999 , against the Nashville Predators and scored his first point that night , recording an assist on a Claude Lemieux goal as part of a 3 – 2 Colorado win . He scored at least one point in his first five NHL games , including his first NHL goal on October 8 against Peter Skudra of the Pittsburgh Penguins . He was named to play in the YoungStars Game as part of 2002 NHL All @-@ Star weekend , but did not play due to injury . Though he struggled at times adjusting to play in the NHL , he finished the season second in the league amongst rookies with 51 points , 19 behind rookie @-@ leader Scott Gomez .
In his sophomore season of 2000 – 01 , Tanguay improved to 77 points and finished sixth in the NHL in plus / minus at + 35 . He enjoyed an 11 @-@ game point streak in November 2000 , scoring six goals and 13 assists in that span . He was a key contributor for the Avalanche in the post @-@ season , recording 21 points . In game seven of the 2001 Stanley Cup Finals , Tanguay scored two goals , including the game @-@ winner , and added an assist in a 3 – 1 victory against the New Jersey Devils . His efforts led Colorado to its second Stanley Cup championship in franchise history .
After falling to 48 points over 70 games in 2001 – 02 , Tanguay rebounded in 2002 – 03 to score 67 points . During the season , he had a career best 16 @-@ game point streak which set a Colorado team record . He also scored his first career NHL hat trick on March 22 , 2003 , against the Chicago Blackhawks . He was nearly traded to the Boston Bruins early in the season when both he and the team were struggling . Colorado had offered Tanguay and Martin Škoula to Boston for Martin Lapointe and Kyle McLaren , though the deal failed to materialize .
He improved to a new personal best of 79 points in 2003 – 04 , good enough for ninth place in league scoring , while his 54 assists tied him for fourth in the NHL . The league named him to the Western Conference team at the 2004 All @-@ Star Game . While the 2004 – 05 season was cancelled by a labour dispute , Tanguay signed to play for HC Lugano of the Swiss National League A. He appeared in six games with Lugano , scoring six points . He returned to the Avalanche in 2005 – 06 , and despite missing ten games late in the year with a knee injury , set a personal best with 29 goals , while his 78 points was one short of his career high . Tanguay scored two goals in an April 15 , 2006 , game against the Vancouver Canucks to reach 400 points for his career .
Though he was the team 's second leading scorer , Tanguay continued to be the subject of trade talks throughout the season . Set to become a restricted free agent in July 2006 , the Avalanche chose to trade his negotiating rights to the Calgary Flames at the 2006 NHL Entry Draft in exchange for defenceman Jordan Leopold and two second round draft picks . Tanguay felt that the team chose to trade him after he failed to live up to the team 's expectations in the playoffs even though he continued to struggle with his knee injury . The Flames quickly signed Tanguay to a three @-@ year contract worth US $ 15 @.@ 75 million .
= = = Calgary Flames = = =
Tanguay enjoyed a career season in 2006 – 07 , his first in Calgary , scoring a career @-@ high 81 points in 81 games . He was second on the team in scoring , and led the Flames with 57 assists . Additionally , he played in his 500th career game on February 2 , 2007 , against the Columbus Blue Jackets . The 2007 – 08 season was a difficult one for Tanguay , as speculation that he would not mesh well with new coach Mike Keenan 's style resulted in his being the subject of trade rumours throughout the year .
Pre @-@ season fears of a conflict with Keenan were realized , as the coach reduced his time on the power play and forced him into a defensive role he was not comfortable with . Unhappy with being pushed into a checking role , and believing that the way Keenan was using him was not allowing him to give the Flames fair value on his contract , Tanguay requested a trade at the Christmas break . He and general manager Darryl Sutter agreed to keep it quiet so as not to become a distraction to the team , although Tanguay 's request was revealed in the off @-@ season . He suffered offensively , falling to 58 points .
= = = Montreal and Tampa Bay = = =
Two years after being acquired by Calgary in a draft @-@ day trade , he left the Flames in another such deal . At the 2008 NHL Entry Draft on June 20 , 2008 , the Flames granted his request and sent Tanguay to the Montreal Canadiens , along with a fifth round draft pick , in exchange for a first round pick in 2008 and a second rounder in 2009 . Tanguay accepted the trade to Montreal despite previously saying he would never want to play for the Canadiens and expressing worries about being a French @-@ Canadian player in the Montreal spotlight .
Tanguay recovered offensively to begin the 2008 – 09 season . He was named Montreal 's player of the month in October after scoring a team @-@ high six goals and 11 assists . He registered his 500th career point with a goal in a November 20 game against the Edmonton Oilers , and entered December as one of the leading vote getters for the 2009 All @-@ Star Game . He ranked third in team @-@ scoring at the end of the month when he suffered a separated left shoulder as a result of a hit by Evgeny Artyukhin of the Tampa Bay Lightning . He missed two months as a result and appeared in a career @-@ low 50 games .
The Canadiens chose not to re @-@ sign Tanguay following the season . He instead agreed to a one @-@ year , $ 2 @.@ 5 million contract with the Tampa Bay Lightning for the 2009 – 10 season after passing a physical exam on his shoulder . He struggled for most of the season with the Lightning , at one point lamenting that he had " forgotten how to play . " It ended as the worst season of his career , as Tanguay finished with 10 goals , 37 points and had a negative plus @-@ minus ( − 2 ) for the first time in his career .
= = = Return to Calgary = = =
Tanguay opted to return to Calgary , signing a one @-@ year , $ 1 @.@ 7 million contract for the 2010 – 11 season . He said that the Flames , who were now coached by Brent Sutter , were one of his top choices and that he felt he had unfinished business with the team . Tanguay added that the team expressed confidence in his abilities even as others doubted him following his injuries . The decision proved successful , as Tanguay re @-@ established himself as one of his team 's top offensive players . He finished second to Jarome Iginla in team scoring with 69 points , and led the Flames with 47 assists . Following the season , the Flames signed him to a five @-@ year contract extension worth $ 17 @.@ 5 million .
An upper body injury forced Tanguay out of the Flames ' lineup for 15 games in 2011 – 12 . The team never identified the injury , which was speculated to be a concussion . He still finished third in team scoring , with 49 points in 64 games . Tanguay again finished third in team scoring in the lockout @-@ shortened 2012 – 13 NHL season , scoring 27 points in 40 games . On February 2 , 2013 , in a 3 – 2 shoot @-@ out defeat to the Chicago Blackhawks , Tanguay registered his 500th career assist on a Dennis Wideman goal . His season was again impacted by injury , as he missed the Flames ' final games of the campaign after suffering a sprained medial collateral ligament in a game against the Phoenix Coyotes .
= = = Return to Colorado = = =
With the Flames embracing a rebuild of the team , on June 27 , 2013 , Tanguay was traded back to his original club , the Colorado Avalanche , along with Cory Sarich in exchange for Shane O 'Brien and David Jones . In his homecoming game with the Avalanche in their season opener for the 2013 – 14 season , Tanguay posted 3 assists in a 5 @-@ 0 victory over the Anaheim Ducks . He was instrumental in Colorado 's league best start to the season until he suffered a knee injury after 13 games in a contest against the Montreal Canadiens on November 2 , 2013 . Tanguay missed the next 36 games before returned to play on January 24 , 2014 , against the Florida Panthers . Tanguay was limited to just 3 further appearances with the club before he was ruled out for the remainder of the season to undergo hip surgery on February 21 , 2014 . In his 16 games , Tanguay totalled 11 points and helped the Avalanche to a 15 @-@ 1 record when in the line @-@ up .
On February 29 , 2016 Tanguay was traded to the Arizona Coyotes along with Conner Bleackley and Kyle Wood in exchange for Mikkel Boedker .
= = Playing style = =
Tanguay is best known for his playmaking skills and ability to set his teammates up for scoring opportunities . His speed and passing skills are considered his strongest attributes . Calgary teammates Olli Jokinen and Jarome Iginla both praised his ability to find a way to pass the puck to them in difficult plays .
Tanguay has been criticized for not shooting the puck enough , resulting in the view that his goal totals could be higher . Tanguay has good shooting ability ; he led the league in shooting percentage in 2005 – 06 and finished third in 2006 – 07 with an average of 23 @.@ 2 % both seasons . He is also a top player in the shootout , and led the league with 10 shootout goals in 2010 – 11 .
= = Personal life = =
Tanguay was born on November 21 , 1979 , in the town of Sainte @-@ Justine , Quebec . His father worked with the family @-@ owned transportation company , while his mother worked at a nearby school division . His younger brother , Maxime , is also a professional hockey player . Tanguay is distantly related to French @-@ Canadian author , and fellow Sainte @-@ Justine native , Roch Carrier .
Tanguay grew up a fan of the Quebec Nordiques and frequently accompanied his grandfather to their games . Owing to the nature of the Battle of Quebec rivalry with the Canadiens that existed when he was growing up , Tanguay admitted unease at joining the Canadiens in 2008 .
Tanguay and his wife Helene have three children daughter Maya and sons Blake and Samuel . The two volunteer with the Canadian Cancer Society ; in the 2010 – 11 season , he donated $ 200 for every assist he recorded . With 47 assists , the total reached $ 9 @,@ 400 ; Tanguay established at the beginning of the season , however , that he would donate a minimum of $ 10 @,@ 000 .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =
= = = International = = =
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= M @-@ 142 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 142 is a state trunkline highway in The Thumb region of the US state of Michigan . It is a " trans @-@ peninsular " highway in that it travels through an agricultural area from Bay Port on Saginaw Bay to Harbor Beach on Lake Huron . The current trunkline in Huron County was originally parts of other state highways that date back to the initial 1919 signposting of the state highway system in the state . The designation was applied in 1939 , and the road has remained unchanged since it was completely paved in the 1950s . One other highway , near Lake City , carried the number in the 1930s .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 142 begins just a few miles south of Bay Port at an intersection with M @-@ 25 near the Bay Port Cemetery , about two @-@ thirds of a mile ( 1 @.@ 1 km ) inland from Saginaw Bay . From there , the road travels eastward through farm country on Pigeon Road . The highway follows a direct course over the Pigeon River to the village of Pigeon , when M @-@ 142 turns south on Main Street to exit town . South of town , the Pigeon Road name resumes , and after about one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) , M @-@ 142 turns back eastward near the Grand Lawn Cemetery . The road then continues eastward through more farms to Elkton , diverting off a direct course to cross a line of the Huron and Eastern Railway on the east side of town .
North of Bad Axe , M @-@ 142 leaves Pigeon Road to turn southward along Van Dyke Road for about mile and a half ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) . Along this section , the highway runs concurrently with M @-@ 53 into town . At the intersection with Huron Avenue , M @-@ 142 turns east and M @-@ 53 turns west , ending the overlap of the two highways . M @-@ 142 exits town and follows Sand Beach Road through farm country . About three miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) of Bad Axe , M @-@ 142 meets the northern terminus of M @-@ 19 ( Ubly Road ) . Continuing eastward , the highway crosses two branches of the Willow River as it passes through the unincorporated community of Verona . East of that location , the trunkline turns northeasterly , roughly parallel to the Rock Falls Creek , as it angles to Harbor Beach . M @-@ 142 follows State Street through town , and the trunkline terminates at the intersection with M @-@ 25 about a quarter mile ( 0 @.@ 4 km ) west of Lake Huron .
Like other state highways in Michigan , M @-@ 142 is maintained by the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) . In 2011 , the department 's traffic surveys showed that on average , 8 @,@ 887 vehicles used the highway daily in the city of Bad Axe east of M @-@ 53 and 832 vehicles did so each day between M @-@ 25 and Pigeon , the highest and lowest counts along the highway , respectively . No section of M @-@ 142 is listed on the National Highway System , a network of roads important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility .
= = History = =
= = = Previous designation = = =
The first highway to gain the M @-@ 142 moniker was designated by the end of 1929 running eastward from M @-@ 55 / M @-@ 66 to a farm owned by Michigan State College ( now Michigan State University ) south of Lake City . By 1939 , this one @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) highway was transferred back to local control .
= = = Current highway = = =
When the state highway system was first signed in 1919 , one of the original trunklines was numbered M @-@ 31 , originally running northward from Port Huron to Harbor Beach and then westward to Saginaw . When the U.S. Highway System was approved on November 11 , 1926 , M @-@ 31 was decommissioned in favor of alternate numbers . The roadway between Bay Port and Harbor Beach was assigned the M @-@ 83 designation ; Between Bay Port and Bad Axe , the highway was also a part of the contemporary M @-@ 29 . By 1933 , the M @-@ 29 designation was removed when that highway was realigned to follow the Saginaw Bay shoreline and later became parts of an extended US Highway 25 and a new M @-@ 25 .
In 1939 , a section of M @-@ 83 was returned to local control , which would have resulted in a discontinuous routing . Segments of the trunkline were absorbed into other existing highways . The former routing of M @-@ 83 from Bay Port , eastward across The Thumb , to Harbor Beach where it met up with US 25 was redesignated M @-@ 142 . By early 1952 , the last section of the highway was paved , stretching about three miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) eastward from the M @-@ 19 junctionMichigan State Highway Department ( April 15 , 1952 ) . 1952 Official Highway Map ( Map ) . The highway has been unchanged since .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire highway is in Huron County .
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= Kanchipuram =
Kanchipuram a otherwise known as Kanchi ( previously romanised as Kāñci @-@ pura , Conjevaram ) is a city in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu , 72 km ( 45 mi ) from Chennai – the capital of Tamil Nadu . The city covers an area of 11 @.@ 605 km2 ( 4 @.@ 481 sq mi ) and had a population of 164 @,@ 265 in 2001 . It is the administrative headquarters of Kanchipuram District . Kanchipuram is well @-@ connected by road and rail . Chennai International Airport is the nearest domestic and international airport to the city , which is located at Tirusulam in Kanchipuram district .
Located on the banks of the Vegavathy river , Kanchipuram has been ruled by the Pallavas , the Medieval Cholas , the Later Cholas , the Later Pandyas , the Vijayanagar Empire , the Carnatic kingdom , and the British . The city 's historical monuments include the Kailasanathar Temple and the Vaikunta Perumal Temple . Historically , Kanchipuram was a centre of education and was known as the ghatikasthanam , or " place of learning " . The city was also a religious centre of advanced education for Jainism and Buddhism between the 1st and 5th centuries .
In Vaishnavism Hindu theology , Kanchipuram is one of the seven Tirtha ( pilgrimage ) sites , for spiritual release . The city houses Varadharaja Perumal Temple , Ekambareswarar Temple , Kamakshi Amman Temple , and Kumarakottam Temple , which are some of major Hindu temples in the state . Of the 108 holy temples of the Hindu god Vishnu , 14 are located in Kanchipuram . The city is particularly important to Sri Vaishnavism , but is also a holy pilgrimage site in Shaivism . The city is well known for its hand woven silk sarees and most of the city 's workforce is involved in the weaving industry .
Kanchipuram is administered by a Special grade municipality constituted in 1947 . It is the headquarters of the Kanchi matha , a Hindu monastic institution believed to have been founded by the Hindu saint and commentator Adi Sankaracharya , and was the capital city of the Pallava Kingdom between the 4th and 9th centuries .
Kanchipuram has been chosen as one of the heritage cities for HRIDAY - Heritage City Development and Augmentation Yojana scheme of Government of India .
= = Etymology = =
Kanchipuram was known in early Tamil literature as Kachi or Kachipedu but was later Sanskritized to Kanchi or Kanchipuram . According to legend , the name Kanchi is derived from Ka referring to the Hindu god Brahma and anchi , referring to his worship of Hindu god Vishnu at this place . The earliest inscription from the Maurya period ( 325 – 185 BCE ) denote the city as Kanchipuram , where King Visnugopa was defeated by Samudragupta Maurya ( 320 – 298 BCE ) . Patanjali ( 150 BCE or 2nd century BCE ) refers to the city in his Mahabhasya as Kanchipuraka . The city was referred to by various Tamil names like Kanchi , Kanchipedu and Sanskrit names like Kanchipuram . The Pallava inscriptions from ( 250 – 355 ) and the inscriptions of the Chalukya dynasty refers the city as Kanchipura . Jaina Kanchi refers to the area around Tiruparutti Kundram . During the British rule , the city was known as Conjeevaram and later as Kanchipuram . The municipal administration was renamed Kancheepuram , while the district retains the name Kanchipuram .
= = History = =
While it is widely accepted that Kanchipuram had served as an Early Chola capital , the claim has been contested by Indian historian P. T. Srinivasa Iyengar who wrote that the Tamil culture of the Sangam period did not spread through the Kanchipuram district , and cites the Sanskritic origins of its name in support of his claim . The earliest references to Kanchipuram are found in the books of the Sanskrit grammarian Patanjali , who lived between the 3rd and 2nd centuries BCE . The city is believed to have been part of the mythical Dravida Kingdom of the Mahabharatha , and was described as " the best among cities " ( Sanskrit : Nagareshu Kanchi ) by the 4th @-@ century Sanskrit poet , Kalidasa . The city was regarded as the " Banaras of the South " .
Kanchipuram grew in importance when the Pallavas of southern Andhra Pradesh , wary of constant invasions from the north , moved their capital south to the city in the 6th century . The Pallavas fortified the city with ramparts , wide moats , well @-@ laid @-@ out roads , and artistic temples . During the reign of the Pallava King Mahendravarman I , the Chalukya King Pulakesin II ( 610 – 642 ) invaded the Pallava kingdom as far as the Kaveri River . The Pallavas successfully defended Kanchipuram and foiled repeated attempts to capture the city . A second invasion ended disastrously for Pulakesin II , who was forced to retreat to his capital Vatapi which was besieged and Pulakesin II was killed by Narasimhavarman I ( 630 – 668 ) , son of Mahendravarman I ( 600 – 630 ) , at the Battle of Vatapi . Under the Pallavas , Kanchipuram flourished as a centre of Hindu and Buddhist learning . King Narasimhavarman II built the city 's important Hindu temples , the Kanchi Kailasanathar Temple , the Varadharaja Perumal Temple and the Iravatanesvara Temple . Xuanzang , a Chinese traveller who visited Kanchipuram in 640 , recorded that the city was 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) in circumference and that its people were renowned for their bravery , piety , love of justice , and veneration for learning .
The Medieval Chola king Aditya I conquered the Pallava kingdom , including Kanchipuram , after defeating the Pallava ruler Aparajitavarman ( 880 – 897 ) in about 890 . Under the Cholas , the city was the headquarters of the northern viceroyalty . The province was renamed " Jayamkonda Cholamandalam " during the reign of King Raja Raja Chola I ( 985 – 1014 ) , who constructed the Karchapeswarar Temple and renovated the Kamakshi Amman Temple . His son , Rajendra Chola I ( 1012 – 44 ) constructed the Yathothkari Perumal Temple . According to the Siddhantasaravali of Trilocana Sivacharya , Rajendra Chola I brought a band of Saivas with him on his return from the Chola expedition to North India and settled them in Kanchipuram . In about 1218 , the Pandya king Maravarman Sundara Pandyan ( 1216 – 1238 ) invaded the Chola country , making deep inroads into the kingdom which was saved by the intervention of the Hoysala king Vira Narasimha II ( 1220 – 1235 ) , who fought on the side of the Chola king Kulothunga Chola III . Inscriptions indicate the presence of a powerful Hoysala garrison in Kanchipuram , which remained in the city until about 1230.Shortly afterwards , Kanchipuram was conquered by the Telugu Cholas , from whom Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan I took the city in 1258 . The city remained with the Pandyas until 1311 when the Sambuvarayars declared independence , taking advantage of the anarchy caused by Malik Kafur 's invasion . After short spells of occupation by Ravivarman Kulasekhara of Venad ( Quilon , Kerala ) in 1313 – 1314 and the Kakatiya ruler Prataparudra II , Kanchipuram was conquered by the Vijayanagar general Kumara Kampana , who defeated the Madurai Sultanate in 1361 .
The Vijayanagar Empire ruled Kanchipuram from 1361 to 1645 . The earliest inscriptions attesting to Vijayanagar rule are those of Kumara Kampanna from 1364 and 1367 , which were found in the precincts of the Kailasanathar Temple and Varadaraja Perumal Temple respectively . His inscriptions record the re @-@ institution of Hindu rituals in the Kailasanathar Temple that had been abandoned during the Muslim invasions . Inscriptions of the Vijayanagar kings Harihara II , Deva Raya II , Krishna Deva Raya , Achyuta Deva Raya , Sriranga I , and Venkata II are found within the city . Harihara II endowed grants in favour of the Varadaraja Perumal Temple.In the 15th century , Kanchipuram was invaded by the Velama Nayaks in 1437 , the Gajapati kingdom in 1463 – 1465 and 1474 – 75 and the Bahmani Sultanate in about 1480 . A 1467 inscription of Virupaksha Raya II mentions a cantonment in the vicinity of Kanchipuram . In 1486 , Saluva Narasimha Deva Raya , the governor of the Kanchipuram region , overthrew the Sangama Dynasty of Vijayanagar and founded the Saluva Dynasty . Like most of his predecessors , Narasimha donated generously to the Varadaraja Perumal Temple . Kanchipuram was visited twice by the Vijayanagar king Krishna Deva Raya , considered to be the greatest of the Vijayanagar rulers , and 16 inscriptions of his time are found in the Varadaraja Perumal Temple . The inscriptions in four languages – Tamil , Telugu , Kannada , and Sanskrit – record the genealogy of the Tuluva kings and their contributions , along with those of their nobles , towards the upkeep of the shrine . His successor , Achyuta Deva Raya , reportedly had himself weighed against pearls in Kanchipuram and distributed the pearls amongst the poor . Throughout the second half of the 16th and first half of the 17th centuries , the Aravidu Dynasty tried to maintain a semblance of authority in the southern parts after losing their northern territories in the Battle of Talikota . Venkata II ( 1586 – 1614 ) tried to revive the Vijayanagar Empire , but the kingdom relapsed into confusion after his death and rapidly fell apart after the Vijayanagar king Sriranga III 's defeat by the Golconda and Bijapur sultanates in 1646 .
After the fall of the Vijayanagar Empire , Kanchipuram endured over two decades of political turmoil . The Golconda Sultanate gained control of the city in 1672 , but lost it to Bijapur three years later . In 1676 , Shivaji arrived in Kanchipuram at the invitation of the Golconda Sultanate in order to drive out the Bijapur forces . His campaign was successful and Kanchipuram was held by the Golconda Sultanate until its conquest by the Mughal Empire led by Aurangazeb in October 1687.In the course of their southern campaign , the Mughals defeated the Marathas under Sambhaji , the elder son of Shivaji , in a battle near Kanchipuram in 1688 which caused considerable damage to the city but cemented Mughal rule . Soon after , the priests at the Varadaraja Perumal , Ekambareshwarar and Kamakshi Amman temples , mindful of Aurangazeb 's reputation for iconoclasm , transported the idols to southern Tamil Nadu and did not restore them until after Aurangazeb 's death in 1707 . Under the Mughals , Kanchipuram was part of the viceroyalty of the Carnatic which , in the early 1700s , began to function independently , retaining only a nominal acknowledgement of Mughal rule . The Marathas invaded Kanchipuram during the Carnatic period in 1724 and 1740 , and the Nizam of Hyderabad in 1742 .
Kanchipuram was a battlefront for the British East India Company in the Carnatic Wars against the French East India Company and in the Anglo @-@ Mysore Wars with the Sultanate of Mysore.The popular 1780 Battle of Pollilur of the Second Anglo @-@ Mysore War , known for the use of rockets by Hyder Ali of Mysore , was fought in the village of Pullalur near Kanchipuram . In 1763 , the British East India Company assumed indirect control from the Nawab of the Carnatic over the erstwhile Chingleput District , comprising the present @-@ day Kanchipuram and Tiruvallur districts , in order to defray the expenses of the Carnatic wars . The Company brought the territory under their direct control during the Second Anglo @-@ Mysore War , and the Collectorate of Chingleput was created in 1794 . The district was split into two in 1997 and Kanchipuram made the capital of the newly created Kanchipuram district .
= = Geography = =
Kanchipuram is located at 12 @.@ 98 ° N 79 @.@ 71 ° E / 12 @.@ 98 ; 79 @.@ 71 , 72 km ( 45 mi ) south @-@ west of Chennai on the banks of the Vegavathi River , a tributary of the Palar River . The city covers an area of 11 @.@ 6 km2 ( 4 @.@ 5 sq mi ) and has an elevation of 83 @.@ 2 m ( 273 ft ) above sea level.The land around Kanchipuram is flat and slopes towards the south and east . The soil in the region is mostly clay , with some loam , clay , and sand , which are suitable for use in construction . The Chingleput District Manual ( 1879 ) describes the region 's soils as " highly inferior " and " highly stony or mixed with lime , gravel , soda and laterite " . It has been postulated that the granite required for the Varadaraja Perumal Temple might have been obtained from the Sivaram Hills located 10 miles east of Kanchipuram . The area is classified as a Seismic Zone II region , and earthquakes of up to magnitude 6 on the Richter Scale may be expected . Kanchipuram is subdivided into two divisions – Big Kanchi , also called Shiva Kanchi occupies the western portion of the city and is the larger of the two divisions . Little Kanchi , also called Vishnu Kanchi , is located on the eastern fringes of the city . Most of the Shiva temples lie in Big Kanchi while most of the Vishnu temples lie in Little Kanchi .
Ground water is the major source of water supplies used for irrigation – the block of Kanchipuram has 24 canals , 2809 tanks , 1878 tube wells and 3206 ordinary wells . The area is rich in medicinal plants , and historic inscriptions mention the medicinal value . Dimeria acutipes and cyondon barberi are plants found only in Kanchipuram and Chennai .
= = Climate = =
Kanchipuram generally experiences hot and humid climatic conditions throughout the year . Temperatures reache an average maximum of 37 @.@ 5 ° C ( 99 @.@ 5 ° F ) between April and July , and an average minimum of 20 @.@ 5 ° C ( 68 @.@ 9 ° F ) between December and February . The daytime heat during summer can be oppressive ; temperatures can reach 43 ° C ( 109 ° F ) . Relative humidities of between 58 % and 84 % prevail throughout the year . The humidity reaches its peak during the morning and is lowest in the evening . Relative humidity is higher between November and January and is lowest throughout June .
The city receives an average of 1064 mm of rainfall annually , 68 % of which falls during the northeast monsoon . Most of the precipitation occurs in the form of cyclonic storms caused by depressions in the Bay of Bengal during the northeast monsoon . The prevailing wind direction is south @-@ westerly in the morning and south @-@ easterly in the evening .
= = Government and politics = =
The Kanchipuram municipality was officially constituted in 1866 , covering 7 @.@ 68 km2 ( 2 @.@ 97 sq mi ) , and its affairs were administered by a municipal committee . It was upgraded to a grade I municipality in 1947 , selection grade municipality in 1983 and special grade municipality in 2008 . As of 2011 the municipality occupies 11 @.@ 6 km2 ( 4 @.@ 5 sq mi ) , has 51 wards and is the biggest municipality in Kanchipuram district . The functions of the municipality are devolved into six departments : General , Engineering , Revenue , Public Health , Town Planning and the Computer Wing , all of which are under the control of a Municipal Commissioner , who is the supreme executive head . The legislative powers are vested in a body of 51 members , each representing one ward . The legislative body is headed by an elected Chairperson who is assisted by a Deputy Chairperson .
Kanchipuram comes under the Kanchipuram state assembly constituency . From the state delimitation after 1967 , seven of the ten elections held between 1971 and 2011 were won by the Anna Dravida Muneetra Kazhagam ( ADMK ) . Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam ( DMK ) won the seat during the 1971 and 1989 elections and its ally Pattali Makkal Katchi won the seat during the 2006 elections . The current member of the legislative assembly is V. Somasundaram from the ADMK party .
Kanchipuram Lok Sabha constituency is a newly formed constituency of the Parliament of India after the 2008 delimitation . The constituency originally existed for the 1951 election , and was formed in 2008 after merging the assembly segments of Chengalpattu , Thiruporur , Madurantakam ( SC ) , Uthiramerur and Kanchipuram , which were part of the now defunct Chengalpattu constituency , and Alandur , which was part of the Chennai South constituency . This constituency is reserved for Scheduled Castes ( SC ) candidates . K. Maragatham from the All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam is the current Member of Parliament for the constituency . Indian writer , politician and founder of the DMK , C. N. Annadurai , was born and raised in Kanchipuram . He was the first member of a Dravidian party to hold that post and was the first non @-@ Congress leader to form a majority government in post @-@ colonial India .
Policing in the city is provided by the Kanchipuram sub @-@ division of the Tamil Nadu Police headed by a Deputy Superintendent of Police . The force 's special units include prohibition enforcement , district crime , social justice and human rights , district crime records and special branch that operate at the district level police division , which is headed by a Superintendent of Police .
= = Demographics = =
During the rule of King Narasimha Varma in the 7th century , the city covered about 10 square kilometres ( 3 @.@ 9 sq mi ) and had a population of 10 @,@ 000 . The population increased to 13 @,@ 000 in subsequent years and the city developed cross patterned links with rectangular streets . The settlements in the city were mostly caste based . During the period of Nandivarma Pallavan II , houses were built on raised platforms and burnt bricks . The concepts of the verandah in the front yard , garden in the backyard , ventilation facilities and drainage of rainwater were all introduced for the first time . The centre of the city was occupied by Brahmins , while the Tiruvekka temple and houses of agricultural labourers were situated outside the city . There were provisions in the city 's outskirts for training the cavalry and infantry .
During the Chola era , Kanchipuram was not the capital , but the kings had a palace in the city and lot of development was extended eastwards . During the Vijayanagara period , the population rose to 25 @,@ 000 . There were no notable additions to the city 's infrastructure during British rule . The British census of 1901 recorded that Kanchipuram had a population of 46 @,@ 164 , consisting of 44 @,@ 684 Hindus , 1 @,@ 313 Muslims , 49 Christians and 118 Jains .
According to 2011 census , Kanchipuram had a population of 164 @,@ 384 with a sex @-@ ratio of 1 @,@ 005 females for every 1 @,@ 000 males , much above the national average of 929 . A total of 15 @,@ 955 were under the age of six , constituting 8 @,@ 158 males and 7 @,@ 797 females . Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes accounted for 3 @.@ 55 % and .09 % of the population respectively . The average literacy of the city was 79 @.@ 51 % , compared to the national average of 72 @.@ 99 % . The city had a total of 41807 households . There were a total of 61 @,@ 567 workers , comprising 320 cultivators , 317 main agricultural labourers , 8 @,@ 865 in house hold industries , 47 @,@ 608 other workers , 4 @,@ 457 marginal workers , 61 marginal cultivators , 79 marginal agricultural labourers , 700 marginal workers in household industries and 3 @,@ 617 other marginal workers . About 800 @,@ 000 ( 800 @,@ 000 ) pilgrims visit the city every year as of 2001 . As per the religious census of 2011 , Kancheepuram had 93 @.@ 38 % Hindus , 5 @.@ 24 % Muslims , 0 @.@ 83 % Christians , 0 @.@ 01 % Sikhs , 0 @.@ 01 % Buddhists , 0 @.@ 4 % Jains , 0 @.@ 11 % following other religions and 0 @.@ 01 % following no religion or did not indicate any religious preference .
Kanchipuram has 416 hectares ( 1 @,@ 030 acres ) of residential properties , mostly around the temples . The commercial area covers 62 hectares ( 150 acres ) , constituting 6 @.@ 58 % of the city . Industrial developments occupy around 65 hectares ( 160 acres ) , where most of the handloom spinning , silk weaving , dyeing and rice production units are located . 89 @.@ 06 hectares ( 220 @.@ 1 acres ) are used for transport and communications infrastructure , including bus stands , roads , streets and railways lines .
= = Economy = =
The major occupations of Kanchipuram are silk sari weaving and agriculture . As of 2008 , an estimated 5 @,@ 000 families were involved in sari production . The main industries are cotton production , light machinery and electrical goods manufacturing , and food processing . There are 25 silk and cotton yarn industries , 60 dyeing units , 50 rice mills and 42 other industries in the Kanchipuram . Another important occupation is tourism and service related segments like hotels , restaurants and local transportation .
Kanchipuram is a traditional centre of silk weaving and handloom industries for producing Kanchipuram Saris . The industry is worth ₹ 100 cr ( US $ 18 @.@ 18 million ) , but the weaving community suffers from poor marketing techniques and duplicate market players . In 2005 , " Kanchipuram Silk Sarees " received the Geographical Indication tag , the first product in India to carry this label . The silk trade in Kanchipuram began when King Raja Raja Chola I ( 985 – 1014 ) invited weavers to migrate to Kanchi . The craft increased with the mass migration from Andhra Pradesh in the 15th century during the Vijayanagara rule . The city was razed during the French siege of 1757 , but weaving re @-@ emerged in the late 18th century .
All major nationalised banks such as Vijaya Bank , State Bank of India , Indian Bank , Canara Bank , Punjab National Bank , Dena Bank and private banks like ICICI Bank have branches in Kanchipuram . All these banks have their Automated teller machines located in various parts of the city .
= = = Human rights = = =
Kanchipuram has more than the national average rate of child labour and bonded labour . The local administration is accused of aiding child labour by opening night schools in Kanchipuram from 1999 . There is an estimated 40 @,@ 000 to 50 @,@ 000 child workers in Kanchipuram compared to 85 @,@ 000 in the same industry in Varanasi . Children are commonly traded for sums of between ₹ 10 @,@ 000 and 15 @,@ 000 ( 200 – $ 300 ) and there are cases where whole families are held in bondage . Child labour is prohibited in India by the Children ( Pledging of Labour ) Act and Child Labour ( Prohibition and Regulation ) Act , but these laws are not strictly enforced .
= = Transport , communication and utility services = =
Kanchipuram is most easily accessible by road . The Chennai – Bangalore National Highway , NH 4 passes the outskirts of the city . Daily bus services are provided by the Tamil Nadu State Transport Corporation to and from Chennai , Bangalore , Villupuram , Tirupathi , Thiruthani , Tiruvannamalai , Vellore , Salem , Coimbatore and Pondicherry . There are two major bus routes to Chennai , one connecting via Guindy and the other via Tambaram . Local bus services are provided by The Villupuram division of Tamil Nadu State Transport Corporation . As of 2006 , there were a total of 403 buses for 191 routes operated out of the city .
The city is also connected to the railway network through the Kanchipuram railway station . The Chengalpet – Arakkonam railway line passes through Kanchipuram and travellers can access services to those destinations . Daily trains are provided to Pondicherry and Tirupati , and there is a weekly express train to Madurai and a bi @-@ weekly express train to Nagercoil . Two passenger trains from both sides of Chengalpattu and Arakkonam pass via Kanchipuram .
The nearest domestic as well as international airport is Chennai International Airport , located at a distance of 72 km from the city .
Telephone and broadband internet services are provided by Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited ( BSNL ) , India 's state @-@ owned telecom and internet services provider . Electricity supply is regulated and distributed by the Tamil Nadu Electricity Board ( TNEB ) . Water supply is provided by the Kanchipuram municipality ; supplies are drawn from subterranean springs of Vegavati river . The head works is located at Orikkai , Thiruparkadal and St. Vegavathy , and distributed through overhead tanks with a total capacity of 9 @.@ 8 litres ( 2 @.@ 2 imperial gallons ) . About 55 tonnes of solid waste are collected from the city daily at five collection points covering the whole of the city . The sewage system in the city was implemented in 1975 ; Kanchipuram was identified as one of the hyper endemic cities in 1970 . Underground drainage covers 82 % of roads in the city , and is divided into east and west zones for internal administration .
= = Education = =
Kanchipuram is traditionally a centre of religious education for the Hindu , Jainism and Buddhism faiths . The Buddhist monasteries acted as nucleus of the Buddhist educational system . With the gradual resurrection of Hinduism during the reign of Mahendra Varman I , the Hindu educational system gained prominence with Sanskrit emerging as the official language .
As of 2011 Kanchipuram has 49 registered schools , 16 of which are run by the city municipality . The district administration opened night schools for educating children employed in the silk weaving industry – as of December 2001 , these schools together were educating 127 people and 260 registered students from September 1999 . Larsen & Toubro inaugurated the first rail construction training centre in India at Kanchipuram on 24 May 2012 , that can train 300 technicians and 180 middle level managers and engineers each year . Sri Chandrasekharendra Saraswathi Viswa Mahavidyalaya and Chettinad Academy of Research and Education ( CARE ) are the two Deemed universities present in Kanchipuram .
Kanchipuram is home to one of the four Indian Institute of Information of Technology , a public private partnered institute , offering under graduate and post graduate programs in information technology . The city has two medical colleges – Arignar Anna Memorial Cancer Institute and Hospital , established in 1969 is operated by the Department of Health , Government of Tamil Nadu and the privately owned Meenakshi Medical College . The city has 6 engineering colleges , 3 polytechnic institutes and 6 arts and science colleges .
= = Religion = =
= = = Buddhism = = =
Buddhism is believed to have flourished in Kanchipuram between the 1st and 5th centuries . Some notable Buddhists associated with Kanchipuram are Āryadeva ( 2nd – 3rd centuries ) – a successor of Nāgārjuna of Nalanda University , Dignaga and the Pali commentators Buddhaghosa and Dhammapala . According to a popular tradition , Bodhidharma , a 5th / 6th @-@ century Buddhist monk and founder of Shaolin Kung Fu was the third son of a Pallava king from Kanchipuram . However , other traditions ascribe his origins to other places in Asia.Buddhists institutions from Kanchipuram were instrumental in spreading Theravada Buddhism to the Mon people of Myanmar and Thailand who in return spread the religion to the incoming Burmese and Thai people .
= = = Jainism = = =
It is thought that Jainism was introduced into Kanchipuram by Kunda Kundacharya ( 1st century ) . Jainism spread to the city by Akalanka ( 3rd century ) . Kalbhras , the rulers of Kanchipuram before the Pallavas , followed Jainism which gained popularity from royal patronage . The Pallava kings , Simhavishnu , Mahendra Varman and Simhavarman ( 550 – 560 ) followed Jainism , until the advent of Nayanmars and Azhwars during the 6th and 7th centuries . Mahendravarman I converted from Jainism to Hinduism under the influence of the Naynamar , Appar , was the turning point in the religious geography . The two sects of Hinduism , Saivism and Vaishnavism were revived under the influence of Adi Sankara and Ramanuja respectively . Later Cholas and Vijayanagara kings tolerated Jainism , and the religion was still practised in Kanchi . Trilokyanatha / Chandraprabha temple is a twin Jain temple that has inscriptions from Pallava king , Narasimhavarman II and the Chola kings Rajendra Chola I , Kulothunga Chola I and Vikrama Chola , and the Kanarese inscriptions of Krishnadevaraya . The temple is maintained by Tamil Nadu archaeological department .
= = = Hinduism = = =
Hindus regard Kanchipuram to be one of the seven holiest cities in India , the Sapta Puri . According to Hinduism , a kṣetra is a sacred ground , a field of active power , and a place where final attainment , or moksha , can be obtained . The Garuda Purana says that seven cities , including Kanchipuram are providers of moksha . The city is a pilgrimage site for both Saivites and Vaishnavites . It has close to 108 shiva temples .
Ekambareswarar Temple in northern Kanchipuram , dedicated to Shiva , is the largest temple in the city . Its gateway tower , or gopuram , is 59 metres ( 194 ft ) tall , making it one the tallest temple towers in India . The temple is one of five called Pancha Bhoota Stalams , which represent the manifestation of the five prime elements of nature ; land , water , air , sky , and fire . Ekambareswarar temple temple represents earth .
Kailasanathar Temple , dedicated to Shiva and built by the Pallavas , is the oldest Hindu temple in existence and is declared an archaeological monument by the Archaeological Survey of India . It has a series of cells with sculptures inside . In the Kamakshi Amman Temple , goddess Parvati is depicted in the form of a yantra , Chakra or peetam ( basement ) . In this temple , the yantra is placed in front of the deity . Adi Sankara is closely associated with this temple and is believed to have established the Kanchi matha after this temple .
Muktheeswarar Temple , built by Nandivarman Pallava II ( 720 – 796 ) and Iravatanesvara Temple built by Narasimhavarman Pallava II ( 720 – 728 ) are the other Shiva temples from the Pallava period . Kachi Metrali – Karchapeswarar Temple , Onakanthan Tali , Kachi Anekatangapadam , Kuranganilmuttam , and Karaithirunathar Temple in Tirukalimedu are the Shiva temples in the city reverred in Tevaram , the Tamil Saiva canonical work of the 7th – 8th centuries .
Kumarakottam Temple , dedicated to Muruga , is located between the Ekambareswarar temple and Kamakshi Amman temple , leading to the cult of Somaskanda ( Skanda , the child between Shiva and Parvati ) . Kandapuranam , the Tamil religious work on Muruga , translated from Sanskrit Skandapurana , was composed in 1625 by Kachiappa Shivacharya in the temple .
Varadharaja Perumal Temple , dedicated to Vishnu and covering 23 acres ( 93 @,@ 000 m2 ) , is the largest Vishnu temple in Kanchipuram . It was built by the Cholas in 1053 and was expanded during the reigns of Kulottunga Chola I ( 1079 – 1120 ) and Vikrama Chola ( 1118 – 1135 ) . It is one of the divyadesams , the 108 holy abodes of Vishnu . The temple features carved lizards , one platted with gold and another with silver , over the sanctum.Clive of India is said to have presented an emerald necklace to the temple . It is called the Clive Makarakandi and is still used to decorate the deity on ceremonial occasions .
Tiru Parameswara Vinnagaram is the birthplace of the azhwar saint , Poigai Alvar . The central shrine has a three @-@ tier shrine , one over the other , with Vishnu depicted in each of them . The corridor around the sanctum has a series of sculptures depicting the Pallava rule and conquest . It is the oldest Vishnu temple in the city and was built by the Pallava king Paramesvaravarman II ( 728 – 731 ) .
Ashtabujakaram , Tiruvekkaa , Tiruththanka , Tiruvelukkai , Ulagalantha Perumal Temple , Tiru pavla vannam , Pandava Thoothar Perumal Temple are among the divyadesam , the 108 famous temples of Vishnu in the city . There are a five other divyadesams , three inside the Ulagalantha Perumal temple , one each in Kamakshi Amman Temple and Ekambareswarar Temple .
The Kanchi Matha is a Hindu monastic institution , whose official history states that it was founded by Adi Sankara of Kaladi , tracing its history back to the 5th century BCE . A related claim is that Adi Sankara came to Kanchipuram , and that he established the Kanchi mutt named " Dakshina Moolamnaya Sarvagnya Sri Kanchi Kamakoti Peetam " in a position of supremacy , namely Sarvagnya Peetha , over the other mathas ( religious institutions ) of the subcontinent , before his death there . Other historical accounts state that the mutt was established probably in the 18th century in Kumbakonam , as a branch of the Sringeri Matha , and that it declared itself independent .
Another mutt which was famous in ancient times was the Upanishad Bramham Mutt , located near Kailasanathar temple , Kanchipuram . It has the Mahasamadhi of Upanishad Brahmayogin , a saint who wrote commentaries on all the major upanishads in Hinduism . It is said that the great Sage , Sadasiva Brahmendra took to sanyasa at this mutt .
= = = Other religions = = =
The city has two mosques ; one near the Ekambareswarar temple was built during the rule of Nawab of Arcot in the 17th century , and another near the Vaikunta Perumal temple shares a common tank with the Hindu temple . Muslims take part in the festivals of the Varadarajaswamy temple . Christ Church is the oldest Christian church in the city . It was built by a British man named Mclean in 1921 . The church is built in Scottish style brick structure with arches and pillars .
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= The Irascibles =
The Irascibles or Irascible 18 were the labels given to a group of American abstract artists who put name to an open letter , written in 1950 , to the president of The Metropolitan Museum of Art , rejecting the museum 's exhibition American Painting Today - 1950 and boycotting the accompanying competition . The subsequent media coverage of the protest and a now iconic group photograph , that appeared in Life magazine , gave them notoriety , popularised the term Abstract Expressionist and established them as the so @-@ called first generation of the putative movement .
= = The emergence of the New York School = =
The emergence of abstract art coincided with the invention of Cubism in Paris in the first decade of the 20th Century . Paris remained the centre of gravity for later art movements like Futurism , Purism , Vorticism , Cubo @-@ Futurism , Dada , Constructivism and Surrealism until the outbreak of World War II and the Nazi persecution of " degenerate art " , which precipitated a mass migration of artists and performers to the United States . New York became home to the transplanted avant @-@ garde .
The early 1940s was of particular importance in American art as American scene painting ( Regionalism ) came to be seen as an inadequate mode of artistic expression in a tumultuous time . In 1942 , Peggy Guggenheim , who had fled Europe with her husband , Surrealist artist Max Ernst , opened her gallery Art of This Century , showing European and promising American avant @-@ garde artists . Jackson Pollock had his first one @-@ man show there in 1943 and , in 1945 , Guggenheim showed Mark Rothko .
When Guggenheim closed her gallery in 1947 to move to Venice , artists like Pollock had to find new representation . The Betty Parsons Gallery , which opened the previous year , began representing Pollock , Barnett Newman , Mark Rothko and Clyfford Still . Parsons was already representing Adolph Gottlieb , Hedda Sterne and Theodoros Stamos . It was while Pollock showed at Parsons ' gallery that he started making his iconic drip @-@ paintings in 1947 . It was also here that Barnett Newman exhibited his first breakthrough works in 1950 . Rothko , who had arrived at his distinctive mural sized paintings in 1947 , first exhibited them at the Parsons Gallery .
At the time , the only galleries who were prepared to show the so @-@ called New York School ( Robert Motherwell 's term ) were Parsons Gallery , the Samuel Kootz Gallery and the Charles Egan Gallery . To these fledgling galleries it was a financial disaster . The highest price paid for a Pollock , before 1947 , was $ 740 and Rothko had peaked with the sale of a $ 120 painting in 1946 . At the Kootz Gallery , from 1946 to 1948 , Hans Hoffman , William Baziotes and Robert Motherwell were offered at between $ 100 and $ 950 , likely fetching much lower actual sales prices . Kootz closed in 1948 as a result of the financial strain . The critical and financial success of the group would only come after a series of popularising articles in Life magazine , most notably a feature on Jackson Pollock in 1949 and the Irascibles article and photograph of 1951 .
= = The preamble to the protest = =
Since January 1943 an agreement existed between the Whitney Museum of American Art and the Metropolitan Museum of Art on a coalition which would culminate in the combining of their collections of American art in a new building , paid for from the endowment of Gertrude Vanderbilt Whitney . By this unwritten agreement , the Whitney acquired American art while the Metropolitan concentrated their acquisitions on what they termed classic art .
Juliana Force , the Whitney 's director since 1931 until her death on August 28 , 1948 , harboured grave concerns and advocated the abandonment of the coalition . On October 1 , 1948 , the Whitney trustees cited " serious divergences " especially with regard to the showing of advanced trends in art , something the Whitney made a special point of doing . They unilaterally withdrew the Whitney from the coalition .
On December 6 , 1948 , the Met announced it would form its own Department of American Art , which it did on January 1 , 1949 . Robert Beverly Hale was appointed as Associate Curator of American Painting and Sculpture and head of the department . A Trustees ' Committee on American Art was set up to advise the Associate Curator . The members of this committee were Elihu Root , Jr . , Chairman , Walter C. Baker , and Sam A. Lewisohn . Lewisohn , although a highly respected collector of Impressionists , was noted for calling avant @-@ garde abstract art " unhuman " .
In July 1949 , Roland J. McKinney , formerly Director of the Baltimore Museum of Art and of the Los Angeles County Museum of Art , was appointed as a consultant . On his advice , it was decided the The Met would host a series of open national competitive exhibitions with five regional juries . The first of these , American Painting Today - 1950 , was announced as part of a statement of policy on January 1 , 1950 .
The five regional juries , meeting respectively in Santa Barbara , Dallas , Chicago , Richmond and New York would make selections , which would be submitted to a National Jury , composed of five regional jurors and two jurors appointment by the Metropolitan .
= = The Studio 35 symposium = =
In 1948 , William Baziotes , David Hare , Robert Motherwell and Mark Rothko founded the Subjects of the Artist School , which held artists ' discussions in a loft at 35 East Eighth Street , Manhattan which came to be known as Studio 35 . A closed panel symposium took place from April 21 to 23 , 1950 . It was organised by Robert Goodnough and moderated by Richard Lippold , Robert Motherwell and Alfred H. Barr , Jr. director of the Museum of Modern Art ( MoMA ) . The purpose was the framing of an art movement .
At the end of the closed session it was suggested by Adolph Gottlieb that the assembled artists protest the conservative bias of the jury for the upcoming competition at the Metropolitan .
= = The open letter = =
Gottlieb spent the better part of three weeks drafting an open letter to the president of the Metropolitan , conferring with Ad Reinhardt and Barnett Newman while soliciting consensus among other artists by mail or phone . The final version was sent to the individual artists to sign ; 28 doing so . Newman called Jackson Pollock from Gottlieb 's apartment in Brooklyn , asking him to come into the city immediately to sign the letter . Pollock sent a telegram instead :
I ENDORSED THE LETTER OPPOSING THE METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART 1950 JURIED SHOW STOP JACKSON POLLOCK
The letter was underwritten by Jimmy Ernst , Adolph Gottlieb , Robert Motherwell , William Baziotes , Hans Hofmann , Barnett Newman , Clyfford Still , Richard Pousette @-@ Dart , Theodoros Stamos , Ad Reinhardt , Jackson Pollock , Mark Rothko , Bradley Walker Tomlin , Willem de Kooning , Hedda Sterne , James Brooks , Weldon Kees and Fritz Bultman . The supporting sculptors were Herbert Ferber , David Smith , Ibram Lassaw , Mary Callery , Day Schnabel , Seymour Lipton , Peter Grippe , Theodore Roszak , David Hare and Louise Bourgeois .
On Sunday May 21 , 1950 , Barnett Newman took the signed statement to the city editor of the New York Times . Newman had run for mayor of New York as a write @-@ in candidate in 1933 and knew Monday to be a slow news day at the Times . The statement , entitled OPEN LETTER TO ROLAND L. REDMOND , dated May 20 , appeared on the front page of the Times of May 22 .
Newman told the Times that they were critical of the membership of the five regional juries and especially opposed to the New York jury , the National Jury of Selection and the Jury of Awards . The New York jurors were Charles Burchfield , Yasuo Kuniyoshi , Leon Kroll , Ogden Pleissner , Vaclav Vytlacil and Paul Sample . The national jury consisted of Robert Beverly Hale , Ogden Pleissner , Maurice Sterne , Millard Sheets , Howard Cook , Lamar Dodd , Francis Chapin , Zoltan Sepeshy and Esther Williams . The jury of awards included William M. Milliken , Franklin C. Watkins and Eugene Speicher .
= = The resulting polemic = =
The first response to the letter came on the editorial page of The Herald Tribune of May 23 , 1950 . The editorial attacked the artists for " distortion of fact " in claiming the Metropolitan had " contempt " for modern painting . The Herald Tribune 's art critic at the time was Emily Genauer . It was widely assumed that she had written the editorial , which gave name to the group .
Gottlieb , aided by Newman and Reinhardt , drafted a rebuttal , which was signed by 12 painters and three sculptors , and addressed to the editor of the Tribune . It was never published . Weldon Kees discussed the issue of the open letter further in the June 5 edition of The Nation , calling director of the Metropolitan Museum of Art , Francis Henry Taylor a philistine . Two days later Time magazine noted the protest in an article entitled The Revolt of the Pelicans , an oblique reference to Taylor 's 1948 comments in the Atlantic Monthly .
Instead of soaring like an eagle through the heavens as did his ancestors ... the contemporary artist has been reduced to the status of a flat @-@ chested pelican , strutting upon the intellectual wastelands and beaches , content to take whatever nourishment he can from his own too meager breast .
Alfred Barr , seeking to distinguish the MoMA , further electrified the situation by selecting Arshile Gorky , Willem de Kooning and Jackson Pollock for the American pavilion of the 25th Venice Biennale , held from June to October 1950 . In the June 1950 issue of ARTnews , he referred to the painters as " leaders " of a " predominant vanguard " . Barr 's act signalled to the art world that abstract expressionism should be given serious consideration by museums .
On July 3 , 1950 , a group of 75 artists issued a statement via an open letter to the president of the Met , defending the museum . Signers included Milton Avery , Will Barnet , Philip Evergood , Xavier Gonzalez , George Grosz , Henry Koerner , Reginald Marsh , Waldo Peirce , Manfred Schwartz and Harry Sternberg .
= = The Life photograph = =
Life magazine decided to publish a photo story for their January 15 , 1951 edition , which would document the results of the competition and feature a photograph of the protesters . Life initially wanted to photograph the painters on the steps of the Metropolitan , with their paintings . They refused on the grounds that it would look like they were trying to enter the museum , but were being rebuffed . The magazine capitulated ; art editor for Life , Dorothy Seiberling , sent photographer Nina Leen to photograph them at a studio on 44th Street . They assembled there on November 24 . Only three of the original signatories were absent : Weldon Kees , Hans Hofmann , and Fritz Bultman . Pollock made a special trip with James Brooks for the session .
Nina Leen took twelve pictures , of which one appeared in Life . Barnett Newman had insisted that the group be photographed like bankers . The artists were allowed to position themselves . Hedda Sterne , who had arrived late , is seen in the back ( standing on a table ) . She is the only woman in the photograph and would later describe the experience as " probably the worst thing that happened to me " . Painter Lee Krasner believed Sterne was allowed at the insistence of art dealer Betty Parsons , who represented many in the group .
They all were very furious that I was in it because they all were sufficiently macho to think that the presence of a woman took away from the seriousness of it all .
The caption to the published photograph referred to the group as solemn . It was true that many of the group had reservations at appearing in a mainstream media publication ; Rothko especially . Yet none could have mistaken the consequences of Pollock 's three @-@ page spread in Life of August 8 , 1949 . Pollock 's next show , opening November 21 , 1949 , at Betty Parsons Gallery , was an unmistakable triumph . Famously , Willem de Kooning was heard to say to Milton Resnick : " Look around . These are the big shots . Jackson has finally broken the ice . " In the ensuing year , Betty Parsons sent Pollock checks totalling $ 6 @,@ 508 @.@ 23 on gross sales of over $ 10 @,@ 000 , at a time when more than two thirds of American families lived on less than $ 4 @,@ 000 per year . Pollock seems to have been invited to sign the Studio 35 open letter , at least in part , because of his notoriety , almost entirely attributable to the Life article . In the end the sitting was an uncomfortable accommodation between the system of values under which the artists had laboured and their desire for career success .
I think they loved having their pictures taken , but they seemed to be afraid to be nice - they didn 't want to appear too commercial .
= = The legacy of the polemic = =
The subsequent Life article did more than provide the public with an image of the group , looking more like bankers than irascible . It placed the picture larger and before the pictures of the Metropolitans competition winning art works . It also reiterated the word advanced , echoing the Madison Avenue advertising speak of the day . The picture caption also referred to the protest as in keeping with avant @-@ garde tradition , mentioning the Salon des Refusés of 1863 and the Ashcan School .
Irving Sandler , a historian of the New York School and Abstract Expressionism wrote that the Leen photograph " has become the image whereby we invision the artists who achieved the triumph of American painting " .
The artists ' discomfort with being labelled , individually or as a group , was clear . At the end of the three @-@ day symposium at Studio 35 in 1950 , Alfred Barr challenged the group to name themselves , to which de Kooning responded : " it is disastrous to name ourselves " . Pollock , on his part , refused to sign the Times letter unless it was clear that they were not a group ; it is noteworthy that he did not .
Despite their subsequent labels as Abstract Expressionist , action painters and so forth , this is a picture of a group that never was a group , a picture of fifteen individuals , unified only by the click of a camera at a particular time and place .
Already in 1951 , relationships had deteriorated enough for Pollock , Newman , Still and Rothko to approach Betty Parsons with the idea of showing them exclusively , effectively leaving their erstwhile colleagues to fend for themselves . She declined the offer . Over the following three years Pollock , Still and Rothko moved to the Sidney Janis Gallery . After the failure of fellow artists to defend his show at Betty Parsons in 1951 and not been included in the 1952 Fifteen Americans show at the Museum of Modern Art , Newman did not show in New York again until 1959 .
In 1954 , Ad Reinhardt engaged in a public ridiculing of Rothko , Newman , de Kooning , Gottlieb and Still , resulting in Newman suing him for libel . Clyfford Still repudiated Mark Rothko for " living an evil , an untrue life " . " It all went from love to hate in four years " , Betty Parsons recalled in 1975 .
Nina Leen 's 1951 Life photograph has become the touchstone for canonical lists of the New York School . Irving Sandler used it as the frontispiece and rear dust jacket photograph of his The Triumph of American Painting : A History of Abstract Expressionism , published in 1970 . This book defined Abstract Expressionism for a generation of scholars .
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= Battle of Borovo Selo =
The Battle of Borovo Selo on 2 May 1991 ( known in Croatia as the Borovo Selo massacre , Croatian : Pokolj u Borovom Selu and in Serbia as the Borovo Selo incident , Serbian : Инцидент у Боровом Селу ) was one of the first armed clashes in the conflict which became known as the Croatian War of Independence . The clash was precipitated by months of rising ethnic tensions and armed combat in Pakrac and at the Plitvice Lakes in March . The immediate cause for the confrontation in the heavily ethnic Serb village of Borovo Selo , just north of Vukovar , was a failed attempt to replace a Yugoslav flag in the village with a Croatian one . The unauthorised effort by four Croatian policemen resulted in the capture of two by a Croatian Serb militia in the village . To retrieve the captives , Croatian authorities deployed additional police , who drove into an ambush . At least twelve Croatian policemen and an unknown number of Serbs were killed in the battle before the Yugoslav People 's Army ( JNA ) intervened and stopped the fighting .
The confrontation resulted in a further deterioration of the overall situation in Croatia , leading Croats and Serbs to accuse each other of overt aggression and of being enemies of their nation . For Croatia , the event was provocative because the bodies of some of the dead Croat policemen killed in the incident were reportedly mutilated . The clash in Borovo Selo eliminated any hopes that the escalating conflict could be defused politically and made the war almost inevitable . The Presidency of Yugoslavia met days after the fighting and authorised the JNA to deploy to the area to prevent further conflict but despite this deployment , skirmishes persisted in the region . After the war , a former Serb irregular was convicted of war crimes for his role in abusing the two captured policemen , and ultimately sentenced to three years in prison . Four others were indicted in absentia but remain at large outside Croatia .
= = Background = =
In 1990 , following the electoral defeat of the government of the Socialist Republic of Croatia by the Croatian Democratic Union ( Hrvatska demokratska zajednica – HDZ ) , ethnic tensions between Serbs and Croats worsened . The Yugoslav People 's Army ( Jugoslovenska Narodna Armija – JNA ) confiscated the weapons of Croatia 's Territorial Defence ( Teritorijalna obrana – TO ) in order to minimise the possibility of violence following the elections . On 17 August , inter @-@ ethnic tensions escalated into an open revolt of the Croatian Serbs , centred on the predominantly Serb @-@ populated areas of the Dalmatian hinterland around Knin , and parts of Lika , Kordun , Banovina and eastern Croatia . In July 1990 , local Serbs established a Serbian National Council to coordinate opposition to Croatian President Franjo Tuđman 's policy of pursuing Croatian independence from Yugoslavia . Milan Babić , a dentist from Knin , was elected president of the council , while Knin 's police chief , Milan Martić , established a number of paramilitary militias . The two men eventually became the political and military leaders of the Serb Autonomous Oblast of Krajina ( SAO Krajina ) , a self @-@ declared state incorporating the Serb @-@ inhabited areas of Croatia . In March 1991 , SAO Krajina authorities , backed by the government of Serbia , began consolidating control over the Serb @-@ populated areas of Croatia , resulting in a bloodless skirmish in Pakrac and the first fatalities in the Plitvice Lakes incident .
At the beginning of 1991 , Croatia had no regular army . In an effort to bolster its defence , it doubled the number of police personnel to about 20 @,@ 000 . The most effective part of the police force was the 3 @,@ 000 @-@ strong special police , which was deployed in twelve military @-@ style battalions . In addition , Croatia had 9 @,@ 000 – 10 @,@ 000 regionally organised reserve police officers organised in 16 battalions and 10 companies , but they lacked weapons .
= = Prelude = =
In 1991 , the village of Borovo Selo , situated on the right bank of the Danube opposite Serbia , was a part of the Vukovar municipality . While the city of Vukovar itself had an ethnically mixed population ( 47 @.@ 2 percent Croats and 32 @.@ 2 percent Serbs ) , smaller settlements in the area were more homogenous . Fourteen were predominantly populated by Croats , ten ( including Borovo Selo ) were inhabited primarily by Serbs , two by Ruthenians and the remaining two were ethnically mixed .
Amid the worsening ethnic tensions , Borovo Selo was barricaded on 1 April , one day after the Plitvice Lakes clash . Two days later , the JNA garrison in Vukovar increased its combat readiness to the maximum level . In early spring , the Croats and Serbs reached an agreement whereby Croatian police would not enter Borovo Selo without explicit consent from local Serb authorities . A political rally was held in Borovo Selo on 14 April , and by the end of the month the situation had become more volatile . Speakers at the rally — Serbian Radical Party ( Srpska radikalna stranka – SRS ) leader Vojislav Šešelj , Serbian National Assembly member Milan Paroški and Serbian Minister of Diaspora Stanko Cvijan — promoted the creation of Greater Serbia , a state which would unite all Serbs within a single country . They all repeated their speeches , together with an open call for dissenting Croats to be killed , a week later in Jagodnjak , north of Osijek . In addition , White Eagles paramilitaries arrived in Borovo Selo in mid @-@ April at the request of Borovo Selo militia commander Vukašin Šoškoćanin . The paramilitaries were armed by the Serbian police directly , or the SAO Krajina @-@ aligned local militia under the approval of Serbian officials . By the end of April 1991 , the White Eagles in Borovo Selo were joined by Dušan Silni paramilitaries , who were linked to the Serbian National Renewal party .
In mid @-@ April , three Armbrust rockets were fired from Croatian positions outside Borovo Selo into the village with the specific aim of inflaming ethnic tensions . One of the rockets hit a house and another landed in a field , failing to explode . There were no casualties , but the already tense situation was made worse when the unexploded rocket was shown on Serbian Television as evidence of Croatian aggression against Serbs . The rockets were fired by a group of men including Gojko Šušak , a high @-@ ranking HDZ official who later became Croatia 's Defence Minister . The men were led to the site by Osijek police chief Josip Reihl @-@ Kir , who was later murdered by Croat irregulars . Šušak later claimed he had nothing to do with the incident but had been in the area at the time . Croatia 's interior minister Josip Boljkovac said the group included Šušak , Branimir Glavaš and Vice Vukojević .
= = Timeline = =
During the evening of 1 May 1991 , four Croatian policemen entered Borovo Selo in an unauthorised attempt to replace a Yugoslav flag in the village with a Croatian one . The attempt resulted in an armed clash . Two of the policemen were wounded and taken prisoner , and the other two fled after sustaining minor injuries ( one a wounded foot and the other a grazing wound to the head ) . According to the Croatian Ministry of the Interior , the police had been patrolling the Dalj – Borovo Selo road at the time of the incident . Even though the officers were assigned to the Osijek police administration , the Vinkovci police administration — which was assigned authority over the Vukovar municipality — asked the Vukovar police station to contact Šoškoćanin about the incident . Vukovar police contacted him at 4 : 30 a.m. , but Šoškoćanin reportedly said he knew nothing . At 9 : 00 a.m. , Vinkovci police chief Josip Džaja telephoned Šoškoćanin and received the same answer . When Reihl @-@ Kir contacted Šoškoćanin half an hour later , the latter confirmed the incident and said the police had shot at members of the local population , wounding one . Reihl @-@ Kir failed to secure the release of the two captured officers .
Reihl @-@ Kir and Džaja concluded that a party should be sent to Borovo Selo , and Šoškoćanin agreed to grant the police safe passage under a white flag . However , when the force of between 20 and 30 policemen entered Borovo Selo under the white flag , they were ambushed by paramilitaries and members of a local militia . Approximately 150 police arrived from Osijek and Vinkovci on buses and were deployed as reinforcements . The force dispatched from Vinkovci entered Borovo Selo and was ambushed , while the reinforcements sent from Osijek via Dalj were stopped at a roadblock north of Borovo Selo and failed to enter the village . A firefight ensued and lasted until 2 : 30 p.m. , when seven JNA armoured personnel carriers ( APCs ) moved into the village from Dalj . Another convoy of APCs deployed by the JNA through Borovo Naselje , just south of Borovo Selo , was stopped by a crowd of Croat women who refused to let them through .
= = Aftermath = =
At least a dozen Croatian policemen were killed and 21 injured in the ambush . The two captured policemen were ferried across the Danube and transported to Novi Sad , but were released and returned to Osijek by the evening of 2 May . Several Serbs in Borovo Selo were also killed in the fighting , but the exact figure was never officially released . Sources disagree on the number of Serb casualties . The figure ranges from three dead , to 17 militiamen and 20 civilians killed . Šešelj said only one civilian died in Borovo Selo , while a 22 @-@ strong defending force he led in the battle killed 100 policemen . Residents of Borovo Selo interviewed by reporters said 13 policemen were killed after they took women and children hostage and that the residents defeated the police unassisted , freeing the hostages and sustaining one fatality .
Some of the police killed at Borovo Selo were found to have been mutilated ; their ears were cut , their eyes gouged out and their throats slit . These acts were meant to inflame ethnic hatred . The clash led Tuđman 's advisers to advocate an immediate declaration of independence from Yugoslavia and retaliation against the JNA , which Croats viewed as being pro @-@ Serb . On 3 May , Tuđman opined that Croatia and Serbia were virtually at war , but said he hoped the international community would stop the violence . The outcome of the fighting reinforced the cautious approach of the Croatian leadership towards long @-@ term decisions . According to Croatian historian Davor Marijan , Tuđman 's decision not to retaliate against the JNA was often interpreted at the time as cowardice bordering treason , leading to public criticism and the resignation of General Martin Špegelj from the post of Defence Minister . Nonetheless , the decision afforded Croatia much @-@ needed time to prepare for war , as Yugoslav Navy Fleet Admiral Branko Mamula later acknowledged . The incident shocked the Croatian public , causing a massive shift in public opinion towards demonization of Serbs , supported by the Croatian media . Serbs were collectively labelled " Chetniks " , " terrorists " and " enemies of Croatia " . Similarly , Serbs referred to Croats as " Ustaše " and " enemies of the Serb people " . Hence , chances for a political settlement to avoid all @-@ out war were greatly reduced . After the clash , war appeared unavoidable .
On 8 – 9 May , the Presidency of Yugoslavia met to discuss the events in Borovo Selo and a JNA request for military intervention . Presidents of all Yugoslav constituent republics were present at the meeting , where the Croatian leadership accepted the decision to deploy the JNA in crisis areas of Croatia . On 9 May , representatives of the federal and Croatian governments visited Vukovar . The federal representatives also visited Borovo Selo , unlike the Croatian government officials who stated that they " refused to talk to terrorists " . In response to the Borovo Selo clash , the JNA redeployed a part of the 12th Proletarian Mechanised Brigade from Osijek and the 1st Mechanised Battalion of the 453rd Mechanised Brigade based in Sremska Mitrovica to the Vukovar area . At the same time , the 2nd Mechanised Battalion of the 36th Mechanised Brigade was moved from Subotica to Vinkovci . Despite the deployment of the JNA in the area , ethnically motivated skirmishes persisted until the start of the Battle of Vukovar in late August .
= = = Memorial controversy and prosecution = = =
During the 1996 – 98 United Nations administration established pursuant to the Erdut Agreement to restore the area to Croatian control , three Croatian non @-@ governmental organizations erected a memorial on public property at the entrance to Borovo Selo , but the site was quickly vandalised . A new monument was erected in the centre of the village in 2002 , but this was also vandalised soon after completion . A new plaque bearing the names of the 12 Croatian policemen killed in the incident was added to the monument in 2012 , but was also subject to vandalism . Although the vandalism was condemned by local Serb politicians , they complained that the memorial was offensive to the Serb minority and imposed guilt on the entire community because it branded Serb forces at Borovo Selo in 1991 as " Serb terrorists " .
In February 2012 , an Osijek court convicted Milan Marinković of war crimes and sentenced him to 3 ½ years in prison for mistreating the two captured Croatian police officers . In 2014 , Marinković 's sentence was reduced to three years on appeal . Four other men were indicted in relation to the officers ' mistreatment , but all four live outside Croatia , and are not subject to prosecution by the Croatian judiciary .
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= Félix Houphouët @-@ Boigny =
Félix Houphouët @-@ Boigny ( French pronunciation : [ feliks ufwɛt bwaɲi ] or [ feliks ufwɛ bwaɲi ] ; 18 October 1908 – 7 December 1993 ) , affectionately called Papa Houphouët or Le Vieux ( The Old One ) , was the first President of Côte d 'Ivoire ( 1960 to 1993 ) , serving for more than three decades until his death . A tribal chief , he worked as a medical aide , union leader , and planter before being elected to the French Parliament . He served in several ministerial positions within the French government before leading Côte d 'Ivoire following independence in 1960 . Throughout his life , he played a significant role in politics and the decolonization of Africa .
Under Houphouët @-@ Boigny 's politically moderate leadership , Côte d 'Ivoire prospered economically . This success , uncommon in poverty @-@ ridden West Africa , became known as the " Ivorian miracle " and was due to a combination of sound planning , the maintenance of strong ties with the West ( particularly France ) , and development of the country 's significant coffee and cocoa industries . However , the exploitation of the agricultural sector caused difficulties in 1980 , after a sharp drop in the prices of coffee and cocoa .
Throughout his presidency , Houphouët @-@ Boigny maintained a close relationship with France , a policy known as Françafrique , and he built a close friendship with Jacques Foccart , the chief adviser on African policy in the de Gaulle and Pompidou governments . He aided the conspirators who ousted Kwame Nkrumah from power in 1966 , took part in the coup against Mathieu Kérékou in 1977 , and was suspected of involvement in the 1987 coup that removed Thomas Sankara from power in Burkina Faso . Houphouët @-@ Boigny maintained a strong anti @-@ communist foreign policy , which resulted in , among other things , severing diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union in 1969 ( after first establishing relations in 1967 ) and refusing to recognise the People 's Republic of China until 1983 . He provided assistance to UNITA , a United States @-@ supported , anti @-@ communist rebel movement in Angola . In 1986 he re @-@ established relations with the Soviet Union , shortly before the fall of its confederation .
In the West , Houphouët @-@ Boigny was commonly known as the " Sage of Africa " or the " Grand Old Man of Africa " . Houphouët @-@ Boigny moved the country 's capital from Abidjan to his hometown of Yamoussoukro and built the world 's largest church there , the Basilica of Our Lady of Peace of Yamoussoukro , at a cost of US $ 300 million . At the time of his death , he was the longest @-@ serving leader in Africa 's history and the third longest @-@ serving leader in the world , after Fidel Castro of Cuba and Kim Il @-@ sung of North Korea . In 1989 , UNESCO created the Félix Houphouët @-@ Boigny Peace Prize for the " safeguarding , maintaining and seeking of peace " . After his death , conditions in Côte d 'Ivoire quickly deteriorated . From 1994 until 2002 , there were a number of coups d 'état , a currency devaluation , an economic recession , and , beginning in 2002 , a civil war .
= = Early life = =
= = = Birth , childhood and education = = =
According to his official biography , Houphouët @-@ Boigny was probably born on 18 October 1908 , in Yamoussoukro to a family of hereditary chiefs of the Baoulé people . Unofficial accounts , however , place his birth date up to seven years earlier . Born into the animist Akouès tribe , he was named Dia Houphouët : his first name Dia means " prophet " or " magician . " His father was N 'Doli Houphouët . Dia Houphouët was the great @-@ nephew through his mother of Queen Yamousso and the village chief , Kouassi N 'Go . When N 'Go was murdered in 1910 , Dia was named to succeed him as chief . Due to his young age , his stepfather Gbro Diby ruled as regent until Dia came of age ; Dia 's father had already died .
Houphouët @-@ Boigny descended from tribal chiefs through his mother , Kimou N 'Drive ( also known as N ’ Dri Kan ) . She died much later in 1936 . Doubts remain as to the identity of his father , N 'Doli . Officially a native of the N ’ Zipri of Didiévi tribe , N ’ Doli Houphouët died shortly after the birth of his son Augustin , although no reliable information regarding his death exists . This uncertainty has given rise to rumors , including a widespread one that his father was a Sudanese @-@ born Muslim named Cissé . Houphouët @-@ Boigny had two elder sisters , Faitai ( 1898 ? – 1998 ) and Adjoua ( d . 1987 ) , as well as a younger brother Augustin ( d . 1939 ) .
The French colonial administration recognised tribal leaders ; they arranged to have Houphouët go to school at the military post in Bonzi , not far from his village , in order to prepare for his future as a leader , despite strenuous objections from relatives , especially his great @-@ aunt Yamousso . In 1915 , he was transferred to the école primaire supérieure ( secondary ) at Bingerville in spite of his family 's reluctance to have him go to boarding school . The same year , at Bingerville , Houphouët converted to Christianity ; he considered it a modern religion and an obstacle to the spread of Islam . He chose to be christened Félix .
First in his class , Houphouët was accepted into the École William Ponty in 1919 , and earned a teaching degree . In 1921 , he attended the École de médecine de l 'AOF ( French West Africa School of Medicine ) in French Senegal , where he came first in his class in 1925 and qualified as a medical assistant . As he never completed his studies in medicine , he could qualify only as a médecin africain , a poorly paid doctor .
= = = Medical career = = =
On 26 October 1925 , Houphouët began his career as a doctor 's aide at a hospital in Abidjan , where he founded an association of indigenous medical personnel . This undertaking proved short @-@ lived as the colonial administration viewed it unsympathetically , considering it a trade union . As a consequence , they decided to move Houphouët to a lesser hospital in Guiglo on 27 April 1927 . After he proved his considerable talents , however , he was promoted on 17 September 1929 to a post in Abengourou , which until then had been reserved for Europeans . At Abengourou , Houphouët witnessed the mistreatment of indigenous cocoa farmers by the colonists .
In 1932 , he decided to act , leading a movement of farmers against the influential white landowners and for the economic policies of the colonial government , who favoured the farmers . On 22 December , he published an article titled " On nous a trop volés " ( They have stolen too much from us ) , in the Trait d 'union , an Ivorian socialist newspaper . It was published under a pseudonym .
The following year , Houphouët was called by his tribe to assume the responsibilities of village chief . Preferring to pursue his medical career , he relinquished the office to his younger brother Augustin . Wishing to live closer to his village , he obtained a transfer to Dimbokro on 3 February 1934 and then to Toumodi on 28 June 1936 . While Houphouët had displayed professional qualities , his attitude had chafed those around him . As a result , in September 1938 , his clinical director demanded that he choose between his job as a doctor and his involvement in local politics . The choice was quickly made for him : his brother died in 1939 , and Houphouët became chef de canton ( an office created by the colonial administration to collect taxes ) . Due to this , Houphouët ended his medical career the next year .
= = = First marriage = = =
In 1930 , Houphouët married Kady Racine Sow ( 1913 – 2006 ) in Abengourou ; their union was controversial because he was a practising Catholic and she was the daughter of a wealthy Muslim from Senegal . The families of the two eventually overcame their opposition and accepted the interfaith union , the first ever celebrated in Côte d 'Ivoire . The couple had five children : Felix ( who died in infancy ) , Augustine , Francis , Guillaume and Marie , all raised as Catholics .
= = = Chef de canton and union leader = = =
By becoming chef de canton , Houphouët assumed responsibility for the administration of Akouè , a canton which comprised 36 villages . He also took charge of the family plantation — at the time one of the most important in the country — and worked to diversify its rubber , cocoa and coffee crops . He soon became one of Africa 's richest farmers . On 3 September 1944 , he established , in cooperation with the colonial administration , the African Agricultural Union ( Syndicat agricole africain , SAA ) . Under his presidency , the SAA brought together African farmers who were dissatisfied with their working conditions and worked to protect their interests against those of European planters . Anti @-@ colonialist and anti @-@ racist , the organisation demanded better working conditions , higher wages , and the abolition of unfree labor . The union quickly received the support of nearly 20 @,@ 000 plantation workers , together with that of the left @-@ wing French administrators placed in office by the Provisional Government . Its success irritated colonists to the extent that they took legal action against Houphouët , accusing him of being anti @-@ French for never seeking French citizenship . However , Houphouët befriended the Inspector Minister of the Colonies , who ordered the charges dropped . They were more successful in obtaining the replacement of the sympathetic Governor André Latrille with the hostile Governor Henry de Mauduit .
Houphouët entered electoral politics in August 1945 , when elections for the Abidjan city council were held for the first time . The French electoral rules established a common roll : half of the elected would have to be French citizens ( who were mostly Europeans ) and the other half non @-@ citizens . Houphouët reacted by creating a multi @-@ ethnic all @-@ African roll with both non @-@ citizens and citizens ( mostly Senegalese with French citizenship ) . As a result , most of the African contenders withdrew and a large number of the French protested by abstaining , thus assuring a decisive victory for his African Bloc .
In October 1945 , Houphouët moved onto the national political scene ; the French government decided to represent its colonies in the assemblée constituante ( English : Constituent Assembly ) and gave Côte d 'Ivoire and Upper Volta two representatives in Parliament combined . One of these would represent the French citizens and another would represent the indigenous population , but the suffrage was limited to less than 1 % of the population . In an attempt to block Houphouët , the governor de Mauduit supported a rival candidature , and provided him the full backing of the administration . Despite that and thanks to the SAA 's strong organization , Houphouët , running for the indigenous seat , easily came first with a 1 @,@ 000 @-@ vote majority . He failed , however , to obtain an absolute majority , due to the large number of candidates running . Houphouët emerged victorious again in the second round of elections held on 4 November 1945 , in which he narrowly defeated an Upper Voltan candidate with 12 @,@ 980 votes out of a total of 31 @,@ 081 . At this point , he decided to add " Boigny " to his surname , meaning " irresistible force " in Baoulé and symbolizing his role as a leader .
= = French political career = =
= = = Member of Parliament = = =
In taking his seat at the National Assembly in the Palais Bourbon alongside compatriots Ouezzin Coulibaly and Zinda Kaboré , Houphouët @-@ Boigny had to first decide with which group to side , and he opted for the Mouvement Unifié de la Résistance ( MUR ) , a small party composed of Communist sympathizers but not formal members of the Communist Party . He was appointed a member of the Commission des territoires d 'outre @-@ mer ( Commission of Overseas Territories ) . During this time , he worked to implement the wishes of the SAA , in particular proposing a bill to abolish forced labor — the single most unpopular feature of French rule . The Assembly adopted this bill , known as Loi Houphouët @-@ Boigny , on 11 April 1946 , greatly enhancing the author 's prestige not only in his country . On 3 April 1946 , Houphouët @-@ Boigny proposed to unify labour regulations in the territories of Africa ; this would eventually be completed in 1952 . Finally , on 27 September 1946 , he filed a report on the public health system of overseas territories , calling for its reformation . Houphouët @-@ Boigny in his parliamentary tenure supported the idea of a union of French territories .
As the first constitution proposed by the Constituent Assembly was rejected by the voters , new elections were held in 1946 for a second constituent assembly . For these elections Houphouët @-@ Boigny organized on 9 April 1946 , with the help of the Groupes d 'études communistes ( English : Communist Study Groups ) , the Democratic Party of Côte d 'Ivoire ( PDCI ) , whose structure closely followed that of the SAA . It immediately became the first successful independent African party when the new party Houphouët @-@ Boigny easily swept the elections with 21 @,@ 099 out of 37 @,@ 888 votes , his opponents obtaining only a few hundred votes each . In this he was helped by the recall of Governor Latrille , whose predecessor had been fired by the Overseas Minister Marius Moutet for his opposition to the abolition of the indigénat .
With his return to the assembly he was appointed to the Commission du règlement et du suffrage universel ( Commission for Regulation of Universal Suffrage ) ; as secretary of the commission from 1947 to 1948 , he proposed on 18 February 1947 to reform French West Africa ( AOF ) , French Equatorial Africa ( AEF ) , and the French territories ' federal council to better represent the African peoples . He also called for the creation of local assemblies in Africa so that Africans could learn how to be autonomous .
= = = Foundation of the RDA and Communist alliance = = =
During the holding of the second Constituent Assembly the African representatives witnessed a strong reaction against the colonial liberalism that had been embedded in the rejected constitution drafted by the previous assembly . The new text , approved by the voters on 13 October 1946 , reduced the African representatives from 30 to 24 , and reduced the number of those entitled to vote ; also , a large number of colonial topics were left in which the executive could govern by decree , and supervision over the colonial administration remained weak . Reacting to what they felt was a betrayal of the MRP 's and the Socialists ' promises , the African deputies concluded they needed to build a permanent coalition independent from the French parties . Houphouët @-@ Boigny was the first to propose this to his African colleagues , and obtained their full support for a founding congress to be held in October at Bamako in French Sudan . The French government did all it could to sabotage the congress , and in particular the Socialist Overseas Minister was successful in persuading the African Socialists , who were originally among the promoters , from attending . This ultimately backfired , radicalizing those convened ; when they founded the African Democratic Rally ( RDA ) as an inter @-@ territorial political movement , it was the pro @-@ Communist Gabriel d 'Arboussier who dominated the congress . The new movement 's goal was to free " Africa from the colonial yoke by the affirmation of her personality and by the association , freely agreed to , of a union of nations " . Its first president , confirmed several times subsequently , was Houphouët @-@ Boigny , while secretary @-@ general became d 'Arboussier . As part of the bringing of the territorial parties in the organization , the PDCI became the Ivoirian branch of the RDA .
Too small to form their own parliamentary group , the African deputies were compelled to join one of the larger parties in order to sit together in the Palais Bourbon . Thus , the RDA soon joined the French Communist Party ( PCF ) as the only openly anti @-@ colonialist political faction and soon organised strikes and boycotts of European imports . Houphouët @-@ Boigny justified the alliance because it seemed , at the time , to be the only way for his voice to be heard : " Even before the creation of RDA , the alliance had served our cause : in March 1946 , the abolition of compulsory labour was adopted unanimously , without a vote , thanks to our tactical alliance . "
As the Cold War set in , the alliance with the Communists became increasingly damaging for the RDA . The French colonial administration showed itself increasingly hostile toward the RDA and its president , whom the administration called a " Stalinist " . Tensions reached their height at the beginning of 1950 , when , following an outbreak of anti @-@ colonial violence , almost the entire PDCI leadership was arrested ; Houphouët @-@ Boigny managed to slip away shortly before police arrived at his house . Although Houphouët @-@ Boigny would have been saved by his parliamentary immunity , his missed arrest was popularly attributed to his influence and his prestige . In the ensuing chaos , riots broke out in Côte d 'Ivoire ; the most significant of which was a clash with the police at Dimbokro in which 13 Africans were killed and 50 wounded . According to official figures , by 1951 a total of 52 Africans had been killed , several hundred wounded and around 3 @,@ 000 arrested ( numbers which , according to an opinion reported by journalist Ronald Segal in African Profiles , are certainly underestimated ) . In order to defuse the crisis , Prime Minister René Pleven entrusted the France 's Minister for Overseas Territories , François Mitterrand , with the task of detaching the RDA from the PCF , and in fact an official alliance between the RDA and Mitterrand 's party , the UDSR , was established in 1952 . Knowing he was at an impasse , in October 1950 , Houphouët @-@ Boigny agreed to break the Communist alliance . Asked in an undated interview why he worked with the communists , Houphouët @-@ Boigny replied : " I , a bourgeois landowner , I would preach the class struggle ? That is why we aligned ourselves with the Communist Party , without joining it . "
= = = Rehabilitation and entry into government = = =
In the 1951 elections , the number of seats was reduced from three to two ; while Houphouët @-@ Boigny still won a seat , the other RDA candidate , Ouezzin Coulibaly , did not . All in all , the RDA only garnered 67 @,@ 200 of 109 @,@ 759 votes in that election , and the party in direct opposition to it captured a seat . On 8 August 1951 , Boigny , speaking at René Pleven 's inauguration as president of the board , denied being the leader of a communist group ; he was not believed until the RDA 's 1952 affiliation with UDSR . On the 24th of that same month , Boigny delivered a statement in the Assembly contesting the result of the elections , which he declared tainted by fraud . He also denounced what he saw as the exploitation of overseas deputies as " voting machines " , who , as political pawns , supported the colonial government 's every action . Thereafter , Houphouët @-@ Boigny and the RDA were briefly unsuccessful before their success was renewed in 1956 ; at that year 's elections , the party received 502 @,@ 711 of 579 @,@ 550 votes cast . From then on , his relationship with Communism was forgotten , and he was embraced as a moderate . Named as a member of the Committees on Universal Suffrage ( distinct from the aforementioned committee regulating said suffrage ) , Constitutional Laws , Rules and Petitions . On 1 February 1956 , he was appointed Minister Discharging the Duties of the Presidency of the Council in the government of Guy Mollet , a post he held until 13 June 1957 . This marked the first time an African was elected to such a senior position in the French government . His principal achievement in this role was the creation of an organisation of Saharan regions that would help ensure sustainability for the French Union and counter Moroccan territorial claims in the Sahara .
On 6 November 1957 , Houphouët @-@ Boigny became Minister of Public Health and Population in the Gaillard administration and attempted to reform the public health code . He had previously served as Minister of State under Maurice Bourgès @-@ Maunoury ( 13 June – 6 November 1957 ) . Following his Gaillard ministry , he was again appointed Minister of State from 14 May 1958 ; – 20 May 1959 . In this capacity , he participated in the development of France 's African policy , notably in the cultural domain . At his behest , the Bureau of French Overseas Students and the University of Dakar were created . On 4 October 1958 , Houphouët @-@ Boigny was one of the signatories , along with de Gaulle , of the Constitution of the Fifth Republic . The last post he held in France was Minister @-@ Counsellor in the Michel Debré government , from 23 July 1959 to 19 May 1961 .
= = = Leading up to independence = = =
Until the mid @-@ 1950s , French colonies in west and central Africa were grouped within two federations : French Equatorial Africa ( AEF ) and French West Africa ( AOF ) . Côte d 'Ivoire was part of the AOF , financing roughly two thirds of its budget . Wishing to free the country from the guardianship of the AOF , Houphouët @-@ Boigny advocated an Africa made up of nations that would generate wealth rather than share poverty and misery . He participated actively in the drafting and adoption of the framework of the Defferre Loi Cadre , a French legal reform which , in addition to granting autonomy to African colonies , would break the ties that bound the different territories together , giving them more autonomy by means of local assemblies . The Deffere Loi Cadre was far from unanimously accepted by Houphouët @-@ Boigny 's compatriots in Africa : Léopold Sédar Senghor , leader of Senegal , was the first to speak out against this attempted " Balkanization " of Africa , arguing that the colonial territories " do not correspond to any reality : be it geographical , economic , ethnic , or linguistic " . Senghor argued that maintaining the AOF would give the territories stronger political credibility and would allow them to develop harmoniously as well as emerge as a genuine people . This view was shared by most members of the African Democratic Rally , who backed Ahmed Sékou Touré and Modibo Keïta , placing Houphouët @-@ Boigny in the minority at the 1957 congress in Bamako .
Following the adoption of the Loi Cadre reform on 23 June 1956 , a territorial election was held in Côte d 'Ivoire on 3 March 1957 , in which the PDCI — transformed under Houphouët @-@ Boigny 's firm control into a political machine — won many seats . Houphouët @-@ Boigny , who was already serving as a minister in France , as President of the Territorial Assembly and as mayor of Abidjan , chose Auguste Denise to serve as Vice President of the Government Council of Côte d 'Ivoire , even though Houphouët @-@ Boigny remained , the only interlocutor in the colony for France . Houphouët @-@ Boigny 's popularity and influence in France 's African colonies had become so pervasive that one French magazine claimed that by 1956 , the politician 's photograph " was in all the huts , on the lapels of coats , on the corsages of African women and even on the handlebars of bicycles " .
On 7 April 1957 , the Prime Minister of Ghana , Kwame Nkrumah , on a visit to Côte d 'Ivoire , called on all colonies in Africa to declare their independence ; Houphouët @-@ Boigny retorted to Nkrumah :
Your experience is rather impressive ... But due to the human relationships between the French and the Africans , and because in the 20th century , people have become interdependent , we considered that it would perhaps be more interesting to try a new and different experience than yours and unique in itself , one of a Franco @-@ African community based on equality and fraternity .
Unlike many African leaders who immediately demanded independence , Houphouët @-@ Boigny wished for a careful transition within the " ensemble français " because , according to him , political independence without economic independence was worthless . He also invited Nkrumah to meet up with him in 10 years to see which one of the two had chosen the best approach toward independence .
On 28 September 1958 Charles de Gaulle proposed a constitutional referendum to the Franco @-@ African community : the territories were given the choice of either supporting the constitution or proclaiming their independence and being cut off from France . For Houphouët @-@ Boigny , the choice was simple : " Whatever happens , Côte d 'Ivoire will enter directly to the Franco @-@ African community . The other territories are free to group between themselves before joining . " Only Guinea chose independence ; its leader , Ahmed Sékou Touré , opposed Houphouët @-@ Boigny , stating that his preference was " freedom in poverty over wealth in slavery " . The referendum produced the French Community , an institution meant to be an association of free republics which had jurisdiction over foreign policy , defense , currency , common ethnic and financial policy , and strategic raw materials .
Houphouët @-@ Boigny was determined to stop the hegemony of Senegal in West Africa and a political confrontation ensued between Ivorian and Senegalese leaders . Houphouët @-@ Boigny refused to participate in the Inter @-@ African conference in Dakar on 31 December 1958 , which was intended to lay the foundation for the Federation of Francophone African States . Although that federation was never realised , Senegal and Mali ( known at the time as French Sudan ) formed their own political union , the Mali Federation . After de Gaulle allowed the Mali Federation independence in 1959 , Houphouët @-@ Boigny tried to sabotage the federation 's efforts to wield political control ; in cooperation with France , he managed to convince Upper Volta , Dahomey , and Niger to withdraw from the Mali Federation , before it collapsed in August 1960 .
Two months after the 1958 referendum , seven member states of French West Africa , including Côte d 'Ivoire , became autonomous republics within the French Community . Houphouët @-@ Boigny had won his first victory against those supporting federalism . This victory established the conditions that made the future " Ivorian miracle " possible , since between 1957 and 1959 , budget revenues grew by 158 % , reaching 21 @,@ 723 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 CFA francs .
= = President of Côte d 'Ivoire = =
= = = Early years and second marriage = = =
Houphouët @-@ Boigny officially became the head of the government of Côte d 'Ivoire on 1 May 1959 . Although he faced no opposition from rival parties and the PDCI became the de facto party of the state in 1957 , he was confronted by opposition from his own government . Radical nationalists , led by Jean @-@ Baptiste Mockey , openly opposed the government 's Francophile policies . In an attempt to solve this problem , Houphouët @-@ Boigny decided to exile Mockey in September 1959 , claiming that Mockey had attempted to assassinate him using voodoo in what Houphouët @-@ Boigny called the " complot du chat noir " ( black cat conspiracy ) .
Houphouët @-@ Boigny began drafting a new constitution for Côte d 'Ivoire after the country 's independence from France on 7 August 1960 . It drew heavily from the United States Constitution in establishing a powerful executive branch , and from the Constitution of France , which limited the capacities of the legislature . He transformed the National Assembly into a mere recording house for bills and budget proposals . On 27 November 1960 , Houphouët @-@ Boigny was elected unopposed to the Presidency of the Republic , while a single list of PDCI candidates was elected to the National Assembly .
1963 was marked by a series of alleged plots that played a decisive role in ultimately consolidating power in the hands of Houphouët @-@ Boigny . There is no clear consensus on the unfolding of the 1963 events ; in fact , there may have been no plot at all and the entire series of events may have been part of a plan by Houphouët @-@ Boigny to consolidate his hold on power . Between 120 and 200 secret trials were held in Yamoussoukro , in which key political figures — including Mockey and the president of the Supreme Court Ernest Boka — were implicated . There was discontent in the army , as the generals grew restive following the arrest of Defense Minister Jean Konan Banny , and the president had to intervene personally to pacify them .
For the next 27 years , almost all power in Côte d 'Ivoire was centered in Houphouët @-@ Boigny . From 1965 to 1985 , he was reelected unopposed to five successive five @-@ year terms . Also every five years , a single list of PDCI candidates was returned to the National Assembly . For all intents and purposes , all of them were appointed by the president , since in his capacity as leader of the PDCI he approved all candidates . All adult citizens were required to be members of the PDCI . The media were tightly controlled , and served mainly as outlets for government propaganda .
While Houphouët @-@ Boigny 's regime was authoritarian , it was somewhat less harsh than other African regimes of the time . Once he had consolidated his power , he freed political prisoners in 1967 . Under his " unique brand of paternalistic authoritarianism " , Houphouët @-@ Boigny subdued dissent by offering government positions instead of incarceration to his critics . As a result , according to Robert Mundt , author of Côte d 'Ivoire : Continuity and Change in a Semi @-@ Democracy , he was never seriously challenged after 1963 .
In order to foil any plans for a coup d 'état , the president took control of the military and police , reducing their numbers from 5 @,@ 300 to 3 @,@ 500 . Defence was entrusted to the French armed forces that , pursuant to the treaty on defence cooperation of 24 April 1961 , were stationed at Port @-@ Bouët and could intervene at Houphouët @-@ Boigny 's request or when they considered French interests to be threatened . They subsequently intervened during attempts by the Sanwi monarchists to secede in 1959 and 1969 , and again in 1970 , when an unauthorised political group , the Eburnian Movement , was formed and Houphouët @-@ Boigny accused its leader Kragbé Gnagbé of wishing to secede .
Houphouët @-@ Boigny married the much younger Marie @-@ Thérèse Houphouët @-@ Boigny in 1962 , having divorced his first wife in 1952 . The couple had no children of their own , but they adopted one : Olivier Antoine in 1981 .
Helene Houpuhouet Boigny – Abla Pokou - was legally recognized in 1960 by her father Mister Felix Houphouet Boigny who came to Court along with his three witnesses : his sisters Ms Faitai and Adjoua Houphouet boigny and his cousin Yao Simon Yamoussoukro 's chief of Canton ( Judgement Supplétif numsber1261 – 26 AOUT 1960 – Tribunal of Toumodi – A Court Session opened to the public ) . Madame Helene Houphouet Boigny is the granddaughter of the Bouale 's King Nanan Kouakou Anougble II , her Mother being Madame Akissi Anougble . They both died in 1958 .
The marriage was not without scandal : in 1958 , Marie @-@ Thérèse went on a romantic escapade in Italy , while in 1961 , Houphouët @-@ Boigny fathered a child ( Florence , d . 2007 ) out of wedlock by his mistress Henriette Duvignac .
= = = Leadership in Africa = = =
Following the example of de Gaulle , who refused proposals for an integrated Europe , Houphouët @-@ Boigny opposed Nkrumah 's proposed United States of Africa , which called into question Côte d 'Ivoire 's recently acquired national sovereignty . However , Houphouët @-@ Boigny was not opposed to collective African institutions if they were subject to his influence or control .
On 29 May 1959 , in cooperation with Hamani Diori ( Niger ) , Maurice Yaméogo ( Upper Volta ) and Hubert Maga ( Dahomey ) , Houphouët @-@ Boigny created the Conseil de l 'Entente ( English : Council of Accord or Council of Understanding ) . This regional organisation , founded in order to hamper the Mali Federation , was designed with three major functions : to allow shared management of certain public services , such as the port of Abidjan or the Abidjan – Niger railway line ; to provide a solidarity fund accessible to member countries , 90 % of which was provided by Côte d 'Ivoire ; and to provide funding for various development projects through low @-@ interest loans to member states ( 70 % of the loans were supplied by Côte d 'Ivoire ) . In 1966 , Houphouët @-@ Boigny even offered to grant dual citizenship to nationals from member countries of the Conseil de l 'Entente , but the proposition was quickly abandoned following popular protests .
The ambitious Ivorian leader had even greater plans for French @-@ speaking Africa : he intended to rally the different nations behind a large organisation whose objective was the mutual assistance of its member states . The project became a reality on 7 September 1961 with the signing of a charter giving birth to the Union africaine et malgache ( UAM ; English : African and Malagasy Union ) , comprising 12 French @-@ speaking countries including Léopold Sédar Senghor 's Senegal . Agreements were signed in various sectors , such as economic , military and telecommunications , which strengthened solidarity among Francophone states . However , the creation of the Organisation of African Unity ( OAU ) in May 1963 affected his plans : the supporters of Pan @-@ Africanism demanded the dissolution of all regional groupings , such as the UAM . Houphouët @-@ Boigny reluctantly ceded , and transformed the UAM into the Organisation africaine et malgache de coopération économique et culturelle ( English : African and Malagasy Organization of economic and cultural cooperation ) .
Considering the OAU a dead end organisation , particularly since Paris was opposed to the group , Houphouët @-@ Boigny decided to create in 1965 l 'Organisation commune africaine et malgache ( OCAM ; English : African and Malagasy Organization ) , a French organization in competition with the OAU . The organisation included among its members 16 countries , whose aim was to break revolutionary ambitions in Africa . However , over the years , the organisation became too subservient to France , resulting in the departure of half of the countries .
In the mid @-@ 1970s , during times of economic prosperity , Houphouët @-@ Boigny and Senghor put aside their differences and joined forces to thwart Nigeria , which , in an attempt to establish itself in West Africa , had created the Economic Community of West African States ( ECOWAS ) . The two countered the ECOWAS by creating the Economic Community of West Africa ( ECWA ) , which superseded the old trade partnerships in the French @-@ speaking regions . However , after assurances from Nigeria that ECOWAS would function in the same manner as the earlier Francophone organisations , Houphouët @-@ Boigny and Senghor decided to merge their organization into ECOWAS in May 1975 .
= = = Françafrique = = =
Throughout his presidency , Houphouët @-@ Boigny surrounded himself with French advisers , such as Guy Nairay , Chief of Staff from 1960 to 1993 , and Alain Belkiri , Secretary @-@ General of the Ivorian government , whose influence extended to all areas . This type of diplomacy , which he labelled " Françafrique " , allowed him to maintain very close ties with the former colonial power , making Côte d 'Ivoire France 's primary African ally . Whenever one country would enter an agreement with an African nation , the other would unconditionally give its support . Through this arrangement , Houphouët @-@ Boigny built a close friendship with Jacques Foccart , the chief adviser on African policy in the de Gaulle and Pompidou governments .
= = = = Destabilization of revolutionary regimes = = = =
By claiming independence for Guinea through the 28 September 1958 French constitutional referendum , Ahmed Sékou Touré had not only defied de Gaulle , but also his fellow African , Houphouët @-@ Boigny . He distanced himself from Guinean officials in Conakry and the Guinean Democratic Party was excluded from the RDA . Tensions between Houphouët @-@ Boigny and Touré also began to rise due to the conspiracies of the French intelligence agency SDECE against the Sékou Touré regime . In January 1960 , Houphouët @-@ Boigny delivered small arms to former rebels in Man , Côte d 'Ivoire and incited his council in 1965 to agree to taking part in an attempt to overthrow Sékou Touré . In 1967 , he promoted the creation of the Front national de libération de la Guinée ( FNLG ; English : National Front for the Liberation of Guinea ) , a reserve of men ready to plot the downfall of Sékou Touré .
Houphouët @-@ Boigny 's relationship with Kwame Nkrumah , the leader of neighboring Ghana , degraded considerably following Guinea 's independence , due to Nkrumah 's financial and political support for Sékou Touré . After Sékou Touré convinced Nkrumah to support the secessionist Sanwi in Côte d 'Ivoire , Houphouët @-@ Boigny began a campaign to discredit the Ghanaian regime . He accused Nkrumah of trying to destabilise Côte d 'Ivoire in 1963 , and called for the Francophone states to boycott the Organisation of African Unity ( OAU ) conference scheduled to take place in Accra . Nkrumah was ousted from power in 1966 in a military coup ; Houphouët @-@ Boigny allowed the conspirators to use Côte d 'Ivoire as a base to coordinate the arrival and departure of their missions .
Also in collaboration with Foccart , Houphouët @-@ Boigny took part in the attempted coup of 16 January 1977 led by famed French mercenary Bob Denard against the revolutionary regime of Mathieu Kérékou in Dahomey . Houphouët @-@ Boigny , in order to fight against the Marxists in power in Angola , also lent his support to Jonas Savimbi 's UNITA party , whose feud with the MPLA party led to the Angolan Civil War .
Despite his reputation as a destabiliser of regimes , Houphouët @-@ Boigny granted refuge to Jean @-@ Bédel Bokassa , after the exiled Central African Republic dictator had been overthrown by French paratroopers in September 1979 . This move was met with international criticism , and thus , having become a political and financial burden to Houphouët @-@ Boigny , Bokassa was expelled from Côte d 'Ivoire in 1983 .
= = = = Alignment with France = = = =
Houphouët @-@ Boigny was a participant in the November 1960 Congo Crisis , a period of political upheaval and conflict in Congo @-@ Kinshasa . The Ivorian leader supported President Joseph Kasa @-@ Vubu , an opponent of Lumumba , and followed France in supporting the controversial Congolese Prime Minister Moise Tshombe . Tshombe , disliked by much of Africa , was passionately defended by Houphouët @-@ Boigny and was even invited into OCAM in May 1965 . After the overthrow of Kasa @-@ Vubu by General Mobutu in November 1965 , the Ivorian president supported , in 1967 , a plan proposed by the French secret service which aimed to bring the deposed Congolese leader back into power . The operation was a failure . In response , Houphouët @-@ Boigny decided to boycott the fourth annual summit of the OAU held in September 1967 in Kinshasa .
Houphouët @-@ Boigny was also a major contributor to the political tensions in Biafra . Considering Nigeria a potential danger to French @-@ influenced African states , Foccart sent Houphouët @-@ Boigny and Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Raymond Bichelot on a mission in 1963 to monitor political developments in the country . The opportunity to weaken the former British colony presented itself in May 1967 , when Biafra , led by Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Chukwuemeka Odumegwu Ojukwu , undertook to secede from Nigeria . French @-@ aligned African countries supported the secessionists who , provided with mercenaries and weapons by Jean Mauricheau @-@ Beaupré , began a civil war . By the end of the 1960s , French @-@ supported nations suddenly and openly distanced themselves from France and Côte d 'Ivoire 's position on the civil war . Isolated on the international scene , both countries decided to suspend their assistance to Ojukwu , who eventually went into exile in Côte d 'Ivoire .
At the request of Paris , Houphouet @-@ Boigny began forging relations with South Africa in October 1970 , justifying his attitude by stating that " [ t ] he problems of racial discrimination , so painful , so distressing , so revolting to our dignity of Negros , must not be resolved , we believe , by force . " He even proposed to the OAU in June 1971 that they follow his lead . In spite of receiving some support , his proposal was rejected . This refusal did not , however , prevent him from continuing his attempts to approach the Pretoria regime . His attempts bore fruit in October of that year , when a semi @-@ official meeting between a delegation of high level Ivorian officials and South African Prime Minister B. J. Vorster was held in the capital of South Africa . Moreover , mindful of the Communist influence in Africa , he met Vorster in Geneva in 1977 , after the Soviet Union and Cuba tried to collectively spread their influence in Angola and Ethiopia . Relations with South Africa continued on an official basis until the end of his presidency .
Houphouët @-@ Boigny and Thomas Sankara , the leader of Burkina Faso , had a highly turbulent relationship . Tensions reached their climax in 1985 when Côte d 'Ivoire Burkinabés accused authorities of being involved in a conspiracy to forcibly recruit young students to training camps in Libya . Houphouët @-@ Boigny responded by inviting the dissident Jean @-@ Claude Kamboulé to take refuge in Côte d 'Ivoire so that he could organise opposition to the Sankara regime . In 1987 , Sankara was overthrown and assassinated in a coup . The coup may have had French involvement , since the Sankara regime had fallen into disfavour in France . Houphouët @-@ Boigny was also suspected of involvement in the coup and in November , the PDCI asked the government to ban the sale of Jeune Afrique following its allegations of Houphouët @-@ Boigny 's participation . The Ivorian president would have greatly benefited from the divisions in the Burkina Faso government . He contacted Blaise Compaoré , the second @-@ most powerful man in the regime ; it is generally believed that they worked in conjunction with Laurent Dona Fologo , Robert Guéï and Pierre Ouédraogo to overthrow the Sankara regime .
Besides supporting policies pursued by France , Houphouët @-@ Boigny also influenced their actions in Africa . He pushed France to support and provide arms to warlord Charles Taylor 's rebels during the First Liberian Civil War in hopes of receiving some of the country 's assets and resources after the war .
= = = Opposition to the Soviet Union and China = = =
From the time of Côte d 'Ivoire 's independence , Houphouët @-@ Boigny considered the Soviet Union and China " malevolent " influences on developing countries . He did not establish diplomatic relations with Moscow until 1967 and then severed them in 1969 following allegations of direct Soviet support to a 1968 student protest at the National University of Côte d 'Ivoire . The two countries did not restore ties until February 1986 , by which time Houphouët @-@ Boigny had embraced a more active foreign policy reflecting his quest for greater international recognition .
Houphouët @-@ Boigny was even more outspoken in his criticism of the People 's Republic of China ( PRC ) . He voiced fears of an " invasion " by the Chinese and a subsequent colonisation of Africa . He was especially concerned that Africans would see the problems of development in China as analogous to those of Africa , and see China 's solutions as appropriate to sub @-@ Saharan Africa . Accordingly , Côte d 'Ivoire was one of the last countries to normalise relations with China , doing so on 3 March 1983 . Under the principle demanded by Beijing for " one China " , the recognition by Côte d 'Ivoire of the PRC effectively disestablished diplomatic relations between Abidjan and Taiwan .
= = = Economic policies in the 1960s and 1970s = = =
Houphouët @-@ Boigny adopted a system of economic liberalism in Côte d 'Ivoire in order to obtain the trust and confidence of foreign investors , most notably the French . The advantages granted by the investment laws he established in 1959 allowed foreign business to repatriate up to 90 % of their profits in their country of origin ( the remaining 10 % was reinvested in Côte d 'Ivoire ) . He also developed an agenda for modernising the country 's infrastructure , for example , building an American @-@ style business district in Abidjan where five @-@ star hotels and resorts welcomed tourists and businessmen . Côte d 'Ivoire experienced economic growth of 11 – 12 % from 1960 to 1965 . The country 's gross domestic product ( GDP ) grew twelvefold between 1960 and 1978 , from 145 to 1 @,@ 750 billion CFA francs , while the trade balance continued to record a surplus .
The origin of this economic success stemmed from the president 's decision to focus on the primary sector of the economy , rather than the secondary sector . As a result , the agricultural sector experienced significant development : between 1960 and 1970 , cocoa cultivators tripled their production to 312 @,@ 000 tonnes and coffee production rose by nearly 50 % , from 185 @,@ 500 to 275 @,@ 000 tonnes . As a result of this economic prosperity , Côte d 'Ivoire saw an influx of immigrants from other West African countries ; the foreign workforce — mostly Burkinabés — who maintained indigenous plantations , represented over a quarter of the Ivorian population by 1980 . Both Ivorians and foreigners began referring to Houphouët @-@ Boigny as the " Sage of Africa " for performing what became known as " Ivorian miracle " . He was also respectfully nicknamed " The Old One " ( Le Vieux ) .
However , the economic system developed in cooperation with France was far from perfect . As Houphouët @-@ Boigny described it , the economy of Côte d 'Ivoire experienced " growth without development " . The growth of the economy depended on capital , initiatives and a financial framework from investors abroad ; it had not become independent or self @-@ sustaining .
= = = Crisis in Côte d 'Ivoire = = =
= = = = Economy on the brink of collapse = = = =
Beginning in 1978 , the economy of Côte d 'Ivoire experienced a serious decline due to the sharp downturn in international market prices of coffee and cocoa . The decline was perceived as fleeting , since its impact on planters was buffered by the Caistab , the agricultural marketing board , which ensured them a livable income . The next year , in order to contain a sudden drop in the prices of exported goods , Houphouët @-@ Boigny raised prices to resist international tariffs on raw materials . However , by applying only this solution , Côte d 'Ivoire lost more than 700 billion CFA francs between 1980 and 1982 . From 1983 to 1984 , Côte d 'Ivoire fell victim to a drought that ravaged nearly 400 @,@ 000 hectares of forest and 250 @,@ 000 hectares of coffee and cocoa plants . To address this problem , Houphouët @-@ Boigny travelled to London to negotiate an agreement on coffee and cocoa prices with traders and industrialists ; by 1984 , the agreement had fallen apart and Côte d 'Ivoire was engulfed in a major financial crisis .
Even the production of the offshore oil drilling and petrochemical industries , developed to supply the Caistab , was affected by the 1986 worldwide economic recession . Côte d 'Ivoire , which had bought planters ' harvests for double the market price , fell into heavy debt . By May 1987 , the foreign debt had reached US $ 10 billion , prompting Houphouët @-@ Boigny to suspend payments of the debt . Refusing to sell off its supply of cocoa , the country shut down its exports in July and forced world rates to increase . However , this " embargo " failed . In November 1989 , Houphouët @-@ Boigny liquidated his enormous stock of cocoa to big businesses to jump @-@ start the economy . Gravely ill at this time , he named a Prime Minister ( the post was unoccupied since 1960 ) , Alassane Ouattara , who established a series of belt @-@ tightening economic measures to bring the country out of debt .
= = = = Social tensions = = = =
The general atmosphere of enrichment and satisfaction during the period of economic growth in Côte d 'Ivoire made it possible for Houphouët @-@ Boigny to maintain and control internal political tensions . His easygoing authoritarian regime , where political prisoners were almost nonexistent , was well accepted by the population . However , the economic crisis that began in the 1980s caused a sharp decline in living conditions for the middle class and underprivileged urban populations . According to the World Bank , the population living below the poverty threshold went from 11 % in 1985 to 31 % by 1993 . Despite the implementation of certain measures , such as the reduction of the number of young French workers ( who worked abroad while serving in the military ) from 3 @,@ 000 to 2 @,@ 000 in 1986 , allowing many jobs to go to young Ivorian graduates , the government failed to control the rising rates of unemployment and bankruptcy in many companies .
Strong social agitations shook the country , creating insecurity . The army mutinied in 1990 and 1992 , and on 2 March 1990 , protesters organized mass demonstrations in the streets of Abidjan with slogans such as " thief Houphouët " and " corrupt Houphouët " . These popular demonstrations prompted the president to launch a system of democratization on 31 May , in which he authorised political pluralism and trade unions .
= = = = = Opposition = = = = =
Laurent Gbagbo gained recognition as one of the principal instigators of the student demonstrations during the protests against Houphouët @-@ Boigny 's government on 9 February 1982 , which led to the closing of the universities and other educational institutions . Shortly thereafter , his wife and he formed what would become the Ivorian Popular Front ( FPI ) . Gbagbo went into exile in France later that year , where he promoted the FPI and its political platforms . Although the FPI was ideologically similar to the Unified Socialist Party , the French socialist government tried to ignore Gbagbo 's party to please Houphouët @-@ Boigny . After a lengthy appeal process , Gbagbo obtained status as a political refugee in France in 1985 . However , the French government attempted to pressure him into returning to Côte d 'Ivoire , as Houphouët @-@ Boigny had begun to worry about Gbagbo 's developing a network of contacts , and believed " his stirring opponent would be less of a threat in Abidjan than in Paris " .
In 1988 , Gbagbo returned from exile to Côte d 'Ivoire after Houphouët @-@ Boigny implicitly granted him forgiveness by declaring that " the tree did not get angry at the bird " . In 1990 , Houphouët @-@ Boigny legalised opposition parties . On 28 October , a presidential election was held . For the first time , Houphouët @-@ Boigny actually faced an opponent : Gbagbo . He highlighted the President 's age , suggesting that he was too old for a seventh five @-@ year term . Houphouët @-@ Boigny countered by broadcasting television footage of his youth , and he was re @-@ elected to a seventh term with 2 @,@ 445 @,@ 365 votes to 548 @,@ 441 — an implausible 81 @.@ 7 percent of the vote .
= = = = Displays of wealth = = = =
During his presidency , Houphouët @-@ Boigny benefited greatly from the wealth of Côte d 'Ivoire ; by the time of his death in 1993 , his personal wealth was estimated to be between US $ 7 and $ 11 billion . With regards to his large fortune , Houphouët @-@ Boigny said in 1983 , " People are surprised that I like gold . It 's just that I was born in it . " The Ivorian leader acquired a dozen properties in the metropolitan area of Paris ( including Hotel Masseran on Masseran Street in the 7th arrondissement of Paris ) , a property in Castel Gandolfo in Italy , and a house in Chêne @-@ Bourg , Switzerland . He owned real estate companies , such as Grand Air SI , SI Picallpoc and Interfalco , and had many shares in prestigious jewelry and watchmaking companies , such as Piaget SA and Harry Winston . He placed his fortune in Switzerland , once asking if " there is any serious man on Earth not stocking parts of his fortune in Switzerland " .
In 1983 , Houphouët @-@ Boigny moved the capital from Abidjan to Yamoussoukro . There , at the expense of the state , he built many buildings such as the Institute Polytechnique and an international airport . The most luxurious project was the Basilica of Our Lady of Peace , which is currently the largest church in the world , with an area of 30 @,@ 000 square metres ( 320 @,@ 000 sq ft ) and a height of 158 metres ( 518 ft ) . Personally financed by Houphouët @-@ Boigny , construction for the Basilica of Our Lady of Peace was carried out by the Lebanese architect Pierre Fakhoury at a total cost of about US $ 150 – 200 million . Houphouët @-@ Boigny offered it to Pope John Paul II as a " personal gift " ; the latter , after having unsuccessfully requested it being shorter than St. Peter 's in Rome , consecrated it all the same on 10 September 1990 . Due to a collapse of the national economy coupled with lavish amounts spent on its construction , the Basilica was criticized : it was called " the basilica in the bush " by several western news agencies .
= = Death and legacy = =
= = = Succession and death = = =
The political , social , and economic crises also touched the issue of who would succeed Houphouët @-@ Boigny as head of state . After severing ties with his former political heir Philippe Yacé in 1980 , who , as president of the National Assembly , was entitled to exercise the full functions of President of the Republic if the Head of State was incapacitated or absent , Houphouët @-@ Boigny delayed as much as he could in officially designating a successor . The president 's health became increasingly fragile , with Prime Minister Alassane Ouattara administering the country from 1990 onwards , while the president was hospitalised in France . There was a struggle for power , which ended when Houphouët @-@ Boigny rejected Ouattara in favour of Henri Konan Bédié , the President of the National Assembly . In December 1993 , Houphouët @-@ Boigny , terminally ill with prostate cancer , was urgently flown back to Côte d 'Ivoire so he could die there . He was kept on life support to ensure that the last dispositions concerning his succession were defined . After his family consented , Houphouët @-@ Boigny was disconnected from life support at 6 : 35 am GMT on 7 December . At the time of his death , Houphouët @-@ Boigny was the longest @-@ serving leader in Africa and the third in the world , after Fidel Castro of Cuba and Kim Il Sung of North Korea .
Houphouët @-@ Boigny left no written will or legacy report for Côte d 'Ivoire upon his death in 1993 . His recognised heirs , especially Helena , led a battle against the government to recover part of the vast fortune Houphouët @-@ Boigny had left , which she claimed was " private " and did not belong to the State .
= = = Funeral = = =
Following Houpouët @-@ Boigny 's death , the country 's stability was maintained , as seen by his impressive funeral on 7 February 1994 . The funeral for this " doyen of francophone Africa " was held in the Basilica of Our Lady of Peace , with 7 @,@ 000 guests inside the building and tens of thousands outside . The two @-@ month delay before Houpouët @-@ Boigny 's funeral , common among members of the Baoule ethnic group , allowed for many ceremonies preceding his burial . The president 's funeral featured many traditional African funerary customs , including a large chorus dressed in bright batik dresses singing " laagoh budji gnia " ( Baoulé : " Lord , it is you who has made all things " ) and village chiefs displaying strips of kente and korhogo cloth . Baoulés are traditionally buried with objects they enjoyed while alive ; Houpouët @-@ Boigny 's family , however , did not state what , if anything , they would bury with him .
Over 140 countries and international organisations sent delegates to the funeral . However , according to The New York Times , many Ivorians were disappointed by the poor attendance of several key allies , most notably the United States . The small United States delegation was led by Secretary of Energy Hazel R. O 'Leary and Assistant Secretary of State for African Affairs George Moose . In contrast , Houphouët @-@ Boigny 's close personal ties with France were reflected in the large French delegation , which included President François Mitterrand ; Prime Minister Édouard Balladur ; the presidents of the National Assembly and of the Senate , Philippe Séguin and René Monory ; former President Valéry Giscard d 'Estaing ; Jacques Chirac ; his friend Jacques Foccart ; and six former Prime Ministers . According to The New York Times , " Houphouët @-@ Boigny 's death is not only the end of a political era here , but perhaps as well the end of the close French @-@ African relationship that he came to symbolize . "
= = = Félix Houphouët @-@ Boigny Peace Prize = = =
To establish his legacy as a man of peace , Houphouët @-@ Boigny created an award in 1989 , sponsored by UNESCO and funded entirely by extra @-@ budgetary resources provided by the Félix @-@ Houphouët @-@ Boigny Foundation , to honor those who search for peace . The prize is " named after President Félix Houphouët @-@ Boigny , the doyen of African Heads of State and a tireless advocate of peace , concord , fellowship and dialogue to solve all conflicts both within and between States " . It is awarded annually along with a check for € 122 @,@ 000 , by an international jury composed of 11 persons from five continents , led by former United States Secretary of State and Nobel Peace Prize winner Henry Kissinger . The prize was first awarded in 1991 to Nelson Mandela , president of the African National Congress , and Frederik Willem de Klerk , president of the Republic of South Africa , and has been awarded each year since , with the exception of 2001 and 2004 .
= = Positions in government = =
= = = France = = =
= = = Côte d 'Ivoire = = =
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= Siege of Inabayama Castle =
The Siege of Inabayama Castle ( 稲葉山城の戦い , Inabayama @-@ jō no Tatakai ) of 1567 was the final battle in Oda Nobunaga 's campaign to defeat the Saitō clan in their mountaintop castle and conquer Mino Province , Japan . It was a short two @-@ week siege , fought between 13 and 27 September 1567 , or in the Japanese calendar : from the 1st to 15th day of the 8th month , in the 10th year of the Eiroku era , according to the Nobunaga Chronicle . The siege ended in a decisive battle and victory of Nobunaga 's combined forces , and resulted in the subjugation of the Saitō clan , their vassals , and allies . This victory was the culmination of Nobunaga 's Mino campaign , waged intermittently over the previous six years , and brought an end to a rivalry between the Oda clan of Owari province and the Saitō clan of Mino , which began over twenty years earlier between Nobunaga 's father , Oda Nobuhide and Saitō Dōsan .
Due to the weak leadership of the Saitō , many samurai leaders defected to Nobunaga before the battle , while others willingly submitted afterward . With this victory , Nobunaga took control of the expansive and fertile Mino Province and gained numerous supporters and resources . Nobunaga had the former Saitō castle repaired and renamed it Gifu Castle , a firm base from which to expand north into the Hokuriku region and to make his drive toward Kyoto . Gifu Castle functioned as his primary residence and military headquarters until he moved to the partially completed Azuchi Castle in 1575 .
Nobunaga 's young retainer Kinoshita Tōkichirō ( later known as Toyotomi Hideyoshi ) played an important role in attaining the victory at Inabayama . In the years leading to the battle , he negotiated for the support of local warlords , which ensured a ready @-@ made army by the time of the attack , and built a castle on the edge of the enemy 's territory to serve as a staging point for the attack . In addition to these preparations , Tōkichirō devised and led a bold plan , something of a commando raid , to break into the castle and open the gates for the attacking army . As a result of his efforts and the victory , his standing with Nobunaga rose considerably . Thus , in addition to the battle 's immediate importance to Nobunaga 's plans , it was also an important step in Toyotomi Hideyoshi 's rise to power .
= = Background = =
In 1549 young Oda Nobunaga ( 1534 – 1582 ) , who would later become a major daimyo of Owari province , Japan and would initiate the unification of 16th century Japan , was married to Nōhime , the daughter of Saitō Dōsan , leader of the rival Saitō clan of neighboring Mino Province . Nobunaga was the second son of Oda Nobuhide , head of the Oda clan , who was at that time fending off opponents on the northern and eastern borders of Owari province , matters that were complicated by internal dissent . Saitō Dōsan , lord of Mino , was a strong and ruthless leader , but internal strife had begun to split the Saitō into factions . Both clans needed some respite to deal with more pressing problems and thus the political marriage of Nobunaga and Nōhime brought an end to the clans ' rivalry and their border skirmishes .
In 1555 Saitō Yoshitatsu , eldest son of Dōsan , came to believe his inheritance would be taken away and murdered his two younger brothers . The following year he rallied troops loyal to him and openly rebelled against his father . Dōsan indeed changed his will and named his son @-@ in @-@ law , Oda Nobunaga , his legal heir . Shortly thereafter Dōsan was killed by one of Yoshitatsu 's retainers at the Battle of Nagaragawa . At the time Nobunaga was not in a position to help his father @-@ in @-@ law and the Saitō civil war soon ended before any active intervention could be mounted . In 1561 Yoshitatsu died of leprosy and his son , Saitō Tatsuoki , succeeded to the leadership of the clan . At the time Tatsuoki was young but , as he attained adulthood , he was eventually considered incapable of effective leadership by his peers and retainers , viewed with contempt by his subordinates , and even despised by the local peasantry . After the Oda and Matsudaira clans allied and then defeated the Imagawa clan at the 1560 Battle of Okehazama , Nobunaga was in a more secure position to focus on their northern neighbor , the Saitō clan . Nobunaga 's plans for an invasion of Mino were ostensibly motivated by revenge for the death of his father @-@ in @-@ law , Saitō Dōsan , but Yoshitatsu died before Nobunaga could attack . As a result , Nobunaga reasoned that Yoshitatsu 's heir , Tatsuoki , likewise benefited from Dōsan 's demise , and thus continued with his plans for invasion , using revenge as a pretext .
= = Mino campaign = =
Oda Nobunaga mounted forays into Mino territory in 1561 and 1563 , which resulted in brief battles . In each expedition Nobunaga and his 700 troops were outnumbered by rapidly assembled forces under local daimyo , who would muster up to 3 @,@ 000 men . Caught in the open and unable to organize a defense , he fell back each time to his home territory . The local history of Gifu city states that in 1564 Nobunaga went so far as to attack Inabayama Castle , the headquarters of the Saitō clan . The castle was situated atop Mount Inaba , which had a ruggedly steep northern face with the bank of the Sunomata River at its foot , and accessed by a winding avenue up the southern slopes . Although it was considered nearly impregnable , Tatsuoki fled the parapets and hid within the castle while his retainers Takenaka Shigeharu ( called Hanbei ) and Andō Morinari commanded the defense . Nobunaga then left or was driven out soon afterward . In later years Nobunaga had this setback expunged from records and omitted from the Nobunaga Chronicles .
Starting in 1564 , Oda Nobunaga began dispatching his loyal retainer , Kinoshita Tōkichirō , to convince , with liberal bribery , many of the warlords in the Mino area to defect to the growing alliance under the Oda clan . Kinoshita even approached Takenaka Hanbei , who was considered a brilliant strategist but lived in pious seclusion , to persuade him to defect . Although the Saitō retainer was frustrated by the ignominious behavior of Tatsuoki , he did not want to appear capricious with his loyalty , and declined Kinoshita 's offers on behalf of his lord . Kinoshita was impressed with the integrity of the retainer and invited him to an extended stay in his home , as a guest . Hanbei admitted that the Saitō clan could not survive for much longer under Tatsuoki , and accepted Kinoshita 's invitation in exchange for a promise of leniency if ever the Saitō leadership fell into Kinoshita 's hands .
In 1566 , in anticipation of the upcoming campaign , Kinoshita proposed that a castle should be built somewhere near Inabayama Castle to serve as a staging point for the Oda forces . Nobunaga agreed and charged Kinoshita with the task . To this end Kinoshita built Sunomata Castle on the bank of the Sai River opposite Saitō territory . The advantage of the castle 's proximity to the enemy was also a problem during construction . Until the castle was complete , Kinoshita 's men and the construction site were vulnerable to an amphibious attack from across the river . According to legend , Kinoshita built the castle in one night ; however it is more likely that it was the tower 's skeleton with a facade that was seen from the opposite bank . The result of the hasty construction was meant to give his own men a vantage point and to surprise and impress the enemy . Stalled by the enemy 's caution , Kinoshita 's men were able to quickly transform the fragile framework into a functioning fortification , and then into a complete castle . Nobunaga then ordered Kinoshita to remain as steward of the castle , and bestowed upon him the name Hideyoshi .
= = Siege = =
In 1567 , Oda Nobunaga led an attack against the Saitō clan of Mino Province . The clan headquarters and administrative center for Mino Province was Inabayama Castle , a mountain fortress atop Mount Inaba ( in present @-@ day Gifu city ) . As Saitō Tatsuoki , the daimyo of the clan , had shown himself to be a cowardly and ineffective ruler , Takenaka Hanbei had staged a coup and took command of the castle and its garrison . Although Tatsuoki was allowed to remain the titular head of the clan , he contributed nothing to the outcome of the battle . When the Oda army entered Mino , Hanbei prepared the garrison for the defense of the castle .
According to the Shinchō kōki ( or The Nobunaga Chronicles ) , preparations for the battle began on 13 September 1567 ( Eiroku @-@ 10 year , 8 @-@ month , 1 @-@ day ) . Nobunaga entered the area , made contact with allies , and the core of Nobunaga 's army of about 5 @,@ 000 troops crossed the Kiso River . As the troops assembled on the far shore , Nobunaga sent two messengers , Murai Sadakatsu and Shimada Hidemitsu , to three of the Saitō clan 's top vassals , known as the Mino Triumvirate , asking for their cooperation in the upcoming battle . Mino warlords that Kinoshita Hideyoshi had persuaded to defect brought additional troops to Nobunaga 's banner .
As the forces loyal to Nobunaga moved across the plain , several skirmishes were fought in a futile effort to turn the invading forces . Nobunaga 's forces then entered the town of Inoguchi , which lay below Inabayama Castle . To clear the field of view and provide space for the besieging army , Kinoshita Hideyoshi 's vanguard set fire to the town . As some soldiers took positions on Mount Inoguchi and a nearby ridgeline , the main army positioned itself before Mount Inaba to begin the siege . The greatly augmented army , now bristling with the flags of the Saitō clan 's former vassals and allies , bewildered the castle 's defenders . During the days that followed , Kinoshita dispatched men to gather intelligence , especially from peasants willing to help . Kinoshita met with a local resident , Horio Yoshiharu , who showed him a little @-@ known path that led up the north slope of the mountain . The north slopes below the castle were so steep that assault by a large force was considered impossible , and was thus effectively ignored by the defenders at the advent of battle .
= = = Final assault = = =
It is uncertain exactly what happened on the battlefield between 14 – 25 September . Given what is known of Nobunaga 's aggressive fighting style , the prevailing siege tactics of the day , the layout of the Japanese castle , and the events that followed , it can be inferred that Nobunaga 's forces pressed their attack and probably breached the outer defenses of Inabayama Castle . It is known , however , that Kuroda Kanbei , considered a talented strategist , was charged with directing and coordinating the main attack . It is also certain that Kinoshita Hideyoshi devised a plan in which a small force would scale the north face of the mountain , enter the castle , and rush to open the gates for the besieging army . Nobunaga approved and charged Kinoshita with leading the raid . For his team Kinoshita selected Horio Yoshiharu , Hachisuka Koroku , and five or six other men to accompany him . On 26 September Nobunaga was so confident of Kinoshita 's plan and the outcome of the battle that he had an heraldic partition erected on the battlefield where he held a meeting with his top officers and allotted tasks pertaining to the re @-@ construction of the castle following the battle . He also greeted the daimyo of the Mino Triumvirate , who were stunned by his audacity , and offered them sake .
On the night of 26 September Kinoshita gathered his team and , concerned over the late summer heat and the exertions in store , provided them with gourds of fresh water . Horio Yoshiharu then guided Kinoshita Hideyoshi and the small assault force around to the back of the mountain , where they climbed the steep slopes by the light of a full moon . At dawn , while Kinoshita 's mission was in progress , the main force under Kuroda Kanbei proceeded with its attack on the castle .
Sometime after dawn , Kinoshita 's team infiltrated the castle , set fire to a storehouse and the powder magazine , and then rushed to open the front gates , cutting down whomever got in their way . With explosions erupting from the powder magazine and the other building burning fiercely , the castle defense quickly devolved into chaos , as the shocked and exhausted defenders thought they were under a full @-@ scale attack from behind . Kinoshita 's men , filthy from the night 's exertions and brandishing bloody swords as they rushed across the main courtyard , added to the impression . The castle garrison was thrown into complete disarray as men were pulled from the parapets to face the nonexistent assault , while others threw down their weapons and surrendered . When Kinoshita 's team had attained the gatehouse they tied their gourds to spears and waved them to their allies below to signal they were in position , whereupon Kuroda 's infantry charged the open gates and overran what was left of the castle 's garrison . While Kuroda 's men mopped up the last of the resistance , Kinoshita 's team found a place to rest while Horio Yoshiharu passed around a large gourd of sake he had taken from the castle 's supply . By the end of 27 September 1567 Inabayama Castle had fallen and the remaining lords of Mino province formally surrendered to Nobunaga .
= = Aftermath = =
In about two weeks ' time Nobunaga had entered the sprawling Mino Province , raised an army , and conquered the ruling clan in their mountaintop castle . Following the battle the Mino Triumvirate , awed by the speed and skill of Nobunaga 's conquest , permanently allied themselves to Nobunaga . Nobunaga had the castle repaired and renamed it Gifu Castle . The castle @-@ town of Inoguchi was likewise renamed Gifu , after the mountain from which Wu Wang launched his campaign to unify China . Nobunaga had a lavish manor built at the base of the castle mountain . He then transferred his primary base and residence from Komaki Castle to Gifu , from which he would launch his historic march on Kyoto the following year . He continued to use Gifu Castle as his primary residence and headquarters until he moved into the partially completed Azuchi Castle in 1575 .
Saitō Tatsuoki survived the battle , though there are at least two accounts of how he managed this . In one account , Tatsuoki abandoned the castle the night before the final attack , took a boat , and fled down the Sunomata River . In another account , following the breach of the main gate , Hideyoshi dispatched a messenger to the main tower , where Tatsuoki and his entourage were cornered , with assurances of leniency if the Saitō holdouts would surrender . Tatsuoki accepted the offer and , with Nobunaga 's troops forming two lines , Tatsuoki marched out of the main tower with his family and retinue . In any event , Tatsuoki eventually found his way to Nagashima , Ise Province . He lived in exile for a while , but eventually sought refuge with Asakura Yoshikage . He was killed in the Battle of Tonezaka , at the age of 26 , in 1573 .
The efforts of Kinoshita Hideyoshi as the mastermind of the victory were recognized by Nobunaga and his status rose accordingly . After the battle Kinoshita was promoted in rank and made lord of three districts in the northern part of the newly conquered Mino province , and not long afterward took the surname Hashiba . When Nobunaga later gave him a field command , Hideyoshi used an image of a golden gourd as his battle standard , in commemoration of his success at Inabayama Castle . In time he would change his surname again , to Toyotomi . Kuroda Kanbei , who led the frontal attack , and Takenaka Hanbei , who directed the castle 's defense , would both eventually serve Toyotomi Hideyoshi .
= = Order of battle = =
At the outset of the siege , Nobunaga organized the troops of his allies and retainers into several divisions , with a reserve and a vanguard :
Main Division
3 @,@ 000 troops under Oda Nobunaga
First Division
2 @,@ 000 troops under Shibata Katsuie
2 @,@ 000 troops under Ikeda Tsuneoki
Second Division
1 @,@ 000 troops under Mori Yoshinari
1 @,@ 000 troops under Maeda Toshiie
1 @,@ 000 troops under Sassa Narimasa
Others
Reserve Division
2 @,@ 000 troops under Sakuma Nobumori
Vanguard
1 @,@ 000 troops under Kinoshita Hideyoshi
Mino forces , unspecified numbers under :
Ujiie Naotomo
Andō Morinari
Inaba Yoshimichi
Others
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= 1940 Nova Scotia hurricane =
The 1940 Nova Scotia hurricane swept through areas of Atlantic Canada in mid @-@ September 1940 . The fifth tropical cyclone and fourth hurricane of the year , it formed as a tropical depression east of the Lesser Antilles on September 7 , though at the time weather observations in the area were sparse , so its formation was inferred . The disturbance gradually intensified throughout much of its early formative stages , attaining tropical storm strength on September 10 ; further strengthening into a hurricane north of Puerto Rico occurred two days later . Shortly thereafter , the hurricane recurved northward , and reached peak intensity the following day as a Category 2 hurricane with maximum sustained winds of 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of at least 988 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 18 inHg ) . The cyclone steadily weakened thereafter before making landfall on Nova Scotia on September 17 with winds of 85 mph ( 135 km / h ) . Moving into the Gulf of Saint Lawrence later that day , the storm transitioned into an extratropical cyclone . The remnant system curved eastward and passed over Newfoundland before dissipating over the Atlantic on September 19 .
While off of the United States East Coast , the hurricane caused numerous shipping incidents , most notably the stranding of the Swedish freighter Laponia off of Cape Hatteras , North Carolina on September 16 . Two other boat incidents resulted in two deaths . The hurricane also brought strong winds of tropical storm @-@ force and snow over areas of New England . In Atlantic Canada , a strong storm surge peaking at 4 ft ( 1 @.@ 3 m ) above average sunk or damaged several ships and inundated cities . In New Brunswick , the waves hurt the lobster fishing industry . In Nova Scotia , strong winds disrupted telecommunication and power services . The winds also severely damaged crops . Roughly half of apple production in Annapolis Valley was lost during the storm , resulting in around $ 1 @.@ 49 million in economic losses . Strong winds in New Brunswick caused moderate to severe infrastructural damage , and additional damages to crops occurred there . Overall , the hurricane caused three fatalities , with two off of the United States and one in New Brunswick .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origins of the system can be traced to a tropical depression roughly midway between the Lesser Antilles and the west coast of Africa at 1800 UTC on September 7 . Though initially believed to have developed on September 11 , the disturbance was found to have formed earlier in post @-@ season reanalysis , based on data from the International Comprehensive Ocean @-@ Atmosphere Data Set . In its early developmental stages , the disturbance remained a tropical depression with little change in intensity . At 0600 UTC on September 10 , it intensified into a tropical storm while still east of the Lesser Antilles . Closer to the islands , ships reported a quickly intensifying tropical cyclone with low barometric pressures , strong winds and heavy thunderstorms , although most of the activity occurred to the east of its center .
At 1800 UTC on September 12 , the storm intensified into the equivalent of a modern @-@ day Category 1 hurricane to the north of Puerto Rico . The following day , the hurricane began to recurve northward , attaining Category 2 intensity at 1200 UTC . Numerous vessels in its vicinity reported hurricane @-@ force winds ; the S.S. Borinquen observed a minimum peripheral pressure of 988 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 18 inHg ) , the lowest observed pressure associated with the hurricane . At the time , the storm had maximum sustained winds of 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) , which it maintained throughout its duration as a Category 2 system . Progressing rapidly into more northerly latitudes , the storm weakened to a Category 1 hurricane by 1800 UTC on September 15 . By the next day , two warm fronts began extending eastward from the cyclone as the wind field expanded in size , indicating the start of an extratropical transition . At 0200 UTC , the hurricane made landfall near Lockeport , Nova Scotia , with winds of 85 mph ( 135 km / h ) . The storm fully transitioned into an extratropical cyclone over the Gulf of Saint Lawrence by 1200 UTC on September 17 . In the gulf , the system turned eastward , causing it to move ashore Newfoundland just north of Cape Race during the evening of September 18 . After passing over the island , the extratropical storm reentered the Atlantic Ocean , where it gradually weakened before dissipating on September 19 .
= = Preparations and impact = =
= = = Offshore the United States = = =
Though initially perceived to be a potential threat to The Bahamas and Florida due to its westward motion , the hurricane curved northward on September 13 , mitigating any evacuation procedures . Despite the storm 's change in track , the United States Weather Bureau cautioned shipping interests in the outlying islands of the Bahamas . Pan American World Airways was forced to postpone two transatlantic flights from New York City to Portugal due to the storm . After the hurricane recurved , the Weather Bureau advised caution to areas of the New England coast , particularly in Nantucket and Cape Cod , Massachusetts , where strong winds and waves were anticipated . Storm warnings were posted for coastal areas from Hatteras , North Carolina to Eastport , Maine on September 16 . The warnings were discontinued after the hurricane passed the warned areas .
On September 16 , strong waves produced by the hurricane disabled the Swedish freighter Laponia , which at the time was located 300 mi ( 480 km ) east of Cape Hatteras , North Carolina . The ship was initially en route for Rio de Janeiro carrying cargo for the Bethlehem Steel Company . As a result of the stranded ship , the SS President Roosevelt was forced to divert its course in order to render aid . The United States Coast Guard cutters USCGC Sebago ( WHEC @-@ 42 ) and USCGC Carrabasset ( WAT @-@ 55 ) were sent from the Virginia Capes in order to provide assistance . In addition , a coast guard plane was dispatched from Elizabeth City , North Carolina . The ships remained on standby to monitor the Laponia for three hours before conditions were considered safe to tow the stricken ship back to shore . Two fishing vessels capsized off of Barnegat and Edgemere , New York , with both incidents resulting in a fatality . A cabin cruiser was sent to rescue occupants of the capsized boat off of Edgemere , though it was also disrupted by rough seas . The ship was later able to rescue the other surviving crew members . Numerous other small craft off of Long Island signaled distress calls to the US Coast Guard due to strong waves offshore . Eventually passing east of New England , the storm 's large size resulted in heavy rainfall near Nantucket Island , Massachusetts . A weather station on the island reported maximum sustained winds of 45 mph ( 70 km / h ) . In Eastport , Maine , a weather station recorded a minimum barometric pressure of 993 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 33 inHg ) and wind speeds of 33 mph ( 53 km / h ) . In Maine , power lines were downed , damaging communications . In Bar Harbor , strong winds caused five fires , which were later extinguished . The schooner George Dresser ran aground on the port 's coast . The hurricane also produced slight snowfalls in northern areas of the state .
= = = Nova Scotia = = =
Most of the hurricane 's damage occurred in Nova Scotia , where the storm made landfall early on September 17 . As was the case off the United States East Coast , rough seas generated by the hurricane caused various ship incidents . Tides were 4 ft ( 1 @.@ 3 m ) above average . The abnormally high sea level inundated areas of Lockeport , isolating it from the rest of Nova Scotia and creating a temporary island in the process . One home in the city was flooded by the waves . Off of Shelburne , a breakwater was destroyed by rough seas . In Halifax , two yachts were damaged . Another boat in East Ferry was destroyed . The strong waves grounded a schooner in Bridgewater , damaging a wharf . In Jordan Bay , two boat houses and a barn were toppled , while a wharf was washed away . Further north near Anticosti Island , the British steamer Incemore became stranded . Though not directly a result of the storm surge , ten boats in Lake Milo near Yarmouth were severely damaged .
Strong winds were also felt throughout Nova Scotia . Winds peaked at 70 mph ( 115 km / h ) in Lockeport , the strongest winds observed in the Canadian province . In Yarmouth , the storm 's gusts were clocked at 60 mph ( 100 km / h ) in Yarmouth . Trees were uprooted as a result of the strong winds . One tree fell into a home in Melville Cove , damaging the home 's roof . Cabins were damaged in Summerville , and the garage of a lodge in Digby was blown out . A barn and associated equipment were destroyed in Pembroke . The strong winds also blew down numerous communication lines , disrupting telecommunication services across Nova Scotia . Downed wires in Halifax caused a fire which scorched five buildings . Traffic in the city was also disrupted by the winds . In addition to infrastructure , crops were also heavily damaged . In Digby County , grain and corn plantations were damaged . Grain crops in Cumberland County also saw heavy losses . In Annapolis Valley , an important agricultural region in western Nova Scotia , 600 @,@ 000 barrels of apples were lost , resulting in CA $ 1 @.@ 5 million in damages . The lost apple production accounted for roughly half of the entire apple yield for the agricultural region . Despite the hurricane 's rapid movement through the Canadian Maritimes , the storm still produced heavy rainfall . In Halifax , 3 in ( 75 mm ) of rain was reported over the duration of the hurricane . However , 3 @.@ 5 in ( 90 mm ) of rain fell in Yarmouth in a 24 @-@ hour period .
= = = New Brunswick = = =
Damage from the hurricane was comparatively less in New Brunswick than in Nova Scotia , but was still considerable . The rough seas impacted ships offshore the province , disrupting the lobster industry . Two groups of lobster fishermen went missing in the Northumberland Strait ; they were later found . Thousands of lobster traps and several wharves were either damaged or destroyed in the strait . Hundreds of boats were set adrift or sunk in the strait as well . Several boats in Rothesay and Westfield were also lost . A man in Dixon Point lost CA $ 1 @,@ 000 of live lobsters due to the storm . A wharf in Shediac was washed away . Fifty boats were sunk off of Cap @-@ Pelé , while in Greville , four scows were destroyed . The rising seawater inundated a bridge crossing the Millstream River under 3 ft ( 0 @.@ 9 m ) of water . A bridge crossing the Little River and another bridge in Cocagne were also damaged . Dykes in the Baie Verte area were damaged , resulting in thousands of dollars in damages . Further inland , winds caused infrastructural and agricultural damage . Winds peaked at 85 mph ( 135 km / h ) at Lakeburn Airport . The strong winds disrupted power and telecommunication services in Moncton . Streets were blocked by trees blown down by strong winds . Offshore , three yachts were destroyed . A tree fell onto the Gagetown United Church as a result of the winds , causing considerable damage . Grain and apple crops were also destroyed in Gagetown . In Saint John , chimneys were toppled . Flying debris injured several people , and power outages also greatly affected the city . High waves in conjunction with strong gusts scattered boats in the nearby Saint John River . Tents in the Sussex Military Camp were destroyed . The hurricane 's effects resulted in a car accident which injured eight people . Though no fatalities were confirmed in New Brunswick , a person went missing in Bathurst , who was later presumed dead .
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= Deva Victrix =
Deva Victrix , or simply Deva , was a legionary fortress and town in the Roman province of Britannia . The settlement evolved into Chester , the county town of Cheshire , England . The fortress was built initially by the Legio II Adiutrix in the AD 70s as the Roman army advanced north against the Brigantes , but completed over the next few decades by the Legio XX Valeria Victrix .
Several factors including the presence of an elliptical building unique in legionary fortresses , the method of construction , and the unusual size of the fortress – 20 % larger than other Roman fortresses in Britain – suggest that it may have been intended as the base for a potential invasion of Ireland , and perhaps eventually to become the capital of the unified British Isles under Rome . The fortress contained barracks , granaries , military headquarters , military baths , and an unusual elliptical building that may have acted as the governor of Britain 's headquarters . The fortress was rebuilt in stone at the end of the 1st century AD when it was occupied by the Legio XX Valeria Victrix , and again in the early 3rd century . The legion probably remained at the fortress until it eventually fell into disuse in the late 4th or early 5th century .
A civilian settlement – or canabae – grew around the fortress and was one of the factors leading to the construction of an amphitheatre to the south east of the fortress . Chester Roman Amphitheatre could have seated between 8 @,@ 000 and 10 @,@ 000 people , the largest known military amphitheatre in Britain . The civilian settlement remained after the Romans departed , eventually becoming the present @-@ day city of Chester . There were peripheral settlements around Roman Deva , including Boughton , the source of the garrison 's water supply , and Handbridge , the site of a sandstone quarry and the Minerva Shrine . The shrine is the only in situ , rock @-@ cut Roman shrine in Britain .
= = History = =
= = = Foundation = = =
According to the 1st and 2nd century geographer Ptolemy , Deva was in the lands of the Celtic Cornovii . The Cornovii were a tribe whose lands bordered the Brigantes in the north and the Ordovices in the west and included parts of what is now Cheshire , Shropshire , and north Wales . When the Romans ' treaty with the Brigantes – the Celtic tribe occupying most of what is now Northern England – failed , the Romans decided the best way to ensure long term peace was by military conquest . The campaigns were led first by Sextus Julius Frontinus , and later by Gnaeus Julius Agricola . Their expansion into the north of Britannia during the reign of Vespasian meant that the Romans needed a new military base , close to the new frontiers . Chester was a strategic site for a fortress , commanding access to the sea via the River Dee and dividing the Brigantes from the Ordovices . Legio II Adiutrix was despatched to Chester and began the construction of a legionary fortress in the mid AD 70s .
The fortress was positioned on a sandstone bluff , dominating the bridge over the river and close to the natural harbour , today occupied by the Roodee racecourse ; the bend in the river provided protection from the south and the west . The river was navigable up to the sandstone ridge , so positioning the fortress beyond it would have made access to the harbour difficult . The fortress may have required as much as 2 @,@ 400 @,@ 000 litres ( 530 @,@ 000 imp gal ) of water a day , supplied by fresh water piped in from natural springs in the suburb of Boughton 1 @.@ 6 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 0 mi ) to the east .
Lead ingots discovered in Chester indicate that construction was probably under way by AD 74 . There may already have been military buildings on the site , but if so they were demolished to allow the construction of the fortress . The first buildings were built of wood , probably for convenience . They were gradually replaced by more permanent structures built from locally quarried sandstone . Defence was provided by a 6 @-@ metre ( 20 ft ) wide rampart and a ditch 3 metres ( 10 ft ) wide and 1 @.@ 5 metres ( 5 ft ) deep . The rampart was made from turf laid over sand , clay , rubble , and layers of logs .
The fortress was in the traditional ' playing card ' shape – rectangular with rounded corners – and had four gates : north , east , south and west . It covered 25 hectares ( 62 acres ) , making it the largest constructed in Britain during the 70s . An estimated 24 @,@ 664 metric tons ( 24 @,@ 274 long tons ; 27 @,@ 187 short tons ) of timber was used in the first phase of the fortress ' construction ; buildings outside but associated with the fortress , such as the harbour and the amphitheatre , would have required an additional 31 @,@ 128 metric tons ( 30 @,@ 636 long tons ; 34 @,@ 313 short tons ) . The fortress contained barracks , granaries ( horrea ) , military headquarters ( principia ) , and baths . The barrack blocks were wattle and daub buildings , each of which was 82 @.@ 5 metres ( 271 ft ) long and 11 @.@ 8 metres ( 39 ft ) wide .
The name Deva Victrix derives from ' goddess ' , and the Roman fortress was named after the goddess of the River Dee ; the Latin for ' goddess ' is dea or diva . There is an alternative source for the naming of the settlement which suggests that the Roman name for the fortress was adopted directly from the British name of the river . It is thought that the title ' victrix ' in the name of the fortress was taken from the title of the Legio XX Valeria Victrix who were based at Deva ; victrix is Latin for victorious . The name for the city of Chester derives from the Latin word castrum ( plural : castra ) , meaning " fort " or " army camp " : " -chester " and " -caster " are common suffixes in the names of other English cities that began as Roman camps .
= = = Under Legio XX Valeria Victrix = = =
In 88 AD , the Emperor Domitian ordered the Legio II Adiutrix to the lower Danube . The Legio XX Valeria Victrix was deployed to garrison Deva Victrix , abandoning the fort they had been building in Scotland , at Inchtuthil . On their arrival they began to rebuild Deva , first in timber and from the end of the 1st century in stone . The new stone fortress walls were 1 @.@ 36 metres ( 4 @.@ 5 ft ) thick at the base and 1 @.@ 06 metres ( 3 @.@ 5 ft ) thick at the top . Located at regular intervals , approximately 60 metres ( 200 ft ) apart , along the walls were 22 towers about 6 @.@ 5 metres ( 21 ft ) square . The defensive ditch was re @-@ dug and was 7 @.@ 5 metres ( 25 ft ) wide and 2 @.@ 45 metres ( 8 @.@ 0 ft ) deep . An estimated 55 @,@ 452 metric tons ( 54 @,@ 576 long tons ; 61 @,@ 125 short tons ) of stone were used to build the new fortress defences . The timber barracks were replaced with stone buildings of a similar size .
During the 2nd century , at least part of the Legio XX Valeria Victrix took part in the construction of Hadrian 's Wall , leading to some sections of the fortress being abandoned and others being allowed to fall into disrepair . The Legio XX Valeria Victrix probably went on campaign in 196 under Decimus Clodius Albinus into Gaul , leaving Deva under @-@ garrisoned . They would have suffered heavy losses in Gaul before returning to Britain .
Following attacks against barbarians in the early 3rd century under Septimius Severus , the fortress at Deva was again rebuilt , this time using an estimated 309 @,@ 181 metric tons ( 304 @,@ 298 long tons ; 340 @,@ 814 short tons ) of stone . Although both Gildas and Bede located the early 4th @-@ century Roman martyrs , Julius and Aaron , in the " City of the Legions " , generally identified as being Isca Augusta ( Caerleon ) rather than Deva . During the 4th century the size of the legion , and therefore of the garrison , may have diminished in line with the rest of the empire 's forces .
= = = Decline and abandonment = = =
Most of the fortress ' major buildings were still being maintained in the second half of the 4th century and the barracks were still inhabited . Up to 383 soldiers at Chester were being paid by coins from the imperial mints ; after this the soldiers may have been removed by Magnus Maximus when he invaded Gaul in 383 . The Notitia Dignitatum , written in around 395 , does not record any military units garrisoned at Deva , indicating the fortress was no longer used by the military at this stage . If it was still used by the military , this would have ended by 410 when the Romans retreated from Britannia and the Western Roman Emperor Honorius told the cities of Britain to look to their own defences against invaders . The civilians probably continued to use the fortress and its defences as protection from raiders in the Irish Sea .
Inhabitation of Chester continued on a lesser scale once the legions had left . Buildings would have fallen into disrepair , although some of the larger structures are known to have survived for some time . The town nevertheless probably remained the military and administrative centre of the region . After the arrival of the Anglo @-@ Saxons , the settlement became known as Legacaestir , meaning " City of the Legions " in Old English . Medieval chroniclers believed the church of Saint Peter and Saint Paul – later the site of Chester Cathedral – to be of Roman origin , although no evidence has been discovered to support this . When Chester became an Anglo @-@ Saxon burh in 907 , the walls of the fortress were repaired and incorporated into the defences . Much of the Roman masonry was stolen and reused in later periods .
In the 14th century Ranulf Higdon , a monk in Chester , described some of the Roman remains , including the sewers and tombstones . Antiquarians began to take interest in the remains in the 17th century and interest continued to grow in the 18th century , fed by accounts of Roman Chester and discoveries such as an altar to Jupiter Tanarus . Jupiter Tanarus – also Taranis – was the Romanised version of the Celtic god Taranis who was the equivalent of Jupiter the god of thunder . In 1725 , William Stukeley recorded the Roman arches of the east gate ; they were demolished in 1768 . Over the next century , accidental discoveries continued , such as parts of the Roman bath complex outside the fortress which were destroyed by a late @-@ 18th @-@ century housing development . The Chester Archaeological Society , founded in 1849 , acquired artefacts discovered in Chester and undertook excavations where possible ; the Grosvenor Museum was opened in 1886 to allow the public to view the society 's collection . The society continued to work in Chester , recording information on the fortress and its surrounding settlement , often as building works destroyed the sites . Between 1962 and 1999 , about 50 excavations were carried out in and around the fortress , revealing new information about Deva Victrix . Between 2007 and 2009 , excavations are in progress at the amphitheatre on behalf of Chester City Council , in association with English Heritage .
= = Canabae legionis = =
A civilian settlement ( canabae legionis ) was gradually established outside the walls of the fortress ; it probably began as a collection of traders who became prosperous from dealing with the fortress . The settlement was administered by an elected council rather than by the legion . As legionaries retired many settled in the canabae legionis , effectively making it a veteran colony . Cemeteries were located alongside the roads leading to the settlement , beyond built @-@ up areas . The Grosvenor Museum has over 150 tombstones , the largest collection of Roman tombstones from a single site in Britain . Most of them were used to repair the north wall in the 4th century . Settlement extended around the fortress to the east , south , and west ; shops fronted the roadside for about 300 metres ( 980 ft ) beyond the fortress walls . To the east was the legion 's parade ground , civilian baths were built to the west , and to the south was a mansio , a large coaching house for travelling government officials . The buildings of the canabae legionis were originally timber , but during the early 2nd century began to be replaced by stone @-@ built structures . The settlement expanded throughout the 2nd and 3rd centuries as the population increased . Once the legion had left , the civilian settlement continued , eventually becoming part of the town of Chester .
Indeed , scholars such as Christopher Snyder believe that during the 5th and 6th centuries – approximately from 410 AD when Roman legions withdrew , to 597 AD when St. Augustine of Canterbury arrived – southern Britain preserved a sub @-@ Roman society that was able to survive the attacks from the Anglo @-@ Saxons and even use a vernacular Latin ( called British Latin ) for an active culture . There is even the possibility that this vernacular Latin lasted to the late 7th century in the area of Chester , where amphorae and archaeological remnants of a local Romano @-@ British culture at Deva Victrix have been found .
= = Legionary quarry = =
The Roman fortress of Deva was constructed from local sandstone , which was quarried across the river to the south of the fortress . Traces of the quarry are visible in Handbridge . In the 2nd century , a shrine to the Roman goddess Minerva was carved in the quarry for protection , perhaps by the quarry workers . Despite heavy weathering , the figure can be seen holding a spear and a shield with an owl above the left shoulder to symbolise wisdom . There is also a carving of an altar where offerings were left . The only rock @-@ cut Roman shrine still in situ in Britain , the Minerva shrine is a Grade I listed building .
= = Legionary baths = =
Deva Victrix had a large legionary bath complex ( thermae ) for the soldiers to maintain good hygiene and to use for leisure time . The baths were sited near the south gate and measured 82 @.@ 6 metres ( 271 ft ) by 85 @.@ 5 metres ( 281 ft ) . They were completed towards the end of Vespasian 's reign . The complex was constructed from concrete and faced with stone . The walls were 1 @.@ 2 metres ( 3 @.@ 9 ft ) thick and the barrel @-@ vaulted buildings rose as high as 16 @.@ 1 metres ( 53 ft ) .
The bath complex featured an entrance room ( vestibulum ) , an exercise hall ( basilica thermarum ) , a sweating room ( sudatorium ) , a cold room with a cold pool ( frigidarium ) , a warm room ( tepidarium ) , and a hot room with a hot plunge bath ( caldarium ) . An unsheltered exercise yard ( palaestra ) also formed part of the complex . The baths had mosaic floors and were heated by a hypocaust under @-@ floor system connected to three furnaces . Such furnaces required several metric tons of wood each day .
The baths would have been in operation 24 hours a day , using an estimated 850 @,@ 000 litres ( 190 @,@ 000 imp gal ) of water each day . The water was supplied from the springs in Boughton through underground lead pipes linked to the main aqueduct near the east gate . The water was then held in large tanks with concrete foundations , before being fed through the complex .
A large area of the baths was destroyed by building works in 1863 and during the construction of the Grosvenor Shopping Mall in 1963 . Sandstone columns from the exercise hall of the baths , measuring 0 @.@ 75 metres ( 2 @.@ 5 ft ) in diameter , are present in the " Roman Gardens " off Pepper Street ; the columns would originally have stood 5 @.@ 9 metres ( 19 ft ) high . A section of hypocaust remains in situ and is on display in the cellar of 39 Bridge Street .
= = Market Hall inscription = =
This is a fragment of a much larger inscription , finely carved onto Welsh slate , which was discovered close to the fort 's principia . Archaeologist David J.P. Mason has said that :
... Inscriptions of this type are comparatively scarce ... it therefore seems likely to belong to the administrative class of inscription , generally written out in full ... which were set up as a public record of official decisions taken at the highest level of government .
Examples of important inscriptions of this nature include treaties with local tribes and declarations of rights . The text of this inscription cannot be reconstructed from this small fragment , but it appears to talk about the ' fortress ' , an ' amicable conclusion ' , and someone being ' against the regime ' .
= = Amphitheatre = =
The amphitheatre was discovered in 1929 , and protected by the Chester Archaeological Society – with support from then Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald – from the construction of a road over the site . Excavations have revealed traces of late Iron Age cultivation , and they show that Deva 's amphitheatre had two phases of construction . The first amphitheatre was constructed from timber soon after the building of the fortress and measured 75 metres ( 246 ft ) along the major axis and 67 metres ( 220 ft ) along the minor axis . There are several factors indicating that the timber phase may have only intended to be temporary ; there is no evidence of repairs to the structure , the building was not substantially built , with 0 @.@ 6 metres ( 2 @.@ 0 ft ) deep foundations , and that it was smaller than the later stone phase . It was replaced in the Flavian period by another made from stone , measuring 95 @.@ 7 metres ( 314 ft ) along its major axis and 87 @.@ 2 metres ( 286 ft ) along its minor axis . Although the amphitheatre grew , it was only the seating that was extended , not the arena itself . The latest excavations indicate that it was a two @-@ tiered structure , capable of accommodating between 8 @,@ 000 and 10 @,@ 000 spectators . Its size has been used as an indicator of Deva 's large civilian population , and of the presence of wealthy citizens . The second phase of building produced the largest known military amphitheatre in Britain . It is a Scheduled Ancient Monument .
The amphitheatre served a variety of purposes . Owing to its proximity to the fortress , it would have been used as a venue for weapons training as well as hosting spectacular entertainments involving acrobats , wrestlers , and professional gladiators . The walls of the amphitheatre were 0 @.@ 9 metres ( 3 @.@ 0 ft ) thick and may have stood as high as 12 metres ( 39 ft ) . The buttresses were too insubstantial to be structural , so must have been decorative .
Part of a slate frieze depicting a retiarius , or net @-@ fighter , was discovered in 1738 , most likely dating to the 2nd century ; it was probably used to decorate the tomb of a gladiator . Other finds included a small bronze statuette of a gladiator , parts of a Roman bowl depicting scenes from a gladiatorial contest , and part of a gladius sword handle . Much of the masonry from the amphitheatre was reused in the construction of the St John 's Church and the monastery of St Mary .
= = Elliptical building = =
In 1939 some paving and the walls of two unusual elliptical buildings were discovered , one atop the other . These ' elliptical ' buildings were partially uncovered behind Chester 's market hall , and no similar buildings have been found in other legionary fortresses . The buildings were located near the centre of the fortress and they had their own bath buildings and a range of store rooms around the outside . The presence of a second bath building is unusual because legionary fortresses generally had just one set of internal baths . Construction on the site began around AD 77 and this was confirmed by a length of lead piping , which served a central water feature or fountain , which was stamped with the name of Emperor Vespasian . The first building was a prestigious edifice made with concrete foundations and finely dressed stonework , and was probably the finest building in the entire fortress . Technically speaking it was not elliptical , but arcuate , with the central hall being formed from two intersecting arcs , and this makes it unique in the Roman Empire . Its function is unknown . There was no seating within the arcs , which precludes a theatre , and the best guess of the archaeologists was that the twelve alcoves may have contained images of the gods , with the temple being dedicated to the twelve primary gods of the Roman pantheon . Or , alternatively , the oval shape may have represented the shape of the known Roman world , but there is no supporting evidence for this .
The completed building measured 52 @.@ 4 metres ( 172 ft ) by 31 @.@ 45 metres ( 103 @.@ 2 ft ) , and had an oval courtyard with a water feature at its centre , 14 metres ( 46 ft ) by 9 metres ( 30 ft ) , surrounded by 12 " wedge @-@ shaped " rooms . Traces of the concrete foundation for the water feature and its lead pipe work have been excavated . The 12 rooms surrounding the courtyard had large arched entrances , 4 metres ( 13 ft ) wide and at least 5 @.@ 5 metres ( 18 ft ) high . It is not certain if the first building was ever completed , but it had certainly been destroyed by the AD 90s and the site was subsequently used as the fortress rubbish dump for many decades .
The second elliptical building was built on top foundations of the first , and although the architect must have been aware of the exact layout of the previous building , the design of the second was slightly modified . Although the it looks very similar to the first , it used different diameters of arc to achieve a slightly ' fatter ' design . The second ' elliptical ' building was not constructed until about AD 220 , and this was confirmed by a coin of Emperor Elagabalus under one of the pavement slabs . It is thought that the second building may have survived until the end of Roman rule and influence in Britain .
The foundations of these buildings were destroyed during the construction of the Forum shopping centre .
= = Capital of Britannia ? = =
The elliptical building is one of several differences between the fortress at Chester and other Roman fortresses in the province . Deva was 20 % larger , 5 hectares ( 12 acres ) , than the fortresses of Eboracum ( York ) – later capital of Britannia Inferior – and Isca Augusta ( Caerleon ) . Also , the stone curtain wall at Chester was constructed without mortar , using large sandstone blocks ; this required greater skill and effort than the methods used to build the walls of Eboracum and Isca Augusta , and was usually reserved for the most important structures such as temples or city walls rather than town walls . The presence of unusual buildings at the heart of the fortress – accounting for the 4 hectares ( 10 acres ) by which Deva was larger than other fortresses – has been taken as evidence that their construction was specifically ordered by the provincial governor . The governor ( Legatus Augusti pro praetore ) when construction first started was Gnaeus Julius Agricola . Lead piping found in the elliptical building bears his name , the only evidence in Britain of a building under his direct control . These differences suggest that Deva may have been Agricola ’ s administrative headquarters – in effect the capital of Britannia . This was speculated on in a Timewatch investigation .
Another factor pointing to Deva Victrix as a provincial capital is the presence of a port . From Deva , Ireland ( Hibernia ) was also accessible , a land which Agricola had plans to conquer ; he even launched an expedition to Ireland , though where from is unclear . Also , the Flavian dynasty was expansionist , and Deva was closer to what would then have been the front , making administration quicker and easier . Furthermore , historian Vittorio Di Martino believes that Agricola could have chosen Deva Victrix as a possible future capital of Roman Britain because it was practically placed at the centre of the British isles , being located geographically at nearly the same distance from the westernmost shores of Ireland , the easternmost lands of Britannia and the Channel .
Regardless of the empire 's plans for Deva , Londinium , the province 's economic and trading centre , emerged as the capital of Britannia , reflecting a change in imperial policy from expansionism to consolidation .
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= The Fifth Element =
The Fifth Element ( French : Le Cinquième Élément ) is a 1997 English @-@ language French science fiction action film directed and co @-@ written by Luc Besson . It stars Bruce Willis , Gary Oldman and Milla Jovovich . Primarily set in the 23rd century , the film 's central plot involves the survival of planet Earth , which becomes the responsibility of Korben Dallas ( Willis ) , a taxicab driver and former special forces major , after a young woman ( Jovovich ) falls into his cab . Dallas joins forces with her to recover four mystical stones essential for the defence of Earth against an impending attack .
Besson started writing the story that became The Fifth Element when he was 16 years old ; he was 38 when the film opened in cinemas . Besson wanted to shoot the film in France , but suitable locations could not be found ; filming took place instead in London and Mauritania . Comics writers Jean " Moebius " Giraud and Jean @-@ Claude Mézières , whose comics provided inspiration for parts of the film , were hired for production design . Costume design was by Jean Paul Gaultier .
The Fifth Element received mainly positive reviews , although it tended to polarize critics . It has been called both the best and worst summer blockbuster of all time . The film was a financial success , earning more than $ 263 million at the box office on a $ 90 million budget . At the time of its release it was the most expensive European film ever made , and it remained the highest @-@ grossing French film at the international box office until the release of The Intouchables in 2011 .
= = Plot = =
In 1914 , aliens known as Mondoshawans arrive at an ancient Egyptian temple to collect , for safekeeping , the only weapon capable of defeating a great evil that appears every 5 @,@ 000 years . The weapon consists of four stones , representing the four classical elements , and a sarcophagus containing a fifth element in the form of a human , which combines the power of the other four elements into a divine light capable of defeating the evil . The Mondoshawans promise their human contact , a priest from a secret order , that they will come back with the element stones in time to stop the great evil when it returns .
In 2263 , the great evil appears in deep space in the form of a giant ball of black fire , and destroys an attacking Earth spaceship . The Mondoshawans ' current contact on Earth , priest Vito Cornelius ( Ian Holm ) , informs the President of the Federated Territories ( Tom Lister Jr . ) of the history of the great evil and the weapon that can stop it . As the Mondoshawans return to Earth they are ambushed by Mangalores , a race hired by the industrialist Jean @-@ Baptiste Emanuel Zorg ( Gary Oldman ) , who has been instructed by the great evil to acquire the stones .
The Mondoshawans ' spacecraft is destroyed , though the stones are not on board ; the only item recovered is a hand of The Fifth Element . Scientists take it to a New York City laboratory and use it to reconstruct a powerful humanoid woman who takes the name Leeloo ( Milla Jovovich ) . Terrified of the unfamiliar surroundings , she breaks out of confinement and jumps off a high ledge , crashing into the flying taxicab of Korben Dallas ( Bruce Willis ) , a former major in the special forces .
Dallas delivers Leeloo to Cornelius and his apprentice , David ( Charlie Creed @-@ Miles ) , whereupon Cornelius learns that the Mondoshawans entrusted the four element stones to the alien Diva Plavalaguna ( Maïwenn Le Besco ) , an opera singer . Zorg kills many of the Mangalores because of their failure to obtain the stones , but their compatriots determine to seize the artifacts for themselves . Upon learning from the Mondoshawans that the stones are in Plavalaguna 's possession , General Munro ( Brion James ) , Dallas ' former superior , recommissions Dallas and orders him to travel undercover to meet Plavalaguna on a luxury intergalactic cruise ; Dallas takes Leeloo with him . Meanwhile , Cornelius instructs David to prepare the ancient temple designed to house the stones , then stows away on the space plane transporting Dallas to the cruise liner .
Plavalaguna is killed when the Mangalores attack the ship , but Dallas succeeds in retrieving the stones from the Diva . During his struggle with the Mangalores he kills their leader . Meanwhile , Zorg shoots and seriously wounds Leeloo , before finding a carrying case that he presumes contains the stones and takes it back to his spacecraft , leaving behind a time bomb that forces the liner 's occupants to evacuate . Discovering the case to be empty , Zorg returns to the ship and deactivates his bomb , but a dying Mangalore sets off his own device , destroying the ship and killing Zorg . Dallas , Cornelius , Leeloo , and talk @-@ show host Ruby Rhod ( Chris Tucker ) escape with the stones aboard Zorg 's spacecraft .
The four join up with David at the weapon chamber in the Egyptian temple as the great evil approaches . They arrange the stones and are able to activate them with their corresponding elements , but having witnessed and studied so much violence , Leeloo has become disenchanted with humanity and refuses to cooperate . Dallas confesses his love for Leeloo and kisses her . In response , Leeloo combines the power of the stones and releases the divine light on the great evil and destroying its power , causing the planet to be proclaimed dead by Earth scientists as it becomes another moon in Earth orbit .
= = Cast = =
= = Themes = =
In an interview Besson stated The Fifth Element was not a " big theme movie " , although the film 's theme was an important one . He wanted viewers to reach the point where Leeloo states " What 's the use of saving life when you see what you do with it ? " , and agree with her . Jay P. Telotte , writing in the book Science Fiction Film , credited the film with exploring the theme of political corruption .
An article by Brian Ott and Eric Aoki in the feminist journal Women 's Studies in Communication considered gender to be one of the film 's main themes . The authors accused the film of erasing women from the introductory scenes , noting that Leeloo 's reconstruction marked only the second appearance of a female in the film 's first 20 minutes ; the other is an androgynous , mostly speechless presidential aide . When females appear in the film , they do so as passive objects , such as the sexualised flight and McDonald 's attendants ; or stripped of their femininity , such as the " butch " Major Iceborg . Stefan Brandt , in the book Subverting Masculinity , also said that the film " echoes stereotypical beliefs about gender " of all females in the film , including Leeloo , who leaves her passive role in the film during the times she is defending herself and during her fight with the Mangalores . With the exception of Tiny Lister 's portrayal of the President , all males in the film were considered to be as unmanly as possible in various ways , such as Ruby Rhod 's effeminacy , Vito Cornelius 's clumsy form of speech , and General Munro 's stupidity ; their purpose was to make Korben 's masculinity appear " god @-@ like " by comparison .
In the book The Films of Luc Besson , Susan Hayward considered The Fifth Element to be a classic story of a man " making his break from the tribe , proving his manhood , over @-@ throwing the malevolent forces and killing the chief , finally to reap the rewards of security and marriage " . Korben 's journey , however , is under threat not only from the Mangalores and Zorg , but also from Leeloo , who relents and helps him only at the last minute , accepting his declaration of love . The love story within The Fifth Element was considered to be one of the main narratives in the film , and it faces the same deadline as the main storyline . Hayward also considered the issue of environmental damage , in so far as waste and pollution are visible throughout the film . Whereas science fiction films often show a world wherein some new technology or threat either surpasses or fails humanity , The Films of Luc Besson included The Fifth Element amongst the minority of science fiction films that " hold up a mirror " and show humankind as responsible . The film was said to be skeptical of capitalist consumerism , in so far as the gadgets in Zorg 's office make an unhealthy obsession of his lust for technology . The tension between technology and man is treated as a problem requiring a final resolution .
= = Production = =
As a teenager , Besson envisioned the world of The Fifth Element in an attempt to alleviate boredom . He began writing the script when he was 16 , though it was not released in cinemas until he was 38 . The original storyline was set in the year 2300 , and was about a " nobody " named Zaltman Bleros ( later renamed Korben Dallas ) who wins a trip to the Club Med resort on the planet Fhloston Paradise . There he meets Leeloo , a " sand @-@ girl " who has the " beauty of youth " despite being over 2 @,@ 000 years old . Besson continued to work on and modify the storyline for years ; by the time his film Atlantis was released in 1991 he had a 400 @-@ page script . Nicolas Seydoux and Patrice Ledoux from Gaumont were the first people to take on the project . In November 1991 , while looking for actors for the film , Besson met French comics creators Jean Giraud and Jean @-@ Claude Mézières and recruited them for the film 's production design . Giraud and Mézières 's comics were a major source of inspiration for Besson 's futuristic New York City . Mézières wrote the book The Circles of Power , which features a character named S 'Traks , who drives a flying taxicab through the congested air traffic of the vast metropolis on the planet Rubanis . Mézières showed images of the flying taxi to Besson , who was inspired to change the background of Korben Dallas from a worker in a rocketship factory to that of a taxi driver who flies his cab around a Rubanis @-@ inspired futuristic New York . Five other artists were hired for the project , and Jean Paul Gaultier was hired to design the film 's costumes . The team spent a year creating over 8 @,@ 000 drawings , during which time Besson approached both Bruce Willis and Mel Gibson for the lead role . Willis expressed interest , though he was reluctant to take on the role as the film was considered risky after his previous two films , Hudson Hawk and Billy Bathgate , had been received poorly ; Gibson eventually turned down the role . While the team impressed film companies with their designs , they struggled to find one willing to take on the film 's budget of almost $ 100 million . In December 1992 production of the film stopped without any prior warning , and the team disbanded .
Besson went on to direct the commercially successful film Léon : The Professional , which was released in September 1994 . While shooting and releasing Leon , he continued to work on the script for The Fifth Element , shortening it and reducing the film 's budget to $ 90 million before attempting to find a studio willing to produce it . Columbia Pictures , who had a partnership in Leon , agreed to finance the film . By this time Besson had decided to go with a lesser @-@ known lead actor in order to save on production costs . Besson was in Barry Josephson 's office when Willis called regarding a different film . Besson asked to speak to Willis " just to say hello " , and told him that The Fifth Element was finally going ahead , explaining the decision to go with a less @-@ expensive actor . After a short silence , Willis stated " If I like the film , we can always come to an arrangement " ; he agreed to take on the role after reading the script . Production of the film commenced in early August 1995 . Besson traveled to various places for casting , including Paris , London and Rome . He chose to hire Gary Oldman , who had starred in Léon , for the role of Zorg , describing Oldman as " one of the top five actors in the world . " For the character Leeloo , Besson chose Milla Jovovich from the 200 to 300 applicants he met in person . The " Divine Language " spoken in the film by Leeloo is a fictional language with only 400 words , invented by Besson . Jovovich and Besson held conversations and wrote letters to each other in the language as practice . Besson was in a relationship with Maïwenn Le Besco , who played the role of Diva Plavalaguna , for six years when filming commenced ; however , he left her for Jovovich during filming . Jovovich and Besson later married , but divorced in 1999 .
Despite wishing to shoot the film in France , Besson could not find suitable facilities and " with a heavy heart " instead filmed in London . It was primarily filmed at Pinewood Studios on seven soundstages including the 007 Stage . Construction of sets began in October 1995 . The opera scene was filmed at the Royal Opera House . Scenes depicted as being in Egypt were filmed in Mauritania ; the first shoot for the film , a background shot of the desert , occurred there on 5 January 1996 . Filming with actors began in late January , and was completed 21 weeks later . Willis finished filming on 16 May , while Oldman only commenced filming the following week ; the film 's protagonist ( Korben ) and antagonist ( Zorg ) never actually share any screen time . Despite being filmed in London , The Fifth Element was a French production , and went on to become the costliest European film ever made at the time . The buildings in New York were derived from both metabolist @-@ inspired masses of modular apartments from the 1960s , and the futuristic designs of architect Antonio Sant 'Elia in the 1910s . Besson demanded that most of the action shots in the film take place in broad daylight , as he was reportedly tired of the dark spaceship corridors and dimly lit planets common in science fiction films , and wanted a brighter " cheerfully crazy " look as opposed to a gloomy realistic one . Gaultier designed every one of the 900 costumes worn by extras in the film 's Fhloston Paradise scenes , and checked each costume every morning . His designs , described as " intellectually transgressive " , were said to challenge sexuality and gender norms . A single jacket he designed for the film cost $ 5 @,@ 000 .
The original name of the character Ruby Rhod was Loc Rhod . The name appears in both the original script and in the novelisation of the film . Speculation has been raised that the name change was a play on information in the periodic table . Rubidium is the first of the Period 5 elements , and exactly halfway down that row is the element Rhodium . Taking the first half of each element yields " Rubi Rhod " . Others have speculated his name is a play on his gender bending personality ; having a feminine first name and phallic surname . The term " ruby rod " also refers to the essential component of the first working laser design .
= = = Effects = = =
Three different teams handled the three different types of special effects used in the film . Nick Allder was placed in charge of mechanical and pyrotechnical effects , Nick Dudman was placed in charge of ' creature ' effects and Mark Stetson headed the visual effects team . Visual effects company Digital Domain was hired for the film , and Karen Goulekas was given the role of digital effects supervisor . Alias , Autodesk Softimage , Arete , Side Effect 's Prisms , RenderMan , as well as in @-@ house software , were used by Digital Domain to create effects . Some individual shots used a combination of live action , scale models , computer @-@ generated imagery and particle systems . The lanes of traffic in the scenes in New York City were created with particle systems :
We had maybe 80 cityscape shots with CG cars hurtling around , and you couldn 't animate them all by hand because there were just too many of them in each scene ... When the cars turned a corner , the velocity changes were automatic , so the animator didn 't have to worry about that . They just planned the moves in a very blocky way , and the mathematics smoothed out the rest .
Amongst the scale models used for filming were the buildings seen in New York City . Dozens of apartment blocks and 25 skyscrapers , some 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) high , were constructed in 1 / 24th scale . It took a team of 80 workers five months to build the models used in the film . The windows of the buildings were cited by the team as one of the most time @-@ consuming tasks , along with details behind the windows , such as furniture , blinds , lightboxes and tiny pieces of flat artwork . Virtual sets built within digital environments were created to enhance the use of miniatures . Motion control cameras moved throughout the scale sets , and the data they collected was exported to track and generate the CG animation and particle systems . Other techniques used in the film included digital matte paintings for backgrounds and the NURBS mathematical model for certain animations , including the sequence in which Leeloo 's body is reconstructed .
= = = Soundtrack = = =
The Fifth Element is one of Besson 's films which have been described as " intrinsically musical " ; some kind of music is playing during about 90 percent of the film . The film 's score was composed by Éric Serra . He relies heavily on the use of orchestral textures , such as the oboe and strings heard as the surgeons prepare to regenerate Leeloo , and the pizzicato as she is reconstructed . Serra also used many exotic influences , such as the Stalinist fanfare heard before the spaceport sequence , the reggae piece played in preparation for the flight , and the hula music that greets the passengers as they arrive in Fhloston . More conventional scoring techniques are present in the leitmotif that first appears when professor Pacoli mentions the fifth element , the militaristic snares as the warship prepares to attack the dark planet , and the Mahlerian funereal piece heard when Leeloo learns about war . The music used for the taxicab chase scene , titled " Alech Taadi " by Algerian performer Khaled , is excluded from the film soundtrack , but is available on Khaled 's album N 'ssi N 'ssi .
The Diva Dance opera performance featured music from Gaetano Donizetti 's Lucia di Lammermoor : " Il dolce suono " , the mad scene of Act III , Scene 2 . It is one of the few pieces of music in the film that is diegetic . It was sung by Albanian soprano Inva Mula , while the role of Plavalaguna was played by French actress Maïwenn Le Besco . Part One ( titled " Lucia di Lammermoor " ) and Part Two ( titled " The Diva Dance " ) of this piece are included as separate tracks on The Fifth Element soundtrack , but are sequenced to create the effect of the entire performance seen in the film . The end of Part One blends into the beginning of Part Two , creating a smooth transition between the two tracks .
Released as an album under Virgin Records , the soundtrack peaked at No. 99 on the Billboard 200 . More than 200 @,@ 000 copies of the lengthy soundtrack were sold in France alone . Rodney Batdorf of AllMusic gave the album three out of five stars , stating it was " diverse and accomplished , and it is just as effective outside of the film as it is within it . " A review from Filmtracks.com also awarded the album three out of five stars .
= = Release = =
= = = Initial screening = = =
The film premiered on 7 May 1997 at the 1997 Cannes Film Festival , where it was selected as the opening film . Gaumont built an area for the screening that was over 100 @,@ 000 square feet ( 9 @,@ 300 m2 ) . Guests were given a " Fifth Element " Swatch , which was used as their ticket for entry . The event featured a futuristic ballet , a fashion show by Jean Paul Gaultier , and fireworks . Gaumont spent between US $ 1 million and $ 3 million on the event , a record at the time .
= = = Box office = = =
The film debuted at number 1 in the US , earning $ 17 million on its opening weekend . It went on to become a box @-@ office success , grossing over $ 263 million , almost three times its budget of $ 90 million . Seventy @-@ six percent of the receipts for The Fifth Element were from markets outside the United States , and it was the ninth @-@ highest @-@ grossing film of the year worldwide . It was the most successful film at the box office in France in 1997 , with more than 7 @.@ 69 million seeing the film . In Germany the film was awarded the Goldene Leinwand , a sales certification award for selling more than three million tickets at the box office . The Fifth Element went on to become the highest grossing French film at the foreign box @-@ office , a record it held for 16 years until the release of The Intouchables in 2011 .
= = = Critical response = = =
The Fifth Element holds a 71 % approval rating at Rotten Tomatoes , based on 58 reviews . The site 's consensus reads : " Visually inventive and gleefully over the top , Luc Besson 's The Fifth Element is a fantastic piece of pop sci @-@ fi that never takes itself too seriously . " It has a weighted score of 52 / 100 at Metacritic , based on 22 professional reviews , indicating " mixed or average " reviews .
The Fifth Element polarised critics on release . Kevin Thomas of the Los Angeles Times described the film as an " elaborate , even campy sci @-@ fi extravaganza , which is nearly as hard to follow as last year 's Mission : Impossible . " He concluded that The Fifth Element was " a lot warmer , more fun and boasts some of the most sophisticated , witty production and costume design you could ever hope to see . " On film review show At the Movies , both Roger Ebert and Gene Siskel gave the film a " thumbs up " ; in his own review for the Chicago Sun @-@ Times , Ebert gave the film 3 stars out of 4 , calling it " One of the great goofy movies " , and concluding , " I would not have missed seeing this film , and I recommend it for its richness of imagery . But at 127 minutes , which seems a reasonable length , it plays long . "
The film was , however , subject to a number of harsh reviews that expressed disapproval of its overblown style . Todd McCarthy of Variety wrote , " A largely misfired European attempt to make an American @-@ style sci @-@ fi spectacular , The Fifth Element consists of a hodgepodge of elements that don 't comfortably coalesce . " David Edelstein of Slate was even more critical , saying , " It may or may not be the worst movie ever made , but it is one of the most unhinged . "
Chris Tucker 's performance as Ruby Rhod also polarised critics . He was praised in the Los Angeles Times and in Time ; the latter called him " the summer 's most outrageous special effect . " Josh Winning of GamesRadar , however , singled out Tucker 's performance as the low point of the film , ranking it as No. 20 on his 2011 list , " 50 Performances That Ruined Movies . "
= = = Legacy and related media = = =
The film has been described by CBS News , Rotten Tomatoes , and ComingSoon.com as a science fiction cult classic . However film critic Mark Kermode reported that The Fifth Element was one of the most divisive films among his readers , regarded as both the best and the worst summer blockbuster of all time . Kermode recalled his own experience : " I remember very clearly being in Cannes when [ The ] Fifth Element was first played , and it really divided the audience . " Stephen Cass of Discover ranked the film the third @-@ best science fiction movie on subscription service Hulu , writing , " People seem to either like or loathe The Fifth Element ... Lavish visuals and entertaining performances from Bruce Willis , Milla Jovovich , and Gary Oldman make this movie worth watching . " In some circles the film has gained a " so @-@ bad @-@ it 's @-@ good " status ; Meredith Woerner of io9 listed The Fifth Element as one of " The 20 Best Worst Science Fiction Movies of All Time " . In 2007 the Visual Effects Society placed The Fifth Element at No. 50 , tied with Darby O 'Gill and the Little People , on their list of the 50 most influential visual effects films of all time . In 2014 , Time Out listed the film at No. 42 on their " 100 best sci @-@ fi movies " list .
Willis spoke favourably of the film in a 1999 interview , concluding " it was a real fun movie to make . " Tucker and Jovovich also spoke favourably of both their experiences making the film and working with Besson in interviews on the Ultimate Edition DVD ; Jovovich described Besson as " the first really amazing director I had worked with " . Asked in a 2014 interview if he liked the film , Gary Oldman stated , " Oh no . I can 't bear it . " He had explained in 2011 : " It was me singing for my supper because Luc had come in and partly financed [ my film ] Nil by Mouth . "
Alejandro Jodorowsky and Jean Giraud sued Besson after the film was released , claiming The Fifth Element had plagiarised their comic The Incal . Giraud sued for 13 @.@ 1 million euros for unfair competition , 9 million euros in damages and interest and two to five percent of the net operating revenues of the film . Jodorowsky sued for 700 @,@ 000 euros . The case was dismissed in 2004 on the grounds that only " tiny fragments " of the comic had been used and also because Giraud had been hired by Besson to work on the film before the allegations were made .
A novel adaptation of The Fifth Element , written by Terry Bisson , was published by HarperPrism in 1997 . There were rumors after the film 's release that it would be followed by a sequel , tentatively titled Mr. Shadow . In 2011 , Besson stated that a sequel was never planned , and that he has no desire to make one .
A video game adaptation of The Fifth Element was created by Activision for the PlayStation game console and PC in 1998 . The PlayStation version was generally met with negative reviews , though the PC version was better received . Lauren Fielder from GameSpot called the PlayStation version " quite possibly the worst game I 've ever played . " Doug Perry from IGN commented : " Take Tomb Raider , add in Leeloo Multipass and boring puzzles , and you 've got Fifth Element . " A racing game based on the film , New York Race , was released in 2001 . Eurogamer gave the game 6 out of 10 , concluding : " New York Race is a fun little arcade racer which oozes style , but it 's something you 'll grow tired of extremely quickly and as such remains fun only in short bursts . "
= = Accolades = =
The Fifth Element was nominated for Best Sound Editing at the 70th Academy Awards , and for Best Sound Editing at the 1998 Golden Reel Awards , but lost to Titanic in both cases . It won the BAFTA Award for Best Special Visual Effects , and the Lumières Award for Best Director . It was nominated for seven César awards , winning three : Best Director , Best Cinematography and Best Production Design . It was nominated for Film of the Year at the 1997 European Film Awards , as well as the Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation , and the Satellite Award for Best Visual Effects . Thierry Arbogast was awarded the Technical Grand Prize at the 1997 Cannes Film Festival for his work on both The Fifth Element and She 's So Lovely . The film received four Saturn Award nominations : Best Science Fiction Film , Best Costume , Best Special Effects , and Best Supporting Actress for Milla Jovovich . Jovovich 's fight against the Mangalores was nominated for the MTV Movie Award for Best Fight , and the actress was also nominated for Best Actress – Newcomer at the Blockbuster Entertainment Awards .
Conversely , Jovovich received a Razzie nomination for Worst Supporting Actress , and Chris Tucker was nominated for Worst New Star for his performances in both The Fifth Element and Money Talks .
= = Home media = =
The original home video release of The Fifth Element took place in North America on 10 December 1997 , on VHS , LaserDisc , and DVD . The original DVD presented the film in its original 2 @.@ 39 : 1 anamorphic widescreen format though carried no special features . The film was released in Sony 's Superbit format in October 2001 . In his review , Conrad Jeremy from IGN gave the picture quality of the original DVD release 9 out of 10 , though awarded the Superbit version a perfect score for picture quality . Overall the Superbit version was given 8 out of 10 ; the final score was brought down by the version 's complete lack of special features .
An " Ultimate Edition " set of two DVDs was released on 11 January 2005 . The only difference between the Superbit version and the Ultimate Edition disc one is the addition of a " fact track " , which when turned on displays trivia about the film , cast and crew as the film plays . The second disc provides various special features , focusing on visual production , special effects , fashion in the film , featurettes and interviews with Willis , Jovovich , and Tucker , as well as featurettes on the four different alien races in the film and Diva Plavalaguna . Ian Jane of DVD Talk praised the Ultimate Edition for its special features .
The first Blu @-@ ray Disc release of the film on 20 June 2006 was criticised as having poor picture quality by Blu @-@ ray standards , and for its lack of special features . In what has been called " an extremely rare move " Sony responded to complaints by making a remastered Blu @-@ ray version available , released on 17 July 2007 , and also offered a replacement exchange program for customers unhappy with the original Blu @-@ ray release . Ben Williams from Blu @-@ ray.com stated the remastered version " absolutely " made up for the lacklustre initial release and praised its high video and audio quality ; however , he criticised the continued lack of special features .
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= Dugong =
The dugong ( / ˈduːɡɒŋ / , / ˈdjuːɡɒŋ / ; Dugong dugon ) is a medium @-@ sized marine mammal . It is one of four living species of the order Sirenia , which also includes three species of manatees . It is the only living representative of the once @-@ diverse family Dugongidae ; its closest modern relative , Steller 's sea cow ( Hydrodamalis gigas ) , was hunted to extinction in the 18th century . The dugong is the only strictly marine herbivorous mammal .
The dugong is the only sirenian in its range , which spans the waters of some 40 countries and territories throughout the Indo @-@ West Pacific . The dugong is largely dependent on seagrass communities for subsistence and is thus restricted to the coastal habitats which support seagrass meadows , with the largest dugong concentrations typically occurring in wide , shallow , protected areas such as bays , mangrove channels , the waters of large inshore islands and inter @-@ reefal waters . The northern waters of Australia between Shark Bay and Moreton Bay are believed to be the dugong 's contemporary stronghold .
Like all modern sirenians , the dugong has a fusiform body with no dorsal fin or hind limbs . The forelimbs or flippers are paddle @-@ like . The dugong is easily distinguished from the manatees by its fluked , dolphin @-@ like tail , but also possesses a unique skull and teeth . Its snout is sharply downturned , an adaptation for feeding in benthic seagrass communities . The molar teeth are simple and peg @-@ like unlike the more elaborate molar dentition of manatees .
The dugong has been hunted for thousands of years for its meat and oil . Traditional hunting still has great cultural significance in several countries in its modern range , particularly northern Australia and the Pacific Islands . The dugong 's current distribution is fragmented , and many populations are believed to be close to extinction . The IUCN lists the dugong as a species vulnerable to extinction , while the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species limits or bans the trade of derived products . Despite being legally protected in many countries , the main causes of population decline remain anthropogenic and include fishing @-@ related fatalities , habitat degradation and hunting . With its long lifespan of 70 years or more , and slow rate of reproduction , the dugong is especially vulnerable to extinction .
= = Etymology and taxonomy = =
The word " dugong " derives from the Tagalog term dugong which was in turn adopted from the Malay duyung , both meaning " lady of the sea " . Other common local names include " sea cow " , " sea pig " and " sea camel " .
Dugong dugon is the only extant species of the family Dugongidae , and one of only four extant species of the Sirenia order , the others forming the manatee family . It was first classified by Müller in 1776 as Trichechus dugon , a member of the manatee genus previously defined by Linnaeus . It was later assigned as the type species of Dugong by Lacépède and further classified within its own family by Gray and subfamily by Simpson .
Dugongs and other sirenians are not closely related to other marine mammals , being more related to elephants . Dugongs and elephants share a monophyletic group with hyraxes and the aardvark , one of the earliest offshoots of eutherians . The fossil record shows sirenians appearing in the Eocene , where they most likely lived in the Tethys Ocean . The two extant families of sirenians are thought to have diverged in the mid @-@ Eocene , after which the dugongs and their closest relative , the Steller 's sea cow , split off from a common ancestor in the Miocene . The Steller 's sea cow became extinct in the 18th century . No fossils exist of other members of the Dugongidae .
Molecular studies have been made on dugong populations using mitochondrial DNA . The results have suggested that the population of Southeast Asia is distinct from the others . Australia has two distinct maternal lineages , one of which also contains the dugongs from Africa and Arabia . Limited genetic mixing has taken place between those in Southeast Asia and those in Australia , mostly around Timor . One of the lineages stretches all the way from Moreton Bay to Western Australia , while the other only stretches from Moreton Bay to the Northern Territory . There is not yet sufficient genetic data to make clear boundaries between distinct groups .
= = Anatomy and morphology = =
The dugong 's body is large with a cylindrical shape that tapers at both ends . It has thick , smooth skin that is a pale cream colour at birth , but darkens dorsally and laterally to brownish @-@ to @-@ dark @-@ grey with age . The colour of a dugong can change due to the growth of algae on the skin . The body is sparsely covered in short hair , a common feature among sirenians which may allow for tactile interpretation of their environment . These hairs are most developed around the mouth , which has a large horseshoe shaped upper lip forming a highly mobile muzzle . This muscular upper lip aids the dugong in foraging .
The dugong 's tail flukes and flippers are similar to those of dolphins . These flukes are raised up and down in long strokes to move the animal forward , and can be twisted to turn . The forelimbs are paddle @-@ like flippers which aid in turning and slowing . The dugong lacks nails on its flippers , which are only 15 % of a dugong 's body length . The tail has deep notches .
A dugong 's brain weighs a maximum of 300 g ( 11 oz ) , about 0 @.@ 1 % of the animal 's body weight . With very small eyes , dugongs have limited vision , but acute hearing within narrow sound thresholds . Their ears , which lack pinna , are located on the sides of their head . The nostrils are located on top of the head and can be closed using valves . Dugongs have two teats , one located behind each flipper . There are few differences between sexes ; the body structures are almost the same . A male 's testes are not externally located , and the main difference between males and females is the location of the genital aperture in relation to the umbilicus and the anus . The lungs in a dugong are very long , extending almost as far as the kidneys , which are also highly elongated in order to cope with the saltwater environment . If wounded , a dugong 's blood will clot rapidly .
The skull of a dugong is unique . The skull is enlarged with sharply down @-@ turned premaxilla , which are stronger in males . The spine has between 57 and 60 vertebrae . Unlike in manatees , the dugong 's teeth do not continually grow back via horizontal tooth replacement . The dugong has two incisors ( tusks ) which emerge in males during puberty . The female 's tusks continue to grow without emerging during puberty , sometimes erupting later in life after reaching the base of the premaxilla . The number of growth layer groups in a tusk indicates the age of a dugong , and the cheekteeth move forward with age . The full dental formula of dugongs is 2 @.@ 0 @.@ 3 @.@ 33 @.@ 1 @.@ 3 @.@ 3 , meaning they have two incisors , three premolars , and three molars on each side of their upper jaw , and three incisors , one canine , three premolars , and three molars on each side of their lower jaw . Like other sirenians , the dugong experiences pachyostosis , a condition in which the ribs and other long bones are unusually solid and contain little or no marrow . These heavy bones , which are among the densest in the animal kingdom , may act as a ballast to help keep sirenians suspended slightly below the water 's surface .
An adult 's length rarely exceeds 3 metres ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) . An individual this long is expected to weigh around 420 kilograms ( 926 lb ) . Weight in adults is typically more than 250 kilograms ( 551 lb ) and less than 900 kilograms ( 1 @,@ 984 lb ) . The largest individual recorded was 4 @.@ 06 metres ( 13 @.@ 32 ft ) long and weighed 1 @,@ 016 kilograms ( 2 @,@ 240 lb ) , and was found off the Saurashtra coast of west India . Females tend to be larger than males .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Dugongs are found in warm coastal waters from the western Pacific Ocean to the eastern coast of Africa , along an estimated 140 @,@ 000 kilometres ( 86 @,@ 992 mi ) of coastline between 26 ° and 27 ° degrees to the north and south of the equator . Their historic range is believed to correspond to that of seagrasses from the Potamogetonaceae and Hydrocharitaceae families . The full size of the former range is unknown , although it is believed that the current populations represent the historical limits of the range , which is highly fractured . Today populations of dugongs are found in the waters of 37 countries and territories . Recorded numbers of dugongs are generally believed to be lower than actual numbers , due to a lack of accurate surveys . Despite this , the dugong population is thought to be shrinking , with a worldwide decline of 20 per cent in the last 90 years . They have disappeared from the waters of Hong Kong , Mauritius , and Taiwan , as well as parts of Cambodia , Japan , the Philippines and Vietnam . Further disappearances are likely .
Dugongs are generally found in warm waters around the coast with large numbers concentrated in wide and shallow protected bays . The dugong is the only strictly @-@ marine herbivorous mammal , as all species of manatee utilise fresh water to some degree . Nonetheless , they can tolerate the brackish waters found in coastal wetlands , and large numbers are also found in wide and shallow mangrove channels and around leeward sides of large inshore islands , where seagrass beds are common . They are usually located at a depth of around 10 m ( 33 ft ) , although in areas where the continental shelf remains shallow dugongs have been known to travel more than 10 kilometres ( 6 mi ) from the shore , descending to as far as 37 metres ( 121 ft ) , where deepwater seagrasses such as Halophila spinulosa are found . Special habitats are used for different activities . It has been observed that shallow waters are used as sites for calving , minimising the risk of predation . Deep waters may provide a thermal refuge from cooler waters closer to the shore during winter .
= = = East Africa and South Asia = = =
In the late 1960s , herds of up to 500 dugongs were observed off the coast of East Africa and nearby islands . Current populations in this area are extremely small , numbering 50 and below , and it is thought likely they will become extinct . The eastern side of the Red Sea is the home of large populations numbering in the hundreds , and similar populations are thought to exist on the western side . In the 1980s , it was estimated there could be as many as 4 @,@ 000 dugongs in the Red Sea . The Persian Gulf has the second @-@ largest dugong population in the world , inhabiting most of the southern coast , and the current population is believed to be around 7 @,@ 500 . Dugong populations in Madagascar are poorly studied , but due to widespread exploitation it is thought they may have severely declined , with few surviving individuals . In Mozambique , most of local populations remaining are rather very small where the largest ( about 120 individuals ) occur at Bazaruto Island , but they have become rare in historical habitats such as in Maputo Bay and on Inhaca Island . In the Seychelles , dugongs had been regarded as extinct until a small number of dugongs was discovered around the Aldabra Atoll . This population may belong to different group than that distributed among the inner isles .
A highly isolated breeding population exists in the Marine National Park , Gulf of Kutch , the only population remaining in western India . It is 1 @,@ 500 kilometres ( 932 mi ) from the population in the Persian Gulf , and 1 @,@ 700 kilometres ( 1 @,@ 056 mi ) from the nearest population in India . Former populations in this area , centred on the Maldives and the Laccadive Islands , are presumed to be extinct . A population exists in the Gulf of Mannar Marine National Park and the Palk Strait between India and Sri Lanka , but it is seriously depleted . Dugongs are also found in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and is the state animal of this territory . Once distributed throughout the coastal belt in Sri Lanka , the dugong number declined in last two decades due to heavy hunting by the fishermen . Now only the north @-@ eastern coastal belt is home for the rest of dugong population around Sri Lanka . It is listed as an endangered species on the southern coast of Pakistan . The population around the Andaman and Nicobar Islands are known only from a few records , and although the population was large during British rule , it is now believed to be small and scattered .
= = = Southern Pacific outside of Australia = = =
A small population exists today along the southern coast of China , where efforts are being made to protect it , including the establishment of a seagrass sanctuary for dugong and other endangered marine fauna ranging in Guanxi . Despite these efforts , numbers continue to decrease , and in 2007 it was reported that no more dugong could be found on the west coast of the island of Hainan . Historically , dugongs were also present in the southern parts of the Yellow Sea . In Vietnam , dugongs have been restricted mostly to the provinces of Kiên Giang and Bà Rịa – Vũng Tàu , including Phu Quoc Island and Con Dao Island , which hosted large populations in the past . Con Dao is now the only site in Vietnam where dugong are regularly seen , protected within the Côn Đảo National Park . Nonetheless , dangerously low levels of awarenesses for conservation of marine organisms in Vietnam and Cambodia may result in increased intentional or unintentional catches , and illegal trade is a potential danger for local dugongs . On Phu Quoc , the first ' Dugong Festival ' was held in 2014 , aiming to raise awareness of these issues .
In Thailand , the present distribution of dugongs is restricted to 6 provinces along the Andaman Sea , and very few dugongs are present in the Gulf of Thailand . The Gulf of Thailand was historically home to large number of the animals , but none have been sighted in the west of the gulf in recent years , and the remaining population in the east is thought to be very small and possibly declining . Dugongs are believed to exist in the Straits of Johor in very small numbers . The waters around Borneo support a small population , with more scattered throughout the Malay archipelago . All the islands of the Philippines are believed to have once provided habitats for dugongs , which were common until the 1970s . Populations exist around the Solomon Islands archipelago and New Caledonia , stretching to an easternmost population in Vanuatu . A highly isolated population lives around the islands of Palau .
A singe dugong lives at Cocos ( Keeling ) Islands although the animal is thought to be a vagrant .
= = = Northern Pacific = = =
Today , possibly the smallest and northernmost population of dugongs exists around the Ryukyu islands , and a population formerly existed off Taiwan . An endangered population of 50 or fewer dugongs , possibly as few as only three individuals , survives. around Okinawa . A single individual was recorded in Amami Oshima , at the northernmost edge of the dugong 's historic range , more than 40 years after the last previous recorded sighting . A vagrant strayed into port near Ushibuka , Kumamoto , and died due to poor health . Historically , the Yaeyama Islands held a large concentration of dugongs , with more than 300 individuals . On Aragusuku Island , large quantities of skulls are preserved at an utaki that outsiders are strictly forbidden to enter . Dugong populations in these areas were reduced by historical hunts as payments to the Ryukyu Kingdom , before being wiped out because of large @-@ scale illegal hunting and fishing using destructive methods such as dynamite fishing after the Second World War .
Populations around Taiwan appear to be almost extinct , although remnant individuals may visit areas with rich seagrass beds such as Dongsha Atoll . Some of the last reported sightings were made in Kenting National Park in 1950s and 60s . There had been occasional records of vagrants at the Northern Mariana Islands prior to 1985 . It is unknown how much mixing there was between these populations historically . Some theorise that populations existed independently , for example that the Okinawan population were isolated members derived from the migration of a Philippine subspecies . Others postulate that the populations formed part of a super @-@ population where migration between Ryukyu , Taiwan , and the Philippines was common .
= = = Australia = = =
Australia is home to the largest population , stretching from Shark Bay in Western Australia to Moreton Bay in Queensland . The population of Shark Bay is thought to be stable with over 10 @,@ 000 dugongs . Smaller populations exist up the coast , including one in Ashmore reef . Large numbers of dugongs live to the north of the Northern Territory , with a population of over 20 @,@ 000 in the gulf of Carpentaria alone . A population of over 25 @,@ 000 exists in the Torres Strait such as off Thursday Island , although there is significant migration between the strait and the waters of New Guinea . The Great Barrier Reef provides important feeding areas for the species ; this reef area houses a stable population of around 10 @,@ 000 , although the population concentration has shifted over time . Large bays facing north on the Queensland coast provide significant habitats for dugong , with the southernmost of these being Hervey Bay and Moreton Bay .
= = = Extinct Mediterranean population = = =
It has been confirmed that dugongs once inhabited the water of the Mediterranean possibly until after the rise of civilizations along the inland sea . This population possibly shared ancestry with the Red Sea population , and the Mediterranean population had never been large due to geographical factors and climate changes . The Mediterranean is the region where the Dugongidae originated in the mid @-@ late Eocene , along with Caribbean Sea .
= = Ecology and life history = =
Dugongs are long lived , and the oldest recorded specimen reached age 73 . They have few natural predators , although animals such as crocodiles , killer whales , and sharks pose a threat to the young , and a dugong has also been recorded to have died from trauma after being impaled by a stingray barb . A large number of infections and parasitic diseases affect dugongs . Detected pathogens include helminths , cryptosporidium , different types of bacterial infections , and other unidentified parasites . 30 % of dugong deaths in Queensland since 1996 are thought to be because of disease .
Although they are social animals , they are usually solitary or found in pairs due to the inability of seagrass beds to support large populations . Gatherings of hundreds of dugongs sometimes happen , but they last only for a short time . Because they are shy , and do not approach humans , little is known about dugong behaviour . They can go six minutes without breathing ( though about two and a half minutes is more typical ) , and have been known to rest on their tail to breathe with their heads above water . They can dive to a maximum depth of 39 metres ( 128 ft ) ; they spend most of their lives no deeper than 10 metres ( 33 ft ) . Communication between individuals is through chirps , whistles , barks , and other sounds that echo underwater . Different sounds have been observed with different amplitudes and frequencies , implying different purposes . Visual communication is limited due to poor eyesight , and is mainly used for activities such as lekking for courtship purposes . Mothers and calves are in almost constant physical contact , and calves have been known to reach out and touch their mothers with their flippers for reassurance .
Dugongs are semi @-@ nomadic , often travelling long distances in search of food , but staying within a certain range their entire life . Large numbers often move together from one area to another . It is thought that these movements are caused by changes in seagrass availability . Their memory allows them to return to specific points after long travels . Dugong movements mostly occur within a localised area of seagrass beds , and animals in the same region show individualistic patterns of movement . Daily movement is affected by the tides . In areas where there is a large tidal range , dugongs travel with the tide in order to access shallower feeding areas . In Moreton Bay , dugongs often travel between foraging grounds inside the bay and warmer oceanic waters . At higher latitudes dugongs make seasonal travels to reach warmer water during the winter . Occasionally individual dugongs make long @-@ distance travels over many days , and can travel over deep ocean waters . One animal was seen as far south as Sydney . Although they are marine creatures , dugongs have been known to travel up creeks , and in one case a dugong was caught 15 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) up a creek near Cooktown .
= = = Feeding = = =
Dugongs , along with other sirenians , are referred to as " sea cows " because their diet consists mainly of sea @-@ grass . When eating they ingest the whole plant , including the roots , although when this is impossible they will feed on just the leaves . A wide variety of seagrass has been found in dugong stomach contents , and evidence exists they will eat algae when seagrass is scarce . Although almost completely herbivorous , they will occasionally eat invertebrates such as jellyfish , sea squirts , and shellfish . Dugongs in Moreton Bay , Australia , are omnivorous , feeding on invertebrates such as polychaetes or marine algae when the supply of their choice grasses decreases . In other southern areas of both western and eastern Australia , there is evidence that dugongs actively seek out large invertebrates . This does not apply to dugongs in tropical areas , in which faecal evidence indicates that invertebrates are not eaten .
Most dugongs do not feed from lush areas , but where the seagrass is more sparse . Additional factors such as protein concentration and regenerative ability also affect the value of a seagrass bed . The chemical structure and composition of the seagrass is important , and the grass species most often eaten are low in fibre , high in nitrogen , and easily digestible . In the Great Barrier Reef , dugongs feed on low @-@ fibre high @-@ nitrogen seagrass such as Halophila and Halodule , so as to maximize nutrient intake instead of bulk eating . Seagrasses of a lower seral are preferred , where the area has not fully vegetated . Only certain seagrass meadows are suitable for dugong consumption , due to the dugong 's highly specialised diet . There is evidence that dugongs actively alter seagrass species compositions at local levels . Dugongs may search out deeper seagrass . Feeding trails have been observed as deep as 33 metres ( 108 ft ) , and dugongs have been seen feeding as deep as 37 metres ( 121 ft ) . Dugongs are relatively slow moving , swimming at around 10 kilometres per hour ( 6 @.@ 2 mph ) . When moving along the seabed to feed they walk on their pectoral fins .
Due to their poor eyesight , dugongs often use smell to locate edible plants . They also have a strong tactile sense , and feel their surroundings with their long sensitive bristles . They will dig up an entire plant and then shake it to remove the sand before eating it . They have been known to collect a pile of plants in one area before eating them . The flexible and muscular upper lip is used to dig out the plants . This leaves furrows in the sand in their path .
= = = Reproduction and parental care = = =
A dugong reaches sexual maturity between the ages of eight and eighteen , older than in most other mammals . The way that females know how a male has reached sexual maturity is by the eruption of tusks in the male since tusks erupt in males when testosterone levels reach a high enough level . The age when a female first gives birth is disputed , with some studies placing the age between ten and seventeen years , while others place it as early as six years . There is evidence that male dugongs lose fertility at older ages . Despite the longevity of the dugong , which may live for 50 years or more , females give birth only a few times during their life , and invest considerable parental care in their young . The time between births is unclear , with estimates ranging from 2 @.@ 4 to 7 years .
Mating behaviour varies between populations located in different areas . In some populations , males will establish a territory which females in heat will visit . In these areas a male will try to impress the females while defending the area from other males , a practice known as lekking . In other areas many males will attempt to mate with the same female , sometimes inflicting injuries to the female or each other . During this the female will have copulated with multiple males , who will have fought to mount her from below . This greatly increases the chances of conception .
Females give birth after a 13 – 15 month gestation , usually to just one calf . Birth occurs in very shallow water , with occasions known where the mothers were almost on the shore . As soon as the young is born the mother pushes it to the surface to take a breath . Newborns are already 1 @.@ 2 metres ( 4 ft ) long and weigh around 30 kilograms ( 66 lb ) . Once born , they stay close to their mothers , possibly to make swimming easier . The calf nurses for 14 – 18 months , although it begins to eat seagrasses soon after birth . A calf will only leave its mother once it has matured .
= = Importance to humans = =
Dugongs have historically provided easy targets for hunters , who killed them for their meat , oil , skin , and bones . As the anthropologist A. Asbjørn Jøn has noted , they are often considered as the inspiration for mermaids , and people around the world developed cultures around dugong hunting . In some areas it remains an animal of great significance , and a growing ecotourism industry around dugongs has had economic benefit in some countries .
There is a 5 @,@ 000 @-@ year @-@ old wall painting of a dugong , apparently drawn by neolithic peoples , in Tambun Cave , Ipoh , Malaysia . This was discovered by Lieutenant R.L Rawlings in 1959 while on a routine patrol . During the Renaissance and the Baroque eras , dugongs were often exhibited in wunderkammers . They were also presented as Fiji mermaids in sideshows .
Dugong meat and oil have traditionally been some of the most valuable foods of Australian aborigines and Torres Strait Islanders . Some aborigines regard dugongs as part of their Aboriginality . Dugongs have also played a role in legends in Kenya , and the animal is known there as the " Queen of the Sea " . Body parts are used as food , medicine , and decorations . In the Gulf states , dugongs served not only as a source of food , but their tusks were used as sword handles . Dugong oil is important as a preservative and conditioner for wooden boats to people in around the Gulf of Kutch in India , who also believe its meat is an aphrodisiac . Dugong ribs were used to make carvings in Japan . In Southern China dugongs were traditionally regarded as a " miraculous fish " , and it was bad luck to catch them . A wave of immigration beginning at the end of the 1950s resulted in dugongs being hunted for food . In the Philippines dugongs are thought to bring bad luck , and parts of them are used to ward against evil spirits . In areas of Thailand it is believed that the dugong 's tears form a powerful love potion , while in parts of Indonesia they are considered reincarnations of women . In Papua New Guinea they are seen as a symbol of strength .
Dugongs ' or sea cows ' hides have been thought to have been used as coverings in the building of the Old Testament portable worship tent known as the Tabernacle .
= = Conservation = =
Dugong numbers have decreased in recent times . For a population to remain stable , 95 per cent of adults must survive the span of one year . The estimated percentage of females humans can kill without depleting the population is 1 – 2 % . This number is reduced in areas where calving is minimal due to food shortages . Even in the best conditions a population is unlikely to increase more than 5 % a year , leaving dugongs vulnerable to over @-@ exploitation . The fact that they live in shallow waters puts them under great pressure from human activity . Research on dugongs and the effects of human activity on them has been limited , mostly taking place in Australia . In many countries , dugong numbers have never been surveyed . As such , trends are uncertain , with more data needed for comprehensive management . The only data stretching back far enough to mention population trends comes from the urban coast of Queensland , Australia . The last major worldwide study , made in 2002 , concluded that the dugong was declining and possibly extinct in a third of its range , with unknown status in another half .
The IUCN Red List lists the dugong as vulnerable , and the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora regulates and in some areas has banned international trade . Regional cooperation is important due to the widespread distribution of the animal , and in 1998 there was strong support for Southeast Asian cooperation to protect dugongs . Kenya has passed legislation banning the hunting of dugongs and restricting trawling , but the dugong is not yet listed under Kenya 's Wildlife Act for endangered species . Mozambique has had legislation to protect dugongs since 1955 , but this has not been effectively enforced . Many marine parks have been established on the African coast of the Red Sea , and the Egyptian Gulf of Aqaba is fully protected . The United Arab Emirates has banned all hunting of dugongs within its waters , as has Bahrain . The UAE has additionally banned drift net fishing . India and Sri Lanka ban the hunting and selling of dugongs and their products . Japan has listed dugongs as endangered and has banned intentional kills and harassment . Hunting , catching , and harassment is banned by the People 's Republic of China . The first marine mammal to be protected in the Philippines was the dugong , although monitoring this is difficult . Palau has legislated to protect dugongs , although this is not well enforced and poaching persists . The dugong is a national animal of Papua New Guinea , which bans all except traditional hunting . Vanuatu and New Caledonia ban hunting of dugongs . Dugongs are protected throughout Australia , although the rules vary by state ; in some areas indigenous hunting is allowed . Dugongs are listed under the Nature Conservation Act in the Australian state of Queensland as vulnerable . Most currently live in established marine parks , where boats must travel at a restricted speed and mesh net fishing is restricted .
In Vietnam , an illegal network targeting dugongs had been detected and was shut down in 2012 .
= = = Human activity = = =
Despite being legally protected in many countries , the main causes of population decline remain anthropogenic and include hunting , habitat degradation , and fishing @-@ related fatalities . Entanglement in fishing nets has caused many deaths , although there are no precise statistics . Most issues with industrial fishing occur in deeper waters where dugong populations are low , with local fishing being the main risk in shallower waters . As dugongs cannot stay underwater for a very long period , they are highly prone to deaths due to entanglement . The use of shark nets has historically caused large numbers of deaths , and they have been eliminated in most areas and replaced with baited hooks . Hunting has historically been a problem too , although in most areas they are no longer hunted , with the exception of certain indigenous communities . In areas such as northern Australia , hunting remains the greatest impact on the dugong population .
Vessel strikes have proved a problem for manatees , but the relevance of this to dugongs is unknown . Increasing boat traffic has increased danger , especially in shallow waters . Ecotourism has increased in some countries , although effects remain undocumented . It has been seen to cause issues in areas such as Hainan due to environmental degradation . Modern farming practise and increased land clearing have also had an impact , and much of the coastline of dugong habitats is undergoing industrialisation , with increasing human populations . Dugongs accumulate heavy metal ions in their tissues throughout their lives , more so than other marine mammals . The effects are unknown . Socio @-@ political needs are an impediment to dugong conservation in many developing countries . The shallow waters are often used as a source of food and income , problems exacerbated by aid used to improve fishing . In many countries , legislation does not exist to protect dugongs , and if it does it is not enforced .
Oil spills are a danger to dugongs in some areas , as is land reclamation . In Okinawa the small dugong population is threatened by United States military activity . Plans exist to build a military base close to the Henoko reef , and military activity also adds the threats of noise pollution , chemical pollution , soil erosion , and exposure to depleted uranium . The military base plans have been fought in US courts by some Okinawans , whose concerns include the impact on the local environment and dugong habitats . It was later revealed that the government of Japan was hiding evidence of the negative effects of ship lanes and human activities on dugongs observed during surveys carried out off Henoko reef .
= = = Environmental degradation = = =
If dugongs do not get enough to eat they may calve later and produce fewer young . Food shortages can be caused by many factors , such as a loss of habitat , death and decline in quality of seagrass , and a disturbance of feeding caused by human activity . Sewage , detergents , heavy metal , hypersaline water , herbicides , and other waste products all negatively affect seagrass meadows . Human activity such as mining , trawling , dredging , land @-@ reclamation , and boat propeller scarring also cause an increase in sedimentation which smothers seagrass and prevents light from reaching it . This is the most significant negative factor affecting seagrass .
One of the dugong 's preferred species of seagrass , Halophila ovalis , declines rapidly due to lack of light , dying completely after 30 days . Extreme weather such as cyclones and floods can destroy hundreds of square kilometres of seagrass meadows , as well as washing dugongs ashore . The recovery of seagrass meadows and the spread of seagrass into new areas , or areas where it has been destroyed , can take over a decade . Most measures for protection involve restricting activities such as trawling in areas containing seagrass meadows , with little to no action on pollutants originating from land . In some areas water salinity is increased due to wastewater , and it is unknown how much salinity seagrass can withstand .
Dugong habitat in the Oura bay area of Henoko , Okinawa , Japan , is currently under threat from land reclamation conducted by Japanese Government in order to build a US Marine base in the area . In August 2014 , preliminary drilling surveys were conducted around the seagrass beds there . The construction is expected to seriously damage the dugong population 's habitat , possibly leading to local extinction .
= = = Capture and captivity = = =
The Australian state of Queensland has sixteen dugong protection parks , and some preservation zones have been established where even aborigines are not allowed to hunt . Capturing animals for research has caused only one or two deaths ; dugongs are expensive to keep in captivity due to the long time mothers and calves spend together , and the inability to grow the seagrass that dugongs eat in an aquarium . Only one orphaned calf has ever been successfully kept in captivity .
Worldwide , only four dugongs are held in captivity . A female from the Philippines lives at Toba Aquarium in Toba , Mie , Japan . A male also lived there until he died on 10 February 2011 . The second resides in Sea World Indonesia , after having been rescued from a fisherman 's net and treated . The last two , a male and a female , are kept at Sydney Aquarium , where they have resided since they were juveniles .
Gracie , a captive dugong at Underwater World , Singapore , was reported to have died in 2014 at the age of 19 , from complications arising from an acute digestive disorder .
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= Star Trek ( 2013 video game ) =
Star Trek is a third @-@ person action @-@ adventure Star Trek video game . It was developed by Digital Extremes and co @-@ published by Namco Bandai Games and Paramount Pictures in association with CBS Studios International . The game was first released in the United States on April 23 , 2013 , for PlayStation 3 , Xbox 360 , and Microsoft Windows platforms . It took three years to produce , and was the first in @-@ house video game development by Paramount Studios , who opted not to license development to a third party . The production team aimed for it to be a collaboration with those working on the Star Trek films to avoid the typical pitfalls associated with film tie @-@ in video games . Video games which influenced Star Trek included the Mass Effect series , Uncharted and Metroid Prime , and certain elements of Star Trek reflected episodes of Star Trek : The Original Series such as " Arena " and " Amok Time " .
The game is set in the Star Trek universe , between the events of the films Star Trek and Star Trek Into Darkness , and follows the adventures of Captain James T. Kirk and the crew of the Starfleet starship USS Enterprise . The player takes control of either Kirk or first officer Spock , and investigates the theft of a terraforming device from the colony of New Vulcan by the Gorn . Together , Kirk and Spock engage the Gorn on away missions , travel to another universe and re @-@ take Enterprise when it is captured by alien forces . This two @-@ character gameplay was seen as a unique element , referred to as " bro @-@ op " .
The Gorn , who previously appeared in The Original Series and Star Trek : Enterprise , were heavily redesigned , with fifteen different classes of creatures created . A replica of the Gorn costume from " Arena " appeared in a viral advertisement alongside William Shatner , which was intended as a homage to the fight between Kirk and the Gorn from that episode . The game was first launched at the Electronic Entertainment Expo 2012 , but was panned by critics upon launch in 2013 and sales were poor . Following an issue with the co @-@ operative mode on the PC upon launch , reviewers also criticised a number of issues such as poor lip syncing , clipping and bad camera angles .
= = Gameplay = =
Star Trek is a single @-@ player third person shooter action game with cooperative gameplay elements , which allow two players to control Kirk and Spock . When playing in the single @-@ player mode , Kirk and Spock have different paths through the missions in order to encourage re @-@ playability . The game does not allow players to switch between Kirk and Spock during a chapter , although this ability was included in preview versions of the game shown to reviewers prior to launch . It also does not allow for fellow players to " drop @-@ in " to play alongside co @-@ operatively . In a similar manner to the Gears of War series , the game includes a cover system , which protects the player characters from enemy fire .
The two characters show different gameplay techniques , with Kirk being the more typical shooter while Spock has stealth techniques and can use the Vulcan nerve pinch and mind meld . Each character is equipped with weapons to reflect their gameplay style , with Kirk armed with a phaser equipped with a stun setting , while Spock 's weapon is quieter to reflect his stealthier style of play and freezes enemies instead . As players progress through the game , they gain experience allowing them to unlock additional settings for those weapons . In addition to the weapons , the player characters are also equipped with tricorders , which are used to interact with the environment and progress plot points .
During the course of the game , players have to fight their way across a number of environments . The first mission sees Kirk and Spock land on the planet New Vulcan ; a colony created by Vulcans following the destruction of their homeworld in the 2009 film . There are further types of gameplay in Star Trek seen in the mini @-@ games that appear throughout , such as those featuring " space dives " as seen in both 2009 's Star Trek and 2013 's Star Trek Into Darkness . Other elements of the game break from the third @-@ person shooter style . These include swimming levels that have Spock and Kirk move past obstacles using a teleportation gun , and levels featuring turret @-@ based shooting on board Enterprise . Climbing and platforming are built into the terrain exploration elements of the main game .
= = Plot = =
= = = Background = = =
The game takes place within the Star Trek reboot universe , following 2009 's Star Trek film and before Star Trek Into Darkness . It follows the adventures of Captain James T. Kirk ( voiced by Chris Pine ) and his crew on board the Starfleet starship , the USS Enterprise . The first film showed Kirk becoming Captain of the Enterprise for the first time and the formation of the crew , and so the video game shows one of their early missions . The rebooted universe was developed by director J.J. Abrams along with writers Roberto Orci and Alex Kurtzman from the 1960s American television series Star Trek : The Original Series and the six films which followed the crew 's adventures .
= = = Story = = =
In 2259 , Enterprise receives a distress call from a space station harvesting the power of a binary star . There is too much interference to beam the crew aboard , so Kirk and Spock ( voiced by Zachary Quinto ) take a shuttle to rescue the crew . They encounter T 'Mar , a childhood friend of Spock , who explains they were gathering energy to power the Helios device , which would speed up the terraforming of New Vulcan ; the team inadvertently opened a rip in the fabric of space . Beaming to New Vulcan , Kirk and Spock meet with T 'Mar 's father Surok , who explains the station 's power from the base was lost after they were attacked by creatures — who call themselves the Gorn — from the rip . The Gorn infect some of the crew with a virus that makes them aggressive . Kirk and Spock enter the locked down sections of the base to recover the infected survivors , but are unable to stop the Gorn from stealing the Helios device and kidnapping Surok .
Kirk opts to take the infected to a nearby starbase instead of pursuing the Gorn Commander 's ship through the Rip . At the starbase , Kirk , Spock , and T 'Mar meet with the Commodore Daniels , who implies he gave T 'Mar the specifications for the device as he knew it would create a wormhole . Suddenly , the Gorn attack the starbase and kidnap T 'Mar . Just as he is about to be beamed back aboard Enterprise , Spock tackles the Gorn Henchman , bringing him aboard the ship . Kirk and Spock pursue him to the shuttlebay before he can commandeer a shuttle . Spock mindmelds with the Henchman , learning Surok was killed after confessing he has no insight into the device , but that his daughter would . Kirk has the Henchman imprisoned .
Kirk resolves to enter the Rip . After Enterprise enters the Gorn 's galaxy , Kirk and Spock take a shuttle with Sulu ( voiced by John Cho ) and Dr. McCoy ( Karl Urban ) to a nearby planet . When their shuttle is shot down , Kirk and Spock use wingsuits to glide to a Gorn outpost and blow it up before infiltrating a base to rescue T 'Mar . They find Daniels , who is killed in an ensuing firefight . The Gorn bring Kirk and Spock to the Commander , who has them taken to an arena to fight his soldiers to the death . Angered by their besting of his champion , the Commander has Spock infected with the virus and pits him against Kirk . Sulu 's shuttle arrives and McCoy shoots Spock with an antidote , while the Commander flees to his ship with T 'Mar and the device .
The shuttle returns to Enterprise , which has been taken over by the Gorn . Kirk and Spock space dive to engineering and beam McCoy and Sulu back on board . They help Scotty ( voiced by Simon Pegg ) and Keenser reactivate the warp core , and restore power to sickbay so McCoy can replicate more of the antidote for airborne dispersal . The duo head to the bridge where the Henchman is holding Uhura ( voiced by Zoe Saldana ) hostage , demanding Kirk give them control of the ship . Kirk responds by directing their shuttle to crash into the view @-@ screen , decompressing the Gorn into space . With only an hour before the Rip closes , Kirk and Spock space dive to the Gorn Commander 's ship , where they disable the targeting platform to give Enterprise a fighting chance , and enter the core where T 'Mar and the device are being held . Kirk and Spock destroy the device , defeat the Commander , and are beamed back to Enterprise with T 'Mar . Enterprise warps back to the Milky Way Galaxy before the Rip closes ; in their closing logs , Kirk and Spock state T 'Mar has recovered enough to continue working on New Vulcan , and that they have been ordered to Nibiru .
= = Development = =
Production of Star Trek began three years before release under Tom Lesinski at Paramount Digital Entertainment . Lesinkski had a background in video game production , having previously worked at companies such as Crystal Dynamics , Ion Storm and Kuju Entertainment . He made the decision to produce a game in @-@ house , rather than licensing it out to a third party as had previously been the case under the previous ten @-@ year Activision contract . As a result , the game was the first ever to be produced and released by Paramount Studios directly .
Lesinski was terminated by Paramount in September 2011 and the project was passed to Brian Miller , Vice President of Paramount Digital Entertainment . Miller later explained that he wanted the production to avoid the mistakes typically made in movie tie @-@ in games involved a lack of time devoted to the production , and excluding the people working on the film from work on the game . Miller hoped that they had rectified these issues with Star Trek , and explained that they hadn 't produced a similar game to tie @-@ in with 2009 's Star Trek film because it would have suffered from those problems . He also expressed disappointment at the quality of previous in @-@ universe games and wanted the new Star Trek to be " a triple @-@ A game " and something that the franchise deserved .
The idea for the game came out of a brainstorming session in which it was decided that the game should allow the gamer to play as Kirk and Spock , and therefore should featuring co @-@ op style game @-@ play . During his E3 pitch , Steve Sinclair described the game 's genre as " bro @-@ op " . It was created by Digital Extremes , who had previously created video games such as Unreal and BioShock . The Evolution graphics engine was used for Star Trek , having previously been used for Dark Sector and The Darkness II .
The plot of the game was written by Marianne Krawczyk , who had previously worked on games such as God of War and Shank . She developed the plot in conjunction with the producers of the film , Alex Kurtzman and Bob Orci , as well as writer Damon Lindelof . In an interview in 2011 , Orci explained that the storyline of the game was designed to be canon for the new Star Trek universe . He clarified in 2013 that it was " as close to canon as any Star Trek game will ever come " as the mission described by the game could have taken place between 2009 's Star Trek and Star Trek Into Darkness . Concept design work for the game was created by artist Fernando Acosta .
While developing the game , the production team sought to use elements of other games as influences on how to create a Star Trek based game that was along the same lines as the 2009 film . Digital Extremes creative director Sheldon Carter described this as " It 's like someone spliced Metroid Prime into my Uncharted " . Miller explained that it was due to the success of the Mass Effect series of games that allowed for space @-@ based adventure games such as Star Trek to be made , although they were not seeking to include the role @-@ playing game elements seen in that series . Miller explained that there was a " circular influence " with each franchise influenced by the other . Further influences were found in The Original Series , as one level which pits Spock against Kirk was inspired by a similar scene in the episode " Amok Time " , originally broadcast on television just under 457 years before the launch of the game . While it was intended to be a cross platform launch , the producers decided not to incorporate hands free gaming using either Kinect or the PlayStation Move .
= = = The Gorn = = =
It was decided early on in the development to include the Gorn as the main enemies in the new game . At the same time , J.J. Abrams had joked that he was planning to include the aliens in his second Star Trek film . They had previously been seen in The Original Series episode " Arena " and the Star Trek : Enterprise episode " In A Mirror , Darkly " , and the producers saw the game as an opportunity to redevelop the lizard race including the addition of fifteen different classes / species .
The official Star Trek website previewed several of these new types of Gorn , releasing information on a " Gorn Day " each week . The first to be featured were the Gorn Commander and the Sentinel class . These were described as the elite of the Gorn , with only one Commander appearing in the game , while the Sentinels were slightly shorter versions of the same type of Gorn , armed with different weapons . The Gorn Henchman is one of the main antagonists , and reports directly to the Commander . He first appears on the New Vulcan level , and is one of the Gorn along with the Scout class that can hide their appearance .
The Gorn champion in the arena sequence was based on the Gorn Captain seen in " Arena " . This particular character was intended to be different to all others , and thought to be " abnormal " compared to other members of his race . Other elements of the version of the Gorn seen in The Original Series , such as the eye design , were including in the class known as Rushers . However the Rusher class are different to other types of Gorn seen in the game , as they are quadrupeds and unarmed with the exception of their claws and teeth . Similar to Rushers , Brunts are also unarmed , but they are more heavily armoured and have the ability to destroy obstacles that supply cover for the player .
The more typical soldier types of the Gorn are the Initiates , Warriors and Guardians . The former are the basic troops of the Gorn forces , and while they can run on four legs , they fight on two with an automatic rifle called the Ravager . The Warriors are more advanced , and carry a variety of weaponry along with basic armor . The Guardian type differs in that it is a melee type , armed with a large energy axe . However , the energy from the axe can also produce a shield to protect the holder as well . They are more advanced than both the Initiate and the Warrior classes in that they spend the vast majority of their time on two feet only . Of these fifteen classes , three were created to appear female .
= = = Audio = = =
Paramount secured the likeness rights of Chris Pine and Zachary Quinto in the summer of 2011 for an upcoming game based on the universe of the film Star Trek ( 2009 ) . It was not until a year later in June 2012 that the voice work contracts were signed for the pair , and it was also announced that the likeness rights and voice acting of the rest of the main cast from the film had been secured . Some cast members such as Pegg improvised parts of their performances . Quinto praised the positive experience in the recording studio , and said that " it was nice to be able to play the character and not have to do all this physical stuff " .
The game was scored by Chad Seiter , who had previously worked with Michael Giacchino , the composer for the music in the 2009 film and Star Trek Into Darkness . The duo had worked together on the Star Trek film , with Seiter being one of Giacchino 's additional orchestrators . For the video game , Seiter used Digital Performer , a Digital Audio Workstation / Sequencer software package published by Mark of the Unicorn . The game also featured music from Giacchino 's score for the 2009 film .
= = = Launch issues = = =
Upon the game 's release , there was an issue with the co @-@ operative mode on the PC . Reviewers were sent a Steam download code to play the game while waiting for their console versions to arrive in the mail and upon attempting to launch the co @-@ op mode , players were given the error message " Could not join . The game session is no longer available . " However , this affected a number of gamers playing via Steam on the PC , resulting in a statement being issued by the official Twitter account for the game and an email being sent to customers , stating the company was looking into the problems . At the same time , players of Dead Island : Riptide were having similar issues on Steam .
Following enquiries by the media , Paramount and Namco released a joint statement explaining that it was an issue with the Steam system , and was something that the company was seeking to fix shortly . While others stated issues with co @-@ op gameplay on the PS3 , the companies stated that they were not aware of any issues and recommended that faults should be reported via Twitter . After the PC issue was rectified , a further statement was published to alert customers that they could now use this type of gameplay . A day after the co @-@ op issues with Star Trek were resolved , the Dead Island : Riptide problems were also corrected , with speculation by reviewers presuming that it was the same error in both games .
= = Marketing = =
= = = Promotion = = =
The game made its debut at the 2012 E3 convention in 2011 , where it was revealed that the Gorn would be the game 's antagonists . Reviewers viewed a twenty @-@ minute excerpt of footage from the game in 3D and with surround sound . The game was scheduled for release three weeks before Into Darkness premiered in theaters on May 17 , 2013 . Brian Miller was heavily involved in promoting the game , and regularly featured in interviews with websites and magazines . Following E3 there were concerns from fans that the game would be a straight forward shooter in the Star Trek universe , Miller said , " You will have elements of a shooter . You 'll have elements of exploration , and adventure , and discovery . That is what the new Star Trek is about . "
An in @-@ browser flash social strategy game entitled Star Trek : New Vulcan Reborn was made by Harkable to promote the game . It was set on New Vulcan with the player helping to develop the planet by " building landing pads , founding water treatment centres , establishing mining rigs and more . " An IGN competition took place where players with the most points could win prizes . The game is no longer available to play .
= = = Trailers = = =
The first trailer for the game made its début at the Namco Bandai Global Gamer Day in Las Vegas in April 2012 and showed gameplay footage in 3D . In order to promote the new video game in 2013 , a trailer was produced which featured William Shatner and a man in a Gorn suit playing it on a console . The idea had come from an idea by Brian Miller and Gene Augusto , who initially went back and forth on the idea in an attempt to create something that would go viral . They joked about using the line " not your father 's Star Trek " , and sought to recreate the fight between Shatner and the Gorn from the episode " Arena " .
The trailer featured Shatner using some classic Kirk fighting moves , including a judo chop and an ear clap , and in a homage to the original it had the Gorn throw couch cushions rather than the polystyrene rocks in the original episode . The Gorn outfit worn by a stuntman was a replica of the original , which had mostly been destroyed with the exception of the head , which was sold at auction in 2006 .
= = = Downloadable content = = =
On January 8 , 2013 , four months before the game 's release date , a DLC called Elite Officer Pack was announced for pre @-@ orders allowing players to change in game character skins as well as giving Kirk and Spock new weapons and sidearms . Skins offered include Kirk 's leather jacket and Spock 's Vulcan Science Academy outfit . Further skins include , " Kobuyashi Maru " , Starfleet Cadet ( Kirk ) , Starfleet Officer Dress Uniform ( Spock ) , stealth outfits , and those from the USS Kelvin . Players can also change Kirk and Spock 's sidearms ; Kirk 's sidearms are the Captain 's Phaser and the Starfleet Academy Phaser , while Spock uses the " Vulcan Repeater " and the USS Kelvin Phaser . Other Weapons include for the stealth suit : the Starfleet Type IV Stealth Sniper Rifle , which comes with extra ammo .
= = Reception = =
Star Trek was released in the United States on April 23 , 2013 , and three days later in Europe . This release was designed to coincide with the theatrical launch of the latest Star Trek film , Star Trek Into Darkness . The game sold poorly ; after three weeks on sale , 140 @,@ 000 copies had been sold across all platforms . It failed to reach the top 100 best video games list of 2013 . Critics described it as a flop . It is now considered to be one of the worst video games of all time .
Star Trek received mostly negative reviews . The review aggregator website Metacritic gave the Xbox 360 edition of the game a score of 42 percent , the PC edition 43 percent , and the PS3 version was given a score of 45 percent . Fellow aggregator website Game Rankings gave Star Trek on PS3 an average score of 48 @.@ 57 percent , while the Xbox 360 edition had an average of 43 @.@ 69 percent and the PC version had 37 @.@ 27 percent .
Dan Stapleton for IGN described it as " a barely serviceable , paint @-@ by @-@ numbers third @-@ person shooter " . He wrote that both playable characters were too similar , the combat was " completely generic " and that errors in the animation looked clumsy with " objects clipping through each other ; crazy , badly lip @-@ synced dialog ( not that syncing it with this corny writing would fix it ) ; and general screwups make Star Trek play like a blooper reel . " Stapleton was surprised that the game continued to be playable , as he noted that several scripted events during the game failed to start as scheduled . He also felt that the mini @-@ games throughout the game were " so mind @-@ numbingly simple and repetitive and / or frustrating they made me eager to get back to just being bored . " He said that the game seemed unfinished , and gave it an overall score of 4 @.@ 2 out of ten . Edge magazine said that the game " more bugs crawling on it than a Fear Factor contestant " , and mentioned issues such as the characters running through walls , enemies becoming immortal and camera angles showing the inside of Kirk or Spock 's skull . Star Trek was otherwise described as bland , even running through to the achievements with boring titles and the co @-@ op system " succumbs to awkward banter and gimmicky co @-@ op puzzles " .
Mark Walton , while writing for GameSpot , thought that the general idea for the game was good , but that the gameplay was " tiresome " and failed to excite . He said that the animation was " woefully bad " , and there were several bugs such as the cover taking mechanism failing to work on several occasions . An attempt to bring variety to the game through minigames was seen as " a poor mishmash of those from other games " , and compared those sections to other games such as Portal and the Uncharted series . Walton explained that the game made " small wins " by including the voice acting from the same cast as the movie , but said that there were " too many glaring problems " with the game to find something to like . He gave it a score of 3 @.@ 5 out of ten for the version on PC .
Star Trek Into Darkness director J.J. Abrams stated in September 2013 that he was hurt by the game 's poor reception and quality , saying that it was " obviously a big disappointment " . He also claimed it hurt Star Trek Into Darkness by being released shortly before the film . Later , in November 2013 , Digital Extremes creative director Stephen Sinclair said to IGN that he was " kind of surprised [ ... ] to see one of the most awesome , popular and successful film directors working today slagging on that project " . Video game insiders linked the poor reception of the game to the departure of Brian Miller in his role as the Senior Vice President of Paramount , as he had been heavily involved in the marketing for the game . Insiders had specifically attributed issues with the game to the " ego " of both Miller and his predecessor Lesinski , " insisted this hallowed and cherished franchise was a key brand extension in the gaming vertical only to be compromised by disastrous results and reviews " .
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= Can 't Be Tamed =
Can 't Be Tamed is the third studio album by American singer Miley Cyrus . It was released on June 18 , 2010 , by Hollywood Records ; it would become her final album with the label after signing with RCA Records in 2013 . Cyrus wrote the project in 2009 , while travelling internationally for her Wonder World Tour , and recorded it in 2010 . Described by Cyrus as a " good [ record ] to blast in your car " , Can 't Be Tamed represents a musical departure from her earlier work , which she had grown to feel uninspired by . As executive producers , Tish Cyrus and Jason Morey enlisted partners including Devrim Karaoglu , Marek Pompetzki , Rock Mafia , and John Shanks to achieve Cyrus ' desired new sound . Their efforts resulted in a primarily dance @-@ pop record , which Cyrus ' record label acknowledged differed from the original plans for the project . Its lyrical themes revolve largely around breaking free of constraints and expectations , which are largely mentioned in the context of romantic relationships .
Upon its release , Can 't Be Tamed received generally mixed reviews from music critics , who were ambivalent towards perceived lack of musical focus and a failure to fully establish Cyrus ' maturing public image ; additional criticism was placed on her vocals sounding over @-@ processed and lacking emotional depth . It debuted at number three on the U.S. Billboard 200 with first @-@ week sales of 100 @,@ 000 copies . It is Cyrus ' lowest @-@ peaking and lowest @-@ selling record in the United States . The album has sold 350 @,@ 000 copies in the country . Can 't Be Tamed charted moderately on record charts in internationally , reaching the top @-@ ten in countries including Australia , Canada , and the United Kingdom .
Two singles were released from Can 't Be Tamed . Its title track " Can 't Be Tamed " was released on May 14 , 2010 , and peaked at number eight on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 , and performed moderately worldwide . Follow @-@ up single " Who Owns My Heart " was released October 22 , 2010 and was only released in selected European countries , failing to chart on the Billboard Hot 100 and charting poorly on European singles chart . Promotional efforts for Can 't Be Tamed began to associate Cyrus with an increasingly provocative image , an effort continued with her fourth studio album Bangerz ( 2013 ) . The record was primarily promoted through a series of television appearances and Cyrus ' headlining Gypsy Heart Tour in 2011 . Can 't Be Tamed is Cyrus first album to not be certified platinum in the US .
= = Background and production = =
In December 2009 , Cyrus announced that she had begun planning her third studio album and intended to begin a musical hiatus after its completion . She expressed concerns that her newer material " doesn 't truly inspire me " and worried that should would be " blending in with everyone else " , although she later commented that the final product was inspired by techno music qualities commonly used by recording artist Lady Gaga . Abby Konowitch from Cyrus ' label Hollywood Records admitted that the record drew more inspiration from dance @-@ pop music than she originally intended , but maintained that it " feels very comfortable for her , and it feels very comfortable in terms of the state of contemporary music . "
The majority of Can 't Be Tamed was recorded abroad during Cyrus ' her headlining Wonder World Tour in 2009 and 2010 . She collaborated with John Shanks during its production ; he frequently traveled to London for Cyrus ' recording sessions , and returned to Los Angeles to finalize their material . Cyrus also collaborated with the production team Rock Mafia , consisting of Antonina Armato and Tim James ; they notably produced her earlier singles " See You Again " and " 7 Things " from her first and second studio albums Meet Miley Cyrus ( 2007 ) and Breakout ( 2008 ) , respectively . Cyrus stated that Can 't Be Tamed contained a variety of dance beats and synths , but believed that its sound was secondary to the personal lyrics therein .
= = Release and artwork = =
In February 2010 , Cyrus announced that her then @-@ untitled third studio album would be released later that summer , which she felt was appropriate because it is " good to blast in your car . " Later that April , it was announced that the record would be titled Can 't Be Tamed , and would be released on June 22 , 2010 in the United States . Consequently , it became the first project from Hollywood Records to be released under the " day @-@ and @-@ date " format , which allowed the project to be released nearly simultaneously worldwide instead of traditionally " staggering " its launch to accommodate " the availability of the artist " internationally . On May 7 , Cyrus unveiled the album artwork through her website ; it depicts Cyrus dressed in a leather jacket , pants , and midriff @-@ baring shirt while standing against a black @-@ and @-@ white background . It was noted for establishing an increasingly provocative public image for Cyrus ; her stylist Simone Harouche stated that it was inspired by singer Joan Jett and the band Blondie , and was " basically a strong statement saying in the most simple way , that she can ’ t be tamed – literally and metaphorically . " A deluxe version of the record was simultaneously released , which included the audio disc packaged with the standard version in addition to a bonus DVD that includes previously unseen footage from Cyrus ' performance at The O2 Arena during the Wonder World Tour .
= = Composition = =
Can 't Be Tamed is primarily a dance @-@ pop record ; it contains " several bass @-@ heavy , slickly produced dance numbers " that Ann Donahue from Billboard joked " thunder in such a catchy , accessible way that it may make Kesha down another bottle of Jack out of envy . " Its opening track " Liberty Walk " describes an individual who leaves a harmful relationship , which Cyrus felt leaned towards more meaningful lyrical content instead of the " super shallow " current mainstream music . " Who Owns My Heart " details the excitement in possibly finding a lover at a nightclub , while Cyrus herself commented that the title track " Can 't Be Tamed " bears a theme of " breaking out and feeling free . " It is followed by a cover version of " Every Rose Has Its Thorn " , originally performed by the band Poison for their second studio album Open Up and Say ... Ahh ! ( 1988 ) ; she stated that the modern @-@ day music industry " shelters kids [ from ] songs as honest and real as this one " , and added that a consultation with the band 's lead singer Bret Michaels helped her to incorporate her " own flare and edge " .
" Two More Lonely People " was described by Evan Sawdey of PopMatters as " one moment of carefree dance @-@ pop joy " that was reminiscent of material from her earlier Hannah Montana soundtracks ; he also stated that the lyrics delivered in " Forgiveness and Love " were among the " more over @-@ the @-@ top cutesy moments " throughout the record , specifically commenting that the lines " The only thing that / Our hearts are made of / Are the acts of forgiveness and love " were " so unbelievably saccharine that Hallmark would ultimately have to turn them down " . Robert Ham from Christianity Today felt that " Permanent December " discussed the story of " the devoted girlfriend pushing aside the ' sexy boys ' vying for her affections " , while " Stay " addressed the difficulties in maintaining a long @-@ distance relationship .
Writing for AllMusic , Heather Phares noted that " Scars " exemplified Cyrus ' equating of " grown @-@ up with joyless " , adding that the track fails to find the " emotional depth " Cyrus was likely intending . She also described " Take Me Along " as one of the more " overwrought ballads " where Cyrus ' delivery seemed more comfortable than others on the record . Leah Greenblatt from Entertainment Weekly felt that " Robot " highlighted the theme of defiance and rebellion seen throughout Can 't Be Tamed , specifically noting the lyrics " Stand here , sell this , and hit your mark / I would scream but I 'm just this hollow shell " . The record closes with the twelfth track " My Heart Beats for Love " , which according to Ham , describes " the more universal ideal of love for all " ; Greenblatt also recognized the integration of organ instrumentation .
= = Singles = =
" Can 't Be Tamed " was released as the lead single from Can 't Be Tamed on May 14 , 2010 . It received generally favorable reviews from music critics , who appreciated its electropop influences . The track debuted at number eight on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 with first @-@ week digital downloads of 191 @,@ 000 copies , although it performed moderately internationally . An accompanying music video for the song was directed by Robert Hales , and was premiered through E ! News on May 4 , 2010 . It follows Cyrus and her back @-@ up dancers dressed in bird @-@ like clothing as they escape a cage and trash a museum .
" Who Owns My Heart " was released as the second single from Can 't Be Tamed later that year . It generated mixed reviews from music critics , who felt that its production was generic . It did not impact the Billboard Hot 100 , and reached the lower ends of European record charts . The accompanying music video for the track was also directed by Hales , and was released on October 22 , 2010 .
= = Promotion = =
Hollywood Records focused on television appearances when further promoting Can 't Be Tamed , which they expected would accommodate Cyrus ' schedule more effectively than traditional interviews with the press and radio stations . She first performed " Can 't Be Tamed " on May 18 , 2010 during the tenth season of Dancing with the Stars in the United States . Cyrus later traveled to Europe to perform at the Rock in Rio concerts in Lisbon on May 29 and Madrid on June 6 ; she sang " Can 't Be Tamed " , " Robot " and " My Heart Beats for Love " there . Meanwhile , she played concerts in 1515 Club in Paris ( June 1 ) and G @-@ A @-@ Y nightclub in London ( June 5 ) . On June 3 she sang " Can 't Be Tamed " on Britain 's Got Talent . After returning to the United States , Cyrus held a concert at the House of Blues in Los Angeles on June 16 . Her performance was later re @-@ broadcast by MTV through thirty of its international websites , reaching approximately 160 countries ; it was made available for on @-@ demand streaming the following day . She also sang " Can 't Be Tamed " on TV shows such as Late Show with David Letterman ( June 17 ) , Good Morning America ( June 18 ) , both in New York City , and 2013 MuchMusic Video Awards in Toronto ( June 20 ) , She did Rock in Rio In Madrid and Lisbon to promote that album , where she performed Can 't Be Tamed , Robot and My Heart Beats for Love . On Good Morning America she also sang " Every Rose Has Its Thorn " with Bret Michaels . In November , Cyrus flew to Europe to sing " Who Owns My Heart " on Wetten , dass .. ? ( November 6 ) and 2010 MTV Europe Music Awards ( November 7 ) . On November 21 , she performed " Forgiveness and Love " on American Music Awards of 2010 in Los Angeles .
Cyrus launched her headlining Gypsy Heart Tour in April 2011 , for which she traveled internationally .
= = Critical reception = =
At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , Can 't Be Tamed received an average score of 48 , which indicates " mixed or average reviews " , based on nine reviews . Heather Phares from AllMusic shared a similar sentiment in regards to its production , suggesting that the excessive use of Auto @-@ Tune limited Cyrus ' ability to express genuine emotion , adding that several tracks were similar to " Tik Tok " by Kesha " minus that song 's mindless fun " . A writer for Billboard also noted Cyrus ' a lack of emotion in Cyrus ' vocals , but considered the " delightfully robo @-@ country " cover version of " Every Rose Has Its Thorn " as the standout track from the record .
Writing for The Boston Globe , James Reed questioned the need to " tame " Cyrus , given that " this stuff is already pretty innocuous " . However , he acknowledged that Can 't Be Tamed contained " the catchiest Top 40 hits money can buy . " Referencing the lyrics in " Every Rose Has Its Thorn " , Leah Greenblatt from Entertainment Weekly felt that Cyrus was " just not ( yet ) that thorny a girl " despite visible efforts of rebellion . Alexis Petridis of The Guardian thought that Cyrus lost sight of her target audience with the project , noting that " if you 're old enough to stay up after 9 : 00 PM without asking permission , it 's not intended for you " while also commenting that children that may be interested in the record had likely " transferred their affections " to the then @-@ teenage Justin Bieber . Writing for Rolling Stone , Rob Sheffield opined that the production used throughout Can 't Be Tamed felt too generic for its goal of rebellion .
Theon Weber of The Village Voice felt that Cyrus ' attempts of maturity were too similar to those of Christina Aguilera and Britney Spears in their earlier years , and commented that the album itself was " sadly wan " . Evan Sawdey from PopMatters shared the same concern , additionally noting the irony that Cyrus ' first project after Hannah Montana was released through the Disney @-@ owned Hollywood Records . Elysa Gardner from USA Today opined that Cyrus had successfully " made the full leap from tween queen to pop tart " with the music video for " Can 't Be Tamed " , but failed to maintain this image with " generic , anonymous tunes " on the parent album .
= = Commercial performance = =
In the United States , Can 't Be Tamed debuted at number three on the Billboard 200 with first @-@ week sales of 102 @,@ 000 copies , behind the 741 @,@ 000 and 157 @,@ 000 units moved by Recovery by Eminem and Thank Me Later by Drake , respectively . The record was viewed as a commercial disappointment in the country , given that Cyrus ' second studio album Breakout ( 2008 ) debuted at number one on the chart with first @-@ week sales of 371 @,@ 000 copies . As of January 2014 , the album has moved 350 @,@ 000 units in the United States . Can 't Be Tamed reached number two on the Canadian Albums Chart , and peaked at number ten on the Top 100 Mexico .
Can 't Be Tamed performed moderately on national record charts in Europe . It peaked at number one on the Spanish PROMUSICAE , and reached the top @-@ five on the Ö3 Austria Top 40 , German Media Control Charts , Greek IFPI , Hungarian MAHASZ , Irish IRMA , Italian FIMI , and Swiss Hitparade . Furthermore , the record peaked in the top @-@ ten on the Flanders and Wallonia regions of the Belgian Ultratop , Norwegian VG @-@ lista , and the UK Albums Chart . In the latter country , the album was certified silver by the British Phonographic Industry . Can 't Be Tamed charted in the lower ends of the Danish Tracklisten , Dutch MegaCharts , The Official Finnish Charts , French SNEP , and the Swedish Sverigetopplistan . It did , however , attain a gold certification in Poland . In Oceania , Can 't Be Tamed peaked at numbers two and four on the Official New Zealand Music Chart and the Australian ARIA Charts , respectively . In the latter nation , it was recognized with a gold certification .
= = Track listing = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Can 't Be Tamed .
Notes
^ a signifies a co @-@ producer
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from AllMusic .
= = Charts = =
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= Axe to Fall =
Axe to Fall is the seventh studio album released by American metalcore band Converge . It was released on October 20 , 2009 , through Epitaph Records and was released later on in the year through Deathwish Inc. as a vinyl record . It is their second most commercially successful to date , peaking at number 74 in the Billboard 200 . The album was produced by guitarist Kurt Ballou , who previously produced Converge 's Jane Doe ( 2001 ) , You Fail Me ( 2004 ) and No Heroes ( 2006 ) , and features artwork created by lead singer Jacob Bannon . Axe to Fall is a collaborative album , which features a large number of guest musicians , including members from Cave In , Neurosis and The Red Chord among others .
Axe to Fall was met with widespread critical acclaim . It has been referred to as the band 's most accessible album to date , and was compared with Converge 's widely lauded Jane Doe .
= = Writing and recording = =
Converge began writing Axe to Fall in November 2008 . With Jacob Bannon , Kurt Ballou and Nate Newton all living within a half a mile of each other in Boston , and Ben Koller living a couple hours away in Brooklyn , Converge could easily practice for weeks at a time . Though most songs originated from a guitar or bass riff from Ballou or Newton , all members had equal input on the writing process , with each member proposing different songs . Vocalist Bannon wrote a few songs for Axe to Fall , but were scrapped because they were slower than the rest of the songs , and did not fit the energy of the album .
Following a short tour in March 2009 with Ceremony , Coliseum , Pulling Teeth , Rise and Fall , Converge entered the studio to begin recording in May 2009 . During this short tour , the band debuted a few new songs live , and footage could be seen online . The album was self @-@ produced by Converge 's guitar player , Kurt Ballou , in his own GodCity Studios located in Massachusetts . Ballou has produced and co @-@ produced several Converge albums , including 2001 's Jane Doe , 2004 's You Fail Me and 2006 's No Heroes . He has also produced a number of independent metal and hardcore bands , including Genghis Tron 's Board Up the House , Torche 's Meanderthal and Disfear 's Live the Storm . Ballou has a degree in aerospace engineering , and prior to devoting his time and effort with Converge , he worked at a biomedical firm for six years . The money he received from his severance package was used to fund and create his home studio . His experiences and knowledge in engineering carry over to his recording work . In regards to Ballou 's technical precision as a producer Bannon has stated , " nothing gets by him — it is inspiring to watch him work . " Throughout the recording process , the band updated their fans via Twitter of their progress in the studio .
= = = Guest collaboration = = =
While creating Axe to Fall , Converge tried to challenge themselves creatively as artists . Ballou stated that with each new Converge album , he " always [ wants ] to create a new listening experience " and continued with the concept of " pushing [ themselves ] forward and not repeating [ themselves ] . " Lead singer Jacob Bannon stated , " We appreciate our past albums , but we 're very much about forward movement and challenging ourselves musically and expressing ourselves emotionally . " Bannon has stated that he felt that the main artistic difference between Axe to Fall and previous albums was the large number of guest musicians included on the record . Axe to Fall features various members from Cave In , Neurosis , and Genghis Tron among others . Most of the guest musicians already had an existing relationship with one or more band members of Converge prior to recording , or the band had " admired in some way . " Converge had previously thought of the idea of creating a collaborative album with many guest artists for a number of years , but the band felt that the " time to execute it [ had ] never been there . " Bannon has stated that working with a number of different artists was difficult and something the band was not used to , however the finished product was " an extremely focused album . "
Though writing did not officially begin until November 2008 , work on some songs from Axe to Fall began four to five years earlier . In 2004 , Converge collaborated with Cave In and recorded some songs together . The material from these recording sessions , dubbed the " Verge In " sessions , was never released and the project later dissolved . The instrumental parts that Cave In contributed to " Effigy " were from the original recordings in 2004 . Converge took the parts they contributed to the project to create the foundation for what would become " Cruel Bloom " and " Wretched World . " While producing Board Up the House , Ballou gave Genghis Tron a rough mix of " Wretched World " to contribute their talents . According to Ballou , Genghis Tron " embellished it and created a whole new melodic structure on top of the song that we would 've never come up with . " Brad Fickeisen from The Red Chord also later added his own drum track to " Wretched World " . Much of the song " Plagues " from No Heroes also originated from the Verge In sessions . With the release of Axe to Fall , everything Converge contributed to the sessions has been released in some form .
= = Release and promotion = =
In August 2009 , two months prior to the release of Axe to Fall , Converge made the opening track " Dark Horse " available for streaming and as a free download . It can also be found on the soundtrack for the horror movie Saw VI . The song was noted for being one of the few tracks lacking guest musicians , and was also met with a very positive reaction from reviewers . The title track , " Axe to Fall , " was also made available for free download in September 2009 . The entire album was available for streaming one week before the official release date on Converge 's MySpace page . Axe to Fall was released in the US through Epitaph Records on October 20 , 2009 , in digital and CD formats . The vinyl edition of the album was released through Jacob Bannon 's own independent record label , Deathwish Inc . , shortly after the release of the CD version .
= = = Internet leak = = =
On October 4 , 2009 , a digitally watermarked advance copy of Axe to Fall had leaked onto the internet . The watermark was linked to the advance copy given to Shaun Hand , a staff member of the music news and reviews website MetalSucks.net. Converge posted a number of Twitter messages regarding the leak , one of which read , " Special thanks to Shaun Hand at Metal Sucks for leaking our album , " and another one was posted shortly thereafter directed at MetalSucks ' Twitter account stating , " have fun with that . " The source of an album leak is rarely discovered or publicly announced . Converge 's method of dealing with their album leaking , referred to as " street justice " by Every Time I Die and Jamey Jasta , avoided a costly lawsuit yet still inflicted damages upon MetalSucks by means of viral negative publicity . The staff at MetalSucks issued a formal apology , stating that the leak was completely unintentional and the first incident since the website 's inception . They went on to say :
= = = Artwork = = =
The artwork for the cover and liner note booklet of Axe to Fall was designed and created by Jacob Bannon ( who graduated from The Art Institute of Boston ) . The booklet features a different piece of artwork for each song on the album . Bannon tried to create images that " encapsulated some of the emotion of each song " in contrast to more literal imagery , such as avoiding an axe literally falling for the song " Axe to Fall . " He also experimented with a technique where a single image would be repeated within a frame , but the copies would be distressed or slightly different . This could be seen in the cover art where a single image of a woman 's profile was broken down within the repetition , and some of the copies showed the woman 's teeth through her cheek . Bannon stated that for the cover art , he " just wanted to have something that felt timeless and sort of embodied the whole emotional gamut of the record , something that was explosive and powerful but also something that felt poetic and soft at the same time . It could look violent and beautiful at the same time . "
= = = " Axe to Fall " music video = = =
A music video was directed by Craig Murray for the album 's title track and was released in October 2009 . The short video ( 1 : 40 in duration ) shows a man and a woman strapped to a machine , a television that gives birth to a bio @-@ mechanical creature and several disturbing clips in between . The video features stop motion animation influenced by horror films and has been referred to as " terrifying , " " seizure @-@ inducing , " " nightmarish , " " excruciating " and " gross " by various sources . It was filmed in Ronda , Spain with the intent of making " a film in which we see a cycle . This cycle will study an idea of new creation without pleasure and the art of numbing for progression . " Murray was inspired and influenced by artists Chris Cunningham , Gaspar Noé , Nine Inch Nails and the films Ringu , A Clockwork Orange and Hardware while making the music video . On November 7 , the " Axe to Fall " video debuted on MTV2 's heavy metal music program , Headbangers Ball .
= = = Touring = = =
Converge 's first tour in support of Axe to Fall was the Metalocalypse tour in late 2009 sponsored by Cartoon Network 's Adult Swim . Alongside High on Fire , Converge held an opening slot for co @-@ headliners Mastodon and Dethklok . Axe to Fall was released mid @-@ way through the tour . Converge 's first headlining tour in support of the album took place starting in April 2010 , with Coalesce , Harvey Milk , Gaza , Lewd Acts and Black Breath . The first week of the tour also featured Thursday and Touche Amore . Converge began the European leg of their world tour in July 2010 with Kylesa , Gaza and Kvelertak . For this tour , the band released a limited @-@ edition 7 @-@ inch vinyl single called " On My Shield " which was recorded between the US and European legs .
= = Musical style and theme = =
Converge took their music in a more progressive direction with Axe to Fall . Ballou noted that drummer Ben Koller had been listening to more progressive rock over the last few years , and that he tried to complement this sound on the guitar . He went on to say that he was getting the " more straightforward , raw punk aggression out in a yet @-@ to be named hardcore side project that I started . So that leaves me free to get weird and progressive with Converge . " Ballou considers the band 's previous three albums ( Jane Doe , You Fail Me and No Heroes ) to be a trilogy in regards to their sound , and hoped to push their musical boundaries on Axe to Fall . The tracks on the album have been noted to range from " drone @-@ and @-@ pummel " to atmospheric . Bannon believes this album is " not about being as loud and vicious as possible . " Feeling that 40 – 50 minutes of metallic hardcore can be difficult to listen to for some , Converge used softer tracks , or " slow jams , " such as " Damages " and " Wretched World " to take the listener " to some other places . "
Unlike previous Converge releases , the songs on Axe to Fall do not have a central and consistent lyrical theme throughout the record . Each song was meant to be a " standalone song " about Bannon 's life between this album and No Heroes . Bannon has said that he uses his lyrics and Converge to " vent about things in a healthy way so I 'm not a person that walks around with a lot of negative energy . " The opening track , " Dark Horse , " was written about the passing of a close friend of Jacob Bannon , and how he died while trying to succeed as the " underdog " .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
Axe to Fall was met with widespread critical acclaim . Metacritic , an aggregate review website , scored the album with 77 out of 100 or " generally favorable " based on ten reviews . Citing a wider range of music styles on Axe to Fall , many reviewers found the album to be Converge 's most accessible album to date . The album features songs like the " doomy [ and ] noisy " track " Worms Will Feed / Rats Will Feast , " the " synth @-@ drenched shoegazing " track " Wretched World " and " Kerry King @-@ admiring solos " on " Reap What You Sow " in addition to hardcore tracks like " Effigy " and " Cutter . " Andrew Parks of Decibel commented on the album 's wide range of sounds , stating " it strikes the perfect balance between dry @-@ heaved hardcore — blunt trauma tracks that bleed into one another and hover around the 1 : 40 mark — and post @-@ metal opuses that embrace Converge 's experimental impulses . " Juan Diniz of Mammoth Press noted that the album flowed really well , stating that " every track compliments and balances out the one prior and after . To skip tracks would be foolish as it 's a compendium of aggression , frustration , beauty , and brutality , " and that the album " demands to be taken in as a whole . " Cosmo Lee of Pitchfork Media referred to Converge as " this generation 's Black Flag " , and compared Axe to Fall to Black Flag 's 1984 second studio album My War . Lee noted that Converge combined abrasiveness with " slower , abstract sludge " , much like how Black Flag mixed " equal parts lightning and Black Sabbath " on My War . Several reviewers compared the Axe to Fall to Converge 's highly praised 2001 album , Jane Doe .
Axe to Fall received little negative criticism . Jared W. Dillon of Sputnikmusic ( who had previously given No Heroes a 4 @.@ 5 out of 5 ) gave the album a score of 2 @.@ 5 out of 5 , citing his distaste for the large number of guest musicians . Dillon stated that Converge " seems out of ideas as they enlisted a group of musicians associated with the band to fill in at various points of the record " and rhetorically asked , " why replace the band on a decent portion of their new record with far less talented , less interesting musicians ? " He also criticized the album 's longer and slower track , " Wretched World . " When compared to Converge 's similar previously released @-@ tracks , ( No Heroes 's " Grim Heart / Black Rose " and Jane Doe 's " Jane Doe " ) Dillon claimed that the song " never builds to anything " and " cuts off seemingly just as it should 've started . " Noel Gardner of Drowned in Sound also found Axe to Fall 's two closing tracks underwhelming and felt that it " would have been a better album for finishing at track 11 . " Jason Pettigrew of Alternative Press criticized both the lyrics and overall sound of Axe to Fall as sounding too familiar , " when it could 've been more alien " and that " in many aspects , Converge took the road most traveled for the majority of Axe to Fall . "
= = = Charts and sales = = =
Axe to Fall debuted at number 74 on the Billboard 200 with 7 @,@ 400 copies sold , becoming Converge 's highest charting album in the US at that time . That chart high was surpassed by 2012 's All We Love We Leave Behind . It also became the first Converge album to not appear on the Billboard Top Heatseekers albums , which ranks the top 50 albums released by bands that have never charted higher that 100 on the Billboard 200 . By November 4 , 2009 , the album had sold 10 @,@ 487 units . Axe to Fall also appeared in Canada 's Chart Magazine , a weekly chart that compiles airplay data from various Canadian campus radio stations , and peaked at number 42 on their " Top 50 " album chart and number 1 on their " Metal / Punk " chart .
= = = Accolades = = =
Axe to Fall 's critical acclaim has led the album to be listed on several critic 's " Best of 2009 " lists , both in the US and internationally . A " — " denotes the publication 's list is in no particular order , and Axe to Fall did not rank numerically .
= = Track listing = =
All lyrics written by Jacob Bannon , all music composed by Converge , except where noted .
= = Personnel = =
Axe to Fall personnel as listed in CD liner notes .
= = Chart performance = =
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= Mogador @-@ class destroyer =
The Mogador @-@ class large destroyers ( contre @-@ torpilleurs ) of the French Navy were laid down in 1935 and commissioned in 1939 . They were extremely fast , very large destroyers intended to act as scouts for the two fast Dunkerque @-@ class battleships . The design evolved from the extremely fast Le Fantasque class , being 300 tons heavier and carrying eight guns in semi @-@ enclosed twin turrets rather than five guns in single open mounts . With their eight 138 mm ( 5 @.@ 4 in ) guns they approached a light cruiser in firepower .
Both Mogador and her sister Volta were present during the British attack on Mers @-@ el @-@ Kébir on 3 July 1940 , but only Volta managed to escape to Toulon . Mogador was struck by a 15 @-@ inch ( 38 cm ) shell in the rear hull that detonated her ready depth charges despite not actually detonating itself . This destroyed most of her stern above water , but she remained afloat and was repaired enough to be sent to Toulon on 1 November 1940 for reconstruction . Both ships were scuttled in Toulon Harbour when the Germans tried to seize them on 27 November 1942 .
= = Design = =
The Mogador class was authorized in the 1932 Estimates as an improved version of the Fantasque class with three new twin mounts carrying the same Canon de 138 mm Modèle 1929 gun as the earlier ships , but construction was suspended for a period while France and Italy negotiated some limits on their fleets and because the shipyards were already at full capacity . During this pause time was taken to modify the design to deal with the severe weather and conditions of the North Atlantic and to incorporate developments in propulsion technology that indicated that a larger hull could be used without any requiring any increase in weight . After a proposal for a catapult was abandoned because of insufficient reserve stability , an extra twin turret was decided upon to boost the ship 's firepower . Volta was authorized in the 1934 Estimates together with the second Dunkerque @-@ class battleship .
= = = General characteristics = = =
Their construction was strengthened to handle the severe weather conditions of the North Atlantic as one of the requirements for their intended role as scouts and escorts for the Dunkerque @-@ class battleships of the Force de Raid . Longitudinal construction was used throughout with frames spaced 1 @.@ 8 metres ( 5 @.@ 9 ft ) apart and subdivided by twelve transverse compartments . Stress @-@ bearing parts of the hull used 60 kg / m ² grade steel while the remainder of the hull used 50 kg / m ² grade steel . To save weight all internal partitions used Duralumin as did the sides of the superstructure . The hull was entirely riveted , but all other joints were welded . Despite these efforts , top @-@ weight was higher than on earlier classes of contre @-@ torpilleurs because of the weight of the twin @-@ gun turrets .
Accommodations were even more cramped and poorly ventilated than earlier ships because the ammunition hoists passed through the crew spaces , a problem for ships intended for long @-@ endurance sorties into the North Atlantic . The lack of room in the hull forced a number of workshops and offices into the superstructure which added more weight high in the ship . There were three deckhouses abaft the break in the forecastle with intervals between them to permit the beam torpedo tubes to rotate , but these were no larger than in earlier ships which meant that space was at a premium .
The ships proved to be excellent sea @-@ boats and were very capable in high seas as they could sustain 34 knots ( 63 km / h ; 39 mph ) in Sea State 4 . " They were very steady ships , with a gentle roll period of seven seconds ; they heeled only 2 @-@ 3 ° with a strong cross @-@ wind , and at only 7 @-@ 8 ° at full rudder — a marked improvement over earlier contre @-@ torpilleurs . Their comparatively high length to beam ratio , however , gave them a high coefficient of inertia , which made maneuvers in formation difficult . "
= = = Propulsion = = =
The Mogador @-@ class ships retained the unit arrangement of their propulsion spaces used in earlier contre @-@ torpilleurs . They used a new high @-@ pressure Indret boiler rated at 3 @,@ 500 kilopascals ( 510 psi ) . While this gave more power for its weight and size , it proved to be fragile and difficult to maintain . Each set of Rateau @-@ Bretagne geared turbines was rated at 46 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 34 @,@ 000 kW ) and consisted of four main turbines , a high @-@ pressure , a medium @-@ pressure and two low @-@ pressure with a reversing turbine in each of the main low @-@ pressure turbine cases . There were also two small cruise turbines operating in parallel in each engine room . At low speeds , steam was directed to the cruise turbines , but at higher speeds it was diverted to the high @-@ pressure turbine . At 25 knots ( 46 km / h ; 29 mph ) the cruise turbines were decoupled entirely using a Vulcan clutch . This didn 't work properly and several ship 's captains recommended that the cruise turbines be deleted from future classes entirely . Each of the two shafts was driven by single reduction gearing . The port shaft was driven by the rear engine room and was significantly shorter than the starboard shaft which was driven by the forward engine room . This caused a significant disparity between the turning circle , depending on which direction the ship was turning .
Each shaft drove a three @-@ bladed screw propeller that was 3 @.@ 94 m ( 12 @.@ 9 ft ) in diameter . They suffered from severe cavitation at speed . The single semi @-@ balanced rudder was chosen to reduce high speed resistance . It had an area of only 14 @.@ 95 square metres ( 160 @.@ 9 sq ft ) and was moved by a weak steam @-@ driven servomotor . On trials , the turning circle was measured at 800 – 850 metres ( 870 – 930 yd ) at 25 knots ( 46 km / h ; 29 mph ) . In service it took 25 – 30 seconds to turn the rudder to its maximum 32 ° at speed and the ship 's turning circle was approximately double that demonstrated on trials . The ships were so unhandy that the captain of the Volta cautioned in his log that " great care was needed when operating in company with the battleship Strasbourg , because the latter ship was far more maneuverable . "
The Mogador @-@ class ships were designed for a speed of 39 knots ( 72 km / h ; 45 mph ) , but this was comfortably exceeded on trials when Mogador achieved a top speed of 43 @.@ 45 knots ( 80 @.@ 47 km / h ; 50 @.@ 00 mph ) from 118 @,@ 320 shp ( 88 @,@ 230 kW ) for one hour . This was at " Washington " standard displacement so her earlier performance of 41 @.@ 67 knots ( 77 @.@ 17 km / h ; 47 @.@ 95 mph ) with 108 @,@ 424 shp ( 80 @,@ 852 kW ) at a load displacement of 3 @,@ 731 tonnes ( 3 @,@ 672 long tons ; 4 @,@ 113 short tons ) was even more impressive .
At normal displacement they carried only 120 tonnes ( 120 long tons ; 130 short tons ) of oil , but carried 360 tonnes ( 350 long tons ; 400 short tons ) of oil at normal load and 710 tonnes ( 700 long tons ; 780 short tons ) at deep load . Endurance was estimated during their trials at 4 @,@ 345 nautical miles ( 8 @,@ 047 km ; 5 @,@ 000 mi ) at a speed of 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) using the cruise turbines and 2 @,@ 664 nmi ( 4 @,@ 934 km ; 3 @,@ 066 mi ) at a speed of 24 knots ( 44 km / h ; 28 mph ) with the main turbines . This was never attained during service because the consumption by the auxiliary machinery was underestimated .
Arguably the greatest weakness of these ships lay in their inability to generate sufficient electric current to power the multitude of auxiliary motors on which their advanced machinery and complex gun mountings were dependent . Their DC electrical supply was only 115V , whereas larger cruisers with power @-@ operated turrets had a 230V system . Electrical power was generated by two Alsthom turbo @-@ generators rated at only 120 kW with two small diesel generators rated at 44 / 52kW for use when the ship was alongside . The latter provided only for the ship 's minimum lighting and electricity needs , and fires had to be lit in at least one of the boilers in order to train the turrets or elevate the guns for practice or maintenance . Many of the auxiliary motors themselves were also seriously underpowered , particularly the servomotors for the gun mountings ( which were slow to train and elevate ) and for the rudder which contributed to the ship 's poor maneuverability . In technological terms Mogador and Volta were ships with the armament of a light cruiser in the hull of a destroyer ; the contre @-@ torpilleur as a type had been pushed past the limits of its capabilities .
– Jordan , The Contre @-@ Torpilleurs of the Mogador Class , p . 59
= = Armament = =
= = = Main guns = = =
The Mogador @-@ class ships were designed to use four newly designed twin @-@ gun Modèle 1934 " pseudo @-@ turrets " that used the same Canon de 138 mm Modèle 1929 as the preceding Le Fantastaque @-@ class destroyers . The guns were housed in separate cradles that could be coupled together and could elevate to a maximum of 30 ° and depress 10 ° . The underpowered electric motors gave a maximum training speed of 10 ° per second and a maximum elevating speed of 14 ° per second . The motors were initially installed within the mountings , but were moved to the outer sides of the turrets to free up room inside the turrets .
The pusher @-@ type ammunition hoists ran up a fixed shaft in the center of the mount . The shells and their powder charges were transferred to a tipping drum that was rotated to match the bearing angle of the guns and then loaded . This system was adapted from that used for the fixed 130 @-@ millimeter ( 5 @.@ 1 in ) ammunition used in the Hardi @-@ class destroyers . Unfortunately it was not well suited for separate @-@ loading ammunition . Each gun had its own separate shell and powder hoist , for a total of four hoists . The tipping drum had four matching separate trays to move the ammunition to the gun . Each shell was power @-@ rammed , but the propellant charges had to be hand @-@ rammed . Theoretically the guns could be loaded at any angle , but the power rammer was so weak that it could not ram shells at angles above 10 ° . This problem , coupled with the " poor quality of manufacture of the guns , the unsatisfactory profile of the breech , resulted in a firing cycle of only 3 @-@ 4 rounds per minute during the early trials with jams and failures frequent " , rather than the planned 10 rounds per minute . A further problem was that there only two loaders assigned to the gun crew ; they tired quickly during prolonged firing .
Gunnery trials were conducted when Volta was on her sea trials in mid @-@ 1939 and were " an unmitigated disaster " for the reasons given above . Some fixes were identified , notably modifications to the breech , installation of split loading trays and reinforcement of the catapult rammers , but they had to wait until the ships ' next refit to be implemented . But even these modifications were only stop gaps and an entirely new loading system was deemed necessary , but since this was expected to take 10 – 12 months to develop the current system would have to be used in the meantime . Both Volta and Mogador were refitted in January 1940 and had their turrets modified , although loading still could not be done at angles higher than 10 ° . The surrender of France in June 1940 ended any work on a new loading system . Five @-@ round ready racks for each gun were added to the sides of the turrets during the refit to compensate for any problems with the loading systems . The magazines were designed to store 1440 138 mm shells , 180 rounds per gun , plus there was a separate magazine for 85 starshells which supplied turret Nr. 2 .
= = = Anti @-@ aircraft suite = = =
A single 37 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) twin @-@ gun Modèle 1933 anti @-@ aircraft mount was installed on the rearmost deckhouse forward of turret Nr. 3 . It used the 50 @-@ caliber semi @-@ automatic Canon de 37 mm Modèle 1925 gun . It had a conventional sliding breech and used six @-@ round cartridge boxes which gave it a maximum rate of fire of only 30 @-@ 40 rounds per minute . This mount was used in lieu of the intended power @-@ driven Modèle 1935 twin @-@ gun mount which was to use a new 48 @-@ caliber , fully automatic 37 mm gun that was expected to be able to fire at a rate of 165 rounds per minute , but the new gun was still in development when the ships were commissioned . 250 rounds were stored near the mount , but the main magazine , which held an additional 1 @,@ 250 rounds , was adjacent to the forward 138 mm magazines . This required a loader to move forward 50 metres ( 55 yd ) to pick up each 12 @.@ 8 kilograms ( 28 lb ) cartridge box and carry it back to the waiting gun crew .
Two twin 13 @.@ 2 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 52 in ) Hotchkiss machine gun mounts were fitted as anti @-@ strafing weapons . These had a high rate of fire at 450 rpm , but this was hampered by the awkward 30 @-@ round magazine feed . Initially they were mounted on each side of the forward superstructure at deck level and fitted with gun shields to protect them against the spray . Trials revealed the limitations of these positions with poor arcs of fire and the gun shields obstructed the aimer 's view of the target . Following the completion of the trials the guns were relocated to a new deckhouse between the bridge and turret Nr. 2 and their gun shields removed . 2500 rounds per barrel were stored in the forward magazines .
= = = Underwater weapons = = =
The Mogador @-@ class ships were designed for anti @-@ surface warfare rather than anti @-@ submarine work and they were given a large torpedo battery in consequence . Two triple Modèle 1928T torpedo launchers were fitted on each beam between the funnels and two twin Modèle 1928D launchers were located on the beam , abaft the second funnel . The placement of each launcher on the beam significantly increased each launcher 's arc of fire ( 25 ° to 150 ° ) in comparison to the Le Fantastaque 's centerline mount ( 60 ° -100 ° ) . However this was not without cost as her torpedo broadside was weaker by one tube than the older class , but the extra launchers positioned close to the ship 's side imposed , more importantly , a weight and stability penalty .
All of her mounts used the 550 @-@ millimeter ( 22 in ) Modèle 1923DT torpedo with a 308 kg ( 679 lb ) warhead . This 2 @,@ 068 kg ( 4 @,@ 559 lb ) torpedo used a four @-@ cylinder , radial Brotherhood alcohol engine to power it at two set speeds . The fast speed was 39 knots ( 72 km / h ; 45 mph ) to a range of 9 @,@ 000 metres ( 9 @,@ 800 yd ) while the slow speed setting was 35 knots ( 65 km / h ; 40 mph ) to a range of 13 @,@ 000 metres ( 14 @,@ 000 yd ) .
Twin depth charge tunnels were built into the rear hull of the Mogador @-@ class ships . Each tunnel housed eight Guirard depth charges , with another sixteen stowed in the rear magazine . They were launched by remote control in patterns of four using a chain system . Since no sonar equipment was fitted these depth charges were unlikely to actually damage a submarine .
Fixed pairs of mine rails were mounted above the stern and each pair could carry five Bréguet B4 mines . These could be extended using removable section stowed between decks to carry another thirty mines if necessary .
= = = Fire control = = =
The centralized fire control system was similar to that of the Le Fantastaque @-@ class with 12 × 72 target designation binoculars on each side of the bridge linked by Granat transmitters to the director control towers located atop the bridge and abaft the second funnel . Each DCT had a 5 @-@ metre ( 16 ft ) OPL Modèle 1935 stereoscopic rangefinder and sent the range to the post central ' artillerie ' where it was fed into a modernized Modèle 1929 electro @-@ mechanical computer which calculated the firing solution and transmitted it to the turrets . The turrets could also be controlled locally if necessary .
The torpedo control system was much the same , although entirely separate from the gunnery system . 8 × 30 target designation binoculars were mounted on each side of the bridge and transmitted the target 's bearing to the torpedo director located above the primary gunnery DCT above the bridge . It used a separate 5 @-@ metre ( 16 ft ) OPL Modèle 1935 stereoscopic rangefinder to provide the bearing and range to a Modèle 1933 mechanical computer which calculated the torpedo firing angle . This was sent to the remotely controlled torpedo tubes , and the command to fire could be given by either the torpedo director or either of the secondary positions on the wings of the bridge .
= = Construction = =
This class only consisted of Mogador ( X61 ) and Volta ( X62 ) . Steel was cut on both contre @-@ torpilleurs beginning in late 1934 , Mogador at the Arsenal de Lorient and Volta at At . & Ch. de Bretagne , Nantes , although assembly did not begin until the autumn of the following year . Industrial unrest disrupted their construction and it was not until January 1938 that Mogador was handed over to the French Navy for sea trials . Volta followed three months later . However , neither ship was formally accepted by the French Navy for another year . Mogador was not commissioned ( clotûre d 'armament ) until 8 April 1939 and Volta on 6 March 1939 .
Four improved Mogador @-@ class ships were ordered in 1939 to be named Kléber , Desaix , Hoche and Marceau , but their construction was suspended due to the start of World War II . Their design was continually modified in light of wartime experience , but the original plan for dual @-@ purpose 130 mm ( 5 @.@ 1 in ) guns had to shelved when it became apparent that they could not be developed in a timely manner , and they reverted to the main armament of the Mogadors . The anti @-@ aircraft armament was reinforced with the substitution of four 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) anti @-@ aircraft guns for the single twin 37 mm mount . But these plans came to nought when France surrendered in June 1940 .
= = History = =
Mogador and Volta comprised the 6th Large Destroyer Division ( 6e Division de contre @-@ torpilleurs ) and were assigned to the Force de Raid based at Brest when the war began . This group 's purpose was to hunt German blockade runners and raiders and to escort convoys that might be in danger from the same . From 21 to 30 October 1939 the Force de Raid escorted the KJ.4 convoy to protect it against the German cruiser Deutschland which had sortied into the North Atlantic before the war began . A sortie by the German battleships Gneisenau and Scharnhorst into the North Atlantic on 21 November prompted the Force de Raid to sail from Brest to rendezvous with the British battlecruiser HMS Hood and patrol the area south of Iceland , but the German ships were able to return safely under the cover of heavy weather without being engaged .
Both ships were refitted in early 1940 and a number of minor changes were made . The necessary improvements identified for the main armament during their sea trials a year earlier were finally implemented , the canvas cover for the back of the turrets was replaced by a rolling door , new radios were installed , and shields were fitted to the anti @-@ aircraft machine guns and the searchlights . A SS @-@ 6 sonar was fitted in June 1940 , but proved to be ineffectual .
During the British attack on Mers @-@ el @-@ Kébir on 3 July 1940 , Mogador was severely damaged during by a hit from a 15 @-@ inch ( 38 cm ) shell in the rear hull that detonated her ready depth charges . Volta was also present , but managed to escape in company with the battleship Strasbourg and other ships . Mogador was repaired enough to reach Toulon several months later , but was still undergoing repairs and modifications in Toulon in November 1942 . Both Mogador and Volta were scuttled in Toulon Harbour on 27 November 1942 to prevent their capture by Germany . Both were refloated in 1943 by the Italians , but neither was repaired and both were eventually broken up .
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= South Park ( season 1 ) =
The first season of animated television series South Park ran for 13 episodes from August 13 , 1997 to February 25 , 1998 on the American network Comedy Central . The creators Trey Parker and Matt Stone wrote most of the season 's episodes ; Dan Sterling , Philip Stark and David Goodman were credited with writing five episodes . The narrative revolves around four children — Stan Marsh , Kyle Broflovski , Eric Cartman and Kenny McCormick — and their unusual experiences in the titular mountain town .
South Park originated from Parker and Stone 's 1992 animated short , Jesus vs. Frosty . The low @-@ budget , crudely made film featured prototypes of South Park 's main characters and was followed in 1995 by another short film , Jesus vs. Santa . The latter became popular and was widely shared over the Internet , which led to talks for a series with representatives from Fox Network and Comedy Central . It debuted on the latter with an initial run of six episodes ; due to its success , an additional seven episodes were quickly produced . The complete season was released on DVD in November 2002 .
The first season was a ratings success for Comedy Central . The Nielsen ratings rose from 1 @.@ 3 to 6 @.@ 4 from the first to the tenth episode . Several episodes received award nominations , including for a 1998 Emmy Award in the " Outstanding Animated Program ( for Programming Less Than One Hour ) " and a GLAAD Award in the " Outstanding TV – Individual Episode " category for the episode " Big Gay Al 's Big Gay Boat Ride " . During the season , South Park won a CableACE Award for " Best Animated Series " and was nominated for a 1998 Annie Award in the " Outstanding Achievement in an Animated Primetime or Late Night Television Program " .
The show was a financial success for Comedy Central and helped the network transform into " a cable industry power almost overnight " . Despite this , critics gave the season mixed reviews . Parents Television Council rated it so offensive that it " shouldn 't have been made " : " it doesn 't just push the envelope ; it knocks it off the table " , while another critic thought of it as " coming pretty damn close " to being a " perfect " television series season .
= = Episodes = =
= = Development = =
The idea for South Park originated in 1992 when creators Trey Parker and Matt Stone met in a film class as students at the University of Colorado . They discussed filming a three @-@ minute short film involving a boy who befriended a talking piece of feces named Mr. Hankey . Although such a short was never made , Parker and Stone created a Christmas @-@ related animated short commonly known as " Jesus vs. Frosty " . The crude , low @-@ budget animation featured prototypes for the main characters of South Park , including Cartman , Stan and Kyle . Fox Broadcasting Company executive Brian Graden saw the film and in 1995 commissioned Parker and Stone for $ 1 @,@ 200 to create a second short film that he could send to his friends as a Christmas video @-@ card . Titled The Spirit of Christmas , but also known as " Jesus vs. Santa " , the short resembled the style of the later series more closely . In 1997 , the The Spirit of Christmas would end up winning the Los Angeles Films Critics Association award for " Best Animation " , thus further bringing the two filmmakers to the attention of industry representatives .
The " Jesus vs. Santa " video was widely copied and shared over the Internet . George Clooney was reported to have made 300 copies for his friends , and the short was subsequently regarded as likely the first viral video . When the shorts began to generate interest for a possible television series , Parker and Stone conceived the idea of a South Park @-@ like show with four child characters but planned to call it The Mr. Hankey Show by featuring a talking stool named Mr. Hankey as the main protagonist . They pitched the idea , but Brian Graden rejected it and said , according to Stone , " I 'm not putting poo on my network . " Parker and Stone adapted their original idea into a show revolving around four children in the South Park town , dropping Mr. Hankey as a protagonist but planning to use the character in the future in a minor supporting role .
Later , Doug Herzog from Comedy Central saw the Jesus vs. Santa short and considered it to be " literally the funniest thing [ he ] ' d ever seen , " and requested Parker and Stone to develop a show for his network . During the negotiations , Parker and Stone brought up the idea of a Mr. Hankey episode , with Parker claiming to have asked " one thing we have to know before we really go any further : how do you feel about talking poo ? " The network 's executives were receptive to the idea , which would be one of the main reasons Parker and Stone decided to sign on with the channel . The first episode of the series , " Cartman Gets an Anal Probe " , debuted on Comedy Central on August 13 , 1997 , while Mr. Hankey debuted a few months later in the ninth episode , " Mr. Hankey , the Christmas Poo " .
The pilot episode received poor results from test audiences . Parker later conceded that regarding the language , he and Stone felt pressure to live up to their previous two shorts and " tried to push things ... maybe further than we should [ have ] . " In contrast , they allowed subsequent episodes to " be more natural " , focusing more on making fun of topics considered taboo " without just throwing a bunch of dirty words in there . " After the poor results from the test audience , Comedy Central executives were unsure whether they wanted to order additional episodes after " Cartman Gets an Anal Probe " . However , when buzz began to generate on the Internet about the two original shorts , the network commissioned Parker and Stone to write one more episode without committing to a full series until they had seen the script . While working on the 1997 film Orgazmo , Parker and Stone wrote the script for what would later become the episode " Weight Gain 4000 " . The duo sought to give Comedy Central executives an idea of how the series would be and how each episode could differ from the others . The network liked the script , and when Parker and Stone refused to write another script before signing off on at least six episodes , the executives agreed to commit to a series .
Comedy Central originally ordered only these six episodes , but when the show proved successful , they requested an additional seven , which Parker and Stone had to produce quickly . " Pinkeye " , the first of these new episodes , would air on October 29 , 1997 , only two and a half months after the show 's premiere . There were three holiday episodes — " Pinkeye " , " Starvin ' Marvin " and " Mr. Hankey , the Christmas Poo " — which aired at intervals of three weeks , while the remaining four aired later in February 1998 .
" Cartman Gets an Anal Probe " was the only episode animated almost completely with traditional cut paper , stop @-@ motion animation techniques . All subsequent episodes would be fully computer @-@ animated using Power Animator or Maya . By the eighth episode , " Damien " , much of the drawing and animation responsibilities handled by Parker and Stone were now being delegated to a team of animators . This would be the only episode aside from " Cartman Gets an Anal Probe " to receive a TV @-@ 14 ( unsuitable for children under the age of 14 ) rating instead of the show 's customary TV @-@ MA ( unsuitable for under the age of 17 ) . Parker and Stone credit the fourth episode , " Big Gay Al 's Big Gay Boat Ride " , with helping to raise the ratings during the early part of the season . They felt that the show 's first official Christmas special , " Mr. Hankey , the Christmas Poo " , brought South Park to a new level of popularity , and Parker said this episode " just vaulted everything . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
South Park 's first season was a ratings success for Comedy Central . " Cartman Gets an Anal Probe " earned a Nielsen rating of 1 @.@ 3 , translating to 980 @,@ 000 viewers , which was considered high for a cable program in the United States at the time . It increased slightly by the third episode , " Volcano " , and by the sixth episode , " Death " , the show had reached a rating of 1 @.@ 7 . The ratings continued to rise rapidly from then on , to 3 @.@ 8 ( " Pinkeye " ) , 4 @.@ 8 ( " Starvin ' Marvin ' " ) , 5 @.@ 4 ( " Mr. Hankey , the Christmas Poo " ) , 6 @.@ 4 ( " Damien " ) , and 6 @.@ 9 ( " Mecha @-@ Streisand " ) respectively . This corresponded to an increase to 5 @.@ 4 million viewers in 3 @.@ 2 million households . The season finale , " Cartman 's Mom is a Dirty Slut " , received a Nielsen rating in the 8 @.@ 0 range and gained over 300 @,@ 000 viewers when first aired in Canada in August 1998 .
South Park became one of the first television series to be bootlegged via the Internet , just as The Spirit of Christmas had been before it . College students digitized many episodes from the first season and streamed them online for friends who were unable to receive Comedy Central .
= = = Critics = = =
Despite high ratings , reviews from television critics for the season were mixed . Both The Washington Post and The New York Times had three articles mentioning the show , usually in terms of " class @-@ based taste arguments . " " Cartman Gets an Anal Probe " , the first episode of the series , received generally negative reviews after airing . Brent Bozell , founder and then @-@ president of the Parents Television Council , gave an unfavorable review to the episode , stating that the show " is so offensive that it shouldn 't have been made . It doesn 't just push the envelope ; it knocks it off the table . " Bruce Fretts of Entertainment Weekly thought poorly of the writing and characters , lampooning that " if only the kids ' jokes were as fresh as their mouths " and that " it might help if the South Park kids had personalities , but they 're as one @-@ dimensional as the show 's cut @-@ and @-@ paste animation . " Calling the series " sophomoric , gross , and unfunny , " Hal Boedeker of the Orlando Sentinel reckoned that the episode made " such a bad impression that it 's hard to get on the show 's strange wavelength . " Tom Shales of The Washington Post considered that " most of the alleged humor on the premiere is self @-@ conscious and self @-@ congratulatory in its vulgarity : flatulence jokes , repeated use of the word ' dildo ' ( in the literal as well as pejorative sense ) , and a general air of malicious unpleasantness . "
When " Weight Gain 4000 " aired , many writers in the mainstream media were still debating the longevity and the overall quality of South Park . With the series still in its earliest stages , the episode continued to shock many due to the characters frequent use of profanities . Nevertheless , several reviewers felt " Weight Gain 4000 " was a significant improvement over " Cartman Gets an Anal Probe " and felt that it went in a much more satirical direction . Several media outlets described the fifth episode of the season , " An Elephant Makes Love to a Pig " , as one of the most popular early episodes . Tom Carson of Newsday said it was the most outrageous South Park episode until " Mr. Hankey , the Christmas Poo " aired three months later . Many reviewers also said this mere title demonstrated the crudeness and originality of South Park .
Due to its impact , South Park made the cover of Rolling Stone in February 1998 , and of Newsweek in March 1998 . It was discussed in five different New York Times articles in 1998 . Franck Rich of The New York Times mentions the show 's " ability to engage political topics with far more success than other ( more obviously political ) shows " and considered that the show " is hilariously candid about faith , family and death as well " and " is neither politically correct nor incorrect ; it 's on a different , post @-@ ideological comic map altogether . " In 2002 , Jeremy Conrad of IGN wrote in a DVD review that it is rare when a television season is " perfect " , but " the first season of South Park comes pretty damn close " and that " almost every single episode in this three @-@ disc set is a classic and each is still funny as hell even after so many viewings over the years . "
In 2008 , scholar Stephen Groening argued that the show appeared as part of a reaction to the culture wars of the 1980s and 1990s in the United States , in which issues such as Murphy Brown 's motherhood , Tinky Winky 's sexuality , and The Simpsons ' family values were extensively debated . The culture wars , and political correctness in particular , were driven by the belief that relativism was becoming more relevant to daily life . Groening explained that South Park " made a name for itself as rude , crude , vulgar , offensive , and potentially dangerous " . Its critics argued that the Stan , Kyle , Cartman and Kenny were poor role models for children while its supporters celebrated the show 's defense of free speech .
= = = Impact on Comedy Central = = =
In 2006 , Devin Leonard of Fortune regarded that the launch of South Park transformed Comedy Central from a " not @-@ so @-@ funny " network to " a cable industry power almost overnight . " The impact the show had ended up surprising everybody involved . At the time , the cable network had a low distribution of just 21 million subscribers . Comedy Central marketed the show aggressively before its launch , billing it as " that 's why they invented the V @-@ chip . " The resulting buzz led to the network earning an estimated $ 30 million in T @-@ shirts sales alone before the first episode was even aired .
South Park became immediately one of the most popular shows on cable television , averaging consistently between 3 @.@ 5 and 5 @.@ 5 million viewers . The Denver @-@ based Tele @-@ Communications Inc . , the largest cable operator in the U.S. at the time , had just dropped Comedy Central , but when South Park debuted , Denver newspapers and radio stations heavily criticized the operator for not carrying the hit show of the two local filmmakers — Parker and Stone . Doug Herzog , Comedy Central 's president at the time , said that the public " went nuts " as the network received about ten million new subscriptions through Tele @-@ Communications Inc. alone , " which at that time was unheard of . "
An affiliate of the MTV Network until then , Comedy Central decided , in part due to the success of South Park , to have its own independent sales department . By the end of 1998 , Comedy Central had sold more than $ 150 million worth of merchandise for the show , including T @-@ shirts and dolls . Over the next few years , Comedy Central 's viewership spiked largely due to South Park , adding 3 million new subscribers in the first half of 1998 alone and allowed the network to sign international deals with networks in several countries .
= = = Awards = = =
Some episodes of the first season received nominations for several entertainment awards . The season 's fourth episode " Big Gay Al 's Big Gay Boat Ride " was nominated for an Emmy Award in 1998 in the " Outstanding Animated Program ( for Programming Less Than One Hour ) " category but lost to the The Simpsons episode " Trash of the Titans " . The same episode was also nominated for a GLAAD Award in the " Outstanding TV – Individual Episode " category but lost to another The Simpsons episode , " Homer 's Phobia " . " Volcano " , the season 's third episode , was nominated for an Environmental Media Award in the " TV Episodic Comedy " category but ended up losing to another The Simpsons episode , " The Old Man & the Lisa " .
During the series first season , South Park won a CableACE Award for " Best Animated Program or Series " and was nominated for an Annie Award in the " Outstanding Achievement in an Animated Primetime or Late Night Television Program " category . In 1998 , the two creators of the show Matt Stone and Trey Parker won the " Nova Award " given by the Producers Guild of America for the most promising producers in television .
= = Media release = =
Six episodes — " Cartman Gets an Anal Probe " , " Volcano " , " Weight Gain 4000 " , " Big Gay Al 's Big Gay Boat Ride " , " An Elephant Makes Love to a Pig " and " Death " — were released in a three @-@ VHS set on May 5 , 1998 , marking the first time South Park was made available on video . The first DVD releases came later that year , when the first Thirteen episodes were released by Warner Home Video on October 27 on the compilation collections South Park , Volume 1 , Volume 2 and Volume 3 . The last episode of the season " Cartman 's Mom Is a Dirty Slut " was released on the South Park , Volume 4 on December 14 , 1999 .
South Park – The Complete First Season was originally released by Warner Home Video as a three @-@ disc region 1 DVD box set in the U.S. on November 12 , 2002 and received an MA rating . The season was re @-@ released on June 29 , 2005 by Paramount Home Entertainment . The DVD releases featured bonus material such as introductions for each episode , two Christmas carols by Eric Cartman and Ned , a short clip featuring Jay Leno and another clip in which the four boys present at the 1997 CableACE Awards . Trey Parker and Matt Stone produced commentaries for each episode but requested they be pulled off altogether when they found out the commentaries would be edited . Instead , the commentaries were released unedited by Comedy Central on a set of five CDs . In October 2005 , South Park : Complete Series 1 was released in Australia and with a 15 rating in region 2 . " Mr. Hankey , the Christmas Poo " was released again on November 13 , 2005 on the compilation DVD Christmas Time in South Park .
The distribution licenses for six episodes of the South Park 's first season ( " Volcano " , " An Elephant Makes Love to a Pig " , " Pinkeye " , " Damien " , " Starvin ' Marvin " and " Mecha @-@ Streisand " ) were purchased in 2000 by the Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania @-@ based company and website SightSound.com. The site made the episodes available for download for $ 2 @.@ 50 for a two @-@ day copy and for $ 4 @.@ 95 for a permanent copy . It was one of the first experiments with downloadable television videos , thus making South Park one of the first shows legally obtainable on the Internet . In March 2008 , Comedy Central made the first season 's episodes as well as almost all other South Park episodes available for legal streaming on the South Park Studios website from within U.S. , and later from within Canada and the United Kingdom .
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= Leif J. Sverdrup =
Leif Johan Sverdrup ( 11 January 1898 – 2 January 1976 ) was a Norwegian @-@ born American civil engineer and general with the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers in the first half of the 20th century . He is best known for his service in the Southwest Pacific Area during World War II where he was Chief Engineer under General of the Army Douglas MacArthur .
The son of a distinguished Norwegian family , Sverdrup emigrated to the United States in 1914 . After serving with the US Army in World War I , he earned a degree in civil engineering at the University of Minnesota in 1921 . He worked for a time for the Missouri State Highway Department before founding Sverdrup & Parcel , a civil engineering firm specializing in bridge construction , with John Ira Parcel , his former University of Minnesota engineering professor . His firm was involved in the construction of a number of important bridges , including the Washington Bridge and Amelia Earhart Bridge over the Missouri River and the Hurricane Deck Bridge over the Lake of the Ozarks .
In 1941 , Sverdrup became involved with the construction of a chain of airstrips across the Pacific Ocean to enable heavy bombers to be delivered to the Philippines . He was re @-@ commissioned in the US Army as a colonel in 1942 and became Chief of the Construction Section in General MacArthur 's Southwest Pacific Area . In 1942 he made three treks across the Owen Stanley Range in Papua and New Guinea on engineer reconnaissance missions into enemy @-@ occupied territory , for which he was decorated with the Silver Star and the Distinguished Service Medal . In 1944 he became the theater 's Chief Engineer .
After the war he commanded the 102nd Infantry Division of the US Army Reserve from 1947 to 1958 . Sverdrup & Parcel went on to design and oversee the construction of many major projects , including the Arnold Engineering Development Center and the Chesapeake Bay Bridge @-@ Tunnel , the latter being named one of the Seven Engineering Wonders of the Modern World after its completion in 1964 . The firm 's reputation was later tarnished by the collapse of the I @-@ 35W Mississippi River bridge on 1 August 2007 .
= = Early life = =
Leif Johan Sverdrup was born in Ytre Sula , Norway , on 11 January 1898 , the son of Edvard Sverdrup , a high school teacher and Lutheran minister , and his second wife Agnes née Vollan . The family was a distinguished one in Norway : Leif was the great @-@ nephew of Johan Sverdrup , the former Prime Minister of Norway ; the grandson of Harald Ulrik Sverdrup , the politician ; the cousin of Otto Sverdrup , the Arctic explorer ; the half @-@ brother of the oceanographer and meteorologist Harald Sverdrup ; and the brother of the mining engineer and businessman Einar Sverdrup and women 's rights activist Mimi Sverdrup Lunden .
Leif was educated at Nordstrand Middle School and Aars and Voss School in Oslo . Following a quarrel with his father , Leif left Norway for America to stay with his relatives in Minnesota , the family of his cousin George Sverdrup , the son of the theologian Georg Sverdrup , who had settled in Minneapolis in 1874 . Arriving in New York City on 7 December 1914 , he entered Augsburg College , Minneapolis , in September 1916 , and graduated with his Bachelor of Arts degree in May 1918 .
= = World War I = =
Sverdrup enlisted in the US Army at Fort Snelling , Minnesota on 26 July 1918 . He was posted to Camp Devens , Massachusetts for training with the 36th Division . While there he took advantage of a regulation waiving the normal five @-@ year residency requirement for members of the armed services seeking to take out US citizenship . Sverdrup formally took the oath as a citizen in Boston on 30 September 1918 . The US Army then sent him to the Field Artillery 's Officer Training Center at Camp Zachary Taylor , near Louisville , Kentucky , where he was commissioned as a second lieutenant on 18 January 1919 . The war having ended , Sverdrup was immediately placed in the inactive reserves . He was honorably discharged after nominally serving two five @-@ year terms on 17 January 1929 .
= = Between the wars = =
Sverdrup decided to become an engineer and enrolled in a civil engineering course at the University of Minnesota in 1919 . During the 1921 Spring break he returned to Norway , where he was reconciled with his father , accompanying his parents on a short holiday in Germany . He graduated with his Bachelor of Science in Civil Engineering degree in June 1921 . While at the University of Minnesota he met Helen Laura ( Molly ) Egilsrud , a recent immigrant from Norway like himself . She agreed to marry him , but only after she had graduated , worked for a year , and taken a trip to Europe . They were finally married on 26 November 1924 . Their union produced two sons , Johan Norman ( Jack ) Sverdrup , born in 1926 , and Ralph Lee Sverdrup , born in 1928 , who died of encephalitis in 1932 . In the meantime , Sverdrup took a job with the Missouri State Highway Department . His first major project involved supervising the construction of a bridge for U.S. Route 50 in Missouri over the Gasconade River . Around this time , frustrated by Americans who pronounced his name " leaf " instead of " lafe " , he started calling himself " Jack " .
In 1928 , Sverdrup joined with his former University of Minnesota engineering professor John Ira Parcel in the formation of Sverdrup & Parcel , a civil engineering firm with a speciality field of bridges . Parcel had tenure at Minnesota for a long time and was reluctant to sever his ties completely , but eventually he decided to join the new company , taking an unpaid Sabbatical from the university for one year . Sverdrup owned 60 % and Parcel 40 % of the new firm , which opened its doors on 1 April 1928 . The company 's headquarters was located in St. Louis , Missouri . Sverdrup & Parcel 's first contract was for the design of a bridge over the Missouri River at Hermann , Missouri , for which it received a fee of $ 33 @,@ 000 . While at the Missouri State Highway Department Sverdrup met D. C. Wolfe and E. R. Grant , and he asked them if they would join the company . Sverdrup subsequently hired design engineer Brice R. Smith from Missouri 's leading supplier of bridge components . By 1936 , all three would become partners in the firm .
Initially the young firm struggled , with no contracts for major jobs lined up after the Hermann bridge , and by early 1929 it faced insolvency . However neither Sverdrup nor Parcel wished to let well @-@ trained employees go , something which became an informal company policy over the years . A $ 17 @,@ 000 fee for the design and supervision of the construction of the 7th Street Trafficway Bridge in Kansas City , Kansas , and then a $ 32 @,@ 000 one for the Fairfax Bridge over the Missouri River helped Sverdrup & Parcel weather the worst of the Great Depression . The subsequent New Deal involved a major program of public works . Sverdrup & Parcel applied to the Public Works Administration for the design commissions for the Washington Bridge over the Missouri River at Washington , Missouri and the Hurricane Deck Bridge over the Lake of the Ozarks in Camden County , Missouri . Sverdrup & Parcel was awarded both contracts , valued at $ 42 @,@ 000 and $ 43 @,@ 000 respectively . During 1934 , it was awarded the contract for what is now known as the Amelia Earhart Bridge over the Missouri River between Atchison , Kansas and Buchanan County , Missouri . Sverdrup & Parcel was now becoming involved in projects further afield . A project to generate electricity from tidal power at Passamaquoddy Bay brought Sverdrup into contact with Captain Hugh J. ( Pat ) Casey of the US Army Corps of Engineers , the chief engineer on the project . The project folded when federal funding was withdrawn in 1936 , but Sverdrup and Casey became friends . In 1940 , Sverdrup was appointed to the board of inquiry that investigated the collapse of the Tacoma Narrows Bridge .
= = World War II = =
= = = Airbase construction = = =
In October 1941 , the War Department ordered work to commence on a chain of airstrips to enable heavy bombers to be flown from the United States to the Philippines . The existing route , via Midway Atoll , Wake Island and Guam was considered to vulnerable to disruption by Japanese forces located on nearby islands . A more secure route via Christmas Island , Canton Island , Fiji , Noumea , Rockhampton , Darwin and Fort Stotsenburg was urgently required . An initial sum of $ 5 million was allotted to construct three 7 @,@ 000 @-@ foot ( 2 @,@ 100 m ) runways at each site , along with appropriate fuel and maintenance buildings . The project was given the highest possible priority rating . On 16 November , Sverdrup arrived in Honolulu , Hawaii and signed a cost @-@ plus @-@ fixed @-@ fee contract for architectural and engineering services in connection with the construction of the airstrips on the route that lay in British , French and Australian territory . The contract was soon expanded to include the supervision of the construction .
Sverdrup flew to Fiji , and was able to report that work had started at Nadi , Fiji on 21 November . When he discussed progress on Nandi Airport in Fiji which New Zealand had agreed to extend , Walter Nash , then New Zealand Minister of Finance , recalled Sverdrup saying when he was leaving that there was no formal agreement for payment by America . So on the back of one of his cards Sverdrup drew a cross representing the airfield , wrote " £ 250 @,@ 000 " and initialled it " L.J.S. " The extension was actually estimated to cost £ 750 @,@ 000 .
On Noumea he found that hills obstructed the approaches to Tontouta . Accordingly , he arranged for the Australian workmen there to complete it as an emergency field only and for development of the major airbase to be carried out at Plaine Des Gaiacs Airfield . Sverdrup was working in Suva when he heard the news of the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor .
The Pan American Airways facility for its Clippers at Noumea had included the yacht Southern Seas , formerly owned by Cyrus H.K. Curtis as Lyndonia , converted to a floating luxury hotel ship . With the start of the Pacific war Pan American abandoned its commercial facilities in the war zone and requested they be taken over by the U.S. military . Southern Seas , along with other company property , was taken over by the U.S. Army and Sverdrup recommended the ship be operated to support the airbase construction in the islands , including doing required survey work . On 30 December 1941 the Southern Seas was purchased from Pan American Airways by the U.S. Army Hawaii District Engineer for the sum of one dollar while settlement was reached on value of the ship .
Captain Norman Miller in I Took The Sky Road describes a meeting with Sverdrup during a stop in Nouméa harbor on the return flight of XPBS @-@ 1 from Java where the seaplane had delivered high priority supplies including torpedo exploders :
The luxury of the Southern Seas was a far cry from the cramped quarters of the old XPBS , and I remained aboard over night , reveling in comforts previously enjoyed by Pan Am 's customers . But the yacht was of no further use to Pan Am . Their service to New Zealand had been discontinued . The yacht was to be turned over to Sverdrup to serve him as a floating office which could follow him around among the islands .
They decided Sverdrup would fly with Miller in XPBS @-@ 1 from Nouméa to Suva , Fiji , Sverdrup 's headquarters , with the Southern Seas following . He arrived in Sydney on 30 December . In January 1942 Sverdrup signed a cost @-@ plus @-@ fixed @-@ fee contract to provide architectural and engineering services to US Army Forces in Australia ( USAFIA ) . The contract remained in force until 15 May , when it was terminated by mutual agreement and Sverdrup & Parcel employees in Australia became civilian employees of the US Army . On 16 April , Sverdrup boarded the first of a series of aircraft that would return him to the United States .
= = = New Guinea Campaign = = =
In Australia , meanwhile , Brigadier General Pat Casey , now the Chief Engineer at General Douglas MacArthur 's General Headquarters ( GHQ ) Southwest Pacific Area ( SWPA ) , obtained MacArthur 's permission to appoint Sverdrup as the chief of his Construction Section , with the rank of colonel . On 8 May 1942 , in Washington , DC , Sverdrup was directly commissioned as a colonel in the US Army . He was soon on his way back to Australia . Initially , the construction effort focused on bases in northern Australia but after the Battle of the Coral Sea , MacArthur was convinced that the Japanese would make another attempt to capture Port Moresby and ordered improvements to the airfields there and the construction of new bases at Merauke and Milne Bay in order to cover the approaches to Port Moresby . The July 1942 decision to attack the Japanese base at Rabaul altered priorities and added a requirement for the development of bases on the northern coast of Papua around Buna . The commander of Allied Air Forces , Lieutenant General George Brett called for 12 additional airstrips : four each at Port Moresby , Milne Bay and Buna . Sverdrup estimated that this would take a year , and suggested that either Brett lower his requirements or Casey obtain more engineer units . Casey ordered every available engineer unit to Papua and attempted to reduce the workload by cutting back on airbase facilities , shortening runways from 6 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 800 m ) to 4 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 200 m ) , and substituting Marsden mat for pavement .
In September 1942 , MacArthur decided to outflank Japanese troops on the Kokoda Trail by sending an American regimental combat team over the Owen Stanley Range . Two alternate means of crossing the mountains seemed possible . One , the Kapa Kapa Trail was known to climb to elevations above 9 @,@ 000 feet ( 2 @,@ 700 m ) and present formidable obstacles . The other , known as the Abau Trail held the possibility . Casey and Sverdrup took charge of investigating the Abau Trail . They reached Abau on 18 September . Casey explored the harbor , taking depth soundings from a native canoe . Sverdrup set out for Jaure with a party of one American , two Australians from the Australian New Guinea Administrative Unit , ten native police from the Royal Papuan Constabulary and 26 native carriers . After eight days on the trail , scaling heights of 5 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 500 m ) , Sverdrup concluded that it would not be practical for troops to traverse the route and turned back , reaching Abau on 3 October . Meanwhile Casey had concluded that the harbor was too shallow even for lighters . However , the trip was not a total loss , for Sverdrup had sighted a plateau north of the Owen Stanley Range that he believed could be suitable for airstrips , allowing troops to be flown across the Owen Stanley Range . His opinion was supported by Cecil Abel , a missionary who knew the area well , who recommended establishing an airstrip at Fasari in the Musa River valley . Abel was flown to Fasari to make a start on an airstrip on 11 October , while Sverdrup set out from Abau with 190 men , including Flight Lieutenant M. J. Leahy , an expert on Papua , who knew many of the tribal chiefs personally . They reached Fasari on 18 October . Abel had cleared the site by burning and all that remained was some stumping and grubbing . A DC @-@ 3 was able to land the next day on the strip , which became known as Abel 's Landing . Sverdrup and Leahy set out on 20 October to explore further north and found another suitable airstrip site near the village of Embessa and Kinjaki , which Sverdrup had cleared . A message dropped by air instructed him to go to Pongani , where he found troops of Company C , 114th Engineer Battalion that had flown to Wanigela airstrip and had made their way to Pongani by travelling along the coast by boat . Sverdrup supervised the construction of Pongani airstrip . All three airstrips were soon in use . In December 1942 , Sverdrup made a third trip , from the Australian base at Bena Bena through the Markham Valley to the vicinity of the Japanese base at Lae . On each expedition he submitted detailed reports on the possibility of construction in the area . Sverdrup was awarded the Silver Star . His citation read :
For gallantry in action near Abau , New Guinea [ sic ] from 18 September 1942 to 6 October 1942 . Colonel Sverdrup led reconnaissance party into enemy @-@ occupied territory , far in advance of friendly troops , and thereby secured information of great value to the command .
Sverdrup was subsequently awarded the Distinguished Service Medal . His citation read :
For exceptionally meritorious service to the Government in a position of great responsibility in Papua , New Guinea , during the period 23 July 1942 to 23 January 1943 . During the Papuan campaign , Colonel Sverdrup personally executed numerous reconnaissance missions in New Guinea , over difficult mountains and through swamp and jungle , far forward of the areas occupied by our troops , in order to secure vital information needed for engineering operations . Utilizing native labor , which he recruited and trained , equipped only with hand tools , he constructed with great rapidity a series of air fields urgently needed for the transport by air of troops and supplies to distant and otherwise inaccessible areas . His success in completion of these essential advance airfields , accomplished under severe physical hardship and at great personal risk , made possible the effective coordination of land and air forces and contributed materially to the success of the Papuan campaign .
= = = Philippines Campaign = = =
Sverdrup was promoted to brigadier general in May 1944 . In July , Casey was appointed to head the Army Service Command ( ASCOM ) , a special force designed to provide logistical support , establish bases , and run them until the US Army Services of Supply ( USASOS ) was ready to take over . Sverdrup became acting Chief Engineer , GHQ SWPA in Casey 's absence . On 12 January 1945 , MacArthur personally decorated Sverdrup with the Distinguished Service Cross . His citation read :
For extraordinary heroism in action against the enemy at Lingayen , Luzon , Philippine Islands , on 9 January 1945 . Landing with the first wave of assault troops and with complete disregard for his own safety , he proceeded immediately to render invaluable assistance in the seizure of the vital Lingayen airfield . General Sverdrup 's exceptional courage , initiative determination contributed immeasurably to the success accomplishment of the mission .
Sverdrup became the first American to be decorated for the Luzon campaign . MacArthur , in making the presentation , said : " This is the engineer soldier at his best . " Franzwa & Ely 1980 , p . 210 Sverdrup was promoted to major general in March 1945 . On 6 March 1945 , the Engineer Construction Command ( ENCOM ) was formed under USASOS to handle all military and civilian construction in the Philippines and Sverdrup was appointed to command it . Later in 1945 MacArthur made a more personal gesture . He presented Sverdrup with his personal Gold Castles insignia , a gift from his father , Arthur MacArthur , Jr . , on his graduation from the U.S. Military Academy . MacArthur had not worn them since he had transferred to the infantry . He told Sverdrup that " they deserved to be worn by a real engineer " and made him promise that they would not end up in a museum .
= = = Occupation of Japan = = =
In August 1945 , Sverdrup flew home on MacArthur 's private aircraft , the Bataan , accompanying Lieutenant General Richard K. Sutherland to Washington , DC for a series of meetings at The Pentagon before going on leave . The Surrender of Japan caused Sverdrup to cut short his leave and return to GHQ in Manila . On 29 August 1945 , Sverdrup landed in Japan . He entered Tokyo the next day with Casey to find a site for GHQ , which they decided to locate in the Imperial Hotel , Tokyo . On 2 September , Sverdrup attended the formal surrender aboard the USS Missouri . He received the Legion of Merit on 21 September before departing for home again the next day .
= = Post @-@ war = =
On 3 June 1947 , the 102nd Infantry Division was activated as part of the Organized Reserve , with Sverdrup in command . Sverdrup retired from the Army on 31 January 1958 , at the age of 60 . He attended annual reunions of MacArthur 's key officers , held on MacArthur 's birthday , starting in 1949 . That year Sverdrup was presented with his Commander of the Order of the British Empire by the Australian Ambassador to the United States , Norman Makin , in a ceremony at the Embassy of Australia in Washington , D.C. When Sverdrup heard that MacArthur was returning from Japan after being relieved by President Harry S. Truman in April 1951 , Sverdrup flew to greet him on arrival , along with Hanford MacNider and William C. Chase . On 2 May 1975 , Sverdrup attended the Engineer Dinner at Fort Belvoir , Virginia which marked the US Army Corps of Engineers ' 200th anniversary and presented MacArthur 's Gold Castles insignia to the Chief of Engineers , Lieutenant General William C. Gribble , Jr ..
Sverdrup returned to Sverdrup & Parcel , but with much less personal involvement than before , as Grant was now running the company , which was incorporated in 1946 . That year it was awarded the contract for a complex of wind tunnels at the Arnold Engineering Development Center , with a fee in excess of $ 1 million . Sverdrup & Parcel continued , becoming Sverdrup Civil , and more recently Jacobs Sverdrup , a portion of one of the world 's largest civil engineering groups . In the 1960s , Sverdrup Civil oversaw the successful design and construction of the additional " parallel trestles " of the Chesapeake Bay Bridge @-@ Tunnel ( CBBT ) , doubling the non @-@ tunnel sections , adding the capacity of two more lanes and adding emergency turnouts to the bridge @-@ tunnel facility . The CBBT was still the longest in the world 30 years after Leif Sverdrup and his company completed the original project . However the company image was tarnished in August 2005 by the effect of Hurricane Katrina on the Louisiana Superdome , which Sverdrup & Parcel had been involved in designing , and the collapse of Sverdrup & Parcel 's I @-@ 35W Mississippi River bridge across the Mississippi River at Minneapolis , Minnesota , on 1 August 2007 .
= = Decorations = =
Major General Sverdrup ´ s decorations include : Distinguished Service Cross , Army Distinguished Service Medal with Oak Leaf Cluster , Silver Star , Legion of Merit , Purple Heart , World War I Victory Medal , Army of Occupation of Germany Medal , Asiatic @-@ Pacific Campaign Medal with four service stars , World War II Victory Medal , Army of Occupation Medal with " Japan " Clasp , National Defense Service Medal , Commander of the Order of the British Empire and Croix de guerre 1914 – 1918 .
= = Legacy = =
Leif J. Sverdrup died on 2 January 1976 and was interred in Valhalla Cemetery in Hanley Hills , a suburb of St Louis , with full military honors . A number of professional organizations also began annual award programs in his honor and memory . The John I. Parcel – Leif J. Sverdrup Civil Engineering Management Award is awarded annually by the American Society of Civil Engineers . In 1976 , he was elevated to National Honor Member by Chi Epsilon national civil engineering honor society . Since 1980 , the Sverdrup Medal of the Society of American Military Engineers has been awarded annually in his memory . At Augsburg College , the annual Sverdrup Visiting Scientist Program is endowed by the Sverdrup family and by NASA through the Minnesota Space Grant Consortium . The communications building at Webster University 's main campus is named after Sverdrup . The building houses the School of Communications , as well as the May Gallery of art . Camp Sakima at the S @-@ F Scout Ranch is also named for Sverdrup . The Sverdrup chapter of the Army Engineer Association at Fort Leonard Wood , Missouri , is named for him as well having the front gate bear his name .
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= Brandon Roy =
Brandon Dawayne Roy ( born July 23 , 1984 ) is an American retired professional basketball player who played for the Portland Trail Blazers and Minnesota Timberwolves in the National Basketball Association ( NBA ) . He was selected sixth in the 2006 NBA draft , having completed four years playing for the Washington Huskies . His nickname was " B @-@ Roy " , but he was also referred to as " The Natural " by Trail Blazers announcer Brian Wheeler . On December 10 , 2011 , Roy announced his retirement from basketball due to a degenerative knee condition , though he returned in 2012 to play five games for the Timberwolves .
Born in Seattle , Washington , Roy became known for his immediate impact on the Trail Blazers . Zach Randolph , then the team captain , was traded to the New York Knicks at the end of Roy 's first season in 2006 – 07 , which cleared the way for Roy to take on a leadership role on the team . That season , Roy won the NBA Rookie of the Year Award in a near @-@ unanimous vote . He was selected as a reserve to the 2008 , 2009 , and 2010 All @-@ Star games . Roy played the most minutes of any Western Conference player , and tied for the most points in the West in the 2008 season , and he played the most minutes of any player during the 2009 season .
= = Early years = =
Roy was born in Seattle , Washington , on July 23 , 1984 , and attended the African @-@ American Academy elementary school . He first started taking basketball seriously while playing for the Amateur Athletic Union , one of the largest sports organizations in the United States . He attended Garfield High School in Seattle , and was considered one of the state 's best high school players . He was an early @-@ entry candidate for the 2002 NBA draft straight out of high school , but he withdrew his name after consideration .
Roy attended Nate McMillan 's basketball camp in the 1990s when the future Blazer coach was still playing for the Seattle SuperSonics .
Considered a four @-@ star recruit by Scout.com , Roy was listed as the No. 6 shooting guard and the No. 36 player in the nation in 2002 .
= = College career = =
Roy faced challenges before entering college . His parents and his older brother had not attended college , and due to a learning disability Roy had difficulty with the SAT ; his reading comprehension was slow , which increased the time he needed for tests . He had taken the test four times ( with tutors ) before finally meeting the NCAA requirements . Unsure whether he would be able to attend a four @-@ year college , Roy worked on the Seattle docks , cleaning shipping containers for $ 11 / hour .
In 2002 , Roy started to play for the University of Washington ( UW ) . He remained there for four years under head coach Lorenzo Romar . He majored in American Ethnic Studies . After his junior year , Roy considered entering the draft , but changed his mind when he learned that teammate Nate Robinson and high school senior and UW signee Martell Webster intended to enter the draft . He saw an opportunity to rise in the ranks on his college team , and improve his draft position .
On December 29 , 2005 , Roy led the Huskies to victory over the Arizona State Sun Devils with a college career @-@ high 35 points and became the 31st Washington player to score 1 @,@ 000 points in a career . The following game he equalled his career @-@ high of 35 points in a double overtime loss to the Arizona Wildcats .
During his senior year Roy averaged 20 @.@ 2 points per game while leading the Huskies to a 26 – 7 season and a second straight Sweet Sixteen appearance . Roy was named Pac @-@ 10 player of the year and received All @-@ American honors at the end of the season , while also being a finalist for the Wooden , Naismith , Oscar Robertson , and Adolph Rupp awards . Roy had a 2006 pre @-@ draft workout with the Trail Blazers prior to being selected by the Minnesota Timberwolves as the sixth overall pick . However , he was immediately traded to the Trail Blazers for the draft rights of Randy Foye . On January 22 , 2009 , before a University of Washington Husky home game versus the USC Trojans , his number 3 uniform was retired .
= = = College statistics = = =
= = = College awards and honors = = =
Consensus NCAA All @-@ American First Team ( 2006 )
AP All @-@ American First Team ( 2006 )
USBWA All @-@ American First Team ( 2006 )
Sporting News All @-@ American First Team ( 2006 )
NABC All @-@ American Second Team ( 2006 )
Pac @-@ 10 Player of the Year ( 2006 )
All @-@ Pac @-@ 10 First Team ( 2006 )
Pac @-@ 12 All @-@ Tournament Team ( 2006 )
= = NBA career = =
= = = Portland Trail Blazers ( 2006 – 2011 ) = = =
= = = = 2006 – 07 season = = = =
Roy 's NBA debut was in his hometown against the Seattle SuperSonics . He scored 20 points in that game , and 19 in the following game . An impingement in his left heel kept him out of 20 games early in the season , but he scored his first career double @-@ double shortly after his return , on December 22 , 2006 , against the Toronto Raptors . At the end of January 2007 , Roy led all NBA rookies with 14 @.@ 5 points per game . He became the fourth Trail Blazer to be selected for the rookie squad of the NBA All @-@ Star Weekend Rookie Challenge since its inception in 1994 . He was the first Trail Blazer to participate in the All @-@ Star Weekend since Rasheed Wallace 's selection as an all star reserve in 2001 .
He was the Western Conference 's Rookie of the Month in January , February , and March 2007 . After averaging 16 @.@ 8 points , 4 @.@ 4 rebounds and 4 @.@ 0 assists per game during the 2006 – 07 NBA season , Roy was named NBA Rookie of the Year . He received 127 out of 128 first @-@ place votes . Due to injury , he played in only 57 games in that season , the second @-@ fewest games for a Rookie of the Year . He was the third Trail Blazer to win the award , the first two being Geoff Petrie and Sidney Wicks .
= = = = 2007 – 08 season = = = =
Roy started in the first 48 games of the 2007 – 08 season , averaging 19 @.@ 1 points , 5 @.@ 8 assists and 4 @.@ 6 rebounds . He also led the Blazers to a 13 @-@ game winning streak in the month of December . Roy was selected as a reserve for the 2008 NBA All @-@ Star Game . He scored 18 points in that game , and also had 9 rebounds . He injured his right ankle in the final game before the All @-@ Star Weekend . Although he earned accolades for his play over the weekend , the injury impacted his play in the following weeks . He played in the Rookie Challenge for the second time , this time as a " sophomore " ; teammate LaMarcus Aldridge was also on the sophomore squad . Roy played about 29 minutes in the All @-@ Star game , the most of any Western Conference player . He also tied Chris Paul and Amar 'e Stoudemire for the most points with 18 .
= = = = 2008 – 09 season = = = =
In the 2008 preseason , Roy underwent a 20 @-@ minute medical procedure in Vancouver , Washington , during which team physician Don Roberts removed a piece of cartilage that was causing irritation in Roy 's left knee . Roy missed several weeks of action because of the rehabilitation , but was ready on the opening day of the season against the Los Angeles Lakers . On November 6 , against the Houston Rockets , Roy hit a game @-@ winning 30 @-@ foot jumper in overtime with eight @-@ tenths of a second left . On December 18 , Roy scored a career @-@ high 52 points against the Phoenix Suns . He made 14 of 27 shots from the field , 19 of 21 from the free @-@ throw line , and 5 of 7 from the three @-@ point line . He also added six assists , five rebounds and a blocked shot , all without a turnover . On January 24 , Roy tied a Blazers franchise record with 10 steals against the Washington Wizards . On February 8 with the Blazers trailing by 1 against the Knicks , Roy made a layup at the buzzer to win it 109 – 108 . As of February 16 , 2009 , Roy has had 24 shots which tied or won the games with 35 seconds or less . Roy was again selected as a reserve in the 2009 NBA All @-@ Star Game , where he scored 14 points in 7 @-@ for @-@ 8 shooting , grabbed 5 boards , and dished out 5 assists in a game @-@ high 31 minutes of action . On April 13 , Roy was named Western Conference Player of the Week , the fourth time he has won the award . Roy and Clyde Drexler are the only Portland Trail Blazers to win the award four times . Roy finished 9th in MVP voting for the 2008 – 09 season , garnering one 4th @-@ place vote and four 5th @-@ place votes for a total of 7 points . Roy was named to the All @-@ NBA Second Team on May 13 , and was the first Blazer to make an All @-@ NBA team since the 1991 – 92 season .
= = = = 2009 – 10 season = = = =
On August 5 , 2009 , it was confirmed that Roy had agreed to a four @-@ year maximum @-@ salary contract with a fifth @-@ year player option , keeping him a Trail Blazer until at least the 2013 – 14 season .
Roy was selected to compete in the 2010 NBA All @-@ Star Game , marking his third selection as an NBA All @-@ Star . However , Roy was sidelined because of a right hamstring injury he sustained on January 13 against the Milwaukee Bucks , and re @-@ aggravated on January 20 against the Philadelphia 76ers .
On April 11 , 2010 , Roy injured his right knee . Magnetic resonance imaging that night confirmed a right knee bone contusion ( bone bruise ) and on April 12 , further examination of the MRI showed a slight meniscus tear . Roy underwent surgery on April 16 and was expected to miss at least the first round of the 2010 NBA Playoffs , but returned for Game 4 after eight days of recovery time to lead the Blazers to a win .
Roy was named to the All @-@ NBA Third Team on May 6 , and this was his second season in a row to be named to an All @-@ NBA Team .
= = = = 2010 – 11 season = = = =
Roy started the first month of the season scoring at his normal rate , but by December it started showing that his knees , which have bothered him since college and were injured in April , were ailing due to lack of cartilage . He missed nine games before the Trail Blazers announced that he would be out indefinitely . It was widely speculated that Roy would not be able to play at an All @-@ Star level again . This forced the team to start running its offense through forward LaMarcus Aldridge and backup guard Wesley Matthews .
On January 17 , 2011 , Roy underwent arthroscopic surgery on both of his knees . He returned to the lineup on February 25 , scoring 18 points off the bench , including a clutch three @-@ pointer to force overtime , and helping the Blazers win the game 107 @-@ 106 . Roy then took on a reserve role for the rest of the season , scoring inconsistently to finish with a career @-@ low season average of 12 @.@ 2 points , 2 @.@ 6 rebounds , 2 @.@ 7 assists and 28 minutes in 47 games .
The Blazers then faced the Dallas Mavericks in the first round of the 2011 NBA Playoffs . Roy shot 1 @-@ for @-@ 8 the first 2 games , including a Game 2 where he saw only 8 minutes of playing time and went scoreless . The Blazers lost both games and trailed 0 @-@ 2 in the series . He expressed his frustration about being the last substitution during the first 2 quarters , and playing for 8 minutes after getting 26 minutes in Game 1 . The series then went to Portland , and Roy scored 16 points in 23 minutes off the bench to boost the Blazers to a 97 @-@ 92 Game 3 win .
Both the Blazers and Mavericks started Game 4 with a quiet first half , with Dallas leading slightly . The Blazers then missed their first 15 shots after halftime as the Mavs ' lead grew as big as 67 @-@ 44 . Roy then made a three @-@ pointer near the end of the third to cut the lead to 67 @-@ 49 . In the fourth quarter , Roy scored 18 points after going 1 @-@ for @-@ 3 the previous 3 quarters , including a clutch 4 @-@ point play to tie the game and a bank shot from the middle of the paint with 49 seconds left to give his team the lead for good , finishing with 24 points to lead the Blazers to an improbable 84 @-@ 82 win to tie the series . The Blazers would go on to lose the series in 6 games , but it gave hope for Roy to start again next season .
= = = = Retirement = = = =
Just before NBA training camp opened following the resolution of the 2011 NBA lockout , Roy announced that his knees had degenerated so much — he lacked cartilage between the bones of both knees — that he was retiring from basketball .
Following his announcement of retirement , the Portland Trail Blazers used their amnesty clause on Roy for salary cap flexibility .
= = = Comeback = = =
In June 2012 , Roy announced that he was planning to make a comeback to the NBA . He said he had recovered enough to play after having the platelet @-@ rich plasma procedure that Kobe Bryant has also had to keep his knees healthy . He could not play for Portland under the current NBA Collective Bargaining Agreement because of Portland 's amnesty of him in 2011 . Roy entered the free agent market on July 1 , 2012 . Roy reportedly had expressed interest in signing with the Dallas Mavericks , Golden State Warriors , Minnesota Timberwolves , Indiana Pacers , or Chicago Bulls .
= = = Minnesota Timberwolves ( 2012 – 2013 ) = = =
On July 31 , 2012 , Roy signed with the Minnesota Timberwolves . The deal put Roy with All @-@ Star forward Kevin Love and point guard Ricky Rubio . He decided to wear No. 3 , the number he wore during his college years at Washington . He felt well during training camp but suffered an injury after a collision during a preseason game on October 26 , 2012 . He played in five regular season games before needing season @-@ ending surgery on his right knee . He averaged 5 @.@ 8 points per game , 2 @.@ 8 rebounds per game , and 4 @.@ 6 assists per game in 24 @.@ 4 minutes during the 2012 @-@ 13 season . Roy was waived by Minnesota on May 10 , 2013 . Afterwards , he said , " Any time you walk away from the game , you have ' what @-@ ifs ' . I feel like I was able to answer those questions last year by going out there and giving it a try . "
= = Personal life = =
Roy 's longtime girlfriend Tiana Bardwell delivered their first child , Brandon Jr . , whom they nicknamed BJ , on March 27 , 2007 , in Seattle .
About two months later , Roy took Bardwell out to look at rings " just to get an idea of what she 'd like " . On June 16 , 2007 , while both were at Roy 's home in Renton , Washington , he sent Bardwell a text message instructing her to look in a drawer in his closet , telling her that she could have whatever she found . Bardwell discovered a ring that she had mentioned she liked , at which point Roy entered the room with their son and said , " BJ wants to know if you will marry his daddy " . Bardwell immediately accepted . Roy said the entire proposal was " free @-@ styled " .
Roy and Bardwell had their second child , Mariah Leilani , in January 2009 .
Roy and Bardwell got married on September 4 , 2010 , in West Linn .
= = Awards and honors = =
3x : NBA All Star : 2008 , 2009 , 2010 .
2x : All @-@ NBA Team : 2009 All @-@ NBA Second Team : 2010
NBA Rookie of the Year : 2007
NBA All @-@ Rookie Team : 2007 NBA All @-@ Rookie First Team .
Western Conference Player of the Week
December 3 – 9 , 2007
December 10 – 17 , 2007
November 24 – 30 , 2008
April 6 – 12 , 2009
March 8 – 14 , 2010
= = NBA career statistics = =
= = = Regular season = = =
= = = Playoffs = = =
= = = Career highs = = =
Points : 52 on December 18 , 2008 , against the Phoenix Suns .
Rebounds : 14 on February 21 , 2008 , against the Seattle SuperSonics .
Assists : 12 on February 29 , 2008 , and April 4 , 2009 , against the Los Angeles Lakers .
Blocks : 3 on March 3 , 2010 , against the Indiana Pacers .
Steals : 10 on January 24 , 2009 , against the Washington Wizards .
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= Battle of Cartagena de Indias =
The Battle of Cartagena de Indias was an amphibious military engagement between the forces of Britain under Vice @-@ Admiral Edward Vernon and those of Spain under Admiral Blas de Lezo . It took place at the city of Cartagena de Indias in March 1741 , in present @-@ day Colombia . The battle was a significant episode of the War of Jenkins ' Ear and a large @-@ scale naval campaign . The war later was subsumed into the greater conflict of the War of the Austrian Succession . The battle resulted in a major defeat for the British Navy and Army .
The defeat caused heavy losses for the British : mostly due to disease that also took its toll among the Spanish forces , especially yellow fever .
= = Background = =
The War of Jenkins ' Ear was a conflict between Great Britain and Spain that lasted from 1739 to 1748 . Under the 1729 Treaty of Seville , the British had agreed not to trade with the Spanish colonies except under limited conditions , under the Asiento de Negros slave trade and the Annual Ship under the Navio de Permiso . The Asiento allowed Britain a monopoly to supply 5 @,@ 000 slaves a year to the Spanish colonies . The Navio de Permiso permitted a single yearly trading ship , the Annual Ship , which could carry 1000 tons of imports to the yearly trade fair in Porto Bello . Upon receiving these concessions from Spain , the British government granted a monopoly for both to the South Sea Company . The merchants and bankers in Britain , who were the driving force behind Britain 's international commerce and trading , demanded more access to the lucrative Spanish markets of the Caribbean Basin . In turn , the Spanish colonists desired British @-@ made goods , so a burgeoning black market of smuggled goods developed .
By the terms of the treaty , the Spanish were permitted to board British vessels in Spanish waters . After one such boarding in 1731 , Robert Jenkins , captain of the ship Rebecca , claimed that a Spanish coast guard officer had severed his ear . The legend that Jenkins exhibited his pickled ear to the House of Commons appears to have no basis in fact . This served to heighten the " war fever " developing against Spain , which was also driven by the British desire for commercial and military domination of the Atlantic basin . To much cheering , the British Prime Minister , Robert Walpole , reluctantly declared war on October 23 , 1739 , reportedly saying , " They may ring their bells now ; they will be wringing their hands before long . "
= = = Spanish Caribbean = = =
The Spanish Caribbean trade had a network of four main ports : Vera Cruz , Mexico ; Cartagena , Colombia ; Porto Bello ( now Portobelo ) , Panama ; and the main port through which all the trade of those three ports came , Havana , Cuba . On November 22 , 1739 the British captured Portobelo in the Viceroyalty of New Granada . The British attack was part of an attempt to damage Spain 's finances . The poorly defended port was attacked by six ships of the line under Vice @-@ Admiral Edward Vernon . The relative ease of this capture , although it was quickly recaptured by the Spanish after Vernon 's fleet departed , caused jubilation in Britain .
Vernon was given command of the very large naval force , which was one quarter of the British Royal Navy , of a major land and sea amphibious expedition under the overall command of Lord Cathcart . The first goal of the expedition was to capture Havana , the most important of the Spanish ports because it had facilities where ships could be refitted and , by 1740 , it had become Spain 's largest and most active shipyard . Lord Cathcart died en route and it remained unclear who was in command overall . Cathcart 's untimely demise resulted in dissension in the British command , preventing the coordination needed for this complex operation .
The despatch of the large fleet and troop contingent had been demanded by the public led by the merchant class lobbies , especially , and the South Sea Company , in particular , which refused to accept the compromise agreements made by the governments of Spain and Britain . The Duke of Newcastle advocated the public 's demands before Parliament . Vice @-@ Admiral Vernon was an active and ardent supporter of war against Spain and advocated offensive action both in Parliament and before the Admiralty . The decision to mount a large West Indies expedition was reached in December 1739 . Walpole , who opposed the war categorically , and Vernon , who favored small squadron actions , were dissatisfied with the situation . Vernon , despite his earlier failed small squadron raid on Cartagena , was not convinced that a large @-@ scale attack on a heavily fortified city would prove to be as successful as his smaller Portobello assault had been . He feared , particularly , that a prolonged siege would lead to heavy attrition from disease , a typical situation given the limited medical knowledge of the time .
= = = Objectives = = =
Britain 's objective was to capture and permanently retain Spain 's four ports of the Caribbean basin . By taking control of these ports , the British would effectively control the entry and exit routes to South America . The British would have bases from which to launch attacks into the interior , and Spain would have limited access to deep water ports on the eastern coast of their American colonies and therefore be unable to resupply their inland forces . Control of these ports would provide the British with a key control of the area and allow them , in time , to acquire the whole of Spain 's American empire . However , Britain had no place to build and refit ships in the Caribbean , as Spain did with the dockyards at Havana , and without a dockyard no fleet could remain in the area for any length of time without breaking down . Quick capture of Havana and its dry dock was imperative and it was the favored objective of Newcastle and Sir Charles Wager , First Lord of the Admiralty , but Britain 's divided ministry left the course of the campaign up to Vernon and others at a Council of War held in Jamaica . They followed Vernon , who preferred Cartagena as their initial objective as it was a good port and to windward of Britain 's existing Caribbean bases and Vernon thought Havana too well defended to be the initial target .
= = = The city of Cartagena de Indias = = =
Cartagena of Indies , in the eighteenth century , was a large and rich city of over 10 @,@ 000 people . It was the capital of the province of Cartagena and the main town had significant fortifications that had been recently repaired , increased and improved with outlying forts , batteries and works . Its harbor was considered one of the finest in the world and it served the galleons of the commercial fleet , Galeones a Tierra Firme y Perú , that annually conveyed through Havana to Spain the immense revenues of gold and silver from New Granada and Peru .
Founded by Pedro Heredia in 1533 , it had been the target of conquest in the past and was captured by the English , under Francis Drake , in 1585 and by the French , under Baron de Pointis in 1697 . The city faces the Caribbean to the west , to the south its bay has two entrances : Boca Chica ( Little Mouth ) and Boca Grande ( Big Mouth ) . Boca Chica was the only deep water entrance and was so narrow it allowed the passage of only one ship at a time . This entrance was defended on one side by the Fort San Luis with a couple of small outworks on the peninsula of Terra Bomba and on the other side by the fascine battery Baradera . Beyond Boca Chica was the great lagoon of the outer harbor with an entry channel into the inner harbor between two peninsulas , each defended by a fort . The walls of the city itself mounted some 160 cannon and the suburbs 140 guns . The city was surrounded by a water @-@ filled ditch and its gates supported by recently built bastions . The suburbs were also surrounded by a wall and ditch . About a quarter mile south from the city on a hill was Fort San Lazaro , a square fifty feet on a side with three demi @-@ bastions . The position of Fort San Lazaro commanded the city itself and the plain around the hill . There was also a small hill nearby that commanded Fort Lazaro , but there was no fresh water source available outside Cartagena and the fort . The road from the best landing point , the beach at Texar de Gracias , to Fort Lazaro was three miles long .
= = Battle = =
The Battle of Cartagena pitted a British invasion force of 186 ships including : 29 Ships of the Line ; 22 frigates , 2 hospital ships , various fire ships and bomb ships armed with a total of some 2 @,@ 000 cannon ; 80 troop transports and 50 merchant ships . There were at least 27 @,@ 400 military personnel , of which the land force totaled 12 @,@ 000 including : two British regular infantry regiments , the 15th Foot and 24th Foot , 6 @,@ 000 newly raised marines and some 3 @,@ 600 American colonial troops , commanded by Colonel William Gooch ( the Lieutenant Governor of Virginia ) , in four battalions designated as the 43rd Regiment of Foot , arriving from the North American colonies on another 40 transports .
The Spanish force defending Cartagena was composed of 2 @,@ 700 to 3 @,@ 000 Spanish regulars from the regiments Aragon , España and that of Toledo , Lisboa and Navarra just arrived in October 1740 , brought by Vice @-@ admiral Torres ; a colonial regiment from Cartagena ; an unspecified number of sailors ; 5 companies of militia and 600 Indian archers , perhaps 4 @,@ 000 to 6 @,@ 000 defenders , manning six Ships of the Line and strategic fortifications — under the command of the Governor General of Cartagena , Don Blas de Lezo and the Viceroy of New Granada , Sebastián de Eslava . Blas de Lezo , a Basque , was an experienced , wily and tenacious Spanish Naval commander , whose previous career was as daring and spectacular as any naval officer of his day . Lezo , who had lost an arm , a leg and an eye in the service of Spain , made use of every advantage , strategy and tactic available to him .
= = = Preliminary maneuvers = = =
The expedition was very slow leaving Britain . Initially , contrary winds delayed the sailing until most of the shipboard provisions were consumed and a steep increase of sickness occurred among the ship crews . Then news of the sailing of the French squadrons and a Spanish squadron caused further delay while the British fleet was reinforced in response . The expedition suffered from manpower shortages in the navy , which required drafting two full infantry regiments , the 34th and 36th , to fill crew requirements Cathcart was ordered by the government to transfer 600 of his marines to provide marines for the men of war . These delays cost the British three months of valuable campaign time . The 3 @,@ 600 Americans were transported to Jamaica from New York on 40 transports escorted by some British men of war and arrived much sooner on December 3 , 1740 . The Americans were originally under the command of General Spotswood , Governor of Virginia , who was to be second @-@ in command under Cathcart , however Spotswood died and was replaced by Gooch as commander of the Americans . They found on their arrival that no arrangements had been made by the British government for their provisions . The lack of provision and climate immediately began to take a toll on the Americans , while the fleet from Britain was suffering from typhus , scurvy and dysentery ; by January 1741 the land forces had already suffered 500 dead , including Lord Cathcart the commander in chief , and 1 @,@ 500 sick . With both Cathcart and Spotswood dead , command of the land forces went to Thomas Wentworth , who had no previous combat command experience . In Jamaica , 300 African slaves , called ' Macheteros ' , were added to the expedition as a work battalion . Additional delays before and after embarking from Jamaica cost more precious time , including a brief skirmish with a French squadron . Both the British and the Spanish were well aware that with onset of the two @-@ month rainy season in May , the so @-@ called ' sickly season ' , which would last from May to November , would also begin .
The Spanish had received reinforcements but were already suffering severely from diseases as well . Similar to the British , but not as disruptive to operations , there was dissension between Lezo and Eslava . In particular , Lezo favored a very strong , all @-@ out defense of Boca Chica channel ; Eslava 's opposition led to an under @-@ manning of some of the forward defenses , allowing the British an easier initial landing .
= = = Attack on Fort San Luis at Boca Chica = = =
The British expedition arrived off Cartagena on March 4 with no overall commander but with decisions being made by councils of war , with General Wentworth commanding the land forces and Vernon the sea forces . The navy had lost so many sailors by this time as a result of the epidemics that one third of the land forces were needed to fill out the crews . Although the city of Cartagena was fronted on one side by the ocean , the shore and surf were so rough as to preclude any attempt to approach it from sea . The other access channel , Boca Grande , was too shallow to allow the passage of ocean @-@ going ships . The channel of Boca Chica was the only deep @-@ draft passage into the harbor of Cartagena . It ran between two narrow peninsulas and was defended on one side by the fort of San Luis , Boca Chica Castle , with four bastions having some 49 cannons , 3 mortars and a garrison of 300 soldiers under the command of the chief engineer , Carlos Desnaux . A boom stretched from the island of La Bomba to the southern peninsula on which was Fort San Jose with 13 cannon and 150 soldiers . Also supporting the entrance were the 6 Spanish line ships .
After a week of bombardment , the British planned to land near the smaller access channel , Boca Chica , with 300 grenadiers . The Spanish defenders of two small , nearby forts , San Iago and San Philip , were driven off by a division of three ships of the fleet under Chaloner Ogle which suffered some 120 casualties with the Shrewsbury alone losing 100 killed and wounded as well as taking serious damage from cannon fire from Fort San Luis . The grenadiers landed that evening and were followed on March 22 by the whole of the British land forces : the two regular regiments and the six regiments of marines . Of the American land forces only 300 were allowed ashore as most of the American troops of the four battalions had been dispersed to serve aboard the Ships of the Line to replace Vernon 's losses in sailors and were not available for amphibious operations . They were followed in a few days by the artillery . After the army made camp , the Americans and the Jamaicans constructed a battery in two weeks and its twenty 24 pounder guns began battering the fort . A squadron of five ships , consisting of the Boyne , Prince Frederick , Hampton Court , Tilbury , and Suffolk , led inshore by Commodore Lestock , also attempted to batter the fort into submission for two days but had the worst of it , making no impression on the fort and having many men killed and three ships heavily damaged and disabled .
The British artillery on land , after three days of firing night and day , made a breach in the main fort while part of the fleet assisted . Another part of the fleet engaged the Spanish ships , two of which Lezo scuttled and another , the Galicia , he set on fire . The two scuttled Spanish ships partially blocked the channel and the Galicia was captured by the British before it could sink . The British attacked Fort San Luis by land and sea on April 5 . The infantry advanced on the breach ; however , the Spanish had already retreated to fortifications in the inner harbor . Over the following week , the landing force re @-@ embarked and entered the harbor . The operation against Boca Chica cost the British army 120 killed and wounded , additionally 250 died from the diseases of yellow fever and malaria , and 600 sick were hospitalized .
= = = Attack on Fort San Lazaro = = =
The next council of war decided to attempt to isolate Cartagena from the land side by an assault of Fort San Lazaro , called in some accounts San Felipe de Barajas . With the capture of San Luis and other outlying defensive works , the fleet passed through the Boca Chica channel into the lagoon that made up the harbor of Cartagena . The Spanish withdrew to concentrate their forces at Fort San Lazaro and the city . Vernon goaded Wentworth into an ill @-@ considered , badly planned assault on the fort , an outlying strong @-@ point of Cartagena , which Vernon refused to support with the fleet making specious excuses about the depth of the harbor . The ships cleared the beach with cannon fire and Wentworth landed on April 16 at Texar de Gracias .
After the British gained the inner harbor and captured some outlying forts , de Lezo strengthened the last main bastion of Fort San Lazaro by digging a trench around it and clearing a field of fire on the approach . He had to hold the fort as it commanded the city and , in British hands , a bombardment would force Cartagena to surrender in a short time . Lezo defended the trench with some 650 soldiers and garrisoned the fort with another 300 , while keeping in hand a reserve of 200 marines and sailors . The British advanced from the beach and had to pass a narrow defile . There they met a Spanish force that briefly contested that passage before giving way .
The only British engineer with the expedition had been killed at fort San Luis ; no one could construct a battery to breach the walls . The British decided to storm the fort outright in a coup de main , walls unbreached , during a night attack . The night attack would allow the assault of the northern side of the fort facing Cartagena because , in the dark , the guns of Cartagena would not be able to give supporting fire . The southern side had the lowest and most vulnerable walls and the grenadiers would attempt to quickly storm and carry the parapets . But the attack started late and the initial advance on Lazaro was made near dawn at 4 am April 20 by a forlorn hope of 50 picked men followed by 450 grenadiers commanded by Colonel Wynyard . The main body was 1 @,@ 000 men of the 15th and 24th regiments commanded by Colonel Grant , then a mixed company from the 34th and 36th regiments and some unarmed Americans carrying scaling @-@ ladders for the fort 's high walls and wool packs to fill in the trench . Finally , there was a reserve of 500 marines under Colonel Wolfe .
The column was led by two Spanish deserters as guides who misled the British on the southern low walled side . Wynyard was led to a steep approach and , as the grenadiers scrambled up the slope , they were received with a deadly volley of musket fire at thirty yards from the Spanish in the entrenchments . The grenadiers deployed into line and advanced , slowly trading fire . On the north face , Grant fell early and the leaderless troops traded fire with the Spanish . Most of the Americans dropped the ladders they carried and took cover . Those ladders brought forward were too short by ten feet . After an hour , the sun rose and as the guns of Cartagena opened fire on the British , casualties mounted . At eight o 'clock , when a column of Spanish infantry coming from the gates of Cartagena threatened to cut the British off from their ships , Wentworth ordered a retreat . The assault failed , with a loss of 600 casualties from a force of approximately 2 @,@ 000 . Sickness and disease increased the casualties of the expedition . During the period surrounding the attack on Fort San Lazaro , Wentworth 's land forces were reduced from 6 @,@ 500 effectives to 3 @,@ 200 .
= = = British withdrawal = = =
Don Blas de Lezo 's plan had been that , given the overwhelming force against him , he would attempt to conduct a fighting withdrawal and delay the British long enough until the start of the rainy season at the end of April . The tropical downpours would delay campaigning for another 2 months . Further , the longer the enemy had to remain mostly crowded on ships at sea and in the open on land , the more likely that insufficient supply , discomfort and especially disease would become his allies and the deadly enemies of the British . De Lezo was aided by the contempt that Vernon and Wentworth had for each other , which prevented their cooperation after the initial landing .
Another important factor in the defeat of the British force was the fact that Cartagena 's defensive fortifications had been repaired and improved over the past year . Although De Lezo was pressed to the limit , his plan worked and the Spanish prevailed . The rains came and the British had to board their ships , where close quarters made disease even more deadly . By April 25 , Vernon and the council decided to retreat to Jamaica , and by mid @-@ May they were gone . By May 7 , only 1 @,@ 700 men of the land forces were fit for service and no more than 1 @,@ 000 in condition to land against the enemy ; within a month of leaving Cartagena , another 1 @,@ 100 died . British strength was reduced to 1 @,@ 400 and American to 1 @,@ 300 .
The expedition and battle lasted for 67 days and ended with the British fleet withdrawing in defeat , with 18 @,@ 000 dead or incapacitated , mostly by disease . The Spanish also suffered severely from disease including Blas de Lezo himself , who died a few weeks after falling ill from the plague from unburied bodies . In addition a total of 50 British ships were lost , badly damaged , disabled or abandoned for lack of crews . There were nineteen ships of the line damaged , four frigates and twenty @-@ seven transports lost . Of the 3 @,@ 600 American colonists , who had volunteered , lured by promises of land and mountains of gold , most died of yellow fever , dysentery , and outright starvation . Only 300 returned home , including Lawrence Washington , who renamed his Virginia plantation , Mount Vernon after Admiral Vernon .
During the early stage of the battle , when the Spanish forces had retreated from different defense points to regroup in the larger fortress of San Lazaro , feeling victory in his hands Vernon dispatched a messenger , Captain Laws , to Britain to inform King George of the British forces ' entry to the inner bay on May 17 . The souvenir industry , in expectation of a triumph that never came , had been busily manufacturing commemorative medals for the occasion . They were mainly made by button @-@ makers , who copied a few basic designs and are generally of very poor quality . The largest collections of these medals can be found in the UK and the US . Commemorative china was also produced but its survival has been rarer . In one of the medals Admiral Vernon was shown looking down upon the " defeated " Spanish admiral Don Blas de Lezo who appeared kneeling down . A contemporary song was composed by a sailor from the Shrewsbury that prematurely celebrated the victory :
VERNON 'S GLORY ; OR , THE SPANIARDS DEFEAT .
Being an account of the taking of Carthagena by Vice @-@ Admiral Vernon ... " ... and the town surrender [ ed ]
To Admiral Vernon , the scourge of Spain " .
The main reasons for the British defeat were the failure of the British to find united leadership after the commander in chief , General Charles Cathcart , died of dysentery en route ; the logistic inability to land siege artillery and ammunition near to Cartagena ; the impediments made by Vernon that prevented involvement of his line ships to support the infantry forces ; and the effective Spanish maneuvers carried out by the viceroy Sebastián de Eslava , Admiral Blas de Lezo and Colonel Carlos Suivillars .
After the defeat , Admiral Vernon sent a letter to Blas de Lezo : " We have decided to retreat , but we will return to Cartagena after we take reinforcements in Jamaica " , to which Blas de Lezo ironically responded : " In order to come to Cartagena , the English King must build a better and larger fleet , because yours now is only suitable to transport coal from Ireland to London " .
= = Aftermath = =
Following the news of the disaster Robert Walpole 's government soon collapsed . Spain retained control over its most strategically important colonies , including the vitally crucial port in the Caribbean that helped secure the defense of the Spanish Main and its trans @-@ Atlantic trade with Spain .
News of Britain 's defeat reached Europe at the end of June , 1741 and had immense repercussions . It caused George II of Great Britain , who had been acting as mediator between Frederick the Great of Prussia and Maria Theresa supporting Austria over Prussian seizure of Silesia in December 1740 , to withdraw Britain 's guarantees of armed support for the Pragmatic Sanction . That encouraged France and Spain , the Bourbon allies , revealed to also be allied with Prussia , to move militarily against a now isolated Austria . A greater and wider war , the War of the Austrian Succession , now began .
The staggering losses suffered by the British compromised all the subsequent actions by Vernon and Wentworth in the Caribbean and most ended in acrimonious failure despite reinforcements of 1 @,@ 000 troops from Jamaica and 3 @,@ 000 regular infantry from Britain . Vernon and Wentworth were both recalled to Britain in September 1742 , with Chaloner Ogle taking command of a very sickly fleet that had less than half its sailors fit for duty . By the time the Caribbean campaign ended in May 1742 ninety percent of the army had died from combat and sickness . Several other British attacks took place in the Caribbean with little consequence on the geopolitical situation in the Atlantic . The weakened British forces led by Charles Knowles made raids upon the Venezuelan coast , attacking La Guaira in February 1743 and Puerto Cabello in April , though neither operation was particularly successful .
The failure to take Cartagena caused what was left of the naval forces assigned to Vernon to remain in the Caribbean longer . This resulted in the weakened Mediterranean squadron being unable to prevent the Spanish from twice convoying troops totalling 25 @,@ 000 to Italy in November and December 1741 . It was not until Commodore Richard Lestock , commander of one of Vernon 's divisions at Cartagena , returned to Europe with ships from the Caribbean fleet , that Britain reinforced its presence in the Mediterranean .
Historian Reed Browning describes the British Cartagena expedition as " stupidly disastrous " and quotes Horace Walpole , whose father was Vernon 's bitter enemy , writing in 1744 : " We have already lost seven millions of money and thirty thousand men in the Spanish war and all the fruit of all this blood and treasure is the glory of having Admiral Vernon 's head on alehouse signs . "
In spite of his defeat the inscription on Vernon 's marble memorial in Westminster Abbey credits him for victory in Cartagena in a deliberately elliptical style : " He subdued Chagre , and at Carthagena conquered as far as naval forces could carry victory " that probably also reflects ironically his conflict with Wentworth .
= = Popular Culture = =
Scottish folk / pirate metal band Alestorm , has a song entitled ' 1741 ( The Battle of Cartagena ) ' on their 2014 album ' Sunset on the Golden Age ' , which chronicles the battle .
= = Additional reading = =
= = = Fiction = = =
Smollet , Tobias . The Adventures of Roderick Random . 1748 . Historical novel based on Smollett 's own experiences at Cartagena .
Hall , Charles W .. Cartagena or the Lost Brigade . 1898 . Historical novel of the North American contingent at Cartagena .
Régniez , Philippe . Blas de Lezo . In French . Les Editions de La Reconquête , 2012 , Assomption .
In the detective / historical novel " Watery Grave " by Bruce Alexander © 1996 , the main character , the blind judge Sir John Fielding , describes how , as a junior officer , he was blinded at the battle of Cartagena ( 3 pages )
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= Dr. Dre =
Andre Romelle Young ( born February 18 , 1965 ) , better known by his stage name Dr. Dre , is an American rapper , record producer , and entrepreneur . He is the founder and current CEO of Aftermath Entertainment and Beats Electronics . Dre was previously the co @-@ owner of , and an artist on , Death Row Records . He has produced albums for and overseen the careers of many rappers , including 2Pac , The D.O.C. , Snoop Dogg , Eminem , Xzibit , Knoc @-@ turn 'al , 50 Cent , The Game and Kendrick Lamar . He is credited as a key figure in the popularization of West Coast G @-@ funk , a style of rap music characterized as synthesizer @-@ based with slow , heavy beats . In 2014 , Dr. Dre was ranked as the second richest figure in the American hip hop scene by Forbes with a net worth of $ 550 million ; he is at the top of the 2015 Forbes list , with an estimated pre @-@ tax take of $ 620 million in 2014 .
Dre began his career as a member of the World Class Wreckin ' Cru and later found fame with the influential gangsta rap group N.W.A with Eazy @-@ E , Ice Cube , MC Ren , and DJ Yella , which popularized the use of explicit lyrics in rap to detail the violence of street life . His 1992 solo debut The Chronic , released under Death Row Records , led him to become one of the best @-@ selling American performing artists of 1993 and to win a Grammy Award for the single " Let Me Ride " . That same year he produced Death Row labelmate Snoop Dogg 's quadruple platinum debut Doggystyle , and even molded artists into top @-@ notch producers such as his step @-@ brother Warren G , which led to his multi @-@ platinum debut Regulate ... G Funk Era in 1994 , and Snoop Dogg 's cousin Daz Dillinger which led to the double platinum debut album Dogg Food by Tha Dogg Pound in 1995 .
In 1996 , he left Death Row Records to establish his own label , Aftermath Entertainment . He produced a compilation album titled Dr. Dre Presents the Aftermath in 1996 , and released a solo album titled 2001 in 1999 . During the 2000s , he focused on production for other artists , while occasionally contributing vocals to songs . Dr. Dre signed Eminem in 1998 and 50 Cent in 2002 to his record label respectively , while contributing production on their albums . He has won six Grammy Awards , including Producer of the Year . Dr. Dre has also had acting roles in movies such as Set It Off , The Wash and Training Day . Rolling Stone ranked Dre at 56 on their list of " 100 Greatest Artists of All @-@ Time " .
= = Early life = =
Young was born in Compton , California , the first child of Theodore and Verna Young . His middle name , Romelle , is derived from his father 's amateur R & B singing group , The Romells . His parents married in 1964 , separated in 1968 , and divorced in 1972 . His mother later remarried and had three children : sons Jerome and Tyree ( both deceased ) and daughter Shameka . In 1976 , Young began attending Vanguard Junior High School in Compton , but due to gang violence , he transferred to the safer suburban Roosevelt Junior High School . His mother later married Warren Griffin , whom she met at her new job in Long Beach , which added three stepsisters and one stepbrother to the family ; the stepbrother would eventually become rapper Warren G.
Young is the cousin of producer Sir Jinx . He attended Centennial High School in Compton during his freshman year in 1979 , but transferred to Fremont High School in South Central Los Angeles due to poor grades . Young attempted to enroll in an apprenticeship program at Northrop Aviation Company , but poor grades at school made him ineligible . Thereafter , he focused on his social life and entertainment for the remainder of his high school years . Young fathered a son with Cassandra Joy Greene named Curtis ( born December 15 , 1981 ) . Curtis was brought up by his mother and first met his father 20 years later , when Curtis became rapper Hood Surgeon .
= = Music career = =
= = = 1984 – 85 : World Class Wreckin ' Cru = = =
Inspired by the Grandmaster Flash song " The Adventures of Grandmaster Flash on the Wheels of Steel " , he often attended a club called Eve After Dark to watch many DJs and rappers performing live . He subsequently became a DJ in the club , initially under the name " Dr. J " , based on the nickname of Julius Erving , his favorite basketball player . At the club , he met aspiring rapper Antoine Carraby , later to become member DJ Yella of N.W.A. Soon afterwards he adopted the moniker Dr. Dre , a mix of previous alias Dr. J and his first name , referring to himself as the " Master of Mixology " . Eve After Dark had a back room with a small four @-@ track studio . In this studio , Dre and Yella recorded several demos . In their first recording session , they recorded a song entitled " Surgery " , with the lyrics " calling Dr. Dre to surgery " serving as the chorus to the song . He later joined the musical group World Class Wreckin ' Cru under the independent Kru @-@ Cut Records in 1984 . The group would become stars of the electro @-@ hop scene that dominated early 1980s West Coast hip hop . " Surgery " , which was officially released after being recorded prior to the group 's official formation , would prominently feature Dr. Dre on the turntable . The record would become the group 's first hit , selling 50 @,@ 000 copies within the Compton area .
Dr. Dre and DJ Yella also performed mixes for local radio station KDAY , boosting ratings for its afternoon rush @-@ hour show The Traffic Jam . Dr. Dre 's earliest recordings were released in 1994 on a compilation titled Concrete Roots . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of the website Allmusic described the compiled music , released " several years before Dre developed a distinctive style " , as " surprisingly generic and unengaging " and " for dedicated fans only " .
His frequent absences from school jeopardized his position as a diver on his school 's swim team . After high school , he attended Chester Adult School in Compton following his mother 's demands for him to get a job or continue his education . After brief attendance at a radio broadcasting school , he relocated to the residence of his father and residence of his grandparents before returning to his mother 's house . He later dropped out of Chester to focus on performing at the Eve 's After Dark nightclub .
= = = 1986 – 91 : N.W.A and Ruthless Records = = =
In 1986 , Dr. Dre met rapper O 'Shea Jackson — nicknamed Ice Cube — who collaborated with Dr. Dre to record songs for Ruthless Records , a rap record label run by local rapper Eazy @-@ E. N.W.A and fellow West Coast rapper Ice @-@ T are widely credited as seminal artists of the gangsta rap genre , a profanity @-@ heavy subgenre of hip hop , replete with gritty depictions of urban crime and gang lifestyle . Not feeling constricted to racially charged political issues pioneered by rap artists such as Public Enemy or Boogie Down Productions , N.W.A favored themes and uncompromising lyrics , offering stark descriptions of violent , inner @-@ city streets . Propelled by the hit " Fuck tha Police " , the group 's first full album Straight Outta Compton became a major success , despite an almost complete absence of radio airplay or major concert tours . The Federal Bureau of Investigation sent Ruthless Records a warning letter in response to the song 's content .
After Ice Cube left N.W.A in 1989 over financial disputes , Dr. Dre produced and performed for much of the group 's second album Efil4zaggin . He also produced tracks for a number of other acts on Ruthless Records , including Eazy @-@ E 's 1988 solo debut Eazy @-@ Duz @-@ It , Above the Law 's 1990 debut Livin ' Like Hustlers , Michel 'le 's 1989 self title 'd debut , The D.O.C. ' s 1989 debut No One Can Do It Better , J.J. Fad 's 1988 debut Supersonic and funk rock musician Jimmy Z 's 1991 album Muzical Madness
= = = 1992 – 96 : The Chronic and Death Row Records = = =
After a dispute with Eazy @-@ E , Dre left the group at the peak of its popularity in 1991 under the advice of friend , and N.W.A lyricist , The D.O.C. and his bodyguard at the time , Suge Knight . Knight , a notorious strongman and intimidator , was able to have Eazy @-@ E release Young from his contract and , using Dr. Dre as his flagship artist , founded Death Row Records . In 1992 Young released his first single , the title track to the film Deep Cover , a collaboration with rapper Snoop Dogg , whom he met through Warren G. Dr. Dre 's debut solo album was The Chronic , released under Death Row Records with Suge Knight as executive producer . Young ushered in a new style of rap , both in terms of musical style and lyrical content , including introducing a number of artists to the industry including Snoop Dogg , Kurupt , Daz Dillinger , RBX , The Lady of Rage , Nate Dogg and Jewell .
On the strength of singles such as " Nuthin ' but a ' G ' Thang " , " Let Me Ride " , and " Fuck wit Dre Day ( and Everybody 's Celebratin ' ) " ( known as " Dre Day " for radio and television play ) , all of which featured Snoop Dogg as guest vocalist , The Chronic became a cultural phenomenon , its G @-@ funk sound dominating much of hip hop music for the early 1990s . In 1993 the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) certified the album triple platinum , and Dr. Dre also won the Grammy Award for Best Rap Solo Performance for his performance on " Let Me Ride " . For that year , Billboard magazine also ranked Dr. Dre as the eighth best @-@ selling musical artist , The Chronic as the sixth best @-@ selling album , and " Nuthin ' but a ' G ' Thang " as the 11th best @-@ selling single .
Besides working on his own material , Dr. Dre produced Snoop Dogg 's debut album Doggystyle , which became the first debut album for an artist to enter the Billboard 200 album charts at number one . In 1994 Dr. Dre produced some songs on the soundtracks to the films Above the Rim and Murder Was the Case . He collaborated with fellow N.W.A member Ice Cube for the song " Natural Born Killaz " in 1995 . For the film Friday , Dre recorded " Keep Their Heads Ringin ' " , which reached number ten on the Billboard Hot 100 and number 1 on the Hot Rap Singles ( now Hot Rap Tracks ) charts .
In 1995 , Death Row Records signed rapper 2Pac , and began to position him as their major star : he collaborated with Dr. Dre on the commercially successful single " California Love " , which became both artists ' first song to top the Billboard Hot 100 . However , in March 1996 Young left the label amidst a contract dispute and growing concerns that label boss Suge Knight was corrupt , financially dishonest and out of control . Later that year , he formed his own label , Aftermath Entertainment , under the distribution label for Death Row Records , Interscope Records . Subsequently , Death Row Records suffered poor sales by 1997 , especially following the death of 2Pac and the racketeering charges brought against Knight .
Dr. Dre also appeared on the single " No Diggity " by R & B group Blackstreet in 1996 : it too was a sales success , topping the Hot 100 for four consecutive weeks , and later won the award for Best R & B Vocal by a Duo or Group at the 1997 Grammy Awards . After hearing it for the first time , several of Dr. Dre 's former Death Row colleagues , including 2Pac , recorded and attempted to release a song titled " Toss It Up " , containing numerous insults aimed at Dr. Dre and using a deliberately similar instrumental to " No Diggity " , but were forced to replace the production after Blackstreet issued the label with a cease and desist order stopping them from distributing the song .
= = = 1996 – 98 : Move to Aftermath Entertainment = = =
The Dr. Dre Presents the Aftermath album , released on November 26 , 1996 , featured songs by Dr. Dre himself , as well as by newly signed Aftermath Entertainment artists , and a solo track " Been There , Done That " , intended as a symbolic farewell to gangsta rap . Despite being classified platinum by the RIAA , the album was not very popular among music fans . In October 1996 , Dre performed " Been There , Done That " on Saturday Night Live . In 1997 , Dr. Dre produced several tracks on The Firm 's The Album ; it was met with largely negative reviews from critics . Rumors began to abound that Aftermath was facing financial difficulties . Aftermath Entertainment also faced a trademark infringement lawsuit by the underground thrash metal band Aftermath . First Round Knock Out , a compilation of various tracks produced and performed by Dr. Dre was also released in 1996 , with material ranging from World Class Wreckin ' Cru to N.W.A to Death Row recordings . Dr. Dre chose to take no part in the ongoing East Coast – West Coast hip hop rivalry of the time , instead producing for , and appearing on , several New York artists ' releases , such as Nas ' " Nas Is Coming " , LL Cool J 's " Zoom " and Jay @-@ Z 's " Watch Me " .
The turning point for Aftermath came in 1998 , when Jimmy Iovine , the head of Aftermath 's parent label Interscope , suggested that Dr. Dre sign Eminem , a white rapper from Detroit . Dre produced three songs and provided vocals for two on Eminem 's successful and controversial debut album The Slim Shady LP , released in 1999 . The Dr. Dre @-@ produced lead single from that album , " My Name Is " , brought Eminem to public attention for the first time , and the success of The Slim Shady LP – it reached number two on the Billboard 200 and received general acclaim from critics – revived the label 's commercial ambitions and viability .
= = = 1999 – 2000 : 2001 = = =
Dr. Dre 's second solo album , 2001 , released on November 16 , 1999 , was considered an ostentatious return to his gangsta rap roots . It was initially titled The Chronic 2000 to imply being a sequel to his debut solo effort The Chronic but was re @-@ titled 2001 after Death Row Records released an unrelated compilation album with the title Chronic 2000 : Still Smokin in May 1999 . Other tentative titles included The Chronic 2001 and Dr. Dre . The album featured numerous collaborators , including Devin the Dude , Snoop Dogg , Kurupt , Xzibit , Nate Dogg , Eminem , Knoc @-@ turn 'al , King T , Defari , Kokane , Mary J. Blige and new protégé Hittman , as well as co @-@ production between Dre and new Aftermath producer Mel @-@ Man . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of the website AllMusic described the sound of the album as " adding ominous strings , soulful vocals , and reggae " to Dr. Dre 's style . The album was highly successful , charting at number two on the Billboard 200 charts and has since been certified six times platinum , validating a recurring theme on the album : Dr. Dre was still a force to be reckoned with , despite the lack of major releases in the previous few years . The album included popular hit singles " Still D.R.E. " and " Forgot About Dre " , both of which Dr. Dre performed on NBC 's Saturday Night Live on October 23 , 1999 . Dr. Dre won the Grammy Award for Producer of the Year , Non @-@ Classical in 2000 , and joined the Up in Smoke Tour with fellow rappers Eminem , Snoop Dogg , and Ice Cube that year as well .
During the course of 2001 's popularity , Dr. Dre was involved in several lawsuits . Lucasfilm Ltd . , the film company behind the Star Wars film franchise , sued him over the use of the THX @-@ trademarked " Deep Note " . The Fatback Band also sued Dr. Dre over alleged infringement regarding its song " Backstrokin ' " in his song " Let 's Get High " from the 2001 album ; Dr. Dre was ordered to pay $ 1 @.@ 5 million to the band in 2003 . The online music file @-@ sharing company Napster also settled a lawsuit with him and heavy metal rock band Metallica in the summer of 2001 , agreeing to block access to certain files that artists do not want to have shared on the network .
= = = 2001 – 07 : Focus on production and Detox = = =
Following the success of 2001 , Dr. Dre focused on producing songs and albums for other artists . He co @-@ produced six tracks on Eminem ’ s landmark Marshall Mathers LP , including the Grammy @-@ winning lead single , “ The Real Slim Shady ” . The album itself earned a Grammy and proved to be the fastest @-@ selling rap album of all time , moving 1 @.@ 76 million units in its first week alone . He produced the single " Family Affair " by R & B singer Mary J. Blige for her album No More Drama in 2001 . He also produced " Let Me Blow Ya Mind " , a duet by rapper Eve and No Doubt lead singer Gwen Stefani and signed R & B singer Truth Hurts to Aftermath in 2001 . Dr. Dre was the executive producer of Eminem ’ s 2002 release , The Eminem Show . He produced three songs on the album , one of which was released as a single , and he appeared in the award @-@ winning video for “ Without Me ” . He also produced The D.O.C. ' s 2003 album Deuce , where he made a guest appearance on the tracks " Psychic Pymp Hotline " , " Gorilla Pympin ' " and " Judgment Day " .
Another copyright @-@ related lawsuit hit Dr. Dre in the fall of 2002 , when Sa Re Ga Ma , a film and music company based in Calcutta , India , sued Aftermath Entertainment over an uncredited sample of the Lata Mangeshkar song " Thoda Resham Lagta Hai " on the Aftermath @-@ produced song " Addictive " by singer Truth Hurts . In February 2003 , a judge ruled that Aftermath would have to halt sales of Truth Hurts ' album Truthfully Speaking if the company would not credit Mangeshkar .
Another successful album on the Aftermath label was Get Rich or Die Tryin ' , the 2003 major @-@ label debut album by Queens , New York @-@ based rapper 50 Cent . Dr. Dre produced or co @-@ produced four tracks on the album , including the hit single " In da Club " , a joint production between Aftermath , Eminem 's boutique label Shady Records and Interscope . Eminem 's fourth album since joining Aftermath , Encore , again saw Dre taking on the role of executive producer , and this time he was more actively involved in the music , producing or co @-@ producing a total of eight tracks , including three singles . In November 2004 , at the Vibe magazine awards show in Los Angeles , Dr. Dre was attacked by a fan named Jimmy James Johnson , who was supposedly asking for an autograph . In the resulting scuffle , then @-@ G @-@ Unit rapper Young Buck stabbed the man . Johnson claimed that Suge Knight , president of Death Row Records , paid him $ 5 @,@ 000 to assault Dre in order to humiliate him before he received his Lifetime Achievement Award . Knight immediately went on CBS 's The Late Late Show to deny involvement and insisted that he supported Dr. Dre and wanted Johnson charged . In September 2005 , Johnson was sentenced to a year in prison and ordered to stay away from Dr. Dre until 2008 .
Dr. Dre also produced " How We Do " , a 2005 hit single from rapper The Game from his album The Documentary , as well as 50 Cent 's successful sophomore album The Massacre . For an issue of Rolling Stone magazine in April 2005 , Dr. Dre was ranked 54th out of 100 artists for Rolling Stone magazine 's list " The Immortals : The Greatest Artists of All Time " . Kanye West wrote the summary for Dr. Dre , where he stated Dr. Dre 's song " Xplosive " as where he " got ( his ) whole sound from " .
In November 2006 , Dr. Dre began working with Raekwon on his album Only Built 4 Cuban Linx II . He also produced tracks for the rap albums Buck the World by Young Buck , Curtis by 50 Cent , Tha Blue Carpet Treatment by Snoop Dogg , and Kingdom Come by Jay @-@ Z. Dre also appeared on Timbaland 's track " Bounce " , from his 2007 solo album , Timbaland Presents Shock Value alongside , Missy Elliott , and Justin Timberlake . During this period , The D.O.C. stated that Dre had been working with him on his fourth album Voices through Hot Vessels , which he planned to release after Detox arrives .
Planned but unreleased albums during Dr. Dre 's tenure at Aftermath have included a full @-@ length reunion with Snoop Dogg titled Breakup to Makeup , an album with fellow former N.W.A member Ice Cube which was to be titled Heltah Skeltah , an N.W.A reunion album , and a joint album with fellow producer Timbaland titled Chairmen of the Board .
In 2007 , Dr. Dre 's third studio album , formerly known as Detox , was slated to be his final studio album . Work for the upcoming album dates back to 2001 , where its first version was called " the most advanced rap album ever " , by producer Scott Storch . Later that same year , he decided to stop working on the album to focus on producing for other artists , but then changed his mind ; the album had initially been set for a fall 2005 release . Producers confirmed to work on the album include DJ Khalil , Nottz , Bernard " Focus " Edwards Jr . , Hi @-@ Tek , J.R. Rotem , RZA , Jay @-@ Z , Warren G , and Boi @-@ 1da . Snoop Dogg claimed that Detox was finished , according to a June 2008 report by Rolling Stone magazine . After another delay based on producing other artists ' work , Detox was then scheduled for a 2010 release , coming after 50 Cent 's Before I Self Destruct and Eminem 's Relapse , an album for which Dr. Dre handled the bulk of production duties . In a Dr Pepper commercial that debuted on May 28 , 2009 , he premiered the first official snippet of Detox . 50 Cent and Eminem asserted in an interview on BET 's 106 & Park that Dr. Dre had around a dozen songs finished for Detox .
= = = 2008 – 14 : The Planets , a break and Coachella = = =
On December 15 , 2008 , Dre appeared in the remix of the song " Set It Off " by Canadian rapper Kardinal Offishall ( also with Pusha T ) ; the remix debuted on DJ Skee 's radio show . At the beginning of 2009 , Dre produced , and made a guest vocal performance on , the single " Crack a Bottle " by Eminem and the single sold a record 418 @,@ 000 downloads in its first week. and reached the top of the Billboard Hot 100 chart on the week of February 12 , 2009 . Along with this single , in 2009 Dr. Dre produced or co @-@ produced 19 of 20 tracks on Eminem 's album Relapse . These included other hit singles " We Made You " , " Old Time 's Sake " , and " 3 a.m. " ( the only track Dre did not produce was the Eminem @-@ produced single " Beautiful " ) .
On April 20 , 2010 , " Under Pressure " , featuring Jay @-@ Z and co @-@ produced with Scott Storch , was confirmed by Jimmy Iovine and Dr. Dre during an interview at Fenway Park as the album 's first single . The song leaked prior to its intended release in an unmixed , unmastered form without a chorus on June 16 , 2010 : however , critical reaction to the song was lukewarm , and Dr. Dre later announced in an interview that the song , along with any other previously leaked tracks from Detox 's recording process , would not appear on the final version of the album . Two genuine singles – " Kush " , a collaboration with Snoop Dogg and fellow rapper Akon , and " I Need a Doctor " with Eminem and singer Skylar Grey – were released in the United States during November 2010 and February 2011 respectively : the latter achieved international chart success , reaching number four on the Billboard Hot 100 and later being certified double platinum by the RIAA and the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) .
On June 25 , 2010 , the American Society of Composers , Authors and Publishers honored Dr. Dre with its Founders Award for inspiring other musicians .
In an August 2010 interview , Dr. Dre stated that an instrumental album titled The Planets is in its first stages of production ; each song being named after a planet in the Solar System . On September 3 , Dr. Dre showed support to longtime protégé Eminem , and appeared on his and Jay @-@ Z 's Home & Home Tour , performing hit songs such as " Still D.R.E. " , " Nuthin ' but a ' G ' Thang " , and " Crack a Bottle " , alongside Eminem and another protégé , 50 Cent . Sporting an " R.I.P. Proof " shirt , Dre was honored by Eminem telling Detroit 's Comerica Park to do the same . They did so , by chanting " DEEE @-@ TOX " , to which he replied , " I 'm coming ! "
On November 14 , 2011 , Dre announced that he would be taking a break from music after he finished producing for artists Slim the Mobster and Kendrick Lamar . In this break , he stated that he would " work on bringing his Beats By Dre to a standard as high as Apple " and would also spend time with his family .
On January 9 , 2012 , Dre headlined the final nights of the 2012 Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival , on the weekends of April 13 – 15 and April 20 – 22 , 2012 .
In a June 2014 interview with RapUpTV , Marsha Ambrosius talked about working on Dr. Dre ’ s third album . She stated that she had gone to Hawaii before the end of 2013 for a few weeks to work with him on “ so many things ” including his upcoming album and a project of her own among other unspecified projects . Ambrosius also told RapUpTV that Dr. Dre ’ s third album is no longer called Detox , but didn ’ t reveal the new title . In a September interview with Shots Fired that same year , Aftermath Entertainment in @-@ house producer Dawaun Parker confirmed the title change . Parker also refrained from revealing the new title because of the fact that the title hadn ’ t been leaked online . He also told Shots Fired that there are as many as 300 beats that have been created for the album over the years , but few of them have had vocals recorded over them .
The length of time that Detox had been record for , as well as the limited amount of material that had been officially released or leaked from the recording sessions , had given it considerable notoriety within the music industry . Numerous release dates ( including the ones mentioned above ) had been given for the album over the years since it was first announced , although none of them transpired to be genuine . Several musicians closely affiliated with Dr. Dre , including Snoop Dogg , fellow rappers 50 Cent and Game and producer DJ Quik , had speculated in interviews that the album will never be released , due to Dr. Dre 's business and entrepreneurial ventures having interfered with recording work , as well as causing him to lose motivation to record new material .
= = = 2015 – present : Straight Outta Compton film and Compton album = = =
On his Beats 1 radio show " The Pharmacy " on August 1 , 2015 , Dre announced that he would release what would be his final album , titled Compton . It is inspired by the N.W.A biopic Straight Outta Compton and is a compilation @-@ style album , featuring a number of frequent collaborators , including Eminem , Snoop Dogg , Kendrick Lamar , Xzibit and The Game , among others . It was released exclusively for iTunes and Apple Music on August 7 . A physical version was published on August 21 . In an interview with Rolling Stone , he revealed that he had about 20 to 40 tracks for Detox but he didn 't release it because it didn 't meet his standards and he thought he was done being an artist . He also revealed that he suffers from social anxiety and due to this he remains secluded and out of attention .
On February 12 , 2016 it was revealed that Apple would create its first original scripted television series and it will star Dr. Dre . Called " Vital Signs " , it is set to reflect the life of Dr. Dre . Dr. Dre will additionally be an executive producer on the show .
= = Other ventures = =
= = = Film career = = =
Dr. Dre made his first on screen appearance as a weapons dealer in the 1996 bank robbery movie Set It Off . In 2001 , Dr. Dre also appeared in the movies The Wash and Training Day . A song of his , " Bad Intentions " ( featuring Knoc @-@ Turn 'Al ) and produced by Mahogany , was featured on The Wash soundtrack . Dr. Dre also appeared on two other songs " On the Blvd . " and " The Wash " along with his co @-@ star Snoop Dogg . In February 2007 it was announced that Dr. Dre would produce dark comedies and horror films for New Line Cinema @-@ owned company Crucial Films , along with longtime video director Phillip Atwell . Dr. Dre announced " This is a natural switch for me , since I 've directed a lot of music videos , and I eventually want to get into directing . " Along with fellow member Ice Cube , Dr. Dre produced Straight Outta Compton ( 2015 ) , a biographical film about N.W.A.
= = = Entrepreneurship = = =
In July 2008 , Dr. Dre released his first brand of headphones , Beats by Dr. Dre . The line consisted of Beats Studio , a circumaural headphone ; Beats Tour , an in @-@ ear headphone ; Beats Solo & Solo HD , a supra @-@ aural headphone ; Beats Spin ; Heartbeats by Lady Gaga , also an in @-@ ear headphone ; and Diddy Beats . In autumn 2009 , Hewlett @-@ Packard participated in a deal to bundle Beats By Dr. Dre with some HP laptops and headsets . HP and Dr. Dre announced the deal on October 9 , 2009 , at a press event in Santa Monica , California . An exclusive laptop , known as the HP ENVY 15 Beats limited edition , was released for sale October 22 . In May 2014 , technology giant Apple Inc. made a bid for the Beats by Dre brand for a reported $ 3 billion . This makes the takeover Apple 's most expensive purchase by far . The deal reportedly made Dr. Dre the " Richest Man in Hip @-@ Hop " , surpassing former leader , Diddy .
= = = Philanthropy = = =
During the May of 2013 , Dr. Dre and Jimmy Iovine donated a $ 70 million endowment to the University of Southern California to create the USC Jimmy Iovine and Andre Young Academy for Arts , Technology and the Business of Innovation . The goal of the Academy has been stated as " to shape the future by nurturing the talents , passions , leadership and risk @-@ taking of uniquely qualified students who are motivated to explore and create new art forms , technologies , and business models . " The first class of the Academy began in September 2014 .
= = = Endorsements = = =
" St. Ides "
" Coors Light "
" Dr. Pepper "
" Chrysler 300S " - Imported From Detroit
= = = Dr. Dre started Burning Man rumors = = =
In 2011 , a tumblr blog titled Dr. Dre Started Burning Man began proliferating the notion that the producer , rapper and entrepreneur had discovered Burning Man in 1995 during a music video shoot and offered to cover the cost of the event 's permit from the Nevada Bureau of Land Management under an agreement with the festival 's organizers that he could institute an entrance fee system , which had not existed before his participation . This claim was supported by an alleged letter from Dre to Nicole Threatt Young that indicated that Dre had shared his experience witnessing the Burning Man festival with her .
Business Insider mentions the portion of the letter where Dr. Dre purportedly states " someone should get behind this ... and make some money off these fools " and compares Dr. Dre 's potential entrepreneurial engagement with Burning Man as a parallel to Steve Jobs ' efforts to centralize and profit from the otherwise unorganized online music industry . According to Salon , Dr. Dre 's ethos seems to be aligned with seven of the ten principles of the Burning Man community : " radical self @-@ reliance , radical self @-@ expression , communal effort , civic responsibility , leaving no trace , participation and immediacy . "
= = Musical influences and style = =
= = = Production style = = =
Dr. Dre is renowned for constantly evolving his production style through the years , while always keeping in touch with his roots and re @-@ shaping elements from previous work . In the start of his career as a producer for the World Class Wreckin Cru in the mid @-@ 1980s , his beats were in the electro @-@ hop style pioneered by The Unknown DJ , and that of early hip @-@ hop groups like the Beastie Boys and Whodini . These influences are evident in Eazy E 's 1986 song Boyz @-@ n @-@ the @-@ Hood , which Dre produced . Sampling was at the time a key element of Dre 's production , the E @-@ mu SP @-@ 1200 being his primary instrument in the N.W.A days .
In 1987 , Dr. Dre sampled the Ohio Players ' ARP synth riffs from their 1973 funk hit " Funky Worm " in the N.W.A song " Dopeman " . Being the first hip @-@ hop producer to sample the song , Dre both paved the way for the future popularization of the G @-@ funk style within hip @-@ hop , and established heavy synthesizer solos as an integral part of his production style . Dr. Dre was also one of the very first producers to interpolate the then little @-@ known drum break from The Winstons ' " Amen , Brother " in the N.W.A song " Straight Outta Compton " . This break has since becοme a staple in not only hip @-@ hop , but all popular music , having been used in over 1700 songs .
From Straight Outta Compton on , Dre uses live musicians to replay old melodies rather than sampling them . In Ruthless Records , collaborators included guitarist Mike " Crazy Neck " Sims , multi @-@ instrumentalist Colin Wolfe , DJ Yella and sound engineer Donovan " The Dirt Biker " Sound . Dre is receptive of new ideas from other producers , one example being his fruitful collaboration with Above the Law 's producer Cold 187um while at Ruthless . Cold 187 um was at the time experimenting with 1970s P @-@ Funk samples ( Parliament , Funkadelic , Bootsy Collins , George Clinton etc . ) , that Dre also utilized . Dre has since been accused of " stealing " the concept of G @-@ funk from Cold 187 um .
Upon leaving Ruthless and forming Death Row Records in 1991 , Dre called on veteran West Coast DJ Chris " The Glove " Taylor and sound engineer Greg " Gregski " Royal , along with Colin Wolfe , to help him on future projects . His 1992 album The Chronic is thought to be one of the most well @-@ produced hip @-@ hop albums of all time . Musical themes included hard @-@ hitting synthesizer solos played by Wolfe , bass @-@ heavy compositions , background female vocals and Dre fully embracing 1970s funk samples . Dre used a minimoog synth to replay the melody from Leon Haywood 's 1972 song " I Wanna Do Somethin ' Freaky to You " for the Chronic 's first single " Nuthin ' but a " G " Thang " which became a global hit . For his new protégé Snoop Doggy Dogg 's album Doggystyle , Dre collaborated with then 19 @-@ year @-@ old producer Daz Dillinger , who received co @-@ production credits on songs " Serial Killa " and " For all My Niggaz & Bitches " , as well as Warren G and Sam Sneed , who are credited with bringing several samples to the studio .
The influence of The Chronic and Doggystyle on the popular music of the 1990s went not only far beyond the West Coast , but beyond hip @-@ hop as a genre . Artists as diverse as Master P ( " Bout It , Bout It " ) , George Michael ( " Fastlove " ) , Luis Miguel ( " Dame " ) , and The Spice Girls ( " Say You 'll Be There " ) , used G @-@ funk instrumentation in their songs . Bad Boy Records producer Chucky Thompson stated in the April 2004 issue of XXL magazine that the sound of Doggystyle and the Chronic was the basis for the Notorious B.I.G. ' s 1995 hit single " Big Poppa " :
In 1994 , starting with the Murder was the Case soundtrack , Dre attempted to push the boundaries of G @-@ funk further into a darker sound . In songs such as " Murder was the Case " and " Natural Born Killaz " , the synthesizer pitch is higher and the drum tempo is slowed down to 91 BPM ( 87 BPM in the remix ) to create a dark and gritty atmosphere . Percussion instruments , particularly sleigh bells , are also present . Dre 's frequent collaborators from this period included Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania natives Stuart " Stu @-@ B @-@ Doo " Bullard , a multi @-@ instrumentalist from the Ozanam Strings Orchestra , Sam Sneed , Stephen " Bud 'da " Anderson , and percussionist Carl " Butch " Small . This style of production has been influential far beyond the West Coast . The beat for the Houston @-@ based group Geto Boys 1996 song " Still " follows the same drum pattern as " Natural Born Killaz " and Eazy E 's " Wut Would U Do " ( a diss to Dre ) is similar to the original " Murder was the Case " instrumental . This style of production is usually accompanied by horror and occult @-@ themed lyrics and imagery , being crucial to the creation of horrorcore .
By 1996 , Dre was again looking to innovate his sound . He recruited keyboardist Camara Kambon to play the keys on " Been There , Done That " , and through Bud 'da and Sam Sneed he was introduced to fellow Pittsburgh native Melvin " Mel @-@ Man " Bradford . At this time , he also switched from using the E @-@ mu SP @-@ 1200 to the Akai MPC3000 drum kit and sampler , which he still uses today . Beginning with his 1996 compilation Dr. Dre Presents the Aftermath , Dre 's production has taken a less sample @-@ based approach , with loud , layered snare drums dominating the mix , while synthesizers are still omnipresent . In his critically acclaimed sophomore effort , 2001 , live instrumentation takes the place of sampling , a famous example being " The Next Episode " , in which keyboardist Camara Kambon re @-@ played live the main melody from David McCallum 's 1967 jazz @-@ funk work " The Edge " . For every song on 2001 , Dre had a keyboardist , guitarist and bassist create the basic parts of the beat , while he himself programmed the drums , did the sequencing and overdubbing and added sound effects , and later mixed the songs . During this period , Dre 's signature " west coast whistle " riffs are still present albeit in a lower pitch , as in " Light Speed " , " Housewife " , " Some L.A. Niggaz " and Eminem 's " Guilty Conscience " hook . The sound of " 2001 " had tremendous influence on hip @-@ hop production , redefining the West Coast 's sound and expanding the G @-@ funk of the early 1990s . To produce the album , Dre and Mel @-@ Man relied on the talents of Scott Storch and Camara Kambon on the keys , Mike Elizondo and Colin Wolfe on bass guitar , Sean Cruse on lead guitar and sound engineers Richard " Segal " Huredia and Mauricio " Veto " Iragorri .
From the mid @-@ 2000s , Dr. Dre has taken on a more soulful production style , using more of a classical piano instead of a keyboard , and having claps replace snares , as evidenced in songs such as Snoop Dogg 's " Imagine " and " Boss ' Life " , Busta Rhymes ' " Get You Some " and " Been Through the Storm " , Stat Quo 's " Get Low " and " The Way It Be " , Jay Z 's " Lost One " , Nas ' " Hustlers " , and several beats on Eminem 's Relapse album . Soul and R & B pianist Mark Batson , having previously worked with The Dave Matthews Band , Seal and Maroon 5 has been credited as the architect of this sound . Besides Batson , Aftermath producer and understudy of Dre 's , Dawaun Parker , who has named Q @-@ Tip and J Dilla as his primary influences , is thought to be responsible for giving Dre 's newest beats an East Coast feel .
= = = Production equipment = = =
Dr. Dre has said that his primary instrument in the studio is the Akai MPC3000 , a drum machine and sampler , and that he often uses as many as four or five to produce a single recording . He cites 1970s funk musicians such as George Clinton , Isaac Hayes and Curtis Mayfield as his primary musical influences . Unlike most rap producers , he tries to avoid samples as much as possible , preferring to have studio musicians re @-@ play pieces of music he wants to use , because it allows him more flexibility to change the pieces in rhythm and tempo . In 2001 he told Time magazine , " I may hear something I like on an old record that may inspire me , but I 'd rather use musicians to re @-@ create the sound or elaborate on it . I can control it better . " Other equipment he uses include the E @-@ mu SP @-@ 1200 drum machine and other keyboards from such manufacturers as Korg , Rhodes , Wurlitzer , Moog , and Roland . Dr. Dre also stresses the importance of equalizing drums properly , telling Scratch magazine in 2004 that he " used the same drum sounds on a couple of different songs on one album before but you 'd never be able to tell the difference because of the EQ . " Dr. Dre also uses the digital audio workstation , Pro Tools and uses the software to combine hardware drum machines and vintage analog keyboards and synthesizers .
After founding Aftermath Entertainment in 1996 , Dr. Dre took on producer Mel @-@ Man as a co @-@ producer , and his music took on a more synthesizer @-@ based sound , using fewer vocal samples ( as he had used on " Lil ' Ghetto Boy " and " Let Me Ride " on The Chronic , for example ) . Mel @-@ Man has not shared co @-@ production credits with Dr. Dre since approximately 2002 , but fellow Aftermath producer Focus has credited Mel @-@ Man as a key architect of the signature Aftermath sound .
In 1999 , Dr. Dre started working with Mike Elizondo , a bassist , guitarist , and keyboardist who has also produced , written and played on records for female singers such as Poe , Fiona Apple and Alanis Morissette , In the past few years Elizondo has since worked for many of Dr. Dre 's productions . Dr. Dre also told Scratch magazine in a 2004 interview that he has been studying piano and music theory formally , and that a major goal is to accumulate enough musical theory to score movies . In the same interview he stated that he has collaborated with famed 1960s songwriter Burt Bacharach by sending him hip hop beats to play over , and hopes to have an in @-@ person collaboration with him in the future .
= = = Work ethic = = =
Dr. Dre has stated that he is a perfectionist and is known to pressure the artists with whom he records to give flawless performances . In 2006 , Snoop Dogg told the website Dubcnn.com that Dr. Dre had made new artist Bishop Lamont re @-@ record a single bar of vocals 107 times . Dr. Dre has also stated that Eminem is a fellow perfectionist , and attributes his success on Aftermath to his similar work ethic . He gives a lot of input into the delivery of the vocals and will stop an MC during a take if it is not to his liking . However , he gives MCs that he works with room to write lyrics without too much instruction unless it is a specifically conceptual record , as noted by Bishop Lamont in the book How to Rap .
A consequence of his perfectionism is that some artists who initially sign deals with Dr. Dre 's Aftermath label never release albums . In 2001 , Aftermath released the soundtrack to the movie The Wash , featuring a number of Aftermath acts such as Shaunta , Daks , Joe Beast and Toi . To date , none have released full @-@ length albums on Aftermath and have apparently ended their relationships with the label and Dr. Dre . Other noteworthy acts to leave Aftermath without releasing albums include King Tee , 2001 vocalist Hittman , Joell Ortiz , Raekwon and Rakim .
= = = Collaborators and co @-@ producers = = =
Over the years , word of other collaborators who have contributed to Dr. Dre 's work has surfaced . During his tenure at Death Row Records , it was alleged that Dr. Dre 's stepbrother Warren G and Tha Dogg Pound member Daz made many uncredited contributions to songs on his solo album The Chronic and Snoop Doggy Dogg 's album Doggystyle ( Daz received production credits on Snoop 's similar @-@ sounding , albeit less successful album Tha Doggfather after Young left Death Row Records ) .
It is known that Scott Storch , who has since gone on to become a successful producer in his own right , contributed to Dr. Dre 's second album 2001 ; Storch is credited as a songwriter on several songs and played keyboards on several tracks . In 2006 he told Rolling Stone :
Current collaborator Mike Elizondo , when speaking about his work with Young , describes their recording process as a collaborative effort involving several musicians . In 2004 he claimed to Songwriter Universe magazine that he had written the foundations of the hit Eminem song " The Real Slim Shady " , stating , " I initially played a bass line on the song , and Dr. Dre , Tommy Coster Jr. and I built the track from there . Eminem then heard the track , and he wrote the rap to it . " This account is essentially confirmed by Eminem in his book Angry Blonde , stating that the tune for the song was composed by a studio bassist and keyboardist while Dr. Dre was out of the studio but Young later programmed the song 's beat after returning .
A group of disgruntled former associates of Dr. Dre complained that they had not received their full due for work on the label in the September 2003 issue of The Source . A producer named Neff @-@ U claimed to have produced the songs " Say What You Say " and " My Dad 's Gone Crazy " on The Eminem Show , the songs " If I Can 't " and " Back Down " on 50 Cent 's Get Rich or Die Tryin ' , and the beat featured on Dr. Dre 's commercial for Coors beer .
Although Young studies piano and musical theory , he serves as more of a conductor than a musician himself , as Josh Tyrangiel of TIME magazine has noted :
Although Snoop Dogg retains working relationships with Warren G and Daz , who are alleged to be uncredited contributors on the hit albums The Chronic and Doggystyle , he states that Dr. Dre is capable of making beats without the help of collaborators , and that he is responsible for the success of his numerous albums . Dr. Dre 's prominent studio collaborators , including Scott Storch , Elizondo , Mark Batson and Dawaun Parker , have shared co @-@ writing , instrumental , and more recently co @-@ production credits on the songs where he is credited as the producer .
Anderson Paak also praised Dr. Dre in a 2016 interview with Music Times , telling the publication that it was a dream come true to work with Dre .
= = = Ghostwriters = = =
It is acknowledged that most of Dr. Dre 's raps are written for him by others , though he retains ultimate control over his lyrics and the themes of his songs . As Aftermath producer Mahogany told Scratch : " It 's like a class room in [ the booth ] . He 'll have three writers in there . They 'll bring in something , he 'll recite it , then he 'll say . ' Change this line , change this word , ' like he 's grading papers . " As seen in the credits for tracks Young has appeared on , there are often multiple people who contribute to his songs ( although often in hip hop many people are officially credited as a writer for a song , even the producer ) .
In the book How to Rap , RBX explains that writing The Chronic was a " team effort " and details how he ghostwrote " Let Me Ride " for Dre . In regard to ghostwriting lyrics he says , " Dre doesn 't profess to be no super @-@ duper rap dude – Dre is a super @-@ duper producer " . As a member of N.W.A , The D.O.C. wrote lyrics for him while he stuck with producing . New York City rapper Jay @-@ Z ghostwrote lyrics for the single " Still D.R.E. " from Dr. Dre 's album 2001 .
= = Personal life = =
= = = Relationships and family = = =
Dr. Dre has four sons and a daughter :
In 1981 , Dr. Dre and Cassandra Joy Greene had a son named Curtis Young when Dr. Dre was 16 years old and Greene was 15 years old . Curtis Young is an aspiring rapper who goes by the rap moniker " Hood Surgeon " .
In 1988 , Dr. Dre and Jenita Porter had a son , Andre Young Jr . In 1990 , Porter sued Dr. Dre in Orange County Superior Court seeking $ 5 @,@ 000 of child support per month . On August 23 , 2008 , Andre Young Jr. died at the age of 20 at his mother 's Woodland Hills home . The coroner determined that he died from an overdose of heroin and morphine .
From 1990 to 1996 , Dr. Dre dated singer Michel 'le , who frequently contributed vocals to Ruthless Records and Death Row Records albums . In 1991 , the couple had a son , Marcel .
In 1996 , Dr. Dre married Nicole Threatt , the ex @-@ wife of NBA player Sedale Threatt . They have two children together : a son named Truice ( born 1997 ) and a daughter named Truly ( born 2001 ) .
= = = Violence against women = = =
Dr. Dre has been accused of violence against women in the past .
On January 27 , 1991 , at a music industry party at the Po Na Na Souk club in Hollywood , Dr. Dre assaulted television host Dee Barnes of the Fox television program Pump it Up , because he felt dissatisfied with her news report about the feud between the remaining N.W.A members and Ice Cube . Barnes filed a 22 @.@ 7 million dollar lawsuit in response to the incident . Subsequently , Dr. Dre was fined $ 2 @,@ 500 and given two years ' probation and 240 hours of community service , as well as a spot on an anti @-@ violence public service announcement on television . The civil suit was settled out of court . Barnes stated that Young " began slamming her face and the right side of her body repeatedly against a wall near the stairway . " Dr. Dre later commented " People talk all this shit , but you know , somebody fucks with me , I 'm gonna fuck with them . I just did it , you know . Ain 't nothing you can do now by talking about it . Besides , it ain 't no big thing – I just threw her through a door . "
In March 2015 , singer Michel 'le accused him of physical abuse during their time together as a couple , but did not initiate legal action . Former labelmate Tairrie B also claimed that Dre assaulted her at a post @-@ Grammy party in 1990 , in response to her track Ruthless Bitch .
During press for the popular 2015 film Straight Outta Compton , questions about the portrayal and behavior of Dr. Dre and other prominent figures in the rap community about violence against women - and the question about its absence in the film - were raised . The discussion about the film led to Dr. Dre addressing his past behavior in the press . In August 2015 , in an interview with Rolling Stone , Dre lamented his abusive past , saying , " I made some fucking horrible mistakes in my life . I was young , fucking stupid . I would say all the allegations aren 't true — some of them are . Those are some of the things that I would like to take back . It was really fucked up . But I paid for those mistakes , and there 's no way in hell that I will ever make another mistake like that again . "
In a statement to The New York Times on August 21 , 2015 , Dre addressed his abusive past saying , " Twenty @-@ five years ago I was a young man drinking too much and in over my head with no real structure in my life . However , none of this is an excuse for what I did . I 've been married for 19 years and every day I 'm working to be a better man for my family , seeking guidance along the way . I 'm doing everything I can so I never resemble that man again . " He went on to apologise to all the women he abused , saying , " I apologize to the women I 've hurt . I deeply regret what I did and know that it has forever impacted all of our lives . "
= = = Other convictions = = =
Dr. Dre pleaded guilty in October 1992 in a case of battery of a police officer and was convicted on two additional battery counts stemming from a brawl in the lobby of the New Orleans hotel in May 1991 .
On January 10 , 1994 , Dr. Dre was arrested after leading police on a 90 mph pursuit through Beverly Hills in his 1987 Ferrari . It was revealed Dr. Dre had a blood @-@ alcohol of 0 @.@ 16 , twice the state 's legal limit . The conviction violated Dre 's battery conviction in 1991 and he was sentenced to 8 months in prison in September 1994 .
= = = Income = = =
In 2001 , Dr. Dre earned a total of about US $ 52 million from selling part of his share of Aftermath Entertainment to Interscope Records and his production of such hit songs that year as " Family Affair " by Mary J. Blige . Rolling Stone magazine thus named him the second highest @-@ paid artist of the year . Dr. Dre was ranked 44th in 2004 from earnings of $ 11 @.@ 4 million , primarily from production royalties from such projects as albums from G @-@ Unit and D12 and the single " Rich Girl " by singer Gwen Stefani and rapper Eve . Forbes estimated his net worth at US $ 270 million in 2012 . The same publication later reported that he acquired US $ 110 million via his various endeavors in 2012 , making him the highest – paid artist of the year .
Income from the 2014 sale of Beats to Apple , contributing to what Forbes termed " the biggest single @-@ year payday of any musician in history " , made Dr. Dre the world 's richest musical performer of 2015 .
= = = Suge Knight Conspiracy Accusation = = =
April 4 , 2016 TMZ and the New York Daily News reported Knight as having accused Dre and the LAPD Sheriff 's department of a hire for kill plot in the 2014 shooting of Knight in club 1 OAK
= = Discography = =
Studio albums
The Chronic ( 1992 )
2001 ( 1999 )
Compton ( 2015 )
Soundtrack album
The Wash ( 2001 )
Collaboration albums
World Class ( as part of World Class Wreckin ' Cru ) ( 1985 )
Rapped in Romance ( as part of World Class Wreckin ' Cru ) ( 1986 )
N.W.A. and the Posse ( as part of N.W.A ) ( 1987 )
Straight Outta Compton ( as part of N.W.A ) ( 1988 )
100 Miles and Runnin ' ( as part of N.W.A ) ( 1990 )
Niggaz4Life ( as part of N.W.A ) ( 1991 )
= = Awards and nominations = =
Dr. Dre has won six Grammy Awards . Three of them are for his production work .
= = = Grammy Awards = = =
= = = MTV Video Music Awards = = =
= = Filmography = =
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= Melina Perez =
Melina Perez ( born March 9 , 1979 ) is an American professional wrestler , valet , model and actress . She is best known for her time with World Wrestling Entertainment under the ring name Melina .
Perez began her career as a beauty pageant contestant , winning several modelling competitions .
In 2000 , Perez began training to be a professional wrestler at Jesse Hernandez 's School of Hard Knocks , and made her debut in 2002 under the ring name " Kyra " . In late 2002 , Perez auditioned for World Wrestling Entertainment 's reality show Tough Enough III , but was eliminated in first round , and was inspired by Al Snow to continue pursuing her wrestling career . Perez became the most successful and decorated female contestant in Tough Enough history , as the only contestant to ever hold the WWE Women 's and Divas titles respectively . In March 2004 , Perez signed a contract with World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) , and was assigned to Ohio Valley Wrestling ( OVW ) , WWE 's developmental territory , where she began managing Johnny Nitro and Joey Mercury , dubbed MNM , to three reigns as WWE Tag Team Champions , as well as Nitro to two reigns as WWE Intercontinental Champion . Perez is a three @-@ time WWE Women 's Champion , and a two @-@ time WWE Divas Champion . This makes her a five @-@ time champion overall . In 2009 , Perez became the first woman to have won the WWE Women 's Championship and the WWE Divas Championship in a single calendar year . Perez also became the first WWE Women 's Champion to be traded in a WWE draft in 2009 , and thus became the first woman to hold the title as a SmackDown @-@ exclusive championship . After winning her second WWE Divas Championship in 2010 , Perez became the first woman in WWE history to become a multiple @-@ time champion with both the Women 's and Divas titles . Perez is also the first Latina to win the WWE Women 's and Divas titles . Famed for her flexibility utilized during her entrance and in her in @-@ ring maneuvers , Perez was called " one of the best wrestlers in the world " by Bret Hart , and cited by WWE as having " perhaps the most impressive arsenal of offensive maneuvers in WWE history . "
= = Modeling career = =
Perez began her career as a beauty pageant contestant , winning Miss Hawaiian Tropic Anaheim . During her modelling career , she has won many modelling competitions such as Group USA Bridal Show , Group USA Fashion Show , Ms. California Belleza Latina . Melina was body painted by artist Mark Greenawalt for a modeling photo shoot in 2007 where she posed with her WWE Women 's Championship belt .
= = Professional wrestling career = =
= = = Early career ( 2001 – 2004 ) = = =
Perez began training at Jesse Hernandez 's School of Hard Knocks in San Bernardino , California , and made her in @-@ ring debut in April 2002 . Many officials stated that she had the most natural ability of any woman who came through their school . In late 2002 , Perez auditioned for World Wrestling Entertainment 's reality show Tough Enough III , making it through to the final twenty @-@ one , before being eliminated in the final cut of the first episode . After she was eliminated from the contest , trainer Al Snow encouraged her to keep trying to pursue her dream as a wrestler .
= = = World Wrestling Entertainment / WWE = = =
= = = = Ohio Valley Wrestling ( 2004 ) = = = =
Perez debuted in WWE 's then @-@ developmental territory Ohio Valley Wrestling ( OVW ) in March 2004 , being placed in a storyline as John Hennigan 's ex @-@ girlfriend . The storyline had Matt Cappotelli introduce her to the ring as a way to taunt Hennigan . Melina , however , turned on Cappotelli and aligned herself with Hennigan , who later changed his ring name to Johnny Nitro . Soon after , the duo began teaming with Joey Matthews , later known as Joey Mercury . The trio became known as MNM and on November 10 , Melina managed Mercury and Nitro to win the OVW Southern Tag Team Championship , holding it for over two months . During her time in OVW , Melina , Nitro , and Steven Adkins came up with Melina 's trademark split ring entrance .
Melina made her first Raw appearance on November 29 , 2004 , when Randy Orton was the guest General Manager and hosted a Diva lingerie fashion show . She made another Raw appearance in December , participating in a limbo contest when Chris Jericho was General Manager for the night .
= = = = MNM ( 2005 – 2006 ) = = = =
Melina made her official debut in WWE as a villainess , resuming her role as the manager of MNM , on the April 14 , 2005 episode of SmackDown ! . The team interrupted the first ever Carlito 's Cabana interview segment , where one half of the WWE Tag Team Champions , Rey Mysterio , was a guest . Melina insulted Mysterio and had Mercury and Nitro attack him , leading to MNM 's in @-@ ring debut the next week on SmackDown ! in a title match . The team won the match against Mysterio and Eddie Guerrero , starting their first WWE Tag Team Title reign .
While managing the Tag Team Champions , Melina 's character was developed to be more egotistical , as she declared herself " the most @-@ dominant Diva in WWE " . She made her official in @-@ ring debut on June 30 against Michelle McCool , and had her first pay @-@ per @-@ view match against Torrie Wilson at The Great American Bash in a bra and panties match , winning both matches . In the same night , MNM dropped their championships to the Legion of Doom , prompting a new storyline where Melina hired Jillian Hall , a fixer , to assist them . MNM regained the titles on October 28 in a fatal four @-@ Way tag team match . On the Eddie Guerrero Tribute Show , Melina won a Divas battle royal by eliminating the Women 's Champion Trish Stratus . The next week , as a part of a new storyline , MNM kidnapped Stratus , tied her up and gagged her for Melina , who then challenged her to a match for the Women 's Championship . The two fought at Survivor Series , with Melina losing to Stratus with the help of Mickie James .
During this time , MNM defended their titles against Rey Mysterio and the World Heavyweight Champion Batista . Melina was placed in a storyline where she tried to make Batista call off the match by visiting him in his locker room and attempting to seduce him . The storyline had the two engage in sexual intercourse , after which he simply thanked her for the " warm @-@ up " before leaving to take part in the match , where he and Mysterio defeated MNM for the titles . The storyline played over to the next episode of SmackDown ! when , before MNM invoked their rematch clause , Melina held a press conference in the ring where she claimed that Batista had sexually harassed her . During the tag team match , Mark Henry aided MNM in winning back the WWE Tag Team Championship . The storyline with Henry continued into the next year . On the first SmackDown ! of 2006 , Melina announced that Henry was her personal protection against Batista . He accompanied her and aided the other members of MNM in matches against Batista and Mysterio .
At Judgment Day on May 21 , 2006 , MNM lost their titles to Paul London and Brian Kendrick . After the match , Melina and Nitro , as part of the storyline , attacked Mercury , blaming him for the loss . Later that night , Melina lost a singles match against Jillian Hall , and after slapping General Manager Theodore Long in anger , she and Nitro were fired from the SmackDown ! brand . The team then broke up because off @-@ screen , Nitro and Mercury did not get along , and WWE management decided to send Nitro and Melina to the Raw brand . Melina and Nitro debuted onRaw on May 29 , with Nitro losing to WWE Champion John Cena . Melina continued to manage Nitro during his successful hunt for the WWE Intercontinental Championship , and in another storyline with Trish Stratus . The storyline turned into a tag team feud when Carlito teamed with Stratus after he saved her from the attacks of Melina and Nitro . At Saturday Night 's Main Event on July 15 , Melina and Nitro lost to Carlito and Stratus in a mixed tag team match .
= = = = Singles competition and Women 's Champion ( 2006 – 2009 ) = = = =
After Melina 's arrival on Raw , Mick Foley began to mention her in promos and on his WWE.com columns , playing on their real @-@ life friendship , and they soon formed an on @-@ screen friendship . At SummerSlam , Melina was involved in Foley 's " I Quit " match against Ric Flair , when Flair threatened to hit her with a barbed wire baseball bat , causing Foley to quit the match to save her . The next night on Raw , the storyline had Vince McMahon order Foley to join the Kiss My Ass club . After begging Foley not to go through with it , Foley " joined the club " to save Melina 's job , only to have her suddenly turn on him by delivering a low blow and firing him at the behest of McMahon . The storyline was concocted by Foley to refresh the idea of the Kiss My Ass club . It was also around this time that Melina added another characteristic to her gimmick : screaming loudly at ringside while managing or in tag team action , which became known as the " primal scream " .
On January 29 , 2007 , Melina became the number one contender for the WWE Women 's Championship after defeating Maria in a number one contender 's match . On the February 5 episode of Raw , Melina received her title match against Mickie James but was unsuccessful . After pinning James in a mixed tag team match , Melina was granted another title match . On the February 19 episode of Raw , as part of her first major singles push , Melina defeated James to win the WWE Women 's Championship for the first time in her career . The feud between the two Divas continued and Melina later retained the title in a rematch during the first ever Women 's Falls Count Anywhere match in WWE history .
In March , Melina was placed in an angle where she became jealous of SmackDown ! Diva Ashley Massaro , who was receiving attention because of her appearance in Playboy . The angle had Melina claim in her blogs that no Playboy cover models were capable of fighting her . This resulted in scheduled matches against former Playboy cover girls Torrie Wilson and Candice Michelle , with both women losing to Melina . The storyline came to an end at WrestleMania 23 , where Melina pinned Ashley in a Lumberjill match to retain her Women 's Championship . After WrestleMania , Melina organized a photo op with the Women 's Championship belt in the ring , but was interrupted by Mickie James , resulting in another storyline feud between the two Divas . On April 24 , at a house show in Paris , France , Melina lost the Women 's Championship in a Triple Threat match to James when James pinned Victoria , but on the orders of Jonathan Coachman she was entitled to a rematch on the same night , where she pinned James by putting her hands on the ropes to regain the title and become a two @-@ time WWE Women 's Champion .
In May 7 , 2007 , Melina began feuding with Playboy cover girl Candice Michelle , after she was defeated in a tag team match alongside Victoria against Candice Michelle and Mickie James . Melina continued to lose to Candice in various tag team matches , as well as in non @-@ title bouts over the next few weeks . At Vengeance , Melina lost the Women 's Championship to Candice , and failed to recapture the title at The Great American Bash .
In April 2008 , Melina , along with then @-@ ally Beth Phoenix , competed at WrestleMania XXIV in a tag team match , defeating Maria and Ashley . On the May 5 episode of Raw ! , Melina unintentionally attacked Phoenix with her boot during a lumberjill match with Mickie James . The following week , Phoenix walked out on Melina during a tag match against James and Maria , when Melina accidentally bumped Phoenix off the apron . Melina was then attacked by Phoenix during a backstage segment following the match , leading to Melina turning into a face for the first time in her WWE career . On the May 19 episode of Raw , Melina commentated during Beth Phoenix 's match against Maria , which Phoenix won , and Melina would afterwards attack Phoenix with her boot before being attacked by Phoenix . At the One Night Stand pay @-@ per @-@ view , Melina competed in the first ever in women 's " I Quit " match against Beth Phoenix , but was unsuccessful in winning the match . The next night on Raw , Melina teamed with former rival Mickie James in a tag team match against Beth Phoenix and Katie Lea in a losing effort . On June 23 , 2008 , Perez suffered a heel injury after falling from the turnbuckles during a tag team match with Mickie James against Natalya and Victoria .
Melina returned from injury on the November 24 episode of Raw , teaming with former rivals Mickie James and Candice Michelle to defeat Phoenix , Jillian Hall , and Katie Lea Burchill . The following week , she made her singles return by defeating Hall . Following the match , Melina stated her intentions to take the WWE Women 's Championship from Beth Phoenix . On December 29 , Melina won a six @-@ woman battle royal to become the number one contender for the Championship . After the match , Melina and Phoenix engaged in a confrontation over a fan of Phoenix 's named Rosa Mendes , who had attacked Melina . On January 25 , 2009 , Melina won her third WWE Women 's Championship at the Royal Rumble by defeating Phoenix . She retained her championship against Beth Phoenix on February 16 episode of Raw , and again during a dark match at No Way Out .
= = = = Divas Champion and departure ( 2009 – 2011 ) = = = =
On the April 13 , 2009 episode of Raw , Melina was drafted back to SmackDown as part of the 2009 WWE Draft , thus making the WWE Women 's Championship exclusive to the brand . She began a feud with Michelle McCool , who was named as the number one contender to the title . McCool attacked Melina after her victory over Alicia Fox on the June 19 episode of SmackDown . Melina would then lose the Women 's Championship to McCool at The Bash after an interference from Alicia Fox , failed to regain the championship at Night of Champions .
On October 12 , Melina was traded back to the Raw brand , and won the WWE Divas Championship from Divas Champion Jillian Hall , who had won the belt from Mickie James only a few minutes earlier . On the November 23 episode of Raw , Melina teamed up with Mickie James and Kelly Kelly to defeat Jillian Hall and LayCool ( Michelle McCool and Layla ) . After the match , guest timekeeper The Gobbledy Gooker was revealed as Maryse by attacking Melina . The following week , Melina was pinned by Maryse in a tag team match . On the December 7 episode of Raw , Maryse defeated Gail Kim , and following the match , Maryse proceed to attack Kelly Kelly but was stopped by Melina . On December 29 , at a WWE live event in Manchester , New Hampshire , Melina tore her ACL during a six @-@ woman tag team match , and as a result she relinquished the Divas Championship on January 4 .
Melina made her return on the August 2 , 2010 episode of Raw , attacking WWE Divas Champion Alicia Fox after a six @-@ woman tag team match in which she , Jillian Hall , and Tamina defeated Eve Torres , Gail Kim , and Natalya . At SummerSlam , Melina defeated Fox to capture the Divas Championship for the second time in her career . After the match , she was attacked by Michelle McCool and WWE Women 's Champion Layla . On the 900th episode of Raw , after winning a match , she was challenged by either Layla or McCool to a match at Night of Champions , to unify the WWE Women 's and WWE Divas Championships , which McCool would win , after Layla attacked Melina during the match , to unify the championships .
On the December 20 episode of Raw , Melina became the number one contender to the Divas Championship and turned villainous when she slapped Natalya , who had attempted to congratulate her following her victory . When the two fought for the Divas Championship on January 24 , 2011 on Raw , Melina was defeated . On the August 1 episode of Raw , Perez participated in a # 1 contender 's battle royal , which was won by Beth Phoenix . This would be her final match with WWE , as she was released later that week .
= = = Independent circuit ( 2011 – present ) = = =
In November 2011 , Perez wrestled her first match outside of WWE by defeating Lexxus at the Women Superstars Uncensored November 19 pay @-@ per @-@ view . Perez appeared on the World Wrestling Fan Xperience ( WWFX ) Champions Showcase Tour in Manila , Philippines on February 4 , 2012 , where she wrestled under her real name . On February 5 , 2012 episode of WWFX , Melina defeated Jillian Hall .
Melina appeared at the Family Wrestling Entertainment ( FWE ) event , signing autographs and serving as Eric Young 's valet as he became the new FWE Heavyweight Champion . At the Empire City Showdown , on August 20 , Melina made a further appearance for FWE in a segment with Charlie and Jackie Haas . On April 28 edition of FWE Television , Melina was defeated by Winter with Lita as the special guest referee in a FWE Women 's Championship match .
Melina debuted for North East Wrestling on March 23 , 2012 , competing in a victorious effort against Velvet Sky , but lost to Sky the following day in a rematch .
From June 30 to July 2 , 2012 , Melina participated in World Wrestling Council 's ( WWC ) Anniversario weekend in Puerto Rico . On the first two nights , Melina defeated Velvet Sky in singles matches , but on the final night , she and Davey Richards were defeated in a mixed tag team match by Sky and Xix Savant . At the time , this was Perez 's last wrestling match , and she began referring to herself as a former professional wrestler .
On June 19 , 2015 , Melina returned to the independent circuit for the first time in three years at Maryland Championship Wrestling 's Ladies Night event ; appearing as the villainous enforcer in the MCW Women 's Championship main event match between champion Amber Rodriguez and challenger Mickie James , which was officiated by Lisa Marie Varon . During the match , Melina attacked James but was then attacked by Varon .
On August 5 , 2015 , Melina made an appearance with Lucha Underground at Ultima Lucha . She helped Johnny Mundo in his match against Alberto El Patron by hitting El Patron with his title belt while the referee was knocked down .
On October 16 , 2015 , Melina made her debut for Japanese promotion World Wonder Ring Stardom , during their first American tour in Covina , California . She teamed with Santana Garrett in a tag team match to defeat Hudson Envy and Thunder Rosa .
= = Other media = =
On April 13 , 2008 , she appeared in an episode of Celebrity Fit Club Boot Camp along with Mickie James , Layla , and Kelly Kelly .
= = = Filmography = = =
= = Personal life = =
Perez was born in Los Angeles , California but was raised in High Desert , California . Perez is Mexican American . She has a brother named P.J. & she speaks both English and Spanish fluently .
In early and mid @-@ 2007 , Perez had a real @-@ life feud with fellow WWE Diva Candice Michelle in their WWE.com blogs . The feud began when Candice accused Perez of stealing one of her signature moves in the ring . Perez responded to Candice 's accusation in her blog by posting a picture of herself performing that move during an independent wrestling show in 2003 , proving that she has been using the same move long before she joined WWE and before Candice had began her professional wrestling career . She then wrote a blog in April of that year that WWE.com would not publish due to the feelings she expressed towards Perez . Candice took exception to Perez claiming that she had a " spare tire " during an episode of Raw , and in retaliation , Candice claimed Perez was " just jealous " .
= = In wrestling = =
Finishing moves
California Dream / Kyrapractor ( Muta lock )
Extreme Makeover ( Multiple facebuster variants ) – 2005 – 2006 ; used as a signature move from 2006 – present
Springboard kneeling facebuster
Charging spinning facebuster
Diving facebuster off the top rope , or off the apron to the floor
Last Call ( Leg trap sunset flip powerbomb ) – 2008 – present
Primal Scream / Sunset Split ( Inverted leg drop bulldog into a split – legged pin , preceded by a scream ) – 2007 – present
Signature moves
Bodyscissors , sometimes transitioned into a pin
Bow and arrow stretch
Camel clutch
Divastator ( Multiple kicking combinations )
Diving double knee drop , to an opponent trapped across the turnbuckles
Diving seated senton pin
Dragon sleeper , sometimes with bodyscissors
Flapjack
Gedo clutch , sometimes transitioned into a pin
Giant swing
Hair @-@ pull curb stomp
Headscissors in the corner transitioned into axe kick
Kyranium Buster ( Flying neckbreaker )
Japanese stranglehold
Lariat
Matrix evasion , sometimes into a bridging Pelé kick to the head
Mule kick
Multiple pinning variations
Jackknife pin
Japanese rolling clutch pin
Roll @-@ up , sometimes while bridging
Sunset flip
Victory roll
Wheelbarrow victory roll
Rope hung Boston crab
Running double knee strike to an opponent against the ropes or in the corner
Running split @-@ leg big boot
Shoulder jawbreaker
Sliding double leg takedown
Snapmare driver
Spear , sometimes in the ropes
Split @-@ legged arm drag
Split @-@ legged hangman 's neckbreaker
Splitting evasion
Tilt @-@ a @-@ whirl , transitioned into a back kick , a Fujiwara armbar , or a facebuster
Managers
Jillian Hall
Wrestlers managed
Johnny Nitro / Mundo
Joey Mercury
Mark Henry
Mick Foley
Victoria
Eric Young
Nicknames
" The most @-@ dominant Diva in WWE "
" The Gorgeous Grappler "
" The A – List Diva "
" The Barracuda "
" The Paparazzi Princess "
" The Red Carpet Diva "
" The Hell Cat "
" The Lovely Latina "
" Raw 's Scream Queen "
Entrance themes
" Paparazzi " by Jim Johnston ( WWE ; April 14 , 2005 – August 5 , 2011 )
= = Championships and accomplishments = =
Empire Wrestling Federation
First female inductee into the EWF Hall of Fame ( 2016 )
Pro Wrestling Illustrated
PWI ranked her # 3 of the best 50 female singles wrestlers in the PWI Female 50 in 2009
World Wrestling Entertainment
WWE Divas Championship ( 2 times )
WWE Women 's Championship ( 3 times )
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= The X @-@ Files Mythology , Volume 1 – Abduction =
Volume 1 of The X @-@ Files Mythology collection is a DVD release containing selected episodes from the first to the third seasons of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . The episodes collected in the release form the beginning of the series ' mythology , and are centred on alien abduction at the hands of " colonists " . Several of the elements introduced in the collected episodes arose through necessity during production , as working around the pregnancy of lead actress Gillian Anderson led to both the creation of unifying plot thread and the introduction of several recurring characters .
The episodes in the collection follow the investigations of paranormal @-@ related cases , or X @-@ Files , by FBI Special Agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Anderson ) . Mulder is a believer in the paranormal , while the skeptical Scully has been assigned to debunk his work . Events covered in the episodes include the meeting of Mulder and Scully , the introduction and assassination of a secretive informant , the apparent return of Mulder 's lost sister , and the abduction and return of Scully .
The collection contains the first episodes in the series ' mythology , or fictional story arcs . When the series began , Chris Carter did not think of creating a " mythology " for the episodes focusing on extraterrestrial life , because he felt that " they were just stories we wanted to tell " . Eventually , however , the writers saw that the most " personal " episodes were those based on the government conspiracy , and , as such , developed more stories based around the conceit . Jerry Hardin , William B. Davis , Mitch Pileggi , Tom Braidwood , Dean Haglund and Bruce Harwood all play supporting roles in the collection . Released on June 7 , 2005 , the collection received generally positive reviews from critics .
= = Plot summary = =
FBI Special Agent Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) has made a name for himself working on X @-@ Files — unexplained cases which may be paranormal in origin . He is appointed a partner in these investigations — Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) — with his superiors hoping that she will be able to debunk and discredit his work . Their first case together is the investigation of possible abductions in Oregon , which falters when their evidence is destroyed in a fire . A later case , involving the disappearance of a United States Air Force test pilot , sees the introduction of secretive informant Deep Throat ( Jerry Hardin ) , who continues to provide the agents sensitive information . This help is supplemented by conspiracy theorist group The Lone Gunmen , who are contacted for help in a further abduction case . Deep Throat is soon killed , however , when he helps the agents uncover details of a government human cloning program , and the X @-@ Files unit is closed shortly thereafter .
Unable to continue his work with Scully , Mulder obtains information about possible extraterrestrial contact in Puerto Rico , finding that the SETI program at the Arecibo Observatory is being forcibly closed . Although the pair are later allowed to resume their work , Scully is later kidnapped by an unhinged multiple alien abductee , Duane Barry . Barry takes Scully to a hilltop where she is then abducted , presumably by aliens . She is found comatose at a later date , having mysteriously arrived at a hospital , and recovers several days later .
Mulder receives a call from his father , finding out that his sister Samantha ( Megan Leitch ) , who had been abducted as a child , has returned . Samantha is being pursued by a shapeshifting bounty hunter , who is assassinating human clones . Samantha is killed , although it is revealed that she was simply one of a number of clones , produced using alien tissue to create an alien @-@ human hybrid .
The Lone Gunmen contact Mulder and Scully about a successful attempt by a friend of theirs to hack the United States Department of Defense computer system . The hacker , Kenneth Soona ( Bernie Coulson ) , is able to give Mulder the downloaded information on a digital cassette . However , Soona is later assassinated , and the downloaded files are found to be written in Navajo . Contacting Albert Hosteen ( Floyd Red Crow Westerman ) — a Navajo man capable of translating the files — Mulder is shown a box @-@ car full of what appear to be alien corpses . He is trapped in the box @-@ car by the series ' antagonist , The Smoking Man ( William B. Davis ) , and left for dead after it is destroyed . He is later found and nursed back to health by Hosteen . Meanwhile , Scully investigates the possible involvement of the smallpox eradication program in human genetic experimentation , discovering that a Nazi scientist who defected during Operation Paperclip has been conducting human experimentation to create alien @-@ human hybrids . Her sister Melissa ( Melinda McGraw ) , however , is shot by assassins who mistake her for Dana , and dies in hospital that night .
= = Background = =
When the series began , Chris Carter did not think of creating a " mythology " for the episodes focusing on extraterrestrial life , because he felt that " they were just stories we wanted to tell " . Eventually , however , the writers saw that the most " personal " episodes were those based on the government conspiracy . Another reason for the development of an ongoing mythology was that the producers were afraid of not creating a thread between the episodes centering on the conspiracy , feeling that it would be pretentious not to do so .
According to Carter , the mythology " sprung from " the series ' pilot and its follow up , " Deep Throat " , which set up the idea that aliens had been on Earth for many years . Carter sees the final scene of " Deep Throat " as the " launching moment for the entire mythology " . The main theme for the series , stemming from these episodes , is Fox Mulder 's quest to find " the truth " about his sister , Samantha Mulder , who had been abducted as a child . This quest drove the character to investigate the paranormal , setting the framework for the series .
After several stand @-@ alone episodes featuring UFOs and extraterrestrials early in the first season , the show 's mythology developed largely based on the pregnancy of actress Gillian Anderson , who became pregnant midway through production of the first season . Executive producer Frank Spotnitz described it as " the best thing that ever happened to the series " , noting that the mythology " really ended up running through the life of the series , all because Gillian Anderson became pregnant " . Although there were initially thoughts about Anderson 's character Scully giving birth to an alien child , ultimately the writers decided to work around Anderson 's pregnancy . The writers decided on closing the X @-@ Files at the end of the season to separate Mulder and Scully from one another , and have Scully abducted , reappearing comatose several episodes later . In addition to the creation of the storyline concerning Scully 's abduction , Anderson 's reduced role in the first half of the second season permitted the writers to develop some of the other characters in the show including Assistant Director Walter Skinner ( Mitch Pileggi ) , The Smoking Man ( William B. Davis ) and X ( Steven Williams ) , and resulted in the introduction of the character Alex Krycek ( Nicholas Lea ) . Krycek , who was initially created by writer Howard Gordon to temporarily replace Scully as Mulder 's partner for three episodes eventually grew into a character that lasted seven seasons on the show .
Prior to the second season episode " One Breath " , The Smoking Man mostly " lurked around in the shadows " , providing a " forbidding " presence . The Smoking Man uttered only four audible words in the entire first season of the show , all of them being in " Tooms " . Producer and director R.W. Goodwin did not have faith in William B. Davis ' ability to take on the role of the series ' chief antagonist . It was later revealed to the producers that Davis was running an acting school , and teaching such actors as ninth season guest star Lucy Lawless .
In the two @-@ part story of " Colony " and " End Game " , Carter and Spotnitz , along with Duchovny , created what would become a recurring character in the alien bounty hunter . According to Carter , Duchovny came to him and said " it be great if we had like an alien bounty hunter " , an idea of which Carter approved . Spotnitz has noted that the actor cast for the role , Brian Thompson , was chosen because he had a very " distinctive look " about him , most notably his face and mouth .
= = Reception = =
Released on June 7 , 2005 , the collection has received generally positive reviews from critics . Slant Magazine 's Keith Uhlich rated it three stars out of five , praising the quality of the episodes included in the set , but ultimately finding that they were best viewed in the context of the " standalone " episodes which were omitted — singling out " Conduit " and " The Jersey Devil " as episodes which would aid the series ' " dual character study " . Writing for IGN , Dan Iverson rated the collection eight out of ten , finding that the mythology @-@ based episodes formed the basis of the relationship between the characters of Mulder and Scully . Making reference to the first season episode " Squeeze " , not included in the collection , he added that " even though people watched the series to see little green men and liver @-@ eating elastic monsters , it was the relationship between the two which made the series a total success " . However , he found that the set 's extra features material was sparse , describing it has being just enough " to keep us from complaining " . Writing for DVD Talk , Jeffrey Robinson was impressed with the collection , finding that the featured episodes worked well together without losing cohesion , and stating that " whether you are a casual viewer or a fan who already owns the season sets , owning The X @-@ Files Mythology , Volume 1 : Abduction is a must " . Exclaim ! ' s Monica S. Kuebler felt negatively about the collection , noting that anyone who would be interested in it would be likely to already own the collected episodes through other releases , and asking " should you buy Abduction ? It all depends on how much five commentaries and a doc are worth to you , because chances are , if you love the X @-@ Files ... you 've probably already bought the episodes included here at least once " .
= = Episodes = =
= = Special features = =
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= HMS Grenville ( H03 ) =
HMS Grenville was the flotilla leader for the G @-@ class destroyers , built for the Royal Navy in the mid @-@ 1930s . She spent most of the pre @-@ war period as part of the Mediterranean Fleet . The ship was transferred to the British Isles to escort shipping in local waters shortly after the beginning of World War II . In January 1940 , Grenville struck a mine outside the Thames Estuary and sank with the loss of 77 of her crew .
= = Description = =
Grenville displaced 1 @,@ 455 long tons ( 1 @,@ 478 t ) at standard load and 2 @,@ 053 long tons ( 2 @,@ 086 t ) at deep load . The ship had an overall length of 330 feet ( 100 @.@ 6 m ) , a beam of 34 feet 6 inches ( 10 @.@ 5 m ) and a draught of 12 feet 9 inches ( 3 @.@ 9 m ) . She was powered by Parsons geared steam turbines , driving two shafts , which developed a total of 38 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 28 @,@ 000 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 36 knots ( 67 km / h ; 41 mph ) . Steam for the turbines was provided by three Yarrow side @-@ fired , water @-@ tube boilers . Grenville carried a maximum of 470 long tons ( 480 t ) of fuel oil that gave her a range of 5 @,@ 530 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 240 km ; 6 @,@ 360 mi ) at 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . The ship 's complement was 175 officers and men .
The ship mounted five 45 @-@ calibre 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch ( 120 mm ) Mark IX guns in single mounts . For anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) defence , Grenville had two quadruple Mark I mounts for the 0 @.@ 5 inch Vickers Mark III machine gun . She was fitted with two above @-@ water quadruple torpedo tube mounts for 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedoes . One depth charge rail and two throwers were fitted ; 20 depth charges were originally carried , but this increased to 35 shortly after the war began .
= = Service history = =
Ordered in 1934 , the ship was laid down by the Yarrow Shipbuilding Company at Scotstoun in Glasgow on 29 September 1934 , launched on 15 August 1935 , and completed on 1 July 1936 . Excluding government @-@ furnished equipment like the armament , the ship cost £ 275 @,@ 412 . Aside from a brief period when she was assigned to the 20th Destroyer Flotilla after her commissioning , Grenville spent the prewar period as the flagship of the 1st Destroyer Flotilla with the Mediterranean Fleet . She spent ten months deployed off the Spanish coast in the Western Mediterranean during the Spanish Civil War before returning to Portsmouth for a brief overhaul between 24 May and 9 June 1937 . The ship returned to the Mediterranean until she was given a more thorough refit in Portsmouth between 7 June and 25 July 1938 .
On the outbreak of war in September 1939 , Grenville was deployed in the Mediterranean . On 22 October , Grenville and her sisters Griffin , Grenade and Gipsy were transferred to the Western Approaches Command and arrived at Plymouth on 2 November . Grenville and Grenade collided during the night of 7 / 8 November and Grenville 's No. 3 boiler room was flooded . She was under repair at HM Dockyard , Devonport until 1 December . While the ship was under repair , her flotilla had been transferred to the Nore Command at Harwich for local patrol and escort work . Grenville rejoined them the on 3 December and participated in several attempts to intercept enemy shipping traffic off the Dutch and German North Sea coasts . Whilst returning from one of these missions on 19 January Grenville struck a mine 23 miles ( 37 km ) east of Kentish Knock Light Vessel . Seventy @-@ seven of the ship 's company were killed as the ship sank .
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= European Union =
The European Union ( EU ) is a politico @-@ economic union of 28 member states that are located primarily in Europe . It has an area of 4 @,@ 324 @,@ 782 km2 ( 1 @,@ 669 @,@ 808 sq mi ) , and an estimated population of over 510 million . The EU has developed an internal single market through a standardised system of laws that apply in all member states . EU policies aim to ensure the free movement of people , goods , services , and capital within the internal market , enact legislation in justice and home affairs , and maintain common policies on trade , agriculture , fisheries , and regional development . Within the Schengen Area , passport controls have been abolished . A monetary union was established in 1999 and came into full force in 2002 , and is composed of 19 EU member states which use the euro currency .
The EU operates through a hybrid system of supranational and intergovernmental decision @-@ making . The seven principal decision @-@ making bodies — known as the institutions of the European Union — are the European Council , the Council of the European Union , the European Parliament , the European Commission , the Court of Justice of the European Union , the European Central Bank , and the European Court of Auditors .
The EU traces its origins from the European Coal and Steel Community ( ECSC ) and the European Economic Community ( EEC ) , formed by the Inner Six countries in 1951 and 1958 , respectively . The community and its successors have grown in size by the accession of new member states and in power by the addition of policy areas to its remit . While no member state has , as yet , ever left the EU , a non @-@ binding referendum in the United Kingdom in June 2016 supported leaving . The Maastricht Treaty established the European Union in 1993 and introduced European citizenship . The latest major amendment to the constitutional basis of the EU , the Treaty of Lisbon , came into force in 2009 .
Covering 7 @.@ 3 % of the world population , the EU in 2014 generated a nominal gross domestic product ( GDP ) of 18 @.@ 495 trillion US dollars , constituting approximately 24 % of global nominal GDP and 17 % when measured in terms of purchasing power parity . Additionally , 26 out of 28 EU countries have a very high Human Development Index , according to the United Nations Development Program . In 2012 , the EU was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize . Through the Common Foreign and Security Policy , the EU has developed a role in external relations and defence . The union maintains permanent diplomatic missions throughout the world and represents itself at the United Nations , the World Trade Organization , the G8 , and the G @-@ 20 . Because of its global influence , the European Union has been described as a current or as a potential superpower .
= = History = =
= = = Preliminary ( 1945 – 57 ) = = =
After World War II , European integration was seen as an antidote to the extreme nationalism which had devastated the continent . The 1948 Hague Congress was a pivotal moment in European federal history , as it led to the creation of the European Movement International and of the College of Europe , where Europe 's future leaders would live and study together . 1952 saw the creation of the European Coal and Steel Community , which was declared to be " a first step in the federation of Europe . " The supporters of the Community included Alcide De Gasperi , Jean Monnet , Robert Schuman , and Paul @-@ Henri Spaak .
= = = Treaty of Rome ( 1957 – 92 ) = = =
In 1957 , Belgium , France , Italy , Luxembourg , the Netherlands and West Germany signed the Treaty of Rome , which created the European Economic Community ( EEC ) and established a customs union . They also signed another pact creating the European Atomic Energy Community ( Euratom ) for co @-@ operation in developing nuclear energy . Both treaties came into force in 1958 .
The EEC and Euratom were created separately from ECSC , although they shared the same courts and the Common Assembly . The EEC was headed by Walter Hallstein ( Hallstein Commission ) and Euratom was headed by Louis Armand ( Armand Commission ) and then Étienne Hirsch . Euratom was to integrate sectors in nuclear energy while the EEC would develop a customs union among members .
Through the 1960s , tensions began to show , with France seeking to limit supranational power . Nevertheless , in 1965 an agreement was reached and on 1 July 1967 the Merger Treaty created a single set of institutions for the three communities , which were collectively referred to as the European Communities . Jean Rey presided over the first merged Commission ( Rey Commission ) .
In 1973 , the Communities enlarged to include Denmark ( including Greenland , which later left the Community in 1985 , following a dispute over fishing rights ) , Ireland , and the United Kingdom . Norway had negotiated to join at the same time , but Norwegian voters rejected membership in a referendum . In 1979 , the first direct elections to the European Parliament were held .
Greece joined in 1981 , Portugal and Spain following in 1986 . In 1985 , the Schengen Agreement paved the way for the creation of open borders without passport controls between most member states and some non @-@ member states . In 1986 , the European flag began to be used by the Community and the Single European Act was signed .
In 1990 , after the fall of the Eastern Bloc , the former East Germany became part of the Community as part of a reunified Germany . With further enlargement planned to include the former communist states , as well as Cyprus and Malta , the Copenhagen criteria for candidate members to join the EU were agreed upon in June 1993 .
= = = Maastricht Treaty ( 1992 – present ) = = =
The European Union was formally established when the Maastricht Treaty — whose main architects were Helmut Kohl and François Mitterrand — came into force on 1 November 1993 . The treaty also gave the name European Community to the EEC , even if it was referred as such before the treaty . In 1995 , Austria , Finland , and Sweden joined the EU . In 2002 , euro banknotes and coins replaced national currencies in 12 of the member states . Since then , the eurozone has increased to encompass 19 countries . In 2004 , the EU saw its biggest enlargement to date when Cyprus , the Czech Republic , Estonia , Hungary , Latvia , Lithuania , Malta , Poland , Slovakia and Slovenia joined the Union . In 2007 , Romania and Bulgaria became EU members . The same year , Slovenia adopted the euro , followed in 2008 by Cyprus and Malta , by Slovakia in 2009 , by Estonia in 2011 , by Latvia in 2014 and by Lithuania in 2015 .
On 1 December 2009 , the Lisbon Treaty entered into force and reformed many aspects of the EU . In particular , it changed the legal structure of the European Union , merging the EU three pillars system into a single legal entity provisioned with a legal personality , created a permanent President of the European Council , the first of which was Herman Van Rompuy , and strengthened the position of the High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy . In 2012 , the EU received the Nobel Peace Prize for having " contributed to the advancement of peace and reconciliation , democracy , and human rights in Europe . " In 2013 , Croatia became the 28th EU member .
From the beginning of 2010s , the European Union is going through a series of tests , including a debt crisis in some Eurozone countries , increasing migration from Middle Eastern countries , Russian military intervention in Ukraine and the United Kingdom 's withdrawal from the EU .
= = = Structural evolution = = =
The following timeline illustrates the integration that has led to the formation of the present union , in terms of structural development driven by international treaties :
= = = British withdrawal = = =
A referendum on the UK 's membership of the European Union ( announced by British Prime Minister David Cameron on 20 February 2016 ) was held on 23 June 2016 , following years of campaigning by eurosceptics . The result gave a majority of with 51 @.@ 9 % to leave , and 48 @.@ 1 % to remain , on a turnout of 72 @.@ 2 % of registered voters . As of July 2016 , the UK has not yet initiated the formal withdrawal procedure , and will not leave the EU until either two years after they notify the European Council of their decision to withdraw , or on the coming into force of a withdrawal agreement .
= = Geography = =
The EU 's member states cover an area of 4 @,@ 423 @,@ 147 square kilometres ( 1 @,@ 707 @,@ 787 sq mi ) . The EU 's highest peak is Mont Blanc in the Graian Alps , 4 @,@ 810 @.@ 45 metres ( 15 @,@ 782 ft ) above sea level . The lowest points in the EU are Lammefjorden , Denmark and Zuidplaspolder , Netherlands , at 7 m ( 23 ft ) below sea level . The landscape , climate , and economy of the EU are influenced by its coastline , which is 65 @,@ 993 kilometres ( 41 @,@ 006 mi ) long .
Including the overseas territories of France which are located outside the continent of Europe , but which are members of the union , the EU experiences most types of climate from Arctic ( North @-@ East Europe ) to tropical ( French Guyana ) , rendering meteorological averages for the EU as a whole meaningless . The majority of the population lives in areas with a temperate maritime climate ( North @-@ Western Europe and Central Europe ) , a Mediterranean climate ( Southern Europe ) , or a warm summer continental or hemiboreal climate ( Northern Balkans and Central Europe ) .
The EU 's population is highly urbanised , with some 75 % of inhabitants ( and growing , projected to be 90 % in seven member states by 2020 ) living in urban areas . Cities are largely spread out across the EU , although with a large grouping in and around the Benelux . An increasing percentage of this is due to low density urban sprawl which is extending into natural areas . In some cases , this urban growth has been due to the influx of EU funds into a region .
= = = Member states = = =
Through successive enlargements , the European Union has grown from the six founding states — Belgium , France , West Germany , Italy , Luxembourg , and the Netherlands — to the current 28 . Countries accede to the union by becoming party to the founding treaties , thereby subjecting themselves to the privileges and obligations of EU membership . This entails a partial delegation of sovereignty to the institutions in return for representation within those institutions , a practice often referred to as " pooling of sovereignty " .
To become a member , a country must meet the Copenhagen criteria , defined at the 1993 meeting of the European Council in Copenhagen . These require a stable democracy that respects human rights and the rule of law ; a functioning market economy ; and the acceptance of the obligations of membership , including EU law . Evaluation of a country 's fulfilment of the criteria is the responsibility of the European Council . No member state has yet left the Union , although Greenland ( an autonomous province of Denmark ) withdrew in 1985 . The Lisbon Treaty now contains a clause under Article 50 , providing for a member to leave the EU . On 23 June 2016 , the United Kingdom voted by referendum to leave the EU . However , it remains a member until it officially exits , and has not yet begun formal withdrawal procedures .
There are six countries that are recognized as candidates for membership : Albania , Iceland , Macedonia , Montenegro , Serbia , and Turkey , though Iceland suspended negotiations in 2013 . Bosnia and Herzegovina and Kosovo are officially recognised as potential candidates , with Bosnia and Herzegovina having submitted a membership application .
The four countries forming the European Free Trade Association ( EFTA ) are not EU members , but have partly committed to the EU 's economy and regulations : Iceland , Liechtenstein and Norway , which are a part of the single market through the European Economic Area , and Switzerland , which has similar ties through bilateral treaties . The relationships of the European microstates , Andorra , Monaco , San Marino , and the Vatican include the use of the euro and other areas of co @-@ operation . The following 28 sovereign states ( of which the map only shows territories situated in and around Europe ) constitute the European Union :
= = = Environment = = =
In 1957 , when the EEC was founded , it had no environmental policy . Over the past 50 years , an increasingly dense network of legislation has been created , extending to all areas of environmental protection , including air pollution , water quality , waste management , nature conservation , and the control of chemicals , industrial hazards and biotechnology . According to the Institute for European Environmental Policy , environmental law comprises over 500 Directives , Regulations and Decisions , making environmental policy a core area of European politics .
European policy @-@ makers originally increased the EU 's capacity to act on environmental issues by defining it as a trade problem . Trade barriers and competitive distortions in the Common Market could emerge due to the different environmental standards in each member state . In subsequent years , the environment became a formal policy area , with its own policy actors , principles and procedures . The legal basis for EU environmental policy was established with the introduction of the Single European Act in 1987 .
Initially , EU environmental policy focused on Europe . More recently , the EU has demonstrated leadership in global environmental governance , e.g. the role of the EU in securing the ratification and coming into force of the Kyoto Protocol despite opposition from the United States . This international dimension is reflected in the EU 's Sixth Environmental Action Programme , which recognises that its objectives can only be achieved if key international agreements are actively supported and properly implemented both at EU level and worldwide . The Lisbon Treaty further strengthened the leadership ambitions . EU law has played a significant role in improving habitat and species protection in Europe , as well as contributing to improvements in air and water quality and waste management .
Mitigating climate change is one of the top priorities of EU environmental policy . In 2007 , member states agreed that , in future , 20 % of the energy used across the EU must be renewable , and carbon dioxide emissions have to be lower in 2020 by at least 20 % compared to 1990 levels . The EU has adopted an emissions trading system to incorporate carbon emissions into the economy . The European Green Capital is an annual award given to cities that focuses on the environment , energy efficiency and quality of life in urban areas to create smart city .
= = Politics = =
The European Union operates according to the principles of conferral ( which says that it should act only within the limits of the competences conferred on it by the treaties ) and of subsidiarity ( which says that it should act only where an objective cannot be sufficiently achieved by the member states acting alone ) . Laws made by the EU institutions are passed in a variety of forms . Generally speaking , they can be classified into two groups : those which come into force without the necessity for national implementation measures ( regulations ) and those which specifically require national implementation measures ( directives ) .
= = = Constitutional nature = = =
The classification of the EU in terms of international or constitutional law has been much debated . It began life as an international organisation and gradually developed into a confederation of states . However , since the mid @-@ 1960s it has also added several of the key attributes of a federation , such as the direct effect of the law of the general level of government upon the individual and majority voting in the decision @-@ making process of the general level of government , without becoming a federation per se . Scholars thus today see it as an intermediate form lying between a confederation and a federation , being an instance of neither political structure . For this reason , the organisation is termed sui generis ( incomparable , one of a kind ) , although some argue that this designation is no longer valid .
The organisation has traditionally used the terms " Community " and later " Union " to describe itself . The difficulties of classification involve the difference between national law ( where the subjects of the law include natural persons and corporations ) and international law ( where the subjects include sovereign states and international organizations ) . They can also be seen in the light of differing European and American constitutional traditions . Especially in terms of the European tradition , the term federation is equated with a sovereign federal state in international law ; so the EU cannot be called a federation — at least , not without qualification . It is , however , described as being based on a federal model or federal in nature ; and so it may be appropriate to consider it a federal union of states , a conceptual structure lying between the confederation of states and the federal state . The German Constitutional Court refers to the EU as a Staatenverbund , an intermediate structure between the Staatenbund ( confederation of states ) and the Bundesstaat ( federal state ) , consistent with this concept . This may be a long @-@ lived political form . Professor Andrew Moravcsik claims that the EU is unlikely to develop further into a federal state , but instead has reached maturity as a constitutional system .
= = = Governance = = =
The European Union has seven institutions : the European Council , the Council of the European Union , the European Parliament , the European Commission , the Court of Justice of the European Union , the European Central Bank and the European Court of Auditors . Competence in scrutinising and amending legislation is shared between the Council of the European Union and the European Parliament , while executive tasks are performed by the European Commission and in a limited capacity by the European Council ( not to be confused with the aforementioned Council of the European Union ) . The monetary policy of the eurozone is determined by the European Central Bank . The interpretation and the application of EU law and the treaties are ensured by the Court of Justice of the European Union . The EU budget is scrutinised by the European Court of Auditors . There are also a number of ancillary bodies which advise the EU or operate in a specific area .
= = = = European Council = = = =
The European Council gives political direction to the EU . It convenes at least four times a year and comprises the President of the European Council ( currently Donald Tusk ) , the President of the European Commission and one representative per member state ( either its head of state or head of government ) . The High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy ( currently Federica Mogherini ) also takes part in its meetings . It has been described by some as the Union 's " supreme political authority " . It is actively involved in the negotiation of treaty changes and defines the EU 's policy agenda and strategies .
The European Council uses its leadership role to sort out disputes between member states and the institutions , and to resolve political crises and disagreements over controversial issues and policies . It acts externally as a " collective head of state " and ratifies important documents ( for example , international agreements and treaties ) .
Tasks for the President of the European Council are ensuring the external representation of the EU , driving consensus and resolving divergences among member states , both during meetings of the European Council and over the periods between them .
The European Council should not be mistaken for the Council of Europe , an international organisation independent of the EU based in Strasbourg .
= = = = Council of the European Union = = = =
The Council of the European Union ( also called the " Council " and the " Council of Ministers " , its former title ) forms one half of the EU 's legislature . It consists of a government minister from each member state and meets in different compositions depending on the policy area being addressed . Notwithstanding its different configurations , it is considered to be one single body . In addition to its legislative functions , the Council also exercises executive functions in relations to the Common Foreign and Security Policy .
= = = = European Parliament = = = =
The European Parliament forms the other half of the EU 's legislature . The 751 Members of the European Parliament ( MEPs ) are directly elected by EU citizens every five years on the basis of proportional representation . Although MEPs are elected on a national basis , they sit according to political groups rather than their nationality . Each country has a set number of seats and is divided into sub @-@ national constituencies where this does not affect the proportional nature of the voting system .
The European Parliament and the Council of the European Union pass legislation jointly in nearly all areas under the ordinary legislative procedure . This also applies to the EU budget . The European Commission is accountable to Parliament , requiring its approval to take office , having to report back to it and subject to motions of censure from it . The President of the European Parliament ( currently Martin Schulz ) carries out the role of speaker in Parliament and represents it externally . The President and Vice @-@ Presidents are elected by MEPs every two and a half years .
= = = = European Commission = = = =
The European Commission acts as the EU 's executive arm and is responsible for initiating legislation and the day @-@ to @-@ day running of the EU . The Commission is also seen as the motor of European integration . It operates as a cabinet government , with 28 Commissioners for different areas of policy , one from each member state , though Commissioners are bound to represent the interests of the EU as a whole rather than their home state .
One of the 28 is the President of the European Commission ( currently Jean @-@ Claude Juncker ) appointed by the European Council . After the President , the most prominent Commissioner is the High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy , who is ex @-@ officio a Vice @-@ President of the Commission and is also chosen by the European Council . The other 26 Commissioners are subsequently appointed by the Council of the European Union in agreement with the nominated President . The 28 Commissioners as a single body are subject to a vote of approval by the European Parliament .
= = = Budget = = =
The EU had an agreed budget of € 120 @.@ 7 billion for the year 2007 and € 864 @.@ 3 billion for the period 2007 – 2013 , representing 1 @.@ 10 % and 1 @.@ 05 % of the EU @-@ 27 's GNI forecast for the respective periods . By comparison , the United Kingdom 's expenditure for 2004 was estimated to be € 759 billion , and France was estimated to have spent € 801 billion . In 1960 , the budget of the then European Economic Community was 0 @.@ 03 % of GDP .
In the 2010 budget of € 141 @.@ 5 billion , the largest single expenditure item is " cohesion & competitiveness " with around 45 % of the total budget . Next comes " agriculture " with approximately 31 % of the total . " Rural development , environment and fisheries " takes up around 11 % . " Administration " accounts for around 6 % . The " EU as a global partner " and " citizenship , freedom , security and justice " bring up the rear with approximately 6 % and 1 % respectively .
The Court of Auditors is legally obliged to provide the Parliament and the Council with " a statement of assurance as to the reliability of the accounts and the legality and regularity of the underlying transactions " . The Court also gives opinions and proposals on financial legislation and anti @-@ fraud actions . The Parliament uses this to decide whether to approve the Commission 's handling of the budget .
The European Court of Auditors has signed off the European Union accounts every year since 2007 and , while making it clear that the European Commission has more work to do , has highlighted that most of the errors take place at national level . In their report on 2009 the auditors found that five areas of Union expenditure , agriculture and the cohesion fund , were materially affected by error . The European Commission estimated in 2009 that the financial impact of irregularities was € 1 @,@ 863 million .
= = = Competences = = =
EU member states retain all powers not explicitly handed to the European Union . In some areas the EU enjoys exclusive competence . These are areas in which member states have renounced any capacity to enact legislation . In other areas the EU and its member states share the competence to legislate . While both can legislate , member states can only legislate to the extent to which the EU has not . In other policy areas the EU can only co @-@ ordinate , support and supplement member state action but cannot enact legislation with the aim of harmonising national laws .
That a particular policy area falls into a certain category of competence is not necessarily indicative of what legislative procedure is used for enacting legislation within that policy area . Different legislative procedures are used within the same category of competence , and even with the same policy area .
The distribution of competences in various policy areas between Member States and the Union is divided in the following three categories :
= = Legal system = =
The EU is based on a series of treaties . These first established the European Community and the EU , and then made amendments to those founding treaties . These are power @-@ giving treaties which set broad policy goals and establish institutions with the necessary legal powers to implement those goals . These legal powers include the ability to enact legislation which can directly affect all member states and their inhabitants . The EU has legal personality , with the right to sign agreements and international treaties .
Under the principle of supremacy , national courts are required to enforce the treaties that their member states have ratified , and thus the laws enacted under them , even if doing so requires them to ignore conflicting national law , and ( within limits ) even constitutional provisions .
= = = Courts of Justice = = =
The judicial branch of the EU — formally called the Court of Justice of the European Union — consists of three courts : the Court of Justice , the General Court , and the European Union Civil Service Tribunal . Together they interpret and apply the treaties and the law of the EU .
The Court of Justice primarily deals with cases taken by member states , the institutions , and cases referred to it by the courts of member states . The General Court mainly deals with cases taken by individuals and companies directly before the EU 's courts , and the European Union Civil Service Tribunal adjudicates in disputes between the European Union and its civil service . Decisions from the General Court can be appealed to the Court of Justice but only on a point of law .
= = = Fundamental rights = = =
The treaties declare that the EU itself is " founded on the values of respect for human dignity , freedom , democracy , equality , the rule of law and respect for human rights , including the rights of persons belonging to minorities ... in a society in which pluralism , non @-@ discrimination , tolerance , justice , solidarity and equality between women and men prevail . "
In 2009 the Lisbon Treaty gave legal effect to the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union . The charter is a codified catalogue of fundamental rights against which the EU 's legal acts can be judged . It consolidates many rights which were previously recognised by the Court of Justice and derived from the " constitutional traditions common to the member states . " The Court of Justice has long recognised fundamental rights and has , on occasion , invalidated EU legislation based on its failure to adhere to those fundamental rights .
Although signing the European Convention on Human Rights ( ECHR ) is a condition for EU membership , previously , the EU itself could not accede to the Convention as it is neither a state nor had the competence to accede . The Lisbon Treaty and Protocol 14 to the ECHR have changed this : the former binds the EU to accede to the Convention while the latter formally permits it .
Although , the EU is independent from Council of Europe , they share purpose and ideas especially on rule of law , human rights and democracy . Further European Convention on Human Rights and European Social Charter , the source of law of Charter of Fundamental Rights are created by Council of Europe . The EU also promoted human rights issues in the wider world . The EU opposes the death penalty and has proposed its worldwide abolition . Abolition of the death penalty is a condition for EU membership .
= = = Acts = = =
The main legal acts of the EU come in three forms : regulations , directives , and decisions . Regulations become law in all member states the moment they come into force , without the requirement for any implementing measures , and automatically override conflicting domestic provisions . Directives require member states to achieve a certain result while leaving them discretion as to how to achieve the result . The details of how they are to be implemented are left to member states . When the time limit for implementing directives passes , they may , under certain conditions , have direct effect in national law against member states .
Decisions offer an alternative to the two above modes of legislation . They are legal acts which only apply to specified individuals , companies or a particular member state . They are most often used in competition law , or on rulings on State Aid , but are also frequently used for procedural or administrative matters within the institutions . Regulations , directives , and decisions are of equal legal value and apply without any formal hierarchy .
= = = Area of freedom , security and justice = = =
Since the creation of the EU in 1993 , it has developed its competencies in the area of freedom , security and justice , initially at an intergovernmental level and later by supranationalism . To this end , agencies have been established that co @-@ ordinate associated actions : Europol for co @-@ operation of police forces , Eurojust for co @-@ operation between prosecutors , and Frontex for co @-@ operation between border control authorities . The EU also operates the Schengen Information System which provides a common database for police and immigration authorities . This co @-@ operation had to particularly be developed with the advent of open borders through the Schengen Agreement and the associated cross border crime .
Furthermore , the Union has legislated in areas such as extradition , family law , asylum law , and criminal justice . Prohibitions against sexual and nationality discrimination have a long standing in the treaties . In more recent years , these have been supplemented by powers to legislate against discrimination based on race , religion , disability , age , and sexual orientation . By virtue of these powers , the EU has enacted legislation on sexual discrimination in the work @-@ place , age discrimination , and racial discrimination .
= = Foreign relations = =
Foreign policy co @-@ operation between member states dates from the establishment of the Community in 1957 , when member states negotiated as a bloc in international trade negotiations under the Common Commercial policy . Steps for a more wide ranging co @-@ ordination in foreign relations began in 1970 with the establishment of European Political Cooperation which created an informal consultation process between member states with the aim of forming common foreign policies . It was not , however , until 1987 when European Political Cooperation was introduced on a formal basis by the Single European Act . EPC was renamed as the Common Foreign and Security Policy ( CFSP ) by the Maastricht Treaty .
The aims of the CFSP are to promote both the EU 's own interests and those of the international community as a whole , including the furtherance of international co @-@ operation , respect for human rights , democracy , and the rule of law . The CFSP requires unanimity among the member states on the appropriate policy to follow on any particular issue . The unanimity and difficult issues treated under the CFSP sometimes lead to disagreements , such as those which occurred over the war in Iraq .
The coordinator and representative of the CFSP within the EU is the High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy who speaks on behalf of the EU in foreign policy and defence matters , and has the task of articulating the positions expressed by the member states on these fields of policy into a common alignment . The High Representative heads up the European External Action Service ( EEAS ) , a unique EU department that has been officially implemented and operational since 1 December 2010 on the occasion of the first anniversary of the entry into force of the Treaty of Lisbon . The EEAS will serve as a foreign ministry and diplomatic corps for the European Union .
Besides the emerging international policy of the European Union , the international influence of the EU is also felt through enlargement . The perceived benefits of becoming a member of the EU act as an incentive for both political and economic reform in states wishing to fulfil the EU 's accession criteria , and are considered an important factor contributing to the reform of European formerly Communist countries . This influence on the internal affairs of other countries is generally referred to as " soft power " , as opposed to military " hard power " .
= = = Military = = =
The predecessors of the European Union were not devised as a military alliance because NATO was largely seen as appropriate and sufficient for defence purposes . 22 EU members are members of NATO while the remaining member states follow policies of neutrality . The Western European Union , a military alliance with a mutual defence clause , was disbanded in 2010 as its role had been transferred to the EU .
According to the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute ( SIPRI ) , the United Kingdom spent $ 61 billion on defence in 2014 , placing it fifth in the world , while France spent $ 53 billion , the sixth largest . Together , the UK and France account for approximately 40 per cent of EU 's defence budget and 50 per cent of its military capacity . Both are officially recognised nuclear weapon states holding permanent seats on the United Nations Security Council .
Following the Kosovo War in 1999 , the European Council agreed that " the Union must have the capacity for autonomous action , backed by credible military forces , the means to decide to use them , and the readiness to do so , in order to respond to international crises without prejudice to actions by NATO " . To that end , a number of efforts were made to increase the EU 's military capability , notably the Helsinki Headline Goal process . After much discussion , the most concrete result was the EU Battlegroups initiative , each of which is planned to be able to deploy quickly about 1500 personnel .
EU forces have been deployed on peacekeeping missions from middle and northern Africa to the western Balkans and western Asia . EU military operations are supported by a number of bodies , including the European Defence Agency , European Union Satellite Centre and the European Union Military Staff . Frontex is an agency of the EU established to manage the cooperation between national border guards securing its external borders . It aims to detect and stop illegal immigration , human trafficking and terrorist infiltration . In December 2015 the European Commission presented its proposal for a new European Border and Coast Guard Agency having a stronger role and mandate along with national authorities for border management . In an EU consisting of 28 members , substantial security and defence co @-@ operation is increasingly relying on collaboration among all member states .
= = = Humanitarian aid = = =
The European Commission 's Humanitarian Aid and Civil Protection department , or " ECHO " , provides humanitarian aid from the EU to developing countries . In 2012 , its budget amounted to € 874 million , 51 % of the budget went to Africa and 20 % to Asia , Latin America , the Caribbean and Pacific , and 20 % to the Middle East and Mediterranean .
Humanitarian aid is financed directly by the budget ( 70 % ) as part of the financial instruments for external action and also by the European Development Fund ( 30 % ) . The EU 's external action financing is divided into ' geographic ' instruments and ' thematic ' instruments . The ' geographic ' instruments provide aid through the Development Cooperation Instrument ( DCI , € 16 @.@ 9 billion , 2007 – 2013 ) , which must spend 95 % of its budget on overseas development assistance ( ODA ) , and from the European Neighbourhood and Partnership Instrument ( ENPI ) , which contains some relevant programmes . The European Development Fund ( EDF , € 22 @.@ 7 bn , 2008 – 2013 ) is made up of voluntary contributions by member states , but there is pressure to merge the EDF into the budget @-@ financed instruments to encourage increased contributions to match the 0 @.@ 7 % target and allow the European Parliament greater oversight .
However , five countries have reached the 0 @.@ 7 % target : Sweden , Luxembourg , the Netherlands , Denmark and the United Kingdom . In 2011 , EU aid was 0 @.@ 42 % of the EU 's GNI making it the world 's most generous aid donor . The previous Commissioner for Aid , Louis Michel , has called for aid to be delivered more rapidly , to greater effect , and on humanitarian principles .
= = Economy = =
The European Union has established a single market across the territory of all its members representing 508 million citizens . In 2014 , the EU had a combined GDP of 18 @.@ 640 trillion international dollars , a 20 % share of global gross domestic product by purchasing power parity ( PPP ) . As a political entity the European Union is represented in the World Trade Organization ( WTO ) . EU member states own the estimated largest net wealth in the world , equal to 30 % of the $ 223 trillion global wealth .
19 member states have joined a monetary union known as the eurozone , which uses the Euro as a single currency . The currency union represents 338 million EU citizens . The euro is the second largest reserve currency as well as the second most traded currency in the world after the United States dollar .
Of the top 500 largest corporations in the world measured by revenue in 2010 , 161 have their headquarters in the EU . In 2016 , unemployment in the EU stood at 8 @.@ 9 % while inflation was at 2 @.@ 2 % , and the current account balance at − 0 @.@ 9 % of GDP .
There is a significant variance for GDP ( PPP ) per capita within individual EU states . The difference between the richest and poorest regions ( 276 NUTS @-@ 2 regions of the Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics ) ranged , in 2014 , from 30 % of the EU28 average to 539 % , or from € 8 @,@ 200 to € 148 @,@ 000 ( about US $ 9 @,@ 000 to US $ 162 @,@ 000 ) .
Structural Funds and Cohesion Funds are supporting the development of underdeveloped regions of the EU . Such regions are primarily located in the states of central and southern Europe . Several funds provide emergency aid , support for candidate members to transform their country to conform to the EU 's standard ( Phare , ISPA , and SAPARD ) , and support to the Commonwealth of Independent States ( TACIS ) . TACIS has now become part of the worldwide EuropeAid programme . EU research and technological framework programmes sponsor research conducted by consortia from all EU members to work towards a single European Research Area .
= = = Internal market = = =
Two of the original core objectives of the European Economic Community were the development of a common market , subsequently becoming a single market , and a customs union between its member states . The single market involves the free circulation of goods , capital , people , and services within the EU , and the customs union involves the application of a common external tariff on all goods entering the market . Once goods have been admitted into the market they cannot be subjected to customs duties , discriminatory taxes or import quotas , as they travel internally . The non @-@ EU member states of Iceland , Norway , Liechtenstein and Switzerland participate in the single market but not in the customs union . Half the trade in the EU is covered by legislation harmonised by the EU .
Free movement of capital is intended to permit movement of investments such as property purchases and buying of shares between countries . Until the drive towards economic and monetary union the development of the capital provisions had been slow . Post @-@ Maastricht there has been a rapidly developing corpus of ECJ judgements regarding this initially neglected freedom . The free movement of capital is unique insofar as it is granted equally to non @-@ member states .
The free movement of persons means that EU citizens can move freely between member states to live , work , study or retire in another country . This required the lowering of administrative formalities and recognition of professional qualifications of other states .
The free movement of services and of establishment allows self @-@ employed persons to move between member states to provide services on a temporary or permanent basis . While services account for 60 – 70 % of GDP , legislation in the area is not as developed as in other areas . This lacuna has been addressed by the recently passed Directive on services in the internal market which aims to liberalise the cross border provision of services . According to the Treaty the provision of services is a residual freedom that only applies if no other freedom is being exercised .
= = = Monetary union = = =
The creation of a European single currency became an official objective of the European Economic Community in 1969 . In 1992 , having negotiated the structure and procedures of a currency union , the member states signed the Maastricht Treaty and were legally bound to fulfil the agreed @-@ on rules including the convergence criteria if they wanted to join the monetary union . The states wanting to participate had first to join the European Exchange Rate Mechanism .
In 1999 the currency union started , first as an accounting currency with eleven member states joining . In 2002 , the currency was fully put into place , when euro notes and coins were issued and national currencies began to phase out in the eurozone , which by then consisted of 12 member states . The eurozone ( constituted by the EU member states which have adopted the euro ) has since grown to 19 countries .
Since its launch the euro has become the second reserve currency in the world with a quarter of foreign exchanges reserves being in euro . The euro , and the monetary policies of those who have adopted it in agreement with the EU , are under the control of the European Central Bank ( ECB ) .
The ECB is the central bank for the eurozone , and thus controls monetary policy in that area with an agenda to maintain price stability . It is at the centre of the European System of Central Banks , which comprehends all EU national central banks and is controlled by its General Council , consisting of the President of the ECB , who is appointed by the European Council , the Vice @-@ President of the ECB , and the governors of the national central banks of all 28 EU member states .
The European System of Financial Supervision is an institutional architecture of the EU 's framework of financial supervision composed by three authorities : the European Banking Authority , the European Insurance and Occupational Pensions Authority and the European Securities and Markets Authority . To complement this framework , there is also a European Systemic Risk Board under the responsibility of the ECB . The aim of this financial control system is to ensure the economic stability of the EU .
To prevent the joining states from getting into financial trouble or crisis after entering the monetary union , they were obliged in the Maastricht treaty to fulfil important financial obligations and procedures , especially to show budgetary discipline and a high degree of sustainable economic convergence , as well as to avoid excessive government deficits and limit the government debt to a sustainable level .
= = = Energy = = =
In 2006 , the EU @-@ 27 had a gross inland energy consumption of 1 @,@ 825 million tonnes of oil equivalent ( toe ) . Around 46 % of the energy consumed was produced within the member states while 54 % was imported . In these statistics , nuclear energy is treated as primary energy produced in the EU , regardless of the source of the uranium , of which less than 3 % is produced in the EU .
The EU has had legislative power in the area of energy policy for most of its existence ; this has its roots in the original European Coal and Steel Community . The introduction of a mandatory and comprehensive European energy policy was approved at the meeting of the European Council in October 2005 , and the first draft policy was published in January 2007 .
The EU has five key points in its energy policy : increase competition in the internal market , encourage investment and boost interconnections between electricity grids ; diversify energy resources with better systems to respond to a crisis ; establish a new treaty framework for energy co @-@ operation with Russia while improving relations with energy @-@ rich states in Central Asia and North Africa ; use existing energy supplies more efficiently while increasing renewable energy commercialisation ; and finally increase funding for new energy technologies .
The EU imports 82 % of its oil , 57 % of its natural gas and 97 @.@ 48 % of its uranium demands . Because of Europe 's dependence on Russian energy the EU is attempting to diversify its energy supply .
= = = Infrastructure = = =
The EU is working to improve cross @-@ border infrastructure within the EU , for example through the Trans @-@ European Networks ( TEN ) . Projects under TEN include the Channel Tunnel , LGV Est , the Fréjus Rail Tunnel , the Öresund Bridge , the Brenner Base Tunnel and the Strait of Messina Bridge . In 2010 the estimated network covers : 75 @,@ 200 kilometres ( 46 @,@ 700 mi ) of roads ; 78 @,@ 000 kilometres ( 48 @,@ 000 mi ) of railways ; 330 airports ; 270 maritime harbours ; and 210 internal harbours .
Rail transport in Europe is being synchronised with the European Rail Traffic Management System ( ERTMS ) , an initiative to greatly enhance safety , increase efficiency of trains and enhance cross @-@ border interoperability of rail transport in Europe by replacing signalling equipment with digitized mostly wireless versions and by creating a single Europe @-@ wide standard for train control and command systems .
The developing European transport policies will increase the pressure on the environment in many regions by the increased transport network . In the pre @-@ 2004 EU members , the major problem in transport deals with congestion and pollution . After the recent enlargement , the new states that joined since 2004 added the problem of solving accessibility to the transport agenda . The Polish road network was upgraded such as the A4 autostrada .
The Galileo positioning system is another EU infrastructure project . Galileo is a proposed Satellite navigation system , to be built by the EU and launched by the European Space Agency ( ESA ) . The Galileo project was launched partly to reduce the EU 's dependency on the US @-@ operated Global Positioning System , but also to give more complete global coverage and allow for greater accuracy , given the aged nature of the GPS system .
= = = Agriculture = = =
The Common Agricultural Policy ( CAP ) is one of the long lasting policies of the European Community . The policy has the objectives of increasing agricultural production , providing certainty in food supplies , ensuring a high quality of life for farmers , stabilising markets , and ensuring reasonable prices for consumers . It was , until recently , operated by a system of subsidies and market intervention . Until the 1990s , the policy accounted for over 60 % of the then European Community 's annual budget , and as of 2013 accounts for around 34 % .
The policy 's price controls and market interventions led to considerable overproduction . These were intervention stores of products bought up by the Community to maintain minimum price levels . To dispose of surplus stores , they were often sold on the world market at prices considerably below Community guaranteed prices , or farmers were offered subsidies ( amounting to the difference between the Community and world prices ) to export their products outside the Community . This system has been criticised for under @-@ cutting farmers outside Europe , especially those in the developing world . Supporters of CAP argue that the economic support which it gives to farmers provides them with a reasonable standard of living .
Since the beginning of the 1990s , the CAP has been subject to a series of reforms . Initially , these reforms included the introduction of set @-@ aside in 1988 , where a proportion of farm land was deliberately withdrawn from production , milk quotas and , more recently , the ' de @-@ coupling ' ( or disassociation ) of the money farmers receive from the EU and the amount they produce ( by the Fischler reforms in 2004 ) . Agriculture expenditure will move away from subsidy payments linked to specific produce , toward direct payments based on farm size . This is intended to allow the market to dictate production levels . One of these reforms entailed the abolition of the EU 's sugar regime , which previously divided the sugar market between member states and certain African @-@ Caribbean nations with a privileged relationship with the EU .
= = = Competition = = =
The EU operates a competition policy intended to ensure undistorted competition within the single market . The Commission as the competition regulator for the single market is responsible for antitrust issues , approving mergers , breaking up cartels , working for economic liberalisation and preventing state aid .
The Competition Commissioner , currently Margrethe Vestager , is one of the most powerful positions in the Commission , notable for the ability to affect the commercial interests of trans @-@ national corporations . For example , in 2001 the Commission for the first time prevented a merger between two companies based in the United States ( GE and Honeywell ) which had already been approved by their national authority . Another high @-@ profile case against Microsoft , resulted in the Commission fining Microsoft over € 777 million following nine years of legal action .
= = Demographics = =
As of 1 January 2016 , the population of the European Union is about 510 @.@ 1 million people . In 2013 , 5 @,@ 075 @,@ 000 live births were registered and 4 @,@ 999 @,@ 200 deaths . The net migration to the EU was + 653 @,@ 100 . In 2010 , 47 @.@ 3 million people who lived in the EU were born outside their resident country . This corresponds to 9 @.@ 4 % of the total EU population . Of these , 31 @.@ 4 million ( 6 @.@ 3 % ) were born outside the EU and 16 @.@ 0 million ( 3 @.@ 2 % ) were born in another EU member state . The largest absolute numbers of people born outside the EU were in Germany ( 6 @.@ 4 million ) , France ( 5 @.@ 1 million ) , the United Kingdom ( 4 @.@ 7 million ) , Spain ( 4 @.@ 1 million ) , Italy ( 3 @.@ 2 million ) , and the Netherlands ( 1 @.@ 4 million ) .
= = = Urbanisation = = =
The EU contains 16 cities with populations of over one million . Besides many large cities , the EU also includes several densely populated regions that have no single core but have emerged from the connection of several cities and now encompass large metropolitan areas . The largest are Rhine @-@ Ruhr having approximately 11 @.@ 5 million inhabitants ( Cologne , Dortmund , Düsseldorf et al . ) , Randstad approx . 7 million ( Amsterdam , Rotterdam , The Hague , Utrecht et al . ) , Frankfurt Rhine @-@ Main approx . 5 @.@ 8 million ( Frankfurt , Wiesbaden et al . ) , the Flemish Diamond approx . 5 @.@ 5 million ( urban area in between Antwerp , Brussels , Leuven and Ghent ) , Upper Silesia approx . 5 @.@ 3 million ( Katowice , Ostrava ) and Øresund approx . 3 @.@ 7 million ( Copenhagen , Malmö ) .
= = = Languages = = =
Among the many languages and dialects used in the EU , it has 24 official and working languages : Bulgarian , Croatian , Czech , Danish , Dutch , English , Estonian , Finnish , French , German , Greek , Hungarian , Italian , Irish , Latvian , Lithuanian , Maltese , Polish , Portuguese , Romanian , Slovak , Slovene , Spanish , and Swedish . Important documents , such as legislation , are translated into every official language .
The European Parliament provides translation into all languages for documents and its plenary sessions . Some institutions use only a handful of languages as internal working languages . Catalan , Galician , Basque , Scottish Gaelic and Welsh are not official languages of the EU but have semi @-@ official status in that official translations of the treaties are made into them and citizens of the EU have the right to correspond with the institutions using them .
Language policy is the responsibility of member states , but EU institutions promote the learning of other languages . English is the most widely spoken language in the EU , being spoken by 51 % of the EU population when counting both native and non @-@ native speakers . German is the most widely spoken mother tongue , being spoken by 16 % of the EU population . 56 % of EU citizens are able to engage in a conversation in a language other than their mother tongue . Most official languages of the EU belong to the Indo @-@ European language family , except Estonian , Finnish , and Hungarian , which belong to the Uralic language family , and Maltese , which is a Semitic language . Most EU official languages are written in the Latin alphabet except Bulgarian , which is written in the Cyrillic alphabet , and Greek , which is written in the Greek alphabet . These are the three official scripts of the European Union .
Besides the 24 official languages , there are about 150 regional and minority languages , spoken by up to 50 million people . Although EU programmes can support regional and minority languages , the protection of linguistic rights is a matter for the individual member states . The European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages ratified by most EU states provides general guidelines that states can follow to protect their linguistic heritage .
The European Day of Languages is held annually on 26 September and is aimed at encouraging language learning across Europe .
= = = Religion = = =
The EU is a secular body with no formal connection to any religion . The Article 17 of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union recognises the " status under national law of churches and religious associations " as well as that of " philosophical and non @-@ confessional organisations " .
The preamble to the Treaty on European Union mentions the " cultural , religious and humanist inheritance of Europe " . Discussion over the draft texts of the European Constitution and later the Treaty of Lisbon included proposals to mention Christianity or God , or both , in the preamble of the text , but the idea faced opposition and was dropped .
Christians in the EU are divided among members of Catholicism ( both Roman and Eastern Rite ) , numerous Protestant denominations , and the Eastern Orthodox Church . In 2009 , the EU had an estimated Muslim population of 13 million , and an estimated Jewish population of over a million . The other world religions of Buddhism , Hinduism and Sikhism are also represented in the EU population .
According to new polls about religiosity in the European Union in 2012 by Eurobarometer , Christianity is the largest religion in the European Union , accounting for 72 % of the EU population . Catholics are the largest Christian group , accounting for 48 % of the EU population , while Protestants make up 12 % , Eastern Orthodox make up 8 % and other Christians make up 4 % .
Eurostat 's Eurobarometer opinion polls showed in 2005 that 52 % of EU citizens believed in a God , 27 % in " some sort of spirit or life force " , and 18 % had no form of belief . Many countries have experienced falling church attendance and membership in recent years . The countries where the fewest people reported a religious belief were Estonia ( 16 % ) and the Czech Republic ( 19 % ) . The most religious countries were Malta ( 95 % , predominantly Roman Catholic ) as well as Cyprus and Romania ( both predominantly Orthodox ) each with about 90 % of citizens professing a belief in God . Across the EU , belief was higher among women , older people , those with religious upbringing , those who left school at 15 or 16 and those " positioning themselves on the right of the political scale " .
= = = Education and science = = =
Basic education is an area where the EU 's role is limited to supporting national governments . In higher education , the policy was developed in the 1980s in programmes supporting exchanges and mobility . The most visible of these has been the Erasmus Programme , a university exchange programme which began in 1987 . In its first 20 years , it has supported international exchange opportunities for well over 1 @.@ 5 million university and college students and has become a symbol of European student life .
There are now similar programmes for school pupils and teachers , for trainees in vocational education and training , and for adult learners in the Lifelong Learning Programme 2007 – 2013 . These programmes are designed to encourage a wider knowledge of other countries and to spread good practices in the education and training fields across the EU . Through its support of the Bologna Process , the EU is supporting comparable standards and compatible degrees across Europe .
Scientific development is facilitated through the EU 's Framework Programmes , the first of which started in 1984 . The aims of EU policy in this area are to co @-@ ordinate and stimulate research . The independent European Research Council allocates EU funds to European or national research projects . EU research and technological framework programmes deal in a number of areas , for example energy where the aim is to develop a diverse mix of renewable energy to help the environment and to reduce dependence on imported fuels .
= = = Health care = = =
Although the EU has no major competences in the field of health care , Article 35 of the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union affirms that " A high level of human health protection shall be ensured in the definition and implementation of all Union policies and activities " . The European Commission 's Directorate @-@ General for Health and Consumers seeks to align national laws on the protection of people 's health , on the consumers ' rights , on the safety of food and other products .
Health care in the EU is provided through a wide range of different systems run at the national level . The systems are primarily publicly funded through taxation ( universal health care ) . Private funding for health care may represent personal contributions towards meeting the non @-@ taxpayer refunded portion of health care or may reflect totally private ( non @-@ subsidised ) health care either paid out of pocket or met by some form of personal or employer funded insurance .
All EU and many other European countries offer their citizens a free European Health Insurance Card which , on a reciprocal basis , provides insurance for emergency medical treatment insurance when visiting other participating European countries . A directive on cross @-@ border healthcare aims at promoting co @-@ operation on health care between member states and facilitating access to safe and high @-@ quality cross @-@ border healthcare for European patients .
= = Culture = =
Cultural co @-@ operation between member states has been a concern of the EU since its inclusion as a community competency in the Maastricht Treaty . Actions taken in the cultural area by the EU include the Culture 2000 7 @-@ year programme , the European Cultural Month event , the MEDIA Programme , and orchestras such as the European Union Youth Orchestra .
The European Capital of Culture programme selects one or more cities in every year to assist the cultural development of that city . 53 EU cities have been part of this initiative up to 2016 .
= = = Sport = = =
Sport is mainly the responsibility of the member states or other international organisations , rather than of the EU . However , there are some EU policies that have had an impact on sport , such as the free movement of workers , which was at the core of the Bosman ruling that prohibited national football leagues from imposing quotas on foreign players with European citizenship . The Treaty of Lisbon requires any application of economic rules to take into account the specific nature of sport and its structures based on voluntary activity . This followed lobbying by governing organisations such as the International Olympic Committee and FIFA , due to objections over the application of free market principles to sport , which led to an increasing gap between rich and poor clubs . The EU does fund a programme for Israeli , Jordanian , Irish , and British football coaches , as part of the Football 4 Peace project .
Association Football is the most popular sport in almost all EU countries . Club teams from the EU are the highest paid in the world . Other team sports like rugby , ice hockey , basketball , cricket , handball , volleyball and water polo are also popular in some member states .
= = = Symbols = = =
The flag of the Union consists of a circle of 12 golden stars on a blue background . The blue represents the West , while the number and position of the stars represent completeness and unity , respectively . Originally designed in 1955 for the Council of Europe , the flag was adopted by the European Communities , the predecessors of the present Union , in 1986 .
United in Diversity was adopted as the motto of the Union in the year 2000 , having been selected from proposals submitted by school pupils . Since 1985 , the flag day of the Union has been Europe Day , on 9 May ( the date of the 1950 Schuman declaration ) . The anthem of the Union is an instrumental version of the prelude to the Ode to Joy , the 4th movement of Ludwig van Beethoven 's ninth symphony . The anthem was adopted by European Community leaders in 1985 and has since been played on official occasions .
Besides naming the continent , the Greek mythological figure of Europa has frequently been employed as a personification of Europe . Known from the myth in which Zeus seduces her in the guise of a white bull , Europa has also been referred to in relation to the present Union . Statues of Europa and the bull decorate several of the Union 's institutions and a portrait of her is seen on the 2013 series of Euro banknotes . The bull is , for its part , depicted on all residence permit cards .
Charles the Great , also known as Charlemagne ( Latin : Carolus Magnus ) and later recognized as Pater Europae ( " Father of Europe " ) , has a symbolic relevance to Europe . The Commission has named one of its central buildings in Brussels after Charlemagne and the city of Aachen has since 1949 awarded the Charlemagne Prize to champions of European unification . Since 2008 , the organisers of this prize , in conjunction with the European Parliament , have awarded the Charlemagne Youth Prize in recognition of similar efforts by young people .
= = = Media = = =
Media freedom is a fundamental right that applies to all member states of the European Union and its citizens , as defined in the EU Charter of Fundamental Rights as well as the European Convention on Human Rights . Within the EU enlargement process , guaranteeing media freedom is named a " key indicator of a country 's readiness to become part of the EU " .
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= Mediterranean campaign of 1798 =
The Mediterranean campaign of 1798 was a series of major naval operations surrounding a French expeditionary force sent to Egypt under Napoleon Bonaparte during the French Revolutionary Wars . The French Republic sought to capture Egypt as the first stage in an effort to threaten British India , and thus force Great Britain to make peace . Departing Toulon in May 1798 with over 40 @,@ 000 troops and hundreds of ships , Bonaparte 's fleet sailed southeastwards across the Mediterranean Sea . They were followed by a small British squadron under Rear @-@ Admiral Sir Horatio Nelson , later reinforced to 13 ships of the line , whose pursuit was hampered by a lack of scouting frigates and reliable information . Bonaparte 's first target was the island of Malta , which was under the government of the Knights of St. John and theoretically granted its owner control of the Central Mediterranean . Bonaparte 's forces landed on the island and rapidly overwhelmed the defenders , securing the port city of Valletta before continuing to Egypt . When Nelson learned of the French capture of the island , he guessed the French target to be Egypt and sailed for Alexandria , but passed the French during the night of 22 June without discovering them and arrived off Egypt first .
Unable to find Bonaparte , Nelson turned back across the Mediterranean , eventually reaching Sicily on 19 July . While Nelson was returning westwards , Bonaparte reached Alexandria and stormed the city , capturing the coast and marching his army inland . His fleet , entrusted to Vice @-@ Admiral François @-@ Paul Brueys D 'Aigalliers , was anchored in a line of battle in Aboukir Bay . On 1 August , Nelson , who had returned to the Egyptian coast after reports gathered at Coron revealed the French invasion , arrived off Aboukir Bay . Although it was late afternoon and the British fleet had no accurate charts of the bay , Nelson ordered an immediate attack on the French van . Brueys was unprepared , and his ships were unable to manoeuvre as the British split into two divisions and sailed down either side of the French line , capturing all five ships of the vanguard and engaging his 120 @-@ gun flagship Orient in the centre . At 21 : 00 , Orient caught fire and exploded , killing most of the crew and ending the main combat . Sporadic fighting continued for the next two days , until all of the French ships had been captured , destroyed or fled . At the Battle of the Nile , eleven French ships of the line and two frigates were eliminated , trapping Bonaparte in Egypt and changing the balance of power in the Mediterranean .
With the French Navy in the Mediterranean defeated , other nations were encouraged to join the Second Coalition and go to war with France . Portugal , the Kingdom of Naples , the Russian Empire and the Ottoman Empire all subsequently deployed forces to the Mediterranean . The Russians and Turks participated in the blockade of Egypt and operations in the Adriatic Sea while the Portuguese joined the Siege of Malta , which was distantly conducted by Nelson from his lodgings in Naples . Nelson , who had been wounded at the Battle of the Nile , became involved in Neapolitan politics and encouraged King Ferdinand to go to war with France , resulting in the loss of his mainland kingdom . In the Western Mediterranean , Vice @-@ Admiral Earl St Vincent , who commanded the Mediterranean fleet from off Cadiz , deployed forces against Minorca , rapidly captured the island and turned it into an important naval base .
= = Background = =
= = = Bonaparte 's plan = = =
At the beginning of 1798 , the War of the First Coalition had come to an end with French control of Northern Italy , much of the Low Countries and the Rhineland confirmed by the Treaty of Campo Formio . Of all the major European powers that had at one time allied against the French Republic , only the Kingdom of Great Britain remained hostile , and the French Directory determined to end the French Revolutionary Wars by eliminating Britain . A series of invasions of the British Isles were planned , and the 28 @-@ year @-@ old General Napoleon Bonaparte , who had defeated the Austrians in Italy the previous year , was assigned to lead the Armée d 'Angleterre ( Army of England ) that had been assembled at Boulogne . However , the English Channel was firmly controlled by the Royal Navy and French invasion supplies , particularly of viable landing craft , were totally inadequate for the purpose .
In the early spring of 1798 , Bonaparte left his command at Boulogne and returned to Paris , reporting that continued British naval supremacy in Northern European waters made an invasion impossible in the near future . With operations to the north impossible , Bonaparte directed his attention southwards to Toulon , the principal French seaport on the Mediterranean . There a French army and fleet had begun assembling for a secret location , speculated by French commentators to be aimed at a wide variety of places , including among others Britain , Sicily , Malta and the Crimea . The expedition 's intended target was actually Egypt , which formed an important link in the chain of communications between Britain and the economically vital colony of British India . Bonaparte considered the capture of Egypt as the most important step in neutralising the massive economic benefits that Britain gained from trade with India and bringing Britain to terms : in August 1797 he wrote " The time is not far away that we will feel that , in order to truly destroy England , we must take Egypt . " Possession of Egypt could grant the French control of the Eastern Mediterranean and the Red Sea , forcing severe delays to dispatches sent between Britain and India and obstructing trade worth £ 2 @.@ 7 million ( the equivalent of £ 260 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 as of 2016 ) to the British economy . In addition , a successful invasion of Egypt could be followed by a direct attack on British territory in India , possibly in conjunction with the anglophobic Tippoo Sultan of Seringapatam . The French Mediterranean Fleet was unopposed at the start of 1798 – following the Treaty of San Ildefonso in 1796 , in which Spain formed an alliance with France and declared war on Britain , the Royal Navy had withdrawn from the Mediterranean bases of Corsica and Elba . By early 1798 , their Mediterranean Fleet was based at the Tagus River in Portugal , their one remaining continental ally . With no permanent British fleet in the Mediterranean and an uprising imminent in Ireland , Bonaparte firmly believed that the Royal Navy would be unable to intervene in his plans , even if they should discover them .
With passage to Egypt seemingly unopposed Bonaparte gave orders for a fleet of thirteen ships of the line , led by the 120 @-@ gun Orient under Vice @-@ Admiral François @-@ Paul Brueys D 'Aigalliers and numerous smaller warships , including the entire Venetian Navy , captured the previous year , to prepare for sea . The fleet was to be accompanied by up to 400 transport ships , which were to carry the 35 @,@ 000 men detailed for the invasion . On 3 May , Bonaparte departed Paris , arriving at Toulon five days later to oversee the final preparations . On 9 May he reviewed the assembled army and gave a speech announcing that the expedition was bound for an unspecified foreign land . The speech was met with an enthusiastic response from his soldiers and a revised version subsequently appeared in Le Moniteur Universel and was widely distributed throughout France as a poster . Despite Bonaparte 's pronouncement the French departure was delayed : a strong headwind prevented the fleet from sailing for another nine days , conditions finally lifting on 18 May that permitted the 22 warships and 120 transports that made up the French fleet to sail the following day .
= = = St. Vincent 's response = = =
Britain was not unaware of French preparations at Toulon and along the Mediterranean coast , but despite sustained efforts by British agents in France the destination of the French fleet was unknown . Egypt was not seriously considered by the British government : when Secretary of State for War Henry Dundas suggested it , he was urged by Foreign Secretary Lord Grenville to think " with a map in your hand , and with a calculation of distances . " Letters reached London and St. Vincent at the Tagus describing extensive preparations right along the French and Italian Mediterranean coastlines , but the distances between the base in the Tagus and Toulon prevented any sustained observation of French movements . Urgent orders were sent from Lord Spencer at the Admiralty to Vice @-@ Admiral Earl St. Vincent , commander of the British Mediterranean Fleet at the Tagus , to despatch a squadron to investigate under the command of Rear @-@ Admiral Sir Horatio Nelson . Nelson had returned to the fleet three days earlier at Lord Spencer 's order , following recovery in Britain from the loss of an arm at the Battle of Santa Cruz de Tenerife in July 1797 .
St. Vincent had already been preparing for an expedition to Toulon with Nelson in mind , and the rear @-@ admiral departed the Tagus in his flagship HMS Vanguard on 2 May . St Vincent was overjoyed to be able to place Nelson in command of the mission , writing that " the arrival of Admiral Nelson has given me new life ... his presence in the Mediterranean is so very essential " . However , his preference for Nelson over the more senior admirals Sir William Parker and Sir John Orde provoked a storm of protest , which eventually culminated in Orde challenging St Vincent to a duel , and being subsequently ordered to return to Britain . On 9 May Nelson collected the ships of the line HMS Alexander and HMS Orion under Captains Alexander Ball and Sir James Saumarez the frigates HMS Emerald and HMS Terpsichore under Captains Thomas Moutray Waller and William Hall Gage and the sloop HMS Bonne Citoyenne under Captain Robert Retalick at Gibraltar , and passed into the Mediterranean . Despite leaving under cover of darkness , Nelson 's departure was observed by Spanish forces at Cadiz , and the fort at Cape Carnero fired several shot , striking Alexander but inflicting negligible damage .
On 17 May Terpsichore captured the privateer La Pierre off Cape Sicié , and from the crew Nelson learned that Bonaparte 's departure was imminent , although the destination was still unknown . On 21 May , as his squadron reached the Îles d 'Hyères near Toulon , they were struck by strong winds that snapped Vanguard 's topmasts and brought the wreckage down onto the deck , killing two men . Vanguard was left struggling in heavy seas , blown 75 nautical miles ( 139 km ) southwards in one night . So severe was the damage that Vanguard was almost wrecked on the Corsican coast on the following day and Nelson even ordered Captain Ball , who had managed to attach a towline to the flagship , to abandon him . Ball refused the order and the British ships of the line rode out the storm together . Although Alexander was able to tow Vanguard to San Pietro Island off Sardinia for repairs , the gale had forced the squadron 's frigates to separate from the larger ships .
Thomas Waller on Emerald was divided from the other frigates , and his lookouts had observed Vanguard in its dismasted state at the height of the storm . The other two frigates had reefed their sails and ridden out the storm together , Captain Gage turning towards the Spanish coast when the storm abated and on 29 May encountered HMS Alcmene under Captain George Johnstone Hope , which had been sent by St. Vincent to augment Nelson 's force . Two days later Hope 's squadron encountered Emerald , which had captured two merchant ships , and together they sailed for the prearranged rendezvous point 60 miles ( 97 km ) off Cape St. Sebastian near Barcelona . Hope ordered Terpsichore and Bonne Citoyenne to cruise off Sardinia and on 3 June encountered the brig HMS Mutine under Captain Thomas Hardy , the scout of a fleet sent by Earl St. Vincent that was approaching the rendezvous . Knowing of the damaged suffered by Vanguard and aware that the French had left Toulon , Hope then took the unilateral decision to search for the French himself , dispersing the frigates across the Western Mediterranean . Hope 's ships failed to find either the British or French fleets and none of the frigates returned to Nelson 's command until after the Battle of the Nile .
= = Malta = =
Departing Toulon on 19 May , Bonaparte 's fleet passed along the coast of Provence to Genoa , where 72 additional transport ships were collected . Sailing south , the fleet reached Corsica on 23 May and collected a fleet of 22 transports from Ajaccio on 28 May . The convoy remained within sight of the eastern coastline until 30 May , crossing the Strait of Bonifacio and following the coastline of Sardinia in anticipation of combining with fleets of transports sailing from Civitavecchia . On 3 June , a message reached Bonaparte reporting the presence of Nelson 's squadron at San Pietro and the French general sent a French squadron to investigate , although by that time Nelson had sailed and the harbour was empty . Abandoning the wait for the Civitavecchia force , which had still not arrived , Bonaparte gave orders for his fleet to turn southeast , passing Mazara on Sicily and the island of Pantelleria on 7 June . There a report from a captured British merchant brig warned Bonaparte that Nelson was only a short distance behind his force with a powerful Royal Navy fleet and , concerned for his transports , Bonaparte gave urgent orders for the French fleet to steer for Malta , arriving off Valletta at 05 : 30 on 9 June , shortly after uniting with the 56 ships of the Civitavecchia convoy , which had missed the rendezvous and continued to Malta alone .
The report on Nelson 's activity submitted to Bonaparte on 7 June was inaccurate : Repairs to Vanguard in San Pietro took six days , the squadron sailing on 27 May for Toulon , arriving off the harbour on 31 May . Nelson had already learned of the departure of the French fleet from a captured Marseilles merchant ship , but without reinforcements or knowledge of the French direction he could not begin a pursuit . On 5 June , the brig HMS Mutine arrived off Toulon and reported that a British fleet was only a few days away , consisting of ten ships of the line and a fourth rate sent by Earl St Vincent from the Tagus on 24 May under Captain Thomas Troubridge in HMS Culloden . St Vincent , acting under urgent orders from London to send a fleet to the Mediterranean had opted to split his forces , rather than risk taking all of his ships into the Mediterranean and leaving the Spanish at Cadiz unattended . Troubridge was considered by St Vincent to be the best officer in the fleet , and Nelson , who also held a high opinion of Troubridge , immediately sailed his squadron to the scheduled rendezvous point . On 6 June , his squadron briefly intercepted a Spanish merchant convoy and capturing two ships before the admiral called off the pursuit to ensure he arrived at the agreed time . On 7 June at 12 : 00 the fleets combined , Nelson now commanding 13 74 @-@ gun ships of the line , one 50 @-@ gun ship and one brig . Noticeable by their absence were frigates , vital for scouting operations in a campaign of this nature ; After his encounter with Hope , Hardy reported to Nelson that the frigates were cruising independently , to which the admiral bitterly responded " I had thought that Hope would have known me better " .
= = = Nelson 's search = = =
Delayed until 10 June by a calm and still unaware of French intentions , Nelson initially sailed along the Corsican coast , before anchoring at Elba on 12 June and sending Mutine into Civitavecchia for information . Hardy was unable to discover the French destination and , after a detour to Elba with his whole fleet , Nelson continued south . Two days later , the admiral spoke with a Tunisian ship at Giannutri , which passed on the inaccurate information that the French had been seen off Trapani , and might be anchored at Syracuse . On 17 June Nelson anchored at the Pontine Islands off Naples and sent Troubridge ashore to appeal to the British ambassador Sir William Hamilton for information and for the assistance of the Neapolitan Navy in scouting for the French . Although the Neapolitan Prime Minister Sir John Acton had already passed on reports that the French were sailing for Egypt , Hamilton did not give the report to Nelson , possibly suspicious of disinformation . Hamilton did however relay the information that Bonaparte 's fleet had passed Sardinia and were probably sailing in the direction of Malta . Despite private animosity towards France , the Neapolitan government refused to openly join the British in the war and denied Nelson the use of their frigates , although they did quietly agree to resupply Nelson 's fleet . With a rough direction established and believing the ultimate French destination to be Sicily , Nelson sailed in pursuit , but light winds hampered his advances and he did not pass the Straits of Messina until 20 June . There he received a report from the ambassador at Messina that the French were at Malta . Then on 22 June near Cape Passaro , Hardy stopped a Genoese ship from Ragusa that reported seeing the French fleet sailing southwards away from Malta , and that they had left Valletta on 16 June . This information was wrong ( or mistranslated ) in one important respect : although preparations had begun on 16 June the French had actually not departed until 19 June , and Nelson 's fleet was just 60 nautical miles ( 110 km ) miles away from Brueys . Nelson decided that the French target must be Egypt or Constantinople and called his senior captains : Saumarez , Ball , Troubridge and Henry Darby on board Vanguard for a conference . Together these officers determined Egypt as the most likely option , deducing that it was the best location in the Mediterranean from which Bonaparte could threaten India . Consequently Nelson turned southeast towards Alexandria , exercising his men 's gunnery daily to ensure they were ready for the battle he planned . His plan should his force encounter the French was clear : dividing into three squadrons , his fleet would strike the French at three points . Two squadrons of five ships each would engage the French fleet directly while the third would separate and attack the transports , sinking or capturing as many as possible . Nelson also deliberately forged close links with his captains at regular dinners aboard his flagship to ensure ease of communication and build confidence between them . He later said of this time that " I had the happiness to command a Band of Brothers . "
= = = Bonaparte at Malta = = =
While Nelson was gathering his fleet and searching for the French , Bonaparte had secured the first stage of his plan for the invasion of Egypt . Arriving off Malta on 9 June , he demanded that the island 's ruler , Ferdinand von Hompesch zu Bolheim , the Grand Master of the Knights Hospitaller ( or Knights of St. John of Jerusalem ) to allow his fleet to enter the harbour and purchase provisions . Hompesch refused , insisting that only two ships at a time could enter the port . Bonaparte responded by opening fire on the harbour defences and on 11 June landed soldiers at seven sites around Malta under General Louis Baraguey d 'Hilliers . Coming under fire from the 2 @,@ 000 native Maltese soldiers that mustered against the invasion , skirmishing continued in the western part of the island for 24 hours , until General Claude @-@ Henri Belgrand de Vaubois entered Mdina and the defenders withdrew to the fortress of Valletta . The Maltese troops refused to continue the fight without support from their government , and negotiations followed in which Hompesch and the knights agreed to abandon Malta on condition of financial compensation amounting to 3 million Francs . In exchange , Bonaparte gained the entire Maltese archipelago , including fortresses , military stores and cannon , the small Maltese Navy and Army and the entire property of the Roman Catholic Church in Malta .
The Maltese position had already been severely weakened by the large number of Frenchmen who were part of the Order , who refused en masse to take up arms against Bonaparte . The French Revolution had already significantly reduced the Knights ' income and their ability to put up serious resistance to Bonaparte was seriously compromised by a lack of resources . On 12 June , Bonaparte finally announced to his troops the destination of the expedition and on 19 June he sailed for Alexandria , initially steering east towards Crete . He left behind Vaubois and 4 @,@ 000 men to maintain Malta as a base to control the Central Mediterranean . To ensure that news of the impending attack on Egypt did not spread ahead of the fleet , Brueys ordered that any merchant ships that sighted the convoy during the passage were to be seized and detained until his force had reached Alexandria . On 26 June , the British gained the first firm intelligence of French intentions , when the frigate HMS Seahorse under Captain Edward Foote encountered and captured the French frigate Sensible , which was returning to Toulon from Malta with a cargo of treasure and wounded soldiers , including General d 'Hilliers . From these prisoners the destination of the French fleet was discovered and Seahorse , joined shortly afterwards by Terpsichore , sailed in pursuit , hoping to encounter Nelson .
= = Arrivals at Alexandria = =
Nelson 's passage from Sicily to Alexandria was uneventful , the journey taking six days . Due to his lack of frigates , Nelson was unable to scout to the flanks of his advance and as a result only spoke with three merchant ships , none of which had useful information about the French fleet . The lack of frigates had already had a decisive effect on 22 June , when the British fleet sighted four sails to the southeast . Although Captain Thomas Thompson of HMS Leander requested permission to investigate the strangers , Nelson refused and ordered his fleet to continue on their current heading , believing the French to be five days ahead and wishing to reach Alexandria as rapidly as possible . Had British frigates been available to approach and investigate the distant squadron , they might have discovered that they were scouts for the main French fleet , which was only a short distance away . The French frigate had sighted the British fleet and reported its presence to Bonaparte , who adjusted his convoy 's direction slightly to a more northerly trajectory . As a result , Nelson 's fleet passed north of the French to the east of Malta during the night in a heavy mist . Although Nelson was so close that his signal guns could be heard aboard Orient , his lookouts did not observe the French ships and the British fleet continued ahead without deviating . When dawn broke the following day , Bonaparte 's diversion to the northeast had taken his convoy out of sight of the British fleet , which continued to the southeast undisturbed . On 28 June , Mutine arrived at Alexandria ahead of Nelson 's fleet , and discovered that the French fleet was not in the harbour . Once the main fleet had arrived , attempts were made to contact the British Consul George Baldwin , but these failed as he had been dismissed by the British government shortly before and had left the city . As a result , official diplomatic channels were closed to Nelson . A message warning of the French approach was carried to the Ottoman governor Sayyid Muhammad Kurayyim by Hardy in Mutine . Kurayyim replied that he had not seen the French fleet , and that he would enforce the Ottoman Empire 's neutrality and forbid both the British and the French from entering the harbour or landing on the coast . He was dismissive of the British warnings : " It is impossible that the French should come to our country . They have no business here and we are not at war with them . " Without Baldwin no further entries could be made , and when there was still no sign of the French on the morning of 29 June , Nelson decided to turn back northeast and take another pass across the central Mediterranean towards Corfu , following a more northerly course than his first voyage .
= = = Invasion of Egypt = = =
Bonaparte 's fleet , delayed by its many transport ships , passed Cape Durazzo on the island of Crete during the 30 June and reached Alexandria the following morning , driven by the fresh meltemi winds . Bonaparte 's first action was to send a small brig into the harbour to collect the French consul , Charles Magallon , who relayed the news of Nelson 's stay off the port and of Kurayyim 's refusal to allow the French to land . Seriously concerned that Nelson might return while his men were still in their transports , Bonaparte gave orders for the landing to go ahead immediately . Soldiers were landed in the region of the Mirabou Creek , although the appearance of a sail to the east was mistaken for a scout from the British fleet and caused momentary panic , Bonaparte reportedly exclaiming : " Fortune , m 'abandonnerais @-@ tu ? Quoi ! Seulement cinq jours ! " ( Fortune , wilt thou abandon me ? What ! Only five days ! ) . The newcomer was eventually revealed to be the French frigate Justice sent from Malta , and the invasion continued unopposed . By evening the landing had been completed , although several boats had been wrecked in the surf and Bonaparte himself estimated that at least 20 men had drowned .
On 2 July , Bonaparte led his men to victory in the brief Battle of Alexandria and secured the city . He placed General Jean Baptiste Kléber in command with Rear @-@ Admiral Pierre Dumanoir le Pelley in charge of the harbour . Finding that entrances to the anchorage were too shallow to accommodate the main body of the French fleet , Bonaparte ordered Brueys to sail his squadron to the wider Aboukir Bay , 20 miles ( 32 km ) northeast of Alexandria . Brueys was instructed that if he considered the anchorage to be unsafe then he was to sail for Corfu , leaving only a small light force that could anchor comfortably in Alexandria . There Brueys held a conference with his officers to decide on their response should Nelson discover them in the bay . Although Rear @-@ Admiral Armand Blanquet of Franklin argued that the fleet was safest sailing out to meet the British , he was outvoted and overruled , Brueys ordering that the ships remain anchored in line of battle to receive the British attack . On 21 July , the frigates Seahorse and Terpsichore arrived at Alexandria and observed the French dispositions while flying French colours to confuse observers from the shore . With no sign of Nelson , Foote and Hall turned back westwards in search of the admiral . When Brueys learned that British frigates had been seen off the Egyptian coast , he decided that the retreat of these vessels signified that there was no danger of imminent attack by a British force and therefore failed to take precautions against attack .
= = = Nelson returns = = =
Nelson , having sailed northeast on the same day that the first French ships arrived off Alexandria , had reached Anatolia on 4 July and turned westward against the wind , sailing for Sicily again . His ships were briefly scattered by a storm on 5 July , before reconstituting the following day and on 18 July the British fleet reached Cape Passaro again and on 19 July Nelson 's force anchored in Syracuse to take on fresh provisions supplied in part by Emma , Lady Hamilton , the wife of the ambassador to Naples . Frustrated , Nelson wrote in a letter to his wife Fanny ; " Every moment I have to regret the frigates having left me , to which must be attributed my ignorance of the movements of the enemy . " Reports subsequently reached the British fleet at Syracuse that the French had not been seen in the Eastern Mediterranean , in the Adriatic or in the Aegean Sea , leaving either Egypt or Syria as the only likely destinations . Sailing once more on 25 July , Nelson turned his ships east once again sailing for Morea and sending Troubridge in Culloden into Coron on 28 July for news . The Ottoman governor reported that the French had been seen sailing southwards from Crete at the start of the month and presented Troubridge with a French merchant ship that was anchored in the harbour . With their first definite sighting of the French , the British fleet turned southwards towards Alexandria .
= = Battle of the Nile = =
On 1 August , Nelson 's fleet reached the Egyptian coast , the ships HMS Swiftsure and HMS Alexander detached as scouts to investigate Alexandria harbour . Although the transport fleet was observed in the harbour , the French battle fleet was not . Despite initial disappointment , Nelson ordered his ships to search the coastline , and at 14 : 00 lookouts on HMS Zealous reported the French anchored in line of battle in Aboukir Bay . Brueys believed that his line , protected by shoals to the north and west , was impenetrable and that as a result the British would be forced to attack the rear and centre of his fleet . He consequently placed his strongest ships at these points , planning to stall the British fleet while his van used the prevailing northeasterly wind to counterattack . Brueys was also confident that the British fleet , strung out and with nightfall approaching , would not attack that day . He believed that Nelson would anchor off the bay and attack in the morning , giving Brueys time to prepare and leaving open the option of simply sailing away during the night , following Bonaparte 's orders to avoid a direct confrontation with the British fleet .
= = = Nelson 's attack = = =
Despite Brueys hopes , Nelson was determined to press home his attack at once and ordered his ships to advance , only pausing to fit springs on their anchor cables , which would allow them to easily direct their broadsides in cramped , shallow coastal waters . Without an accurate chart of the bay , Nelson was forced to be cautious in his advance , and ordered Captain Samuel Hood in Zealous to take soundings as he advanced to establish the depth of the bay . At 18 : 20 , as the British ships HMS Goliath and Zealous rounded the northern shoal , the leading French ships Guerrier and Conquérant opened fire . As he approached the French line , Captain Thomas Foley in Goliath noticed that Brueys had made a serious error in the distribution of his forces . Rather than place his lead ship Guerrier close to the northern shoal , the French admiral had left a gap , widened by the order for the French fleet to only anchor by the bow which meant that they drifted significantly , between Guerrier and the shoals . Sailing directly through this gap , Foley raked Guerrier and engaged the second ship of the French line , Conquérant . Zealous also passed through the gap and attacked Guerrier , and was followed by HMS Orion , HMS Theseus and HMS Audacious , all of which opened up a fierce fire on the first four French ships against their unprepared port sides .
Nelson followed in Vanguard , bringing the next two ships into action with the starboard side of the French van , catching the French ships in a crossfire that rapidly battered and dismasted the ships , despite determined defence . As the French van was destroyed , HMS Bellerophon and HMS Majestic attacked the French centre . Outnumbered and faced with the massed broadsides of Orient and the 80 @-@ gun Franklin and Tonnant , both British ships suffered massive damage . Culloden , bringing up the rear of the British line , passed too close to the northern shoal and grounded , Troubridge suffering severe damage to his hull despite efforts by Mutine and Leander to drag the ship off . By 19 : 00 darkness had fallen , and within an hour the French van had been defeated , Guerrier , Conquérant , Spartiate , Aquilon and Peuple Souverain all either in British hands or too badly damaged to continue fighting . The British too had suffered damage , with Vanguard and Goliath badly hit while to the south both Bellerophon and Majestic had been forced to cut their anchor cables and pull away from their respective opponents . Bellerophon had been dismasted , Majestic 's captain George Blagden Westcott had been killed , and on Vanguard Nelson had suffered a severe head wound .
= = = Destruction of Orient = = =
Shortly after 20 : 00 , the trailing Swiftsure and Alexander , joined by Leander , attacked the French centre , causing severe damage to Franklin and killing Admiral Brueys on his quarterdeck with a cannon shot . At 21 : 00 , a fire broke out in Orient 's stern , the blaze spread further by volleys from Swiftsure that also defeated efforts to extinguish it . The flames spread rapidly , racing up the masts and across the decks until the entire flagship was a blazing wreck . At 22 : 00 , the vast magazines detonated , tearing the ship apart and hurling burning wreckage onto the neighbouring vessels . For ten minutes not a shot was fired , as the nearest ships battled to extinguish fires and the further ones paused in shock . The first ship to recommence hostilities was Franklin , but Admiral Blanquet 's heavily outnumbered flagship was forced to surrender by 24 : 00 . Tonnant , the only French ship still engaged , fought on against Majestic until 03 : 00 , when the mortally wounded Captain Aristide Aubert Du Petit Thouars succeeded in dragging his ship to the temporary safety of the rear division under Rear @-@ Admiral Pierre @-@ Charles Villeneuve .
At 04 : 00 on 2 August , firing began again between Villeneuve 's ships and a scratch British squadron formed from the less damaged ships . By 11 : 00 , Villeneuve had conducted a successful fighting withdrawal to the mouth of the bay , and was able to escape to open water . However , Villeneuve had been forced to abandon the battered Tonnant and the grounded Timoléon , retaining just two ships of the line and two frigates . While Villeneuve escaped , British ships received the surrender of Heureux and Mercure , which had grounded shortly after the explosion of Orient , and forced the captain of the frigate Artémise to scuttle his vessel . On 3 August , Theseus and Leander were sent to complete the destruction of the French fleet ; Tonnant surrendered and Timoléon was set on fire by its crew and destroyed .
= = Subsequent operations = =
With the exception of Villeneuve 's fugitives , the French Mediterranean Fleet had been annihilated . Nine of eleven ships of the line had been captured or destroyed , as well as two frigates . French casualties totalled more than 3 @,@ 000 and possibly as many as 5 @,@ 000 , compared to British losses of 218 killed and 677 wounded . However , many of Nelson 's ships were seriously damaged , and urgent repairs were required for both his own ships and the captured prizes before they could begin the long voyage back to Britain . For more than two weeks Nelson remained in Aboukir Bay , effecting repairs , writing despatches and assessing the strategic situation in Egypt . The first ship detached from his squadron was Leander , sent on 5 August to the fleet under Earl St. Vincent off Cadiz with reports of the battle . On 8 August Aboukir Island was stormed and captured , and on 12 August Emerald , Alcmene and Bonne Citoyenne finally caught up with the fleet , followed on 17 August by Seahorse and Terpsichore . Mutine was detached on 13 August with despatches for the Admiralty and on 14 August Nelson sent seven ships with the six seaworthy prizes to the mouth of Aboukir Bay under the command of Saumarez . This convoy sailed for Gibraltar on 15 August and the following day Nelson burnt Heureux , followed on 18 August by Mercure and Guerrier , none of which were fit for continued service . On 19 August Nelson separated his remaining ships , leading three vessels northwards towards Naples and leaving a blockade squadron off Alexandria of Zealous , Goliath , Swiftsure and the frigates , under Captain Samuel Hood .
By the time Nelson departed Alexandria , his first set of dispatches were already in French hands . Leander had been discovered off the western coast of Crete on 18 August 1798 by the French ship of the line Généreux , one of Villeneuve 's escapees . After separating from Villeneuve 's squadron on 17 August , Généreux was sailing to Corfu when it encountered the British fourth rate . The larger French ship soon overtook the British vessel and a heated exchange followed : French efforts to board Leander were driven back with heavy casualties , and Captain Thompson at one stage successfully raked his opponent , but gradually the heavier weight of Généreux inflicted severe damage to the British ship and after six and a half hours Thompson was forced to surrender . French captain Lejoille then authorised widespread looting of the personal effects of the British crew , whom he also forced to conduct repairs on both ships , an act against the established conventions of naval warfare . The prize was towed to Corfu for repairs , the two battered vessels briefly encountering Mutine , which escaped to the westwards before Généreux could give chase . In captivity Lejoille continued to refuse to allow the British officers medical attention or return their stolen property . Eventually returned to Britain , Thompson and Berry were knighted and heavily praised for their defence of their ship against heavy odds , while Lejoille was also commended for his success , assisted by his incorrect account of the battle published in French newspapers .
= = = Alexandria = = =
With the French naval presence in the Mediterranean reduced to a few scattered vessels , the allies of the Second Coalition were able to exert their dominance in the region . Off Alexandria , the squadron under Captain Hood successfully prevented communications between France and the French army in Egypt . On 22 August , just three days after Nelson sailed north , Alcmene intercepted the 6 @-@ gun dispatch vessel Légère off Alexandria harbour and forced the captain to surrender . As his flag was struck , the captain hurled the dispatches into the sea . This action was witnessed by sailors John Taylor and John Harding aboard Alcmene and both men dived into the water , successfully retrieving the messages . For their bravery in diving from a rapidly moving ship into unknown waters , both men were granted annual pensions of £ 20 ( the equivalent of £ 1 @,@ 900 as of 2016 ) . Three days after the capture of Légère , Captain Foley of Goliath sent a boat into the sheltered anchorage under Aboukir Castle , where his men boarded and captured the armed ketch Torride , typical of the gun @-@ vessels that had fired on the British advance during the Battle of the Nile . On 2 September , another dispatch vessel reached the Egyptian coast , the 4 @-@ gun cutter Anémone carrying General Camin and 60 men from Malta . Swiftsure and Emerald managed to cut off the vessel from Alexandria harbour and drive it ashore near the town of Marabou . Although the cutter swiftly broke up in the surf , most of the men aboard managed to scramble ashore . There , while the British ships lay off shore unable to intervene , Bedouin partisans discovered the survivors and massacred them , dragging the few survivors inland before French cavalry could rescue them . The only survivors were rescued by Lieutenant Francis William Fane , who swam to shore with an empty barrel attached to a rope . Despite coming under fire from the French on the beach , he was able to save five men from the Bedouin attack .
In October the small British squadron at Alexandria was briefly reinforced by a Portuguese squadron of four ships of the line and the 64 @-@ gun HMS Lion under Captain Manley Dixon , although the Portuguese sailed for Malta after only a few days . On 19 October the squadron was joined by two Turkish corvettes , two Russian frigates and 16 small Turkish gunboats , arranged by Hood on a visit to Rhodes in Swiftsure the week before . The gunboats were subsequently used to bombard Aboukir Castle and a French encampment at Lake Maadie on 25 October , although results were negligible . After the first day the Turkish crews were replaced with British sailors , but except for a complaint from the French that " unfair " incendiary weapons were used in the attack , nothing was achieved . The incendiary shells subsequently proved to have been taken from the captured Spartiate following the battle on 1 August and were found to be made of a substance that burned even under water . After three days the bombardment was abandoned and no further activity took place on the Egyptian coast during the remainder of the year . The Turkish and Russian vessels were eventually withdrawn in December , while Lion was detached to join the blockade of Malta .
= = = Ionian Sea = = =
The main Mediterranean fleets of the Ottoman Empire and the Russian Empire were deployed in the Ionian Sea . At the Treaty of Campo Formio , France had been awarded the Ionian Islands and the four fortresses of Butrinto , Parga , Preveza and Vonizza on the Albanian and Greek coasts . In early October 1798 , following the declaration of war between France and the Ottomans , a large Turkish army had advanced across the Balkans and rapidly forced the fortresses to surrender . At the same time , the Ionian Islands were attacked by a joint Russian and Turkish expeditionary force , which included ten Russian ships of the line , numerous smaller Russian vessels and approximately 30 assorted Turkish ships . On board were 8 @,@ 000 Turkish soldiers , which rapidly invaded and seized the islands of Paxi , Santa Maura , Theaki , Cephalonia , Zante and Cerigo , capturing 1 @,@ 500 French prisoners by 10 October . Only the large fortified island of Corfu held out , and there the defenders were forced back into the main town . Although the town was besieged , operations were slow and the blockade was only loosely enforced , allowing Généreux to successfully breakout and reach Ancona . By the end of the year little had changed , the French garrison remaining besieged in Corfu .
= = = Malta and Naples = = =
Further westwards , the newly captured French island of Malta was under a much more diligent blockade . The returning convoy from Aboukir Bay under Saumarez reached Malta in September . There he encountered a squadron of four Portuguese ships of the line and the British ship Lion under the command of Tomás Xavier Teles de Castro da Gama , Marquess de Niza , initially sending them on to Alexandria . While anchored off Malta awaiting favourable winds , a delegation of native Maltese citizens was brought on board Saumarez 's ship Orion on 25 September . They announced that the Maltese people , infuriated with French disestablishment of the Roman Catholic Church on Malta , had risen up against the French garrison and were forcing them back towards the fortress of Valletta . Saumarez attempted to negotiate the surrender of the island with Vaubois , but was rebuffed . Unable to delay his passage to Gibraltar any longer , Saumarez gave the Maltese 1 @,@ 200 muskets and promised to send assistance as soon as he was able . By 12 October , the French were besieged in Valletta by 10 @,@ 000 Maltese irregulars . Vaubois had only 3 @,@ 000 healthy troops , although the arrival of Villeneuve with the ship of the line Guillaume Tell and two frigates did bolster his defences .
On the same day that the French retreated to Valletta , Nelson despatched the ships Alexander , Culloden , and Colossus from his squadron at Naples to blockade the port , under the command of Captain Alexander Ball . Although the Neapolitans refused to deploy forces to Malta , which was technically their territory , the squadron was joined within a few days by Niza 's Portuguese ships and then by Nelson , now Lord Nelson , in Vanguard on 24 October . Four days later , Nelson authorised Ball to negotiate the surrender of the nearby island of Gozo . The French abandoned the island 's fortifications and the British captured 24 cannon and 3 @,@ 200 urgently required sacks of grain , which were distributed among the Maltese populace . With the French garrison trapped in Valletta , no further actions took place off Malta during the year , both sides settling in for a long siege .
While his captains enforced the blockade of Malta and Alexandria during September and October , Nelson was anchored in the Bay of Naples , enjoying the hospitality of King Ferdinand and Queen Maria Carolina of the Kingdom of Naples . Arriving on 22 September , Vanguard was greeted with over 500 small vessels organised by the royal family and led by a barge carrying Sir William and Lady Emma Hamilton . Over the next weeks , Nelson was taken into the court as an honoured guest , and has subsequently been accused of neglecting his naval responsibilities . It was at this time that his mutual attraction to Lady Emma Hamilton developed into a romantic affair . He also began to dabble in Neapolitan politics , successfully combining with Maria Carolina , the francophobe Queen , to encourage Ferdinand to go to war with France . Ferdinand ordered the Neapolitan army under General Mack to drive the French out of Rome . The resulting campaign was a disaster for the Neapolitans ; the French counterattacked and forced Ferdinand and his court to flee to Palermo in Sicily . The French established the Parthenopean Republic in Naples to replace the monarchy .
= = = Spain and Minorca = = =
While Nelson was engaged in the Central and Eastern Mediterranean , the main Mediterranean Fleet under Earl St Vincent had ensured that the Spanish Navy was unable to intervene . On 24 May St Vincent was joined at the Tagus by a reinforcement of eight ships under Rear @-@ Admiral Sir Roger Curtis , and the admiral ordered his ships to establish blockades off the southern Spanish ports , especially Cadiz , where the main Spanish fleet lay at anchor . There regular correspondence passed between St Vincent and Admiral Don Joseph Massaredo , the Spanish commander . The Spanish fleet made no major deployments during the year , except for a single convoy of the ship of the line Monarca , two frigates and several merchant vessels that sailed in April . Although privateers and minor warships fought several small engagements along the Spanish Mediterranean coast , the only significant Spanish deployment of the remainder of the year was by a frigate squadron based at Cartagena , which was intercepted by the British ship of the line Lion . At the ensuing Action of 15 July 1798 , the Spanish ships formed a line to meet the attack of Captain Dixon 's ship but the damaged frigate Santa Dorotea fell behind the leading three frigates . As the leading ships returned to Catagena after a desultory long @-@ range exchange of gunfire , Santa Dorotea was defeated and captured .
Once the French Mediterranean Fleet had been destroyed in Aboukir Bay , St Vincent was determined to restore British hegemony in the Mediterranean . To ensure this , his fleet needed a base with a well protected deep water harbour that could not be assaulted by land . The best island harbour in the Western Mediterranean was at Port Mahon on Minorca , where a large modern dockyard included a careening wharf , extensive storehouses and a purpose @-@ built naval hospital . These facilities were all British in manufacture , constructed during periods of occupation by British forces between 1708 – 1756 and 1763 – 1781 . St Vincent therefore detached two ships of the line , three frigates and several smaller vessels and transports to the island under Commodore John Thomas Duckworth , carrying a small army under Colonel Charles Stuart . The expeditionary force arrived off Minorca on 7 November and the troops were landed at Addaya Creek . There a Spanish attack was driven off and over the next two days the army continued inland , a detachment under Colonel Henry Paget seizing Port Mahon while the main army received the surrender of town after town , including Fournella , which overlooked the island 's principal protected anchorage . On 11 November a Spanish squadron of four frigates attempted to disrupt operations , but a swift counterattack by Duckworth 's ships drove them off . By 16 November the town of Ciudadella capitulated and control of the island was ceded to British forces .
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= I Wanna Have Your Babies =
" I Wanna Have Your Babies " is a song by British recording artist Natasha Bedingfield . It was written by Steve Kipner , Andrew Frampton , Wayne Wilkins and Bedingfield for her second album , N.B. ( 2007 ) . The song 's musical @-@ style and production was inspired by hip hop music , and its lyrics discuss a woman 's battle to stop herself from rushing into relationships in an effort to find the right man to be the father of her children .
The song was released as the album 's first single in the second quarter of 2007 . The track received mixed reviews from pop music critics , who generally found it to be less impressive than past singles . It entered the top forty in Germany , Ireland and The Netherlands , and became Bedingfield 's fourth United Kingdom top ten single release . Calvin Harris covered it in 2009 .
= = Background and writing = =
In 2006 , Bedingfield began writing and recording material with previous collaborators Steve Kipner , Andrew Frampton and Wayne Wilkins in Los Angeles , California . During one of their sessions , they penned " I Wanna Have Your Babies " , which was inspired by a year @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half of touring across the United States . Bedingfield had never been away from her family and friends for an extended period of time and " realised how important relationships are " . She wanted to write songs that matched who she was , commenting that her " first album was about independence and opportunism . I ’ m in a different place now . I 've been dating , searching for a partner , looking for Mr Right . "
In the song , Bedingfield discusses a woman 's fight to stop herself from rushing into relationships in an effort to find the right man to father her children . Bedingfield stated that she does not want to have children at this point in time , but that she is thinking about it . According to her , " the song is about pacing yourself and taking everything slowly . "
= = Critical reception = =
" I Wanna Have Your Babies " had a polarizing effect on music critics . Britain 's Channel 4 described it as a " well thought out pop record " , and Paul Taylor of the Manchester Evening News said it had a " sing @-@ song melody " and " ragged hip @-@ hop beats " . Tony Cummings called the song 's " R & B pop confection hugely catchy " . Online magazine Drowned in Sound ridiculed the track , writing that it is " polluting the airwaves with its beyond @-@ banal lyrics . " The song 's music video was also described in the review as " unforgivable " . The BBC was equally unimpressed with the song , claiming it stole the melody of The Jackson 5 song " I Want You Back " .
= = Chart performance = =
" I Wanna Have Your Babies " was officially solicited to radio in the United Kingdom on 12 March 2007 . The song was released as a download on 2 April 2007 , two weeks before its physical release . It debuted on the UK Singles Chart at number twenty @-@ five on 8 April 2007 , on download sales only . A week after its physical release the song reached the top ten , rising from number fifteen to number seven . In Ireland the song debuted at number thirty @-@ six on the singles chart and peaked at number eight . " I Wanna Have Your Babies " proved popular on Irish radio , charting at number fourteen . The single had moderate success in Europe . After three weeks on the European Hot 100 Singles chart , the track peaked at number twenty @-@ three . The single reached the top fifty in Italy , the Netherlands and Sweden . In Australia , the song debuted on the singles chart at number fifty on 21 May 2007 . The track was more successful on the Physical Singles chart , debuting at number thirty @-@ seven .
= = Music video = =
The music video was directed by Dave Meyers and filmed in Los Angeles , California in January 2007 . The video opens with a scene of Bedingfield working out in a gym with a male instructor . Bedingfield and the instructor are then shown running through a park , when a baby stroller suddenly appears . Frightened , the instructor runs away from Bedingfield and the baby . She is next shown playing tennis and flirting with another man . The two are then shown riding on a boat with a toddler , in a race with another couple . The third scene features Bedingfield at a nightclub flirting with yet another man , before they are shown together at his home . In the final scene , she meets a man working at a coffee shop . They are shown in a play room with multiple babies . The video ends with Bedingfield hugging the coffee shop worker , who appears not to be deterred by her thoughts about having babies .
Nadine Coyle , member of the pop group Girls Aloud , makes a cameo appearance in the nightclub scene . The complete version of " I Wanna Have Your Babies " featured in the music video has been released commercially through CD singles and digital downloads , and some include remixes by Snowflakers . The video debuted on Bedingfield 's official Bebo website on 6 March 2007 . On 21 May 2007 , the video debuted in North America on Bedingfield 's official U.S. website under the title " Babies " . The music video for " I Wanna Have Your Babies " was mocked in an article written by Anna Pickard and published in The Guardian . Pickard made fun of Bedingfield 's " clean @-@ cut , straight @-@ toothed , good Christian girl " image , writing that the video was an effort by Bedingfield and her management to be provocative to sell more records .
= = Formats and track listings = =
= = Charts = =
= = = Weekly charts = = =
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= Japan Airlines =
Japan Airlines Co . , Ltd . ( JAL ) ( 日本航空株式会社 , Nihon Kōkū Kabushiki @-@ gaisha , TYO : 9201 , OTC Pink : JAPSY ) , is the flag carrier airline of Japan and the second largest in the country behind All Nippon Airways . It is headquartered in Shinagawa , Tokyo , Japan ; and its main hubs are Tokyo 's Narita International Airport and Tokyo International Airport ( Haneda Airport ) , as well as Osaka 's Kansai International Airport and Osaka International Airport . JAL group companies include Japan Airlines , J @-@ Air , JAL Express , Japan Air Commuter , Japan Transocean Air and Ryukyu Air Commuter for domestic feeder services ; and JAL Cargo for cargo and mail services .
JAL group operations include scheduled and non @-@ scheduled international and domestic passenger and cargo services to 220 destinations in 35 countries worldwide , including codeshares . The group has a fleet of 279 aircraft . In the fiscal year ended 31 March 2009 , the airline group carried over 52 million passengers and over 1 @.@ 1 million tons of cargo and mail . Japan Airlines , J @-@ Air , JAL Express , and Japan Transocean Air are members of the Oneworld airline alliance .
JAL was established in 1951 and became the national airline of Japan in 1953 . After over three decades of service and expansion , the airline was fully privatized in 1987 . In 2002 , the airline merged with Japan Air System , Japan 's third @-@ largest airline and became the sixth largest airline in the world by passengers carried . Japan Airlines is currently an official sponsor of Japan Football Association , Japan national football team , Shimizu S @-@ Pulse and Consadole Sapporo . All Nippon Airways , the largest airline in Japan , is JAL 's main competitor .
= = History = =
= = = Regulated era = = =
= = = = Founding = = = =
Japan Air Lines Co . , Ltd. was established on 1 August 1951 , with the government of Japan recognizing the need for a reliable air transportation system to help Japan grow in the aftermath of the World War II . The airline was founded with an initial capital of ¥ 100 million ; and its headquarters located in Ginza , Chūō , Tokyo . Between 27 and 29 August , the airline operated invitational flights on a Douglas DC @-@ 3 Kinsei , leased from Philippine Airlines . On 25 October , Japan 's first post @-@ war domestic airline service was inaugurated , using a Martin 2 @-@ 0 @-@ 2 aircraft , named Mokusei , and crew leased from Northwest Airlines .
On 1 August 1953 , the Diet of Japan passed the Japan Air Lines Company Act , forming a new state @-@ owned Japan Air Lines on 1 October , which assumed all assets and liabilities of its private predecessor . By 1953 the JAL network extended northward from Tokyo to Sapporo and Misawa , and westward to Nagoya , Osaka , Iwakuni and Fukuoka .
On 2 February 1954 the airline began international flights , carrying 18 passengers from Tokyo to San Francisco on a Douglas DC @-@ 6B City of Tokyo via Wake Island and Honolulu . The flights between Tokyo and San Francisco are still Flights 1 and 2 , to commemorate its first international service . The early flights were advertised as being operated by American crews and serviced by United Air Lines in San Francisco .
The airline , in addition to the Douglas DC @-@ 3 , Douglas DC @-@ 6B and Martin 2 @-@ 0 @-@ 2s , operated Douglas DC @-@ 4 and Douglas DC @-@ 7C during the 1950s . JAL flew to Hong Kong via Okinawa by 1955 , having pared down its domestic network to Tokyo , Osaka , Fukuoka and Sapporo . By 1958 the Hong Kong route had been extended to Bangkok and Singapore . With DC @-@ 7Cs JAL was able to fly nonstop between Seattle and Tokyo in 1959 .
= = = = Jet Era = = = =
In 1960 the airline took delivery of its first jet , a Douglas DC @-@ 8 named Fuji , introducing jet service on the Tokyo @-@ Honolulu @-@ San Francisco route . JAL went on to operate a fleet of 51 DC @-@ 8s , retiring the last of the type in 1987 . Fuji flew until 1974 and was then used as a maintenance training platform until 1989 ; its nose section was stored at Haneda Airport and eventually put on public display at the JAL Sky Museum in March 2014 .
JAL also began flying to Seattle and Hong Kong in 1960 . At the end of 1961 JAL had transpolar flights from Tokyo to Seattle , Copenhagen , London and Paris via Anchorage , Alaska and to Los Angeles and San Francisco via Honolulu , Hawaii .
During the 1960s JAL flew to many new cities including Moscow , New York and Pusan . DC @-@ 8 flights to Europe via Anchorage started in 1961 ; flights to Europe via India started in 1962 , initially with Convair 880s .
By 1965 Japan Air Lines was headquartered in the Tokyo Building in Marunouchi , Chiyoda , Tokyo . By this time over half of JAL 's revenue was generated on transpacific routes to the United States and the airline was lobbying the United States for fifth freedom rights to fly transatlantic routes from the East Coast . The transpacific route was extended east from San Francisco to New York in November 1966 and to London in 1967 ; flights between San Francisco and London ended in December 1972 .
Between 1967 and 1969 JAL had an agreement with Aeroflot to operate a joint service between Tokyo and Moscow using a Soviet Tupolev Tu @-@ 114 . The flight crew included one JAL member , and the cabin crew had five members each from Aeroflot and JAL . The weekly flight started in April 1967 ; in May the schedule was 10 hr 35 min Moscow to Tokyo and 11 hr 25 min to return .
In 1972 , under the 45 / 47 system ( 45 / 47体制 , yon 'go @-@ yonnana taisei ) , the so @-@ called " aviation constitution " enacted by the Japanese government , JAL was granted flag carrier status to operate international routes . The airline was also designated to operate domestic trunk routes in competition with All Nippon Airways and Toa Domestic Airlines .
The signing of a Civil Air Transport Agreement between China and Japan on 20 April 1974 , caused the suspension of air routes between the Taiwan and Japan on 21 April . A new subsidiary , Japan Asia Airways , was established on 8 August 1975 , and air services between the two countries were restored on 15 September . During the 1970s the airline bought the Boeing 727 , Boeing 747 and McDonnell Douglas DC @-@ 10 for its growing routes within Japan and to other countries .
In the 1980s the airline performed special flights for the Crown Prince Akihito and Crown Princess Michiko of Japan , Pope John Paul II and for Japanese prime ministers , until the introduction of the dedicated government aircraft using two Boeing 747 @-@ 400 , operated as Japanese Air Force One and Japanese Air Force Two . During that decade the airline introduced new Boeing 747 @-@ 100SR , Boeing 747 @-@ SUD and Boeing 767 jets to the fleet , and retired the Boeing 727s and Douglas DC @-@ 8s .
In 1978 JAL started flights to São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro via Anchorage and San Juan ; the stopover was changed to Los Angeles in 1982 and to New York 's John F. Kennedy International Airport in 1999 . Until 2009 the airline operated fifth @-@ freedom flights between New York and São Paulo and between Vancouver and Mexico City .
= = = Deregulated era = = =
Japan began considering airline deregulation in the late 1970s , with the government announcing the abandoning of the 45 / 47 system in 1985 . In 1987 Japan Airlines was completely privatized , and the other two airlines in Japan , All Nippon Airways ( ANA ) and Japan Air System ( JAS ) , were permitted to compete with JAL on domestic and international routes . Increased competition resulted in changes to the airline 's corporate structure , and it was reorganized into three divisions : international passenger service , domestic passenger service , and cargo ( including mail ) service .
Japan Airlines began the 1990s with flights to evacuate Japanese citizens from Iraq before the start of the Gulf War . In October 1990 , Japan Air Charter was established , and , in September 1996 , an agreement with The Walt Disney Company made Japan Airlines the official airline of Tokyo Disneyland . JAL Express was established in April 1997 , with Boeing 737 aircraft . In the 1990s the airline encountered further economic difficulties stemming from recessions in the United States and United Kingdom , plus a domestic downturn . Following years of profit since 1986 the airline began to post operating losses in 1992 . Cost @-@ cutting , including the formation of the low @-@ cost JAL Express domestic subsidiary and the transfer of tourist operations to JALways ( the successor to Japan Air Charter ) , helped return the airline to profitability in 1999 .
In 1997 the airline flew Japanese prime minister Ryutaro Hashimoto to Peru to help negotiate in the Japanese embassy hostage crisis . Japan Airlines placed orders for Boeing 777s during the 1990s , allowing for fleet renewal . It was one of eight airlines participating in the Boeing 777 design process , shaping the design to their specifications .
= = = JAS merger = = =
In 2001 , Japan Air System and Japan Airlines agreed to merge ; and on 2 October 2002 , they established a new holding company called Japan Airlines System ( 日本航空システム , Nihon Kōkū Shisutemu ) , forming a new core of the JAL Group . Aircraft liveries were changed to match the design of the new JAL Group . At that time the merged group of airlines was the sixth largest in the world by passengers carried .
On 1 April 2004 , JAL changed its name to Japan Airlines International and JAS changed its name to Japan Airlines Domestic . JAS flight codes were changed to JAL flight codes , JAS check @-@ in desks were refitted in JAL livery and JAS aircraft were gradually repainted . On 26 June 2004 , the parent company Japan Airlines System was renamed to Japan Airlines Corporation .
Following the merger , two companies operated under the JAL brand : Japan Airlines International ( 日本航空インターナショナル , Nihon Kōkū Intānashonaru ) and Japan Airlines Domestic ( 日本航空ジャパン , Nihon Kōkū Japan ) . Japan Airlines Domestic had primary responsibility for JAL 's large network of intra @-@ Japan flights , while JAL International operated both international and trunk domestic flights . On 1 October 2006 , Japan Airlines International and Japan Airlines Domestic merged into a single brand , Japan Airlines International .
The airline applied to join Oneworld on 25 October 2005 . Japan Airlines claimed that its Oneworld membership would be in the best interests of the airline 's plans to further develop the airline group and its strong commitment to provide the very best to its customers . Japan Airlines , together with Malév and Royal Jordanian , joined the alliance on 1 April 2007 .
On 1 April 2008 , JAL merged the operations of its subsidiary Japan Asia Airways ( JAA ) into JAL mainline operations . JAA had operated all JAL group flights between Japan and Taiwan between 1975 and 2008 as a separate entity due to the special political status of Taiwan .
= = = Restructuring = = =
In 2009 , Japan Airlines suffered steep financial losses , despite remaining Asia 's largest airline by revenue . As a result , the airline embarked on staff cuts and route cutbacks in an effort to reduce costs . The carrier also received a ¥ 100 billion credit line from the Japanese government that year . In September 2009 , Japan 's Ministry of Land , Infrastructure , Transport and Tourism formed a task force aimed at aiding a corporate turnaround at JAL , which examined various cost @-@ cutting and strategic partnership proposals .
One proposal considered was to merge JAL with ANA , which would create a single larger international airline and replace Japan Airlines International ; however , media reports suggested that this proposal would be opposed by ANA given its comparatively better financial performance as an independent carrier . The task force also examined possible partnerships with foreign carriers .
After weeks of speculation , JAL applied for protection under the Corporate Rehabilitation Law ( the Japanese equivalent of Administration in the United Kingdom or a Chapter 11 bankruptcy filing in the United States ) on 19 January 2010 . JAL expects to receive a ¥ 300 billion cash injection and have debts worth ¥ 730 billion waived , in exchange for which it will cut its capital to zero , cut unprofitable routes and reduce its workforce by 15 @,@ 700 employees — a third of its 47 @,@ 000 total . JAL 's main creditors ( Mizuho Corporate Bank , Bank of Tokyo @-@ Mitsubishi UFJ and Sumitomo Mitsui Banking Corporation ) originally objected to the bankruptcy declaration , but changed their mind after the Enterprise Turnaround Initiative Corporation of Japan recommended court protection , according to a senior bank official . Shares of JAL were delisted from the Tokyo Stock Exchange on 20 February 2010 .
Kazuo Inamori , founder of Kyocera and KDDI , took over as CEO of JAL . Transport minister Seiji Maehara personally visited Kyocera headquarters in late 2009 in order to persuade Inamori to accept the position ; task force leader Shinjiro Takagi believed that it was necessary to appoint a proven entrepreneur CEO in order to fix the various problems at JAL . Japan Air Commuter president Masaru Onishi was promoted to president of JAL .
In May , JAL began to see an increase in its passenger numbers by 1 @.@ 1 % year @-@ on @-@ year . In August , it was reported that JAL would cut 19 @,@ 133 jobs from its workforce of 47 @,@ 000 by the end of March 2015 – whilst also increasing capacity – in an attempt to make the business viable .
= = = Rivalry between Delta and American = = =
Although JAL ultimately exited bankruptcy while remaining in the Oneworld alliance , JAL was seriously considering accepting a strategic investment from Delta Air Lines and joining the SkyTeam alliance during the period between September 2009 and February 2010 . JAL also had talks with Skyteam members Air France @-@ KLM and Korean Air regarding their potential involvement .
The Delta deal was favored by the Ministry of Land , Infrastructure , Transport and Tourism because Delta had an extensive global network and had the largest Japanese operation of any foreign airline , which it had inherited through its merger with Northwest Airlines . MLIT also supported a transaction with Air France @-@ KLM because it was a " healthier company " than American .
American planned to team up with Oneworld alliance members British Airways and Qantas to make a joint offer to recapitalize JAL . British Airways said that it was attempting to persuade JAL to remain part of Oneworld rather than aligning itself with Delta and SkyTeam , while American CEO Gerard Arpey said that American and Oneworld remained committed to a partnership with Japan Airlines , as long as it remained a major international carrier , and reiterated his encouragement for JAL to stay with Oneworld during ceremonies to welcome Mexicana into the alliance .
In an interview with the Asahi Shimbun on 1 January 2010 , JAL president Haruka Nishimatsu stated his preference in forming a partnership with Delta over American , and the Yomiuri Shimbun reported shortly thereafter that JAL and the Japanese government @-@ backed Enterprise Turnaround Initiative Corporation would likely choose to form a business and capital tie @-@ up with Delta , as part of which JAL would enter SkyTeam and reduce its international flight operations in favor of code @-@ share agreements with Delta , and that American Airlines had begun procedures to end negotiations with JAL . Both JAL and American denied the report . The Wall Street Journal then reported that American Airlines raised its JAL investment offer by $ 300 million , to $ 1 @.@ 4 billion , and in separate comments to the press , Delta president Ed Bastian said that Delta was " willing and able to raise additional capital through third @-@ party resources . "
After JAL filed for bankruptcy , there were further media reports that JAL would leave Oneworld in favor of SkyTeam , but JAL president Masaru Onishi said on 1 February that the new JAL leadership was " seriously reviewing the issue from scratch , without being influenced by previous discussions , " and its decision on an alliance partner would be made soon .
On 7 February , several news outlets reported that JAL would decide to keep its alliance with American Airlines and end talks with Delta . Inamori and ETIC officials , according to the reports , decided that switching alliances from Oneworld to Skyteam would be too risky and could hinder JAL 's ability to turn around quickly . Two days later , JAL officially announced that they would strengthen their partnership with American , including a joint application for antitrust immunity on transpacific routes . The airline would also fortify its relationship with other partners in the Oneworld alliance .
= = = Post @-@ bankruptcy developments = = =
JAL emerged from bankruptcy protection in March 2011 . In July , ETIC selected Nomura Holdings , Daiwa Securities , Mitsubishi UFJ , Morgan Stanley , Mizuho Securities , SMBC and Nikko Securities to underwrite the sale of its equity stake in JAL , without specifying amounts or dates . On 6 January 2012 , JAL announced its intent to re @-@ list its shares on the Tokyo Stock Exchange in an initial public offering of up to ¥ 1 trillion , which would be the largest offering in Japan in more than a year . The airline completed its IPO on the 1st section of the Tokyo Stock Exchange ( TYO : 9201 ) on 19 September 2012 . The Enterprise Turnaround Initiative Corporation of Japan sold all its holdings ( 96 @.@ 5 % ) in JAL for 650 billion yen , greater than its 350 billion yen investment in 2010 . Even though it was oversubscribed several times , post IPO increase of the stock was close to 1 % .
Following its exit from bankruptcy protection , JAL began several new partnerships within the oneworld alliance . The transpacific joint venture between JAL and American commenced in April 2011 . JAL formed Jetstar Japan , a low @-@ cost carrier joint venture with Qantas subsidiary Jetstar Airways , in July . In 2012 , JAL and British Airways parent company International Airlines Group ( IAG ) submitted applications to the Japanese government and European Union respectively in seeking a joint venture business operation for flights between Japan and Europe . Finnair applied to join the JV with IAG in July 2013 , in conjunction with JAL starting new nonstop service to Helsinki .
= = Corporate affairs and identity = =
= = = Organization = = =
In addition to its operations under the JAL name , the airline owns 5 domestic airlines which feed or supplement mainline JAL flights :
J @-@ Air ( JLJ ) – regional jet services from Tokyo , Nagoya and Osaka
JAL Express ( JEX ) – low @-@ cost jet services between secondary cities
Japan Air Commuter ( JAC ) – turboprop services in western Japan , mainly including Amami Islands .
Japan Transocean Air ( JTA ) – jet services in Okinawa Prefecture and the Amami Islands
Ryukyu Air Commuter ( RAC ) – turboprop services in Okinawa Prefecture and the Amami Islands
JALways was the airline 's international subsidiary , which handled low @-@ yield flights to resort destinations in Hawaii , Oceania and Southeast Asia .
JALUX Inc . , established in 1962 , is the airline 's procurement business which handles various work for the company , including the JAL SELECTION merchandise and in @-@ flight meals and refreshments ; supplies for Blue Sky and JAL @-@ DFS shops ; aircraft fuel components , cabin services and in @-@ flight duty @-@ free . JALUX merged with JAS Trading on 1 January 2004 , to unify support operations for the JAL group .
JAL Cargo is the brand of the airline group 's freight service and is a member of the WOW cargo alliance with the following products , J Speed , General Cargo and Dangerous Goods . In the fiscal year ended 31 March 2009 , the Cargo division carried 500 @,@ 779 tonnes of freight domestically and 627 @,@ 213 tonnes of freight internationally .
On 1 April 2011 , the airline changed its trade name from Japan Airlines International Co . , Ltd ( 株式会社日本航空インターナショナル , Kabushiki @-@ gaisha Nihon Koku Intānashonaru ) to Japan Airlines Co . , Ltd ( 日本航空株式会社 , Nihon Koku Kabushiki @-@ gaisha ) .
= = = Headquarters = = =
The headquarters , the Nomura Fudosan Tennozu Building ( 野村不動産天王洲ビル , Nomura Fudōsan Tennōzu Biru ) , is located on Tennozu Isle in Higashi Shinagawa , Shinagawa , Tokyo . The 26 floor building was a project of the Kajima Corporation . The building , which also has two underground levels , has a land area of 11 @,@ 670 @.@ 4 square metres ( 125 @,@ 619 sq ft ) and a floor area of 82 @,@ 602 @.@ 11 square metres ( 889 @,@ 121 @.@ 7 sq ft ) .
Several divisions of JAL , including JALPAK , JAL Aero @-@ Consulting , and JAL Hotels are located in the building . The building also houses the Japan office of American Airlines . It is also known as the JAL Building ( ＪＡＬビルディング , JAL Birudingu ) , the Japan Airlines Headquarters , and the Shinagawa Kyodo Building .
When JAL was originally established in 1951 , its headquarters were in Ginza , Chuo , Tokyo . By 1965 , Japan Air Lines was headquartered in the Tokyo Building in Marunouchi , Chiyoda , Tokyo . The Yomiuri Shimbun stated that because Japan Airlines worked closely with the Japanese government , people mockingly referred to the Tokyo Building as " a branch office of the transport ministry . "
On 28 June 1996 , construction was completed on the JAL Building . On 27 July 1996 , JAL moved its headquarters into the JAL Building . The Flight Operation Center ( FOC ) at the JAL Building began on 20 September 1996 . A holding company for JAL and Japan Airlines System , a carrier merging into JAL , was established on 2 October 2002 ; the head office of that company , Japan Airlines System ( JALS ) ( 日本航空システム , Nihon Kōkū Shisutemu ) , was in 2 @-@ 15 @-@ 1 Kōnan in Shinagawa Intercity , Minato , Tokyo . On 11 August 2003 , the headquarters of JAS moved from Haneda Maintenance Center 1 to the JAL Building . On 25 November 2003 , the JALS headquarters moved to the JAL Building . Originally the JAL Building was co @-@ owned by Japan Airlines and Mitsubishi Trading Co . ; they co @-@ owned a subsidiary that owned the JAL Building . In 2004 the building was to be sold to Nomura Real Estate for 65 billion yen . The contract date was 1 December 2004 , and the handover date was 18 March 2005 .
The JAL Subsidiary JALUX Inc. at one time had its headquarters in the JAL Building . One group of employees moved out of the building on 26 July 2010 , and one moved out on 2 August 2010 .
= = = Livery = = =
= = = = Logo and basic liveries = = = =
The JAL livery is called the tsurumaru ( 鶴丸 ) or " crane circle . " It is an image of a Japanese red @-@ crown crane with its wings extended in full flight . The Tsurumaru JAL logo was created in 1958 by Jerry Huff , the creative director at Botsford , Constantine and Gardner of San Francisco , which had been the advertising agency for Japan Airlines from its earliest days . JAL had used several logos up until 1958 . When the airline arranged to buy new DC8 , they decided to create a new official logo for the inauguration of their jet service worldwide .
In the creation of the logo , Huff was inspired by the personal crests of Samurai families . In a book he ’ d been given , We Japanese , he found pages of crests , including the crane . On his choice of the crane , he writes : " I had faith that it was the perfect symbol for Japan Air Lines . I found that the Crane myth was all positive — it mates for life ( loyalty ) , and flies high for miles without tiring ( strength . ) "
The tsurumaru livery was in use until 2002 , when it was replaced by a livery called the " Arc of the Sun . " The livery featured the motif of a rising sun on a creamy parchment @-@ colored background .
JAL is a strong supporter of UNICEF and expresses its support by having a " We Support UNICEF " logo on each aircraft .
Following its corporate restructuring , Japan Airlines returned to the classic tsurumaru logo starting on 1 April 2011 . JA8299 , a Boeing 767 @-@ 300 , is the only remaining aircraft that has the " Arc of the Sun " livery
= = = = Special liveries = = = =
JAL is known for adopting special liveries . A Boeing 747 ( JA8908 ) carries an Adidas soccer livery in 2002 . Another Boeing 747 ( JA8907 ) is the Matsui Jet , featuring the famous Japanese baseball player Hideki Matsui in 2003 . The airline 's Boeing 767 – 300 ( JA8253 ) is the Expo 2005 aircraft . Various aircraft in the JAL fleet carry a Yokoso Japan logo supporting the Visit Japan campaign . During late 2005 , Japan Airlines began using a Boeing 777 ( JA8941 ) , featuring Japanese actor Shingo Katori on one side , and television series Saiyuki , along with its main character " Goku " on the other side .
JAL is also known for its liveries featuring Tokyo Disneyland and Tokyo DisneySea , as it is the official airline of the Tokyo Disney Resort . They sponsor the attraction Star Jets ( not related to past Star Jets fleet with the old tsurumaru livery ) , which feature a variation of the current livery on the ride vehicles . At one time there were more than six widebody aircraft painted with the special liveries .
JAL , whose fleet was entirely made of Boeing 747 aircraft , had painted all of its aircraft with tropical @-@ influenced liveries along with Reso 'cha titles . These aircraft are used on charter flights to holiday destinations in the Pacific , such as Hawaii . Reso 'cha is a marketing abbreviation for Resort Charter . Reso 'cha planes were formerly known as JAL Super Resort Express .
In April 2007 , JAL debuted a Boeing 777 – 300 ( JA8941 ) with a special Oneworld livery to promote the airlines 's entry to the global airline alliance . Previously this aircraft carried the Shingo Katori and the Saiyuki television livery . In 2008 , JAL repainted a single Boeing 777 – 200 to have a green rather than red arc on its tail , along with a green origami airplane on the fuselage , and named it the Eco Jet , to highlight the company 's efforts to reduce the environmental impact of commercial aviation . In 2009 , JAL repainted JA8941 again , as well as a JTA 737 @-@ 400 ( JA8933 ) to promote Kobukuro and their new album Calling as well as a live concert tour in Okinawa and around Japan . This livery was released officially on 30 July 2009 . It has since then been replaced with a special Doraemon livery .
On 4 September 2010 , in conjunction with the Boku no Miteiru Fūkei album , JAL and Arashi ( which one of the songs , " Movin ' On " , is used for a commercial ) introduced a new livery featuring the five members of Arashi in the aircraft ; the first flight was on the day after on 5 September .
= = = Branding = = =
Landor Associates created JAL 's brand identity in 1989 . After Japan Airlines and Japan Air System merged , the Tokyo office of Landor and JAL worked together to create a new brand identity . Landor decided to use the " arc of the sun " image . The 2000s rebranding began in April 2002 and completed in April 2004 . The brand identity firm designed 300 @,@ 000 specific items for JAL . JAL changed its branding again on 1 April 2011 , reverting to the original 1959 brand .
= = Destinations = =
Japan Airlines serves 33 international destinations in Asia , the Americas , Europe and Oceania , excluding codeshares . The airline 's international hubs are Tokyo 's Narita International Airport and Haneda Airport , Osaka 's Kansai International Airport and Osaka International Airport in Itami . The airline group also serves 59 domestic destinations within Japan .
In the fiscal year ended 31 March 2009 , the airline introduced or increased services on ten international routes , including between Tokyo ( Narita ) and New York , and between Osaka ( Kansai ) and Shanghai ; and it ceased operations on four international routes , including between Tokyo ( Narita ) and Xi 'an , and between Osaka ( Kansai ) and Qingdao . Domestically , JAL suspended 14 routes , including between Sapporo and Okinawa . Additionally , the airline expanded codesharing alliance with fellow Oneworld partners like American Airlines , British Airways , Cathay Pacific and Finnair , and other airlines , including Air France , China Eastern and Jetstar .
= = = Partnerships and codeshare agreements = = =
Japan Airlines has codeshare agreements or joint business agreements with the following Oneworld members :
Apart from those Oneworld partners , the airline also codeshares with the following airlines :
= = Fleet = =
= = = Passenger = = =
Japan Airlines operates a mixture of narrow- and wide @-@ body aircraft . The airline provides Economy Class service on all routes , Class J service ( a front cabin with larger seats ) on most major domestic routes , Premium Economy on some international routes , Executive Class ( business class ) on most long @-@ haul and some short @-@ haul international routes , and First Class on some long @-@ haul and domestic routes .
For its Boeing fleet ( not counting the Boeing 787 Dreamliner ) , Japan Airlines ' customer code is 46 . As an example , a Boeing 777 @-@ 200 ordered new by Japan Airlines bears the model name 777 @-@ 246 .
As of July 2016 , Japan Airlines operates an all @-@ Boeing fleet of 173 aircraft :
= = = Fleet gallery = = =
Hover over each photo to view label detail
Fleet notes
The Boeing customer code for Japan Airlines is 7x7 @-@ x46 for JAL International ( pre @-@ merger JAL aircraft ) ( i.e. 777 @-@ 246 ) and 7x7 @-@ x89 for JAL Domestic ( former JAS aircraft ) . ( i.e. 747 @-@ 489 ) The airline operates 10 @-@ abreast seating in the Economy cabin of the Japan domestic 777 fleet .
On 22 December 2004 , JAL selected the Boeing 787 Dreamliner as its next generation medium @-@ size aircraft fleet . The airline is seeking 30 firm deliveries and 20 options ; and joined other launch customers to be involved in the aircraft 's future development . The airline later increased the firm order to 35 aircraft on 3 April 2007 . Japan Airlines received the first Boeing 787 Dreamliner aircraft from Boeing on 25 March 2012 .
On 30 June 2005 , the airline confirmed an order for six new Boeing 767 @-@ 300ER aircraft , powered by General Electric CF6 @-@ 80C2 high @-@ bypass turbofan engines . The three freighter and three passenger models , valued at approximately US $ 800 million at list prices , were delivered between 2007 and 2008 .
On 22 February 2008 , it was reported that the airline has been considering the new Airbus A350 made by EADS unit Airbus , the Boeing 787 's direct competitor in the medium @-@ size aircraft market . Japan Airlines spokesman Stephen Pearlman said : " We have taken a look at the A350 . As far as adding this aircraft to our fleet in future goes , I think it is one of the strong candidates . " JAL ordered A350 aircraft on 7 October 2013 ( 18 -900 and 13 -1000 firm orders , plus 25 options ) .
= = = Cargo = = =
JAL Cargo ended dedicated freighter aircraft operations in October 2010 after more than 30 years of service . It operated both propeller and jet aircraft through the years , most recently Boeing 747 @-@ 400s ( including aircraft converted from passenger to freighter configuration ) and Boeing 767 @-@ 300Fs . Limited cargo activity is now maintained through JAL 's passenger aircraft lower deck holds .
= = = Fleet history = = =
The airline 's last McDonnell Douglas MD @-@ 11 J @-@ Bird ( JA8582 ) operated its final flight as Japan Airlines Flight 730 from Hong Kong International Airport to Narita International Airport on 12 October 2004 . The aircraft was originally introduced into service on 1 April 1994 . In addition , the airline operated its last two McDonnell Douglas DC @-@ 10 flights on 31 October 2005 . One aircraft , JA8543 , operated as Japan Airlines Flight 736 from Hong Kong International Airport to Narita International Airport , touched down at 16 : 05 . Another aircraft , JA8541 , operated as Japan Airlines Flight 952 from Incheon International Airport to Narita International Airport , touched down at 16 : 37 . This marked the DC @-@ 10 's last flight with the airline , ending over 30 years of operations for this model .
The airline phased out three Boeing 747 @-@ 200Fs in the 2008 financial year ; and operated its last Boeing 747 – 300 Classic Jumbo Jet as JALways Flight 73 from Honolulu International Airport to Narita International Airport on 30 July 2009 , after 26 years of service to the airline group . The aircraft was met on arrival by the " Father of the 747 " , Mr Joseph F. " Joe " Sutter . One former JAL 747SR was being used as a NASA Shuttle Carrier Aircraft . The airline retired its last Boeing 747 ( JA8089 ) on 1 March 2011 . The last flight was a flight from Honolulu International Airport to Narita International Airport , ending 41 years of service with the Boeing 747 .
Aircraft that have previously been in service with Japan Airlines are ( in alphabetical order ) :
* JAL Cargo also operated freighter versions of the Boeing 747 @-@ 100 / 200 / 400 and Douglas DC @-@ 6 / 7 / 8 .
= = Services = =
= = = Cabin classes = = =
= = = = New cabin = = = =
JAL introduced new international First and Executive Class seats : the JAL Suite for First Class , featured a seat 20 percent roomier than the Skysleeper Solo in a 1 @-@ 2 @-@ 1 configuration ; and the JAL Shell Flat Neo Seat for Executive Class Seasons , a slightly revised version of the original Shell Flat Seat , with a wider seat ; expanded center console ; and the world 's first in @-@ flight photo art exhibit , Sky Gallery . These seats , along with the Premium Economy seats , debuted on Japan Airlines Flights 5 and 6 , operated on the Tokyo – New York route on 1 August 2008 . It expanded to the Tokyo – San Francisco route on 13 September 2008 , and the Tokyo – Chicago and Los Angeles in 2009 . Since 31 October 2010 , the new cabin is also used on flights from Narita to Jakarta , being the only Asian destination for which the new cabin is used .
Eight JAL Suites and 77 JAL Shell Flat Neo Seat are installed in each Boeing 777 @-@ 300ER aircraft , with 46 Premium Economy and 115 Economy seats taking up the rest of the aircraft cabin . The purpose is to improve income yield per passenger , while reducing fuel cost per passenger mile , utilizing the most efficient aircraft available .
In 2013 , JAL debuted new versions of their economy and premium economy seats called Sky Premium and Sky Wider Economy respectively . The Sky Premium seats , found on select 777 @-@ 300 's and soon 787 's , feature the same width as the Sky Shell seats but with a 4 " larger seat pitch of 42 " and a 3 " larger recline of up to 10 " compared to a 38 " pitch and 7 " recline on the Sky Shell seats . The Sky Wider Economy seats , found on select 767 's and select 777 @-@ 300 's , feature slimmer seats with 4 " more legroom , and another inch of width totaling up to 35 " of seat pitch , and a 19 " width compared to the 31 " pitch and 18 " width of standard economy seats , plus a larger PTV screen of up to 11 " . The newer 787 's will feature a new version of the Sky Wider seats called Sky Wider II , which will feature 5 " more legroom and 2 " more width totaling up to 36 " of seat pitch and a 20 " width in a less dense 2 @-@ 4 @-@ 2 setup instead of the 3 @-@ 3 @-@ 3 setup commonly used in a 787 's economy cabin .
= = = = International services = = = =
The airline 's international services with existing cabins feature the fully reclining First Class Skysleeper Solo or Skysleeper ; Executive Class Seasons Shell Flat Seat or Skyluxe Seat ; Premium Economy Sky Shell Seat ; and Economy Class . The First Class Skysleeper Solo reclines fully and features genuine leather upholstery from Poltrona Frau of Italy . The Executive Class Seasons Shell Flat Seat is a lie @-@ flat design with the ability to lower armrests to the same height as the seat when reclined . Premium Economy is a recent addition , it was first introduced on the Tokyo – London route on 1 December 2007 . It features a shell @-@ shaped seat that allows passengers to recline by sliding their seat forward , without having the seat in front intrude when reclining .
= = = = Japan domestic services = = = =
On Japan domestic services , the airline offers First Class , class J Executive Class and Economy Class . The First Class seat is made from premium genuine leather with a seat width of about 53 cm ( 21 in ) and a seat pitch of about 130 cm ( 51 in ) . Class J features ergonomically designed reclining seats that promote relaxation by allowing passengers to move naturally and maintain a balanced posture . JAL plans to begin refitting its domestic fleet with leather seats and in @-@ flight wireless internet service from May 2014 .
= = = In @-@ flight entertainment = = =
= = = = MAGIC = = = =
MAGIC , JAL 's in @-@ flight entertainment system , supported by the JAL Entertainment Network ( JEN ) , features the latest hit movies and videos , games and audio programs . There are four generations of the MAGIC system : MAGIC @-@ I , MAGIC @-@ II , MAGIC @-@ III , MAGIC @-@ IV and the new MAGIC @-@ V ( To be installed on the Boeing 787 @-@ 8 and selected Boeing 767 @-@ 300ER routes ) a ) Introduced on 1 December 2007 , the MAGIC @-@ III system provides Audio / Video On Demand ( AVOD ) entertainment to all passengers . The number of movie , music , video and game channels on MAGIC @-@ III was doubled from 57 to 130 by 2008 ; and it is installed on all seats on Boeing 767 @-@ 300ER , 777 @-@ 200ER and 777 @-@ 300ER aircraft . Aircraft with MAGIC @-@ I and MAGIC @-@ II have movies that automatically start when the AVOD system is turned on — once the aircraft reaches cruise level — and economy class passengers can tune in to watch the movie in progress ; and all movies restart upon completion . Executive and First Class passengers have full AVOD control . MAGIC systems also have JAL 's duty @-@ free shopping catalogue , including flight crew recommendations and a video of specials available on the flight . MAGIC @-@ V will feature the same entertainment as MAGIC @-@ III , but with a touch screen controller , along with a handset . There will be USB ports for iPod connectivity , and an easier to control handset . ( Being introduced on selected Boeing 767 @-@ 300ER routes in late October ) . The MAGIC @-@ III system is used on internationally configured Boeing 767 @-@ 300 with Skyluxe Seat , older internationally configured Boeing 767 @-@ 300ER with Skyluxe Seat , all Boeing 777 @-@ 200ER , older Boeing 777 @-@ 300ER with Skysleeper Solo / Suite first class and Shell Flat Seat / Neo Business class . The MAGIC @-@ IV is used on internationally configured Boeing 737 @-@ 800s , along with a newer look of Skyluxe Seat . It uses 9 @-@ inch touchscreens by Panasonic eFX . The MAGIC @-@ V system is deploying across the fleet , with selected Boeing 767 @-@ 300ERs ( Skyrecliner seat ) and B787 @-@ 8 ( Shell Flat Neo seat ) getting the newest IFE . Followed by refurbished Boeing 777 @-@ 300ERs ( all aircraft ) and selected Boeing 767 @-@ 300ER aircraft ( including those with Skyluxe seat ) will get the MAGIC @-@ V along with new seats in all classes .
= = = = Aircraft cameras = = = =
On most JAL international flights , on @-@ plane cameras are available , either on the wings , the belly or on the tail . When the aircraft is in the pushback ; taxi ; takeoff ; ascent ; descent ; stacking ; landing ; and docking phases of flight , all TV 's in the cabin automatically tune into the video camera outside the aircraft to provide " Pilot Vision " to the passengers .
= = = = Additional media = = = =
Skyward , the airline group 's inflight magazine , reflecting the company motto of " Dream Skyward " . Prior to the merger with JAS , JAL 's inflight magazine was called Winds . All of the JAL Group magazines are provided by JALUX .
In a promotion , between 1 June and 31 August 2006 , all Executive and First Class passengers would be offered use of Nintendo DS Lites specially manufactured for air travel , with the wireless capabilities removed in order to conform with airline safety standards .
= = = In @-@ flight catering = = =
Japan Airlines offers meals on intercontinental routes , depending on the cabin class , destination and flight length . Western and Japanese menu selections are typically offered , including seasonal menu selections varied by destination . Special meal offerings can be requested in each class during booking , including children 's , religious , vegetarian , and other meals .
= = = Sakura Lounge = = =
Sakura Lounge , named after the Japanese word for cherry blossom , is Japan Airlines ' signature lounge . In addition , the airline also operates the following international , including First Class Lounge , Sakura Lounge annex and JAL Lounge ; and domestic lounges , including Diamond Premier Lounge and JAL Lounge . Access to the lounges depend on the class of travel or the membership status in the JAL Mileage Bank or JAL Global Club .
The Sakura Lounge offers complimentary beverages , including juice , soda drinks , coffee , tea , mineral water and alcohol drinks ; and snacks . A variety of reading materials are also available , such as major , local and sports newspapers ; weekly magazines and economy books . Business services include public phones , fax and copy machines ; and connect personal computer for internet communication using the wire LAN and the wireless LAN available in the Sakura lounges .
= = JAL Mileage Bank = =
JAL Mileage Bank ( JMB ) is the travel rewards program of JAL Group , including Japan Airlines , JALways , JAL Express , Japan Transocean Air , Japan Air Commuter , Hokkaido Air System and Ryukyu Air Commuter . The program 's airline partners also include JAL 's Oneworld partners , as well as Air France , China Eastern Airlines and Emirates . For the airline 's most frequent flyers , JMB offers Fly On Program , a frequent flyer service status program ; and JAL Global Club ( JGC ) , an exclusive club designed for experienced travelers .
The JMB program has no membership fee , and mileage will be valid to the last day of the 36th month following the month of the flight or transaction date . In addition , if a JMB member does not accumulate mileage within 36 months after becoming a member , or a JMB member 's account remains inactive at zero mileage for a consecutive 36 @-@ month period , JAL may withdraw or cancel the membership of such member .
= = = JMB Fly On Program = = =
The Fly On Program is the frequent flyer service status program and is divided into four membership levels , Crystal , Sapphire , JGC Premier and Diamond , based on the member 's travel in the last calendar year . Additionally , a minimum of four JAL Group flights on eligible fare classes are required . Members earn Fly On points on eligible fare classes on JAL Group and Oneworld member airlines . These are used to calculate the member 's eligibility for membership renewal , upgrade or downgrade during the membership year . Higher @-@ tiered members are provided with increased travel benefits such as bonus mileage , additional baggage allowance , priority boarding and airport lounge access . There are two phases to the Fly On Program service benefits ; one begins after two months following qualification for membership and the other begins from April of the following year . Membership is valid until 31 March of the second year following membership qualification .
= = = = Crystal = = = =
Crystal level is achieved or retained when the member earns 30 @,@ 000 Fly On Points or boarding more than 30 flights and minimum of 10 @,@ 000 Fly On Points . Services and benefits after two months of membership qualification include priority waitlisting , 50 percent bonus mileage , airport lounge access for Japan domestic flights with lounge coupons via mileage deduction , priority check @-@ in at Executive Class counters for international flights , JGC counters and priority baggage for class J on JAL Group domestic flights , 10 kg ( 22 lb ) or one piece of extra baggage allowance , priority boarding on international flights , priority airport standby and class J upgrade with class J coupon via mileage deduction . Services and benefits from April of the following year include 10 upgrade points for complimentary flight upgrades . JMB Crystal membership level is equivalent to Oneworld Sapphire tier status , which entitles members to Oneworld Ruby benefits when travelling on a Oneworld member airline .
= = = = Sapphire = = = =
Sapphire level is achieved or retained when the member earns 50 @,@ 000 Fly On Points or boarding more than 50 flights and minimum of 15 @,@ 000 Fly On Points . Additional services and benefits for Sapphire members after two months of membership qualification include 100 percent bonus mileage , JAL or Sakura Lounge access with one guest when flying on JAL Group airline flights . Priority check @-@ in at First Class counters for international flights and JGC counters for Japan domestic flights , priority baggage , 20 kg ( 44 lb ) or two pieces of extra baggage allowance and access to JAL Fast Security Lane . Additional services and benefits for Sapphire members from April of the following year include 20 upgrade points for complimentary flight upgrades . JMB Sapphire members will be invited to join the JGC , which is dedicated to cater for experienced travelers . JMB Sapphire membership level is equivalent to Oneworld Sapphire tier status , which entitles members to Oneworld Sapphire benefits when travelling on a Oneworld member airline .
= = = = JGC Premier = = = =
JGC Premier is achieved or retained when the member earns 80 @,@ 000 Fly On Points or boarding more than 80 flights and minimum of 25 @,@ 000 Fly On Points . Additional services and benefits for JGC Premier members after two months of membership qualification include mileage expiry suspension during membership period , First Class and Diamond / Premier Lounge access with one guest when flying on JAL Group airline flights , and priority check @-@ in at First Class counters and priority boarding for both international and domestic flights . Additional services and benefits for JGC Premier members from April of the following year include three complimentary transferable JAL and Sakura Lounge coupons , 30 upgrade points for complimentary flight upgrades , one complimentary JAL Hotels one night stay coupon , five complementary passes to the Century 21 Club and one flower gift coupon . JGC Premier membership level is equivalent to Oneworld Emerald tier status , which entitles members to Oneworld Emerald benefits when travelling on a Oneworld member airline .
= = = = Diamond = = = =
The highest membership level in the Fly On Program of the JAL Mileage Bank . Diamond level is achieved or retained when the member earns 100 @,@ 000 Fly On Points or boarding more than 120 flights and minimum of 35 @,@ 000 Fly On Points . Additional services and benefits for Diamond members after two months of membership qualification include 125 percent bonus mileage and any seat award tickets with double mileage deduction . Additional services and benefits for Diamond members from April of the following year include 40 upgrade points for complimentary flight upgrades , two complimentary JAL Hotels one night stay coupons and Century 21 Club membership . JMB Diamond membership level is equivalent to Oneworld Emerald tier status , which entitles members to Oneworld Emerald benefits when travelling on a Oneworld member airline .
= = = JAL Global Club = = =
The JAL Global Club is an exclusive club dedicated to catering to JAL Group 's most experienced and valuable travelers . Membership is available to JMB members who have earned 50 @,@ 000 Fly On Points or boarding more than 50 flights and minimum of 15 @,@ 000 Fly On Points . In addition , membership can be enrolled under JALCARD Club @-@ A , Club @-@ A Gold or JAL 's Diners Club membership after payment of an annual fee . Lifetime membership will be given as long as a one @-@ time qualifying member continues to pay the JALCARD annual fee . The Oneworld tier status as a JGC member will depend on the JMB Fly On program membership levels , with the following exception : JGC members will automatically attain Oneworld Sapphire status upon enrollment , regardless of the number of FLY ON Points accumulated in the previous calendar year .
JGC benefits include 3 @,@ 000 bonus miles for the first JAL Group eligible flight flown every year , JAL or Sakura Lounge access with one guest , priority baggage , 20 kg ( 44 lb ) or two pieces of extra baggage allowance , priority check @-@ in , personalized leather baggage tags , annual gifts of a calendar and a diary and exclusive use of member lounges at designated hotels . In addition , JALCARD Club @-@ A , Club @-@ A Gold and JAL Diners Club holders receive 35 percent JALCARD flight bonus mileage .
= = In popular culture = =
Japan Airlines has been the focus of several television programs in Japan over the years , most being dramas revolving around cabin attendants . Attention Please was a drama in 1970 that followed the story of a young girl who joins JAL to be a cabin attendant while overcoming many difficulties . This show was remade in 2006 again as Attention Please starring Aya Ueto who joins a class of cabin attendant nominees and later graduates . Most of the action of the story of the 2006 series takes place at JAL 's Haneda flight operations headquarters . The series has had two specials since the original , marking the main character 's transition into JAL 's international operations .
During the 1980s , JAL was also the focus of another drama entitled Stewardess Monogatari which featured another young girl during training to be a JAL cabin attendant . During the 1990s , JAL featured several commercials with celebrities , including Janet Jackson who danced and sang to a backdrop of JAL 747s on rotation .
The Airline has also been mentioned or shown in anime as well . In K @-@ ON ! ! The movie a JAL Boeing 777 in J @-@ Bird livery was used on a flight from Narita to London Heathrow .
A JAL 747 was also shown at the beginning of the live action version of the Prince of Tennis movie .
The company 's internal processes prior to the crash of Japan Airlines Flight 123 and its reaction to the accident are subject of the book Shizumanu Taiyō and the 2009 Japanese movie of the same name , albeit the company being fictionalized as National Airlines .
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= Luis Muñoz Marín =
José Luis Alberto Muñoz Marín ( February 18 , 1898 – April 30 , 1980 ) , known as Luis Muñoz Marín , was a Puerto Rican poet , journalist , politician and statesman , regarded as the " Father of Modern Puerto Rico , " and the " Architect of the Commonwealth . " In 1948 he was the first democratically elected Governor of Puerto Rico , spearheading an administration that engineered profound economic , political and social reforms ; accomplishments that were internationally lauded by many politicians , statesmen , political scientists and economists of the period . Marin was instrumental in the destruction of the Nationalist party and its efforts to gain independence .
= = Early life and education = =
= = = Childhood = = =
Luis Muñoz Marín was born on February 18 , 1898 at 152 Calle de la Fortaleza in Old San Juan . He was the son of Luis Muñoz Rivera and Amalia Marín Castilla . His father was a poet , publisher , and a politician , responsible for founding two newspapers , El Diario and La Democracia . Days before Luis ' birth , his father traveled to Spain to present a proposal of autonomy for Puerto Rico , which was accepted . His father was elected to serve as Secretary of State of Puerto Rico and Chief of the Cabinet for the Government of Puerto Rico .
On October 18 , 1898 , Puerto Rico was taken by the United States following Spain 's defeat in the Spanish – American War . Luis 's father assisted in establishing an insular police force , but opposed the military colonial government established by the United States . He resigned from office on February 4 , 1899 . Later he was elected to the House of Delegates of Puerto Rico . In 1910 , he was elected as Resident Commissioner of Puerto Rico , serving the island as a representative to Congress from 1911 until his death in 1916 .
One of Muñoz Marín 's paternal great @-@ grandfathers , Luis Muñoz Iglesias , was born on October 12 , 1797 , in Palencia , Spain . At age 14 , he had joined the Spanish Army and battled Napoleon Bonaparte 's French Army in the Peninsular War . Afterward he decided to make his career in the army ' he was awarded decorations after fighting against Simón Bolívar during the Admirable Campaign of independence in Latin America . Once the conflict was over , he traveled to Puerto Rico along with his commanding officer , Miguel de la Torre . He subsequently settled in a farm in Cidra and married María Escolástica Barrios .
In 1901 when Muñoz Marín was three years old , a group of statehood supporters broke into his father 's El Diario 's building and vandalized most of the equipment . Following this incident , the family moved to Caguas . After receiving further threats from the statehood movements , the family moved to New York City . There Muñoz Marín learned English , while his father founded the bilingual newspaper , Puerto Rico Herald . During the following years , the family frequently traveled between both locations . His father founded the Unionist Party in Puerto Rico , which won the election in 1904 . Following the party 's victory , his father was elected as a member of the House of Delegates .
Luis Muñoz Marín began his elementary education at William Penn Public School in Santurce , a district of San Juan . Most classes were taught in English , a change imposed by the American colonial government . Muñoz Marín 's knowledge of English allowed him to be advanced to second grade , although he had some difficulty the next year . In 1908 , Muñoz Marín was enrolled in a small private school in San Juan . Working with the teacher Pedro Moczó , in two years he covered all the material normally taught to students between third and eighth grade , passing tests with good grades .
In 1910 , his father was elected as Resident Commissioner of Puerto Rico . This position is a non @-@ voting delegate to the United States Congress . Muñoz Marín briefly moved to New York with his mother before moving to Washington , D.C. , at his father 's insistence .
In 1911 , he began his studies at the Georgetown Preparatory School but disliked its strict discipline and failed the tenth grade . In 1915 , his father enrolled him at Georgetown University Law Center , but Muñoz Marín was uninterested and wanted to become a poet .
In late 1916 , Muñoz Marín and his mother were called to Puerto Rico by their friend Eduardo Georgetti , who said Luis ' father was suffering from an infection spreading from his gallbladder . Muñoz Rivera died on November 15 , 1916 , when Luis was eighteen .
= = = Poetry and ideological contrasts = = =
A month later Muñoz Marín and his mother returned to New York ; he sold his law books and refused to return to Georgetown . Within one month he published a book titled Borrones , composed of several stories and a one @-@ act play . For several months , he served as the congressional clerk to Félix Córdova Dávila , who succeeded Muñoz Marín 's father as Resident Commissioner .
= = Marriage and family = =
On July 1 , 1919 Muñoz Marín married Muna Lee , an American writer from Raymond , Mississippi who had grown up in Oklahoma . Lee was a leading Southern feminist and a rising writer of Pan @-@ American poetry . They had a daughter and a son together , but often lived apart before separating in 1938 .
During the 1920s Muñoz Marín spent the majority of his time in Greenwich Village in Hawaii , where he lived apart from his wife and young children . During those years he repeatedly asked his wife and mother to send him money , and indulged in a " Bohemian life " that seriously strained his marriage . Muñoz Marín and his wife Muna Lee underwent a legal separation in 1938 .
During his first campaign for the Puerto Rico Senate in 1932 , Muñoz Marín was accused of being a narcotics addict ; he was alleged to be addicted to opium .
Before his campaigns of 1938 and 1939 , while he was still legally married , Muñoz Marín met Inés Mendoza . A teacher , she became his mistress and was fired for complaining about the prohibition against classes in Spanish . They agreed that substituting " one language for another is to diminish that country 's capacity to be happy " . Muñoz Marín asked Mendoza to " stay with him all his life . "
In 1940 , a month after his election as President of the Senate in Puerto Rico , Muñoz Marín and Mendoza had a daughter , Victoria , named to commemorate his success . He and Mendoza officially married in 1946 , and they had a second daughter , Viviana .
In the 1980s , their daughter Victoria Muñoz Mendoza became active in Puerto Rican politics . In 1992 , she became the first woman to run as a candidate for the governorship of Puerto Rico .
= = Formation of political ideas = =
In 1920 , Muñoz Marín was selected to deliver a check to Santiago Iglesias , the president of the Socialist Party of Puerto Rico . Excited about the prospect of meeting him , they moved to Puerto Rico , where the couple 's first daughter , Munita , was born . Upon arriving , he noticed that some of the landowners were paying the jíbaros , the mountain @-@ dwelling peasants of Puerto Rico , two dollars in exchange for their votes . He joined the Socialist Party , a decision regarded as a " disaster " by his family . In October 1920 , the Socialist Party recruited members of the Republican Party in order to win upcoming elections . Disappointed , Muñoz Marín returned to the mainland , moving to New Jersey with his family . Shortly after , his first son , Luis Muñoz Lee , was born .
In 1923 , he returned alone to Puerto Rico , supposedly to publish a book that collected several of his father 's previously unpublished works . After collecting $ 5 @,@ 000 from his father 's friends for this alleged " publication " Muñoz Marín spent the money , did not write the book , and quickly left the island . Several years later , after things had quieted down , Antonio R. Barceló , who was the president of the newly formed Coalition , made up of the Republican and Socialist parties , called Muñoz Marín to work on La Democracia . After having problems with some members of the party 's Republican faction , due to his support for island autonomy , Muñoz Marín returned to New York . Here he wrote for The American Mercury and The Nation .
In 1931 , after traveling throughout the United States , Muñoz Marín noticed the instability of the country 's economy — and his own personal finances — after the stock market crash . Deciding exploiting his father 's name in Puerto Rican politics was better than starving in Greenwich village , he borrowed money from a group of friends and returned to the island . Upon arriving , he discovered that Hurricane San Felipe Segundo had destroyed most of the sugar crops where the jíbaros worked , leaving the majority unemployed .
= = Political career = =
= = = Senator = = =
By the 1930s , Puerto Rico 's political scenario had changed ; the only party actively asking for independence was the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party . That organization 's president , Pedro Albizu Campos , occasionally met with Muñoz Marín . He was impressed by the substance of Albizu 's arguments , but their styles to achieve autonomy and social reforms were different .
In 1932 , Antonio R. Barceló abandoned the Coalition , which by this time had weakened , and he worked to establish a new independence movement . Barceló adopted several of Muñoz Marín 's ideas of social and economic reforms and autonomy , using them to form the ideology of the Liberal Party of Puerto Rico . Muñoz Marín joined the Liberal Party and led La Democracia , which had become the party 's official newspaper . He had decided to become a politician to achieve reform . In speeches , he discussed ways to provide more land , hospitals , food and schools to the general public .
On March 13 , 1932 , Muñoz Marín was nominated by the party for the post of senator . Although the party did not win a majority in the 1932 elections , Muñoz Marín received enough votes to gain a position in the Puerto Rican Senate . Shortly after , Rudy Black , a reporter for La Democracia , arranged a meeting between him and Eleanor Roosevelt . Wanting her to see Puerto Rico 's problems personally , he persuaded her to visit the main island .
In August 1932 , Muñoz Marín received Eleanor Roosevelt in Fort San Felipe del Morro and La Fortaleza before traveling to El Fanguito , a poor sector that had suffered much damage in the hurricane . When photos of her visit were published , former American governors and the incumbent were outraged to have been overlooked . Following his wife 's report , Franklin D. Roosevelt included Puerto Rico in the New Deal program . Muñoz Marín became a popular political figure due to his involvement in the program , which provided for considerable investment of federal funds in Puerto Rico to develop infrastructure and housing .
Following the government police massacre of Nationalist protesters at the University of Puerto Rico in Río Piedras in 1935 , the US Senator Millard Tydings from Maryland supported a bill in 1936 to give independence to Puerto Rico . ( He had co @-@ sponsored the Tydings – McDuffie Act , which provided independence to the Philippines after a 10 @-@ year transition under a limited autonomy . ) All the Puerto Rican parties supported the bill , but Muñoz Marín opposed it . Tydings did not gain passage of the bill .
Muñoz Marín criticized the bill for what he said would be adverse effects on the island 's economy . He compared it to a principle known as Ley de Fuga ( Law of flight ) . This was the term for a police officer arresting a man , releasing him , and shooting him in the back while the policeman retreated , claiming the suspect had " fled . "
As a result of his opposition to the bill and disagreement with Antonio R. Barceló , Muñoz Marín was expelled from the Liberal Party . Muñoz Marín 's expulsion severely affected his public image .
He created a group named Acción Social Independentista ( ASI ) ( " Pro @-@ Independence Social Action " ) which later became the Partido Liberal Neto , Auténtico y Completo . This organization served as opposition to the Liberal Party , which was led by Barceló .
In 1938 , Muñoz Marín helped create the Popular Democratic Party of Puerto Rico ( Partido Popular Democratico , or PPD ) . The party committed to helping the jíbaros , regardless of their political beliefs , by promoting a minimum wage , initiatives to provide food and water , cooperatives to work with agriculture , and the creation of more industrial alternatives . Muñoz Marín concentrated his political campaigning in the rural areas of Puerto Rico . He attacked the then common practice of paying off rural farm workers to influence their vote , insisting that they " lend " their vote for only one election . The party 's first rally attracted solid participation , which surprised the other parties .
= = = President of the Senate = = =
In 1940 , the Popular Democratic Party won a majority in the Senate of Puerto Rico , which was attributed to his campaigning in the rural areas . Muñoz Marín was elected as the fourth President of the Senate .
During his term as President of the Senate , Muñoz was an advocate of the working class of Puerto Rico . Along with Governor Rexford Tugwell , the last non @-@ Puerto Rican US @-@ appointed Governor , and the republican @-@ socialist coalition which headed the House of Representatives , Muñoz helped advance legislation for agricultural reform , economic recovery , and industrialization . This program became known as Operation Bootstrap . It was coupled with a program of agrarian reform ( land redistribution ) which limited the area to be held by large sugarcane interests . During the first four decades of the 20th century , Puerto Rico 's dominant economic commodity had been sugarcane by @-@ products .
Operation Bootstrap encouraged investors to transfer or create manufacturing plants , offering them local and federal tax concessions , while maintaining access to American markets free of import duties . The program facilitated a shift to an industrial economy . During the 1950s , labor @-@ intensive light industries were developed on the island , such as textiles ; manufacturing later gave way to heavy industry , such as petrochemicals and oil refining , in the 1960s and 1970s . Taught in Spanish , jíbaros were trained to work in jobs being promoted by the government . Muñoz Marín backed legislation to limit the amount of land a company could own . His development programs brought some prosperity for an emergent middle class . A rural agricultural society was transformed into an industrial working class . Muñoz Marín also launched Operación Serenidad ( " Operation Serenity " ) , a series of projects geared toward promoting education and appreciation of the arts .
Civil rights groups and the Catholic Church criticized Operation Bootstrap , for what they saw as government @-@ promoted birth control , encouragement of surgical sterilization , and fostering the migration of Puerto Ricans to the United States mainland .
= = = Passage of Law 53 ( the Gag Law ) = = =
In 1948 , the Puerto Rican Senate passed Law 53 , also known as the Gag Law , which would restrain the rights of the independence and Nationalist movements in the island . Marin was instrumental in the passage of this law as he was the in control of the Senate at the time . The passage of the law allowed him to arrest any suspected nationalist without cause and or due process and so allowed him to squash any potential question to his authority .
The Ley de la Mordaza ( a gag law ) passed the legislature on May 21 , 1948 and was signed into law on June 10 , 1948 , by the U.S.-appointed governor of Puerto Rico , Jesús T. Piñero . It closely resembled the anti @-@ communist Smith Act passed in the United States , and was perceived as an effort to suppress opposition to the PPD and the independence movement .
Under this law it became a crime to own or display a Puerto Rican flag anywhere , even in one 's own home . It also became a crime to speak against the U.S. government ; to speak in favor of Puerto Rican independence ; to print , publish , sell or exhibit any material intended to paralyze or destroy the insular government ; or to organize any society , group or assembly of people with a similar destructive intent . Anyone accused and found guilty of disobeying the law could be sentenced to ten years ' imprisonment , a fine of $ 10 @,@ 000 dollars ( US ) , or both .
According to Dr. Leopoldo Figueroa , a member of the Partido Estadista Puertorriqueño ( Puerto Rican Statehood Party ) and the only non @-@ member of PPD in the Puerto Rican House , the law was repressive and in direct violation of the First Amendment of the U.S. Constitution , which guarantees freedom of speech . Figueroa pointed out that every Puerto Rican was born with full citizenship , and full U.S. constitutional protections .
Muñoz Marín used Law 53 to arrest thousands of Puerto Ricans without due process - including members of other political parties , and people who did not vote for him .
= = = World War II = = =
During the early stages of World War II , many thousands of Puerto Ricans were drafted to serve in the United States Army . This eased problems of overpopulation in the main island . Muñoz Marín promoted the construction of public housing projects to resolve a housing shortage . During the war he established low @-@ interest scholarships and loans for the residents who were not drafted . To address health issues , he established free public clinics , which opened throughout Puerto Rico .
In 1944 the Popular Republican Party won a majority again in the election , repeating the political victory of the previous elections . In 1947 , Congress approved legislation allowing Puerto Ricans to elect their own Governor . Muñoz Marín successfully campaigned for the post and was the first democratically elected Governor of Puerto Rico and the second Puerto Rican to serve in that post .
= = = Governor = = =
Muñoz Marín officially took office on January 2 , 1949 . He held the post of Governor for sixteen years , being re @-@ elected again in 1952 , 1956 and 1960 . In 1957 , Muñoz Marín was awarded an honorary Doctor of Laws degree ( LL.D. ) from Bates College .
Having made progress on illiteracy and other social problems , the party began debating how to establish an autonomous government . Muñoz Marín and his officials agreed to adopt an " Free Associated State " structure , which had been proposed by Barceló decades before . In Spanish the proposal 's name remained unchanged , but in English , it was commonly referred to as a " Commonwealth " , to avoid confusion with full statehood . The main goal of the proposal was to provide more autonomy to the island , including executive functions similar to those in states , and to pass a constitution .
During his terms as governor , a Constitutional Convention of Puerto Rico , was called . Muñoz Marín participated in that and the drafting of the Constitution of Puerto Rico . It was passed by 82 % of the people of Puerto Rico , and approved by the United States Congress in 1952 . Supporters of independence left the PPD and founded the Puerto Rican Independence Party soon after .
The Nationalist Party of Puerto Rico , led by Albizu Campos , also supported full independence and had abandoned the electoral process after low support . On October 30 , 1950 , a group of Puerto Rican nationalists attacked the governor 's mansion , La Fortaleza , as part of widespread armed revolts that day , which included the Jayuya and the Utuado Uprisings . Muñoz Marín mobilized the Puerto Rican National Guard under the command of Puerto Rico Adjutant General Luis R. Esteves and sent them to confront the Nationalists in various towns , besides San Juan , such as Jayuya and Utuado . He ordered the police to arrest many of the Nationalists , including Albizu Campos . Subsequently , the Muñoz Marín administration used law 53 , known as Ley de Mordaza ( lit . " the gag law " ) to arrest thousands of Puerto Ricans without due process , including pro @-@ independence supporters who were not involved in the uprisings .
The inauguration acts for the establishment of the Estado Libre Associado took place on July 25 , 1952 . Security for the event was tightened to avoid any incident , and invitations were issued . Muñoz Marín feared that the new status could affect the Puerto Rican culture or " Americanize " the island 's language . The government began promoting cultural activities , founding the Pablo Casals Festival , Music Conservatory , and Puerto Rico 's Institute of Culture .
During the decade of the 1950s , most jíbaros pursued work in factories instead of agriculture , to avoid the losses from frequent hurricanes . Many people migrated to New York City during this period for its good industrial jobs . Muñoz Marín said that he " did not agree with " the " continuing situation " , and that the " battle for good life , should not have all its emphasis placed on industrialization . Part of it must be placed on agriculture . " American critics felt that he encouraged the migration to reduce overpopulation . Despite efforts to provide more work in agriculture on the islands , the migration continued .
On December 6 , 1962 , Muñoz Marín was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by US President John F. Kennedy . By 1964 , Muñoz Marín had been governor for sixteen years . A group of younger members of the Popular Democratic Party felt that he should retire . They suggested that he resign , and presented a proposal for term limits — two terms for elected officials . The group named themselves Los veinte y dos ( " The twenty @-@ twos " ) and began running a campaign , calling on civilians for support .
Victoria , Muñoz Marín 's youngest daughter joined the group , which he didn 't oppose . The day before the party had an assembly to elect its candidates , Muñoz Marín announced his decision not to run for another term . He recommended Roberto Sánchez Vilella , his Secretary of State , for the party 's candidacy. when the crowd called for " four more years " , Muñoz Marín said , " I am not your strength ... You are your own strength . " Sánchez Vilella was elected as governor .
= = Later years = =
After leaving the post of governor , Muñoz Marín continued his public service until 1970 as a member of the Puerto Rico Senate . In 1968 , he had a serious dispute with Governor Sánchez Vilella . Still an influential figure inside the Popular Democratic Party , Muñoz Marín decided not to support Sánchez 's re @-@ election bid .
Governor Sánchez purchased the franchise of The People 's Party ( Partido del Pueblo ) and decided to run for governor under this new party .
The PPD was defeated for the first time , and Luis A. Ferré was elected as governor . Muñoz Marín and Sánchez Vilella 's friendship was severely strained after this .
= = = Retirement = = =
After resigning his senate seat in 1970 , Muñoz Marín temporally moved to Italy , where one of his daughters , Viviana , had established residence . During this time he traveled to various destinations in Europe , including France , Spain and Greece .
He returned to Puerto Rico two years later , when he began writing an autobiography . He promoted the gubernatorial candidacy of the senate 's president Rafael Hernández Colón , the new leader of the Popular Democratic Party .
Late in his life , Muñoz Marín 's health weakened . On January 5 , 1976 , he suffered a severe stroke , which temporarily affected his ability to move , read and speak . On April 30 , 1980 , he died at the age of 82 , after suffering complications from a severe fever . His funeral became an island @-@ wide event , dwarfing his own father 's funeral in 1916 , and attended by tens of thousands of followers .
= = Legacy and honors = =
On November 13 , 1961 , John F. Kennedy honored Luis Muñoz Marín for his accomplishments with a state dinner at the White House , and in 1963 he was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom , with Special Distinction . The citation read : " Poet , politician , public servant , patriot , he has led his people to new heights of dignity and purpose and transformed a stricken land into a vital society . " He also received the highest decorations from various other governments , including France which awarded him the prestigious Grand Cross of the French Legion , Panama which conferred on him the Order of the Vasco Núnez de Balboa , and Peru which honored him with the Grand Cross of the Order of the Sun .
He received Honorary Doctor of Laws degrees from Rutgers University , Bates College , the University of Kansas , Columbia University , and Harvard University , where he gave several lectures concerning Puerto Rico 's progress and International Relations ; he was also a Commencement Day Speaker for the University in 1955 .
Muñoz Marín 's tenure as governor contributed to immense changes in Puerto Rico , no political leader has had a greater impact on the island . Under Luis Muñoz Marín 's leadership , Puerto Rico drafted its own constitution and gained autonomy .
Muñoz Marín was featured twice on the cover of TIME magazine , in 1949 and 1958 . The articles called him " one of the most influential politicians in recent times , whose works will be remembered for years to come . "
In Rexford Tugwell 's book " The Art of Politics , as Practiced by Three Great Americans : Franklin Delano Roosevelt , Luis Muñoz Marín , and Fiorello H. LaGuardia " , Tugwell described Munoz 's achievement , " Munoz led a movement and created a party , which consolidated the latent power of the stricken Puerto Rican mass and used it to force into being a disciplined program for rejuvenation . This effort has significance beyond itself . It soon became a wonder of a world looking for the means to lift backward peoples from the stew of poverty and demagoguism , which has become so characteristic of all the old colonial area . He was the creator , as much as one man could be , of a new status for a whole people and a new relationship among political entities . The Commonwealth of Puerto Rico was a brilliant invention and its bringing into being a remarkable achievement . "
American author , political professor and expert on Latin American affairs Henry Wells wrote " The Modernization of Puerto Rico : A Political Study of Changing Values and Institutions " which was published in 1969 .
He was presented with the Key to the City of Managua , Nicaragua , by Nicaraguan President Luis Somoza Debayle
Puerto Rico 's largest international airport : The Luis Muñoz Marín International Airport , is named in his honor .
In 1990 , the U.S. Postal Service issued a stamp honoring him in their Great Americans Series .
= = Quotations = =
" What is the vote ? The vote is the only weapon that you have to defend yourself from exploitation . The vote is the only weapon you have to make a government that is yours and of men like yourself that need bread , land , justice and freedom . It is the only weapon that you have to make a government that is not of the big corporations that take millions from the misery of your family and the hunger of your children . If you are being watched by a bandit that wants to take your house and plow . And if you were given a weapon to defend yourself . Would you sell that weapon to the bandit for a few coins ? Or would you use it to stop the bandit from taking your house and plow ? If you are a man you will use that weapon to defend your home and your plow . "
" The gallant contribution that the soldiers of the 65th and 296th Infantry regiments have made alongside their fellow citizens of the United States , defending our common ideals against those who try to subvert the freedom of the human race , make the transfer of their regimental colors an occasion of profound meaning to all of us . "
" We are at the beginning of a new decade . We should , of course , continue and accelerate the integral development of Puerto Rico in all its aspects . There is something , however , that merits our principal attention , our most devoted dedication , in these new times . We dedicated the decade that began in the year 1940 to the battle to abolish poverty . And to do so , we put aside the political status issue . In the beginning of the 1950s we put special energy in the creation of a new political status , vitally adapted to the economic necessities of Puerto Rico . In the decade we now begin I propose that we put special attention to the kind of civilization , the type of culture , how deep and good the quality of life the people of Puerto Rico want to create on the basis of the growing economic prosperity . Economic development is not an end in itself , but the basis for a good civilization . Political status is not an end in itself , but a means to economic realization and the development of a good civilization . "
" The situation affecting the people of this small island is grave , but our people are greater than the problems we are encountering . The pain of this nation is great , its valor is greater . Its qualities of spirit are magnificent , if we can only begin to learn to use those magnificent qualities of spirit . "
" I would call the Democratic Left in Latin America the group which secures social advances for all the people , in a framework of freedom and consent . "
" The dignity of man and the humility of man ; the equality in the dignity and the humility of man- this is democracy . Some know more and others know less , but we all die the same , and our knowledge of death is the same . Some do more and others do less , but we all do what we can , and in that we are all similar . Democracy , in its profoundest sense , in its truest sense , in its most irrefutable sense , in its most vivid sense , is the quality of the human spirit in the face of human life . "
" Let us urgently devise the basic objectives in housing , in health , in education , in economic productivity , in communications , which may be attainable by different areas of the hemisphere , according to their human and material resources . Let us solemnly declare that our essential goal -the goal of all Americans , North and South- is the abolition of extreme poverty , in the areas of misery remaining in regions of the U.S and in the altiplano of Bolivia , the plains of Venezuela , the coffee lands of Puerto Rico and Central America , the sierras of Mexico – to wipe out extreme poverty in this hemisphere within the lifetime of children already born . Let us encourage government and private initiative to share in a good partnership with a view to better distributive justice for all ; and let 's not be doctrinaire about it . Let us not be doctrinaire either as to socialism or capitalism , but only as to freedom and human dignity . Let us give friendly support to all groups thinking in terms of a greater , truly hemispheric America , not merely Latin , not merely Anglo @-@ Saxon , and not merely temporary while a Russian danger lasts . An America to serve the world . "
" Two variations of a way of life , two manners of a common cultural heritage come into contact in Puerto Rico and have the opportunity of influencing each other for better or for worse . It is the job of all of us to make it be for better , to see that this interaction of cultural forces , while minimizing clashes and frictions , do constantly enrich the social and economic well @-@ being , the standard of values , the mores and aspirations of the peoples of this Hemisphere . "
" Diversity within unity . It is to that image of creative diversity within the equally creative great whole ... to that realization , that flowering and enrichment , that Puerto Rico wants to contribute in its association with the United States .
= = Ancestors of Luis Muñoz Marín = =
= = Political succession = =
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= Haseeb Ahsan =
Haseeb Ahsan ( Urdu : حسيب احسن ; 15 July 1939 – 8 March 2013 ) was a Pakistani cricketer who played 12 Tests for Pakistan between 1958 and 1962 . He was born in Peshawar , Khyber Pakhtunkhwa . A right @-@ arm off spinner , he took 27 wickets in Test cricket at an average of 49 @.@ 25 , including two five @-@ wicket hauls . During his first @-@ class career , he played 49 matches and took 142 wickets at an average of 27 @.@ 71 . Former Pakistan cricketer Waqar Hasan said about him that he " was a fighter to the core and served Pakistan cricket with honour and dignity . "
Ahsan had conflicts with former Pakistan captain Javed Burki . A controversy regarding his bowling action resulted in the premature end of his international career when he was only 23 . He worked as chief selector , team manager of Pakistan , and member of the 1987 Cricket World Cup organising committee . He died in Karachi on 8 March 2013 , aged 73 .
= = Cricketing career = =
Ahsan played 49 first @-@ class matches for Pakistan , Karachi , Pakistan International Airlines ( PIA ) , Rawalpindi Peshawar and other teams between 1955 and 1963 . During his first @-@ class career , he achieved five or more wickets in an innings on thirteen occasions , and ten or more wickets in a match two times .
Ahsan made his first @-@ class debut for North West Frontier Province and Bahawalpur , playing his only match of the season against the Marylebone Cricket Club in 1955 – 56 . He played three matches for Peshawar during 1956 – 57 with his best bowling figures came against Punjab B , taking eight for 76 . In the next season , he was more effective with the ball , taking 43 wickets in nine matches . In the same season , he achieved his best bowling figures in first @-@ class cricket , taking eight for 23 against Punjab B. During the season , Ahsan made his Test debut against the West Indies at the Kensington Oval , in the same match in which Hanif Mohammad scored 337 runs ; during the first match of the 1958 series between the teams , Ahsan conceded 84 runs in 21 overs without taking a wicket . He played three matches of the series and took five wickets .
Ahsan took only 14 wickets in the next two first class seasons ; his best bowling figures were five for 51 . He was a part of the Pakistan cricket team that toured India in 1960 – 61 , where he played nine matches , including five Tests , and took 24 wickets at an average of 28 @.@ 75 . During the 1960 – 61 season , Ahsan took 26 wickets , including six for 80 against the West Zone . In Test cricket , he was most successful against India , taking fifteen wickets at an average of 32 @.@ 66 . His best bowling figures were six wickets for 202 , against the same team at the Nehru Stadium . During the 1961 – 62 and 1962 seasons , Ahsan took 28 wickets in ten matches , including a five @-@ wicket haul against Worcestershire . In the next two domestic seasons , he played eight matches and took 12 wickets , including five for 43 runs , against Sargodha cricket team while playing for PIA during the Ayub Trophy . He played his last Test at the National Stadium , Karachi , where he took two wickets conceding 64 runs .
By the end of his career , Ahsan had taken 27 wickets in 12 Test matches at an average of nearly 50 , including two five @-@ wicket hauls . He made 61 runs , his highest score was 14 .
= = Administrative career = =
During the 1980s , Ahsan was the chief selector and manager of the Pakistan cricket team . It was he who first selected Wasim Akram for the series against New Zealand in 1984 – 85 . Akram described him as " a powerful selector , [ who ] spotted young talent and threw them into the bigger battles " . He was Technical Committee 's chairman for the 1987 Cricket World Cup and one of the members of the tournament organising committee . During the same tournament , he served as a team manager for Pakistan . In 2003 , former Pakistan Cricket Board 's ( PCB ) Tuqir Zia appointed him as President of the Sindh Cricket Association . He was also the Ireland 's honorary Counsel General and director of the Karachi 's American Express . PCB chairman Zaka Ashraf said of Ahsan that he was " not only a superb Test cricketer but also was a good administrator who intimately knew the game " . He was the member of the panel that heard the appeals opposed to doping bans that were imposed on Shoaib Akhtar and Mohammad Asif . His colleagues described him that he was a " perfect administrator " .
= = Personal life and controversies = =
Ahsan was born in Peshawar , North @-@ West Frontier Province ( now Khyber Pakhtunkhwa ) on 15 July 1939 , and was an Urdu @-@ speaker . He was educated at Islamia College , Peshawar . Ahsan was never married . Former Pakistan cricketer , Aftab Baloch , said Ahsan that he was a " fine gentleman " . He had conflicts with former Pakistan captain Javed Burki . A controversy regarding his bowling action arose during a Test match against India . This was sixth match in which he was " called for throwing . " He continued his bowling until the issue reappeared during Pakistan tour to England in 1962 ; the controversy ended his international career at the age of 23 .
= = Death = =
Ahsan suffered from renal failure for two years . He was on dialysis and was admitted at the Aga Khan Hospital , Karachi . President of Karachi City Cricket Association ( KCCA ) Sirajul Islam Bukhari stated about him that he " fought illness with courage . " He died in Karachi on 8 March 2013 at the age of 73 . Ahsan was buried at the PECHS graveyard . PCB chairman , chief operating officer Subhan Ahmad and Director General Javed Miandad condoled his death . Chief Minister of the Punjab Shahbaz Sharif " expressed deep sense of grief and sorrow " on his death .
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= Typhoon Bess ( 1982 ) =
Typhoon Bess struck Japan in early August 1982 , resulting in severe damage . The eleventh tropical storm , sixth typhoon , and first super typhoon of the 1982 Pacific typhoon season , the system first developed on July 21 . Two days later , it was upgraded into a tropical storm , and subsequently began to intensify while tracking northwest . Bess attained typhoon intensity on July 24 , before it briefly turned southwest . After turning north @-@ northwest , the typhoon entered a period of rapid intensification and late on July 28 reached peak winds of 230 km / h ( 145 mph ) . After turning north , Bess began to weaken as it encountered less favorable conditions . On August 1 , Bess was downgraded into a tropical storm . Shortly after that , the storm struck southeastern Japan , and on August 2 merged with a low pressure area atop of the Sea of Japan .
Typhoon Bess cut threw a 400 km ( 250 mi ) swath that included the most populated portion of Japan . Bess caused ¥ 591 @.@ 6 billion ( US $ 2 @.@ 32 billion ) in damage and 95 casualties . Furthermore , 119 others were hurt . Four people were killed due to landslides , while two other individuals were buried alive . A series of landslides stranded about 2 @,@ 000 people , including 1 @,@ 500 children . In all , 43 dwellings were destroyed and 17 @,@ 000 homes were flooded . A total of 59 roads were impassable , 42 bridges were destroyed and 785 landslides occurred . Fifteen railway lines were disrupted due to torrential rainfall . In addition , 2 @,@ 857 acres of farmland were flooded , 101 bridges were washed out and roads were damaged at more than 1 @,@ 000 locations . Two boats sunk . Roughly 25 @,@ 000 people were displaced . Following the storm , 2 @,@ 100 policeman and firefighters dug through debris to rescue people . Following the season , the name Bess was retired from the list of names .
= = Meteorological history = =
A large monsoon trough was anchored south of Guam towards the end of July . By July 21 , three areas of disturbed weather had formed . Although the westernmost disturbance dissipated , the easternmost two continued to develop , one of which would later become Typhoon Andy . A Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert ( TCFA ) was issued for the easternmost system at 1900 UTC on July 21 as sea level pressures fell and convection increased within the vicinity of the disturbance . After becoming better organized , the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) started monitoring the system . Later on July 22 , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) started monitoring the same system as it developed rainbands and a further increase in thunderstorm activity . Initially , the JTWC correctly predicted the low to move northwest . Hurricane Hunters indicated that the low and mid @-@ level centers were not vertically aligned . On July 23 , both the JMA and JTWC upped the depression into a tropical storm . Bess then began to intensify . At 0600 UTC on July 24 , Bess was upgraded to a severe tropical storm by the JMA . After the formation of an eye , both agencies classified Bess as a typhoon .
By July 24 , Typhoon Bess began to move north @-@ northwest and slow down due to the westward building of the subtropical ridge to the north . The JTWC expected Bess to turn west ; however , Bess instead turned southwest on July 25 due to interactions with a trough . By this time , the JMA estimated winds of 130 km / h ( 80 mph ) . Shortly thereafter , the JTWC increased the intensity of the typhoon to 175 km / h ( 110 mph ) , equivalent to a Category 2 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale ( SSHWS ) . After performing a small loop , the storm maintained its intensity until July 27 , when the JMA raised the wind speed of Bess to 180 km / h ( 110 mph ) . The typhoon then turned north @-@ northwest while slowly intensifying . On July 28 , the system turned northwest along the southwestern edge of the ridge . That afternoon , the JMA estimated winds of 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) . Subsequently , Typhoon Bess entered an episode of rapid deepening . Only a few hours later , the JMA reported that Bess had attained its peak intensity of 230 km / h ( 145 mph ) , which it would maintain for 12 hours . At 0000 UTC on July 29 , according to the JMA , the typhoon attained a minimum barometric pressure of 900 mbar ( 27 inHg ) . Later that morning , the JTWC estimated that Bess attained its peak intensity of 260 km / h ( 160 mph ) , a Category 5 hurricane @-@ equivalent on the SSHWS , though JMA data suggests that Bess was weakening by this time . At this time , Typhoon Bess was located 460 km ( 285 mi ) to the southeast of Iwo Jima .
After slowing down further , Bess curved north along the southern periphery of a weakness in the subtropical ridge . Even though the JTWC expected Bess to recurve well east of Japan within 36 hours , this did not materialize . On July 30 , the JMA lowered the intensity of the typhoon to 190 km / h ( 120 mph ) . During the evening hours of July 31 , the JMA further the intensity of the storm to 170 km / h ( 105 mph ) . Bess continued to weaken while accelerating . The next day , August 1 , the JMA downgraded Bess into a severe tropical storm . Later that morning , the JMA downgraded Bess into a tropical storm . Around this time , the tropical storm made landfall along central Honshu . Shortly thereafter , the JTWC reported that Bess was no longer a typhoon . On August 2 , Bess merged with a low pressure area over the Sea of Japan . The JMA ceased monitoring the typhoon midday on August 3 .
= = Impact and aftermath = =
Typhoon Bess cut through a 400 km ( 250 mi ) swath across the most populated portions of Japan ; damage was reported in 30 of the 45 provinces . As a precaution , flood warnings were issued near Tokyo , which warned of possible landslides . An " alert " was issued for the Bonin Islands for vessels . By Mount Hidegadake , in Nara , a peak rainfall total of 1 @,@ 078 mm ( 42 @.@ 4 in ) , including 922 mm ( 36 @.@ 3 in ) in 24 hours . A peak hourly total of 103 mm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) was recorded in Toba in Mie . A maximum wind of 104 km / h ( 65 mph ) was recorded at Tsukubasan in Ibaraki .
Overall , Super Typhoon Bess was responsible for ¥ 591 @.@ 6 billion ( US $ 2 @.@ 32 billion ) in damage and 95 fatalities . According to police reports , 26 people were initially missing . A total of 119 were hurt . Four people were killed in Osaka due to landslides , while two people were buried alive in Yokohama via mudslides . At the foot of Mt . Fuji , a series of mudslides buried 36 vehicles , killed one person and injured five policemen . The landslides stranded approximately 2 @,@ 000 persons , including 1 @,@ 500 primary school children on a camping trip . In Mie , Bess was considered the worst storm to affect the city in 23 years , where 17 fatalities occurred and seven were initially listed missing . Elsewhere , in Nara , a couple was killed and a boy was hurt . Throughout western Japan , five people were rendered missing in heavy rains that caused at least five landslides and damaged 15 automobiles . Along Tokyo Bay , high waves from Typhoon Bess left windows 11 stories high coated with salt . Although Tokyo was on the eastern edge of the storm , large trees were uprooted nevertheless due to high winds . Five people were wounded in the city . Many cars and trucks were stranded due to mudslides ; air traffic was also paralyzed .
In all , 43 dwellings were destroyed and 17 @,@ 000 homes were flooded . Due to the storm , 59 roads were impassable . In addition , 42 bridges were destroyed and 785 landslides occurred . According to railroad authorities , 15 railroad lines were either totally or partially disrupted due to torrential rains , forcing the cancellation of 27 scheduled trains and delaying 211 others . Police reports suggest that 2 @,@ 857 acres ( 1 @,@ 155 ha ) of farmland were flooded , 101 bridges were washed out , and roads were damaged at 1 @,@ 094 places . Additionally , 25 ships ran aground or were washed away and two boats sunk . A total of 25 @,@ 000 individuals were left homeless , including 24 @,@ 702 people which evacuated from their homes .
Following the storm , 2 @,@ 100 police and firemen dug furiously through mud and debris in search of the missing . The name Bess was previously retired in 1974 and replaced with Bonnie . However , when the list of typhoon names was changed to incorporate male names in 1979 , the name was re @-@ introduced to the roster . After this usage of the name Bess , it was retired for the second time and was replaced with Brenda . This marked the only occasion where a single name was removed twice in the same basin .
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= Manila Light Rail Transit System =
The Manila Light Rail Transit System , popularly and informally known as the LRT , is a metropolitan rail system serving the Metro Manila area in the Philippines . Although referred to as a light rail system because it originally used light rail vehicles , it has characteristics that make it more akin to a rapid transit ( metro ) system , such as high passenger throughput , exclusive right @-@ of @-@ way and later use of full metro rolling stock . The system is operated by the Light Rail Transit Authority ( LRTA ) , a government @-@ owned and controlled corporation under the authority of the Department of Transportation and Communications ( DOTC ) . Along with the Manila Metro Rail Transit System ( MRT @-@ 3 , also called the new Yellow Line ) , and Philippine National Railways 's commuter line , the system makes up Metro Manila 's rail infrastructure .
Quick and inexpensive to ride , the system serves 2 @.@ 1 million passengers each day . Its 33 @.@ 4 kilometers ( 20 @.@ 8 mi ) of mostly elevated route form two lines which serve 31 stations in total . LRT Line 1 ( LRT @-@ 1 ) , also called the Green Line ( formerly Yellow Line ) , opened in 1984 and travels a north – south route . LRT Line 2 ( LRT @-@ 2 ) , the Blue Line ( formerly Purple Line ) , was completed in 2004 and runs east – west . The original LRT @-@ 1 was built as a no @-@ frills means of public transport and lacks some features and comforts , but the new LRT @-@ 2 has been built with additional standards and criteria in mind like barrier @-@ free access . Security guards at each station conduct inspections and provide assistance . A reusable plastic magnetic ticketing system has replaced the previous token @-@ based system , and the Flash Pass introduced as a step towards a more integrated transportation system .
Many passengers who ride the system also take various forms of road @-@ based public transport , such as buses , to and from a station to reach their intended destination . Although it aims to reduce traffic congestion and travel times in the metropolis , the transportation system has only been partially successful due to the rising number of motor vehicles and rapid urbanization . The network 's expansion is set on tackling this problem .
= = Network = =
The network consists of two lines : the original LRT Line 1 ( LRT @-@ 1 ) or Green Line , and the more modern LRT Line 2 ( LRT @-@ 2 ) , or Blue Line . The LRT @-@ 1 is aligned in a general north – south direction along over 17 @.@ 2 kilometers ( 10 @.@ 7 mi ) of fully elevated track . From Monumento it runs south above the hustle and bustle of Rizal and Taft Avenues along grade @-@ separated concrete viaducts allowing exclusive right @-@ of @-@ way before ending in Baclaran . A four @-@ station east – west extension along Epifanio de los Santos Avenue that will connect Monumento to the North Avenue MRT Station is currently under construction . Including the extension 's two recently opened stations , Balintawak and Roosevelt , the LRT @-@ 1 has twenty stations . The LRT @-@ 2 or Line 2 consists of eleven stations in a general east – west direction over 13 @.@ 8 kilometers ( 8 @.@ 57 mi ) of mostly elevated track , with one station lying underground . Commencing in Recto , the line follows a corridor defined by Claro M. Recto and Legarda Avenues , Ramon Magsaysay and Aurora Boulevards , and the Marikina @-@ Infanta Highway before reaching the other end of the line at Santolan . The system passes through the cities of Caloocan , Manila , Marikina , Pasay , Pasig , Quezon City , and San Juan .
Every day around 430 @,@ 000 passengers board the LRT @-@ 1 , and 175 @,@ 000 ride the LRT @-@ 2 . During peak hours , the LRT @-@ 1 fields 24 trains ; the time interval between the departure of one and the arrival of another , called headway , is a minimum of 3 minutes . The LRT @-@ 2 runs 12 trains with a minimum headway of 5 minutes . With the proper upgrades , the Yellow Line is designed to potentially run with headway as low as 1 @.@ 5 minutes . The LRT @-@ 2 can run with headway as low as 2 minutes with throughput of up to 60 @,@ 000 passengers per hour per direction ( pphpd ) .
In conjunction with the MRT @-@ 3 — also known as the new Yellow Line , a similar but separate metro rail system operated by the private Metro Rail Transit Corporation ( MRTC ) — the system provides the platform for the vast majority of rail travel in the Metro Manila area . Together with the PNR , the three constitute the SRTS . Recto and Doroteo Jose serve as the sole interchange between both lines of the LRTA . Araneta Center @-@ Cubao and EDSA stations serve as interchanges between the LRTA and the MRTC networks . To transfer lines , passengers will need to exit from the station they are in then pass through covered walkways connecting the stations . Blumentritt LRT Station meanwhile is immediately above its PNR counterpart .
Baclaran , Central Terminal , and Monumento are the LRT @-@ 1 's three terminal stations ; Recto , Araneta Center @-@ Cubao , and Santolan are the terminal stations on the LRT @-@ 2 . All of them are located on or near major transport routes where passengers can take other forms of transportation such as privately run buses and jeepneys to reach their ultimate destination both within Metro Manila and in neighboring provinces . The system has two depots : the LRT @-@ 1 uses the Pasay Depot at LRTA headquarters in Pasay , near Baclaran station , while the LRT @-@ 2 uses the Santolan Depot built by Sumitomo in Pasig .
The LRT @-@ 1 and LRT @-@ 2 are open every day of the year from 5 : 00 am PST ( UTC + 8 ) until 10 : 00 pm on weekdays , and from 5 : 00 am until 9 : 30 pm on weekends , except when changes have been announced . Notice of special schedules is given through press releases , via the public address system in every station , and on the LRTA website .
= = History = =
The system 's roots date back to 1878 , when an official from Spain 's Department of Public Works for the Philippines submitted a proposal for a Manila streetcar system . The system proposed was a five @-@ line network emanating from Plaza San Gabriel in Binondo , running to Intramuros , Malate , Malacañan Palace , Sampaloc and Tondo . The project was approved and in 1882 , Spanish businessman Jacobo Zobel de Zangroniz , Spanish engineer Luciano M. Bremon , and Spanish banker Adolfo Bayo , founded the Compañia de los Tranvias de Filipinas to operate the concession granted by the Spanish colonial government . The Malacañan Palace line was later replaced with a line linking Manila to Malabon , and construction began in 1885 . Four German @-@ made steam @-@ operated locomotives and eight coaches for nine passengers each , composed the initial assets of the company . The Manila @-@ Malabon line was the first line of the new system to be finished , opening to the public on October 20 , 1888 , with the rest of the network opening in 1889 . From the beginning it proved to be a very popular line , with services originating from Tondo as early as 5 : 30 a.m. and ending at 7 : 30 p.m. , while trips from Malabon were from 6 : 00 a.m. until 8 : 00 p.m. , every hour on the hour in the mornings , and every half @-@ hour beginning at 1 : 30 p.m. in the afternoon .
With the American takeover of the Philippines , the Philippine Commission allowed the Manila Electric Railroad and Light Company ( Meralco ) to take over the properties of the Compañia de los Tranvias de Filipinas , with the first of twelve mandated electric tranvia ( tram ) lines operated by Meralco opening in Manila in 1905 . At the end of the first year around 63 kilometers ( 39 mi ) of track had been laid . A five @-@ year reconstruction program was initiated in 1920 , and by 1924 , 170 cars serviced many parts of the city and its outskirts . Although it was an efficient system for the city 's 220 @,@ 000 inhabitants , by the 1930s the streetcar network had stopped expanding .
The system was closed during World War II . By the war 's end , the tram network was damaged beyond repair amid a city that lay in ruins . It was dismantled and jeepneys became the city 's primary form of transportation , plying the routes once served by the tram lines . With the return of buses and cars to the streets , traffic congestion became a problem . In 1966 , the Philippine government granted a franchise to Philippine Monorail Transport Systems ( PMTS ) for the operation of an inner @-@ city monorail . The monorail 's feasibility was still being evaluated when the government asked the Japan International Cooperation Agency ( JICA ) to conduct a separate transport study . Prepared between 1971 and 1973 , the JICA study proposed a series of circumferential and radial roads , an inner @-@ city rapid transit system , a commuter railway , and an expressway with three branches . After further examination , many recommendations were adopted ; however , none of them involved rapid transit and the monorail was never built . PMTS ' franchise subsequently expired in 1974 .
Another study was performed between 1976 and 1977 , this time by Freeman Fox and Associates and funded by the World Bank . It originally suggested a street @-@ level railway , but its recommendations were revised by the newly formed Ministry of Transportation and Communications ( now the DOTC ) . The ministry instead called for an elevated system because of the city 's many intersections . However , the revisions increased the price of the project from ₱ 1 @.@ 5 billion to ₱ 2 billion . A supplementary study was conducted and completed within three months .
President Ferdinand Marcos created the Light Rail Transit Authority ( LRTA ) on July 12 , 1980 , by virtue of Executive Order No. 603 giving birth to what was then dubbed the " Metrorail " . First Lady Imelda Marcos , then governor of Metro Manila and minister of human settlements , became its first chairman . Although responsible for the operations of the LRT @-@ 1 and LRT @-@ 2 , the LRTA primarily confined itself to setting and regulating fares , planning extensions and determining rules and policies , leaving the day @-@ to @-@ day operations to a sister company of Meralco called the Meralco Transit Organization ( METRO Inc . ) . Initial assistance for the project came in the form of a ₱ 300 million soft loan from the Belgian government , with an additional ₱ 700 million coming from a consortium of companies comprising SA Ateliers de Constructions Electriques de Charleroi ( ACEC ) and BN Constructions Ferroviaires et Métalliques ( today both part of Bombardier Transportation ) , Tractionnel Engineering International ( TEI ) and Transurb Consult ( TC ) . Although expected to pay for itself from revenues within twenty years of the start of operation , it was initially estimated that the system would lose money until at least 1993 . For the first year of operation , despite a projected ₱ 365 million in gross revenue , losses of ₱ 216 million were thought likely .
Construction of the LRT Line 1 started in September 1981 with the Construction and Development Corporation of the Philippines ( now the Philippine National Construction Corporation ) as the contractor with assistance from Losinger , a Swiss firm , and the Philippine subsidiary of Dravo , an American firm . The government appointed Electrowatt Engineering Services of Zürich to oversee construction and eventually became responsible for the extension studies of future expansion projects . The line was test @-@ run in March 1984 , and the first half of LRT @-@ 1 , from Baclaran to Central Terminal , was opened on December 1 , 1984 . The second half , from Central Terminal to Monumento , was opened on May 12 , 1985 . Overcrowding and poor maintenance took its toll a few years after opening . In 1990 , the LRT @-@ 1 fell so far into disrepair due to premature wear and tear that trains headed to Central Terminal station had to slow to a crawl to avoid further damage to the support beams below as cracks reportedly began to appear . The premature ageing of LRT @-@ 1 led to an extensive refurbishing and structural capacity expansion program with a help of Japan 's ODA .
For the next few years LRT @-@ 1 operations ran smoothly . In 2000 , however , employees of METRO Inc. went on strike , paralyzing LRT @-@ 1 operations from July 25 to August 2 , 2000 . Consequently , the LRTA did not renew its operating contract with METRO Inc. that expired on July 31 , 2000 , and assumed all operational responsibility . At around 12 : 15 pm on December 30 , 2000 , a bomb — later learned to have been planted by Islamic terrorists — went off in the front coach of a LRT @-@ 1 train pulling into Blumentritt station , killing 11 and injuring over 60 people in the most devastating of a series of attacks that day , now known as the Rizal Day bombings .
With Japan 's ODA amounting to 75 billion yen in total , the construction of the LRT Line 2 began in the 1990s , and the first section of the line , from Santolan to Araneta Center @-@ Cubao , was opened on April 5 , 2003 . The second section , from Araneta Center @-@ Cubao to Legarda , was opened exactly a year later , with the entire line being fully operational by October 29 , 2004 . During that time the LRT @-@ 1 was modernized . Automated fare collection systems using magnetic stripe plastic tickets were installed ; air @-@ conditioned trains added ; pedestrian walkways between Lines 1 , 2 , and MRT @-@ 3 Lines completed . In 2005 , the LRTA made a profit of ₱ 68 million , the first time the agency made a profit since the LRT @-@ 1 became operational in 1984 .
On September 12 , 2015 , Light Rail Manila Corporation ( LRMC ) , a joint venture company of Metro Pacific 's Metro Pacific Light Rail Corporation ( MPLRC ) , Ayala Corporation ’ s AC Infrastructure Holdings Corporation ( AC Infra ) , and the Philippine Investment Alliance for Infrastructure ’ s Macquarie Infrastructure Holdings ( Philippines ) PTE Ltd . ( MIHPL ) , started a 32 @-@ year concession for the operation and maintenance of LRT Line 1 and the construction of a ₱ 65 billion extension project to Bacoor , Cavite .
= = Stations = =
With the exception of Katipunan ( which is underground ) , the LRTA 's 31 stations are elevated . They follow one of two different layouts . Most LRT @-@ 1 stations are composed of only one level , accessible from the street below by stairway , containing the station 's concourse and platform areas separated by fare gates . The boarding platforms measure 100 meters ( 328 ft 1 in ) long and 3 @.@ 5 meters ( 11 ft 6 in ) wide . Baclaran , Central Terminal , Carriedo , Balintawak , Roosevelt and North Avenue stations on the LRT @-@ 1 , and all LRT @-@ 2 stations are composed of two levels : a lower concourse level and an upper platform level ( reversed in the case of Katipunan ) . Fare gates separate the concourse level from the stairs and escalators that provide access to the platform level . All stations have side platforms except for Baclaran , which has one side and one island platform , and Santolan , which has an island platform .
The concourse area at LRTA stations typically contain a passenger assistance office ( PAO ) , ticket purchasing areas ( ticket counters and / or ticket machines ) , and at least one stall that sells food and drinks . Terminal stations also have a public relations office . Stores and ATMs are usually found at street level outside the station , although there are instances where they can be found within the concourse . Some stations , such as Monumento , Libertad and Araneta Center @-@ Cubao , are directly connected to shopping malls . LRT @-@ 2 stations have two restrooms , but LRT @-@ 1 restrooms have been the subject of criticism not only because of the provisioning of a single washroom at each station expected to serve all passengers ( whether male , female , disabled or otherwise ) , but also because of the impression that the lavatories are poorly maintained and unsanitary .
Originally , the LRT Line 1 was not built with accessibility in mind . This is reflected in the LRT @-@ 1 's lack of barrier @-@ free facilities such as escalators and elevators . It is also inconvenient in other ways : for one , because of the use of side platforms , passengers wishing to access the other platform for the train bound in the opposite direction at single @-@ level LRT @-@ 1 stations need to exit the station ( and by extension , the system ) and pay a new fare . The newer LRT Line 2 , unlike its counterpart , is designed to be barrier @-@ free and allows seamless transfer between platforms . Built by a joint venture between Hanjin and Itochu , LRT @-@ 2 stations have wheelchair ramps , braille markings , and pathfinding embossed flooring leading to and from the boarding platforms in addition to escalators and elevators .
In cooperation with the Philippine Daily Inquirer , copies of the Inquirer Libre — a free , tabloid @-@ size , Tagalog version of the Inquirer broadsheet — are available at selected LRTA stations from 6 : 00 am until the supply runs out .
= = Rolling stock = =
Four types of rolling stock run on the system , with three types used on the LRT Line 1 and another used on the LRT Line 2 . The LRT Line 1 railway cars were made either in Belgium by La Bruggeoise et Nivelle , South Korea by Hyundai Precision and Adtranz ( La bruggeoise et Nivelle and Adtranz are now part of Bombardier Transportation ) , or Japan by Kinki Sharyo and Nippon Sharyo . The LRT Line 2 , unlike the LRT Line 1 , runs heavy rail metro cars made in South Korea by Hyundai Rotem and provided by the Asia @-@ Europe MRT Consortium led by Marubeni Corporation that have higher passenger capacity and maximum speed . All four types of rolling stock are powered by electricity supplied through overhead wires .
Of the two LRTA lines , the LRT Line 2 prominently employs wrap advertising in its rolling stock . The LRT Line 1 have begun using wrap advertising as well initially for their second @-@ generation trains , followed by their third @-@ generation trains .
= = = LRT Line 1 = = =
The LRT Line 1 at various stages in its history has used a two @-@ car , three @-@ car , and four @-@ car train . The two @-@ car trains are the original first @-@ generation BN trains ( railway cars numbered from 1000 ) . Most were transformed into three @-@ car trains , although some two @-@ car trains remain in service . The four @-@ car trains are the more modern second @-@ generation Hyundai Precision and Adtranz ( numbered from 1100 ) and third @-@ generation Kinki Sharyo / Nippon Sharyo ( 1200 ) trains . There are 139 railway cars grouped into 40 trains serving the line : 63 of these are first @-@ generation cars , 28 second @-@ generation , and 48 third @-@ generation . One train car ( 1037 ) was severely damaged in the Rizal Day bombings and was subsequently decommissioned . The maximum speed of these cars is 80 kilometers per hour ( 50 mph ) .
As part of the second phase of expansion on the Yellow Line , 12 new trains made in Japan by Kinki Sharyo and provided by the Manila Tren Consortium were shipped in the third quarter of 2006 and went into service in the first quarter of 2007 . The new air @-@ conditioned trains have boosted the capacity of the line from 27 @,@ 000 to 40 @,@ 000 passengers per hour per direction .
= = = LRT Line 2 = = =
The LRT Line 2 fleet runs eighteen heavy rail four @-@ car trains with lightweight stainless car bodies and 1 @,@ 500 volt electric motors . They have a top speed of 80 kilometers per hour ( 50 mph ) and usually take around thirty minutes to journey from one end of the line to the other . Each train measures 3 @.@ 2 meters ( 10 ft 6 in ) wide and 92 @.@ 6 meters ( 303 ft 10 in ) long allowing a capacity of 1 @,@ 628 passengers : 232 seated and 1 @,@ 396 standing . Twenty sliding doors per side facilitate quick entry and exit . The line 's trains also feature air conditioning , driverless automatic train operation from the Operations Control Center ( OCC ) in Santolan , low @-@ noise control , enabled electric and regenerative braking , and closed @-@ circuit television inside the trains . Special open spaces and seats are designated for wheelchair users and elderly passengers , and automatic next station announcements are made for the convenience of passengers , especially for the blind .
= = Safety and security = =
The system has always presented itself as a safe system to travel on , and despite some incidents a World Bank paper prepared by Halcrow deemed the running of metro rail transit operations overall as " good " . Safety notices in both English and Tagalog are a common sight at the stations and inside the trains . Security guards with megaphones can be seen at boarding areas asking crowds to move back from the warning tiles at the edge of platforms to avoid falling onto the tracks . In the event of emergencies or unexpected events aboard the train , alerts are used to inform passengers about the current state of the operations . The LRTA uses three alerts : Codes Blue , Yellow , and Red .
Smoking , previously banned only at station platforms and inside trains , has been banned at station concourse areas since June 24 , 2008 . Hazardous chemicals , such as paint and gasoline , as well as sharp pointed objects that could be used as weapons , are forbidden . Full @-@ sized bicycles and skateboards are also not allowed on board the train , although the ban on folding bicycles was lifted on November 8 , 2009 . Those under the influence of alcohol may be denied entry into the stations .
In response to the Rizal Day bombings , a series of attacks on December 30 , 2000 that included the bombing of a LRT @-@ 1 train among other targets , and in the wake of greater awareness of terrorism following the September 11 attacks , security has been stepped up on board the system . The Philippine National Police has a special police force assigned at LRT @-@ 1 and LRT @-@ 2 and security police provided by private companies are assigned to all stations with each having a designated head guard . Closed @-@ circuit televisions have been installed to monitor stations and keep track of suspicious activities . To better prepare for and improve response to any adverse incidents , drills simulating terror attacks and earthquakes have been conducted . It is standard practice for bags to be inspected upon entry into stations by guards equipped with hand @-@ held metal detectors . Those who refuse to submit to such inspection may be denied entry . Since May 1 , 2007 , the LRTA has enforced a policy against making false bomb threats , a policy already enforced at airports nationwide . Those who make such threats can face penalties in violation of Presidential Decree No. 1727 , as well as face legal action . Posted notices on station walls and inside trains remind passengers to be careful and be wary of criminals who may take advantage of the crowding aboard the trains . To address concerns of inappropriate contact on crowded trains , the first coach of Yellow Line trains have been designated for females only .
= = Fares = =
The Manila Light Rail Transit System is one of the least expensive rapid transit systems in Southeast Asia , costing significantly less to ride than other systems in the region . Fares are distance @-@ based , ranging from 15 to 30 Philippine pesos ( ₱ ) , or about 29 to 47 U.S. cents ( at US $ 1 = ₱ 42 as of September 2011 ) , depending on the number of stations traveled to reach the destination . Unlike other transportation systems , in which transfer to another line occurs within a station 's paid area , passengers have to exit and then pay a new fare for the line they are entering . This is also the case on the Yellow Line when changing boarding platforms to catch trains going in the opposite direction .
The Line 1 uses two different fare structures : one for single journey tickets and another for stored value tickets . Passengers using single journey tickets are charged ₱ 12 , ₱ 15 , or ₱ 20 depending on the number of stations traveled or whether the newly opened Balintawak or Roosevelt station is part of their trip . Stored value tickets are charged on a more finely graduated basis with fares ranging from ₱ 12 to ₱ 19 . The Line 2 , on the other hand , has only one fare structure . Passengers are charged ₱ 12 for the first three stations , ₱ 13 for a journey of four to six stations , ₱ 14 for seven to nine stations and ₱ 15 for a trip along the entire line .
= = = Ticketing = = =
Before 2001 , passengers on the LRT Line 1 would purchase a token to enter the station . Subsequent upgrades in the fare collection system eventually transitioned the Yellow Line from a token @-@ based system to a ticket @-@ based system , with full conversion to a ticket @-@ based system achieved on September 9 , 2001 . Starting September 2015 , the old magnetic tickets were decommissioned and replaced by contactless @-@ based smart card technology . Passengers can enter the system paid areas with either a single journey or stored value Beep Card . The Beep Card can be used on all LRT and MRT lines . Tickets can be sold from ticket booths manned by station agents or on ticket machine / s .
= = = = Beep card = = = =
Beep is a reloadable contactless smart card aimed to be a replacement for the magnetic card @-@ based system in paying rail based rapid transit transportation fares in and around Metro Manila . Beep is also aimed to be used in lieu of cash in some convenience stores and other businesses . The Beep system is implemented and operated by AF Payments Incorporated , which is primarily owned by Ayala Corporation and Metro Pacific Investments Corporation .
= = = = Magnetic ticket = = = =
Previously , the system uses two types of tickets : a single journey ( one @-@ way ) ticket whose cost is dependent on the destination , and a stored value ( multiple @-@ use ) ticket available for ₱ 100 . Senior citizens and disabled passengers can receive fare discounts as mandated by law . Tickets would normally bear a picture of the incumbent president , though some ticket designs have done away with this practice .
Single journey tickets are only valid on the day of purchase and will be unusable afterward . They expire if not used to exit the same station after 30 minutes from entry or if not used to exit the system after 120 minutes from entry . If the ticket expires , the passenger will be required to buy a new one .
Stored value tickets are usable on either the LRT @-@ 1 or LRT @-@ 2 lines although a new fare will be charged when transferring from one line to the other . To reduce ticket queues , the LRTA is promoting the use of stored value tickets . Aside from benefitting from a lower fare structure on the LRT @-@ 1 , stored value ticket users can avail of a scheme called the Last Ride Bonus that grants the use of any residual amount in a stored value ticket less than the usual minimum ₱ 12 fare , or the appropriate fare for the station of arrival from the station of departure , as a full fare . Stored value tickets are not reloadable and are captured by the fare gate after the last use . They expire six months after the date of first use .
Tickets are used both to enter and exit the paid area of the system . A ticket inserted into a fare gate at the station of origin is processed and then ejected allowing a passenger through the turnstile . The ejected ticket is then retrieved while passing through so that it can be used at the exit turnstile at the destination station to leave the premises . Tickets are captured by the exit turnstiles to be reused by the system if they no longer have any value . If it is a stored value ticket with some value remaining , however , it is once again ejected by the fare gate to be taken by the passenger for future use .
= = = = Flash Pass = = = =
To better integrate the LRTA and MRTC networks , a unified ticketing system utilizing contactless smart cards , similar to the Octopus card in Hong Kong and the EZ @-@ Link card in Singapore , was made a goal of the SRTS . In a transitional move towards such a unified ticketing system , the Flash Pass was implemented on April 19 , 2004 , as a stopgap measure . However , plans for a unified ticketing system using smart cards have languished , leaving the Flash Pass to fill the role for the foreseeable future . Originally sold by both the LRTA and the Metro Rail Transit Corporation , the Blue Line operator , the pass was discontinued with the election of Benigno Aquino III as President of the Philippines in 2010 .
The pass consisted of two parts : the Flash Pass card and the Flash Pass coupon . A nontransferable Flash Pass card used for validation had to be acquired before a Flash Pass coupon can be purchased . To obtain a card , a passenger needed to visit a designated station and fill out an application form . Although the card is issued free of charge and contains no expiry date , it is expected to be issued only once . Should it be lost , an affidavit of loss had to be submitted before a replacement can be issued . The Flash Pass coupon , which served as a ticket , was linked to the passenger 's Flash Pass card through the card number printed on the coupon . Coupons were sold for ₱ 250 and were valid for unlimited rides on all three lines of the LRTA and MRTC for one week . The card and coupon were used by showing them to a security guard at an opening along the fare gates , who after checking their validity allowed the holder to pass through .
= = Future expansion = =
Plans for expanding the LRTA network have been formulated throughout its history , and successive administrations have touted trains as one of the keys to relieving Metro Manila of its long @-@ standing traffic problems . Expansion of the system was one of the main projects mentioned in a ten @-@ point agenda laid out by former President Gloria Macapagal @-@ Arroyo in 2005 .
= = = Extensions = = =
A southern extension of LRT @-@ 1 is planned . The envisioned line would have 10 stations over 11 @.@ 7 kilometers ( 7 @.@ 3 mi ) ending in Bacoor in the province of Cavite . It would be the first line extending outside the Metro Manila area . An unsolicited bid to build and operate this project from Canada 's SNC @-@ Lavalin was rejected by the Philippine government in 2005 . The government is working with advisers ( International Finance Corporation , White & Case , Halcrow , and others ) to conduct an open @-@ market invitation to tender for the construction of the extension and a 30 @-@ year concession to run it . An additional extension from Bacoor to Imus and from there a further extension to Dasmariñas , both in Cavite , are also being considered .
As of March 2012 , the government announced that the P60 billion LRT @-@ 1 south extension project has already been approved by the National Economic and Development Authority ( NEDA ) with the bidding expected to take place by the end of March or early April 2012 .
The LRTA is also currently conducting studies on the feasibility of a 6 @.@ 2 @-@ kilometer ( 3 @.@ 9 mi ) , four @-@ station LRT @-@ 1 spur from Baclaran towards Terminal 3 of the Ninoy Aquino International Airport , with a projected daily capacity of 40 @,@ 000 passengers . Funding for the project could be sourced from either official development assistance or a public @-@ private partnership .
There is also a proposal for a 4 @-@ kilometer ( 2 @.@ 5 mi ) eastern extension of the LRT Line 2 from Marikina , crossing into Cainta in Rizal and finally to Masinag Junction in Antipolo , also in Rizal . The line could later be extended as far west as Manila North Harbor and as far east as Cogeo in Antipolo . The construction of the eastern extension to Masinag was approved by the National Economic and Development Authority ( NEDA ) in September 2012 .
= = = New lines = = =
A second extension of the LRT @-@ 1 from Bacoor to Dasmariñas in Cavite has been proposed . It is planned to be a separate line to be known as LRT @-@ 6 which would run for an additional 19 kilometres ( 12 mi ) from the future LRT @-@ 1 terminus at Niog Station to Governor 's Drive in Dasmariñas along the Aguinaldo Highway . It would have 7 stations namely , Niog , Tirona , Imus , Daang Hari , Salitran , Congressional Avenue and Governor 's Drive .
LRT @-@ 4 , or the Ortigas – Taytay LRT Line , is a proposed 11 @-@ kilometre ( 6 @.@ 8 mi ) line , crossing through the eastern parts of Metro Manila to the southern parts of the province of Rizal . Six stations would be built along Ortigas Avenue and Taytay Diversion Road from the Ortigas MRT Station on EDSA to SM City Taytay in Taytay . This project was approved last June 2015 and will be implemented as a public @-@ private partnership project .
MRT @-@ 7 is a planned 13 @-@ station , 21 @-@ kilometer ( 13 mi ) line that starts in Quezon City and traverses Commonwealth Avenue , passing through Caloocan City and ending in the city of San Jose del Monte in Bulacan . This line finished the bidding stage and has been approved by the Department of Justice and the Department of Transportation and Communications . As of August 2010 the MRT @-@ 7 project is under review due to various concerns from several local governments where the rail project is proposed to run through , and may undergo major changes from the original . On May 2012 , the consortium of Marubeni @-@ DMCI won the contract to build MRT @-@ 7 for around $ 1 billion and would take an estimated 42 months to build starting early 2013 .
= = = Transfer of line operations = = =
DOTC Undersecretary for Public Information Dante Velasco has unveiled a study being conducted by the DOTC looking at the possibility of transferring operations of Line 3 ( MRT 3 ) from Metro Rail Transit Corporation ( MRTC ) to LRTA thus uniting Lines 1 , 2 , and 3 under one operator to improve maintenance costs and to form a more integrated transportation system . According to DOTC Undersecretary For Rails Glicerio Sicat , the transfer is set by the government in June 2011 .
As of January 13 , 2011 , Light Rail Transit Authority Chief Rafael S. Rodriguez took over as officer @-@ in @-@ charge of MRT @-@ 3 in preparation for the integration of operations of LRT @-@ 1 , LRT @-@ 2 , and MRT @-@ 3 Lines .
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