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= Yellowstone National Park =
Yellowstone National Park is a national park located primarily in the U.S. state of Wyoming , although it also extends into Montana and Idaho . It was established by the U.S. Congress and signed into law by President Ulysses S. Grant on March 1 , 1872 . Yellowstone , the first National Park in the U.S. and widely held to be the first national park in the world , is known for its wildlife and its many geothermal features , especially Old Faithful Geyser , one of the most popular features in the park . It has many types of ecosystems , but the subalpine forest is the most abundant . It is part of the South Central Rockies forests ecoregion .
Native Americans have lived in the Yellowstone region for at least 11 @,@ 000 years . Aside from visits by mountain men during the early @-@ to @-@ mid @-@ 19th century , organized exploration did not begin until the late 1860s . Management of the park originally fell under the jurisdiction of the Secretary of the Interior . However , the U.S. Army was subsequently commissioned to oversee management of Yellowstone for a 30 @-@ year period between 1886 and 1916 . In 1917 , administration of the park was transferred to the National Park Service , which had been created the previous year . Hundreds of structures have been built and are protected for their architectural and historical significance , and researchers have examined more than 1 @,@ 000 archaeological sites .
Yellowstone National Park spans an area of 3 @,@ 468 @.@ 4 square miles ( 8 @,@ 983 km2 ) , comprising lakes , canyons , rivers and mountain ranges . Yellowstone Lake is one of the largest high @-@ elevation lakes in North America and is centered over the Yellowstone Caldera , the largest supervolcano on the continent . The caldera is considered an active volcano . It has erupted with tremendous force several times in the last two million years . Half of the world 's geothermal features are in Yellowstone , fueled by this ongoing volcanism . Lava flows and rocks from volcanic eruptions cover most of the land area of Yellowstone . The park is the centerpiece of the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem , the largest remaining nearly @-@ intact ecosystem in the Earth 's northern temperate zone .
Hundreds of species of mammals , birds , fish and reptiles have been documented , including several that are either endangered or threatened . The vast forests and grasslands also include unique species of plants . Yellowstone Park is the largest and most famous megafauna location in the Continental United States . Grizzly bears , wolves , and free @-@ ranging herds of bison and elk live in the park . The Yellowstone Park bison herd is the oldest and largest public bison herd in the United States . Forest fires occur in the park each year ; in the large forest fires of 1988 , nearly one third of the park was burnt . Yellowstone has numerous recreational opportunities , including hiking , camping , boating , fishing and sightseeing . Paved roads provide close access to the major geothermal areas as well as some of the lakes and waterfalls . During the winter , visitors often access the park by way of guided tours that use either snow coaches or snowmobiles .
= = History = =
The park is at the headwaters of the Yellowstone River , from which it takes its historical name . Near the end of the 18th century , French trappers named the river " Roche Jaune " , which is probably a translation of the Hidatsa name " Mi tsi a @-@ da @-@ zi " ( Rock Yellow River ) . Later , American trappers rendered the French name in English as " Yellow Stone " . Although it is commonly believed that the river was named for the yellow rocks seen in the Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone , the Native American name source is unclear .
The human history of the park begins at least 11 @,@ 000 years ago when Native Americans began to hunt and fish in the region . During the construction of the post office in Gardiner , Montana , in the 1950s , an obsidian projectile point of Clovis origin was found that dated from approximately 11 @,@ 000 years ago . These Paleo @-@ Indians , of the Clovis culture , used the significant amounts of obsidian found in the park to make cutting tools and weapons . Arrowheads made of Yellowstone obsidian have been found as far away as the Mississippi Valley , indicating that a regular obsidian trade existed between local tribes and tribes farther east . By the time white explorers first entered the region during the Lewis and Clark Expedition in 1805 , they encountered the Nez Perce , Crow , and Shoshone tribes . While passing through present day Montana , the expedition members heard of the Yellowstone region to the south , but they did not investigate it .
In 1806 , John Colter , a member of the Lewis and Clark Expedition , left to join a group of fur trappers . After splitting up with the other trappers in 1807 , Colter passed through a portion of what later became the park , during the winter of 1807 – 1808 . He observed at least one geothermal area in the northeastern section of the park , near Tower Fall . After surviving wounds he suffered in a battle with members of the Crow and Blackfoot tribes in 1809 , Colter described a place of " fire and brimstone " that most people dismissed as delirium ; the supposedly imaginary place was nicknamed " Colter 's Hell " . Over the next 40 years , numerous reports from mountain men and trappers told of boiling mud , steaming rivers , and petrified trees , yet most of these reports were believed at the time to be myth .
After an 1856 exploration , mountain man Jim Bridger ( also believed to be the first or second European American to have seen the Great Salt Lake ) reported observing boiling springs , spouting water , and a mountain of glass and yellow rock . These reports were largely ignored because Bridger was a known " spinner of yarns " . In 1859 , a U.S. Army Surveyor named Captain William F. Raynolds embarked on a two @-@ year survey of the northern Rockies . After wintering in Wyoming , in May 1860 , Raynolds and his party – which included naturalist Ferdinand Vandeveer Hayden and guide Jim Bridger – attempted to cross the Continental Divide over Two Ocean Plateau from the Wind River drainage in northwest Wyoming . Heavy spring snows prevented their passage , but had they been able to traverse the divide , the party would have been the first organized survey to enter the Yellowstone region . The American Civil War hampered further organized explorations until the late 1860s .
The first detailed expedition to the Yellowstone area was the Cook – Folsom – Peterson Expedition of 1869 , which consisted of three privately funded explorers . The Folsom party followed the Yellowstone River to Yellowstone Lake . The members of the Folsom party kept a journal and based on the information it reported , a party of Montana residents organized the Washburn @-@ Langford @-@ Doane Expedition in 1870 . It was headed by the surveyor @-@ general of Montana Henry Washburn , and included Nathaniel P. Langford ( who later became known as " National Park " Langford ) and a U.S. Army detachment commanded by Lt. Gustavus Doane .
The expedition spent about a month exploring the region , collecting specimens and naming sites of interest . A Montana writer and lawyer named Cornelius Hedges , who had been a member of the Washburn expedition , proposed that the region should be set aside and protected as a national park ; he wrote detailed articles about his observations for the Helena Herald newspaper between 1870 and 1871 . Hedges essentially restated comments made in October 1865 by acting Montana Territorial Governor Thomas Francis Meagher , who had previously commented that the region should be protected . Others made similar suggestions . In an 1871 letter from Jay Cooke to Ferdinand V. Hayden , Cooke wrote that his friend , Congressman William D. Kelley had also suggested " Congress pass a bill reserving the Great Geyser Basin as a public park forever " .
= = = Park creation = = =
In 1871 , eleven years after his failed first effort , Ferdinand V. Hayden was finally able to explore the region . With government sponsorship , he returned to the region with a second , larger expedition , the Hayden Geological Survey of 1871 . He compiled a comprehensive report , including large @-@ format photographs by William Henry Jackson and paintings by Thomas Moran . The report helped to convince the U.S. Congress to withdraw this region from public auction . On March 1 , 1872 , President Ulysses S. Grant signed The Act of Dedication law that created Yellowstone National Park .
Hayden , while not the only person to have thought of creating a park in the region , was its first and most enthusiastic advocate . He believed in " setting aside the area as a pleasure ground for the benefit and enjoyment of the people " and warned that there were those who would come and " make merchandise of these beautiful specimens " . Worrying the area could face the same fate as Niagara Falls , he concluded the site should " be as free as the air or Water . " In his report to the Committee on Public Lands , he concluded that if the bill failed to become law , " the vandals who are now waiting to enter into this wonder @-@ land , will in a single season despoil , beyond recovery , these remarkable curiosities , which have required all the cunning skill of nature thousands of years to prepare " .
Hayden and his 1871 party recognized Yellowstone as a priceless treasure that would become rarer with time . He wished for others to see and experience it as well . Eventually the railroads and , some time after that , the automobile would make that possible . The Park was not set aside strictly for ecological purposes ; however , the designation " pleasure ground " was not an invitation to create an amusement park . Hayden imagined something akin to the scenic resorts and baths in England , Germany , and Switzerland .
THE ACT OF DEDICATION
AN ACT to set apart a certain tract of land lying near the headwaters of the Yellowstone River as a public park . Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled , That the tract of land in the Territories of Montana and Wyoming ... is hereby reserved and withdrawn from settlement , occupancy , or sale under the laws of the United States , and dedicated and set apart as a public park or pleasuring ground for the benefit and enjoyment of the people ; and all persons who shall locate , or settle upon , or occupy the same or any part thereof , except as hereinafter provided , shall be considered trespassers and removed there from ... Approved March 1 , 1872 .
Signed by :
JAMES G. BLAINE , Speaker of the House .
SCHUYLER COLFAX , Vice @-@ President of the United States and President of the Senate .
ULYSSES S. GRANT , President of the United States .
There was considerable local opposition to the Yellowstone National Park during its early years . Some of the locals feared that the regional economy would be unable to thrive if there remained strict federal prohibitions against resource development or settlement within park boundaries and local entrepreneurs advocated reducing the size of the park so that mining , hunting , and logging activities could be developed . To this end , numerous bills were introduced into Congress by Montana representatives who sought to remove the federal land @-@ use restrictions .
After the park 's official formation , Nathaniel Langford was appointed as the park 's first superintendent in 1872 . He served for five years but was denied a salary , funding , and staff . Langford lacked the means to improve the land or properly protect the park , and without formal policy or regulations , he had few legal methods to enforce such protection . This left Yellowstone vulnerable to poachers , vandals , and others seeking to raid its resources . He addressed the practical problems park administrators faced in the 1872 Report to the Secretary of the Interior and correctly predicted that Yellowstone would become a major international attraction deserving the continuing stewardship of the government . In 1875 , Colonel William Ludlow , who had previously explored areas of Montana under the command of George Armstrong Custer , was assigned to organize and lead an expedition to Montana and the newly established Yellowstone Park . Observations about the lawlessness and exploitation of park resources were included in Ludlow 's Report of a Reconnaissance to the Yellowstone National Park . The report included letters and attachments by other expedition members , including naturalist and mineralogist George Bird Grinnell .
Grinnell documented the poaching of buffalo , deer , elk , and antelope for hides . " It is estimated that during the winter of 1874 – 1875 , not less than 3 @,@ 000 buffalo and mule deer suffer even more severely than the elk , and the antelope nearly as much . "
As a result , Langford was forced to step down in 1877 . Having traveled through Yellowstone and witnessed land management problems first hand , Philetus Norris volunteered for the position following Langford 's exit . Congress finally saw fit to implement a salary for the position , as well as to provide a minimal funding to operate the park . Norris used these funds to expand access to the park , building numerous crude roads and facilities .
In 1880 , Harry Yount was appointed as a gamekeeper to control poaching and vandalism in the park . Yount had previously spent decades exploring the mountain country of present @-@ day Wyoming , including the Grand Tetons , after joining F V. Hayden 's Geological Survey in 1873 . Yount is the first national park ranger , and Yount 's Peak , at the head of the Yellowstone River , was named in his honor . However , these measures still proved to be insufficient in protecting the park , as neither Norris , nor the three superintendents who followed , were given sufficient manpower or resources .
The Northern Pacific Railroad built a train station in Livingston , Montana , connecting to the northern entrance in the early 1880s , which helped to increase visitation from 300 in 1872 to 5 @,@ 000 in 1883 . Visitors in these early years faced poor roads and limited services , and most access into the park was on horse or via stagecoach . By 1908 visitation increased enough to attract a Union Pacific Railroad connection to West Yellowstone , though rail visitation fell off considerably by World War II and ceased around the 1960s . Much of the railroad line was converted to nature trails , among them the Yellowstone Branch Line Trail .
During the 1870s and 1880s Native American tribes were effectively excluded from the national park . Under a half @-@ dozen tribes had made seasonal use of the Yellowstone area , but the only year @-@ round residents were small bands of Eastern Shoshone known as " Sheepeaters " . They left the area under the assurances of a treaty negotiated in 1868 , under which the Sheepeaters ceded their lands but retained the right to hunt in Yellowstone . The United States never ratified the treaty and refused to recognize the claims of the Sheepeaters or any other tribe that had used Yellowstone .
The Nez Perce band associated with Chief Joseph , numbering about 750 people , passed through Yellowstone National Park in thirteen days during late August 1877 . They were being pursued by the U.S. Army and entered the national park about two weeks after the Battle of the Big Hole . Some of the Nez Perce were friendly to the tourists and other people they encountered in the park ; some were not . Nine park visitors were briefly taken captive . Despite Joseph and other chiefs ordering that no one should be harmed , at least two people were killed and several wounded . One of the areas where encounters occurred was in Lower Geyser Basin and east along a branch of the Firehole River to Mary Mountain and beyond . That stream is still known as Nez Perce Creek . A group of Bannocks entered the park in 1878 , alarming park Superintendent Philetus Norris . In the aftermath of the Sheepeater Indian War of 1879 , Norris built a fort to prevent Native Americans from entering the national park .
Ongoing poaching and destruction of natural resources continued unabated until the U.S. Army arrived at Mammoth Hot Springs in 1886 and built Camp Sheridan . Over the next 22 years the army constructed permanent structures , and Camp Sheridan was renamed Fort Yellowstone . On May 7 , 1894 , the Boone and Crockett Club , acting through the personality of George G. Vest , Arnold Hague , William Hallett Phillips , W. A. Wadsworth , Archibald Rogers , Theodore Roosevelt , and George Bird Grinnell were successful in carrying through the Park Protection Act , which so saved the Park . The Lacey Act of 1900 provided legal support for the officials prosecuting poachers . With the funding and manpower necessary to keep a diligent watch , the army developed their own policies and regulations that permitted public access while protecting park wildlife and natural resources . When the National Park Service was created in 1916 , many of the management principles developed by the army were adopted by the new agency . The army turned control over to the National Park Service on October 31 , 1918 .
= = = Later history = = =
By 1915 , 1 @,@ 000 automobiles per year were entering the park , resulting in conflicts with horses and horse @-@ drawn transportation . Horse travel on roads was eventually prohibited .
The Civilian Conservation Corps ( CCC ) , a New Deal relief agency for young men , played a major role between 1933 and 1942 in developing Yellowstone facilities . CCC projects included reforestation , campground development of many of the park 's trails and campgrounds , trail construction , fire hazard reduction , and fire @-@ fighting work . The CCC built the majority of the early visitor centers , campgrounds and the current system of park roads .
During World War II , tourist travel fell sharply , staffing was cut , and many facilities fell into disrepair . By the 1950s , visitation increased tremendously in Yellowstone and other national parks . To accommodate the increased visitation , park officials implemented Mission 66 , an effort to modernize and expand park service facilities . Planned to be completed by 1966 , in honor of the 50th anniversary of the founding of the National Park Service , Mission 66 construction diverged from the traditional log cabin style with design features of a modern style . During the late 1980s , most construction styles in Yellowstone reverted to the more traditional designs . After the enormous forest fires of 1988 damaged much of Grant Village , structures there were rebuilt in the traditional style . The visitor center at Canyon Village , which opened in 2006 , incorporates a more traditional design as well .
The 1959 Hebgen Lake earthquake just west of Yellowstone at Hebgen Lake damaged roads and some structures in the park . In the northwest section of the park , new geysers were found , and many existing hot springs became turbid . It was the most powerful earthquake to hit the region in recorded history .
In 1963 , after several years of public controversy regarding the forced reduction of the elk population in Yellowstone , United States Secretary of the Interior Stewart Udall appointed an advisory board to collect scientific data to inform future wildlife management of the national parks . In a paper known as the Leopold Report , the committee observed that culling programs at other national parks had been ineffective , and recommended management of Yellowstone 's elk population .
The wildfires during the summer of 1988 were the largest in the history of the park . Approximately 793 @,@ 880 acres ( 321 @,@ 272 ha ; 1 @,@ 240 sq mi ) or 36 % of the parkland was impacted by the fires , leading to a systematic re @-@ evaluation of fire management policies . The fire season of 1988 was considered normal until a combination of drought and heat by mid @-@ July contributed to an extreme fire danger . On " Black Saturday " , August 20 , 1988 , strong winds expanded the fires rapidly , and more than 150 @,@ 000 acres ( 61 @,@ 000 ha ; 230 sq mi ) burned .
The expansive cultural history of the park has been documented by the 1 @,@ 000 archeological sites that have been discovered . The park has 1 @,@ 106 historic structures and features , and of these Obsidian Cliff and five buildings have been designated National Historic Landmarks . Yellowstone was designated an International Biosphere Reserve on October 26 , 1976 , and a UN World Heritage Site on September 8 , 1978 . The park was placed on the List of World Heritage in Danger from 1995 to 2003 due to the effects of tourism , infection of wildlife , and issues with invasive species . In 2010 , Yellowstone National Park was honored with its own quarter under the America the Beautiful Quarters Program .
Justin Ferrell explores three moral sensibilities that motivated activists in dealing with Yellowstone . First came the utilitarian vision of maximum exploitation of natural resources , characteristic of developers in the late 19th century . Second was the spiritual vision of nature inspired by the Romanticism and the transcendentalists the mid @-@ 19th century . The twentieth century saw the biocentric moral vision that focuses on the health of the ecosystem as theorized by Aldo Leopold , which leds to the expansion of federally protected areas and to the surrounding ecosystems .
= = = Heritage and Research Center = = =
The Heritage and Research Center is located at Gardiner , Montana , near the north entrance to the park . The center is home to the Yellowstone National Park 's museum collection , archives , research library , historian , archeology lab , and herbarium . The Yellowstone National Park Archives maintain collections of historical records of Yellowstone and the National Park Service . The collection includes the administrative records of Yellowstone , as well as resource management records , records from major projects , and donated manuscripts and personal papers . The archives are affiliated with the National Archives and Records Administration .
= = Geography = =
Approximately 96 percent of the land area of Yellowstone National Park is located within the state of Wyoming . Another three percent is within Montana , with the remaining one percent in Idaho . The park is 63 miles ( 101 km ) north to south , and 54 miles ( 87 km ) west to east by air . Yellowstone is 2 @,@ 219 @,@ 789 acres ( 898 @,@ 317 ha ; 3 @,@ 468 @.@ 420 sq mi ) in area , larger than the states of Rhode Island or Delaware . Rivers and lakes cover five percent of the land area , with the largest water body being Yellowstone Lake at 87 @,@ 040 acres ( 35 @,@ 220 ha ; 136 @.@ 00 sq mi ) . Yellowstone Lake is up to 400 feet ( 120 m ) deep and has 110 miles ( 180 km ) of shoreline . At an elevation of 7 @,@ 733 feet ( 2 @,@ 357 m ) above sea level , Yellowstone Lake is the largest high altitude lake in North America . Forests comprise 80 percent of the land area of the park ; most of the rest is grassland .
The Continental Divide of North America runs diagonally through the southwestern part of the park . The divide is a topographic feature that separates Pacific Ocean and Atlantic Ocean water drainages . About one third of the park lies on the west side of the divide . The origins of the Yellowstone and Snake Rivers are near each other but on opposite sides of the divide . As a result , the waters of the Snake River flow to the Pacific Ocean , while those of the Yellowstone find their way to the Atlantic Ocean via the Gulf of Mexico .
The park sits on the Yellowstone Plateau , at an average elevation of 8 @,@ 000 feet ( 2 @,@ 400 m ) above sea level . The plateau is bounded on nearly all sides by mountain ranges of the Middle Rocky Mountains , which range from 9 @,@ 000 to 11 @,@ 000 feet ( 2 @,@ 700 to 3 @,@ 400 m ) in elevation . The highest point in the park is atop Eagle Peak ( 11 @,@ 358 feet or 3 @,@ 462 metres ) and the lowest is along Reese Creek ( 5 @,@ 282 feet or 1 @,@ 610 metres ) . Nearby mountain ranges include the Gallatin Range to the northwest , the Beartooth Mountains in the north , the Absaroka Range to the east , and the Teton Range and the Madison Range to the southwest and west . The most prominent summit on the Yellowstone Plateau is Mount Washburn at 10 @,@ 243 feet ( 3 @,@ 122 m ) .
Yellowstone National Park has one of the world 's largest petrified forests , trees which were long ago buried by ash and soil and transformed from wood to mineral materials . This ash and other volcanic debris are believed to have come from the park area itself . This is largely because Yellowstone is actually a massive caldera of a supervolcano . There are 290 waterfalls of at least 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) in the park , the highest being the Lower Falls of the Yellowstone River at 308 feet ( 94 m ) .
Three deep canyons are located in the park , cut through the volcanic tuff of the Yellowstone Plateau by rivers over the last 640 @,@ 000 years . The Lewis River flows through Lewis Canyon in the south , and the Yellowstone River has carved two colorful canyons , the Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone and the Black Canyon of the Yellowstone in its journey north .
= = Geology = =
= = = History = = =
Yellowstone is at the northeastern end of the Snake River Plain , a great U @-@ shaped arc through the mountains that extends from Boise , Idaho some 400 miles ( 640 km ) to the west . This feature traces the route of the North American Plate over the last 17 million years as it was transported by plate tectonics across a stationary mantle hotspot . The landscape of present @-@ day Yellowstone National Park is the most recent manifestation of this hotspot below the crust of the Earth .
The Yellowstone Caldera is the largest volcanic system in North America . It has been termed a " supervolcano " because the caldera was formed by exceptionally large explosive eruptions . The magma chamber that lies under Yellowstone is estimated to be a single connected chamber , about 37 miles ( 60 km ) long , 18 miles ( 29 km ) wide , and 3 to 7 miles ( 5 to 12 km ) deep . The current caldera was created by a cataclysmic eruption that occurred 640 @,@ 000 years ago , which released more than 240 cubic miles ( 1 @,@ 000 km ³ ) of ash , rock and pyroclastic materials . This eruption was more than 1 @,@ 000 times larger than the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens . It produced a caldera nearly five eighths of a mile ( 1 km ) deep and 45 by 28 miles ( 72 by 45 km ) in area and deposited the Lava Creek Tuff , a welded tuff geologic formation . The most violent known eruption , which occurred 2 @.@ 1 million years ago , ejected 588 cubic miles ( 2 @,@ 450 km ³ ) of volcanic material and created the rock formation known as the Huckleberry Ridge Tuff and created the Island Park Caldera . A smaller eruption ejected 67 cubic miles ( 280 km ³ ) of material 1 @.@ 3 million years ago , forming the Henry 's Fork Caldera and depositing the Mesa Falls Tuff .
Each of the three climactic eruptions released vast amounts of ash that blanketed much of central North America , falling many hundreds of miles away . The amount of ash and gases released into the atmosphere probably caused significant impacts to world weather patterns and led to the extinction of some species , primarily in North America .
A subsequent caldera @-@ forming eruption occurred about 160 @,@ 000 years ago . It formed the relatively small caldera that contains the West Thumb of Yellowstone Lake . Since the last supereruption , a series of smaller eruptive cycles between 640 @,@ 000 and 70 @,@ 000 years ago , has nearly filled in the Yellowstone Caldera with > 80 different eruptions of rhyolitic lavas such as those that can be seen at Obsidian Cliffs and basaltic lavas which can be viewed at Sheepeater Cliff . Lava strata are most easily seen at the Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone , where the Yellowstone River continues to carve into the ancient lava flows . The canyon is a classic V @-@ shaped valley , indicative of river @-@ type erosion rather than erosion caused by glaciation .
Each eruption is part of an eruptive cycle that climaxes with the partial collapse of the roof of the volcano 's partially emptied magma chamber . This creates a collapsed depression , called a caldera , and releases vast amounts of volcanic material , usually through fissures that ring the caldera . The time between the last three cataclysmic eruptions in the Yellowstone area has ranged from 600 @,@ 000 to 800 @,@ 000 years , but the small number of such climactic eruptions cannot be used to make an accurate prediction for future volcanic events .
= = = Geysers and the hydrothermal system = = =
The most famous geyser in the park , and perhaps the world , is Old Faithful Geyser , located in Upper Geyser Basin . Castle Geyser , Lion Geyser and Beehive Geyser are in the same basin . The park contains the largest active geyser in the world — Steamboat Geyser in the Norris Geyser Basin . A study that was completed in 2011 found that at least 1283 geysers have erupted in Yellowstone . Of these , an average of 465 are active in a given year . Yellowstone contains at least 10 @,@ 000 geothermal features altogether . Half the geothermal features and two @-@ thirds of the world 's geysers are concentrated in Yellowstone .
In May 2001 , the U.S. Geological Survey , Yellowstone National Park , and the University of Utah created the Yellowstone Volcano Observatory ( YVO ) , a partnership for long @-@ term monitoring of the geological processes of the Yellowstone Plateau volcanic field , for disseminating information concerning the potential hazards of this geologically active region .
In 2003 , changes at the Norris Geyser Basin resulted in the temporary closure of some trails in the basin . New fumaroles were observed , and several geysers showed enhanced activity and increasing water temperatures . Several geysers became so hot that they were transformed into purely steaming features ; the water had become superheated and they could no longer erupt normally . This coincided with the release of reports of a multiple year United States Geological Survey research project which mapped the bottom of Yellowstone Lake and identified a structural dome that had uplifted at some time in the past . Research indicated that these uplifts posed no immediate threat of a volcanic eruption , since they may have developed long ago , and there had been no temperature increase found near the uplifts . On March 10 , 2004 , a biologist discovered 5 dead bison which apparently had inhaled toxic geothermal gases trapped in the Norris Geyser Basin by a seasonal atmospheric inversion . This was closely followed by an upsurge of earthquake activity in April 2004 . In 2006 , it was reported that the Mallard Lake Dome and the Sour Creek Dome — areas that have long been known to show significant changes in their ground movement — had risen at a rate of 1 @.@ 5 to 2 @.@ 4 inches ( 3 @.@ 8 to 6 @.@ 1 cm ) per year from mid – 2004 through 2006 . As of late 2007 , the uplift has continued at a reduced rate . These events inspired a great deal of media attention and speculation about the geologic future of the region . Experts responded to the conjecture by informing the public that there was no increased risk of a volcanic eruption in the near future . However , these changes demonstrate the dynamic nature of the Yellowstone hydrothermal system .
= = = Earthquakes = = =
Yellowstone experiences thousands of small earthquakes every year , virtually all of which are undetectable to people . There have been six earthquakes with at least magnitude 6 or greater in historical times , including a 7 @.@ 5 ‑ magnitude quake that struck just outside the northwest boundary of the park in 1959 . This quake triggered a huge landslide , which caused a partial dam collapse on Hebgen Lake ; immediately downstream , the sediment from the landslide dammed the river and created a new lake , known as Earthquake Lake . Twenty @-@ eight people were killed , and property damage was extensive in the immediate region . The earthquake caused some geysers in the northwestern section of the park to erupt , large cracks in the ground formed and emitted steam , and some hot springs that normally have clear water turned muddy . A 6 @.@ 1 ‑ magnitude earthquake struck inside the park on June 30 , 1975 , but damage was minimal .
For three months in 1985 , 3 @,@ 000 minor earthquakes were detected in the northwestern section of the park , during what has been referred to as an earthquake swarm , and has been attributed to minor subsidence of the Yellowstone caldera . Beginning on April 30 , 2007 , 16 small earthquakes with magnitudes up to 2 @.@ 7 occurred in the Yellowstone Caldera for several days . These swarms of earthquakes are common , and there have been 70 such swarms between 1983 and 2008 . In December 2008 , over 250 earthquakes were measured over a four @-@ day span under Yellowstone Lake , the largest measuring a magnitude of 3 @.@ 9 . In January 2010 , more than 250 earthquakes were detected over a two @-@ day period . Seismic activity in Yellowstone National Park continues and is reported hourly by the Earthquake Hazards Program of the U.S. Geological Survey .
On March 30 , 2014 , a magnitude 4 @.@ 8 earthquake struck almost the very middle of Yellowstone near the Norris Basin at 6.34am ; reports indicated no damage . This was the largest earthquake to hit the park since February 22 , 1980 .
= = Biology and ecology = =
Yellowstone National Park is the centerpiece of the 20 million acre / 31 @,@ 250 square @-@ mile ( 8 @,@ 093 @,@ 712 ha / 80 @,@ 937 km2 ) Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem , a region that includes Grand Teton National Park , adjacent National Forests and expansive wilderness areas in those forests . The ecosystem is the largest remaining continuous stretch of mostly undeveloped pristine land in the continental United States , considered the world 's largest intact ecosystem in the northern temperate zone ( although the area is mostly not temperate but subalpine , and all the national forest lands surrounding the National Park are not intact ) . With the successful wolf reintroduction program , which began in the 1990s , virtually all the original faunal species known to inhabit the region when white explorers first entered the area can still be found there .
= = = Flora = = =
Over 1 @,@ 700 species of trees and other vascular plants are native to the park . Another 170 species are considered to be exotic species and are non @-@ native . Of the eight conifer tree species documented , Lodgepole Pine forests cover 80 % of the total forested areas . Other conifers , such as Subalpine Fir , Engelmann Spruce , Rocky Mountain Douglas @-@ fir and Whitebark Pine , are found in scattered groves throughout the park . As of 2007 , the whitebark pine is threatened by a fungus known as white pine blister rust ; however , this is mostly confined to forests well to the north and west . In Yellowstone , about seven percent of the whitebark pine species have been impacted with the fungus , compared to nearly complete infestations in northwestern Montana . Quaking Aspen and willows are the most common species of deciduous trees . The aspen forests have declined significantly since the early 20th century , but scientists at Oregon State University attribute recent recovery of the aspen to the reintroduction of wolves which has changed the grazing habits of local elk .
There are dozens of species of flowering plants that have been identified , most of which bloom between the months of May and September . The Yellowstone Sand Verbena is a rare flowering plant found only in Yellowstone . It is closely related to species usually found in much warmer climates , making the sand verbena an enigma . The estimated 8 @,@ 000 examples of this rare flowering plant all make their home in the sandy soils on the shores of Yellowstone Lake , well above the waterline .
In Yellowstone 's hot waters , bacteria form mats of bizarre shapes consisting of trillions of individuals . These bacteria are some of the most primitive life forms on earth . Flies and other arthropods live on the mats , even in the middle of the bitterly cold winters . Initially , scientists thought that microbes there gained sustenance only from sulfur . In 2005 researchers from the University of Colorado at Boulder discovered that the sustenance for at least some of the diverse hyperthermophilic species is molecular hydrogen .
Thermus aquaticus is a bacterium found in the Yellowstone hot springs that produces an important enzyme ( Taq polymerase ) that is easily replicated in the lab and is useful in replicating DNA as part of the polymerase chain reaction ( PCR ) process . The retrieval of these bacteria can be achieved with no impact to the ecosystem . Other bacteria in the Yellowstone hot springs may also prove useful to scientists who are searching for cures for various diseases . In 2016 , researchers from Uppsala University reported the discovery of a class of thermophiles , Hadesarchaea , in Yellowstone 's Culex Basin . These organisms are capable of converting carbon monoxide and water to carbon dioxide and oxygen .
Non @-@ native plants sometimes threaten native species by using up nutrient resources . Though exotic species are most commonly found in areas with the greatest human visitation , such as near roads and at major tourist areas , they have also spread into the backcountry . Generally , most exotic species are controlled by pulling the plants out of the soil or by spraying , both of which are time consuming and expensive .
= = = Fauna = = =
Yellowstone is widely considered to be the finest megafauna wildlife habitat in the lower 48 states . There are almost 60 species of mammals in the park , including the gray wolf , the threatened lynx , and grizzly bears . Other large mammals include the bison ( often referred to as buffalo ) , black bear , elk , moose , mule deer , white @-@ tailed deer , mountain goat , pronghorn , bighorn sheep , and mountain lion .
The Yellowstone Park bison herd is the largest public herd of American bison in the United States . The relatively large bison populations are a concern for ranchers , who fear that the species can transmit bovine diseases to their domesticated cousins . In fact , about half of Yellowstone 's bison have been exposed to brucellosis , a bacterial disease that came to North America with European cattle that may cause cattle to miscarry . The disease has little effect on park bison , and no reported case of transmission from wild bison to domestic livestock has been filed . However , the Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service ( APHIS ) has stated that bison are the " likely source " of the spread of the disease in cattle in Wyoming and North Dakota . Elk also carry the disease and are believed to have transmitted the infection to horses and cattle . Bison once numbered between 30 and 60 million individuals throughout North America , and Yellowstone remains one of their last strongholds . Their populations had increased from less than 50 in the park in 1902 to 4 @,@ 000 by 2003 . The Yellowstone Park bison herd reached a peak in 2005 with 4 @,@ 900 animals . Despite a summer estimated population of 4 @,@ 700 in 2007 , the number dropped to 3 @,@ 000 in 2008 after a harsh winter and controversial brucellosis management sending hundreds to slaughter . The Yellowstone Park bison herd is believed to be one of only four free roaming and genetically pure herds on public lands in North America . The other three herds are the Henry Mountains bison herd of Utah , at Wind Cave National Park in South Dakota and in Elk Island National Park in Alberta .
To combat the perceived threat of brucellosis transmission to cattle , national park personnel regularly harass bison herds back into the park when they venture outside of the area 's borders . During the winter of 1996 – 97 , the bison herd was so large that 1 @,@ 079 bison that had exited the park were shot or sent to slaughter . Animal rights activists argue that this is a cruel practice and that the possibility for disease transmission is not as great as some ranchers maintain . Ecologists point out that the bison are merely traveling to seasonal grazing areas that lie within the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem that have been converted to cattle grazing , some of which are within National Forests and are leased to private ranchers . APHIS has stated that with vaccinations and other means , brucellosis can be eliminated from the bison and elk herds throughout Yellowstone .
Starting in 1914 , in an effort to protect elk populations , the U.S. Congress appropriated funds to be used for the purposes of " destroying wolves , prairie dogs , and other animals injurious to agriculture and animal husbandry " on public lands . Park Service hunters carried out these orders , and by 1926 they had killed 136 wolves , and wolves were virtually eliminated from Yellowstone . Further exterminations continued until the National Park Service ended the practice in 1935 . With the passing of the Endangered Species Act in 1973 , the wolf was one of the first mammal species listed . After the wolves were extirpated from Yellowstone , the coyote then became the park 's top canine predator . However , the coyote is not able to bring down large animals , and the result of this lack of a top predator on these populations was a marked increase in lame and sick megafauna .
By the 1990s , the Federal government had reversed its views on wolves . In a controversial decision by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service ( which oversees threatened and endangered species ) , northwestern wolves , imported from Canada , were reintroduced into the park . Reintroduction efforts have been successful with populations remaining relatively stable . A survey conducted in 2005 reported that there were 13 wolf packs , totaling 118 individuals in Yellowstone and 326 in the entire ecosystem . These park figures were lower than those reported in 2004 but may be attributable to wolf migration to other nearby areas as suggested by the substantial increase in the Montana population during that interval . Almost all the wolves documented were descended from the 66 wolves reintroduced in 1995 – 96 . The recovery of populations throughout the states of Wyoming , Montana and Idaho has been so successful that on February 27 , 2008 , the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service removed the Northern Rocky Mountain wolf population from the endangered species list .
An estimated 600 grizzly bears live in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem , with more than half of the population living within Yellowstone . The grizzly is currently listed as a threatened species , however the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service has announced that they intend to take it off the endangered species list for the Yellowstone region but will likely keep it listed in areas where it has not yet recovered fully . Opponents of delisting the grizzly are concerned that states might once again allow hunting and that better conservation measures need to be implemented to ensure a sustainable population . Black bears are common in the park and were a park symbol due to visitor interaction with the bears starting in 1910 . Feeding and close contact with bears has not been permitted since the 1960s to reduce their desire for human foods . Yellowstone is one of the few places in the United States where black bears can be seen coexisting with grizzly bears . Black bear observations occur most often in the park 's northern ranges and in the Bechler area which is in the park 's southwestern corner .
Population figures for elk are in excess of 30 @,@ 000 — the largest population of any large mammal species in Yellowstone . The northern herd has decreased enormously since the mid ‑ 1990s ; this has been attributed to wolf predation and causal effects such as elk using more forested regions to evade predation , consequently making it harder for researchers to accurately count them . The northern herd migrates west into southwestern Montana in the winter . The southern herd migrates southward , and the majority of these elk winter on the National Elk Refuge , immediately southeast of Grand Teton National Park . The southern herd migration is the largest mammalian migration remaining in the U.S. outside of Alaska .
In 2003 the tracks of one female lynx and her cub were spotted and followed for over 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) . Fecal material and other evidence obtained were tested and confirmed to be those of a lynx . No visual confirmation was made , however . Lynx have not been seen in Yellowstone since 1998 , though DNA taken from hair samples obtained in 2001 confirmed that lynx were at least transient to the park . Other less commonly seen mammals include the mountain lion and wolverine . The mountain lion has an estimated population of only 25 individuals parkwide . The wolverine is another rare park mammal , and accurate population figures for this species are not known . These uncommon and rare mammals provide insight into the health of protected lands such as Yellowstone and help managers make determinations as to how best to preserve habitats .
Eighteen species of fish live in Yellowstone , including the core range of the Yellowstone cutthroat trout — a fish highly sought by anglers . The Yellowstone cutthroat trout has faced several threats since the 1980s , including the suspected illegal introduction into Yellowstone Lake of lake trout , an invasive species which consume the smaller cutthroat trout . Although lake trout were established in Shoshone and Lewis lakes in the Snake River drainage from U.S. Government stocking operations in 1890 , it was never officially introduced into the Yellowstone River drainage . The cutthroat trout has also faced an ongoing drought , as well as the accidental introduction of a parasite — whirling disease — which causes a terminal nervous system disease in younger fish . Since 2001 , all native sport fish species caught in Yellowstone waterways are subject to a catch and release law . Yellowstone is also home to six species of reptiles , such as the painted turtle and Prairie rattlesnake , and four species of amphibians , including the Boreal Chorus Frog .
311 species of birds have been reported , almost half of which nest in Yellowstone . As of 1999 , twenty @-@ six pairs of nesting bald eagles have been documented . Extremely rare sightings of whooping cranes have been recorded , however only three examples of this species are known to live in the Rocky Mountains , out of 385 known worldwide . Other birds , considered to be species of special concern because of their rarity in Yellowstone , include the common loon , harlequin duck , osprey , peregrine falcon and the trumpeter swan .
= = Forest fires = =
As wildfire is a natural part of most ecosystems , plants that are indigenous to Yellowstone have adapted in a variety of ways . Douglas @-@ fir have a thick bark which protects the inner section of the tree from most fires . Lodgepole Pines — the most common tree species in the park — generally have cones that are only opened by the heat of fire . Their seeds are held in place by a tough resin , and fire assists in melting the resin , allowing the seeds to disperse . Fire clears out dead and downed wood , providing fewer obstacles for lodgepole pines to flourish . Subalpine Fir , Engelmann Spruce , Whitebark Pine , and other species tend to grow in colder and moister areas , where fire is less likely to occur . Aspen trees sprout new growth from their roots , and even if a severe fire kills the tree above ground , the roots often survive unharmed because they are insulated from the heat by soil . The National Park Service estimates that in natural conditions , grasslands in Yellowstone burned an average of every 20 to 25 years , while forests in the park would experience fire about every 300 years .
About thirty @-@ five natural forest fires are ignited each year by lightning , while another six to ten are started by people — in most cases by accident . Yellowstone National Park has three fire lookout towers , each staffed by trained fire fighters . The easiest one to reach is atop Mount Washburn , though it is closed to the public . The park also monitors fire from the air and relies on visitor reports of smoke and / or flames . Fire towers are staffed almost continuously from late June to mid @-@ September — the primary fire season . Fires burn with the greatest intensity in the late afternoon and evening . Few fires burn more than 100 acres ( 40 ha ) , and the vast majority of fires reach only a little over an acre ( 0 @.@ 5 ha ) before they burn themselves out . Fire management focuses on monitoring dead and down wood quantities , soil and tree moisture , and the weather , to determine those areas most vulnerable to fire should one ignite . Current policy is to suppress all human caused fires and to evaluate natural fires , examining the benefit or detriment they may pose on the ecosystem . If a fire is considered to be an immediate threat to people and structures , or will burn out of control , then fire suppression is performed .
In an effort to minimize the chances of out of control fires and threats to people and structures , park employees do more than just monitor the potential for fire . Controlled burns are prescribed fires which are deliberately started to remove dead timber under conditions which allow fire fighters an opportunity to carefully control where and how much wood is consumed . Natural fires are sometimes considered prescribed fires if they are left to burn . In Yellowstone , unlike some other parks , there have been very few fires deliberately started by employees as prescribed burns . However , over the last 30 years , over 300 natural fires have been allowed to burn naturally . In addition , fire fighters remove dead and down wood and other hazards from areas where they will be a potential fire threat to lives and property , reducing the chances of fire danger in these areas . Fire monitors also regulate fire through educational services to the public and have been known to temporarily ban campfires from campgrounds during periods of high fire danger . The common notion in early United States land management policies was that all forest fires were bad . Fire was seen as a purely destructive force and there was little understanding that it was an integral part of the ecosystem . Consequently , until the 1970s , when a better understanding of wildfire was developed , all fires were suppressed . This led to an increase in dead and dying forests , which would later provide the fuel load for fires that would be much harder , and in some cases , impossible to control . Fire Management Plans were implemented , detailing that natural fires should be allowed to burn if they posed no immediate threat to lives and property .
1988 started with a wet spring season although by summer , drought began moving in throughout the northern Rockies , creating the driest year on record to that point . Grasses and plants which grew well in the early summer from the abundant spring moisture produced plenty of grass , which soon turned to dry tinder . The National Park Service began firefighting efforts to keep the fires under control , but the extreme drought made suppression difficult . Between July 15 and 21 , 1988 , fires quickly spread from 8 @,@ 500 acres ( 3 @,@ 400 ha ; 13 @.@ 3 sq mi ) throughout the entire Yellowstone region , which included areas outside the park , to 99 @,@ 000 acres ( 40 @,@ 000 ha ; 155 sq mi ) on the park land alone . By the end of the month , the fires were out of control . Large fires burned together , and on August 20 , 1988 , the single worst day of the fires , more than 150 @,@ 000 acres ( 61 @,@ 000 ha ; 230 sq mi ) were consumed . Seven large fires were responsible for 95 % of the 793 @,@ 000 acres ( 321 @,@ 000 ha ; 1 @,@ 239 sq mi ) that were burned over the next couple of months . A total of 25 @,@ 000 firefighters and U.S. military forces participated in the suppression efforts , at a cost of 120 million dollars . By the time winter brought snow that helped extinguish the last flames , the fires had destroyed 67 structures and caused several million dollars in damage . Though no civilian lives were lost , two personnel associated with the firefighting efforts were killed .
Contrary to media reports and speculation at the time , the fires killed very few park animals — surveys indicated that only about 345 elk ( of an estimated 40 @,@ 000 – 50 @,@ 000 ) , 36 deer , 12 moose , 6 black bears , and 9 bison had perished . Changes in fire management policies were implemented by land management agencies throughout the United States , based on knowledge gained from the 1988 fires and the evaluation of scientists and experts from various fields . By 1992 , Yellowstone had adopted a new fire management plan which observed stricter guidelines for the management of natural fires .
= = Climate = =
Yellowstone climate is greatly influenced by altitude , with lower elevations generally found to be warmer year round . The record high temperature was 99 ° F ( 37 ° C ) in 2002 , while the coldest temperature recorded is − 66 ° F ( − 54 ° C ) in 1933 . During the summer months of June through early September , daytime highs are normally in the 70 to 80 ° F ( 21 to 27 ° C ) range , while night time lows can go to below freezing ( 0 ° C ) especially at higher altitudes . Summer afternoons are frequently accompanied by thunderstorms . Spring and fall temperatures range between 30 and 60 ° F ( − 1 and 16 ° C ) with nights in the teens to single digits ( − 5 to − 20 ° C ) . Winter in Yellowstone is accompanied by high temperatures usually between zero and 20 ° F ( − 20 to − 5 ° C ) and nighttime temperatures below 0 ° F ( − 18 ° C ) for most of the winter .
Precipitation in Yellowstone is highly variable and ranges from 15 inches ( 380 mm ) annually near Mammoth Hot Springs , to 80 inches ( 2 @,@ 000 mm ) in the southwestern sections of the park . The precipitation of Yellowstone is greatly influenced by the moisture channel formed by the Snake River Plain to the west that was , in turn , formed by Yellowstone itself . Snow is possible in any month of the year , but most common between November and April , with averages of 150 inches ( 3 @,@ 800 mm ) annually around Yellowstone Lake , to twice that amount at higher elevations .
Tornadoes in Yellowstone are rare ; however , on July 21 , 1987 , the most powerful tornado recorded in Wyoming touched down in the Teton Wilderness of Bridger @-@ Teton National Forest and hit Yellowstone National Park . Called the Teton – Yellowstone tornado , it was classified as an F4 , with wind speeds estimated at between 207 and 260 miles per hour ( 333 and 418 km / h ) . The tornado left a path of destruction 1 to 2 miles ( 1 @.@ 6 to 3 @.@ 2 km ) wide , and 24 miles ( 39 km ) long , and leveled 15 @,@ 000 acres ( 6 @,@ 100 ha ; 23 sq mi ) of mature pine forest .
Both high elevation areas are classified as humid continental ( Dfb ) , according to Köppen @-@ Geiger climate classification .
= = Recreation = =
Yellowstone ranks among the most popular national parks in the United States . Since the mid @-@ 1960s , at least 2 million tourists have visited the park almost every year . In 2010 , a record number of visitors came to the park in July : 975 @,@ 000 . July is the busiest month for Yellowstone National Park . At peak summer levels , 3 @,@ 700 employees work for Yellowstone National Park concessionaires . Concessionaires manage nine hotels and lodges , with a total of 2 @,@ 238 hotel rooms and cabins available . They also oversee gas stations , stores and most of the campgrounds . Another 800 employees work either permanently or seasonally for the National Park Service .
Park service roads lead to major features ; however , road reconstruction has produced temporary road closures . Yellowstone is in the midst of a long term road reconstruction effort , which is hampered by a short repair season . In the winter , all roads aside from the one which enters from Gardiner , Montana , and extends to Cooke City , Montana , are closed to wheeled vehicles . Park roads are closed to wheeled vehicles from early November to mid April , but some park roads remain closed until mid @-@ May . The park has 310 miles ( 500 km ) of paved roads which can be accessed from five different entrances . There is no public transportation available inside the park , but several tour companies can be contacted for guided motorized transport . In the winter , concessionaires operate guided snowmobile and snow coach tours , though their numbers and access are based on quotas established by the National Park Service . Facilities in the Old Faithful , Canyon and Mammoth Hot Springs areas of the park are very busy during the summer months . Traffic jams created by road construction or by people observing wildlife can result in long delays .
The National Park Service maintains 9 visitor centers and museums and is responsible for maintenance of historical structures and many of the other 2 @,@ 000 buildings . These structures include National Historical Landmarks such as the Old Faithful Inn built from 1903 to 1904 and the entire Fort Yellowstone – Mammoth Hot Springs Historic District . An historical and educational tour is available at Fort Yellowstone which details the history of the National Park Service and the development of the park . Campfire programs , guided walks and other interpretive presentations are available at numerous locations in the summer , and on a limited basis during other seasons .
Camping is available at a dozen campgrounds with more than 2 @,@ 000 campsites . Camping is also available in surrounding National Forests , as well as in Grand Teton National Park to the south . Backcountry campsites are accessible only by foot or by horseback and require a permit . There are 1 @,@ 100 miles ( 1 @,@ 800 km ) of hiking trails available . The park is not considered to be a good destination for mountaineering because of the instability of volcanic rock which predominates . Visitors with pets are required to keep them on a leash at all times and are limited to areas near roadways and in " frontcountry " zones such as drive in campgrounds . Around thermal features , wooden and paved trails have been constructed to ensure visitor safety , and most of these areas are handicapped accessible . The National Park Service maintains a year @-@ round clinic at Mammoth Hot Springs and provides emergency services throughout the year .
Hunting is not permitted , though it is allowed in the surrounding national forests during open season . Fishing is a popular activity , and a Yellowstone Park fishing license is required to fish in park waters . Many park waters are fly fishing only and all native fish species are catch and release only . Boating is prohibited on rivers and creeks except for a 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) stretch of the Lewis River between Lewis and Shoshone Lake , and it is open to non @-@ motorized use only . Yellowstone Lake has a marina , and the lake is the most popular boating destination .
In the early history of the park , visitors were allowed , and sometimes even encouraged , to feed the bears . Visitors welcomed the chance to get their pictures taken with the bears , who had learned to beg for food . This led to numerous injuries to humans each year . In 1970 , park officials changed their policy and started a vigorous program to educate the public on the dangers of close contact with bears , and to try to eliminate opportunities for bears to find food in campgrounds and trash collection areas . Although it has become more difficult to observe bears in recent years , the number of human injuries and deaths has taken a significant drop and visitors are in less danger . The eighth recorded bear @-@ related death in the park 's history occurred in August 2015 .
Other protected lands in the region include Caribou @-@ Targhee , Gallatin , Custer , Shoshone and Bridger @-@ Teton National Forests . The National Park Service 's John D. Rockefeller , Jr . Memorial Parkway is to the south and leads to Grand Teton National Park . The famed Beartooth Highway provides access from the northeast and has spectacular high altitude scenery . Nearby communities include West Yellowstone , Montana ; Cody , Wyoming ; Red Lodge , Montana ; Ashton , Idaho ; and Gardiner , Montana . The closest air transport is available by way of Bozeman , Montana ; Billings , Montana ; Jackson ; Cody , Wyoming , or Idaho Falls , Idaho . Salt Lake City , 320 miles ( 510 km ) to the south , is the closest large metropolitan area .
= = Legal jurisdiction = =
The entire park is within the jurisdiction of the United States District Court for the District of Wyoming , making it the only federal court district that includes portions of more than one state ( Idaho , Montana , and Wyoming ) . Law professor Brian C. Kalt has argued that it may be impossible to impanel a jury in compliance with the Vicinage Clause of the Sixth Amendment for a crime committed solely in the unpopulated Idaho portion of the park ( and that it would be difficult to do so for a crime committed solely in the lightly populated Montana portion ) . One defendant , who was accused of a wildlife @-@ related crime in the Montana portion of the park , attempted to raise this argument but eventually pleaded guilty .
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= Manley Power =
Lieutenant General Sir Manley Power , KCB , ComTE ( 1773 – 7 July 1826 ) was a British military leader who fought in a number of campaigns for Britain and rose to the rank of Lieutenant General . He is chiefly remembered for leading a brigade of Portuguese troops under The Duke of Wellington in the Iberian Peninsular War . He is also remembered for jointly causing the removal of Sir George Prevost , governor @-@ in @-@ chief of British North America , for Prevost 's refusal to press the attack on Plattsburgh , New York , in 1814 , during the War of 1812 . After his active military service Sir Manley Power was appointed Lieutenant Governor of Malta .
= = Early life = =
His grandfather , Sir Henry Power , was a captain of the Battle @-@ Axe Guards . His father , Captain Lieutenant Bolton Power , served in the 20th Regiment of Foot and fought in all battles of the Seven Years ' War , and later in the American Revolutionary War under Guy Carleton and John Burgoyne . Manley Power followed in his forefather 's footsteps and was a career soldier , starting as an ensign in his father 's old regiment , the 20th Regiment of Foot , on 27 August 1783 , when he was either 9 or 10 years old . He served in Halifax , Nova Scotia ( 1795 – 1797 ) , Holland ( 1799 ) , and Minorca ( 1800 ) . He was part of the force under the command of Sir Ralph Abercromby at the Battle of Alexandria ( 1801 ) , and later served with the Royal Horse Guards ( 1803 – 1805 ) . After rising to Lieutenant Colonel of the 32nd Regiment of Foot , he entered the Peninsular War and was attached to the Portuguese army under the command of Sir William Beresford and was promoted to Lieutenant General in 1813 .
= = Peninsular war = =
One of Portugal 's strategies during the Peninsular War was to place troops under British command . Portuguese troops were poorly trained , but under Manley Power 's leadership , Power 's Portuguese were eventually regarded as equivalent to hardened British units , and saw much action , including the Battle of Salamanca , the Battle of Vitoria , the Battle of Fuentes de Onoro , the Battle near Torres Vedras , and the Battle of Nivelle . Power 's Portuguese formed part of the 3rd Division when it was led by Pakenham at Torres Vedras and Salamanca , and when it was led by Sir Thomas Picton at Fuentes de Onoro and Badajoz . Brigadier @-@ general Manley Power was specifically mentioned by Parliament for distinguished exertions during the bloody siege of Badajoz where the 3rd was ordered to distract the enemy through a diversionary attack with ladders against the high walls of the fortress away from the main gates , but pressed the action to the point where it became the breakthrough into the fortress ( Picton was wounded scaling the ladders but continued on ) . Picton also led the 3rd when it broke through at Vitoria . According to Picton , the fighting by the 3rd was so intense at the Battle of Vitoria , that the division lost 1 @,@ 800 men ( over one third of all British losses at the battle ) having taken a key bridge and village , where they were subjected to fire by 40 to 50 cannons , and a counter @-@ attack on the right flank ( which was open because the rest of the army had not kept pace ) . Finally the 3rd was under the command of Charles Colville at the Battle of Nivelle where it took part in the main attack and then captured the bridge at Amotz under heavy resistance .
= = War of 1812 = =
Manley Power and two other successful Peninsular War veteran brigade leaders , Thomas Brisbane and Frederick Philipse Robinson , were sent to bolster British forces in the War of 1812 in North America ( and therefore did not participate in the Battle of Waterloo ) . The veteran brigade leaders were deeply disappointed by Sir George Prevost 's caution at the Battle of Plattsburgh . Prevost had placed Francis de Rottenburg in charge of infantry , with the brigades under his command ( Power with 3500 , Brisbane with 3500 , and Robinson with 2500 troops ) . The brigade leaders were dismayed with the decision to withdraw from battle because they felt they could have easily captured Plattsburgh despite the unsuccessful British naval action . Their opinions carried significant weight in Britain , which led to the removal of Prevost as Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief , North America . The Duke of Wellington wrote on 30 October 1814 @,@
It is very obvious to me that you must remove Sir George Prevost . I see he has gone to war about trifles with the general officers I sent him , which are certainly the best of their rank in the army ; and his subsequent failure and distresses will be aggravated by that circumstance ; and will probably with the usual fairness of the public be attributed to it .
In December , Wellington 's former Quartermaster General , Sir George Murray , was sent to Canada with the local rank of Lieutenant General , specifically to order Prévost to return to London to explain his conduct of the Plattsburg campaign . Another Peninsular War veteran and Manley Power 's previous commanding officer , Sir Edward Pakenham , became the commander of the British North American army . Manley Power took part in the Battle of New Orleans , where Pakenham was killed , which unbeknown to its participants occurred after the war had already been settled in Belgium .
= = Occupation of France = =
He was then reassigned to Europe in 1815 to rejoin the 3rd Division , which was still under the command of Charles Colville , to lead the 2nd Brigade , as part of the British army force occupying Flanders and France .
On 25 October 1818 , General Murray appointed him to be the commanding officer at Calais to oversee the evacuation of British troops from France . When it was completed , the mayor of Calais wrote a letter to express thanks for his " considerate treatment of the French and of the town of Calais during the embarkation . "
= = Later life = =
Sir Manley Power later served as the Lieutenant Governor of Malta for six years . Manley Power would have been familiar with the island , having been previously stationed there in 1802 with the 20th Regiment of Foot .
In addition to his battle honours , for his role in Peninsular War , Portugal conferred on him Knight Commander of the Order of the Tower and Sword . The honour Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath was conferred on him on 2 January 1815 .
When in England , Manley Power and his family lived in Hill Court Manor , Walford , near Ross @-@ on @-@ Wye , Herefordshire . Based on Burke 's records , he was likely Lord of the Manor of Walford , Ross , Ross Foreign , Aston Ingham , and Wilton . Sir Manley Power died on 7 July 1826 , in Bern , Switzerland , after a few hours illness while returning from Malta to England . He is buried at Bath Abbey in England .
A march named Sir Manley Power was the official quick march used by the 57th ( West Middlesex ) Regiment of Foot ( " the Die Hards " — a nickname earned at the Battle of Albuera ) ; presumably adopting the march sometime after serving in the 2nd Division during the Peninsular war , continuing to use it as the Middlesex Regiment formed in 1881 , and later as part of the 4th Battalion ( Middlesex ) of the Queen 's Regiment .
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= Shane Hurlbut =
Shane Hurlbut ( born 1964 ) , also credited as L. Shane Hurlbut , is an American cinematographer . Originally from Ithaca , New York , he grew up near Cayuga Lake , and graduated from Southern Cayuga High School in 1982 . Hurlbut studied film at Emerson College , graduating with a degree in film and television in 1986 . His early career included work on music videos for Gloria Estefan and Smashing Pumpkins . He met director Rob Cohen while working on a music video for the 1996 disaster film Daylight , and again worked with Cohen as cinematographer for the television pilot of The Guardian .
Hurlbut received a nomination for an award from the American Society of Cinematographers for his work as director of cinematography on the 1998 television movie The Rat Pack – he was the youngest cinematographer ever to have been nominated for an American Society of Cinematographers award for a debut film .
He has received positive comments from film critics for his cinematography work on films including Drumline and Mr. 3000 , and in a review of the film Into the Blue Roger Ebert highlighted Hurlbut 's work . In a review of the 2005 film The Greatest Game Ever Played Joan E. Vadeboncoeur of The Post @-@ Standard described Hurlbut as a " splendid cinematographer " who contributed " beauty and atmosphere " to the film 's shots . His work on the 2006 romantic comedy Something New where he collaborated with director Sanaa Hamri was positively received in The Times @-@ Picayune and The Journal News , and his cinematography work on the 2006 film Waist Deep with director Vondie Curtis @-@ Hall was well received in The Seattle Times .
= = Early life = =
Hurlbut was raised in Ithaca , New York . His mother taught sixth grade , and his father worked as a professor 's assistant at Cornell University . He grew up on a 250 @-@ acre ( 1 @.@ 0 km2 ) farm in Aurora , New York near Cayuga Lake , and graduated from Southern Cayuga High School in 1982 . He married Lydia Kunkler , a fellow graduate of Southern Cayuga .
Hurlbut attended Herkimer County Community College , graduating with a degree in radio and television broadcasting in 1984 , and he was inducted into the Alumni Hall of Honor by the Herkimer County Community College Alumni Association on April 4 , 2008 . Hurlbut received a bachelor 's degree from Emerson College , where he majored in film and television . He graduated from Emerson College in 1986 .
= = Career = =
= = = 1987 – 2004 = = =
Hurlbut moved to Los Angeles in 1987 , where he began work in film as a driver , key grip , and gaffer , before becoming a cinematographer . He was a grip truck driver for the 1988 film Phantasm II . His early career included work on music videos for Gloria Estefan and Smashing Pumpkins , photo shoot work with photographer Herb Ritts for an April 1997 Absolut Vodka spread in Vogue magazine , and work on a Nissan " Enjoy the Ride " commercial . He met director Rob Cohen while working on the Donna Summer / Bruce Roberts music video for the 1996 disaster film Daylight . Hurlbut again worked with Cohen as cinematographer for the 1997 NBC television pilot The Guardian . In 1997 Hurlbut 's career focused on light as applied to photography and film , and he owned a lighting business in Pasadena , California . Hurlbut assisted friends from Southern Cayuga in their film careers , including Dan Wade and Tim Carr .
Cohen selected Hurlbut as his cinematographer for the 1998 television movie The Rat Pack , which was Hurlbut 's feature film debut . His lighting style for the movie was heavily influenced by the glamour photography of George Hurrell . Hurlbut received a nomination for an award from the American Society of Cinematographers for his cinematography work on the movie , becoming the youngest cinematographer ever to have been nominated for an American Society of Cinematographers award for a debut film . Hurlbut worked again with Cohen on the 2000 film The Skulls , which was his first theatrical feature film .
He received positive comments for his work on the 2002 film Drumline , directed by Charles Stone III . Lou Lumenick of the New York Post wrote that the film was " Handsomely photographed by Shane Hurlbut " . " With 300 students dancing , running , jumping , singing and playing , Stone and cinematographer Shane Hurlbut bring you right inside the brassy band , nudged between the tubas , saxophones and clarinets , " wrote Clint O 'Connor of The Plain Dealer . Charles Taylor of Salon commented " The movie was shot by Shane Hurlbut and none of the shots call attention to themselves . Instead you 're struck by the beauty of watching a row of drummers ' hands as they blur with the rhythm their sticks are beating out . " Hurlbut worked with director Barry Levinson , as cinematographer for The Adventures of Seinfeld & Superman advertisements for American Express .
In 2004 , Hurlbut teamed up with director Charles Stone III again to work on the film Mr. 3000 . In a positive review of the film , Harper Barnes of the St. Louis Post @-@ Dispatch highlighted Hurlbut , noting he had previously worked with the film 's editor , Bill Pankow , on Drumline . In a review of Mr. 3000 for The Manhattan Mercury , arts critic G.W. Clift specifically highlighted Hurlbut 's work on the film , commenting : " Mr. 3000 has several attractions , even unexpected ones like Shane Hurlbut 's heart @-@ stopping photography . ... one doesn 't mind that it lingers over scenes , in part because the scenes look so very good . " In his review Mr. 3000 for the Intelligencer Journal , Jack Roberts also highlighted Hurlbut 's work on the film .
= = = 2005 – present = = =
Hurlbut 's cinematography work on the 2005 film Into the Blue received positive reception from film critic Roger Ebert . In a review of Into the Blue for the San Francisco Chronicle , Peter Hartlaub noted " director of photography Shane Hurlbut does some nice work in tight places " . Lou Lumenick wrote in the New York Post that the " watery interludes " in Into the Blue were " gorgeously photographed by Shane Hurlbut " . Though Associated Press writer David Germain gave a negative review overall of Into the Blue , he wrote positively of Hurlbut 's cinematography work , commenting : " Shane Hurlbut 's cinematography buoys the movie , but his lovely pictures of the actors swimming among jellyfish and shimmery aquatic vegetation cannot compensate for everything else . "
Bob Strauss of the Los Angeles Daily News also wrote positively of Hurlbut 's work in his review of Into the Blue , writing : " The undersea photography , much of it shot amid schools of wild sharks , is exquisite ... " Strauss also commented positively on Hurlbut 's work on the 2005 film The Greatest Game Ever Played , writing he " does a great job of making golf look cinematic " . Soren Andersen of The News Tribune wrote of Hurlbut 's work on The Greatest Game Ever Played : " Shot by cinematographer Shane Hurlbut , the picture is extraordinarily handsome , with its velvety green fairways and its burnished , candlelit interiors . " Joan E. Vadeboncoeur of The Post @-@ Standard was critical of the film 's script , but praised Hurlbut 's work : " Director Bill Paxton does have a splendid cinematographer , Shane Hurlbut , contributing beauty and atmosphere . "
In 2005 , Hurlbut became the first cinematographer to utilize the InDI process developed by LaserPacific , while working on the film Something New . In 2006 , Hurlbut became a member of the American Society of Cinematographers . Hurlbut 's cinematography work on the 2006 romantic comedy was positively received by film critic Michael H. Kleinschrodt of The Times @-@ Picayune , who wrote : " Cinematographer Shane Hurlbut finds interesting angles from which to shoot and photographs a formal cotillion with panache . " Kevin Canfield of The Journal News noted that Hurlbut assisted director Sanaa Hamri with " one lovely scene of the lovers bathed in the orangy light of morning and another , shot from overhead , of couples twirling on a dance floor " .
Hurlbut worked on the 2006 film Waist Deep with director Vondie Curtis @-@ Hall , and Tom Keogh of The Seattle Times described their work on shots prior to a kidnapping scene in the film as " close to breathtaking " . Hurlbut worked as cinematographer on the 2008 film Semi @-@ Pro starring Will Ferrell , and Steven Boone of The Star @-@ Ledger noted : " ... Shane Hurlbut 's widescreen sports cinematography does conspire with two notorious disco covers of classical music to give us a thrill along with the cheap laughs . " Hurlbut collaborated with director McG as director of photography on the 2006 film We Are Marshall . Hurlbut and McG decided to use vintage lenses and film stock from the time period to evoke a feeling of the 1970s .
In 2008 , Hurlbut again worked with director McG , as director of photography on the film Terminator Salvation . During shooting for the film in July 2008 , Hurlbut faced an expletive @-@ ridden tirade from actor Christian Bale , who berated Hurlbut for walking into a scene involving Bale and actress Bryce Dallas Howard . Hurlbut responded calmly and apologized several times to Bale , and continued shooting for seven hours after the incident . On February 6 , 2009 , Bale told KROQ @-@ FM radio that he and Hurlbut talked after the incident and " resolved this completely " . Bale acknowledged the two worked together for several hours after the incident , and " at least a month after that " , and noted " I 've seen a rough cut of the movie and he has done a wonderful job . It looks fantastic " .
Charles Stone III , director of the original " Whassup ? " commercial campaign for Anheuser @-@ Busch Budweiser beer , remembered Hurlbut from their work together on Drumline , and contacted him in 2008 to make a video in support of Barack Obama 's 2008 campaign for President . The video , " Wassup 2008 " was posted to YouTube in October 2008 and received over 1 @.@ 8 million views .
= = Filmography = =
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= Emily Dickinson =
Emily Elizabeth Dickinson ( December 10 , 1830 – May 15 , 1886 ) was an American poet . Dickinson was born in Amherst , Massachusetts . Although part of a prominent family with strong ties to its community , Dickinson lived much of her life highly introverted . After studying at the Amherst Academy for seven years in her youth , she briefly attended the Mount Holyoke Female Seminary before returning to her family 's house in Amherst . Considered an eccentric by locals , she developed a noted penchant for white clothing and became known for her reluctance to greet guests or , later in life , to even leave her bedroom . Dickinson never married , and most friendships between her and others depended entirely upon correspondence .
While Dickinson was a prolific private poet , fewer than a dozen of her nearly 1 @,@ 800 poems were published during her lifetime . The work that was published during her lifetime was usually altered significantly by the publishers to fit the conventional poetic rules of the time . Dickinson 's poems are unique for the era in which she wrote ; they contain short lines , typically lack titles , and often use slant rhyme as well as unconventional capitalization and punctuation . Many of her poems deal with themes of death and immortality , two recurring topics in letters to her friends .
Although Dickinson 's acquaintances were most likely aware of her writing , it was not until after her death in 1886 — when Lavinia , Dickinson 's younger sister , discovered her cache of poems — that the breadth of her work became apparent to the public . Her first collection of poetry was published in 1890 by personal acquaintances Thomas Wentworth Higginson and Mabel Loomis Todd , though both heavily edited the content . A complete , and mostly unaltered , collection of her poetry became available for the first time when scholar Thomas H. Johnson published The Poems of Emily Dickinson in 1955 . Despite some unfavorable reception and skepticism over the late 19th and early 20th centuries regarding her literary prowess , Dickinson is now almost universally considered to be one of the most significant of all American poets .
= = Life = =
= = = Family and early childhood = = =
Emily Elizabeth Dickinson was born at the family 's homestead in Amherst , Massachusetts , on December 10 , 1830 , into a prominent , but not wealthy , family . Two hundred years earlier , her patrilineal ancestors had arrived in the New World — in the Puritan Great Migration — where they prospered . Emily Dickinson 's paternal grandfather , Samuel Dickinson , had almost single @-@ handedly founded Amherst College . In 1813 , he built the homestead , a large mansion on the town 's Main Street , that became the focus of Dickinson family life for the better part of a century . Samuel Dickinson 's eldest son , Edward , was treasurer of Amherst College for nearly forty years , served numerous terms as a State Legislator , and represented the Hampshire district in the United States Congress . On May 6 , 1828 , he married Emily Norcross from Monson . They had three children :
William Austin ( 1829 – 1895 ) , known as Austin , Aust or Awe
Emily Elizabeth
Lavinia Norcross ( 1833 – 1899 ) , known as Lavinia or Vinnie
By all accounts , young Emily was a well @-@ behaved girl . On an extended visit to Monson when she was two , Emily 's Aunt Lavinia described Emily as " perfectly well & contented — She is a very good child & but little trouble . " Emily 's aunt also noted the girl 's affinity for music and her particular talent for the piano , which she called " the moosic " .
Dickinson attended primary school in a two @-@ story building on Pleasant Street . Her education was " ambitiously classical for a Victorian girl " . Her father wanted his children well @-@ educated and he followed their progress even while away on business . When Emily was seven , he wrote home , reminding his children to " keep school , and learn , so as to tell me , when I come home , how many new things you have learned " . While Emily consistently described her father in a warm manner , her correspondence suggests that her mother was regularly cold and aloof . In a letter to a confidante , Emily wrote she " always ran Home to Awe [ Austin ] when a child , if anything befell me . He was an awful Mother , but I liked him better than none . "
On September 7 , 1840 , Dickinson and her sister Lavinia started together at Amherst Academy , a former boys ' school that had opened to female students just two years earlier . At about the same time , her father purchased a house on North Pleasant Street . Emily 's brother Austin later described this large new home as the " mansion " over which he and Emily presided as " lord and lady " while their parents were absent . The house overlooked Amherst 's burial ground , described by one local minister as treeless and " forbidding " .
= = = Teenage years = = =
Dickinson spent seven years at the Academy , taking classes in English and classical literature , Latin , botany , geology , history , " mental philosophy , " and arithmetic . Daniel Taggart Fiske , the school 's principal at the time , would later recall that Dickinson was " very bright " and " an excellent scholar , of exemplary deportment , faithful in all school duties " . Although she had a few terms off due to illness — the longest of which was in 1845 – 1846 , when she was enrolled for only eleven weeks — she enjoyed her strenuous studies , writing to a friend that the Academy was " a very fine school " .
Dickinson was troubled from a young age by the " deepening menace " of death , especially the deaths of those who were close to her . When Sophia Holland , her second cousin and a close friend , grew ill from typhus and died in April 1844 , Emily was traumatized . Recalling the incident two years later , Emily wrote that " it seemed to me I should die too if I could not be permitted to watch over her or even look at her face . " She became so melancholic that her parents sent her to stay with family in Boston to recover . With her health and spirits restored , she soon returned to Amherst Academy to continue her studies . During this period , she first met people who were to become lifelong friends and correspondents , such as Abiah Root , Abby Wood , Jane Humphrey , and Susan Huntington Gilbert ( who later married Emily 's brother Austin ) .
In 1845 , a religious revival took place in Amherst , resulting in 46 confessions of faith among Dickinson 's peers . Dickinson wrote to a friend the following year : " I never enjoyed such perfect peace and happiness as the short time in which I felt I had found my savior . " She went on to say that it was her " greatest pleasure to commune alone with the great God & to feel that he would listen to my prayers . " The experience did not last : Dickinson never made a formal declaration of faith and attended services regularly for only a few years . After her church @-@ going ended , about 1852 , she wrote a poem opening : " Some keep the Sabbath going to Church – / I keep it , staying at Home " .
During the last year of her stay at the Academy , Emily became friendly with Leonard Humphrey , its popular new young principal . After finishing her final term at the Academy on August 10 , 1847 , Dickinson began attending Mary Lyon 's Mount Holyoke Female Seminary ( which later became Mount Holyoke College ) in South Hadley , about ten miles ( 16 km ) from Amherst . She was at the seminary for only ten months . Although she liked the girls at Holyoke , Dickinson made no lasting friendships there . The explanations for her brief stay at Holyoke differ considerably : either she was in poor health , her father wanted to have her at home , she rebelled against the evangelical fervor present at the school , she disliked the discipline @-@ minded teachers , or she was simply homesick . Whatever the specific reason for leaving Holyoke , her brother Austin appeared on March 25 , 1848 , to " bring [ her ] home at all events " . Back in Amherst , Dickinson occupied her time with household activities . She took up baking for the family and enjoyed attending local events and activities in the budding college town .
= = = Early influences and writing = = =
When she was eighteen , Dickinson 's family befriended a young attorney by the name of Benjamin Franklin Newton . According to a letter written by Dickinson after Newton 's death , he had been " with my Father two years , before going to Worcester – in pursuing his studies , and was much in our family . " Although their relationship was probably not romantic , Newton was a formative influence and would become the second in a series of older men ( after Humphrey ) that Dickinson referred to , variously , as her tutor , preceptor or master .
Newton likely introduced her to the writings of William Wordsworth , and his gift to her of Ralph Waldo Emerson 's first book of collected poems had a liberating effect . She wrote later that he , " whose name my Father 's Law Student taught me , has touched the secret Spring " . Newton held her in high regard , believing in and recognizing her as a poet . When he was dying of tuberculosis , he wrote to her , saying that he would like to live until she achieved the greatness he foresaw . Biographers believe that Dickinson 's statement of 1862 — " When a little Girl , I had a friend , who taught me Immortality – but venturing too near , himself – he never returned " — refers to Newton .
Dickinson was familiar not only with the Bible but also with contemporary popular literature . She was probably influenced by Lydia Maria Child 's Letters from New York , another gift from Newton ( after reading it , she gushed " This then is a book ! And there are more of them ! " ) . Her brother smuggled a copy of Henry Wadsworth Longfellow 's Kavanagh into the house for her ( because her father might disapprove ) and a friend lent her Charlotte Brontë 's Jane Eyre in late 1849 . Jane Eyre 's influence cannot be measured , but when Dickinson acquired her first and only dog , a Newfoundland , she named him " Carlo " after the character St. John Rivers ' dog . William Shakespeare was also a potent influence in her life . Referring to his plays , she wrote to one friend " Why clasp any hand but this ? " and to another , " Why is any other book needed ? "
= = = Adulthood and seclusion = = =
In early 1850 , Dickinson wrote that " Amherst is alive with fun this winter ... Oh , a very great town this is ! " Her high spirits soon turned to melancholy after another death . The Amherst Academy principal , Leonard Humphrey , died suddenly of " brain congestion " at age 25 . Two years after his death , she revealed to her friend Abiah Root the extent of her depression :
some of my friends are gone , and some of my friends are sleeping – sleeping the churchyard sleep – the hour of evening is sad – it was once my study hour – my master has gone to rest , and the open leaf of the book , and the scholar at school alone , make the tears come , and I cannot brush them away ; I would not if I could , for they are the only tribute I can pay the departed Humphrey .
During the 1850s , Emily 's strongest and most affectionate relationship was with her sister @-@ in @-@ law , Susan Gilbert . Emily eventually sent her over three hundred letters , more than to any other correspondent , over the course of their friendship . Susan was supportive of the poet , playing the role of " most beloved friend , influence , muse , and adviser " whose editorial suggestions Dickinson sometimes followed , Sue played a primary role in Emily 's creative processes . " Sue married Austin in 1856 after a four @-@ year courtship , though their marriage was not a happy one . Edward Dickinson built a house for Austin and Sue naming it the Evergreens , a stand of which was located on the west side of the Homestead . There is controversy over how to view Emily 's friendship with Susan ; according to a point of view first promoted by Mabel Loomis Todd , Austin 's longtime mistress , Emily 's missives typically dealt with demands for Sue 's affection and the fear of unrequited admiration . Todd believed that because Sue was often aloof and disagreeable , Emily was continually hurt by what was mostly a tempestuous friendship . However , the notion of a " cruel " Susan — as promoted by her romantic rival — has been questioned , most especially by Sue and Austin 's surviving children , with whom Emily was close .
Until 1855 , Dickinson had not strayed far from Amherst . That spring , accompanied by her mother and sister , she took one of her longest and farthest trips away from home . First , they spent three weeks in Washington , where her father was representing Massachusetts in Congress . Then they went to Philadelphia for two weeks to visit family . In Philadelphia , she met Charles Wadsworth , a famous minister of the Arch Street Presbyterian Church , with whom she forged a strong friendship which lasted until his death in 1882 . Despite seeing him only twice after 1855 ( he moved to San Francisco in 1862 ) , she variously referred to him as " my Philadelphia " , " my Clergyman " , " my dearest earthly friend " and " my Shepherd from ' Little Girl 'hood " .
From the mid @-@ 1850s , Emily 's mother became effectively bedridden with various chronic illnesses until her death in 1882 . Writing to a friend in summer 1858 , Emily said that she would visit if she could leave " home , or mother . I do not go out at all , lest father will come and miss me , or miss some little act , which I might forget , should I run away – Mother is much as usual . I Know not what to hope of her " . As her mother continued to decline , Dickinson 's domestic responsibilities weighed more heavily upon her and she confined herself within the Homestead . Forty years later , Lavinia stated that because their mother was chronically ill , one of the daughters had to remain always with her . Emily took this role as her own , and " finding the life with her books and nature so congenial , continued to live it " .
Withdrawing more and more from the outside world , Emily began in the summer of 1858 what would be her lasting legacy . Reviewing poems she had written previously , she began making clean copies of her work , assembling carefully pieced @-@ together manuscript books . The forty fascicles she created from 1858 through 1865 eventually held nearly eight hundred poems . No one was aware of the existence of these books until after her death .
In the late 1850s , the Dickinsons befriended Samuel Bowles , the owner and editor @-@ in @-@ chief of the Springfield Republican , and his wife , Mary . They visited the Dickinsons regularly for years to come . During this time Emily sent him over three dozen letters and nearly fifty poems . Their friendship brought out some of her most intense writing and Bowles published a few of her poems in his journal . It was from 1858 to 1861 that Dickinson is believed to have written a trio of letters that have been called " The Master Letters " . These three letters , drafted to an unknown man simply referred to as " Master " , continue to be the subject of speculation and contention amongst scholars .
The first half of the 1860s , after she had largely withdrawn from social life , proved to be Dickinson 's most productive writing period . Modern scholars and researchers are divided as to the cause for Dickinson 's withdrawal and extreme seclusion . While she was diagnosed as having " nervous prostration " by a physician during her lifetime , some today believe she may have suffered from illnesses as various as agoraphobia and epilepsy .
= = = Is " my Verse ... alive ? " = = =
In April 1862 , Thomas Wentworth Higginson , a literary critic , radical abolitionist , and ex @-@ minister , wrote a lead piece for The Atlantic Monthly entitled , " Letter to a Young Contributor " . Higginson 's essay , in which he urged aspiring writers to " charge your style with life " , contained practical advice for those wishing to break into print . Dickinson 's decision to contact Higginson suggests that by 1862 she was contemplating publication and that it may have become increasingly difficult to write poetry without an audience . Seeking literary guidance that no one close to her could provide , Dickinson sent him a letter which read in full :
Mr Higginson ,
Are you too deeply occupied to say if my Verse is alive ?
The Mind is so near itself – it cannot see , distinctly – and I have none to ask –
Should you think it breathed – and had you the leisure to tell me , I should feel quick gratitude –
If I make the mistake – that you dared to tell me – would give me sincerer honor – toward you –
I enclose my name – asking you , if you please – Sir – to tell me what is true ?
That you will not betray me – it is needless to ask – since Honor is it 's [ sic ] own pawn –
This highly nuanced and largely theatrical letter was unsigned , but she had included her name on a card and enclosed it in an envelope , along with four of her poems . He praised her work but suggested that she delay publishing until she had written longer , being unaware that she had already appeared in print . She assured him that publishing was as foreign to her " as Firmament to Fin " , but also proposed that " If fame belonged to me , I could not escape her " . Dickinson delighted in dramatic self @-@ characterization and mystery in her letters to Higginson . She said of herself , " I am small , like the wren , and my hair is bold , like the chestnut bur , and my eyes like the sherry in the glass that the guest leaves . " She stressed her solitary nature , stating that her only real companions were the hills , the sundown , and her dog , Carlo . She also mentioned that whereas her mother did not " care for Thought " , her father bought her books , but begged her " not to read them – because he fears they joggle the Mind " .
Dickinson valued his advice , going from calling him " Mr. Higginson " to " Dear friend " as well as signing her letters , " Your Gnome " and " Your Scholar " . His interest in her work certainly provided great moral support ; many years later , Dickinson told Higginson that he had saved her life in 1862 . They corresponded until her death , but her difficulty in expressing her literary needs and a reluctance to enter into a cooperative exchange left Higginson nonplussed ; he did not press her to publish in subsequent correspondence . Dickinson 's own ambivalence on the matter militated against the likelihood of publication . Literary critic Edmund Wilson , in his review of Civil War literature , surmised that " with encouragement , she would certainly have published " .
= = = The woman in white = = =
In direct opposition to the immense productivity that she displayed in the early 1860s , Dickinson wrote fewer poems in 1866 . Beset with personal loss as well as loss of domestic help , Dickinson may have been too overcome to keep up her previous level of writing . Carlo died during this time after providing sixteen years of companionship ; Dickinson never owned another dog . Although the household servant of nine years , Margaret O Brien , had married and left the Homestead that same year , it was not until 1869 that her family brought in a permanent household servant , Margaret Maher , to replace the old one . Emily once again was responsible for chores , including the baking , at which she excelled .
Around this time , Dickinson 's behavior began to change . She did not leave the Homestead unless it was absolutely necessary and as early as 1867 , she began to talk to visitors from the other side of a door rather than speaking to them face to face . She acquired local notoriety ; she was rarely seen , and when she was , she was usually clothed in white . Dickinson 's one surviving article of clothing is a white cotton dress , possibly sewn circa 1878 – 1882 . Few of the locals who exchanged messages with Dickinson during her last fifteen years ever saw her in person . Austin and his family began to protect Emily 's privacy , deciding that she was not to be a subject of discussion with outsiders . Despite her physical seclusion , however , Dickinson was socially active and expressive through what makes up two @-@ thirds of her surviving notes and letters . When visitors came to either the Homestead or the Evergreens , she would often leave or send over small gifts of poems or flowers . Dickinson also had a good rapport with the children in her life . Mattie Dickinson , the second child of Austin and Sue , later said that " Aunt Emily stood for indulgence . " MacGregor ( Mac ) Jenkins , the son of family friends who later wrote a short article in 1891 called " A Child 's Recollection of Emily Dickinson " , thought of her as always offering support to the neighborhood children .
When Higginson urged her to come to Boston in 1868 so that they could formally meet for the first time , she declined , writing : " Could it please your convenience to come so far as Amherst I should be very glad , but I do not cross my Father 's ground to any House or town " . It was not until he came to Amherst in 1870 that they met . Later he referred to her , in the most detailed and vivid physical account of her on record , as " a little plain woman with two smooth bands of reddish hair ... in a very plain & exquisitely clean white pique & a blue net worsted shawl . " He also felt that he never was " with any one who drained my nerve power so much . Without touching her , she drew from me . I am glad not to live near her . "
= = = Posies and poesies = = =
Scholar Judith Farr notes that Dickinson , during her lifetime , " was known more widely as a gardener , perhaps , than as a poet " . Dickinson studied botany from the age of nine and , along with her sister , tended the garden at Homestead . During her lifetime , she assembled a collection of pressed plants in a sixty @-@ six page leather @-@ bound herbarium . It contained 424 pressed flower specimens that she collected , classified , and labeled using the Linnaean system . The Homestead garden was well @-@ known and admired locally in its time . It has not survived but efforts to revive it have begun . Dickinson kept no garden notebooks or plant lists , but a clear impression can be formed from the letters and recollections of friends and family . Her niece , Martha Dickinson Bianchi , remembered " carpets of lily @-@ of @-@ the @-@ valley and pansies , platoons of sweetpeas , hyacinths , enough in May to give all the bees of summer dyspepsia . There were ribbons of peony hedges and drifts of daffodils in season , marigolds to distraction — a butterfly utopia " . In particular , Dickinson cultivated scented exotic flowers , writing that she " could inhabit the Spice Isles merely by crossing the dining room to the conservatory , where the plants hang in baskets " . Dickinson would often send her friends bunches of flowers with verses attached , but " they valued the posy more than the poetry " .
= = = Later life = = =
On June 16 , 1874 , while in Boston , Edward Dickinson suffered a stroke and died . When the simple funeral was held in the Homestead 's entrance hall , Emily stayed in her room with the door cracked open . Neither did she attend the memorial service on June 28 . She wrote to Higginson that her father 's " Heart was pure and terrible and I think no other like it exists . " A year later , on June 15 , 1875 , Emily 's mother also suffered a stroke , which produced a partial lateral paralysis and impaired memory . Lamenting her mother 's increasing physical as well as mental demands , Emily wrote that " Home is so far from Home " .
Otis Phillips Lord , an elderly judge on the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court from Salem , in 1872 or 1873 became an acquaintance of Dickinson 's . After the death of Lord 's wife in 1877 , his friendship with Dickinson probably became a late @-@ life romance , though as their letters were destroyed , this is surmised . Dickinson found a kindred soul in Lord , especially in terms of shared literary interests ; the few letters which survived contain multiple quotations of Shakespeare 's work , including the plays Othello , Antony and Cleopatra , Hamlet and King Lear . In 1880 he gave her Cowden Clarke 's Complete Concordance to Shakespeare ( 1877 ) . Dickinson wrote that " While others go to Church , I go to mine , for are you not my Church , and have we not a Hymn that no one knows but us ? " She referred to him as " My lovely Salem " and they wrote to each other religiously every Sunday . Dickinson looked forward to this day greatly ; a surviving fragment of a letter written by her states that " Tuesday is a deeply depressed Day " .
After being critically ill for several years , Judge Lord died in March 1884 . Dickinson referred to him as " our latest Lost " . Two years before this , on April 1 , 1882 , Dickinson 's " Shepherd from ' Little Girl 'hood " , Charles Wadsworth , also had died after a long illness .
= = = Decline and death = = =
Although she continued to write in her last years , Dickinson stopped editing and organizing her poems . She also exacted a promise from her sister Lavinia to burn her papers . Lavinia , who also never married , remained at the Homestead until her own death in 1899 .
The 1880s were a difficult time for the remaining Dickinsons . Irreconcilably alienated from his wife , Austin fell in love in 1882 with Mabel Loomis Todd , an Amherst College faculty wife who had recently moved to the area . Todd never met Dickinson but was intrigued by her , referring to her as " a lady whom the people call the Myth " . Austin distanced himself from his family as his affair continued and his wife became sick with grief . Dickinson 's mother died on November 14 , 1882 . Five weeks later , Dickinson wrote " We were never intimate ... while she was our Mother – but Mines in the same Ground meet by tunneling and when she became our Child , the Affection came . " The next year , Austin and Sue 's third and youngest child , Gilbert — Emily 's favorite — died of typhoid fever .
As death succeeded death , Dickinson found her world upended . In the fall of 1884 , she wrote that " The Dyings have been too deep for me , and before I could raise my Heart from one , another has come . " That summer she had seen " a great darkness coming " and fainted while baking in the kitchen . She remained unconscious late into the night and weeks of ill health followed . On November 30 , 1885 , her feebleness and other symptoms were so worrying that Austin canceled a trip to Boston . She was confined to her bed for a few months , but managed to send a final burst of letters in the spring . What is thought to be her last letter was sent to her cousins , Louise and Frances Norcross , and simply read : " Little Cousins , Called Back . Emily " . On May 15 , 1886 , after several days of worsening symptoms , Emily Dickinson died at the age of 55 . Austin wrote in his diary that " the day was awful ... she ceased to breathe that terrible breathing just before the [ afternoon ] whistle sounded for six . " Dickinson 's chief physician gave the cause of death as Bright 's disease and its duration as two and a half years .
Dickinson was buried , laid in a white coffin with vanilla @-@ scented heliotrope , a Lady 's Slipper orchid , and a " knot of blue field violets " placed about it . The funeral service , held in the Homestead 's library , was simple and short ; Higginson , who had met her only twice , read " No Coward Soul Is Mine " , a poem by Emily Brontë that had been a favorite of Dickinson 's . At Dickinson 's request , her " coffin [ was ] not driven but carried through fields of buttercups " for burial in the family plot at West Cemetery on Triangle Street .
= = Publication = =
Despite Dickinson 's prolific writing , fewer than a dozen of her poems were published during her lifetime . After her younger sister Lavinia discovered the collection of nearly 1800 poems , Dickinson 's first volume was published four years after her death . Until Thomas H. Johnson published Dickinson 's Complete Poems in 1955 , Dickinson 's poems were considerably edited and altered from their manuscript versions . Since 1890 Dickinson has remained continuously in print .
= = = Contemporary = = =
A few of Dickinson 's poems appeared in Samuel Bowles ' Springfield Republican between 1858 and 1868 . They were published anonymously and heavily edited , with conventionalized punctuation and formal titles . The first poem , " Nobody knows this little rose " , may have been published without Dickinson 's permission . The Republican also published " A narrow Fellow in the Grass " as " The Snake " , " Safe in their Alabaster Chambers – " as " The Sleeping " , and " Blazing in the Gold and quenching in Purple " as " Sunset " . The poem " I taste a liquor never brewed – " is an example of the edited versions ; the last two lines in the first stanza were completely rewritten .
In 1864 , several poems were altered and published in Drum Beat , to raise funds for medical care for Union soldiers in the war . Another appeared in April 1864 in the Brooklyn Daily Union .
In the 1870s , Higginson showed Dickinson 's poems to Helen Hunt Jackson , who had coincidentally been at the Academy with Dickinson when they were girls . Jackson was deeply involved in the publishing world , and managed to convince Dickinson to publish her poem " Success is counted sweetest " anonymously in a volume called A Masque of Poets . The poem , however , was altered to agree with contemporary taste . It was the last poem published during Dickinson 's lifetime .
= = = Posthumous = = =
After Dickinson 's death , Lavinia Dickinson kept her promise and burned most of the poet 's correspondence . Significantly though , Dickinson had left no instructions about the 40 notebooks and loose sheets gathered in a locked chest . Lavinia recognized the poems ' worth and became obsessed with seeing them published . She turned first to her brother 's wife and then to Mabel Loomis Todd , her brother 's mistress , for assistance . A feud ensued , with the manuscripts divided between the Todd and Dickinson houses , preventing complete publication of Dickinson 's poetry for more than half a century .
The first volume of Dickinson 's Poems , edited jointly by Mabel Loomis Todd and T. W. Higginson , appeared in November 1890 . Although Todd claimed that only essential changes were made , the poems were extensively edited to match punctuation and capitalization to late 19th @-@ century standards , with occasional rewordings to reduce Dickinson 's obliquity . The first 115 @-@ poem volume was a critical and financial success , going through eleven printings in two years . Poems : Second Series followed in 1891 , running to five editions by 1893 ; a third series appeared in 1896 . One reviewer , in 1892 , wrote : " The world will not rest satisfied till every scrap of her writings , letters as well as literature , has been published " .
Nearly a dozen new editions of Dickinson 's poetry , whether containing previously unpublished or newly edited poems , were published between 1914 and 1945 . Martha Dickinson Bianchi , the daughter of Susan and Edward Dickinson , published collections of her aunt 's poetry based on the manuscripts held by her family , whereas Mabel Loomis Todd 's daughter , Millicent Todd Bingham , published collections based on the manuscripts held by her mother . These competing editions of Dickinson 's poetry , often differing in order and structure , ensured that the poet 's work was in the public 's eye .
The first scholarly publication came in 1955 with a complete new three @-@ volume set edited by Thomas H. Johnson . Forming the basis of later Dickinson scholarship , Johnson 's variorum brought all of Dickinson 's known poems together for the first time . Johnson 's goal was to present the poems very nearly as Dickinson had left them in her manuscripts . They were untitled , only numbered in an approximate chronological sequence , strewn with dashes and irregularly capitalized , and often extremely elliptical in their language . Three years later , Johnson edited and published , along with Theodora Ward , a complete collection of Dickinson 's letters , also presented in three volumes .
In 1981 , The Manuscript Books of Emily Dickinson was published . Using the physical evidence of the original papers , the poems were intended to be published in their original order for the first time . Editor Ralph W. Franklin relied on smudge marks , needle punctures and other clues to reassemble the poet 's packets . Since then , many critics have argued for thematic unity in these small collections , believing the ordering of the poems to be more than chronological or convenient .
Dickinson biographer Alfred Habegger wrote in My Wars Are Laid Away in Books : The Life of Emily Dickinson ( 2001 ) that " The consequences of the poet 's failure to disseminate her work in a faithful and orderly manner are still very much with us " .
= = Poetry = =
See : Emily Dickinson at Wikisource for complete poetic works
Dickinson 's poems generally fall into three distinct periods , the works in each period having certain general characters in common .
Pre @-@ 1861 . These are often conventional and sentimental in nature . Thomas H. Johnson , who later published The Poems of Emily Dickinson , was able to date only five of Dickinson 's poems before 1858 . Two of these are mock valentines done in an ornate and humorous style , and two others are conventional lyrics , one of which is about missing her brother Austin . The fifth poem , which begins " I have a Bird in spring " , conveys her grief over the feared loss of friendship and was sent to her friend Sue Gilbert .
1861 – 1865 . This was her most creative period — these poems are more vigorous and emotional . Johnson estimated that she composed 86 poems in 1861 , 366 in 1862 , 141 in 1863 , and 174 in 1864 . He also believed that this is when she fully developed her themes of life and death .
Post @-@ 1866 . It is estimated that two @-@ thirds of the entire body of her poetry was written before this year .
= = = Structure and syntax = = =
The extensive use of dashes and unconventional capitalization in Dickinson 's manuscripts , and the idiosyncratic vocabulary and imagery , combine to create a body of work that is " far more various in its styles and forms than is commonly supposed " . Dickinson avoids pentameter , opting more generally for trimeter , tetrameter and , less often , dimeter . Sometimes her use of these meters is regular , but oftentimes it is irregular . The regular form that she most often employs is the ballad stanza , a traditional form that is divided into quatrains , using tetrameter for the first and third lines and trimeter for the second and fourth , while rhyming the second and fourth lines ( ABCB ) . Though Dickinson often uses perfect rhymes for lines two and four , she also makes frequent use of slant rhyme . In some of her poems , she varies the meter from the traditional ballad stanza by using trimeter for lines one , two and four , while only using tetrameter for line three .
Since many of her poems were written in traditional ballad stanzas with ABCB rhyme schemes , some of these poems can be sung to fit the melodies of popular folk songs and hymns that also use the common meter , employing alternating lines of iambic tetrameter and iambic trimeter . Familiar examples of such songs are " O Little Town of Bethlehem " and " Amazing Grace ' " .
Dickinson scholar and poet Anthony Hecht finds resonances in Dickinson 's poetry not only with hymns and song @-@ forms but also with psalms and riddles , citing the following example : " Who is the East ? / The Yellow Man / Who may be Purple if he can / That carries the Sun . / Who is the West ? / The Purple Man / Who may be Yellow if He can / That lets Him out again . "
Late 20th @-@ century scholars are " deeply interested " by Dickinson 's highly individual use of punctuation and lineation ( line lengths and line breaks ) . Following the publication of one of the few poems that appeared in her lifetime – " A narrow Fellow in the Grass " , published as " The Snake " in the Republican – Dickinson complained that the edited punctuation ( an added comma and a full stop substitution for the original dash ) altered the meaning of the entire poem .
As Farr points out , " snakes instantly notice you " ; Dickinson 's version captures the " breathless immediacy " of the encounter ; and The Republican 's punctuation renders " her lines more commonplace " . With the increasingly close focus on Dickinson 's structures and syntax has come a growing appreciation that they are " aesthetically based " . Although Johnson 's landmark 1955 edition of poems was relatively unaltered from the original , later scholars critiqued it for deviating from the style and layout of Dickinson 's manuscripts . Meaningful distinctions , these scholars assert , can be drawn from varying lengths and angles of dash , and differing arrangements of text on the page . Several volumes have attempted to render Dickinson 's handwritten dashes using many typographic symbols of varying length and angle . R. W. Franklin 's 1998 variorum edition of the poems provided alternate wordings to those chosen by Johnson , in a more limited editorial intervention . Franklin also used typeset dashes of varying length to approximate the manuscripts ' dashes more closely .
= = = Major themes = = =
Dickinson left no formal statement of her aesthetic intentions and , because of the variety of her themes , her work does not fit conveniently into any one genre . She has been regarded , alongside Emerson ( whose poems Dickinson admired ) , as a Transcendentalist . However , Farr disagrees with this analysis , saying that Dickinson 's " relentlessly measuring mind ... deflates the airy elevation of the Transcendental " . Apart from the major themes discussed below , Dickinson 's poetry frequently uses humor , puns , irony and satire .
Flowers and gardens : Farr notes that Dickinson 's " poems and letters almost wholly concern flowers " and that allusions to gardens often refer to an " imaginative realm ... wherein flowers [ are ] often emblems for actions and emotions " . She associates some flowers , like gentians and anemones , with youth and humility ; others with prudence and insight . Her poems were often sent to friends with accompanying letters and nosegays . Farr notes that one of Dickinson 's earlier poems , written about 1859 , appears to " conflate her poetry itself with the posies " : " My nosegays are for Captives – / Dim – long expectant eyes – / Fingers denied the plucking , / Patient till Paradise – / To such , if they sh 'd whisper / Of morning and the moor – / They bear no other errand , / And I , no other prayer " .
The Master poems : Dickinson left a large number of poems addressed to " Signor " , " Sir " and " Master " , who is characterized as Dickinson 's " lover for all eternity " . These confessional poems are often " searing in their self @-@ inquiry " and " harrowing to the reader " and typically take their metaphors from texts and paintings of Dickinson 's day . The Dickinson family themselves believed these poems were addressed to actual individuals but this view is frequently rejected by scholars . Farr , for example , contends that the Master is an unattainable composite figure , " human , with specific characteristics , but godlike " and speculates that Master may be a " kind of Christian muse " .
Morbidity : Dickinson 's poems reflect her " early and lifelong fascination " with illness , dying and death . Perhaps surprisingly for a New England spinster , her poems allude to death by many methods : " crucifixion , drowning , hanging , suffocation , freezing , premature burial , shooting , stabbing and guillotinage " . She reserved her sharpest insights into the " death blow aimed by God " and the " funeral in the brain " , often reinforced by images of thirst and starvation . Dickinson scholar Vivian Pollak considers these references an autobiographical reflection of Dickinson 's " thirsting @-@ starving persona " , an outward expression of her needy self @-@ image as small , thin and frail . Dickinson 's most psychologically complex poems explore the theme that the loss of hunger for life causes the death of self and place this at " the interface of murder and suicide " .
Gospel poems : Throughout her life , Dickinson wrote poems reflecting a preoccupation with the teachings of Jesus Christ and , indeed , many are addressed to him . She stresses the Gospels ' contemporary pertinence and recreates them , often with " wit and American colloquial language " . Scholar Dorothy Oberhaus finds that the " salient feature uniting Christian poets ... is their reverential attention to the life of Jesus Christ " and contends that Dickinson 's deep structures place her in the " poetic tradition of Christian devotion " alongside Hopkins , Eliot and Auden . In a Nativity poem , Dickinson combines lightness and wit to revisit an ancient theme : " The Savior must have been / A docile Gentleman – / To come so far so cold a Day / For little Fellowmen / The Road to Bethlehem / Since He and I were Boys / Was leveled , but for that twould be / A rugged billion Miles – " .
The Undiscovered Continent : Academic Suzanne Juhasz considers that Dickinson saw the mind and spirit as tangible visitable places and that for much of her life she lived within them . Often , this intensely private place is referred to as the " undiscovered continent " and the " landscape of the spirit " and embellished with nature imagery . At other times , the imagery is darker and forbidding — castles or prisons , complete with corridors and rooms — to create a dwelling place of " oneself " where one resides with one 's other selves . An example that brings together many of these ideas is : " Me from Myself – to banish – / Had I Art – / Impregnable my Fortress / Unto All Heart – / But since myself — assault Me – / How have I peace / Except by subjugating / Consciousness . / And since We 're mutual Monarch / How this be / Except by Abdication – / Me – of Me ? " .
= = = Reception = = =
The surge of posthumous publication gave Dickinson 's poetry its first public exposure . Backed by Higginson and with a favorable notice from William Dean Howells , an editor of Harper 's Magazine , the poetry received mixed reviews after it was first published in 1890 . Higginson himself stated in his preface to the first edition of Dickinson 's published work that the poetry 's quality " is that of extraordinary grasp and insight " , albeit " without the proper control and chastening " that the experience of publishing during her lifetime might have conferred . His judgment that her opus was " incomplete and unsatisfactory " would be echoed in the essays of the New Critics in the 1930s .
Maurice Thompson , who was literary editor of The Independent for twelve years , noted in 1891 that her poetry had " a strange mixture of rare individuality and originality " . Some critics hailed Dickinson 's effort , but disapproved of her unusual non @-@ traditional style . Andrew Lang , a British writer , dismissed Dickinson 's work , stating that " if poetry is to exist at all , it really must have form and grammar , and must rhyme when it professes to rhyme . The wisdom of the ages and the nature of man insist on so much " . Thomas Bailey Aldrich , a poet and novelist , equally dismissed Dickinson 's poetic technique in The Atlantic Monthly in January 1892 : " It is plain that Miss Dickinson possessed an extremely unconventional and grotesque fancy . She was deeply tinged by the mysticism of Blake , and strongly influenced by the mannerism of Emerson ... But the incoherence and formlessness of her — versicles are fatal ... an eccentric , dreamy , half @-@ educated recluse in an out @-@ of @-@ the @-@ way New England village ( or anywhere else ) cannot with impunity set at defiance the laws of gravitation and grammar " .
Critical attention to Dickinson 's poetry was meager from 1897 to the early 1920s . By the start of the 20th century , interest in her poetry became broader in scope and some critics began to consider Dickinson as essentially modern . Rather than seeing Dickinson 's poetic styling as a result of lack of knowledge or skill , modern critics believed the irregularities were consciously artistic . In a 1915 essay , Elizabeth Shepley Sergeant called the poet 's inspiration " daring " and named her " one of the rarest flowers the sterner New England land ever bore " . With the growing popularity of modernist poetry in the 1920s , Dickinson 's failure to conform to 19th @-@ century poetic form was no longer surprising nor distasteful to new generations of readers . Dickinson was suddenly referred to by various critics as a great woman poet , and a cult following began to form .
In the 1930s , a number of the New Critics – among them R. P. Blackmur , Allen Tate , Cleanth Brooks and Yvor Winters – appraised the significance of Dickinson 's poetry . As critic Roland Hagenbüchle pointed out , their " affirmative and prohibitive tenets turned out to be of special relevance to Dickinson scholarship " . Blackmur , in an attempt to focus and clarify the major claims for and against the poet 's greatness , wrote in a landmark 1937 critical essay : " ... she was a private poet who wrote as indefatigably as some women cook or knit . Her gift for words and the cultural predicament of her time drove her to poetry instead of antimacassars ... She came ... at the right time for one kind of poetry : the poetry of sophisticated , eccentric vision . "
The second wave of feminism created greater cultural sympathy for her as a female poet . In the first collection of critical essays on Dickinson from a feminist perspective , she is heralded as the greatest woman poet in the English language . Biographers and theorists of the past tended to separate Dickinson 's roles as a woman and a poet . For example , George Whicher wrote in his 1952 book This Was a Poet : A Critical Biography of Emily Dickinson , " Perhaps as a poet [ Dickinson ] could find the fulfillment she had missed as a woman . " Feminist criticism , on the other hand , declares that there is a necessary and powerful conjunction between Dickinson being a woman and a poet . Adrienne Rich theorized in Vesuvius at Home : The Power of Emily Dickinson ( 1976 ) that Dickinson 's identity as a woman poet brought her power : " [ she ] chose her seclusion , knowing she was exceptional and knowing what she needed ... She carefully selected her society and controlled the disposal of her time ... neither eccentric nor quaint ; she was determined to survive , to use her powers , to practice necessary economics . "
Some scholars question the poet 's sexuality , theorizing that the numerous letters and poems that were dedicated to Susan Gilbert Dickinson indicate a lesbian romance , and speculating about how this may have influenced her poetry . Critics such as John Cody , Lillian Faderman , Vivian R. Pollak , Paula Bennett , Judith Farr , Ellen Louise Hart , and Martha Nell Smith have argued that Susan was the central erotic relationship in Dickinson 's life .
= = = Legacy = = =
In the early 20th century , Dickinson 's legacy was promoted in particular by Martha Dickinson Bianchi and Millicent Todd Bingham . Bianchi , who had inherited The Evergreens as well as the copyright for her aunt 's poetry from her parents , published works such as Emily Dickinson Face to Face and Letters of Emily Dickinson , which stoked public curiosity about her aunt . Her books perpetrated the myths surrounding her aunt , while combining family tradition , personal recollections , and pieces of correspondence . In comparison , Millicent Todd Bingham 's works provided a more distant and realistic perspective of the poet .
Emily Dickinson is now considered a powerful and persistent figure in American culture . Although much of the early reception concentrated on Dickinson 's eccentric and secluded nature , she has become widely acknowledged as an innovative , pre @-@ modernist poet . As early as 1891 , William Dean Howells wrote that " If nothing else had come out of our life but this strange poetry , we should feel that in the work of Emily Dickinson , America , or New England rather , had made a distinctive addition to the literature of the world , and could not be left out of any record of it . " Twentieth @-@ century critic Harold Bloom has placed her alongside Walt Whitman , Wallace Stevens , Robert Frost , T. S. Eliot , and Hart Crane as a major American poet , and in 1994 listed her among the 26 central writers of Western civilization .
Dickinson is taught in American literature and poetry classes in the United States from middle school to college . Her poetry is frequently anthologized and has been used as texts for art songs by composers such as Aaron Copland , Nick Peros , John Adams and Michael Tilson Thomas . Several schools have been established in her name ; for example , two Emily Dickinson Elementary Schools exist in Bozeman , Montana , and Redmond , Washington . A few literary journals — including The Emily Dickinson Journal , the official publication of the Emily Dickinson International Society — have been founded to examine her work . An 8 @-@ cent commemorative stamp in honor of Dickinson was issued by the United States Postal Service on August 28 , 1971 as the second stamp in the " American Poet " series . A one @-@ woman play entitled The Belle of Amherst first appeared on Broadway in 1976 , winning several awards ; it was later adapted for television .
Dickinson 's herbarium , which is now held in the Houghton Library at Harvard University , was published in 2006 as Emily Dickinson 's Herbarium by Harvard University Press . The original work was compiled by Dickinson during her years at Amherst Academy , and consists of 424 pressed specimens of plants arranged on 66 pages of a bound album . A digital facsimile of the herbarium is available online . The town of Amherst Jones Library 's Special Collections department has an Emily Dickinson Collection consisting of approximately seven thousand items , including original manuscript poems and letters , family correspondence , scholarly articles and books , newspaper clippings , theses , plays , photographs and contemporary artwork and prints . The Archives and Special Collections at Amherst College has substantial holdings of Dickinson 's manuscripts and letters as well as a lock of Dickinson 's hair and the original of the only positively identified image of the poet . In 1965 , in recognition of Dickinson 's growing stature as a poet , the Homestead was purchased by Amherst College . It opened to the public for tours , and also served as a faculty residence for many years . The Emily Dickinson Museum was created in 2003 when ownership of the Evergreens , which had been occupied by Dickinson family heirs until 1988 , was transferred to the college .
= = Modern influence and inspiration = =
Emily Dickinson 's life and works have been the source of inspiration to artists , particularly to feminist orientated artists , of a variety of mediums . A few notable examples are as follows :
The feminist artwork The Dinner Party , by Judy Chicago , first exhibited in 1979 , features a place setting for Dickinson .
Jane Campion 's film The Piano and its novelization ( co @-@ authored by Kate Pullinger ) were inspired by the poetry of Emily Dickinson as well as the novels by the Bronte Sisters . The soundtrack to the film , written and composed by Michael Nyman contained songs with titles directly extracted from Dickinson 's poetry such as Big My Secret and most famously The Heart Asks Pleasure First . The former is one of Nyman 's most notable works to date and a signature piece of his repertoire .
The cello rock band Rasputina drew inspiration from Dickinson for their 2010 album Sister Kinderhook . The songs Sweet Sister Temperance and My Porcelain Life are based specifically on the life of Dickinson . Dickinson has also played a role of personal inspiration for Rasputina 's front woman Melora Creager for a number of years .
= = = Editions of poetry = = =
Franklin , R. W. ( ed ) . 1999 . The Poems of Emily Dickinson . Cambridge : Belknap Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 674 @-@ 67624 @-@ 6
Johnson , Thomas H. ( ed ) . 1960 . The Complete Poems of Emily Dickinson . Boston : Little , Brown & Co .
= = = Archival sources = = =
Emily Dickinson Papers , 1844 – 1891 ( 3 microfilm reels ) are housed at the Sterling Memorial Library at Yale University .
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= Magnificat in E @-@ flat major , BWV 243a =
The Magnificat in E @-@ flat major , BWV 243a , by Johann Sebastian Bach is a musical setting of the Latin text of the Magnificat , the canticle from the Gospel of Luke . It was composed in 1723 and is in twelve movements . Bach revised the work ten years later , transposing it from E @-@ flat major to D major , and creating the version mostly performed today , BWV 243 . The work is scored for five vocal parts ( two sopranos , alto , tenor and bass ) and a Baroque orchestra of trumpets , timpani , oboes , strings and basso continuo including bassoon .
The work was first performed in Leipzig in 1723 . In May that year Bach assumed his position as Thomaskantor and embarked on an ambitious series of compositions . The Magnificat was sung at vesper services on feast days , and , according to recent research , Bach 's setting was written for a performance on 2 July , celebrating the Marian feast of the Visitation . For Christmas the same year , he performed it at the Nikolaikirche with the insertion of four seasonal movements .
As a regular part of vespers , the canticle Magnificat was often set to music for liturgical use . Bach , as some of his contemporaries , devotes individual expression to every verse of the canticle , one even split in two for a dramatic effect . In a carefully designed structure , four choral movements are evenly distributed ( 1 , 4 , 7 , 11 ) . They frame sets of two or three movements sung by one to three voices , with individual instrumental colour . The work is concluded by a choral doxology ( 12 ) , which ends in a recapitulation of the beginning on the text " as it was in the beginning " . In Bach 's Leipzig period , Magnificat is the first major work on a Latin text and for five vocal parts .
= = Background = =
= = = Bach 's beginning in Leipzig = = =
Bach composed the Magnificat in 1723 , his first year as Thomaskantor in Leipzig , music director of the main Lutheran churches in the city . He had worked previously as an organist in Arnstadt , Mühlhausen and Weimar , where he was promoted to Konzertmeister ( director of music ) in 1714 . From 1717 to 1723 he held a secular position at the court of Köthen . He applied for the post in Leipzig on 7 February 1723 , performing two cantatas written for the audition on Estomihi or Quinquagesima , the last Sunday before Lent . In April he was accepted for the post , which he assumed on the first Sunday after Trinity , presenting a new cantata in 14 movements , Die Elenden sollen essen , BWV 75 , on 30 May . A week later he led the new cantata Die Himmel erzählen die Ehre Gottes , BWV 76 , again in 14 movements . The feast of the Visitation , celebrated always on 2 July , was a few weeks later the first Marian feast day of his tenure in Leipzig .
= = = Magnificat = = =
The canticle Magnificat , one of three New Testament canticles , has long been a regular part of the liturgy in daily vesper services . After the Reformation , Martin Luther kept the Magnificat in the liturgy . He provided a German translation of the canticle , " Meine Seele erhebt den Herren " ( which Bach used as the basis for his chorale cantata Meine Seel erhebt den Herren , BWV 10 ) . However , the Latin text was also permitted in Lutheran worship . The canticle was often set to music . Contemporary extended settings include works by Heinichen and by Vivaldi .
Bach had an audience familiar with the text and its background . In Leipzig , a Latin Magnificat was sung on the high holidays ( Christmas , Easter and Pentecost , then performed on two of the three days of celebration ) and on the three Marian feasts Annunciation , Visitation and Purification . According to some scholars , further feast days included New Year 's Day , Epiphany , Feast of the Ascension , Trinity Sunday , St. John 's Day and St. Michael 's Day , and the vespers before the feast days .
= = Composition history = =
Bach composed the work in 1723 , his first year as Thomaskantor in Leipzig , probably for the feast of the Visitation . For the occasion , he presented the Magnificat as his first work on a Latin text and his first five @-@ part choral setting in Leipzig . Otherwise , he used five voices in the funeral motet Jesu , meine Freude , the Missa in B minor , composed in 1733 for the court of Dresden , from which he derived the derived cantata Gloria in excelsis Deo , BWV 191 , and in the Mass in B minor . Richard D. P. Jones notes : " Without exception these works lie outside the normal routine of Bach 's sacred vocal works " .
Bach probably first performed the Magnificat on the feast day , 2 July . Until 2003 , most musicologists believed that Bach wrote the Magnificat for his first Christmas in Leipzig . Then Andreas Glöckner published Bachs Es @-@ Dur @-@ Magnificat BWV 243a – eine genuine Weihnachtsmusik ? ( Bach 's Magnificat in E @-@ flat major , BWV 243a – a genuine Christmas music ? ) in the Bach @-@ Jahrbuch ( Bach yearbook ) 89 , questioning the Christmas date in favour of Visitation the same year . Older sources naturally still have Christmas as the first performance , for example Neil Jenkins , the editor of an edition for Novello in 2000 . He writes that the " new Thomaskantor was obviously intending to impress his new employer and the congregation " , which makes even more sense at the beginning of Bach 's tenure . Not all scholars follow Glöckner 's arguments , but Jones agrees with Glöckner : " ... may well have received its first performance at the Feast of the Visitation on 2 July 1723 , only five weeks after he took up his Leipzig post . "
For Christmas the same year , Bach performed his Magnificat with four inserted laudes , songs of praise related to Christmas , partly in German , partly in Latin . In a vespers service on 25 December 1723 , he performed the cantata Christen , ätzet diesen Tag , BWV 63 , and the Magnificat at the Nikolaikirche , on 26 December the cantata Darzu ist erschienen der Sohn Gottes , BWV 40 , in the Thomaskirche .
Bach used as a cantus firmus in movement 10 the chant associated with Luther 's German version of the Magnificat canticle , " Meine Seele erhebt den Herren " . A year later Bach composed for the feast of the Visitation the chorale cantata Meine Seel erhebt den Herren , BWV 10 , based on the German Magnificat . The musicologist Alberto Rizzuti compared the two settings which were possibly performed in one service on 2 July 1724 .
For Visitation of 1733 , Bach revised his Magnificat , creating the version better known today . In that version , transposed to D major , the laudes interpolations were abandoned . Limited differences in instrumentation include replacing the recorders by flutes and including these in the tutti movements . Changes in musical texture were even smaller , mellowing the harmony near the end of the Omnes generationes movement being the most noticeable .
Bach 's son Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach followed the example of an extended setting , composing a Magnificat in nine movements in 1749 , at the end of his father 's life .
= = Scoring and structure = =
Bach scored the work festively . The autograph reads : " J.J. Magnificat à 3 Trombe Tamburi 2 Hautb . Basson . 2 Violini . Viola 5 Voci è Continuo " , translating to : Jesu Juva ( " Jesus , help ! " ) / Magnificat for three trumpets , timpani , two oboes , bassoon , two violins , viola , five voices , continuo ) . The five voices are two sopranos ( SI , SII ) , alto ( A ) , tenor ( T ) and bass ( B ) ) . The instruments of the Baroque orchestra are listed in the first publication by Simrock in 1811 as " due violini , due oboe , tre trombi , tamburi , basson , viola e basso continuo " , i.e. two violins , two oboes , three trumpets ( in E @-@ flat ) , timpani ( E @-@ flat and B @-@ flat ) , bassoon , viola and basso continuo . Two recorders ( flauto dolce ) are required for aria No. 9 Esurientes .
= = = Movements = = =
Bach structured the text in eleven movements for the canticle ( Luke 1 : 46 – 55 ) , concluded by a twelfth doxology movement . Each verse of the canticle is assigned to one movement , except verse 48 , beginning with a soprano solo in the role of Mary ( third movement ) , then switching to the fourth movement sung by the chorus when " all generations " are mentioned . The structure , alternating choral and solo movements , is similar to " contemporary Italian concerted settings of the Magnificat " . The four Christmas hymn movements are placed after the second , fifth , seventh and ninth movement on the Magnificat text .
Choral movements are evenly distributed in the structure , numbers 1 , 4 , 7 , and 11 within the canticle , and the concluding doxology as movement 12 . Choral movements 1 , 7 and 12 are accompanied by the full orchestra ( tutti ) , with the exceptions of the recorders which add specific colour only in movement 9 . The movements for one to three solo voices are accompanied by an obbligato instrument or only strings or even only continuo , as in Bach 's church cantatas . In two consecutive solo movements , the second one is often in richer scoring . The work contains , other than typical cantatas on Baroque poetry , no da capo arias . Similar to the first two Leipzig cantatas , BWV 75 and BWV 76 , it is a complex structure of rather short movements .
The following table shows the title , voices and instruments , time , key and text sources for the twelve movements for Visitation and the inserted movements for Christmas . Note that the timpani are no wind instruments but always go with the trumpets . The basso continuo is not listed , playing almost throughout . The first Christmas chorale is a four @-@ part setting with no continuo . In Suscepit Israel , the lowest line played by violins and viola in unison has been described as a bassett and an " unusual continuo " . The last column , Dig , provides a link to the Bach Digital database , for more details such as scoring and the text . The Christmas interpolations are highlighted in colour , as are the choral movements , the movements with trumpets , and those movements of the canticle that are in major mode .
= = = The twelve movements of the Magnificat canticle = = =
= = = = 1 = = = =
The opening movement Magnificat anima mea ( My soul magnifies the Lord ) is performed by all voices and all instruments except the recorders . The instruments present the material with almost continuous runs in the upper parts , octaves and broken triads in the bass . The sopranos enter first , in third parallels : they sing the first word " Magnificat " ( literally : makes great ) with a melisma on the first syllable , ending in a figure like a trill , then a stressed dotted note on the stressed syllable " gni " , and relaxing on " ficat " . The motif is abbreviated to a " fanfare figure " of just four notes , a low upbeat followed by three same notes , with the first one dotted . The sopranos sing it twice , reaching first E @-@ flat , then G. The interplay of the fanfare and the melismas shapes the movement . One measure after the sopranos , alto and tenor begin to imitate the sopranos , another measure later , the bass adds the short motif as an octave up . The text remains Magnificat for most of the movement . After the voices conclude with " Dominum " , the instruments close in a shortened version of their opening .
= = = = 2 = = = =
Et exultavit spiritus meus ( And my spirit rejoices in God my Saviour ) is an aria , as an image of personal celebration , sung by soprano II , accompanied by the strings . The major @-@ mode and motifs of joy in the instruments illustrate the exultation . Et exultavit ( And exults ) begins with a broken upward triad followed by a rest , suggesting a minuet. spiritus meus ( my spirit ) is a sequence of 16th notes , two for every syllable . Longer melismas illustrate salutari ( salvation ) .
A note in the autograph requests the insertion of the first Christmas interpolation here : " Alhier folget der Choral : Vom Himmel hoch , da kom ich her " ( Here follows the chorale : Vom Himmel hoch , da kom ich her ) .
= = = = 3 = = = =
Quia respexit humiltatem ( For He has regarded the lowliness [ of His handmaiden . ] is an aria sung by soprano I with an obbligato oboe . Looking at the humility , the aria contrast to the preceding one in slow movement and the minor mode . Hogwood writes : " Humility is a downwards gesture , and so everything takes a long , s @-@ shaped movement downwards , with a little rise at the end " , and comments that the use of limited resources of one wind instrument and the voice have " a subservient feel to it . " Steinberg comments that voice and instrument first share the material in a " contemplative duet " , but on ecce enim ex hoc beatam ( Behold , from henceforth , I will be called blessed ) the voice changes to a " simpler , more declamatory style " . " All the phrases turn upwards " in what Hogward describes as " an internalised dialogue " , expecting that " nobody in the church would have been expecting the sudden burst of ' omnes ' " .
= = = = 4 = = = =
The continuation of the verse and completion of the sentence , Omnes generationes ( by all generations ) is given to the chorus , expressing the fullness of the praise . Hogwood compares the " crowd effect " to Bach 's the crowds in Bach 's Passions . The movement is a fugue which follows the stretto principle from the start and throughout . Beginning in measure 10 , the voices enter , again half a measure apart , with the bass beginning . From measure 15 , every entrance is one note higher , covering an octave as a symbol of completeness ( omnes ) , again in the fast succession of half a measure : A , SII , SI , T , B , SII , SI , A. In a final sequence beginning in measure 21 , the voices enter from bottom to top on the same note , only one beat apart . After a " very triumphal , but unfinished , chord " and a general pause , the movement concludes repeating the theme in homophony . Steinberg comments that Bach took the idea of separating the two words from the rest of the verse from earlier models , but filled it with an " exciting sense of drama " by the piled @-@ up entrances in a " tremendous march across key after key " , leading to " tense dissonances " , finally a " dramatic pause " before the last statement .
= = = = 5 = = = =
Quia fecit mihi magna qui potens est ( For the Mighty One has done great things for me ) is an aria sung by the bass , accompanied only by the continuo . The motif , again beginning with repeated notes , is introduced by four measures of the continuo , then repeated by the voice . A ritornello is repeated throughout the movement , with a downward leap of a sixth and a downward scale of an octave which appears in the voice on the word " sanctum " ( holy ) , in et sanctum nomen eius ( and holy is His name ) . God 's might shows in the bass voice and the dominant key of B @-@ flat major .
A note in the autograph requests the insertion of the second Christmas interpolation here : " Hierauf folget Freut euch u. jubilirt " ( Hereon follows Freut euch u. jubilirt ) .
= = = = 6 = = = =
Et misericordia a progenie in progenies , timentibus eum ( His mercy is for those who fear Him from generation to generation ) begins in great contrast softly with undulating movement in 12 / 8 time , played by the violins . It is a duet of alto and tenor , beginning in parallels of sixths and staying in homophony for most of the movement . The theme resembles the sarabande of Bach 's first French Suite in D minor , BWV 812 . Hogwood compares the music to the pastoral sinfonia beginning Part II of Bach 's Christmas Oratorio , " creating a romantic , soft @-@ edged , almost comforting sound " . Jones remarks that timentibus eum " ( who fear him ) is " full of pathos and built over a partly chromatic , quasi @-@ ostinato bass " , while the " divine quality of mercy is expressed in beatific parallel thirds of the violins in the ritornello " .
= = = = 7 = = = =
Fecit potentiam ( He has shown strength ) shares key , scoring and dotted motifs with the first movement . Based on a continuo line of octaves and repeated 16th notes , strength is expressed by irregular coloraturas in one voice and homophonic simultaneous calls of the other voices . The tenor begins the coloraturas of four measures , followed by alto , SII , bass and SI , leading to the climax of the movement , two homophonic calls . The new text , dispersit ( He has scattered ) , appears in various voices as broken triads , juxtaposed to material from the first section , but then isolated , in a sequence from the highest voice to the lowest and in downward triads . Joes describes : " ... the fugue is dispersed ( ' dispersit ' ) in favour of a highly graphic , dramatic portrayal of the words ' He has scattered ... ' " . The conclusion , mente cordis sui ( in the thoughts of their hearts ) , is marked Adagio and illustrates the text in pompous long chords , with accents in the trumpets . Hogwood notes that Bach shows " complete imagination " in " very strange , incomplete yet wonderful harmonies " , the trumpet playing their highest available note as an image of " rich people ’ s hearts , who have been misled by worldly promises " .
A note in the autograph requests the insertion of the third Christmas interpolation here : " Hierher gehöret das Gloria in excelsis Deo " ( Here belongs the Gloria in excelsis Deo ) .
= = = = 8 = = = =
Deposuit potentes ( He has brought down the powerful ) is an aria for tenor , accompanied by only the violins ( and continuo ) united in powerful unison . The instrumental ritornello of 14 measures presents the material . The first motif , later sung on " Deposuit " , begins with a short upbeat and a long note , followed by a straight downward scale and a final leap up , while the continuo presents a broken triad , straight upward one octave . The second motif , later sung on " potentes " , begins with an upbeat of three 16th , followed by a rhythmic pattern which expands both the lowest as the highest note , while the continuo moves in steady steps down . For the third motif , sung on " de sede " ( from their thrones ) , the continuo picks up the rhythm of the second motif , while the violins play a more ornamented downward motion in sixteen continuous 16th . A fourth motif is a sequence of three measures , each a sequence of a figure of a figure of four 16th which is slowly moving upwards . When the singer takes over , the violins accent the end of each motif one to three by a broken downward triad .
The second thought of the verse , " et exaltavit humiles " ( and lifted up the lowly ) , is sung without introduction as a melisma of four measures , which includes downward runs but in a steadily rising sequence and ending similarly to the sequence of motif four , on " exaltavit " , but a modest downward line on " humiles " ( the lowly ) . After a shorter ritornello , the tenor sings the complete text again , the first part in a slightly modified version , but the exaltation considerably expanded . Nonetheless , the ritornello in full length is repeated at the end .
= = = = 9 = = = =
Esurientes implevit bonis ( He has filled the hungry with good things ) is sung by the alto , accompanied by two recorders which may symbolise the need of the hungry . Bach used recorders also in his later cantata Brich dem Hungrigen dein Brot , BWV 39 . They often play in parallels of sixths and thirds . The ritornello of eight measures introduces a motif moving up , on a continuo of steady quarter note , for four measures , later sung on Esurientes implevit bonis , while downward lines and a continuo moving in eighth notes later go with et divites dimisit ( and sent the rich away empty ) . In Latin , the last word is inanes ( empty ) , which Bach sometimes separates by rests . The continuo is plucked in " the emptiest sound " , even on the last note , on which the recorders are silent .
A note in the autograph requests the insertion of the fourth Christmas interpolation here : " Hierauf folget Virga Jesse floruit " ( Hereon follows Virga Jesse floruit ) .
= = = = 10 = = = =
Suscepit Israel puerum suum ( He has helped His servant Israel ) is scored for an unusual combination of the three highest voices , violins and violas in unison and trumpet . The text continues recordatus misericordiae suae ( in remembrance of His mercy ) . The cantus firmus played by the trumpet is the melody of the traditional setting of Luther 's German version of the Magnificat , a ninth psalm tone variant . The strings , as the only other instruments , play repeated notes in every measure , moving one step down or up in the next . The voices imitate each other , also in gentle movement , the first a fifth up in a long upbeat , the second a fifth down one measure later , the third up again , another measure later , described as " scale themes " . In contrast , the second idea of the verse , recordatus , is on a " disjunct theme " . Bach repeats the figure , with a downward quart on each syllable , in the Et incarnatus est of his Mass in B minor . It has been interpreted as a symbol of the cross , because a line drawn from the first to the fourth note crosses one from the second to the third . Jones assumes that the " bassett " of the unison strings symbolizes the divine quality of mercy .
= = = = 11 = = = =
Sicut locutus est ad patres nostros ( According to the promise He made to our ancestors ) , the last line of the Magnificat canticle , is written in stile antico , the old style of the musical " fathers " , as a strict fugue , one voice following the other as one generation follows the other . The theme has four distinctly different measures : the first repeated notes , the second flowing eighth notes , the third quarter notes in leaps , the fourth half notes leaping up a sixth . The countersubject has leaps down and up an octave in the second measure , the flowing eighth notes in the third measure . When the theme is developed the first time , four voices enter from bottom to top . In the second development , soprano I begins , followed by alto , tenor and bass . The movements ends with a more homophonic section in which the bass has the theme once more , while soprano I sings long suspended notes covering almost an octave down . Hogwood sees Bach alluding to his musical " forefathers " : " He portrays , in a very square fugue , exactly how square he thought the forefathers of German music were . Four bars follows four bars , each voice coming in predictably and on time , all according to the rulebook , unimaginative and extremely dull ! "
= = = = 12 = = = =
The work is concluded by the doxology , Gloria Patri ( Glory to the Father ) , performed by the ensemble in two parts . The first part addresses the Trinity . Glory is given three times . Bach shapes the movement again as a " crowd " scene . Gloria is first presented as the major chord repeated three times , with a dotted note on the first syllable . In the second Gloria , leading to Patri , the voices sing the first syllable as an extended melisma in triplets , as another symbol of the Trinity , beginning in upward moving lines , for three measures in the basses , half a measure less for each following voice . In the third Gloria , leading to Filio ( to the Son ) , in a similar pattern soprano I begins , followed by alto , soprano II , tenor and bass . In the fourth Gloria , leading to et Spiritui sancto ( and to the Holy Spirit ) , in again similar pattern the voices follow each other from top to bottom , ending in a long cadenza .
The second part , Sicut erat in principio ( as it was in the beginning ) repeats material from the beginning of the work but shortened , as a frame . Jones points out that the " wittiness " of it was already used by Monteverdi .
Jones remarks that Bach observes a pattern of a bipartite structure of firstly contrasting homophonic blocks and " florid triplet rhythms " , secondly " a lighter , quicker conclusion in triple time " . He remarks that Bach used a similar pattern again the following year in the Sanctus for Christmas 1724 which later was included as the Sanctus of the Mass in B minor .
= = = The four Christmas interpolations = = =
The four hymns Bach inserted in the Magnificat for the Christmas vespers had a tradition in Leipzig . A setting by Bach 's predecessor Kuhnau in a Christmas cantata is extant . They can be connected to scenic display of the Christmas story , representing the annunciation to the shepherds , first by one angel ( A , B ) , then by the multitude ( C ) , finally a cradle song ( Kindleinwiegen , D ) . In Bach 's autograph , the four movements are grouped at the back of the volume . They are written in older musical styles than most of the Magnificat movements .
= = = = A = = = =
Vom Himmel hoch , da komm ich her ( From heaven on high I come here ) is the first stanza of a hymn by Martin Luther , Vom Himmel hoch , da komm ich her , a paraphrase of the Annunciation to the shepherds . It is set for four parts in E @-@ flat major and alla @-@ breve as an a capella motet , with the soprano singing the melody in long notes , the lower voices in imitation of the motifs .
= = = = B = = = =
Freut euch und jubilieret ( Rejoice and celebrate ) is set for SSAT in B @-@ flat major and common time . In polyphony on an independent basso continuo , with pairs of voices in parallels , it resembles a setting by Sethus Calvisius , a former Thomaskantor .
= = = = C = = = =
Gloria in excelsis Deo ( Glory to God in the highest ) is set for SSATB and violins in E @-@ flat major , on the text from the Christmas story , the Annunciation to the Shepherds ( Luke 2 : 14 ) . It is written in " chordal fashion " , a style found in Giacomo Carissimi , Johann Schelle ( also a Thomaskantor ) and Kuhnau , among others .
= = = = D = = = =
Virga Jesse floruit ( The branch of Jesse flowers ) is an " operatic " duet for soprano and bass in F major in 12 / 8 time . The text is part of a longer hymn , beginning like Virga Jesse floruit . Only the first 30 measures of this movement are extant . Bach used the music again in 1725 on a different text in his Christmas cantata Unser Mund sei voll Lachens , BWV 110 , from which the missing part can be deducted . It was Alfred Dürr who noticed the similarity of the continuo parts of both pieces .
= = Reception history = =
= = = Publication = = =
The earliest sources are autographs for the performances on 2 July and 25 December 1723 , including the Christmas parts , kept by the Staatsbibliothek zu Berlin .
The score of the E @-@ flat major version of Bach 's Magnificat was first published by Simrock in 1811 , edited by Georg Pölchau , however without the Christmas hymns . These were published in 1862 , in the appendix of Volume 11 / 1 of the Bach @-@ Gesellschaft Ausgabe , a publication that contained the D major version of the Magnificat ( and not the E @-@ flat major version ) .
The Neue Bach Ausgabe published the E @-@ flat major version in 1955 , edited by Alfred Dürr . Novello published an edition in 2000 , edited by Neil Jenkins . Bärenreiter published a critical edition based on Dürr 's 1955 edition again in 2014 / 15 .
= = = Selected recordings = = =
Bach composed the work for five soloists : two sopranos , alto , tenor and bass . The soloists are listed in the table in the order SATB . For some recordings , only one soprano soloist is listed . Recordings with orchestras on period instruments in historically informed performances are highlighted . The first recordings in the 1960s combined the version in D major ( BWV 243 ) with transposed Christmas interpolations . The type of orchestra is shown for an ensemble with period instruments in historically informed performance by green background .
The first recording by Rilling , of the D major version with Christmas interpolations , with a performance time of 40 : 06 , was reissued under the title Christmas Magnificats , and also issued in comparison to a recording of the Magnificat in D by Kurt Thomas under the title Compare . Gönnenwein 's D major recording with Christmas interpolations appeared on a CD titled J.S. Bach : Cantatas 142 , 65 & Magnificat .
The Leipziger Weihnachtskantaten recording by the Collegium Vocale Gent , conducted by Philippe Herreweghe , was reviewed as with " bracing but not rushed tempos , infectiously energetic and technically solid contributions from the chorus , and an intelligently paced flow from movement to movement . " The Guardian wrote : " Herreweghe 's accounts are typically thoughtful , not at all theatrical or dramatically driven , and that slightly laid @-@ back approach takes the edge off the Magnificat too , though the quality of the solo and choral singing , and the careful shaping of the orchestral lines are all exemplary . "
In 2015 John Butt and the Dunedin Consort released a recording of the E @-@ flat major version in the context of a reconstructed Christmas service as it might have been heard in Leipzig in 1723 . The recording includes organ music and congregational hymn singing .
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= U.S. Route 136 in Iowa =
U.S. Highway 136 ( US 136 ) is a short U.S. Highway in Keokuk , Iowa . The highway begins on a bridge over the Des Moines River within sight of its mouth at the Mississippi River . It runs above the northern bank of the Mississippi towards downtown Keokuk . There , it turns southeast where it meets the southern end of US 218 . The highway leaves Iowa on the Keokuk – Hamilton Bridge over the Mississippi River .
The route was designated nationally in 1951 and has remained largely unchanged through Keokuk since then . The highway originally crossed the Mississippi on the Keokuk Rail Bridge , which was the second bridge built and operated by Andrew Carnegie 's Keokuk & Hamilton Bridge Company in that location . While it was designed for wagons and early automobiles , crossing the rail bridge became difficult in larger modern vehicles , specifically semi trucks . As a result , a new automobile @-@ only bridge was built directly to the south of the older span . The Keokuk – Hamilton Bridge opened in 1985 eight months early and under budget .
= = Route description = =
US 136 begins on a bridge over the Des Moines River with US 61 . The river 's mouth on the Mississippi River is visible to the southeast of the bridge . After landing on the Iowa side of the river , the two routes curve to the east . US 61 splits off to the north and its business route begins along US 136 . Entering the town from the west along 7th Street , the highway passes between two pillars which mark the northeastern corner of Rees Park .
The routes continue east past an old school which hides the city 's 4 @-@ million @-@ US @-@ gallon ( 15 ML ) water tower . The 160 @-@ foot @-@ high ( 49 m ) tower was the second largest elevated storage tank in the United States when it came online in December 2011 . It then crosses a bridge which connects two bluffs , underneath which a single line of the Keokuk Junction Railway passes . The routes descend a hill as they head towards downtown ; they climb another until the intersection with Main Street .
At Main Street , US 136 and US 61 Business part ways . The business route turns to the northwest onto US 218 which begins its 320 @-@ mile ( 510 km ) journey northward . US 136 turns to the southeast towards the Mississippi River . At the intersection with US 218 , there are no directional signs for US 136 . Instead , because of the southeast – to – northwest orientation of the city , westbound US 136 direction is listed as Missouri and eastbound Illinois . After running through the southern part of downtown , it crosses the Mississippi on the Keokuk – Hamilton Bridge , which is adjacent to the older Keokuk Rail Bridge . From both bridges , Lock and Dam No. 19 and its hydroelectric power plant dominate the northern view of the river .
= = History = =
In the late 1860s , Andrew Carnegie 's Keystone Bridge Company built the original Keokuk and Hamilton Bridge in the same location as the Keokuk Rail Bridge . It was a 20 @-@ foot @-@ wide ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) , steel truss bridge that had one set of tracks and two lanes for wagon traffic . Pedestrian traffic was cantilevered out five feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) on either side of the trusses . A swing span on the Keokuk side allowed river traffic to cross . When the bridge opened in 1871 , the first locomotive to cross the bridge crushed the pivot point of the swing span . It was replaced a few days later . Ten years later , War Eagle , a river steamer sank after it collided with a fixed span of the bridge . Both the ship and bridge span were destroyed . Until the span was replaced , a wooden , covered bridge was built in its place .
The second bridge , now known as the Keokuk Rail Bridge , was built in the 1910s when modern trains were pushing the bridge 's 35 @-@ short @-@ ton ( 32 t ) load capacity . Keokuk businessmen coerced Carnegie 's Keokuk & Hamilton Bridge Company , the owners of the original bridge who thought their bridge was adequate , to rebuild their bridge by threatening to build a new span on the new dam being built near the bridge . However , a new bridge over the new dam would require congressional approval , in the form of House Resolution 26672 . After hearings before the House Committee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce , the committee chairman urged " the Keokuk & Hamilton Bridge Co. would reconstruct its bridge , or he would recommend passage of House Resolution 26672 . " The bridge company relented and planning began almost immediately .
The bridge company contracted with Ralph Modjeski to design the new bridge . Modjeski determined that the original bridge was indeed overstressed for rail traffic . He proposed two options : a single @-@ track rail bridge with a roadway above the tracks or a bridge similar to the original but built to modern standards . The latter option was chosen . The piers of the bridge were cut down five feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) and recapped . The 20 @-@ foot @-@ 6 @-@ inch @-@ wide ( 6 @.@ 25 m ) bridge was built between 1914 and 1915 and opened for traffic in 1916 . The original roadway was made of wood , but was replaced by steel mesh in 1956 .
US 136 was designated nationally in 1951 . In the Keokuk area , it was overlaid upon US 61 from west of Alexandria , Missouri , over the Des Moines River into Iowa , and into downtown Keokuk . South of downtown , it replaced Iowa 161 , which crossed the Mississippi River on the Keokuk Rail Bridge . Since its designation , the route has largely remained the same . However , the eastern end changed slightly with the opening of the Keokuk – Hamilton Bridge in 1985 .
In the 1970s , politicians on both sides of the river began to seek funding to build a new road bridge across the river . The rail bridge , while still adequate for rail traffic , it proved to be a challenge for drivers . The western terminus of the bridge featured a curve which was navigated easily by wagons and early automobiles , but was dangerous for semi trucks . Governor Terry Branstad was convinced a new bridge was needed after riding in a railcar to view the underside of the road deck . The new , four @-@ lane Keokuk – Hamilton bridge opened on November 23 , 1985 , nearly eight months ahead of schedule and under budget .
= = Major intersections = =
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= Porbeagle =
The porbeagle ( Lamna nasus ) is a species of mackerel shark in the family Lamnidae , distributed widely in the cold and temperate marine waters of the North Atlantic and Southern Hemisphere . In the North Pacific , its ecological equivalent is the closely related salmon shark ( L. ditropis ) . The porbeagle typically reaches 2 @.@ 5 m ( 8 @.@ 2 ft ) in length and a weight of 135 kg ( 298 lb ) ; North Atlantic sharks grow larger than Southern Hemisphere sharks and differ in coloration and aspects of life history . Gray above and white below , the porbeagle has a very stout midsection that tapers towards the long , pointed snout and the narrow base of the tail . It has large pectoral and first dorsal fins , tiny pelvic , second dorsal , and anal fins , and a crescent @-@ shaped caudal fin . The most distinctive features of this species are its three @-@ cusped teeth , the white blotch at the aft base of its first dorsal fin , and the two pairs of lateral keels on its tail .
The porbeagle is an opportunistic hunter that preys mainly on bony fishes and cephalopods throughout the water column , including the bottom . Most commonly found over food @-@ rich banks on the outer continental shelf , it makes occasional forays both close to shore and into the open ocean to a depth of 1 @,@ 360 m ( 4 @,@ 460 ft ) . It also conducts long @-@ distance seasonal migrations , generally shifting between shallower and deeper water . The porbeagle is fast and highly active , with physiological adaptations that enable it to maintain a higher body temperature than the surrounding water . It can be solitary or gregarious , and has been known to perform seemingly playful behavior . This shark is aplacental viviparous with oophagy , developing embryos being retained within the mother 's uterus and subsisting on non @-@ viable eggs . Females typically bear four pups every year .
Only a few shark attacks of uncertain provenance have been attributed to the porbeagle . It is well regarded as a game fish by recreational anglers . The meat and fins of the porbeagle are highly valued , which has led to a long history of intense human exploitation . However , this species cannot sustain heavy fishing pressure due to its low reproductive capacity . Direct commercial fishing for the porbeagle , principally by Norwegian longliners , led to stock collapses in the eastern North Atlantic in the 1950s , and the western North Atlantic in the 1960s . The porbeagle continues to be caught throughout its range , both intentionally and as bycatch , with varying degrees of monitoring and management . The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has assessed the porbeagle as Vulnerable worldwide , and as either Endangered or Critically Endangered in different parts of its northern range .
= = Taxonomy = =
The etymology of the word " porbeagle " is obscure . A common suggestion is that it combines " porpoise " and " beagle " , referencing this shark 's shape and tenacious hunting habits . Another is that it is derived from the Cornish porth , meaning " harbor " , and bugel , meaning " shepherd " . The Oxford English Dictionary states that the word was either borrowed from Cornish or formed from a Cornish first element with the English " beagle " ; however , none of the proposed Cornish root words is fully satisfactory . The Dictionary also notes that there is no evidence for a connection to the French porc , meaning " swine " , or to porpoise , as has been proposed . Other common names for the porbeagle include Atlantic mackerel shark , Beaumaris shark , bottle @-@ nosed shark , and blue dog .
The first scientific description of the porbeagle was authored by French naturalist Pierre Joseph Bonnaterre in the 1788 Tableau encyclopédique et methodique des trois règnes de la nature , and based on an earlier 1769 account by Welsh naturalist Thomas Pennant . Bonnaterre named the shark Squalus nasus , the specific epithet nasus being Latin for " nose " . In 1816 , French naturalist Georges Cuvier placed the porbeagle into its own subgenus , Lamna , which later authors elevated to the rank of full genus .
= = Phylogeny and evolution = =
Several phylogenetic studies , based on morphological characters and mitochondrial DNA sequences , have established the sister species relationship between the porbeagle and the salmon shark ( L. ditropis ) , which occurs in place of it in the North Pacific . The genus Lamna evolved 65 – 45 Ma . When its two extant species diverged from each other is uncertain , though the precipitating event was likely the formation of the ice cap over the Arctic Ocean , which would have isolated sharks in the North Pacific from those in the North Atlantic .
Fossilized porbeagle remains are known from Late Miocene epoch ( c . 7 @.@ 2 Ma ) deposits in Belgium and the Netherlands , Pliocene epoch ( 5 @.@ 3 – 2 @.@ 6 Ma ) deposits in Belgium , Spain , and Chile , and Pleistocene epoch ( 2 @.@ 6 Ma to 12 @,@ 000 BP ) deposits in the Netherlands . However , Lamna teeth that closely resemble those of the porbeagle have been found in the La Meseta Formation on Seymour Island off the Antarctic Peninsula , which date to the middle to late Eocene epoch ( 50 – 34 Ma ) . There is much taxonomic confusion regarding Lamna in the fossil record due to the high degree of variability in adult tooth morphology within species .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The porbeagle has an almost global amphitemperate distribution , i.e. it is absent from the tropics ; in the North Pacific , its niche is assumed by the salmon shark . It is found mostly within 30 – 70 ° N and 30 – 50 ° S latitudes . In the North Atlantic , the northern limit of its range extends from the Newfoundland Grand Banks off Canada , through southern Greenland , to Scandinavia and Russia ; the southern limit of its range extends from New Jersey and Bermuda , through the Azores and Madeira , to Morocco . It is found in the Mediterranean Sea , but not the Black Sea . Normally , North Atlantic sharks only stray as far south as South Carolina and the Gulf of Guinea , but pregnant females from the western North Atlantic population are known to range into the Sargasso Sea , almost as far as Hispaniola , to give birth . In the Southern Hemisphere , the porbeagle apparently occupies a continuous band bound in the south by the Antarctic Convergence , and extending as far north as Chile and Brazil , the Western Cape province of South Africa , Australia to southern Western Australia and southern Queensland , and New Zealand . It is speculated that the porbeagle colonized the Southern Hemisphere during the Quaternary glaciation ( beginning c . 2 @.@ 6 Ma ) , when the tropical climate zone was much narrower than it is today .
Offshore fishing banks are the favored habitat of the porbeagle , though it can be found anywhere from a depth of 1 @,@ 360 m ( 4 @,@ 460 ft ) in oceanic basins to littoral ( close to shore ) waters less than 1 m ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) deep , over the entire water column . There is a single , anomalous record from brackish water , of a juvenile in Mar Chiquita in Argentina . A tracking study off the British Isles has found substantial variation in the short @-@ term movements of this species , both between and within individuals . Vertical movements tended to increase with water depth and corresponding temperature stratification : in shallow , unstratified waters , sharks either showed no pattern in changing depth or made reverse diel movements , spending the day in shallow water and descending at night . In deeper , stratified waters , the sharks performed a regular diel migration , spending the day below the thermocline and rising towards the surface at night . The porbeagle favors water temperatures of 5 to 10 ° C ( 41 to 50 ° F ) , though it has been reported across a temperature range of 1 to 23 ° C ( 34 to 73 ° F ) .
Porbeagle populations in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres appear to be completely separate . There are two stocks in the North Atlantic , east and west , that seldom mix ; only one individual is known to have crossed the Atlantic , covering 4 @,@ 260 km ( 2 @,@ 650 mi ) from Ireland to Canada . Several discrete stocks are likely present in the Southern Hemisphere as well . This species segregates by size and sex in the North Atlantic , and at least by size in the South Pacific . For example , males outnumber females 2 : 1 off Spain , females are 30 % more numerous than males off Scotland , and immature males are predominant in the Bristol Channel . Older , larger sharks may frequent higher latitudes than younger individuals .
Seasonal migrations have been observed in porbeagles from both hemispheres . In the western North Atlantic , much of the population spends the spring in the deep waters of the Nova Scotia continental shelf , and migrates north a distance of 500 – 1 @,@ 000 km ( 310 – 620 mi ) to spend late summer and fall in the shallow waters of the Newfoundland Grand Banks and the Gulf of St. Lawrence . In December , large mature females migrate south over 2 @,@ 000 km ( 1 @,@ 200 mi ) into the Sargasso Sea for pupping , keeping deeper than 600 m ( 2 @,@ 000 ft ) during the day and 200 m ( 660 ft ) at night so as to stay in the cooler waters beneath the Gulf Stream . In the eastern North Atlantic , porbeagles are believed to spend spring and summer in shallow continental shelf waters , and disperse northwards to overwinter in deeper waters offshore . Migrating sharks may travel upwards of 2 @,@ 300 km ( 1 @,@ 400 mi ) , though once they reach their destination they tend to remain within a relatively localized area . In the South Pacific , the population shifts north past 30 ° S latitude into subtropical waters in winter and spring , and retreats south past 35 ° S latitude in summer , when sharks are frequently sighted off subantarctic islands .
= = Description = =
The porbeagle is a very stout @-@ bodied shark with a fusiform ( spindle @-@ like ) shape . The long , conical snout tapers to a sharp point , and is supported by enlarged , highly calcified rostral cartilages . The eyes are large and black , without nictitating membranes ( protective third eyelids ) . The small , S @-@ shaped nostrils are positioned in front of and below the level of the eyes . The mouth is large and strongly curved , with moderately protrusible jaws . North Atlantic sharks have 28 – 29 upper tooth rows and 26 – 27 lower tooth rows , while Southern Hemisphere sharks have 30 – 31 upper tooth rows and 27 – 29 lower tooth rows . Each tooth has a strongly arched base and a nearly straight , awl @-@ like central cusp , which is flanked by a pair of smaller cusplets in all but the smallest individuals . The five pairs of gill slits are long and precede the pectoral fin bases .
The pectoral fins are long and narrow . The first dorsal fin is large and high , with a rounded apex , and originating just behind the pectoral fin bases . The pelvic fins are much smaller than the first dorsal fin . The second dorsal and anal fins are smaller still , and placed about even with each other on narrow bases that allow pivoting from side to side . The sides of the caudal peduncle are expanded into prominent lateral keels . A second , shorter pair of keels are present below the main keels . The caudal fin is large and crescent @-@ shaped , with the lower lobe almost as long as the upper ; there are both dorsal and ventral depressions ( precaudal pits ) at the caudal fin base , and a deep ventral notch near the tip of the upper caudal fin lobe . The skin is soft and covered by tiny , flattened dermal denticles ( scales ) , lending a velvety texture . Each denticle has three horizontal ridges that lead to teeth on the posterior margin .
The dorsal coloration is a medium to dark gray or slate , extending to the bases of the pectoral fins . The underside is white ; adults in the Southern Hemisphere often have dark coloring under the head and dusky blotches scattered over the belly . The free rear tip of the first dorsal fin is abruptly light gray or white , a feature unique to this species . The porbeagle may attain a length of 3 @.@ 7 m ( 12 ft ) , though this is uncertain and may have resulted from confusion with other mackerel shark species . A more typical length is 2 @.@ 5 m ( 8 @.@ 2 ft ) . Female sharks grow larger than males in the North Atlantic , with maximum confirmed fork lengths ( snout tip to caudal fin fork ) of 2 @.@ 5 m ( 8 @.@ 2 ft ) for males and 3 @.@ 0 m ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) for females . Southern Hemisphere sharks are smaller and the two sexes are similar in size , with males and females attaining fork lengths of 2 @.@ 0 m ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) and 2 @.@ 1 m ( 6 @.@ 9 ft ) respectively . Most porbeagles weigh no more than 135 kg ( 298 lb ) , with the record being a 230 kg ( 510 lb ) individual caught off Caithness , Scotland in 1993 .
= = Biology and ecology = =
Fast and energetic , the porbeagle can be found singly or in groups . Its fusiform body , narrow caudal peduncle with lateral keels , and crescent @-@ shaped tail are adaptations for efficiently sustaining speed , which have also been independently evolved by tunas , billfishes , and several other groups of active fishes . It and the salmon shark are the thickest @-@ bodied members of their family ( length @-@ depth ratio approaching 4 @.@ 5 ) , and consequently have the stiffest swimming style : they oscillate their tails while holding their bodies mostly rigid , which confers propulsive power with high energy efficiency , but at the cost of maneuverability . The large gill surface area of the porbeagle allows more oxygen to be delivered to its tissues . It also has a short band of aerobic " red muscle " along each side , which can contract independently of the regular " white muscle " at a lower energy cost , enhancing the shark 's stamina .
Porbeagles are among the few fishes that exhibit apparent play behavior . There are reports , principally off the Cornish coast , of this species rolling and repeatedly wrapping itself in long kelp fronds near the surface ; this activity may have an exploratory or self @-@ stimulatory purpose , though alternately the shark may be attempting to feed on small kelp organisms or scrape off parasites . In addition , porbeagles within a group have been seen chasing each other , and they will reportedly " play with anything floating on the water " : individuals have been observed prodding , tossing , or biting natural and artificial objects , including pieces of driftwood and balloon floats used by anglers .
Great white sharks ( Carcharodon carcharias ) and killer whales ( Orcinus orca ) are plausible , albeit undocumented , predators of the porbeagle . There is a record of a small individual caught off Argentina that bore bite marks from a copper shark ( Carcharhinus brachyurus ) or similar species , but it is uncertain whether the porbeagle was the target of attempted predation or if the two were simply involved in interspecific aggression . Known parasites of this species include the tapeworms Dinobothrium septaria and Hepatoxylon trichiuri , and the copepods Dinemoura producta , Laminifera doello @-@ juradoi , and Pandarus floridanus . Natural annual mortality is low , estimated to be 10 % for juveniles , 15 % for adult males , and 20 % for adult females in the western North Atlantic .
= = = Feeding = = =
The porbeagle is an active predator that predominantly ingests small to medium @-@ sized bony fishes . It chases down pelagic fishes such as lancet fish , mackerel , pilchards , herring , and sauries , and forages near the bottom for groundfishes such as cod , hake , icefish , dories , sand lances , lumpsuckers , and flatfish . Cephalopods , particularly squid , also form an important component of its diet , while smaller sharks such as spiny dogfish ( Squalus acanthias ) and tope sharks ( Galeorhinus galeus ) are rarely taken . Examinations of porbeagle stomach contents have also found small shelled molluscs , crustaceans , echinoderms , and other invertebrates , which were likely ingested incidentally , as well as inedible debris such as small stones , feathers , and garbage fragments .
In the western North Atlantic , porbeagles feed mainly on pelagic fishes and squid in spring , and on groundfishes in the fall ; this pattern corresponds to the spring @-@ fall migration of these sharks from deeper to shallower waters , and the most available prey types in those respective habitats . Therefore , the porbeagle seems to be an opportunistic predator without strong diet specificity . During spring and summer in the Celtic Sea and on the outer Nova Scotian Shelf , porbeagles congregate at tidally induced thermal fronts to feed on fish that have been drawn by high concentrations of zooplankton . Hunting porbeagles regularly dive from the surface all the way to the bottom , cycling back every few hours ; this vertical movement may aid in the detection of olfactory cues . There is a report of a one @-@ year @-@ old porbeagle 1 m ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) long , which had fed on krill and polychaete worms .
= = = Life history = = =
The timing of the porbeagle 's reproductive cycle is unusual in that it is largely similar in both hemispheres , rather than being offset by six months . This suggests that its reproduction is not significantly affected by temperature or day length , perhaps owing to its endothermic physiology . Mating takes place mainly between September and November , though females with fresh mating scars have been reported as late as January off the Shetland Islands . The male bites at the female 's pectoral fins , gill region , and flanks while courting and to hold on for copulation . Two mating grounds are known for western North Atlantic porbeagles , one off Newfoundland and the other on Georges Bank in the Gulf of Maine . Adult females have a single functional ovary , on the right , and two functional uteruses . They probably reproduce every year . The litter size is typically four , with two embryos oriented in opposing directions sharing each uterus ; on rare occasions a litter may contain as few as one or as many as five pups . The gestation period is 8 – 9 months .
Like other members of its family , the porbeagle is aplacental viviparous with oophagy , i.e. the main source of embryonic nutrition are unfertilized eggs . During the first half of pregnancy , the mother ovulates enormous numbers of tiny ova , packed into capsules up to 7 @.@ 5 cm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) long , into her uteruses . A newly conceived embryo is sustained by a yolk sac and emerges from its egg capsule at 3 @.@ 2 – 4 @.@ 2 cm ( 1 @.@ 3 – 1 @.@ 7 in ) long . At this time , the embryo has well @-@ developed external gills and a spiral valve intestine . When the embryo is 4 @.@ 2 – 9 @.@ 2 cm ( 1 @.@ 7 – 3 @.@ 6 in ) long , it has resorbed its external gills and most of its yolk sac , but cannot yet feed as it lacks the means to open egg capsules . At a length of 10 – 12 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 – 4 @.@ 7 in ) , the embryo grows two massive , recurved " fangs " in the lower jaw for tearing open capsules , as well as two much smaller teeth in the upper jaw . It begins to feed voraciously on yolk , acquiring an enormously distended stomach ; to accommodate this , the muscles on the belly split down the middle and the skin on the abdomen stretches greatly .
At 20 – 21 cm ( 7 @.@ 9 – 8 @.@ 3 in ) long , the embryo appears pink because it lacks pigment except in its eyes , and its head and gill region are laterally enlarged and gelatinous . The yolk stomach can comprise up to 81 % of the embryo 's total weight when it is 30 – 42 cm ( 12 – 17 in ) long . The embryo gains pigment and sheds its fangs at a length of 34 – 38 cm ( 13 – 15 in ) . Around this time , the mother stops producing ova . From then on , the embryo relies mainly on the yolk stored in its stomach , though it may continue to feed on remaining eggs by squishing the capsules between its jaws or swallowing them whole . It begins to transfer its energy stores from its stomach to its liver , causing the former to shrink and the latter to grow exponentially . The embryo is essentially fully pigmented by a length of 40 cm ( 16 in ) , and has assumed its newborn appearance by a length of 58 cm ( 23 in ) . By then , its stomach has shrunk enough for the abdominal muscles to close , leaving what has been termed an " umbilical scar " or " yolk sac scar " ( neither is accurate ) . Several series of single @-@ cusped teeth grow in both jaws , though they lie flat and remain non @-@ functional until birth .
Newborn porbeagles measure 58 – 67 cm ( 23 – 26 in ) long and do not exceed 5 kg ( 11 lb ) . Up to a tenth of the weight is made up of the liver , though some yolk also remains in its stomach and continues to sustain the pup until it learns to feed . The overall embryonic growth rate is 7 – 8 cm ( 2 @.@ 8 – 3 @.@ 1 in ) per month . Sometimes one pup in a uterus is much smaller than the other , but otherwise normal . These " runts " may result from a dominant , forward @-@ facing embryo eating most of the eggs as they arrive , and / or the mother being unable to provide an adequate egg supply for all her offspring . Birthing occurs from April to September , peaking in April and May ( spring @-@ summer ) for North Atlantic sharks and June and July ( winter ) for Southern Hemisphere sharks . In the western North Atlantic , birth occurs well offshore in the Sargasso Sea at depths of around 500 m ( 1 @,@ 600 ft ) .
Both sexes grow at similar rates until the onset of maturation , with females maturing later and at a larger size than males . In the first four years of life , the annual growth rate is 16 – 20 cm ( 6 @.@ 3 – 7 @.@ 9 in ) and similar in both hemispheres ; thereafter , sharks from the western South Pacific begin to grow slower than those from the North Atlantic . In the North Atlantic , males mature at a fork length of 1 @.@ 6 – 1 @.@ 8 m ( 5 @.@ 2 – 5 @.@ 9 ft ) and an age of 6 – 11 years , and females at a fork length of 2 @.@ 0 – 2 @.@ 2 m ( 6 @.@ 6 – 7 @.@ 2 ft ) and an age of 12 – 18 years . In the Southwest Pacific , males mature at a fork length of 1 @.@ 4 – 1 @.@ 5 m ( 4 @.@ 6 – 4 @.@ 9 ft ) and an age of 8 – 11 years , and females at a fork length of 1 @.@ 7 – 1 @.@ 8 m ( 5 @.@ 6 – 5 @.@ 9 ft ) and an age of 15 – 18 years . The oldest porbeagle on record was 26 years of age and measured 2 @.@ 5 m ( 8 @.@ 2 ft ) long . The maximum lifespan of this species appears to be 30 – 40 years in the Atlantic , but could be as much as 65 years in the South Pacific .
= = = Thermoregulation = = =
Like other members of its family , the porbeagle is endothermic : metabolic heat generated by its red muscles is conserved within the body by specialized systems of blood vessels called retia mirabilia ( Latin for " wonderful nets " ; singular rete mirabile ) , that act as highly efficient countercurrent heat exchangers . The porbeagle has several rete mirabile systems : the orbital retia accessing its brain and eyes , the lateral cutaneous retia accessing its swimming muscles , the suprahepatic rete accessing its viscera , and the kidney rete .
Among sharks , the porbeagle 's capacity for elevating body temperature is second only to the salmon shark 's . Its red muscles are located deep within the body , adjacent to the spine , and its lateral rete is composed of over 4 @,@ 000 small arteries arranged in bands . It has one of the highest core temperatures within its family , 8 – 10 ° C ( 14 – 18 ° F ) warmer than that of the surrounding water . Being warm @-@ bodied may allow this shark to maintain higher cruising speeds , hunt in deep water for extended periods of time , and / or enter higher latitudes during winter to exploit food resources not available to other sharks . The orbital retia of the porbeagle can raise the temperature of its brain and eyes by 3 – 6 ° C ( 5 – 11 ° F ) , and likely serve to buffer those sensitive organs against the large temperature shifts that accompany changes in depth ; potential benefits of this include increased visual acuity and reduced response times .
= = Human interactions = =
The porbeagle has very rarely , if ever , bitten swimmers or boats . As of 2009 , the International Shark Attack File attributes three bites to this species , one provoked and none fatal , and two on boats . One older anecdote tells of a fisherman who provoked a porbeagle into leaping from the water and tearing his clothes . In another account of a swimmer bitten by a " mackerel shark " , the species responsible could easily have been a misidentified shortfin mako or great white shark . Recently in the North Sea , adult porbeagles have been filmed charging at divers working on oil platforms , sometimes even brushing lightly against them without doing harm . These rushes do not appear to have predatory intent and may instead be motivated by curiosity or defense .
At one time , porbeagles were regarded as nuisances by some commercial fishers because they damaged lighter fishing gear intended for smaller species and stole hooked fish from lines . This shark is highly valued as a game fish by sport fishers in Ireland , the United Kingdom , and the United States . It fights strongly on hook @-@ and @-@ line , but does not usually jump into the air like the related shortfin mako . Novice anglers often mistake this shark for the mako , which has earned it the affectionate moniker " fako " in New England . The International Game Fish Association keeps records on the porbeagle .
= = = Commercial fishing = = =
Prized for its meat and fins , the porbeagle has long been under heavy fishing pressure . The meat is sold fresh , frozen , or dried and salted , and ranks among the most valuable of any shark : in 1997 and 1998 it had a wholesale price of EUR 5 – 7 / kg , four times that of the blue shark ( Prionace glauca ) . Most of the demand comes from Europe , though the United States and Japan also import this species . The fins are shipped to East Asia for use in shark fin soup . The remainder of the shark may also be utilized , for production of leather , liver oil , and fishmeal . International trade in the porbeagle appears to be significant , but remains unquantified as shark products tend not to be reported to the species level , and many consist of a mix of various species . This shark is caught most readily on longlines , but is also susceptible to gillnets , driftnets , trawls , and handlines . It is valuable enough to be generally retained when caught as bycatch ; if storage space cannot be spared it may be finned and the carcass discarded .
Intensive fishing for the porbeagle dates back the 1930s , when Norway and to a lesser extent Denmark began operating longline vessels in the western North Atlantic . The Norwegian annual catch rose from 279 tons in 1926 to 3 @,@ 884 tons in 1933 , and peaked at around 6 @,@ 000 tons in 1947 , with the resumption of fishing after World War II . Soon after the stock collapsed : Norwegian annual catches declined steadily to 1 @,@ 200 – 1 @,@ 900 tons from 1953 to 1960 , 160 – 300 tons in the early 1970s , and 10 – 40 tons in the late 1980s to early 1990s . Similarly , Danish annual catches fell from 1 @,@ 500 tons in the early 1950s to under 100 tons in the 1990s . Presently , many European countries continue to catch porbeagles in the eastern North Atlantic , with Norway , Denmark , France , and Spain foremost among them . France and Spain began to target porbeagles in the eastern North Atlantic in the 1970s . French fishers operate mainly in the Celtic Sea and the Bay of Biscay , and saw a decline from an annual catch of over 1 @,@ 000 tons in 1979 to 300 – 400 tons in the late 1990s . Catches by Spanish fishers have been highly variable , ranging from negligible to over 4 @,@ 000 tons per year , which may reflect shifts of fishing effort into historically less @-@ exploited waters .
As porbeagles had become scarce in the eastern North Atlantic , in the 1960s the Norwegian fishing fleet moved west to the waters off New England and Newfoundland . A few years later , they were joined by longline vessels from the Faroe Islands . Norwegian annual catches rose from 1 @,@ 900 tons in 1961 to over 9 @,@ 000 tons in 1965 ; the catch was largely exported to Italy , where porbeagle ( smeriglio ) is an extremely popular food fish . Again , the stock collapsed , this time in only six years : by 1970 Norwegian catches had fallen to under 1 @,@ 000 tons per year , and Faroese catches observed a similar trend . With the population decimated , most fishers moved on or switched to other species . Porbeagle numbers gradually recovered in the ensuing 25 years , to about 30 % of pre @-@ exploitation levels . In 1995 , Canada established an Exclusive Economic Zone ( EEZ ) and became the primary fisher of porbeagles in the region . Between 1994 and 1998 , Canadian fishing vessels landed 1 @,@ 000 – 2 @,@ 000 tons per year , which depleted the population to 11 – 17 % of pre @-@ exploitation levels by 2000 . Strict regulations and greatly reduced fishing quotas introduced in 2000 have since begun to reverse the stock decline , though recovery of the stock is projected to take decades due to the low productivity of the species . There is evidence that incidental artificial selection caused by heavy fishing has led to a compensatory growth response , i.e. faster growth and earlier maturation .
In the Southern Hemisphere , commercial fishing for the porbeagle is mostly undocumented . Substantial numbers are caught incidentally by pelagic longline fisheries targeting more valuable species such as southern bluefin tuna ( Thunnus maccoyii ) , swordfish ( Xiphius gladius ) , and Patagonian toothfish ( Dissostichus eleginoides ) , including vessels operated by Japan , Uruguay , Argentina , South Africa , and New Zealand . Porbeagle catches by the Uruguayan tuna pelagic longline fishery peaked in 1984 with 150 tons landed . Records of catch per unit effort ( CPUE ) for this fishery have shown a 90 % decline in porbeagle landings from 1988 to 1998 , though it is uncertain whether this reflects a real population decline or changing fishing habits . New Zealand has reported annual catches of 150 – 300 tons , mostly of immature individuals , from 1998 to 2003 .
= = = Conservation = = =
The rapid collapse of porbeagle stocks on both sides of the North Atlantic is often cited as archetypal of the " boom and bust " pattern of most shark fisheries . Factors including a small litter size , long maturation time , and the capture of multiple age classes all contribute to this shark 's susceptibility to overfishing . The International Union for Conservation of Nature has assessed the porbeagle globally as Vulnerable , Endangered in the western North Atlantic ( including the Baltic ) , and Critically Endangered in the eastern North Atlantic and Mediterranean Sea .
The porbeagle is listed on Annex 1 ( Highly Migratory Species ) of the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea ( UNCLOS ) and on Annex 1 of the Conservation of Migratory Species ( CMS ; also known as the Bonn Convention ) Migratory Shark Memorandum of Understanding . This species benefits from bans on shark finning instituted by several nations and supranational entities , including Canada , the United States , Brazil , Australia , the European Union , and the International Commission for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas ( ICCAT ) . Although the Animals Committee of the UN Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora ( CITES ) recommended additional conservation actions for the porbeagle , CITES rejected proposals to list the species in 2008 and again in 2010 . In March 2013 , the porbeagle was listed on Appendix II of CITES , allowing for increased regulation in the international trade of this species .
In March 2015 , The National Marine Fisheries Service responded to a court order to compile information as to whether the shark will be listed as threatened or endangered under The Endangered Species Act .
= = = = Southern Hemisphere = = = =
The only regulation of porbeagle catches in the Southern Hemisphere is New Zealand 's total allowable catch ( TAC ) of 249 tons per year , instituted in 2004 .
= = = = Eastern North Atlantic and Mediterranean Sea = = = =
In the eastern North Atlantic , porbeagle fisheries have never been restricted despite well @-@ documented historical declines . Since 1985 , Norway and the Faroe Islands are allowed annual quotas of 200 tons and 125 tons respectively from European Community waters . Although these quotas are lower than the originals set in 1982 ( 500 tons for Norway and 300 tons for the Faroe Islands ) , they are still consistently higher than the yearly total porbeagle catch in the region and thus have no practical effect .
In the Mediterranean Sea , the porbeagle is on the verge of extinction , with a population decline of over 99 @.@ 99 % since the mid @-@ 20th century . Its range has contracted to the waters around the Italian Peninsula , where there may be a nursery area . Only a few dozen specimens have been recorded in the past few decades , from scientific surveys , swordfish fishery bycatch , and sport fishers . In 1995 , it was included in Annex III ( " species whose exploitation is regulated " ) of the Barcelona Convention Protocol on protected areas and biodiversity in the Mediterranean , which has not been ratified . In 1997 , it was listed on Appendix III of the Bern Convention ( the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats ) . However , these listings have yet to result in the implementation of new management plans , despite the recognized need for urgent action .
The European Union prohibits EU vessels from fishing for , retaining , boarding , transhiping or landing porbeagle sharks in all waters since January 2012 . It is subject to a zero total allowable catch in EU waters by any vessel .
= = = = Western North Atlantic = = = =
The western North Atlantic porbeagle population has a more positive prospect than in the eastern North Atlantic . Fishing in Canadian waters was originally regulated by the 1995 Fisheries Management Plan for pelagic sharks in Atlantic Canada , which established an annual quota of 1 @,@ 500 tons , restricted the time , place , and gear types allowed for commercial fishing , and set limits for bycatch and recreational fishing . In 2000 – 2001 , Fisheries and Oceans Canada ( DFO ) prepared a detailed population model and concluded that a quota of 200 – 250 tons would allow for population growth , resulting in a quota of 250 tons being adopted for the period of 2002 – 2007 . The mating ground off of Newfoundland was also closed to shark fishing . In 2004 , the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada ( COSEWIC ) listed the porbeagle as Endangered , largely on the basis of the low population abundance ( < 25 % of original numbers ) . Canada decided not to list the species under its Species At Risk Act , but further reduced the total fishing quota to 185 tons . In US waters , the 1993 Fishery Management Plan for Sharks of the Atlantic Ocean sets an annual quota of 92 tons ( post @-@ processing ) for the porbeagle . In 2006 , this species was listed as a Species of Concern by the National Marine Fisheries Service ( NMFS ) , meaning that it merits conservation concern but there is insufficient data for inclusion on the US Endangered Species Act .
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= Röyksopp =
Röyksopp ( Norwegian pronunciation : [ ˈɾœʏksɔp ] ) are a Norwegian electronic music duo from Tromsø , formed in 1998 . Since their inception , the band has consisted of Svein Berge and Torbjørn Brundtland .
Berge and Brundtland were introduced to each other through a mutual friend in Tromsø , Norway . They both enjoyed the same films and music , and both shared an interest in electronics . The two experimented with various forms of electronic music , and bought a drum machine together during the Tromsø techno scene before going their separate ways . Several years later , the two met up again and formed Röyksopp during the Bergen Wave . After experimenting with different genres of electronic music , the band solidified their place in the electronica scene with their 2001 debut album , Melody A.M. , released on the Wall of Sound record label .
Röyksopp consistently experimented with various genres pertaining to electronic music . Stylistically , the band makes use of various genres , including ambient , house music and synthpop . The band is also known for its elaborate concert performances , which often feature eccentric outfits .
Since their 1998 debut , the duo gained critical acclaim and popular success around the world . To date , Röyksopp has been nominated for one Grammy Award , won seven Spellemannprisen awards , performed worldwide tours , and produced albums which have topped the charts in several countries , including four consecutive number @-@ one albums in their native Norway .
= = History = =
= = = 1990 – 97 : Origins = = =
Svein Berge and Torbjørn Brundtland were introduced at a friend 's house in Tromsø , Norway , and began experimenting with electronic instruments in the early 1990s as a part of the Tromsø techno scene . The two met when Berge was 12 years old and Brundtland was 13 , and the two began playing music together due to a shared interest in electronica . Their childhood in Tromsø and the natural scenery of Northern Norway have often been mentioned as some of their most important inspirations . The pair separated before obtaining any popular success with their music , but reunited with each other in 1998 in Bergen , Norway .
Bergen , a city of 212 @,@ 944 people in 1990 , had overtaken Tromsø 's position as the most vital scene for underground electronic music in Norway , and Röyksopp worked with other Norwegian musicians like Frost , Those Norwegians , Drum Island , and Kings of Convenience 's guitarist and singer Erlend Øye in what was called the Bergen Wave . During this time , the duo befriended Geir Jenssen . Under the tutelage of Jenssen , the duo started a band called Aedena Cycle with Gaute Barlindhaug and Kolbjørn Lyslo . In 1994 Aedena Cycle recorded a vinyl EP called Traveler 's Dreams . The EP was released under the R & S Records sublabel Apollo . Following the release of the EP , Jenssen almost convinced the band to sign a full record deal with Apollo Records .
= = = 1998 – 2000 : Early years = = =
After recording as part of Aedena Cycle , Berge and Brundtland left the group to form their own band , Röyksopp . The word röyksopp is a stylized version of the Norwegian word for the puffball mushroom , " røyksopp " . The band has stated that the word could also evoke the mushroom cloud resulting from an atomic blast .
Röyksopp 's debut single was released by local Bergen Wave @-@ era independent label Tellé . Röyksopp 's first single " So Easy " , which was later re @-@ released on their first album , was the second record released by Tellé . After being used in a UK T @-@ Mobile advertisement , " So Easy " became popular in the UK market and was later re @-@ released , combined with their later hit single " Remind Me " .
= = = 2001 – 04 : Melody A.M. and early success = = =
After leaving Tellé , the band signed with British label Wall of Sound and released Melody A.M. , which became certified platinum in the band 's native Norway and sold over a million copies worldwide . The album peaked at number one in Norway , and produced the UK Top 40 singles " Eple " , " Poor Leno " , and " Remind Me " . A final single , " Sparks " , was also released . Eple ( IPA : [ ˈɛplə ] ) – meaning " apple " in Norwegian – was licensed by Apple Inc. for use as the welcome music to the company 's Mac OS X Panther operating system , playing the first time a user booted a new Apple @-@ brand computer .
The band 's popularity was boosted by several graphically experimental music videos , many of which were put into heavy rotation by MTV . The music video for " Remind Me " , featuring an infographic @-@ style video by French company H5 , won the 2002 MTV Europe Music Award for best music video . In this same event the duo was nominated in three more categories : " Best Nordic Act " , " Best New Artist " and " Best Dance Act " . The duo performed the song " Poor Leno " at the event . One year later they received a nomination for " Best Group " at the Brit Awards .
During this period Röyksopp slowly gained popularity in the United States . " Remind Me " , one of the two Röyksopp and Erlend Øye collaborations found on Melody A.M. , was featured in a Geico car insurance commercial . The commercial was the fourth of the " It 's so easy a caveman could do it " ads , and featured said caveman riding a moving sidewalk in an airport terminal when he comes across a poster displaying the advertisement campaign .
During this time , Röyksopp were approached to compose the soundtrack for The Matrix Reloaded , although they declined the offer .
= = = 2005 – 08 : The Understanding = = =
Röyksopp 's second studio album , The Understanding , was released on 12 July 2005 , preceded by the single " Only This Moment " on 27 June 2005 . The single managed to peak at number 33 in the United Kingdom . The video for " Only This Moment " is closely based on the events of the Paris 1968 riots , and elements of propaganda are found throughout the video clip . The album 's second single , " 49 Percent " , with the vocals of Chelonis R. Jones was released on 26 September 2005 . A third single , " What Else Is There ? " , including vocals from Swedish singer Karin Dreijer " Fever Ray " Andersson of The Knife , became the album 's biggest hit , peaking at number 32 in the United Kingdom , and at number four in Norway . " Beautiful Day Without You " was the album 's fourth single , and a non @-@ album track , " Curves " , was also released .
Building upon the success of Melody A.M. , The Understanding was very successful in Europe . The album peaked at number one in Norway , and at number 13 in the UK . During this time , Röyksopp 's popularity continued to increase in the United States . The album charted on many Billboard charts , and peaked at number two on the Top Electronic Albums chart , number 22 on the Top Heatseekers chart , and number 32 on the Top Independent Albums .
After the release of The Understanding , some of Röyksopp 's singles were licensed for movie appearances . " What Else Is There ? " was featured during a scene in the 2007 American film Meet Bill and during the end credits of the 2006 British film Cashback , and " Circuit Breaker " was used in the 2007 snowboard film Picture This .
On 19 June 2006 , Röyksopp released a nine @-@ track live album called Röyksopp 's Night Out . Notably , the album contains a reinterpretation of the song " Go with the Flow " , originally by Queens of the Stone Age .
On 5 March 2007 , Röyksopp compiled their favourite tracks by other artists for the Back to Mine series . Called Back to Mine : Röyksopp , the album was released in the US on 5 March 2007 , and in the UK on 27 April 2007 . The album also includes their own track " Meatball " , released under the pseudonym " Emmanuel Splice " . Svein Berge also contributed as a board member for the celebration of the Grieg year , as Norway celebrated their famous composer Edvard Grieg .
On the tenth anniversary of Röyksopp 's formation — 15 December 2008 — the band released a new track , " Happy Birthday " , for free to celebrate the event . The song was released for free streaming on the band 's website .
= = = 2009 – 11 : Junior and Senior = = =
Röyksopp 's third studio album , Junior , was released on 23 March 2009 , featuring the single " Happy Up Here " . The song debuted on BBC Radio 1 's Pete Tong show on 9 January 2009 . It was officially released digitally on 16 March 2009 . The music video for " Happy Up Here " , made by Reuben Sutherland , features elements from the arcade game Space Invaders . Both the single and the video were met with positive reactions from the press and fans .
" The Girl and the Robot " , the second single from the album Junior , featuring vocals from Swedish singer Robyn , was released on 15 June 2009 . The vinyl and digital versions of the single included remixes of the song by Kris Menace , Chateau Marmont and Spencer & Hill . At the 52nd Grammy Awards , the Jean Elan remix of " The Girl and the Robot " was nominated for Best Remixed Recording , Non @-@ Classical . " This Must Be It " is the third single from the album , including vocals from Swedish singer Karin Dreijer Andersson of The Knife and Fever Ray . The single also featuring remixes by Thin White Duke , LehtMoJoe , Rex the Dog and Apparat , among others . The band later released the stems for the song " Tricky Tricky " as part of a remix competition and the winning entries were released on 27 October 2009 .
Junior was a success around the world . The album peaked at number one in Norway , the band 's third consecutive release to do so . Junior also peaked at number 21 on the UK Albums Chart and charted on many Billboard charts , including the Billboard 200 – the first Röyksopp release to do so – where it peaked at number 126 . The album also peaked at number four on the Top Electronic Albums chart and number two on the Top Heatseekers chart .
Junior was followed by Senior , which is more quiet , " withdrawn and introspective " and " create [ s ] an atmosphere and an ambiance " . Senior is the duo 's first album to consist solely of instrumental tracks . The first single from the album , " The Drug " , was released on 9 August 2010 . The album itself was released on 13 September 2010 , and was successful in the band 's native Norway , peaking at number one , the band 's fourth consecutive release to do so .
= = = 2013 – 16 : Do It Again , The Inevitable End and Star Wars Headspace = = =
In January 2013 , Röyksopp released a song called " Running to the Sea " , a collaboration with Norwegian artist Susanne Sundfør . According to the band , the song was written and recorded in two days for a televised performance . The single was released on 16 December 2013 , with a B @-@ side containing a song called " Something In My Heart " , featuring Jamie McDermott from The Irrepressibles . Röyksopp and Sundfør also collaborated in creating a cover version of Depeche Mode 's " Ice Machine " for their Late Night Tales compilation album , Late Night Tales : Röyksopp .
On 14 April 2014 , Röyksopp announced a collaborative EP with Robyn titled Do It Again to coincide with their joint tour . A snippet of one of the five tracks set to be released on the album , " Monument " , was released the same day . The album was released on 26 May through Don Triumph , Wall of Sound , and Cooking Vinyl . The duo stated that a re @-@ worked version of " Monument " would form a part of their next album .
On 29 September 2014 , Röyksopp announced that their next album , titled The Inevitable End , would explore darker subject matter with emphasis on the lyrical content , and would be their last LP , though they will not stop making music . The album was released on 7 November 2014 by Dog Triumph . The special edition of the album includes new versions of the previously released tracks " Running to the Sea " , " Do It Again " and " Monument " as well as the original version of " Something In My Heart " . Some singles did precede the release of the album : " Skulls " , " Sordid Affair " and the new version of " Monument " . " Skulls " and " Monument " were accompanied by two new video clips . The video for " I Had This Thing " was shared on 11 May 2015 . The track features vocals by Jamie Irrepressibles and comes with a series of remixes .
In early 2015 , it was announced that the band have composed a musical accompaniment to a comedic work based upon the novels of Franz Kafka . The project debuted at the Bergen International Festival in the same year .
Also in 2015 , the Norwegian public broadcaster NRK introduced a series of new jingles by Röyksopp for the TV output of the NRK Nyheter news division , as part of a comprehensive redesign of the sub @-@ brand .
On 8 February 2016 , Röyksopp announced that a new track titled " Bounty Hunters " would be included on the Star Wars Headspace compilation . The album was released on 19 February 2016 .
= = Style = =
= = = Musical style = = =
Röyksopp 's music is often referred to as " warm " , a reference to the band 's downbeat electronica that combines elements of house music and Afro @-@ American sounds .
A notable component of Röyksopp 's song repertoire relies on the use of multiple lead vocalists . For instance , Melody A.M. features the vocal talents of Anneli Drecker and Erlend Øye , The Understanding features Kate Havnevik , Chelonis R. Jones , and Karin Dreijer Andersson , and Junior features Robyn , Anneli Drecker , Karin Dreijer Andersson , and Lykke Li .
Röyksopp enjoys using classic synthesizers , including the monophonic Korg MS @-@ 20 , the polyphonic Roland Juno @-@ 106 , and multiple members of the Akai Sampler Series . The band has stated that they prefer using analogue synthesizers over digital ones . Svein Berge said , " It 's fairly limited the fun you can have with the use of a mouse . We like to mix . "
In addition to writing their own music , the duo enjoy remixing songs . Berge said , " It 's obviously fun remixing people like Coldplay , artists of such a big calibre . Whenever people approach us for a remix it 's very nice ; being approached by Roots Manuva , The Streets , and even Peter Gabriel is quite fun . " The band was also asked by Britney Spears for a remix , but had to turn down the offer due to scheduling conflicts .
= = = Influences = = =
As they grew up in northern Norway , Svein Berge and Torbjørn Brundtland listened to local artists like Bel Canto and Biosphere . The band has also expressed their interest in the music of Kraftwerk , Brian Eno , Giorgio Moroder , Art of Noise , Vangelis , Erik Satie , and Francis Lai . Svein Berge has also stated that he is very fond of the production and programming skills of Datasette , who produced a remix of the Röyksopp single " Happy Up Here " .
Röyksopp often include references and homages to their musical influences . For instance , " Röyksopp Forever " pays homage to famous electronic pioneers of the 70s , including , " the likes of Vangelis and these people , and Krautrock , like Tangerine Dream and even Pink Floyd and King Crimson . "
= = = Live performances = = =
Röyksopp is known for its elaborate concert performances . Marc Hogan of Pitchfork Media said that " Those who have heard Röyksopp 's two albums ... won 't be surprised to learn the Norwegian duo 's live set is much better and more raucuous than hunching next to the speakers at yer local Crate & Barrel " .
When performing live , the duo often appear in eccentric outfits . Ari Stein , of Electronic Beats , said , that during one particular live set , " Röyksopp returned with two separate encores , one which included Berge playing " Eple " with a space suit capsule on his head " .
Rösykopp use different vocalists as part of their live act . During their 2015 summer tour they are joined by Swedish singer Jonna Lee from iamamiwhoami , Susanne Sundfør and Jamie McDermott .
= = Discography = =
Melody A.M. ( 2001 )
The Understanding ( 2005 )
Junior ( 2009 )
Senior ( 2010 )
Late Night Tales : Röyksopp ( 2013 )
Do It Again with Robyn ( 2014 )
The Inevitable End ( 2014 )
= = Reception and awards = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
In addition to sales success , Röyksopp has garnered generally positive critical reception from many music critics . The band has also been nominated for many prestigious awards , including multiple Spellemannprisens and a Grammy .
The tracks " What Else Is There ? " and " Eple " were chosen among the top 500 tracks of the decade by Pitchfork Media and placed in 375th and 336th place respectively . Another track written by Röyksopp , Annie 's " Heartbeat " , was placed 17th on the same list . On 24 November 2009 , Melody A.M. was named the best Norwegian album of the decade by Norway 's largest newspaper , Verdens Gang . The Understanding came 5th on the same list . In a ranking of the top 10 Norwegian tracks of the decade by VG , " Eple " and " What Else Is There ? " were placed 3rd and 6th respectively .
However , some criticism has been aimed at the repetitive nature of the band and the trip hop genre in general . Robert Christgau said that , " chill @-@ out tends toward waiting @-@ room music for plastic surgeons who really want you to order that butt implant . Where once [ Röyksopp ] were extolled for their subtle melodicism , here their schlock candidly attacks the jugular . If they 're Air , Goldie was Tricky . " Pitchfork Media , in their review of Senior , said that " the kind of downtempo stuff that makes up the majority of Röyksopp 's vocal @-@ less compositions just doesn 't hold up to concentrated , repeated listens like many other forms of instrumental electronic music . "
= = = Awards = = =
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= Schwalbe @-@ class cruiser =
The Schwalbe class of unprotected cruisers were the first ships of the type built for the German Kaiserliche Marine ( Imperial Navy ) . The class comprised two ships , Schwalbe , the lead ship , and Sperber . They were designed for service in Germany 's recently acquired colonial empire , and were built between 1886 and 1889 . They were armed with a main battery of eight 10 @.@ 5 @-@ centimeter ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) guns and could steam at a speed of 13 @.@ 5 knots ( 25 @.@ 0 km / h ; 15 @.@ 5 mph ) .
Schwalbe and Sperber spent their active careers abroad , usually in Germany 's African colonies or in the Pacific . The two cruisers assisted in the suppression of the Abushiri Revolt in German East Africa in 1889 – 1890 . By the end of the 1890s , both ships had been overhauled and decommissioned in Germany . They returned to service at the turn of the century for another tour overseas ; Schwalbe joined the forces that battled the Boxer Rebellion in China in 1900 before being decommissioned a second time in 1902 . Sperber remained in Africa until 1911 , when she too was decommissioned . Schwalbe was used as a training ship after 1912 and Sperber was used as a target ship during World War I. Both vessels were sold in 1920 and broken up in 1922 .
= = Design = =
The ships of the Schwalbe class were designed for use in Germany 's recently acquired overseas colonies . These newly conquered territories required warships to police them , and at the time , the German Kaiserliche Marine ( Imperial Navy ) possessed a motley collection of older sailing ships that were suitable only for training purposes . The design was prepared in 1886 – 1887 , under the tenure of General Leo von Caprivi , the Chief of the Kaiserliche Marine ; Caprivi sought new cruisers that would have strong fighting capabilities in addition to traditional overseas cruiser characteristics . The Schwalbe class was the first unprotected cruiser design built in Germany , and along with several other small warships , they permitted Caprivi to retire five old sailing frigates and modernized the German cruiser force .
= = = General characteristics = = =
The ships of the Schwalbe class were 62 @.@ 59 meters ( 205 ft 4 in ) long at the waterline and 66 @.@ 90 m ( 219 ft 6 in ) long overall . They had a beam of 9 @.@ 36 m ( 30 ft 9 in ) , though over the sponsons for the main guns , the beam increased to 10 @.@ 1 m ( 33 ft ) . The ships had a draft of 4 @.@ 4 m ( 14 ft ) forward and 4 @.@ 72 m ( 15 ft 6 in ) aft . They displaced 1 @,@ 111 metric tons ( 1 @,@ 093 long tons ; 1 @,@ 225 short tons ) as designed and up to 1 @,@ 359 t ( 1 @,@ 338 long tons ) at full combat load . The ships ' hulls were constructed with a transverse framing composed of steel , wood , and copper . Their stem and stern were made of wood , and a bronze ram was mounted at the bow . The hull was divided into eleven watertight compartments .
The two cruisers were good sea boats , and were very maneuverable . They suffered from severe weather helm , and tended to roll badly in a beam sea ; their metacentric height was .665 m ( 2 ft 2 @.@ 2 in ) . They lost little speed in a head sea . Schwalbe and Sperber each had a crew of 9 officers and 108 enlisted men . They carried a number of small boats , including one picket boat , one cutter , one yawl , and one dinghy .
= = = Propulsion = = =
Their propulsion system consisted of two horizontal 2 @-@ cylinder double @-@ expansion steam engines powered by four coal @-@ fired cylindrical water @-@ tube boilers trunked into a single funnel . The engines drove a pair of 3 @-@ bladed screw propellers that were 2 @.@ 80 m ( 9 ft 2 in ) wide in diameter . The ships ' engines provided a design speed of 13 @.@ 5 knots ( 25 @.@ 0 km / h ; 15 @.@ 5 mph ) and a range of approximately 3 @,@ 290 nautical miles ( 6 @,@ 090 km ; 3 @,@ 790 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . On trials , both ships exceeded their rated speeds , with Schwalbe reaching 14 @.@ 1 knots ( 26 @.@ 1 km / h ; 16 @.@ 2 mph ) and Sperber making 14 @.@ 3 knots ( 26 @.@ 5 km / h ; 16 @.@ 5 mph ) . At these speeds , the cruising radius fell to 1 @,@ 630 nmi ( 3 @,@ 020 km ; 1 @,@ 880 mi ) . To supplement the steam engines , the ships were fitted with a barquentine rig . Steering was controlled by a single rudder . Schwalbe was fitted with one electricity generator rated at 5 kilowatts ( 6 @.@ 7 hp ) at 67 volts during her modernization in 1903 .
= = = Armament = = =
Since Caprivi sought overseas cruisers that would still have significant combat power , the ships were armed with a relatively heavy battery — for ships of their size — of eight 10 @.@ 5 cm K L / 35 guns . These guns were placed in single pedestal mounts and were supplied with 765 rounds of ammunition in total . They had a range of 8 @,@ 200 m ( 26 @,@ 900 ft ) . Four of the guns were mounted in sponsons , with two side by side forward and aft . The remaining four guns were placed amidships in gun ports . Four guns were mounted on each broadside . The gun armament was rounded out by five 3 @.@ 7 cm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) revolver cannon .
= = Ships = =
= = Service history = =
Schwalbe and Sperber spent the majority of their careers on Germany 's colonial stations , where they policed the colonies , suppressed unrest , and showed the flag . Both ships were initially called to German East Africa to help put down the Abushiri Revolt in 1889 – 1890 . Schwalbe remained in the colony after the rebellion was suppressed , but Sperber left for the South Seas Station in German New Guinea . In mid @-@ 1893 , Schwalbe was recalled to Germany for a major overhaul , and Sperber was similarly ordered to return at the end of the year , but while en route she was sent to German Southwest Africa instead . Sperber finally returned to Germany in late 1897 for her overhaul , which was completed the following year . Both ships were decommissioned after their overhauls were finished .
In April 1898 , Schwalbe was recommissioned for another tour abroad . She first returned to German East Africa , where the Second Boer War threatened regional stability ; British warships began seizing German vessels suspected of carrying contraband to the Boers . This created a major diplomatic incident and Schwalbe was sent to protect German shipping in the area . The outbreak of the Boxer Rebellion in Qing China in 1900 proved to be more pressing , and so Schwalbe was sent to join the Eight Nation Alliance that had formed to crush the Boxers . During her deployment to China , she helped blockade the Yangtze and sent landing parties ashore to control unrest in Ningpo . In mid @-@ 1902 , she was recalled to Germany for a second time , was overhauled , and was again decommissioned .
Sperber meanwhile had been reactivated in December 1902 in response to the Venezuela Crisis of 1902 – 03 ; she was sent there in January 1903 , though by the time she arrived the crisis had subsided and she was no longer necessary . She was therefore transferred first to German East Africa , where she remained only briefly before being moved again , this time to the East Asia Squadron . She served in the unit from late 1903 to early 1905 , when she was reassigned to German Southwest Africa . She returned to Germany in early 1911 and was decommissioned in July . In October 1911 Schwalbe was recommissioned for use as a special purposes ship . Initially , she was to be a survey ship , but the Navy instead decided to use her to replace the old aviso Grille as a training ship . Sperber was stricken from the naval register in 1912 and used as a target ship through World War I. Schwalbe continued on as a training ship during the war until 1918 , when she too was employed as a gunnery training target . Both ships were sold for scrapping in August 1920 and were broken up in 1922 in Hamburg .
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= Save the Last One =
" Save the Last One " is the third episode of the second season of the post @-@ apocalyptic horror television series The Walking Dead . It first aired on AMC in the United States on October 30 , 2011 . The episode was written by Scott M. Gimple and directed by Phil Abraham . In the episode , Shane Walsh ( Jon Bernthal ) and Otis ( Pruitt Taylor Vince ) desperately attempt to flee the walker @-@ infested high school in order to deliver supplies to a dying Carl Grimes ( Chandler Riggs ) . Meanwhile , Daryl Dixon ( Norman Reedus ) and Andrea ( Laurie Holden ) continue to search for Sophia Peletier ( Madison Lintz ) .
Production for the episode occurred in July 2011 at Newnan High School in Newnan , Georgia , after receiving approval from the city council and the Coweta County School System . " Save the Last One " was critically acclaimed by television critics , who praised the storyline and the episode 's conclusion . Upon its initial airing , it was watched by 6 @.@ 095 million viewers and garnered a 3 @.@ 1 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , according to Nielsen ratings .
= = Plot = =
With Shane Walsh ( Jon Bernthal ) and Otis ( Pruitt Taylor Vince ) missing for hours , Hershel Greene ( Scott Wilson ) informs Rick Grimes ( Andrew Lincoln ) and his wife Lori ( Sarah Wayne Callies ) that he must perform the surgery on their son Carl ( Chandler Riggs ) without the necessary equipment .
Andrea ( Laurie Holden ) and Daryl Dixon ( Norman Reedus ) go out in search of Sophia Peletier ( Madison Lintz ) , following her mother Carol ( Melissa McBride ) weeping for her loss . Daryl tells Andrea about his childhood , and expresses hope that they will successfully locate Sophia . They stumble upon an abandoned campsite , encountering an undead walker in the process ( a person who had committed suicide by hanging himself from a tree ) . Daryl insists that they leave the walker alone , but Andrea firmly refuses . He asks her if she wants to continue living , to which she exclaims uncertainty . Before returning to the camp , Daryl euthanizes the walker . Upon returning to the camp , Dale Horvath ( Jeffrey DeMunn ) attempts to reconcile with Andrea by returning her handgun .
Glenn ( Steven Yeun ) and T @-@ Dog ( IronE Singleton ) journey to the Greene home . Upon arrival , Glenn begins to pray for the well @-@ being of his fellow survivors , while T @-@ Dog receives medical treatment for blood poisoning . Meanwhile Carl goes in and out of consciousness , and briefly recalls What Lies Ahead before going into a seizure . A distraught Lori opines to Rick about ending Carl 's suffering , but Rick insists on keeping him alive .
At the high school , Shane and Otis split up after struggling against a horde of walkers . Shane injures his leg while attempting to jump out of a second @-@ story window and Otis hurts his leg after jumping from some retracted bleachers . Upon regrouping , Shane and Otis seemingly are out of options for survival . They begin to limp back to their truck , eventually running low on ammo .
Rick and Lori decide to do the operation without the necessary equipment . As they prepare for the operation , Shane arrives with the medical supplies , but without Otis . He claims that Otis sacrificed himself in order to save Carl . But it is later revealed that Shane actually betrayed Otis , shooting him in the leg and leaving him as bait for the walkers . The episode ends with Shane shaving his head , wiping out evidence of scuffling with Otis .
= = Production = =
Similar to its preceding episode , " Bloodletting " , principal photography for " Save the Last One " commenced in Newnan , Georgia at Newnan High School in July 2011 , after receiving approval from the city council and the Coweta County School System . Site preparation initiated on July 1 , and filming began at the gymnasium of the school over a period of four days from July 7 – 8 and again from July 11 – 12 . The location was temporarily renovated to mirror an abandoned Federal Emergency Management Agency camp . Michael Riley , the production manager for the episode , contacted the Newnan Police Department to collaborate with producers . Because of the large size of the filming location , Riley 's production company notified surrounding neighborhoods to ease inconvenience .
" Save the Last One " marked the final appearance of Pruitt Taylor Vince , whose character was killed off in the episode after Shane shoots him ; this subsequently marks a turning point for him as a false protagonist . In an interview with Entertainment Weekly , writer Robert Kirkman explained the reaction of Jon Bernthal to the particular scene :
" Jon Bernthal is a tremendous talent and he ’ s got a lot of professionalism . A lot of the actors came in to the room as we were starting this season and Bernthal was one of those actors . He was aware of a lot of the things that were coming up and we talked to him about his character and what we had planned for him this season and he was on board with a lot of it . It was nice being able to run though scenarios with him and get his opinion on how he perceived his character . Because actors , a lot of times , think about their characters more than the writers because they ’ re focused on that single character for months of their lives , if not years . He was all prepared for this . "
Kirkman expressed that the death of Otis was a " somewhat justifiable homicide " , and retorted that " Otis was slowing him down , and Carl 's life hangs in the balance . " He continued : " It 's [ The Walking Dead ] and we 're existing in that gray area and we 're really pushing the boundaries of that . But at the end of the day , Shane shot that guy and left him for dead and ran off . It 's a pretty dark moment and it informs Shane 's character and sets up a lot of things that are going to be happening moving forward . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Save the Last One " was originally broadcast on October 30 , 2011 in the United States on AMC . It was viewed by 6 @.@ 095 million viewers , and attained a 3 @.@ 1 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , according to Nielsen ratings . The episode was the highest @-@ rated program of the day , garnering considerably higher ratings than a stock car racing event as part of the 2011 NASCAR Sprint Cup Series on ESPN and Next Iron Chef on Food Network . Similarly , the episode became the second highest @-@ rated cable program of the week dated October 30 , attaining significantly higher ratings that WWE Raw but scoring considerably lower than a game between the Baltimore Ravens and the Jacksonville Jaguars as part of the 2011 NFL season . Total viewership and ratings for " Save the Last One " moderately declined from the previous episode , " Bloodletting " , which was viewed by 6 @.@ 70 million viewers and received a 3 @.@ 6 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic .
= = = Critical response = = =
" Save the Last One " was critically acclaimed by television critics . IGN 's Eric Goldman praised the episode , giving it a nine out of ten , signifying an " amazing " rating . He opined that it was his favorite episode since the series ' pilot episode , " Days Gone Bye " , and added that " it had scary zombie scenes , good action , interesting character interaction and a revelation at the end that gave us a whole lot to process . " John Serba of The Grand Rapids Press was split on " Save the Last One " ; while asserting that it was " imminently watchable " , he felt that the episode was unbalanced as a whole and criticized the dialogue . Serba wrote : " The show continues to display a disproportionate amount of dialogue compared to the development of its characters . It needs to do a better job of biding its time between crowd @-@ pleasing zombie attacks . " HitFix 's Alan Sepinwall echoed similar thoughts , opining , " the characters need more depth . The show seems to be setting itself out to be a slow @-@ burning character study in the context of a zombie apocalypse — and with enough chase scenes and other scares to entice folks who just want brain @-@ eating action — and the characters need to be more complex than they 've been shown to be so far . "
The Baltimore Sun journalist Andrew Conrad commended the episode , citing that the episodic pace was faster than the preceding episode . Josh Wigler of MTV opined : " Tonight 's episode was all about pairs . Shane and Otis , two soldiers in a foxhole . Rick and Lori , two parents at odds over how to handle their son 's failing condition . Glenn and Maggie , two strangers desperate to make a connection . Andrea and Daryl , two opposites trying to find a reason to move on . Great scenes with all of these duos , and it really goes to show just how fantastic The Walking Dead cast is , both in the loud and quiet moments . " Zack Handlen from The A.V. Club awarded the episode a ' B + ' grade , and felt that the episode was superior to the previous episode . In contrast , Aaron Rutkoff of The Wall Street Journal was less enthusiastic about the episode , expressing , " truth be told , after three episodes very little has happened so far this season . " TV Fanatic 's Sean McKenna asserted that despite not having any direction , " Save the Last One " managed to retain the " tension and action that makes this show a thrill ride every week . " He added : " I 'm sure for some the slow pace in real time is something of a bother , but for me it adds to the intensity of the characters ' situation and the show itself . " McKenna ultimately gave the episode a 4 @.@ 5 out of 5 stars . Similarly , Morgan Jeffrey of Digital Spy stated that the episode was the strongest installment of the season as well as amongst the series ' best installments .
Critics praised the character development of Shane in the episode , as well as the execution of Otis . Nate Rawlings of Time felt that it was a dark moment for the series , and felt that it added anticipation to future development . He wrote : " At some point , Shane will have to come clean with Rick about what happened to Otis . Given Rick ’ s extremely rigid morale [ sic ] code and Shane ’ s now demonstrated willingness to do whatever it takes to survive , the showdown promises to be bigger than just a battle of two alpha males . The Rick / Shane divide is a battle of two leaders with different ideas of humanity and survival . " Mark Maurer of The Star @-@ Ledger opined that " both the multi @-@ layered opening [ ... ] illustrates how Shane ’ s impulsive nature makes him a valuable if ruthless warrior . " Handlen appreciated the character development of Shane , writing , " Shane has long been the dark horse of the group , the one most likely to go off the morality reservation , and this reveal works well to bring him that much closer to darkness . It 's not the subtlest moment [ ... ] but , given how friendly and cool Otis was , and given how well the two seemed to be working together , it 's a strong twist . " He added that because of the death of Otis , the show now has a sense of direction . " His decision to sacrifice Otis is easy enough to rationalize ; somebody had to get back for Carl 's sake , Shane was faster , and both of them probably weren 't going to make it . That 's the beauty of it . In a certain light , he made the right choice . " Morgan Jeffrey wrote : " This week 's installment delivered even more scares than usual — Shane 's escape from the high school was almost unbearably tense . "
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= M @-@ 27 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 27 is a north – south state trunkline highway in the extreme north of the Lower Peninsula of the US state of Michigan . The trunkline runs between Interstate 75 ( I @-@ 75 ) just north of Indian River and Cheboygan , where it meets US Highway 23 ( US 23 ) near Lake Huron . It remains as a relic of the old US 27 which disappeared north of Grayling after being supplanted by I @-@ 75 , which lies close to old US 27 between Grayling and Indian River .
= = Route description = =
I @-@ 75 takes a more direct route between Indian River and Mackinaw City . M @-@ 27 follows old US 27 through Topinabee and Cheboygan . With US 23 it is a scenic , if indirect , alternative to I @-@ 75 on its approach to the Mackinac Bridge . M @-@ 27 runs along the western shore of Mullett Lake and forms the main street of Topinabee . The highway intersects M @-@ 33 near the confluence of the Cheboygan and Black rivers . North of the M @-@ 33 junction , M @-@ 27 runs parallel to the Cheboygan River on the west river bank into downtown Cheboygan .
M @-@ 27 has the local road name of Main Street in Cheboygan and Straits Highway outside of the city . State Street ( US 23 ) and Main Street ( M @-@ 27 ) form the two major streets in the Cheboygan street grid . The main downtown businesses are located along Main Street south to the city limits . The highway has not been listed on the National Highway System , a network of roads important to the country 's defense , economy and mobility .
= = History = =
= = = Previous alignment = = =
This is the second time a highway was designated M @-@ 27 in Michigan . The original M @-@ 27 was located in The Thumb , running from the Mount Clemens area east and north through New Baltimore to Port Huron . There it ran through Carsonville and Minden City to Harbor Beach and along Lake Huron to Port Austin . This version of M @-@ 27 was designated by July 1 , 1919 , and would last until 1926 . All of the original M @-@ 27 was given to other contemporary highways including M @-@ 29 ( Mount Clemens to Port Huron ) , M @-@ 51 ( Port Huron to M @-@ 83 ) , and M @-@ 29 ( Harbor Beach to Port Austin ) .
= = = Current alignment = = =
In the late 1950s , US 27 was the main highway connection between Grayling , Gaylord , and Cheboygan . After the construction of the Mackinac Bridge , US 27 was extended north to St. Ignace . The construction of I @-@ 75 in the early 1960s obsoleted the northern portion of US 27 . Between Grayling and Indian River , I @-@ 75 replaced US 27 as the main highway in the area . North of Indian River , I @-@ 75 was built along a different routing . Where US 27 ran northwest through Topinabee to Cheboygan and then concurrently along US 23 to Mackinaw City , I @-@ 75 was built due north of Indian River before turning northwest parallel and several miles inland from Lake Huron , bypassing Cheboygan completely . M @-@ 27 was designated in the latter half of 1961 on the current alignment replacing US 27 which was truncated back to Grayling . Today , the stretch from Grayling to about Wolverine is known as Old 27 , and from there to Indian River , it is called Straits Highway .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire highway is in Cheboygan County .
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= Ernie Fletcher =
Ernest Lee " Ernie " Fletcher ( born November 12 , 1952 ) is an American physician and politician . In 1998 , he was elected to the first of three consecutive terms in the United States House of Representatives ; he resigned in 2003 after being elected the 60th Governor of Kentucky and served in that office until 2007 . Prior to his entry into politics , Fletcher was a family practice physician and a Baptist lay minister . He is the second physician to be elected Governor of Kentucky ; the first was Luke P. Blackburn in 1879 . He is a member of the Republican Party .
Fletcher graduated from the University of Kentucky and joined the United States Air Force to pursue his dream of becoming an astronaut . He left the Air Force after budget cuts reduced his squadron 's flying time and earned a degree in medicine , hoping to earn a spot as a civilian on a space mission . Deteriorating eyesight eventually ended those hopes , and he entered private practice as a physician and conducted services as a Baptist lay minister . He became active in politics and was elected to the Kentucky House of Representatives in 1994 . Two years later he ran for a seat in the U.S. House of Representatives , but lost to incumbent Scotty Baesler . When Baesler retired to run for a seat in the U.S. Senate , Fletcher again ran for the congressional seat and defeated Democratic state senator Ernesto Scorsone . He soon became one of the House Republican caucus ' top advisors regarding health care legislation , particularly the Patients ' Bill of Rights .
Fletcher was elected governor in 2003 over state Attorney General Ben Chandler . Early in his term , Fletcher achieved some savings to the state by reorganizing the executive branch . He proposed an overhaul to the state tax code in 2004 , but was unable to get it passed through the General Assembly . When Republicans in the state senate insisted on tying the reforms to the state budget , the legislature adjourned without passing either , and the state operated under an executive spending plan drafted by Fletcher until 2005 , when both the budget and the reforms were passed . Later in 2005 , Attorney General Greg Stumbo , the state 's highest @-@ ranking Democrat , launched an investigation into whether the Fletcher administration 's hiring practices violated the state 's merit system . A grand jury returned several indictments against members of Fletcher 's staff , and eventually against Fletcher himself . Fletcher issued pardons for anyone on his staff implicated in the investigation , but did not pardon himself . Though the investigation was ended by an agreement between Fletcher and Stumbo in late 2006 , it continued to overshadow Fletcher 's re @-@ election bid in 2007 . After turning back a challenge in the Republican primary by former Congresswoman Anne Northup , Fletcher lost the general election to Democrat Steve Beshear . After his term as governor , he returned to the medical field as founder and CEO of Alton Healthcare . He is married and has two grown children .
= = Early life = =
Ernest Lee Fletcher was born in Mount Sterling , Kentucky on November 12 , 1952 . He was the third of four children born to Harold Fletcher , Sr. and his wife , Marie . The family owned a farm and operated a general store near the community of Means . Harold Fletcher also worked for Columbia Gas . When Ernie was three weeks old , Harold was transferred to Huntington , West Virginia . Two years later , the Fletchers returned to Robertson County , Kentucky , where they lived until Ernie Fletcher began the first grade . The family moved once more and finally settled in Lexington .
Fletcher attended Lafayette High School in Lexington where he was a member of the National Beta Club . During his senior year , he was an all @-@ state saxophone player and was elected prom king . After graduating in 1970 , he enrolled at the University of Kentucky . He pledged and became a member of the Delta Tau Delta fraternity . After his freshman year , he married his high school sweetheart , Glenna Foster . The couple had two children , Rachel and Ben , and four grandchildren .
Fletcher aspired to become an astronaut , and joined the Air Force Reserve Officer Training Corps . In 1974 , he earned a Bachelor of Science degree in mechanical engineering , graduating with top honors . After graduation , he joined the U.S. Air Force . After flight training in Oklahoma , he was stationed in Alaska where he served as a F @-@ 4E Aircraft commander and NORAD Alert Force commander . During the Cold War , his duties included commanding squadrons to intercept Soviet military aircraft . In 1980 , as budget cutbacks were reducing his squadron 's flying time , Fletcher turned down a regular commission in the Air Force . He left the Air Force with the rank of captain , having received the Air Force Commendation Medal and the Outstanding Unit Award .
Fletcher enrolled in the University of Kentucky College of Medicine , hoping that a medical degree , along with a military background , would earn him a civilian spot on a space mission . In 1984 , he graduated medical school with a Doctor of Medicine degree , but his deteriorating eyesight forced him to abandon his dreams of becoming an astronaut .
In 1983 , the Lexington Primitive Baptist church that Fletcher attended ordained him as a lay minister . In 1984 , he opened a family medical practice in Lexington . Along with former classmate Dr. James D. B. George , he co @-@ founded the South Lexington Family Physicians in 1987 . For two years , he concurrently held the title of chief executive officer of the Saint Joseph Medical Foundation , an organization that solicits private gifts to Saint Joseph Regional Medical Center in Lexington . In 1989 , Fletcher 's church called him to become its unpaid pastor , but over the years , he grew to question some of the church 's doctrines , desiring it to become more evangelistic . Consequently , he left the Primitive Baptist denomination in 1994 and joined the Porter Memorial Baptist Church , a Southern Baptist congregation .
= = Legislative career = =
Through his church ministry , Fletcher became acquainted with a group of social conservatives that gained control of the Fayette County Republican Party in 1990 . ( Fayette County and the city of Lexington operate under the merged Lexington @-@ Fayette Urban County Government ) . Fletcher accepted an invitation to become a member of the county Republican committee . In 1994 , he was elected to the Kentucky House of Representatives , defeating incumbent Democrat Leslie Trapp . He represented Kentucky 's 78th District and served on the Kentucky Commission on Poverty and the Task Force on Higher Education . He was also chosen by Governor Paul E. Patton to assist with reforming the state 's health @-@ care system .
As a result of legislative redistricting in 1996 , Fletcher 's district was consolidated with the one represented by fellow Republican Stan Cave . Rather than challenge a member of his own party , Fletcher decided to run for a seat representing Kentucky 's 6th District in the U.S. House of Representatives later that year . After winning a three @-@ way Republican primary by 4 votes over his closest opponent , he was defeated by incumbent Democrat Scotty Baesler by just over 25 @,@ 000 votes . In 1998 , Baesler resigned his seat to run for the U.S. Senate seat vacated due to the retirement of Senator Wendell H. Ford . Fletcher won the Republican primary for Baesler 's seat by a wide margin . In the general election , Fletcher faced Democrat Ernesto Scorsone . The Lexington Herald @-@ Leader billed the race as " a classic joust between the left and the right " . Fletcher was strongly opposed to abortion , advocated a " flatter , fairer , simpler " tax system , and called for returning most federal education funding to local communities . Scorsone supported abortion rights , called a flat tax " too regressive " , and favored national educational testing and standards . Fletcher defeated Scorsone by a vote of 104 @,@ 046 to 90 @,@ 033 , with third @-@ party candidate W. S. Krogdahl garnering 1 @,@ 839 votes .
Within months of arriving in Washington , D.C. , Fletcher was selected as the leadership liaison for the 17 @-@ member freshman class of Republican legislators . He was appointed to the Committee on Education and Workforce , and John Boehner , chair of the committee 's employer / employee relations subcommittee , chose Fletcher as his vice @-@ chair . The committee 's purpose is to oversee the rules for employer @-@ paid health plans , among other issues , and although it is rare for a freshman legislator to attain a committee leadership post , Boehner cited Fletcher 's experience in the medical field and work on reforming the Kentucky health care system as reasons for the appointment . Fletcher also served as a member of the House Committees on the Budget and Agriculture . In June 1999 , he sponsored an amendment to a youth violence bill that allowed school districts to use federal funds to develop curricula which included elements designed to promote and enhance students ' moral character ; the amendment passed 422 — 1 . Later , Fletcher was assigned to the Committee on Energy and Commerce and was selected as chairman of the Policy Subcommittee on Health .
During the debate over the proposed Patients ' Bill of Rights legislation , Fletcher opposed a Democratic proposal that would have allowed individuals to sue their health maintenance organizations ( HMOs ) , favoring instead a more limited bill drafted by Republican leadership that expanded the patient 's ability to appeal HMO decisions . Many doctors in the Republican legislative caucus felt their party 's bill did not go far enough ; Fletcher and Tennessee Senator Bill Frist were notable exceptions . Fletcher 's position cost him the support of the Kentucky Medical Association ( KMA ) . After contributing to his campaign against Scorsone in 1998 , KMA backed Scotty Baesler 's bid to regain his old seat from Fletcher in 2000 . However , Baesler only captured 35 percent of the vote to Fletcher 's 53 percent . The remaining 12 percent went to third @-@ party candidate Gatewood Galbraith .
After the 2000 election , Fletcher crafted a compromise bill that allowed patients to sue their HMOs in federal court , capped pain and suffering awards at $ 500 @,@ 000 , and eliminated punitive damage awards . Despite an eventual compromise allowing patient lawsuits to go to state courts under certain circumstances and heavy lobbying in favor of Fletcher 's bill by President George W. Bush , the House refused to pass it , favoring an alternative proposal by Georgia 's Charlie Norwood that was less restrictive on patient lawsuits .
Fletcher faced no major @-@ party opposition in his re @-@ election bid in 2002 after the only Democrat in the race , 24 @-@ year @-@ old Roy Miller Cornett Jr . , withdrew his candidacy . Independent Gatewood Galbraith again made the race ; Libertarian Mark Gailey also mounted a challenge . In the final vote tally , Fletcher received 115 @,@ 522 votes to Galbraith 's 41 @,@ 853 and Gailey 's 3 @,@ 313 .
= = 2003 gubernatorial election = =
In 2002 , Fletcher was encouraged by Senator Mitch McConnell , the leader of Kentucky 's Republican Party , to run for governor and formed an exploratory committee the same year . On December 2 , 2002 , he announced that he would run on a ticket with McConnell aide Hunter Bates . Early in 2003 , a Republican college student named Curtis Shain challenged Bates ' candidacy on grounds that he did not meet the residency requirements set forth for the lieutenant governor in the state constitution . Under the constitution , candidates for both governor and lieutenant governor must be citizens of the state for at least six years prior to the election . From August 1995 to February 2002 , Bates and his wife rented an apartment in Alexandria , Virginia while Bates was working for a law firm in Washington , D.C. , and later , as McConnell 's chief of staff . Bob Heleringer , a former state representative from suburban Louisville and the running mate of Republican gubernatorial candidate Steve Nunn , joined the suit as a plaintiff . In March 2003 , an Oldham County judge ruled that Bates had not established residency in Kentucky . He cited the fact that from 1995 to 2002 , Bates held a Virginia driver 's license , paid Virginia income taxes , and " regularly " slept in his apartment in Virginia . Bates did not appeal the ruling because by allowing the judge to declare a vacancy on the ballot , Fletcher was able to name a replacement running mate , an option that would not have been afforded him had Bates withdrawn .
Fletcher chose Steve Pence , United States Attorney for the Western District of Kentucky , as his new running mate . Heleringer continued his legal challenge , first claiming that Bates ' ineligibility should have invalidated the entire Fletcher / Bates ticket and then that Fletcher should not have been allowed to name a replacement for an unqualified candidate . The Kentucky Supreme Court rejected that argument on May 7 , 2003 , though the justices ' reasons for doing so varied and the final opinion conceded that " [ t ] his is a close case on the law , and Heleringer has presented legal issues worthy of this court 's time and attention " . The state Board of Elections instructed all county clerks to count absentee ballots cast for Fletcher and Bates as votes for Fletcher and Pence .
In the Republican primary , Fletcher received 53 percent of the vote , besting Nunn , Jefferson County judge / executive Rebecca Jackson , and state senator Virgil Moore . In the Democratic primary , Attorney General Ben Chandler defeated Speaker of the House Jody Richards . Chandler , the grandson of former governor A. B. " Happy " Chandler , was hurt in the closing days of the campaign when a third challenger , businessman Bruce Lunsford dropped out of the race and endorsed Richards . Chandler won the Democratic primary by just 3 @.@ 7 percentage points and was forced to reorganize his campaign . Consequently , Fletcher entered the general election as the favorite .
Due to the funding from the Republican Governors Association , Fletcher held a two @-@ to @-@ one fundraising advantage over Chandler . A sex @-@ for @-@ favors scandal that ensnared sitting Democratic governor Paul Patton , as well as a predicted $ 710 million shortfall in the upcoming budget , damaged the entire Democratic slate of candidates ' chances for election . Fletcher capitalized on these issues , promising to " clean up the mess " in Frankfort , and won the election by a vote of 596 @,@ 284 to 487 @,@ 159 . In all , Republicans captured four of the seven statewide constitutional offices in 2003 ; Trey Grayson was elected Secretary of State and Richie Farmer was elected Commissioner of Agriculture . Fletcher resigned his seat in the House on December 8 , 2003 and assumed the governorship the following day . Fletcher 's victory made him the first Republican elected governor of Kentucky since 1971 , and his margin of victory was the largest ever for a Republican in a Kentucky gubernatorial election .
= = Governor of Kentucky = =
Fletcher made economic development a priority , and Kentucky ranked fourth among all U.S. states in number of jobs created during his administration . One of his first actions as governor was to reorganize the executive branch , condensing the number of cabinet positions from fourteen to nine . He dissolved the former Kentucky Horse Racing Commission and instead created the Kentucky Horse Racing Authority to promote and regulate the state 's horse racing industry . To improve the state 's management of Medicaid , he rolled back some of the program 's requirements and unveiled a plan to focus on improvements in care , benefit management , and technology . Fletcher also launched " Get Healthy Kentucky ! , " an initiative to promote healthier lifestyles for Kentuckians .
= = = 2004 state budget dispute = = =
Throughout Fletcher 's term , the Kentucky Senate was controlled by Republicans , while Democrats held a majority in the state House of Representatives . Consequently , Fletcher had difficulty getting legislation enacted in the General Assembly . Early in the 2004 legislative session , he presented a plan for tax reform that he claimed was " revenue neutral " and would " modernize " the state tax code . The plan was drafted with input from seven Democratic legislators in the House , none of them in leadership roles , leading to claims that Fletcher was trying to circumvent House leadership . As the session wore on , Republicans insisted on tying the tax reform package to the proposed state budget , while Democrats wanted to vote on the measures separately . Despite last minute attempts at a compromise as the session drew to a close , the Assembly passed neither the tax reform package nor a state budget . The contentious session ended with only a few accomplishments , including passage of a fetal homicide law , an anti @-@ price gouging measure , and a law barring the state public service commission from regulating broadband Internet providers beyond what restrictions were put in place by the Federal Communications Commission .
The 2004 session marked the second consecutive session in which the General Assembly had failed to pass a biennial budget ; the first occurred in 2002 under Governor Patton . When the fiscal year ended without a budget in place , responsibility for state expenditures fell to Fletcher . As it had been in 2002 , spending was governed by an executive spending plan created by the governor . Democratic Attorney General Greg Stumbo filed suit asking for a determination on the extent of Fletcher 's ability to spend without legislative approval . A similar suit , filed after the 2002 session ended in deadlock , was rendered moot when the legislature passed a budget in a special session prior to the conclusion of the lawsuit . A judicial review by a Franklin County circuit court judge approved Fletcher 's spending plan but forbade spending on new capital projects and programs . In late December 2004 , a judge ruled that Fletcher 's plan could continue to govern spending until the end of the fiscal year on June 30 , 2005 , but " thereafter " executive spending was to be limited to " funds demonstrated to be for limited and specific essential services . "
On May 19 , 2005 , the Kentucky Supreme Court issued a 4 – 3 decision stating that the General Assembly had acted unconstitutionally by not passing a budget and that Fletcher had acted outside his constitutional authority by spending money not specifically appropriated by the legislature . The majority opinion rejected the lower court 's exception for " specific essential services " , saying " If the legislative department fails to appropriate funds deemed sufficient to operate the executive department at a desired level of services , the executive department must serve the citizenry as best it can with what it is given . If the citizenry deems those services insufficient , it will exercise its own constitutional power — the ballot . " Chief Justice Joseph Lambert dissented , claiming the executive spending plan was necessary . Two other justices , in a separate opinion , disagreed with the majority that federal and state constitutional mandates should still be funded in the absence of a budget . In their dissent , they argued that the threat of a government shutdown would act as an impetus for the General Assembly to engage in timely budget @-@ making . The decision took no retroactive steps to change the actions it ruled unconstitutional , but it served as a precedent for any future cases of budgetary gridlock .
= = = Legislative interim and 2005 legislative session = = =
In June 2004 , Fletcher 's aircraft caused a security scare that triggered a brief evacuation of the U.S. Capitol and Supreme Court building . Shortly after takeoff en route to memorial services for former president Ronald Reagan , the transponder on Fletcher 's plane malfunctioned , leading officials at Reagan National Airport to report an unauthorized aircraft entering restricted airspace . Two F @-@ 15 fighters were dispatched to investigate , and Fletcher 's plane was escorted to its destination by two Blackhawk helicopters . The plane , a 33 @-@ year @-@ old Beechcraft King Air , was the oldest of its model still in operation . An investigation by the Federal Aviation Administration ( FAA ) found that the crew of Fletcher 's plane maintained radio contact with air traffic officials and received clearance to enter the restricted air space . The investigation determined that miscommunication by air traffic controllers sparked the panic , and in the aftermath of the incident , the FAA adopted policies to prevent future errors of a similar nature .
In July 2004 , Fletcher announced a plan to unify the state 's branding to improve its public perception . Shortly after the announcement , late @-@ night comedians Craig Kilborn and Jay Leno made some tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek suggestions for the new slogan on The Late Late Show and The Tonight Show , respectively . In response , Fletcher wrote a letter to both comedians taking exception to the jokes and was invited to appear on both programs . Citing Leno 's larger audience and earlier time slot , Fletcher agreed to appear on The Tonight Show , where he presented Leno with a Louisville Slugger baseball bat and traded jocular barbs about the relative advantages of Kentucky and Los Angeles where The Tonight Show is taped . Eventually , four slogans were chosen to be voted on online as well as at interstate travel centers . In December 2004 , " Kentucky : Unbridled Spirit " was chosen as the winning slogan and was printed on road signs , state documents , and souvenirs . A 2007 study determined that 88 @.@ 9 % of Kentuckians could correctly identify the slogan and its logo . Further , 64 % of those surveyed across a ten @-@ state region recognized the slogan and logo , higher than any other brand tested in the study .
In the second half of 2004 , Fletcher proposed changes to the health benefits of state workers and retirees . Fletcher 's plan provided discounts for members who engaged in healthier behavior , which he called a transition from a sickness initiative to a wellness initiative . Acknowledging that out @-@ of @-@ pocket expenses would rise , Fletcher proposed a 1 % salary increase to offset the additional costs . State employees , particularly public school teachers , broadly opposed Fletcher 's plan , and the Kentucky Educators Association called for an indefinite strike , to begin October 27 , 2004 . To address the opposition , Fletcher called a special session of the legislature to begin October 5 , 2004 . Although the state was still operating under an executive spending plan , Fletcher did not include the budget or his tax reform proposal in the session 's agenda , a move praised by both parties , allowing them to focus only on concerns over the health plan . In a fifteen @-@ day session , the General Assembly passed a plan that allocated $ 190 million more to health insurance for state workers and restored many of the most popular benefits in the previous insurance plan . Immediately after the session adjourned , the Kentucky Educators Association voted to cancel their proposed strike .
On November 8 , 2004 , Fletcher signed a death warrant for Thomas Clyde Bowling , who was convicted of a double murder in 1990 and sentenced to death by lethal injection . A group of doctors requested an investigation by the Kentucky Board of Medical Licensure to determine whether Fletcher 's medical license should be revoked for that action . Kentucky requires doctors to follow the guidelines of the American Medical Association , which forbid doctors from participating in an execution . On January 13 , 2005 , the Board of Medical Licensure found that Fletcher was acting in his capacity as governor , not as a doctor , when he signed the warrant and ruled that his license was not subject to forfeiture by that action .
During the General Assembly 's 2005 session , Fletcher again proposed his tax reform plan , and late in the session , both houses passed it . The plan raised sin taxes on cigarettes and alcohol , as well as upping taxes on satellite television service and motel rooms . Businesses were also subjected to a gross receipts tax . In exchange , corporate taxes were lowered , as were income taxes for individuals who earned less than $ 75 @,@ 000 annually ; 300 @,@ 000 low @-@ wage earners were dropped from the income tax rolls altogether . The Assembly also passed a budget for the remainder of the biennium , abolished the state 's public campaign finance laws , and passed new school nutrition guidelines .
= = = Merit system investigation = = =
In May 2005 , Attorney General Stumbo began an investigation of allegations that the Fletcher administration circumvented the state merit system for hiring , promoting , demoting and firing state employees by basing decisions on employees ' political loyalties . The investigation was prompted by a 276 @-@ page complaint filed by Douglas W. Doerting , the assistant personnel director for the Kentucky Transportation Cabinet . Fletcher , who was on a trade mission in Japan when news of the investigation broke , conceded via telephone news conference that his office may have made " mistakes " with regard to hiring that stemmed from not having a formal process for handling employment recommendations . Upon his return from Japan , Fletcher denied that the " mistakes " by his administration were illegal and called the investigation by Stumbo " the beginning of the 2007 governor 's race " , an allusion to Stumbo 's potential candidacy in 2007 . Stumbo denied any plans to run for governor in 2007 , although he eventually became gubernatorial candidate Bruce Lunsford 's running mate in the election , losing in the Democratic primary .
A grand jury was empaneled in June 2005 to investigate the charges against Fletcher 's administration . By August , the jury had returned indictments against nine administration officials , including state Republican Party chairman Darrell Brock Jr. and acting Transportation Secretary Bill Nighbert . All of the indictments were for misdemeanors such as conspiracy except those against Administrative Services Commissioner Dan Druen , who was charged with 22 felonies ( 20 counts of physical evidence tampering and 2 counts of witness tampering ) in addition to 13 misdemeanors . On August 29 , Fletcher granted pardons to the nine indicted administration officials and issued a blanket pardon for " any and all persons who have committed , or may be accused of committing , any offense " with regard to the investigation . Fletcher exempted himself from the blanket pardon . The next day , Fletcher was called to testify before the grand jury , but refused to answer any questions , invoking his Fifth Amendment right against self @-@ incrimination .
In mid @-@ September , after Fletcher issued the pardons , a Courier @-@ Journal poll found Fletcher 's approval rating at 38 percent , tying the lowest rating reached by his predecessor , Paul E. Patton , during the sex scandal that tarnished his administration . On September 14 , 2005 , Fletcher fired nine employees , including four of the nine he pardoned two weeks earlier . The firings were praised by Fletcher critic Charles Wells of the Kentucky Association of State Employees , who said : " When all else fails , the governor did the right thing . " However , Democratic state senator and former governor Julian Carroll criticized Fletcher for not firing the indicted officials when he issued the pardons . Fletcher also called for the firing of state Republican Party chair Darrell Brock , Jr. due to Brock 's role in the merit scandal . The state Republican executive committee met on September 17 , but did not act on Fletcher 's call to fire Brock .
The grand jury continued its investigation , issuing five more indictments after Fletcher issued his blanket pardon . Two were returned against members of Fletcher 's staff , and two were against unpaid advisors to Fletcher . The fifth was issued against Acting Secretary Nighbert for retaliation against a whistleblower . Only the additional charge against Nighbert was alleged to have occurred after Fletcher issued the pardon . On October 24 , 2005 , Fletcher filed a motion asking Franklin Circuit Court Judge William Graham to order the grand jury to stop issuing indictments for offenses that occurred prior to the blanket pardon ; only the names of indicted officials could be included in the jury 's final report . On November 16 , Graham ruled that the grand jury could continue issuing indictments , but in a separate ruling , dismissed the indictments against Fletcher 's staff and volunteer advisors on grounds that they were covered by the pardon . Graham did not rule on the latest indictment against Nighbert . The Kentucky Court of Appeals affirmed Graham 's ruling on December 16 . Immediately after the Court of Appeals ' ruling , Fletcher announced his intent to appeal the ruling to the Kentucky Supreme Court .
= = = 2006 legislative session = = =
On February 12 , 2006 , shortly after the beginning of the General Assembly 's legislative session , Fletcher was hospitalized with abdominal pain . Doctors at St. Joseph East hospital in Lexington found a gallstone in his common bile duct and also diagnosed him with an inflamed pancreas and gallbladder disease . After surgery to remove the gallbladder , Fletcher developed a blood infection that slowed his recovery , but was discharged from the hospital on March 1 . Days later , he returned to St. Joseph 's with a blood clot which had to be dissolved , resulting in another five @-@ day stay in the hospital . Fletcher staffers insisted that his absence did not have a negative impact on his ability to get legislation passed during the session . A right @-@ to @-@ work law and a repeal of the state 's prevailing wage law – both advocated by Fletcher – failed early in the session , but both had been considered unlikely to pass before the session started . Among the bills that did pass the session were a mandatory seat belt law , a law requiring children under 16 years old to wear a helmet when operating an all @-@ terrain vehicle , and legislation allowing the Ten Commandments to be posted on Capitol grounds in a historical context .
The Assembly passed a biennial budget , but did not allow enough time in the session to reconvene and potentially override any of Fletcher 's vetoes . In an attempt to avoid " excessive debt " , Fletcher used his line @-@ item veto to trim $ 370 million in projects from the budget passed by the Assembly . Although falling far short of his initial prediction of vetoing $ 938 million , Fletcher used the line @-@ item veto more than any other governor in state history . One project not vetoed by Fletcher was $ 11 million for the University of the Cumberlands to build a pharmacy school . LGBT rights groups had asked Fletcher to veto the funds because the university , a private Baptist school , had expelled a student for being openly gay .
One of Fletcher 's priorities that was not resolved during the session was the correction of unintended tax increases on businesses that resulted from the tax reform plan passed in 2005 . Fletcher called a special legislative session for mid @-@ June so that the legislature could amend the plan and also authorize tax breaks designed to lure a proposed FutureGen power plant to Henderson . Republican Senate President David L. Williams asked Fletcher to include tax breaks for other businesses as well , but Fletcher insisted on a sparse legislative agenda . The session convened for five days and passed the tax breaks and amended tax reform plan unanimously in both houses . Fletcher applauded the legislature 's efficiency .
= = = Investigation concludes = = =
As the Kentucky Supreme Court prepared to hear Fletcher 's appeal on whether the grand jury could continue to indict people covered by his blanket pardon , two of the court 's seven justices recused themselves from the case , citing conflicts of interest . Kentucky 's constitution provides that , in the case of more than one recusal on the court , the governor is to appoint special justices to replace them . Accordingly , Fletcher named two replacements , but one of those – Circuit Judge Jeffrey Burdette – declined to serve on grounds that he had contributed to Fletcher 's 2003 gubernatorial campaign . Fletcher then named another special justice to replace Burdette , consistent with a precedent set by former Democratic Governor Brereton Jones . Stumbo challenged this third appointment , claiming that Burdette 's refusal to serve created only one vacancy on the court , and that the case could be tried with six justices . The Kentucky Supreme Court sustained Stumbo 's complaint . In a 4 – 2 ruling issued May 18 , 2006 , the Kentucky Supreme Court barred the grand jury from issuing further indictments against individuals covered by Fletcher 's blanket pardon , reversing the Court of Appeals . The ruling did not affect indictments for crimes allegedly committed after the pardon was issued . The Supreme Court also held that the grand jury could issue a general report of its findings at the conclusion of its investigation , but left open the question of whether the names of unindicted individuals could appear in the report . A later decision by the Court of Appeals found that unindicted individuals could not be named in the report .
Just prior to the Supreme Court 's ruling , the grand jury handed down indictments against Fletcher for three misdemeanors – conspiracy , official misconduct , and political discrimination . Fletcher did not appear at his arraignment on June 9 because he was on vacation in Florida ; his attorney entered " not guilty " pleas to all three charges on his behalf . On August 11 , 2006 , Special Judge David E. Melcher ruled that because the personnel violations were allegedly committed while Fletcher was acting in his official capacity as governor , he was protected by executive immunity and could not be prosecuted until he left office . Melcher asked that the two sides work together to reach a settlement in the case . On August 24 , Fletcher and Stumbo announced such an agreement . Under the settlement , Fletcher acknowledged that evidence " strongly indicate [ d ] wrongdoing by his administration " but did not admit any wrongdoing personally . Fletcher also acknowledged that Stumbo 's prosecution of the case " [ was a ] necessary and proper [ exercise ] of his constitutional duty " and ensured that abuses of the merit system would be ended . In addition to dropping the charges against Fletcher , Stumbo conceded that any violations by Fletcher 's administration were " without malice " . Four members of the state Personnel Board who were appointed by Fletcher were required to step down . Their replacements would be chosen by Fletcher from a list provided by Stumbo .
The grand jury issued its report on the investigation in October 2006 , and a judge ordered it released to the public on November 16 . The report categorized the Fletcher administration 's actions as " a widespread and coordinated plan to violate merit hiring laws . " It charged that " This investigation was not about a few people here and there who made some mistakes as Governor Ernie Fletcher had claimed , " and lamented that the blanket pardon issued by Fletcher , coupled with Fletcher taking the Fifth , made it " difficult to get to the bottom of the facts of this case .... As a result , [ the grand jury was ] in part forced to rely on documentary evidence to piece together the facts of the case . " Fletcher opined that the allegations in the report were inconsistent with his settlement with Stumbo , which acknowledged that Fletcher 's administration acted " without malice . "
= = 2007 gubernatorial election = =
In early 2005 , Fletcher announced his intent to run for re @-@ election . Shortly after Fletcher was indicted by the grand jury in 2006 , Lieutenant Governor Pence announced that he would not be Fletcher 's running mate during his re @-@ election bid . Fletcher asked for Pence 's immediate resignation as lieutenant governor . Pence declined , but did tender his resignation as head of the Justice Cabinet . Fletcher named his executive secretary , Robbie Rudolph , as his new running mate .
Although Fletcher 's agreement with Stumbo to end the investigation was announced in late 2006 , the scandal continued to plague his re @-@ election bid , and he drew two challengers in the Republican primary – former Third District Congresswoman Anne Northup and multi @-@ millionaire Paducah businessman Billy Harper . Senator Mitch McConnell , the consensus leader of the Kentucky Republican Party , declined to make an endorsement in the primary , but conceded that Northup was " a formidable opponent " . Northup campaigned on the idea that Fletcher 's involvement in the hiring scandal had made him " unelectable " . Northup secured the endorsements of Jim Bunning , Kentucky 's other Republican senator , and Lieutenant Governor Pence . In the primary , Fletcher garnered over 50 % of the vote and secured the party 's nomination . His rival Northup struggled with name recognition and found few areas of support outside the Louisville district she represented in Congress . She garnered 36 @.@ 5 % of the vote , with the remaining 13 @.@ 4 % going to Billy Harper . Democrats nominated former Lieutenant Governor Steve Beshear to challenge Fletcher .
In the midst of the primary campaign , the 2007 General Assembly convened . Among the accomplishments of the session were raising the state 's minimum wage to $ 7 @.@ 25 per hour , increasing the speed limit on major state highways to 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) , and implementing new safety requirements for social workers and coal miners . Additional legislation stalled after negotiations over how to make the state 's retirement system solvent reached an impasse . Fletcher indicated that he would consider calling the Assembly into special session later in the year . In July , Fletcher called the session and included 67 items on its agenda . Democrats in the state House of Representatives maintained that none of the items were urgent enough to warrant a special session . They claimed the call was an attempt by Fletcher to boost his sagging poll numbers against Beshear , and the House adjourned after only 90 minutes without acting on any of Fletcher 's agenda . Fletcher denied the claims and insisted that a tax incentive program was needed immediately to keep the state in the running for a proposed coal gasification plant to be built by Peabody Energy . After negotiating with legislators , Fletcher called another session for August ; the session included only the tax incentive program , which the Assembly passed .
In the general election campaign , Fletcher attempted to make the expansion of casino gambling , rather than the merit system investigation , the central issue . Beshear favored holding a referendum on a constitutional amendment to allow expanded casino gambling in the state , while Fletcher maintained that expanded gambling would bring an increase in crime and societal ills . The gambling issue failed to gain as much traction as the hiring scandal , however , and Beshear defeated Fletcher by a vote of 619 @,@ 686 to 435 @,@ 895 .
After the election , Fletcher founded Alton Healthcare , a consulting firm that helps healthcare providers make efficient use of technology in their practice . He has served as CEO of the company , which is based in Cincinnati , Ohio , since 2008 .
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= Land Question =
The ' Land Question ' , as it pertains to the history of Prince Edward Island , Canada , related to the question of the system of ownership of land on the island . Proprietors , the owners of the land parcels on Prince Edward Island , favoured a system of renting to tenants , whilst the tenants preferred a system of freehold . In 1767 the British government divided all land in Prince Edward Island into lots to be owned by ' proprietors ' who would collect rent from the settlers , or ' tenants ' . Problems soon arose with this scheme , and low numbers of tenants resulted in proprietors collecting little rent , which in turn led to many proprietors defaulting on their quitrents . An attempt at compulsorily acquiring the land by the Prince Edward Island government from rent defaulters in 1781 resulted in Colonial Office intervention in 1783 . In 1786 , Governor Walter Patterson , who set in motion the compulsory acquisition , was removed from office .
In 1797 , the Escheat Movement was born with the goal of convincing the Crown to acquire land from the proprietors and sell it back to the tenants . In 1803 , members of this Movement won seats in the General Assembly of Prince Edward Island , but their attempts to set in motion the escheat scheme were blocked by the British government . In the following years , a number of General Assemblies attempted to acquire land from the proprietors , but were repeatedly blocked by the British government . Following an unsuccessful attempt at civil disobedience in 1864 @-@ 65 , the proprietors gradually pulled out of the real estate market , selling their land piece @-@ by @-@ piece back to the local governments of the Island for sale to the occupants of their land . In 1873 , Prince Edward Island joined the Canadian Confederation on the condition that the proprietors / tenants system be scrapped , ending the ' Land Question ' in the province .
= = Background = =
In 1763 , the Treaty of Paris resulted in the transfer of Prince Edward Island from France to the United Kingdom . In 1767 , a system of land ownership was established in which the island was divided into 67 lots of about 20 @,@ 000 acres ( 81 km2 ) each , with settlers living on parcels of this land rented out by the proprietors , or the owners of the lots of land . Ownership of the lots of land was determined by a lottery held in London , the winners of which were mostly political , business and military figures with connections to those in the British government . In 1769 , under pressure from the proprietors who worried that a Nova Scotia legislature would force them to give up their property rights , the British government granted Prince Edward Island autonomy .
= = Initial conflict = =
Almost immediately after the establishment of the new system , conflict arose . The American Revolutionary War drove potential settlers away from Prince Edward Island . This caused two problems - firstly , it made it difficult for proprietors to fulfill an obligation attached to their grants , to settle one person per 200 acres ( 81 ha ) within ten years of the system 's commencement , and secondly , it meant that the proprietors were not being paid much rent , as there were not many tenants to pay it . This meant that the proprietors were unable , or at least not willing , to pay the required quitrent to the Crown . Conflict also arose between the tenants and the proprietors . As the lottery for Prince Edward Island land was held in London , and most of the proprietors were important figures from the United Kingdom , most of the proprietors did not actually live in British North America . This meant that many neglected their obligations to the settlers .
In 1774 , the government of Prince Edward Island passed the Quit Rent Act 1774 to force the proprietors to pay their dues to maintain civil infrastructure on the island . However , many proprietors continued to simply not pay their quitrent . In 1781 , the government , led by Governor Walter Patterson , compulsory acquires approximately half of the island using a process known as escheat . That same year , the government held a public auction to sell off the land that had been compulsorily acquired . However , following a concerted effort by the proprietors to get the Colonial Office to reverse the action , the Crown overturned the sales conducted at the auction in 1783 . The proprietors requested that Governor Patterson be removed from his office , and the Colonial Office did so in 1786 .
= = Escheat Movement = =
In 1797 the Escheat Movement was born . Under the scheme proposed by the movement , land would be forfeited to the Crown should proprietors default on their quitrents , and tenants would be given the option of either purchasing part of the forfeited land or leasing it from the Crown . Members of the movement won a large majority in the General Assembly of Prince Edward Island in 1802 , and in 1803 a law to implement escheat was passed by the legislature . However , the government of the United Kingdom would not abandon its principle of supporting property rights and refused to grant the bill Royal Assent .
In 1832 , a tax was placed on land owned by the proprietors . In exchange for collecting the tax , the government promised to abandon its attempts to enforce the payment of quitrents . In 1836 , a bill was passed to place a penal tax on unoccupied land . Although the Colonial Office initially refused to recommend Royal Assent , comments by Lord Durham led the Privy Council to give Royal Assent to the bill in 1838 . Despite the change in property arrangements in Prince Edward Island with the introduction of these taxes , tenants were still unable to take possession of their land . In 1830 , Roman Catholics were given the vote , and in 1838 the Escheat Party won a large majority in the General Assembly . Another bill to implement escheat passed the lower house , but was rejected by the Legislative Council . The leader of the Escheat Party , William Cooper , travelled to London to meet the Colonial Secretary , but he was turned away without a meeting . Instead , the Secretary advised the Lieutenant Governor of Prince Edward Island that the government would not recommend assent to any bill advocating escheat . The Escheat Movement disintegrated .
= = Settlement ( Sulivan and Stewart ) = =
In 1851 , the Liberals gained office on Prince Edward Island . They immediately went about putting in place measures to gradually dismantle the proprietor / tenant system , although their efforts generally had limited effect largely because Samuel Cunard , who owned one @-@ sixth of the Island , refused to sell any of his land . In 1864 , the tenants organised into the Tenant League , and vowed to resist the collection of rent by their proprietors . Efforts by law enforcement to quell this rebellion had little effect , so the government of the island requested the assistance of British troops to enforce the collection of rent . In 1865 , British troops arrived in the colony and successfully enforced the collection of the unpaid rent , and the Tenant League crumbled . It appeared that the operation of the Tenant League was a matter of principle rather than practical necessity ; the rent paid by tenants to the proprietors was to the amount of one shilling per acre , and the proprietors allowed rent to go unpaid for years at a time .
In the following years , many of the proprietors pulled out of the real estate market and voluntarily sold their property to the government so that sale to the land 's occupiers could be facilitated . In 1873 , Prince Edward Island joined the Canadian Confederation . One of the terms of the Island joining the Confederation was the sale of the estates of land to their occupiers . The agreement to join the Confederation contained a clause outlining the possibility that the federal government of Canada could provide a grant of up to CA $ 800 @,@ 000 to the provincial government to facilitate the purchase of the land from the proprietors . In 1875 , through the ' The Commissioners Appointed Under The Provisions of The Land Purchase Act , 1875 ' all of the outstanding proprietor @-@ owned land was compulsorily purchased by the provincial government , at rates decided by a ' Commission of Enquiry ' .
The two largest landholders to be ' bought @-@ out ' by the new Canadian province , in 1875 , did not readily agree with their forced sale , facilitated by the articles of the Land Purchase Act ( 1875 ) . On Monday , August 23rd , 1875 , The ‘ Commission of Enquiry ’ began its enquiry of the largest estate , of an ' absentee ' landowner , that of ( Laurence Sulivan ) Charlotte Antonia Sulivan of some 66 @,@ 937 acres . She being awarded : $ 81 @,@ 500 CAD 1875 , at $ 1 @.@ 22 per acre , Miss Sulivan challenged the authority of the Commissioners in their proceedings against her , she seeing the award set aside on appeal to the Supreme Court of PEI . She claiming $ 239 @,@ 185 CAD 1875 , the Province , appealing , for The Commissioner of Public Lands , took her challenge to the Supreme Court of Canada , it being The Court ’ s first case , Kelly v Sulivan , sustained the forced sale and award .
On Friday , August 27th , 1875 , The ‘ Commission of Enquiry ’ enquired as to the estate of Robert Bruce Stewart , then the largest ‘ resident ’ proprietor on PEI , owning some 66 @,@ 727 acres . Upon his father 's death in 1852 , Robert Bruce Stewart inherited , by title , Lots 7 , 10 , 12 , and 30 as well as parts of Lots 27 , 46 , and 47 . He having fought long and hard against the legislation enabling the Land Purchase Act 1875 , against a claim of $ 240 @,@ 905 , the ‘ Commission of Enquiry ’ awarded him just $ 76 @,@ 500 CAD 1875 , the lowest per acre award , at $ 1 @.@ 15 per acre . >
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= French battleship Patrie =
Patrie was a pre @-@ dreadnought battleship of the French Navy built in the early 1900s . She had one sister ship , République . Patrie was laid down at the La Seyne shipyard in April 1902 , launched in December 1903 , and completed three years later in December 1906 , the same time as the revolutionary British battleship HMS Dreadnought . Armed with a main battery of four 305 mm ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) guns , she was outclassed by Dreadnought , which mounted ten guns of the same caliber , by the time she entered service .
Patrie served in the Mediterranean Fleet for the duration of her career . She accidentally torpedoed République during fleet maneuvers in 1910 . After the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , she covered troop convoys from Algeria to France , and participated in the sinking of the Austro @-@ Hungarian cruiser SMS Zenta later that month . She spent the majority of the war in Corfu at the mouth of the Adriatic Sea , to keep the Austro @-@ Hungarian fleet bottled up in the Adriatic . In May 1916 , she shot down a German zeppelin off Salonica . The ship was eventually stricken in 1921 and broken up for scrap thereafter .
= = Design = =
Patrie was laid down at the La Seyne shipyard on 1 April 1902 , launched on 17 December 1903 , and completed in December 1906 , at the same time as the revolutionary British battleship HMS Dreadnought , which rendered the pre @-@ dreadnoughts like Patrie outdated . The ship was 133 @.@ 81 meters ( 439 ft 0 in ) long between perpendiculars and had a beam of 24 @.@ 26 m ( 79 ft 7 in ) and a full @-@ load draft of 8 @.@ 41 m ( 27 ft 7 in ) . She displaced 14 @,@ 900 metric tons ( 14 @,@ 700 long tons ; 16 @,@ 400 short tons ) at full load , slightly more than her sister République . She had a crew of between 766 and 825 officers and enlisted men . She was powered by three vertical triple expansion engines with twenty @-@ four Niclausse boilers . They were rated at 18 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 13 @,@ 000 kW ) and provided a top speed of 19 knots ( 35 km / h ; 22 mph ) . Coal storage amounted to 1 @,@ 800 t ( 1 @,@ 800 long tons ; 2 @,@ 000 short tons ) .
Patrie 's main battery consisted of four Canon de 305 mm Modèle 1893 / 96 guns mounted in two twin gun turrets , one forward and one aft . The secondary battery consisted of eighteen Canon de 164 mm Modèle 1893 guns ; twelve were mounted in twin turrets , and six in casemates in the hull . She also carried twenty @-@ five 3 @-@ pounder guns . The ship was also armed with two 450 mm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes submerged in the hull . The ship 's main belt was 280 mm ( 11 @.@ 0 in ) thick and the main battery was protected by up to 350 mm ( 13 @.@ 8 in ) of armor . The conning tower had 305 mm ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) thick sides .
= = Service history = =
While Patrie was still conducting sea trials on 29 May 1907 , a condenser pipe in one of her boilers burst . Several stokers were scalded , and the ship had to return to Toulon to have the condenser pipe replaced . After entering service , she was assigned to the 1st Division of the Mediterranean Fleet , along with her sister République and Suffren , the divisional flagship . She was present for the annual summer maneuvers in June – July of that year , where she acted with several other battleships as a hostile force . While in a drydock on 3 July 1907 , the battleship Iéna suffered a catastrophic magazine explosion that destroyed the ship ; Patrie was moored nearby . Her commanding officer attempted to flood the dock to put out the inferno by firing one of Patrie 's secondary guns at the dock gate , but the shell bounced off and did not penetrate it . The dock was finally flooded when Ensign de Vaisseau Roux ( who was killed shortly afterward by fragments from the ship ) managed to open the sluice gates .
During the 1910 gunnery training exercises , Patrie suffered mechanical problems with her sighting equipment that disabled one of her main battery turrets . In 1910 the battleship again was in an accident ; while on maneuvers in the Gulf of Jouan , Patrie launched a torpedo that inadvertently struck her sister République . Her hull was damaged , and she was forced to put into Toulon for repairs .
At the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , Patrie was assigned to the 1st Division of the 2nd Squadron in the Mediterranean , along with République and the flagship , Vérité ; this was the main battle fleet of the French Navy . The French fleet was initially used to cover the movement of French troops — the XIX Corps — from Algeria to metropolitan France . As a result , the fleet was far out of position to catch the German battlecruiser SMS Goeben . For the majority of the war , the French used their main fleet to keep the Austro @-@ Hungarian fleet bottled up in the Adriatic Sea . In 1914 she participated in the Battle of Antivari , where the battle line caught the Austro @-@ Hungarian cruiser SMS Zenta by surprise and sank her . The French battleships then bombarded Austrian fortifications at Cattaro in an attempt to draw out the Austro @-@ Hungarian fleet , which refused to take the bait .
The French operations in the area were hampered by a lack of a suitable base close to the mouth of the Adriatic ; the British had given the French free access to Malta , but it was hundreds of miles away . The Austrians also possessed several submarines , one of which torpedoed the dreadnought Jean Bart in December 1914 . The threat from underwater weapons greatly limited French naval activities in the Adriatic . As the war progressed , the French eventually settled on Corfu as their primary naval base in the area . In 1916 the ships supported Allied operations in Salonica and also detached landing parties to support the Allied attempt to force Greek acquiescence for those operations in Athens on 1 December . They spent the rest of the war at Salonica and Athens . Patrie became flagship of the French squadron at Salonica in 1918 . During the war , four of Patrie 's 3 @-@ pounder guns were converted into anti @-@ aircraft guns with new high @-@ angle mounts . The six casemate @-@ mounted 164 mm guns were removed and landed at Salonica for use ashore . While off Salonica on 5 May 1916 , Patrie 's anti @-@ aircraft gunners shot down a German zeppelin . Patrie was retained in the French Navy 's inventory and served as a training ship in Toulon for mechanics and torpedomen until 1927 . The following year , she stricken from the naval register and sold for scrap .
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= Till the World Ends =
" Till the World Ends " is a song recorded by American singer Britney Spears for her seventh studio album , Femme Fatale ( 2011 ) . It was written by Kesha Sebert , Lukasz " Dr. Luke " Gottwald , Alexander Kronlund , and Max Martin . Gottwald , Martin and Billboard produced the song , while vocal production was handled by Emily Wright . " Till the World Ends " is an uptempo dance @-@ pop and electropop song with an electro beat . It opens with sirens , and has elements of trance and Eurodance . The song features a chant @-@ like chorus , and lyrics in which Spears sings about dancing until the end of the world . " Till the World Ends " received comparisons to past hits by artists like Kesha and Enrique Iglesias . Some music critics deemed it a catchy dance track and complimenting its anthemic nature .
" Till the World Ends " was treated with different remixes , most notably the Femme Fatale Remix , featuring rapper Nicki Minaj and Kesha , which was released on April 25 , 2011 . The remix adds a rap by Minaj at the beginning , new vocals by Kesha , and a dubstep breakdown . The Femme Fatale Remix received positive reviews from critics , with most complimenting the diversity of the group and Minaj 's rap . " Till the World Ends " charted on the top @-@ ten in several major music markets , including Australia , France , Ireland , New Zealand , Sweden and Switzerland . The Femme Fatale Remix propelled the single to the top five on the Canadian Hot 100 and the US Billboard Hot 100 . However , " Till the World Ends " became her second lowest peaking single in the United Kingdom .
An accompanying music video for the " Till the World Ends " was released on April 6 , 2011 . It portrays Spears in an underground dance party set on a December 21 , 2012 . Critics noted the similarities with the music video for " I 'm a Slave 4 U " ( 2001 ) , and predominantly gave positive reviews for it . A choreography cut was released on April 15 , 2011 . The video was also nominated for two categories at the 2011 MTV Video Music Awards , and went on to win Best Pop Video . Spears has performed " Till the World Ends " on television shows Good Morning America and Jimmy Kimmel Live ! , and performed it with Minaj at the 2011 Billboard Music Awards . She has also performed the song as the encore of the Femme Fatale Tour ( 2011 ) and Britney : Piece of Me ( 2013 ) .
= = Background = =
" Till the World Ends " was written and produced by Dr. Luke and Max Martin , with additional writing by American recording artist Kesha and Alexander Kronlund , and additional production by Billboard . In an interview for Spin on February 11 , 2011 , Kesha announced she had co @-@ written the song with Luke and Martin for Femme Fatale . She explained it was inspired by " me imagining [ Spears ] and any female musician touring the world . When you go out , and you 're having an amazing , magical night and you don 't want to go to sleep and you want it to last until the world ends . " On March 2 , 2011 , the single 's cover art , in which Spears appears sitting on a couch in a sweater and heels , was posted at Deezer.com. This was followed by a 30 @-@ second snippet of the song , which appeared at Amazon.de. " Till the World Ends " leaked online on March 3 , 2011 , which prompted Spears to post hours later on her Twitter account , " Looks like the cat 's out of the bag ... " She formally premiered the single at On Air with Ryan Seacrest , on March 4 , 2011 , at 10 : 00 EST ( 15 : 00 UTC ) . " Till the World Ends " was made available on iTunes the same day , several days earlier than originally planned . Following the announcement , Kesha spoke to MTV News stating that " I consider myself a songwriter before and above everything else , so it 's an honor to write for one of pop music 's biggest icons . " During an interview with Seacrest , Spears described " Till the World Ends " as " fun . I like it . It 's good energy . [ ... ] I 'm a vibe person , and I think I love good @-@ mood songs , and if it puts me in a good mood , it clicks for me . "
= = Composition = =
" Till the World Ends " is an uptempo dance @-@ pop and electropop song , with an electro beat and elements of trance and Eurodance . The song opens with sirens and a " sizzling " bassline . Spears delivers confident and breathy vocals , in lyrics such as " If you want this good shit / Sicker than the remix / Baby let me blow your mind tonight . " In the chorus , the song slows down while Spears sings " I can 't take it take it take no more / Never felt like felt like this before / Come on get me get me on the floor / DJ what you what you waiting for ? " . The melody 's 4 : 3 cross @-@ rhythm continues into a chant @-@ like segment , in which " whoa @-@ oh @-@ oh @-@ oh " is repeated . The bit was compared by Scott Shettler of AOL to the " rapid word repetition " of Kesha . Keith Caulfield of Billboard said the chorus " comes on hard like it 's the sexy spawn " of American recording artist Usher 's " OMG " ( 2010 ) and Italian band Baltimora 's " Tarzan Boy " ( 1985 ) .
Gerrick Kennedy of the Los Angeles Times stated that like her previous single " Hold It Against Me " , " Spears 's main intention with her new single seems to be keeping the dance floor pulsating with sweaty bodies " . Jason Lipshutz of Billboard said the song recalls past hits by English recording artist Taio Cruz , Swedish recording artist Robyn and Spanish recording artist Enrique Iglesias . Allison Stewart of The Washington Post felt the song was comparable to Iglesias ' " Tonight ( I 'm Lovin ' You ) " ( 2010 ) . Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine and a reviewer from Popjustice compared it to Kesha 's " Blow " ( 2011 ) . According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Kobalt Music Publishing Inc . , " Till the World Ends " is set in the compound meter time signature , with a moderate dance beat infused metronome of 132 beats per minute . It is composed in the key of C minor ; Spears ' vocals range from the low @-@ key of Bb3 to the high @-@ note of C5 . Lyrically , the song talks about dancing until the end of the world .
= = Critical reception = =
The song was well received by critics . Ryan Brockington of the New York Post called it " amazing " . Jon Dolan of Rolling Stone gave the song three and a half out of five stars , stating , " You want a party song , call a partier " and describing it as " sky @-@ sucking synth streaks , a beat that sounds like blimps fucking and a thousand shirtless drunken sailors chanting along on the chorus . " Gerrick Kennedy of the Los Angeles Times called the song " catchy [ ... ] [ it ] makes you want to grab some glow sticks and hit the clubs " and added that the Femme Fatale era " already shows an undeniably more confident Spears . " Mike Collett @-@ White of Reuters deemed it as a dance anthem . Robert Copsey of Digital Spy said that the song is unquestionably a Dr. Luke production , but " somehow it 's Brit that manages to come out on top . " Copsey went on to call it her most uplifting number since " Stronger " ( 2000 ) , and added that " for longtime Britney fans , is the comeback we 've all been waiting for .
Bill Lamb of About.com commented that the song would " sound solid on the radio and bring crowds to the dance floor , " but when compared to " Hold It Against Me " , it was much safer and not as innovative . Jed Gottlieb of the Boston Herald gave the song a B + , saying that " pop fans always need a huge hook , catchy chorus and break @-@ it @-@ down @-@ build @-@ it @-@ up bridge . This song ’ s got all three " . Edna Gundersen of USA Today called it " a sleek and impossibly catchy slab " , and said that although the song is unmistakable Luke , Spears " holds her own with confident , kittenish vocals . " Allison Stewart of The Washington Post stated that the track " is Spears 's most joyously danceable track in a long time . " Caryn Ganz of Spin named it " her first truly synapse @-@ sizzling single since ' Toxic . ' " Andy Gill of The Independent selected the song along with " Criminal " as the download picks of the album . Kevin Ritchie of Now stated that " Wannabe World Cup anthem Till The World Ends kicks things off with an aura of pounding , Euro dance euphoria . "
David Buchanan of Consequence of Sound commented that " Till the World Ends " , " Hold It Against Me " and " Inside Out " " simultaneously send Spears back to basics vocally , and into 2011 sonically . " Rudy Klapper of Sputnikmusic said that the song " throbs with trance @-@ y synths , a thumping electro beat that is pure sex and a chorus that goes and goes as only the best club hits can do , sensible lyrics be damned . " Evan Sawdey of PopMatters said that " Till the World Ends " sets the pace of Femme Fatale , while calling it " a stadium @-@ rocking pop anthem . " Keith Caulfield from Billboard said that the song has a " roof @-@ shaking chant @-@ chorus " , but criticized the lyrics , saying that they have " been echoed incessantly over the past year in countless Hot 100 top ten hits : dance until you drop from exhaustion . " Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine compared it to Kesha 's " Blow " , saying that the tracks " [ are ] so similar [ ... ] that I can 't decide which one I like more — or if I even like them at all . " A reviewer from Popjustice also compared it to " Blow " , but said " Till the World Ends " was not as good .
= = = Recognition = = =
Rolling Stone named " Till the World Ends " as the third best song of 2011 . The writer concluded , " Brit [ ney ] delivers the Apocalypse Now of Eurotrash electrotrance disco songs , as that throbbing pulse builds to a pure drop @-@ the @-@ bomb chorus . And that ' whoa @-@ ho @-@ ho ' choir sounds like Cher leading an aircraft carrier full of gay sailors . " The song was also named as the third best single of 2011 by Billboard , and commented that it is " Britney 's most immediate single since ' Toxic ' . " Sam Lansky of PopCrush considered " Till the World Ends " the best pop song of 2011 , writing , " 2011 was already Year of the Spears by January , when Britney Spears ' ' Hold It Against Me ' topped the charts — but [ Britney ] had something even better up her sleeve , the crackling dancefloor barnstormer ' Till the World Ends , ' penned by rowdy popstrel Kesha and produced by monster hitmaker Dr. Luke . It 's a gargantuan party song with provocative lyrics ( “ This kitten got your tongue tied in knots , ” anyone ? ) , throbbing synths , and a thrillingly euphoric hands @-@ in @-@ the @-@ air chant @-@ along chorus — and there wasn 't a more exuberant pop song this year . " Digital Spy also considered the track as the best song of 2011 , naming it " Britney 's best track since ' Toxic ' " and commenting , " judging from its chart position , it 's also her most underrated hit . " The Village Voice 's Pazz & Jop annual critics ' poll ranked " Till the World Ends " as the seventh best song of 2011 , tied with Lana Del Rey 's " Video Games " . " Till the World Ends " was voted by readers as the Best Song of the 2010s on Billboard .
= = Remixes = =
A Bollywood version of the song was done by Indian music producer duo Salim and Sulaiman Merchant , and released on DesiHits.com , a website for South Asian music and entertainment news . The remix features a Punjabi breakdown with South Asian sounding vocals and includes some added Desi flavors courtesy of dholki , dhol and tumbi beats , which are common instruments in South Asian music . Baba Kahn of the production team Culture Shock stated , " Our goal was to take Britney 's smash hit single and give fans a total Desi adrenaline rush . The result is a Culture Shock musical Desi roller coaster that hopefully everyone around the world will want to join . " Mark Flaherty , senior vice president of Jive Label Group , said about the remix :
" We wanted to build an even greater connection between the world 's biggest pop star and one of the world 's largest audiences . Britney has been engaged with South Asian culture for many years . From the groundbreaking Bollywood @-@ inspired remix of ' Me Against the Music ' to her recent collaboration with Indian fashion designers Falguni and Shane Peacock on the ' Hold It Against Me ' video , she has embraced the incredible sights and sounds of this vibrant community throughout her career . "
Michigan band Salem released a slowed @-@ down version of the song , and made a music video featuring seemingly underage strippers and military footage . A remix featuring R. Kelly was leaked online on July 4 , 2011 . It features him singing the second verse , " Slide up in this club / This beat 's got me in love / Till I just don 't care / It 's like I 'm walking on air / It 's a party right here " , and a new hook , where he repeats the line " Party till the world ends " . His vocals join those of Spears during the breakdown , and the song ends with Kelly doing runs over the chorus . A reporter from Idolator said , " We 'd much rather listen to Britney 's original than this uninspired remix when doomsday comes . "
A remixed version of " Till the World Ends " , featuring Kesha and rapper Nicki Minaj , was leaked online on April 22 , 2011 . The same day , three countdowns with lines of the song appeared on the official websites of Spears , Kesha and Minaj . The Femme Fatale Remix was released on iTunes on April 25 , 2011 . The same day , Spears uploaded a picture of the cover art to her Twitter account . Kesha told MTV News , " I 'm a massive fan of both the ladies I share the track with . I wrote ' TTWE ' for Britney [ ... ] and she killed it and I loved it , but I just thought a supergroup of three hot , strong women could just take over the airwaves . " The remix adds heavier bass during the beginning , and starts with Minaj rapping with intensity about a female hater , in lines such as " Told you they 'd revive your career , but somebody lied / I ain 't talkin ' poultry when I say this chicken 's fried . " This continues by Spears singing the first verse , after which Minaj says " It 's Britney , bitch . I 'm Nicki Minaj and that 's Kesha ! " , and the first chorus is sung by the latter . Spears continues with the song and is accompanied by Kesha towards the end of the second verse and the bridge . The remix also features a dubstep breakdown , reminiscent of " Hold It Against Me " .
Tina Hart of MSN UK stated that " [ Minaj ] maintain [ s ] her ‘ badass ’ demeanour . Britney ’ s familiar tones greet you on the verse and Kesha sounds perfectly at home on the chorus . " Wesley Case of The Baltimore Sun stated that while Spears sounds processed , " Minaj 's larger @-@ than @-@ life performance matches the in @-@ the @-@ red party production " and Kesha " adds an extra layer of dirt @-@ under @-@ the @-@ nails sheen . " He summarized his review by saying that the remix " is the perfect example of pop 's current love affair with Euro dance and add @-@ it @-@ all @-@ to @-@ the @-@ pot rules . " Jordan Zakarin of The Huffington Post commented the track " has enough star power to dwarf our own sun " and added that it " puts enough of a spin on the original version to make it worth a spin on its own . " Samesame.com.au stated that Minaj 's rap was " fantastic " , and that although Kesha 's verse was " a little strange " , it also " works , but [ ... ] further emphasises what a poor choice for single Till The World Ends was in the first place , as the song sounds even more like a B @-@ side to Ke $ ha ’ s Cannibal EP . " Maura Johnston of The Village Voice highlighted the breakdown and Minaj " who seems particularly energized here , stretching and bending her voice like it 's a Plasticman doll . " Kyle Anderson of Entertainment Weekly said that " like most remixes , we ’ ll stick with the original " . Anderson also stated that Kesha 's contribution is " generally ignorable " and that Minaj 's rap does not flow well with the rest of the song . Pitchfork Media included the Femme Fatale Remix in their Top 100 Tracks of 2011 list , writing :
" ' Till the World Ends ' was already the best Britney single since ' Toxic ' , an ecstatic Euroclub floor @-@ filler about wanting to dance until the world ends and other important matters . Then they added the Nicki Minaj verse . In her 45 @-@ second evisceration , Nicki manages to squeeze in chicken noises and the words ' poultry ' , ' Epsom salt ' , and ' Ricki Lake ' -- not to mention the immortal diss ' Sniff , sniff , criiiies / I done slayed your entire fucking liiiiife . ' ( Fact : In 2011 , pretty much any song in the world could be made infinitely better by the addition of a Nicki Minaj verse . ) Sprinkle a little bit of Ke $ ha , the song 's co @-@ writer , on the chorus , and you 've got a three @-@ headed diva Hydra that sums up the recent changing of the femme pop guard from airbrushed and perfect to ( relatively ) weird and chaotic . It 's the year 's greatest quickie cash @-@ in remix created to boost the chart position of a floundering single . Considering the ubiquity of the practice , that 's saying something . "
= = Chart performance = =
" Till the World Ends " sold 117 @,@ 000 copies after its first three days of sales in the United States , debuting at number twenty on the Billboard Hot 100 on the week of March 19 , 2011 . It became the fifth highest debut of her twenty @-@ five entries on the chart . It also debuted at number ten on the Hot Digital Songs chart , and at number sixty @-@ eight on the Radio Songs chart ; on the latter chart , the song debuted at number sixty @-@ eight with 16 @.@ 8 million impressions on 145 stations . On the issue dated March 17 , 2011 , " Till the World Ends " sold 158 @,@ 000 downloads ( up 36 % ) , peaking at number five on the Hot Digital Songs chart . On the Hot 100 , it climbed to number nine , becoming her tenth top ten hit . The song also jumped to number forty @-@ seven on the Radio Songs chart with 26 million impressions ( up 56 % ) , and debuted at number twenty @-@ six on the Pop Songs chart . It later peaked at number four . The following week , " Till the World Ends " dropped out of the top ten of the Hot 100 ; it returned three weeks later at number eight , on April 13 , 2011 . Following the release of the remix featuring Nicki Minaj and Kesha , the song peaked at number three on the Hot Digital Songs chart , with combined sales of 246 @,@ 000 downloads ( up 102 % ) . The remix accounted for 167 @,@ 000 copies ( 68 % ) of the total sales . " Till the World Ends " also peaked at number three on the Hot 100 , becoming Spears 's eleventh top @-@ ten hit and her third of 2011 after " Hold It Against Me " and the " S & M " remix with Rihanna . In May 2011 , the song peaked at number 4 on the airplay chart , her highest @-@ charting song on the radio in her entire career . " Till the World Ends " became Spears 's seventh number @-@ one dance song when it topped the chart in May 2011 . On the week of July 10 , 2011 , the song surpassed two million downloads in the United States . As of March 2015 , " Till the World Ends " has sold 2 @.@ 9 million copies in the United States .
The single debuted at number sixteen on the Canadian Hot 100 , and climbed to number seven the next week . Following the release of the remix , " Till the World Ends " peaked at number four . On March 14 , 2011 , the song debuted at number nineteen on the ARIA Charts of Australia . It climbed to number eight on the week of April 25 , 2011 , where it stayed for two consecutive weeks . " Till the World Ends " stayed for sixteen weeks on the chart . It has since been certified 2x Platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for sales of 140 @,@ 000 units . In New Zealand , the song debuted at number ten on March 14 , 2011 . It stayed for seventeen weeks on the chart . On March 10 , 2011 , " Till the World Ends " debuted at number seven on the Irish Singles Chart . In the United Kingdom , " Till the World Ends " debuted at number fifty @-@ five on March 7 , 2011 , and moved to number twenty @-@ one the following week . It became her second lowest peaking single behind " Radar " ( 2009 ) and her lowest peaking second single from a studio release . Across Europe , the song has peaked at number two in Norway ; number four in Sweden ; number six in Belgium ( Wallonia ) and Finland ; number seven in Denmark and Switzerland ; number eight in France and Slovakia ; and the top twenty in Brazil , Belgium ( Flanders ) , Czech Republic , Greece and Spain .
= = Music video = =
= = = Development = = =
The music video for " Till the World Ends " was directed by Ray Kay and filmed inside a basement in Los Angeles , California . On March 17 , 2011 , Spears posted on her Twitter account , " Day 1 of the # TTWE Videoshoot . Just wrapped my first big dance number . Taking a well deserved break people ! " She also tweeted a picture of her on set , wearing ripped tights , a Burberry Prorsum studded leather jacket and matching fingerless leather gloves . The making @-@ of was chronicled on the special Britney Spears : I Am the Femme Fatale , which aired on MTV on April 3 , 2011 , at 21 : 00 EST ( 02 : 00 UTC ) . In the special , Spears is seen watching the playback , as she later explained , " [ It is ] just to make sure it 's right and that the costume looks right and the dancers are together and we all look in unison . It 's an energy and it looks fresh . It has a certain vibe with it and it makes sense . " She also went on to describe the set as " grimy and gross [ ... ] It was sweat and it was disgusting sometimes " . At a point in the shoot , Spears changed her heels to Ugg boots during the shots that did not show her feet , stating that " [ Dancing in heels ] hurts ... but it looks good . It wasn 't a full @-@ length shot , so a girl 's about comfort when it 's not showing . " " Till the World Ends " is nearly the 40th music video Spears made in her career . Spears said that she did not feel the need to top herself , saying that " I 've made so many videos that I 'm at the point that I genuinely want to enjoy myself , and I have such a good team of people with me . [ ... ] I had never worked with Ray Kay before . I was really happy with the work we did . " The video was choreographed by Brian Friedman . On April 4 , 2011 , it was announced that two different versions of the music video would be released , a director 's cut and a choreography cut . The same day , Spears tweeted a 30 @-@ second preview of the video , announcing , " # TillTheWorldEnds video premieres THIS Wednesday on VEVO . Cant wait to share it with you guys ! " " Till the World Ends " became at the Spears second VEVOcertified music video on YouTube .
= = = Director 's cut = = =
The video begins with the words " December 21st , 2012 " flashing on screen , the day that refers to the fulfillment of the Great Cycle , Baktun in the Mayan calendar . While Spears appears strutting in an underground party wearing a studded leather jacket and stockings . Several people are seen running to a manhole and enter the sewer system to arrive to the party . This is followed by a dance routine in which Spears is wearing a sequined bodysuit and a small jacket with shoulder pads accompanied by female dancers . During the video , there are scenes of buildings burning and debris falling , as well as intercut scenes of Spears in front of an illuminated background . As the second verse begins , she dances provocatively with her male dancers . In the last chorus , the sun rises while water is sprayed through the dance floor and the earthquake and meteor shower subside . The video ends with Spears coming out of a manhole wearing the red bodysuit and smiling .
The director 's cut premiered on April 6 , 2011 at 03 : 00 EST ( 08 : 00 UTC ) . Kevin O 'Donnell of Spin compared the " Till the World Ends " video to " I 'm Slave 4 U " and added that it takes elements of classic Spears videos , such as " scantily @-@ clad dancers , tightly executed choreography , ridonkulously sequined outfits , and pouty , overly sincere close @-@ ups of Spears " and " places them in an apocalyptic , end @-@ of @-@ days scenario . " Jocelyn Vena of MTV also highlighted the comparisons to " I 'm a Slave 4 U " , explaining that " the director 's cut of the video is a sexy mash @-@ up of Spears doing what she does best : groping half @-@ naked guys , giving the camera bedroom eyes and being sassy in a number of leather jackets and skintight bodysuits . " Chris Gayomali of Time stated that the video " [ i ] s sweaty , at times blinding , yet undeniably enjoyable , adopting many of its key elements from Britney 's coming @-@ of @-@ age ' I 'm a Slave 4 U. ' " Matthew Perpetua of Rolling Stone called it " a good , memorable video . " Tanner Stransky of Entertainment Weekly said it " is exactly what you ’ d expect for this song , and from Britney at this point in her career " , and also complimented Spears for getting rid of the product placement in the " Hold It Against Me " video .
Wesley Case of The Baltimore Sun stated that video " is typical 2011 party @-@ starter — sweaty bodies , futuristic DJ @-@ gear , well @-@ timed faulty sprinkler system — but it captures the track 's raging mood perfectly . " Gina Serpe of E ! Online also compared the video to " I 'm a Slave 4 U " , saying , " [ There 's ] nothing wrong with a little nod to vintage Britney . Plus , sweaty dancers in underground tunnels pulsing and writhing in sync to the music ? Seems like as good a way as any to survive the apocalypse . " Willa Paskin of New York commented that Spears " tries hard not to make the same mistakes as the inadvertently depressing ' Hold It Against Me . ' There 's more dancing — though it 's still largely arm @-@ related — and much , much more smiling . " The music video was nominated at the 2011 MuchMusic Video Awards in the category of International Video of the Year — Artist , but lost to Lady Gaga 's " Judas " . It also received two nominations at the 2011 MTV Video Music Awards in the categories of Best Pop Video and Best Choreography . Spears told MTV News she was " completely flattered " by the nominations . She lost Best Choreography to Beyoncé 's " Run the World ( Girls ) " , but won Best Pop Video .
= = = Choreography cut = = =
The video is similar to the director 's cut , but has a few differences . The choreography cut offers lengthier shots of Spears and her dancers , and much of the apocalypse storyline is edited out . The clip 's ending is also different from the original : instead of emerging from the manhole Spears just looks into the camera , apparently still hiding in the underground party and hinting at a darker ending in which the world does end . On April 9 , 2011 , Spears tweeted that she had seen the final cut of the dance version , and was not sure which one she liked best . Ray Kay tweeted on April 14 , 2011 , that the original version of the video was better , " but it 's fun to watch the choreography too . " The video , titled " DANCE Till the World Ends " premiered on April 15 , 2011 . Leah Collins of Dose commented , " sorry , Team Britney , but if any of you were hoping to pass off Spears ’ anemic performance in the original as the result of unfortunate editing , this clip isn ’ t exactly going to bring anyone back on side . "
= = = Twister Remix = = =
An accompanying music video for the Twister Remix of " Till the World Ends " was also directed by Ray Kay , and released on September 8 , 2012 . For the music video , Spears sported a $ 20 @,@ 000 sports bra and black leggins from Body Rock . It begins with four girls talking and resting in a dance studio . Once Spears enters the room and starts playing Twister with the girls , the scenario changes to a stage with a colorful background , and they all start performing a dance routine to a remix of the song . After the song stops and the four girls are seen laying down tired , Spears turns around to them and say , " Way to rock the spots , ladies . "
= = Live performances and cover versions = =
Spears first performed " Till the World Ends " at Rain Nightclub in the Palms Casino Resort on March 25 , 2011 . After performances of " Hold It Against Me " and " Big Fat Bass " , Spears appeared wearing a black latex bodysuit covered in red lights and surrounded by her dancers , while the stage was filled with ladders and LED lighting . At the end , she ascended the ladders and ended up on a platform , gyrating from above the room . As fireworks lit the stage , Spears danced and tossed her hair as the song closed . She also taped performances of " Hold It Against Me " , " Big Fat Bass " and " Till the World Ends " at the Bill Graham Civic Auditorium on March 27 , 2011 , that aired on Good Morning America on March 29 , 2011 . The same day , Spears performed the set on Jimmy Kimmel Live ! . On May 22 , 2011 , she briefly performed the song at the Billboard Music Awards in the MGM Grand Garden Arena . After Minaj performed " Super Bass " , she started to sing the rap verse of The Femme Fatale Remix . Spears emerged onstage for the chorus and performed alongside Minaj and her back up dancers while walking to a minor stage .
Spears also performed " Till the World Ends " at the Femme Fatale Tour ( 2011 ) . At the end of " Toxic " , she goes below the stage and returns wearing a black sparkly bodysuit for " Till the World Ends " . Halfway through the performance , Minaj appears on the backdrops rapping her verse of The Femme Fatale Remix of the song . She also joined Spears to perform the verse in select cities . After the song changes back to the original version , Spears starts flying in a platform with giant angel wings . The show ends with Spears and her dancers thanking the audience , as confetti falls and the " Femme Fatale " sign is lowered onstage . Jason L. Nelson of The Beaver County Times said that " encore hits ' Toxic ' and ' Till the World Ends ' kept the crowd beaming . " Spears also performed the song as part of the encore section from her Las Vegas residency Britney : Piece of Me . At the end of the performance , Spears ascended into the back of the stage in a globe @-@ cage .
During the Pink Friday Tour , Nicki Minaj included " Till the World Ends " as an interlude .
= = Track listings = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from Till the World Ends liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
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= Resident Evil 5 =
Resident Evil 5 , known in Japan as Biohazard 5 ( バイオハザード5 , Baiohazādo 5 ) , is a survival horror third @-@ person shooter video game developed and published by Capcom . The fifth major installment in the Resident Evil series , the game was released for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 consoles in March 2009 and for Microsoft Windows in September of that year . Resident Evil 5 was re @-@ released for PlayStation 4 and Xbox One In June 28 , 2016 . Resident Evil 5 's plot involves an investigation by Chris Redfield and Sheva Alomar of a terrorist threat in Kijuju , a fictional region of Africa . Chris soon learns that he must confront his past in the form of an old enemy , Albert Wesker .
The game was announced in 2005 , the same year predecessor Resident Evil 4 was released . Several staff members from the original Resident Evil worked on Resident Evil 5 . Motion capture was used for the game 's cutscenes , and it was the first video game to use a virtual camera system . Resident Evil 5 's gameplay was similar to that of the previous installment , and producer Jun Takeuchi said that themes from the original game were used . Resident Evil 5 had a mostly positive reception , although the game was criticised for problems with its controls . Outselling its predecessor , Resident Evil 5 became the franchise 's best @-@ selling individual game . A sequel , Resident Evil 6 , was released in 2012 .
= = Gameplay = =
Resident Evil 5 is a third @-@ person shooter with an over @-@ the @-@ shoulder perspective . Players can use a number of weapons ( including handguns , shotguns , automatic rifles , sniper rifles and grenade launchers ) in addition to melee attacks . Wounding an enemy with a firearm often causes them to stagger ; if the player is in close range , an icon will appear with the option of a melee attack such as an uppercut or a somersault kick . Players can make quick 180 @-@ degree turns to evade enemies . Many of the game 's cutscenes and boss battles involve quick time events .
Like its predecessor Resident Evil 4 , although players cannot run and shoot at the same time they can upgrade weapons with money and treasure and heal themselves with herbs . New features include infected enemies with guns and grenades , the ability to upgrade weapons at any time from the inventory screen ( rather than finding a merchant ) and the equipping of weapons and items in real time during gameplay . Each player can store nine items ( unlike the previous games , the item size is irrelevant ; an herb or a grenade launcher each occupy one space ) , and four items may be assigned to the D @-@ pad .
Resident Evil 5 supports two @-@ player co @-@ operative gameplay . The first player controls Chris Redfield , and a second player can control Sheva Alomar . If a person plays alone , Sheva is controlled by the game 's artificial intelligence . When the game has been completed once , there is an option to make Sheva the primary character . Two @-@ player mode is available online or split @-@ screen with a local player . A second player joining a split @-@ screen game in progress will make the game reload the last checkpoint ; the second player joining an online game will have to wait until the first player reaches the next checkpoint ( or restarts the previous one ) to play . Split @-@ screen mode presents the game in two windows with the wide @-@ screen proportions of one @-@ player mode , rather than splitting the screen in two , and the entire screen is not utilized . Players are separated at points during gameplay ; if one player has critical health , only their partner can resuscitate them . Players can trade items during gameplay , although weapons cannot be traded with online players .
A version of the Mercenaries minigame which debuted in Resident Evil 3 is included in Resident Evil 5 . When the game was released the minigame multiplayer mode was offline only , but a release @-@ day patch gave the game online multiplayer modes . Mercenaries unlocks when the game 's story mode has been completed . This minigame places the player in an enclosed environment with a time limit . Customised weapons cannot be used , and players must search for weapons , ammunition and time bonuses while fighting a barrage of enemies to score as many points as possible within the time limit .
= = Plot = =
Five years after the events of Resident Evil 4 Chris Redfield , a former Special Tactics and Rescue Service member and now part of the Bioterrorism Security Assessment Alliance ( BSAA ) , is dispatched to Kijuju in Africa . He and his new partner Sheva Alomar are tasked with apprehending Ricardo Irving before he can sell a bio @-@ organic weapon ( BOW ) on the black market . When they arrive , they discover that the locals have been infected by parasites ( those infected are called " Majini " ) and the BSAA Alpha Team have been killed . Chris and Sheva are rescued by BSAA 's Delta Team , which includes Sheva 's mentor Josh Stone . In Josh 's data Chris sees a photograph of Jill Valentine , his old partner , who is presumed dead after a confrontation with Albert Wesker . Chris , Sheva and Delta Team close in on Irving , but he escapes with the aid of a hooded figure . Wesker leaves documents which lead Chris and Sheva to marshy oilfields where Irving 's deal is to occur , but they discover that the documents are a diversion . When Chris and Sheva try to regroup with Delta Team , they find the team slaughtered by a BOW ; Sheva cannot find Josh among the dead . Determined to learn if Jill is still alive , Chris does not report to headquarters .
Continuing through the marsh , they find Josh injured but safe and track down Irving 's boat with his help . Irving injects himself with a parasite variant , Las Plagas , and mutates into a huge octopus @-@ like beast . Chris and Sheva defeat him , and his dying words lead them to a nearby cave to learn more . The cave is the source of a flower used to create the Progenitor virus , which led to the T- and G @-@ viruses and has been used to form Uroboros ( a new , powerful strain ) . Chris and Sheva find evidence that Tricell , the company funding the BSAA , took over a former Umbrella Corporation underground laboratory and continued Umbrella 's research . In the facility are thousands of capsules holding human test subjects . Although Chris discovers that one of the capsules is Jill 's , it is empty . When they leave , they discover that Tricell CEO Excella Gionne has been plotting with Wesker to launch missiles with the Uroboros virus across the globe ; it is eventually revealed that Wesker hopes to take a chosen few from the chaos of infection and rule them , creating a new breed of humanity . Chris and Sheva pursue Excella , but are stopped by Wesker and a mind @-@ controlled Jill . Excella and Wesker escape to a Tricell oil tanker ; Chris and Sheva fight Jill , subduing her and removing the mind @-@ control device before she orders Chris to follow Wesker .
Chris and Sheva board the tanker and encounter Excella , who escapes after dropping a case of syringes ; Sheva keeps several . When Chris and Sheva reach the main deck , Wesker announces over the ship 's intercom that he has betrayed and infected Excella with Uroboros . She mutates into a giant monster , which Chris and Sheva defeat . Jill radios in , telling Chris and Sheva that Wesker must take precise , regular doses of a virus to maintain his strength and speed ; a larger or smaller dose would poison him . Sheva realizes that Excella 's syringes are doses of the drug . Chris and Sheva follow Wesker to a bomber loaded with missiles containing the Uroboros virus , injecting him with additional doses . Wesker tries to escape on the bomber ; Chris and Sheva disable it , making him crash @-@ land in a volcano . Furious ‚ Wesker exposes himself to Uroboros and chases Chris and Sheva through the volcano . They fight him , and the weakened Wesker falls into the lava before Chris and Sheva are rescued by a helicopter piloted by Jill and Josh . As a dying Wesker attempts to drag the helicopter into the volcano , Chris and Sheva blast the rocket @-@ propelled grenades at Wesker 's position , finally killing him and ending his threat once and for all . In the game 's final cutscene , Chris wonders if the fight is worthwhile . Looking at Sheva and Jill , he decides to live in a world without fear .
= = Development = =
Resident Evil 5 was developed by Capcom and produced by Jun Takeuchi , who had directed Onimusha and produced Lost Planet : Extreme Condition . Keiji Inafune , promotional producer for Resident Evil 2 and executive producer of the PlayStation 2 version of Resident Evil 4 , supervised the project . In February 2007 , members of Capcom 's Clover Studio were asked to help develop the game ; many of the studio 's developers instead worked on Resident Evil : The Umbrella Chronicles , which debuted for the Wii . Several staff members who worked on the original Resident Evil were involved in Resident Evil 5 's development . The game 's scenario was written by Haruo Murata and Yoshiaki Hirabayashi , based on a story idea by concept director Kenichi Ueda . Takeuchi announced that the game would retain the gameplay model introduced in Resident Evil 4 , with themes from the original Resident Evil . Tsukasa Takenaka provided additional story background and created the in @-@ game files .
Takeuchi said that about three years of " actual development time " were spent on the game , after a year devoted to concept and planning . At its development peak , about 110 people worked on the project . The decision for co @-@ operative gameplay was made " part @-@ way " through development , for a new experience in a Resident Evil game . Despite initial concern that a second player would dampen the game 's tension and horror , it was later realized that a second player could increase tension in situations where one player had to be rescued . Takeuchi said that the decision to have both screens in their original 16 : 9 ratio in split @-@ screen mode was influenced by a desire to avoid stacking the screens ( which might be distracting ) , and the restriction on simultaneously moving and shooting was retained to increase player tension with the inability to move freely . Takeuchi cited the film Black Hawk Down and his experience working on Lost Planet : Extreme Condition as influences on Resident Evil 5 .
Although previous Resident Evil games are primarily set at night , the events of Resident Evil 5 occur almost entirely during the day . Director Yasuhiro Anpo said in July 2008 that the game 's daytime setting was due to advanced graphics capabilities , which gave the developers more lighting options . Takeuchi said that the film 28 Days Later , set primarily outdoors during the day , demonstrated that horror could be created without darkness . Anpo said that since Resident Evil 4 was " a very long game " and occasionally tedious , they would try to make Resident Evil 5 " a little shorter " and more exciting . Resident Evil 5 runs on version 1 @.@ 4 of Capcom 's MT Framework engine , with scenes recorded by motion capture . It was the first video game to use virtual cameras , which allowed the developers to see character movements in real time as the motion @-@ capture actors recorded . Actors Reuben Langdon , Karen Dyer and Ken Lally portrayed Chris Redfield , Sheva Alomar and Albert Wesker . Some of the game 's animation could not be recorded with motion capture and was hand @-@ keyed , and motion @-@ capture scenes were often retouched by hand to make them look more realistic or vivid .
Kota Suzuki was the game 's principal composer , with additional music by Hideki Okugawa , Akihiko Narita and Seiko Kobuchi . Suzuki said that the daytime setting of Resident Evil 5 did not significantly influence its score , although due to increased visibility it required the precise synchronisation of sound effects and on @-@ screen action . The composer 's electronic score includes 15 minutes of orchestral music , recorded at the Newman Scoring Stage of 20th Century Fox Studios in Los Angeles with the 103 @-@ piece Hollywood Studio Symphony . Additional orchestral music and the orchestral arrangements were by Wataru Hokoyama , who conducted the orchestra . Capcom recorded in Los Angeles because they wanted a Hollywood @-@ style soundtrack to increase the game 's cinematic value and global interest . Resident Evil 5 's soundtrack features an original theme song , composed by Kota Suzuki and sung by Oulimata Niang .
= = Marketing and release = =
Resident Evil 5 was introduced by Capcom on July 20 , 2005 , and the company showed a brief trailer for the game at E3 2007 . Its full E3 trailer became available on the Xbox Live Marketplace and the PlayStation Store on July 26 , 2007 . A new trailer , shown at the Captivate 08 media summit , debuted on Spike TV 's Gametrailers TV on May 31 , 2008 and on the GameTrailers website . A playable game demo was released in Japan on December 5 , 2008 for the Xbox 360 , in North America and Europe for the Xbox 360 on January 26 , 2009 and on February 2 for the PlayStation 3 . Worldwide downloads of the demo exceeded four million for the two consoles , with over 1 @.@ 8 million from January 26 to January 29 .
On January 21 , 2009 , D + PAD Magazine reported that Resident Evil 5 would be released with limited @-@ edition Xbox 360 box art ; pictures of the limited @-@ edition box claimed that it would allow two to sixteen players to play offline via System Link . Although Capcom said that their " box art isn 't lying " , the company did not provide any more details . Capcom soon issued another statement that the box @-@ art information was incorrect , and System Link could support only two players . Microsoft released a limited @-@ edition , red Xbox 360 Elite console which was sold with the game . The package included a Resident Evil Premium Theme for the Xbox 360 Dashboard and a voucher for Super Street Fighter II Turbo HD Remix from Xbox Live .
Resident Evil 5 was released for PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 in March 2009 , and Capcom released a dedicated Game Space on PlayStation Home . The space , Resident Evil 5 " Studio Lot " ( Biohazard 5 " Film Studio " in Japan ) , had as its theme the in @-@ game location of Kijuju . Its lounge offered Resident Evil 5 @-@ related items for sale , events and full game @-@ launching support . Some areas of the space were available only to owners of Resident Evil 5 . The space was released on March 5 , 2009 in all PlayStation Home regions , and was retired in 2012 . A Microsoft Windows version was released in September 2009 . This version , using Nvidia 's 3D Vision technology through DirectX 10 , includes additional costumes and a new mode in the Mercenaries minigame . Resident Evil 5 was re @-@ released on PlayStation 4 and Xbox One on June 28 , 2016 , with a physical disc copy following in the Americas on July 12 , 2016 . Resident Evil 5 was re @-@ released on Shield Android TV in May 2016 .
= = Additional content = =
Shortly before the release of Resident Evil 5 it was announced that a competitive multiplayer mode , Versus , would be available for download in several weeks . Versus became available for download in Europe and North America on April 7 , 2009 on the Xbox Live Marketplace and the PlayStation Store . Versus has two online game types : " Slayers " ( a point @-@ based game challenging players to kill Majini ) and " Survivors " , where players hunt each other while dodging and attacking Majini . Both modes can be played by two @-@ player teams . The Microsoft Windows version of Resident Evil 5 originally did not support downloadable content ( DLC ) .
During Sony 's press conference at the 2009 Tokyo Game Show Capcom announced that a special edition of the game , Biohazard 5 : Alternative Edition , would be released in Japan for the PlayStation 3 in the spring of 2010 . This edition supports the PlayStation Move accessory and includes a new scenario , " Lost in Nightmares " , where Chris Redfield and Jill Valentine infiltrate one of Oswell E. Spencer 's estates in 2006 . Another special edition of the game , Resident Evil 5 : Gold Edition , was released for the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 in North America and Europe . Gold Edition includes " Lost in Nightmares " and another campaign @-@ expansion episode , " Desperate Escape " , where players control Josh Stone and Jill Valentine as they assist Chris and Sheva . The edition also includes the previously released Versus mode , four new costumes and an alternate Mercenaries mode with eight new playable characters , new items and maps . Like Alternative Edition , Gold Edition supports the PlayStation Move accessory with a patch released on September 14 , 2010 .
In addition to Gold Edition both episodes and costume packs are available as DLC , with two of the eight new Mercenaries Reunion characters bundled with each downloadable item ; after buying all five sets of DLC , players own all content on the disc . This only applies to the PlayStation 3 version ; the Xbox 360 version has no DLC on the disc . The Xbox 360 version comes with a download token allowing free download of all DLC , and the PlayStation 3 version has all of the new content on disc . The disc was released in the United States on March 9 , 2010 , and in Europe on March 12 . " Lost in Nightmares " and the first costume pack were available for download on both consoles in February 2011 , and " Desperate Escape " and other costume packs were released in March . On November 5 , 2012 , Resident Evil 5 : Gold Edition was placed on the PlayStation Network as a free download for PlayStation Plus users during that month .
As part of the game 's conversion to Steamworks , Gold Edition was released for Microsoft Windows on March 26 , 2015 . Owners of the game from Steam or as a boxed retail Games For Windows Live can acquire a free Steamworks copy of the base game and purchase the new Gold Edition content . Capcom also confirmed a way around limitations in the Gold Edition release for Steamworks which returns support for DirectX 10 and Nvidia 3D Vision as seen in the Games for Windows Live version .
= = Reception = =
= = = Sales = = =
The PlayStation 3 version of Resident Evil 5 was the top @-@ selling game in Japan in the two weeks following its release , with 319 @,@ 590 copies sold . It was the fastest @-@ selling game of the franchise in the United Kingdom , and the biggest Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 game release in the region . As of December 2014 , Resident Evil 5 has sold 6 @.@ 7 million copies worldwide for PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 , making it the bestselling Resident Evil game and the all @-@ time bestselling Capcom game .
= = = Critical response = = =
Resident Evil 5 received positive reviews . Although the game was praised for its graphics and gameplay , it was criticized for issues with its controls . Corey Cohen of Official Xbox Magazine complimented the game 's fast pace , and called the graphics " gorgeous " . It was praised by Joe Juba and Mark Miller of Game Informer , who said that it had the best graphics of any game to date and the music and voice acting helped bring the characters to life . However , Juba said that the inability to move and shoot at the same time seemed more " like a cheap and artificial way to increase difficulty than a technique to enhance tension . " Chris Hudak of Game Revolution reviewed Resident Evil 5 favorably . Lamenting the game 's departure from the survival horror genre , Hudak concluded that " the gorgeous environs , character models and overall visuals , and the adrenaline @-@ soaked cooperative gameplay ( wonky , stodgy Capcom controls and all ) cannot be denied . "
Adam Sessler of X @-@ Play said that although the game 's graphics were exceptional , the single @-@ player artificial intelligence was hard to play through and he was disappointed in the controls taken ( he felt ) from Resident Evil 4 . Edge praised Resident Evil 5 's gameplay as exhilarating and frantic , echoing criticism of the control system . For IGN , Ryan Geddes wrote that the split @-@ screen cooperative mode was very confusing but the game had a surprisingly high replay value . According to GameZone 's Louis Bedigian , " The fact that Resident Evil 5 was worth playing through twice in one weekend shows how compelling the gameplay is , and how it 's able to rise above a number of disappointing flaws . " Criticizing the game 's departure from survival horror and its inability to move and shoot ( or stab ) , Brian Crecente of Kotaku blogged : " From beginning to end , this latest Resident Evil delivers a riveting and intense experience well worth the time spent playing it . "
James Mielke of 1UP.com compared Resident Evil 5 to Gears of War 2 . He criticized several inconsistencies in the game , such as the enemies ' artificial intelligence and the ability to interact with objects and use cover . Mielke also criticized its controls , saying that aiming was too slow and noting the inability to strafe away from ( or quickly jump back from ) enemies . However , he concluded , " Despite the excruciating detail I 've poured into describing the problems [ Resident Evil 5 ] creates for itself , this is still a very fun game . " Kristan Reed of Eurogamer also criticized aspects of the controls , such as the speed at which 180 @-@ degree turns were performed and difficulty accessing inventory . According to Reed , Resident Evil 5 felt a lot like past games in the franchise and was " just like any other third person action shooter " .
Steven Hopper of GameZone rated the " Lost in Nightmares " DLC eight out of ten : " Even though the episode is pretty short , there is some good replay value here and the added multiplayer elements are a nice touch . All in all , this is a worthy investment for fans of the original game . " Samuel Claiborn of IGN rated the " Desperate Escape " DLC seven out of ten : " Despite Desperate Escape 's well @-@ crafted action sequences , I actually found myself missing the unique vibe of Lost in Nightmares . The dynamic between Jill and Josh isn 't particularly thrilling , and the one @-@ liners , banter and endearing kitsch are kept to a minimum . " Resident Evil 5 was nominated as Best Action Game at the 2009 IGN Game of the Year Awards .
= = = = Allegations of racism = = = =
Resident Evil 5 's 2007 E3 trailer was criticized for depicting a white protagonist killing black enemies in a small African village . According to Newsweek editor N 'Gai Croal , " There was a lot of imagery in that trailer that dovetailed with classic racist imagery " , although he acknowledged that only the preview had been released . The second trailer for the game ( released on May 31 , 2008 ) revealed a more racially diverse group of enemies and the half @-@ African BSAA agent Sheva , who assists the protagonist . Takeuchi denied that complaints about racism had any effect in altering the design of Resident Evil 5 , saying that the game 's producers were surprised by the controversy . In an interview with MTV , he said that Capcom 's staff was racially diverse and acknowledged that different cultures may have had differing opinions about the trailer . In a Computer and Video Games interview , producer Masachika Kawata also addressed the issue : " We can 't please everyone . We 're in the entertainment business – we 're not here to state our political opinion or anything like that . It 's unfortunate that some people felt that way . "
In Eurogamer 's February 2009 preview of Resident Evil 5 , Dan Whitehead expressed concern about controversy the game might generate : " It plays so blatantly into the old clichés of the dangerous ' dark continent ' and the primitive lust of its inhabitants that you 'd swear the game was written in the 1920s " , and " there are even more outrageous and outdated images to be found later in the game , stuff that I was honestly surprised to see in 2009 . " The article also said that the addition of the " light @-@ skinned " Sheva " compounds the problem rather than easing it . " Chris Hudak called the racism allegations " stupid " : " If you are aware from the outset that the game takes place in Africa and yet you are still troubled by any skin @-@ tone @-@ related aspects ... there exists the possibility of simple , congenital retardation on your own part . "
Wesley Yin @-@ Poole of VideoGamer.com said that despite the controversy the game was attracting due to alleged racism , no expert opinion had been sought . He asked Glenn Bowman , senior lecturer in social anthropology at the University of Kent , whether he thought the game was racist . Bowman considered the racism accusations " silly " , saying that the game had an anti @-@ colonial theme and those complaining about the game 's racism might be expressing an " inverted racism which says that you can 't have scary people who are black . " It was reported that one cutscene in the game scene showed " black men " dragging off a screaming white woman ; according to Yin @-@ Poole , the allegation was incorrect and the single man dragging the woman was " not obviously black . " The scene was submitted to the British Board of Film Classification for evaluation . BBFC head of communications Sue Clark said , " There is only one man pulling the blonde woman in from the balcony [ and he ] is not black either . As the whole game is set in Africa it is hardly surprising that some of the characters are black ... we do take racism very seriously , but in this case there is no issue around racism . "
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= Up ! Close and Personal =
Up ! Close and Personal is the fourth live video album by Canadian singer Shania Twain . It was directed by Beth McCarthy @-@ Miller , and produced by team composed of Dan Braun , Cliff Burnstein , Carol Donovan , McCarthy @-@ Miller , Peter Mensch , and Marc Reiter . The concert was filmed in November 2003 at a sound stage in Nashville , Tennessee , with an audience of 300 people . When conceptualizing the show , Twain desired to make the setting intimate and perform the songs acoustically , so she turned to bluegrass band Alison Krauss and Union Station to perform backup during the concert . It was also modeled after Elvis Presley 's ' 68 Comeback Special , with a similar stage and Twain being costumed by black , leather jumpsuit . Up ! Close and Personal premiered on the National Broadcasting Company ( NBC ) on November 25 , 2003 , and was high in ratings , being watched by over 9 million viewers in the United States .
Nearly a year later , Up ! Close and Personal was released by Mercury Nashville Records , in DVD format , as a video album on November 8 , 2004 to coincide with the release Twain 's Greatest Hits album . The video also served as a source to audio tracks used as B @-@ sides for the singles from Greatest Hits . Up ! Close and Personal received mixed reviews from music critics ( some who believed she was overshadowed by Krauss ' talents , others who complimented her vocal talents ) and positive commercial outcomes . It peaked at number eight on Billboard 's Top Music Video sales chart , and was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for shipment of 100 @,@ 000 copies in the United States .
= = Background = =
On August 19 , 2003 , Twain 's concert film Up ! Live in Chicago premiered on the National Broadcasting Company ( NBC ) and drew in over 8 @.@ 87 million viewers , therefore becoming the second @-@ most @-@ viewed concert film on television , behind Celine Dion 's A New Day ... Live in Las Vegas ( 2003 ) . Following its success on television , NBC was interested again in collaborating with Twain for a second prime time special . Twain accepted the offer , but desired to deviate from high @-@ elaboration , and perform a show much more stripped and intimate than the one filmed for Up ! Live in Chicago or those included in her Up ! Tour ( 2003 – 04 ) . She explained , " I wanted to go back to something stripped @-@ down and rootsy . I 've been doing big concerts for quite a long time , and I love it , but I just want that contrast . " Ergo , she turned to singer and fiddler Alison Krauss , head of the bluegrass band Alison Krauss and Union Station , whom she had collaborated with on numerous instances ; Krauss and her band backed Twain in her performance of " Forever and for Always " at the 2003 CMT Music Awards , and recorded a duet with Twain for a tribute album to Dolly Parton . Twain described her decision to be completely influenced by her desire to " break the music down " , and that Alison Krauss and Union Station were her only choice for the television special .
Krauss was apprehensive at first , noting drastic differences between her personal acoustic style and that of Twain . She stated , " It 's so different from what we do , we didn 't know what liberties we were supposed to take . Were we supposed to learn it off the record ? Were we supposed to learn the themes ? " She found aid in Twain 's then @-@ husband and producer Robert John " Mutt " Lange , who told Krauss to perform the songs as if they were her own . While preparing for the show , Krauss said she found the songs very simple to learn because of their catchy melodies that could function in any musical style . While traveling on the Up ! Tour , Twain decided to cover of AC / DC 's " You Shook Me All Night Long " ( 1980 ) for the television special . However , she edited the song 's lyrics to void them of the crudeness she was not fond of singing along to as a teenager . Krauss later expressed her opposing views , saying she would have personally kept the original lyrics . The show was modeled after Elvis Presley 's ' 68 Comeback Special , with a similar stage and Twain being costumed by black , leather jumpsuit . The concert was filmed in November 2003 at a sound stage in Nashville , Tennessee to a crowd of 300 attendants . Up ! Close and Personal was directed by Beth McCarthy @-@ Miller , who also directed Up ! Live in Chicago , and was produced by a team that consisted of Dan Braun , Cliff Burnstein , Carol Donovan , McCarthy @-@ Miller , Peter Mensch , and Marc Reiter .
= = Release = =
The hour @-@ long Up ! Close and Personal premiered on NBC on November 25 , 2003 at 9 : 00 P.M. EST , as part of the network 's line up for Thanksgiving week . The telecast garnered over 9 million viewers in the United States , surpassing the ratings of Up ! Live in Chicago . Nearly a year later , Up ! Close and Personal was released by Mercury Nashville Records as a DVD on November 8 , 2004 in Region 2 and on November 9 , 2004 in Region 1 , to coincide the date with the release Twain 's Greatest Hits album in the corresponding territories . The video appeared in an aspect ratio of 1 @.@ 33 : 1 ( 4 : 3 ) and contained both 2 @.@ 0 stereo and 5 @.@ 1 surround sound mixes . Audio versions of the performances were used for single releases . The live rendition of " You 're Still the One " was released as a digital download exclusively to the iTunes Store on November 9 , 2004 . It , along with the audio for the performance of " I 'm Holdin ' On to Love ( To Save My Life ) " , was also included in the maxi single of " Party for Two " ( 2004 ) . Audios for the performances of " I 'm Gonna Getcha Good ! " and " From This Moment On " were included on the maxi single for " Don 't ! " ( 2005 ) . And the audio version of the performance of " Whose Bed Have Your Boots Been Under ? " appeared on the CD single for " I Ain 't No Quitter " ( 2005 ) , and , along with " I Ain 't Goin ' Down " , on the maxi version of the single .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
Up ! Close and Personal received mixed reviews from music critics . David Bianculli of New York City 's Daily News wrote , " After watching Britney Spears ' [ Live from Las Vegas ( 2002 ) ] special last week , Twain 's act will seem like an exercise in restraint . It 'll also seem like someone singing , rather than lip @-@ syncing . " Roger Catlin of the Hartford Courant gave Up ! Live in Chicago a negative review . He found himself straining to hear Alison Krauss and Union Station , and asked , " And when was the last time you tuned in to a star 's special to hear the background singers ? " Furthermore , he would have preferred the band to duet with Twain , rather perform backup for her . Catlin also criticized Twain 's decision to model the show after Presley 's ' 68 Comeback Special , believing she did so with far less efficiency . " Not only is she not Elvis , she 's not even Alison " , he concluded . Allmusic rated Up ! Close and Personal three out of five stars .
= = = Chart performance = = =
On the week ending November 27 , 2004 , the video debuted at number eight on Billboard 's Top Music Video sales chart . In December 2004 , Up ! Live in Chicago was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for shipment of 100 @,@ 000 copies in the United States . On the week ending March 21 , 2005 , the video entered at number ninety @-@ eight on the German Albums Chart , its only week on the chart .
= = Track listing = =
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = = Charts = = =
= = = Certifications = = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Source :
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= Saturday Night Live parodies of Sarah Palin =
The sketch comedy television show Saturday Night Live aired several critically acclaimed sketches parodying then Alaskan Governor and vice @-@ presidential nominee Sarah Palin in the lead @-@ up to the 2008 United States presidential election . The sketches featured former cast member Tina Fey , who returned as a guest star to portray Palin . Fey won the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy Series for her impersonation of Palin .
= = Background = =
Soon after the 2008 John McCain presidential campaign 's August 29 , 2008 announcement that Alaska governor Sarah Palin would be McCain 's vice presidential nominee , people noted a physical resemblance between comedian Tina Fey and Palin . Fey had decided she would play Palin after her daughter saw a picture of the Alaskan governor and mistook her mother for Palin .
Viewers began to speculate who would play Palin on SNL during the run up to the November 4 presidential election . Days before the broadcast of the sketch , SNL executive producer Lorne Michaels said " there are [ ongoing ] discussions " about Fey playing Palin . On September 13 , 2008 , NBC announced that Fey would appear in the thirty @-@ fourth season premiere .
= = " A Nonpartisan Message from Governor Sarah Palin & Senator Hillary Clinton " = =
The first sketch , " A Nonpartisan Message from Governor Sarah Palin & Senator Hillary Clinton , " aired during the thirty @-@ fourth season premiere of SNL on September 13 , 2008 . The sketch starred Tina Fey and Amy Poehler as Palin and Clinton , respectively . Fey , the series ' former head writer and repertory player , made her third appearance on the series since officially leaving SNL in 2006 to work on 30 Rock , a series which she created . The sketch was written by Poehler , Fey , and head writer and Weekend Update anchor Seth Meyers .
Poehler and Fey are featured in a fictional speech playing New York Senator Hillary Rodham Clinton and Alaskan Governor Sarah Palin , respectively . The pair discuss the presence of sexism in the 2008 United States presidential election , and the differences between Palin and Clinton . Governor Palin was the Republican Party vice @-@ presidential nominee and Senator Clinton was a contender for the Democratic Party presidential nomination . Through the course of the message , Palin tries to present herself as the candidate for the job , and Clinton gets progressively more and more disgusted at Palin 's sudden rise to fame as John McCain 's running mate , despite her background . It also features references to Clinton 's campaign .
= = = Reaction = = =
= = = = Critical reception = = = =
The sketch was well received by critics . Erin Fox of TV Guide wrote that Tina Fey " nails [ Sarah ] Palin 's mannerisms and accent . [ Amy ] Poehler is amazing as Hillary [ Clinton ] ; her timing is better than ever . My favorite line was Tina saying ' I can see Russia from my house ! ' " Fox added that " this was a much anticipated and hoped @-@ for pairing and we got it ! " Annie Wu of TV Squad thought that Fey 's " impression wasn 't perfect but it was more accurate than Amy Poehler 's Hillary Clinton , which [ she ] still find [ s ] incredibly off . " Wu added that " the mugging for the camera was absolutely hilarious . " James Poniewozik of Time Magazine wrote that " Fey 's Palin was perfectly good enough " and that " the skit itself did a good job of what SNL — which has lately cultivated a strong set of female comics — tried hard to do through Hillary 's campaign , which is try to address sexism without either simply going for the easy stereotypes or letting female candidates off the hook . " The Huffington Post 's reviewer wrote that " Fey bears a striking resemblance to Palin and nailed the candidate 's distinctive accent . "
= = = = Palin 's response = = = =
When asked how she felt about Fey 's portrayal , Sarah Palin replied , " I watched with the volume all the way down and I thought it was hilarious ... I didn 't hear a word she said , but the visual was spot on . " Palin " and the press corps watched the sketch in the back of her plane , laughing at Tina and Amy 's satirical take on the two politicians , " and Palin later claimed that she had once dressed up as Fey for Halloween . However , Carly Fiorina , a spokeswoman for the John McCain campaign argued that the sketch portrayed Hillary Clinton as " very substantive , " but Fiorina thought , in the case of Sarah Palin , that she was portrayed as " totally superficial . " Fiorina thought the sketch was " disrespectful in the extreme " and " sexist . "
In a series of interviews , Palin made some " flubs " leading her to joke that " [ she ] was just trying to give Tina Fey more material . " She also joked that it was to provide " job security for SNL characters . " Palin later remarked that she should appear on SNL to spoof a series of American Express commercials which featured Tina Fey .
= = Further Palin sketches = =
Due to the popularity of the sketch and Fey 's impression of Palin , Fey reprised her role during the September 27 , 2008 episode of Saturday Night Live . That sketch featured Palin being interviewed by Katie Couric who was played by Amy Poehler ; that sketch parodied an interview which took place between Palin and Couric which aired days before the sketch 's broadcast . In the sketch , Fey quoted near verbatim one of Palin 's answers from the actual interview and mimed Palin 's gestures . The following episode featured a skit parodying the debate between Palin and Joe Biden ( played by Jason Sudeikis ) . Queen Latifah also appeared in the skit as moderator Gwen Ifill .
Palin herself appeared on the October 18 , 2008 episode of SNL , along with Fey in the cold opening . Alec Baldwin and Mark Wahlberg also appeared in that sketch as themselves . On the October 23 episode of Saturday Night Live Weekend Update Thursday , Fey as Palin appeared alongside Darrell Hammond as John McCain and Will Ferrell as President George W. Bush .
On November 1 , 2008 , Fey once again portrayed Palin , this time in a sketch featuring the real John McCain , the last of numerous sketches featuring the Arizona Senator . In the sketch , McCain poked fun at himself and his campaign , as well as Barack Obama 's purchase of airtime on several major networks earlier in the week . In the sketch , McCain and Palin can only afford to buy airtime on QVC , a home @-@ shopping channel . McCain 's wife , Cindy , also made an appearance in the sketch as herself .
After Palin 's memoir , Going Rogue : An American Life , achieved best @-@ seller status through pre @-@ orders , Fey announced she would resume impersonating the former Governor despite having " retired " the act months previously . On April 10 , 2010 , Fey hosted SNL , and once again played Palin , who unveiled her own television network featuring shows such as Hey Journalist , I Gotcha , Todd ! starring her husband Todd Palin ( Jason Sudeikis ) and Are You Smarter than a Half @-@ Term Governor ? Fey hosted SNL in May 2011 while pregnant . A new sketch was made in which parodies of Mitt Romney ( Jason Sudeikis ) , Newt Gingrich ( Bobby Moynihan ) , Michele Bachmann ( Kristen Wiig ) , Palin ( Fey ) , Donald Trump ( Darrell Hammond ) , and Jimmy McMillan ( Kenan Thompson ) fought in a Republican Party debate between undeclared candidates , with Shepard Smith ( Bill Hader ) coordinating .
On March 11 , 2012 , on the episode hosted by Jonah Hill , Palin was impersonated by Andy Samberg in the Weekend Update segment . The dialogue leads the audience to think that it was supposed to be another appearance by Fey and that Seth Meyers wasn 't aware of the change , but Samberg convinces Meyers to finish his part .
Palin appeared on the Saturday Night Live 40th Anniversary Special , where Jerry Seinfeld jokingly mistook her for Tina Fey .
Fey and Poehler co @-@ hosted SNL in December 2015 , and performed as Palin and Clinton in yet another sketch .
In January 2016 , following Palin 's real @-@ life endorsement of Donald Trump , Fey returned to the role to parody the speech given by Palin in Iowa that endorsed Trump . This skit served as the show 's cold open .
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= Gunpowder Incident =
The Gunpowder Incident ( or Gunpowder Affair ) was a conflict early in the American Revolutionary War between Lord Dunmore , the Royal Governor of the Colony of Virginia , and militia led by Patrick Henry . On April 20 , 1775 , one day after the Battles of Lexington and Concord ( and well before news of that event reached Virginia ) , Lord Dunmore ordered the removal of the gunpowder from the magazine in Williamsburg , Virginia to a Royal Navy ship .
This action sparked local unrest , and militia companies began mustering throughout the colony . Patrick Henry led a small militia force toward Williamsburg to force return of the gunpowder to the colony 's control . The matter was resolved without conflict when a payment of £ 330 was made to Henry . Dunmore , fearing for his personal safety , later retreated to a naval vessel , ending royal control of the colony .
= = Background = =
Military tensions began to rise in the British colonies of North America in 1774 when a series of legislative acts by the British Parliament known as the Intolerable Acts began to be implemented in the colonies . The colonies , in solidarity with the Province of Massachusetts Bay , which had been singled out for punishment by those acts in the wake of the Boston Tea Party , had organized a Congress to meet in September 1774 . During the meeting of the First Continental Congress word arrived of a militia uprising in Massachusetts that became known as the Powder Alarm . In early September , General Thomas Gage , the royal governor of Massachusetts , had removed gunpowder from a powder magazine in Charlestown ( in a location now in Somerville ) , and militia from all over New England had flocked to the area in response to false rumors that violence had been involved . One consequence of this action was that the Congress called for the colonies to organize militia companies for their defense . Another was that Lord Dartmouth , the Secretary of State for the Colonies , advised the colonial governors to secure their military supplies , and prohibited importation of further supplies of powder .
In early 1775 , Virginians began to organize militia companies and seek out military supplies ( weapons , ammunition , and gunpowder ) to arm and equip them . Lord Dunmore , Virginia 's royal governor , saw this rising unrest in his colony and sought to deprive Virginia militia of these supplies . It was not until after Patrick Henry 's " Give me liberty or give me death " speech at the Second Virginia Convention on March 23 that Dunmore " [ thought ] it prudent to remove some Gunpowder which was in a Magazine in this place . " Although British Army troops had been withdrawn from Virginia in the wake of the Powder Alarm , there were several Royal Navy ships in the Virginia waters of Chesapeake Bay . On April 19 , Lord Dunmore quietly brought a company of British sailors into Williamsburg and quartered them in the governor 's mansion . Dunmore then ordered Captain Henry Collins , commander of HMS Magdalen , to remove the gunpowder from the magazine in Williamsburg .
= = Removing the gunpowder = =
On the night of April 20 , Royal Navy sailors went to the Williamsburg powder magazine , loaded fifteen half barrels of powder into the governor 's wagon , and transported it to the eastern end of the Quarterpath Road to be loaded aboard the Magdalen in the James River . The act was discovered by townsfolk while underway , and they sounded an alarm . Local militia rallied to the scene , and riders spread word of the incident across the colony . Dunmore had as a precaution armed his servants with muskets , and it was only the calming words of Patriot leaders , including the Speaker of the House of Burgesses , Peyton Randolph , that prevented the assembling crowd from storming Dunmore 's mansion . The city council demanded the return of the powder , claiming it was the property of the colony and not the Crown . Dunmore demurred , stating that he was moving the powder as protection against its seizure during a rumored slave uprising , and would eventually return it . This seemed to satisfy the assembled crowd , and it dispersed peacefully .
Unrest however persisted in Williamsburg and spread throughout the countryside . After a second crowd was convinced to disperse by Patriot leaders , Dunmore reacted angrily , warning on April 22 that if attacked , he would " declare Freedom to the Slaves , and reduce the City of Williamsburg to Ashes . " He also told a Williamsburg alderman that he had " once fought for the Virginians " but " By God , I would let them see that I could fight against them . "
By April 29 , militia mobilizing in the countryside had learned of the battles at Lexington and Concord . Nearly 700 men mustered at Fredericksburg , and decided to send a messenger to Williamsburg to assess the situation before marching on the capital . Peyton Randolph advised against violence , and George Washington , a longtime leader of the Virginia militia , concurred . In response to their advice , the Fredericksburg militia voted by a narrow margin not to march . However , militia from other parts of the colony did march to Williamsburg . The Hanover County militia , led by Patrick Henry , voted on May 2 to march on Williamsburg . Henry dispatched a small company to the home of Richard Corbin , who was the Deputy Collector of the Royal Revenue in Virginia , in a bid to force him to pay for the powder from Crown revenue in his possession ; the remainder of the Hanover County militia , numbering about 150 , marched toward Williamsburg , arriving about 15 miles ( 24 km ) away on May 3 . That day Dunmore 's family escaped Williamsburg to Porto Bello , Lord Dunmore 's hunting lodge on the York River , and from there to the HMS Fowey , lying at anchor in the York River .
Corbin was not at home — he was in Williamsburg , meeting with Dunmore . Henry was advised by Carter Braxton , Corbin 's son @-@ in @-@ law and a Patriot member of the House of Burgesses , not to enter the city , while Braxton rode into the city and negotiated a payment . The next day , May 4 , Henry received a bill of exchange for £ 330 signed by a wealthy plantation owner , as payment for the powder ( he refused the offer of payment from Crown accounts ) . Henry then departed to take his place as a member of Virginia 's delegation to the Second Continental Congress , promising to deliver the money to " the Virginia Delegates at the General congress " . On May 6 Dunmore issued a proclamation charging Henry with extortion of the £ 330 , and forbidding the citizenry to assist Henry in any way . Henry was offered protection by several counties , and was escorted by several companies of militia to the Maryland border as he made his way to Philadelphia .
= = Aftermath = =
The incident burnished Henry 's reputation while worsening Dunmore 's popularity . Although his family briefly returned to Williamsburg on May 12 as a sign of good faith , relations between Dunmore and the House of Burgesses continued to deteriorate . On June 8 , Dunmore and his family fled the governor 's mansion in the middle of the night and took up residence aboard the Fowey . The Burgesses had been deliberating the Conciliatory Resolution , a proposal that was an attempt by the North Ministry to divide the colonies . In the wake of Dunmore 's flight , the Burgesses rejected the proposal .
Dunmore continued to make vigorous attempts to regain control of the colony , but after a decisive defeat of British forces at Great Bridge in December , he was reduced to raiding operations and eventually abandoned the colony for good in August 1776 . Virginia 's government was first taken over by a Committee of Safety , chosen by the Third Virginia Convention in July 1775 ; Patrick Henry became the independent state 's first governor in July 1776 .
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= The Glass Ballerina =
" The Glass Ballerina " is the second episode of the third season of the TV series Lost , and the 51st episode overall . The episode was written by Jeff Pinkner and Drew Goddard and directed by Paul Edwards , and premiered on October 11 , 2006 , on ABC . The characters of Sun and Jin are featured in the episode 's flashbacks ; on the Island , they and Sayid attempt to discover the whereabouts of Jack , Kate , and Sawyer .
The episode was watched by an estimated 16 @.@ 890 million viewers in the United States . It received mixed reviews , as multiple reviewers believed it was inferior to the previous week 's season premiere ; one stated the storyline caused the series to " take a step back [ because it ] delivers nothing new or substantial " .
= = Plot summary = =
= = = Flashbacks = = =
A young Sun @-@ Hwa Kwon ( Sophie Kim ) breaks a glass ballerina and blames it on the maid , despite her father , Mr. Paik ( Byron Chung ) , warning her the maid would be fired .
Later , Sun as an adult ( Yunjin Kim ) is shown having an affair with Jae Lee ( Tony Lee ) , who attempts to give her a pearl necklace . She refuses , afraid that her husband would see it . Then , to her shame , Mr. Paik barges in and finds them in bed together . Mr. Paik later summons Sun 's husband , Jin ( Daniel Dae Kim ) , saying that Jae has been stealing from him , and telling Jin to put an end to it ( implying that he is to be killed ) . But when Jin ambushes and beats up Jae , he still cannot bring himself to commit murder , and instead orders Jae to leave the country . However , as Jin gets into his car , Jae 's body suddenly lands on his windshield . Jae 's corpse hand is clutching the pearl necklace , implying that he jumped from the window . At Jae 's funeral , Sun runs into her father . She asks if he would ever tell Jin about the affair , but he says that it was not his place to tell Jin .
= = = On the island = = =
On the sailboat , Sun , Jin @-@ Soo Kwon ( Daniel Dae Kim ) , and Sayid Jarrah ( Naveen Andrews ) argue about what to do because Jack Shephard 's ( Matthew Fox ) party has not shown up ; Sun goes against her husband 's wishes and agrees with Sayid to sail to a new location . They find the Others ' dock and come ashore to build a signal fire to try and lure the Others into an ambush . Meanwhile among the Others , Ben Linus ( Michael Emerson ) orders Colleen ( Paula Malcomson ) to put together a team and capture Sayid 's boat . Her team avoids Sayid and Jin , and instead sneaks aboard the boat , where they encounter Sun below deck . Sun accidentally shoots Colleen in the abdomen and narrowly manages to escape overboard .
Kate Austen ( Evangeline Lilly ) and James " Sawyer " Ford ( Josh Holloway ) are forced to work in a quarry , digging and carrying rocks . Alex ( Tania Raymonde ) secretly asks Kate about Karl ( Blake Bashoff ) . Sawyer creates a distraction by kissing Kate passionately , and steals a rifle , but is forced to relinquish it when Juliet Burke ( Elizabeth Mitchell ) threatens to shoot Kate . Back in their cages , Sawyer tells Kate what he learned about the fighting abilities of the various Others . He says that Juliet would have shot her without a problem and criticizes the other Others . They start discussing plans to escape , not knowing Ben is monitoring their conversation via security cameras .
Ben then visits Jack , telling him his real name , and that he has lived on the island all his life . He offers that if Jack cooperates , he can be sent home . Jack believes the Others are also stranded just as he is , but Ben informs him of the exact time and date of his plane crash and that 69 days have since passed ( making the date November 29 , 2004 ) and insists that they are in contact with the outside world . He shows this by citing various current events , such as the re @-@ election of George W. Bush to the American presidency , the sudden death of Christopher Reeve and that the Boston Red Sox have won the 2004 World Series . Once Ben tells him about the Red Sox , Jack starts laughing and says that proves he is lying . Ben then proves it by playing a recording of the final play in the game as Jack watches in shock .
= = Production = =
Executive producer Jeff Pinkner and supervising producer Drew Goddard co @-@ wrote " The Glass Ballerina " , while cinematographer Paul Edwards served as the director . It featured recurring stars Byron Chung , Tony Lee , Michael Bowen , and Tomiko Okhee Lee , as well as the first of two appearances by guest actress Paula Malcomson . Though her character Colleen Pickett is shot in the episode , she does not die until the season 's fourth episode , " Every Man for Himself " .
Leading up to the premiere of the new season , showrunners Carlton Cuse and Damon Lindelof foreshadowed the episode 's adultery storyline in an interview ; Cuse mentioned , " How truthful has [ Sun ] been with Jin about her past ? " , to which Lindelof added , " And related to that , is the baby his ? " . Previously , a season two episode had seemed to confirm that Jin was infertile , leading to ramped up speculation online that Sun was pregnant by her lover Jae Lee . A later episode in the third season would resolve this storyline , showing that Jin was cured of his infertility and is the father of their baby . Sun 's deception over the affair would later be resolved in the season four episode " Ji Yeon " , when Juliet tells Jin about Sun and Jae Lee .
Actor Daniel Dae Kim enjoyed the fight scene between him and guest actor Tony Lee , commenting that " I really appreciate the fact that [ Jin ] ' s just a down @-@ and @-@ dirty street fighter . I think his style of fighting fits his character " . He continued " it was great to see a different layer to Sun 's character . Because previously she had always been the good wife , and Jin was the bad husband " . Actress Yunjin Kim added that " now we know that [ Sun ] ' s not what she 's been advertised to be for the last two seasons , but actually she has a lot of secrets . "
= = Reception = =
It was originally scheduled to air on October 18 , 2006 , but was swapped with the episode " Further Instructions " and broadcast one week earlier . When " The Glass Ballerina " first aired , it was the seventh most watched episode of the week in the United States , with 16 @.@ 890 million viewers and a 6 @.@ 9 rating in the key demographic of adults ages 18 – 49 .
Lost critic Andrew Dignan of Slant Magazine noted that like the season premiere , the episode " mostly serves to add uncomfortable wrinkles to one of the show 's saints , going so far as to make the consistently sympathetic Sun quite unlikable . " He added " While I ... question the need for the flashbacks , I must confess to finding this particular episode more wonderfully twisted than usual . " Jeff Jensen of Entertainment Weekly wrote " Last week 's Jin / Sun episode was something of a disappointment , not because it was a bad episode of Lost , per se ( I would give it a solid B ) , but because it wasn 't as good as the exhilarating season premiere ( which I would give an A + ) . "
IGN 's Chris Carabott rated the episode 6 @.@ 8 / 10 , explaining that after the premiere 's " exciting , new direction " of an episode , " The Glass Ballerina " helped Lost " take a step back [ as it ] delivers nothing new or substantial " . He felt the flashbacks were repetitive and " a lot more like filler than the basis for compelling television " , but praised the final scene between Jack and Ben as " the only compelling scene in the whole episode " . On a list ranking all the Lost episodes , the Los Angeles Times ranked " The Glass Ballerina " 80 out of 110 episodes , explaining " A good flashback ( to Sun and her pre @-@ island lover ) and a terrific last scene -- wherein Jack learns the Sox won the Series -- can 't make up for a listless on @-@ island plot . " On a similar list , IGN rated the episode 106 out of 113 episodes , writing " it felt appropriate for Lost 's third season to begin with an episode only featuring Jack , Sawyer and Kate , since their abduction by the Others was a big part of Season 2 's conclusion . But having episode two of the season also focus so much on these three , with almost no plot momentum , was frustrating and rather uninteresting . Meanwhile , we do pick up with Sayid , Sun and Jin , but it 's really only for yet another ' Sun and Jin have had a lot of big issues in their marriage ' flashback – a topic we were well familiar with at this point . "
Daniel Dae Kim and Yunjin Kim each submitted this episode for consideration on their own behalf for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series and Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series respectively for the 59th Primetime Emmy Awards .
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= Avonmouth railway station =
Avonmouth railway station is on the Severn Beach Line and serves the district of Avonmouth in Bristol , England . It is 9 @.@ 0 miles ( 14 @.@ 5 km ) from Bristol Temple Meads . Its three letter station code is AVN . The station has two platforms , on either side of two running lines . As of 2015 it is managed by Great Western Railway , which is the third franchise to be responsible for the station since privatisation in 1997 . They provide all train services at the station , mainly a train every forty minutes to Bristol Temple Meads and one every two hours to Severn Beach .
The station was opened in 1877 by the Bristol Port Railway and Pier , a railway which ran along the River Avon from Hotwells to a pier at Avonmouth . The station , originally known as Avonmouth Dock , had a single platform , but was rebuilt with two platforms by the Great Western and Midland Railways in 1885 when they began services via Clifton Down . The station was enhanced numerous times in the early part of the twentieth century , and by 1913 employed 72 staff . Facilities included a goods yard , signal box and engine shed .
The Severn Beach Line declined over the latter half of the twentieth century , with passenger numbers falling significantly . Goods services at Avonmouth ended in 1966 , and all staff were withdrawn in 1967 . Services had decreased to 10 per day each direction by 2005 , but have since increased to 25 trains per day .
= = Description = =
The station is located in the Avonmouth district of Bristol , an area of mixed industrial and residential usage . The station sits to the south of the junction of Gloucester Road and Portview Road , the tracks running to parallel to Portview Road and crossing Gloucester Road at a level crossing . The station is on the Severn Beach Line from Bristol Temple Meads to Severn Beach , 9 miles 02 chains ( 14 @.@ 5 km ) from Temple Meads and 4 miles 42 chains ( 7 @.@ 3 km ) from Severn Beach . It is the eighth station from Temple Meads . The next station towards Temple Meads is Shirehampton ; the next towards Severn Beach is St Andrews Road .
The station is on a north @-@ west / south @-@ east alignment , with two platforms separated by two running lines . The southern " up " platform , adjacent to the " Up Main " line , is used for trains towards Severn Beach . The northern " down " platform , adjacent to the " Down Main " line , is bidirectionally signalled , allowing it to be used by terminating trains and those heading towards Bristol . Both platforms have significant portions of their length fenced off , giving usable lengths of 91 yards ( 83 m ) for the southern platform and 70 yards ( 64 m ) for the northern .
Facilities at the station are minimal – there is a wooden canopy and bench seating on the northern platform , with a small metal shelter on the southern . Timetable information is provided ; help points show next train information and allow users to contact railway staff . There is no ticket office or other means for buying or collecting tickets . There is a car park with six spaces , as well as stands for four bicycles . The nearest bus stops are 150 metres ( 160 yd ) away on Avonmouth Road .
The line through Avonmouth has a speed limit of 30 miles per hour ( 48 km / h ) for locomotive @-@ hauled trains and 50 miles per hour ( 80 km / h ) for diesel multiple units . The line , which is not electrified , handles less than 5 million train tonnes per year , has a loading gauge of W6 and a route availability of 7 . In the 2013 / 14 financial year , more than 110 @,@ 000 passengers used Avonmouth station , making it the 1,635th busiest station in the country and the sixth busiest within the Bristol unitary authority area . This was an increase of 175 % from the 2002 – 03 financial year , and reflected a general rise in usage of the Severn Beach Line . The 2014 @-@ 15 estimates of station usage saw a further increase of 8 % to 120 @,@ 000 making it the 1,614th busiest station in the country .
= = Services = =
Services at Avonmouth are all operated by Great Western Railway , using mainly Class 150 Sprinter units . Avonmouth is the main terminus of the Severn Beach Line ; as of 2015 there are 25 trains to and from Bristol Temple Meads each day from Monday to Friday , a service of three trains every two hours , giving a train every 40 minutes on average . Of these , one train every two hours runs to and from Severn Beach . Most services start at Bristol , but one evening service to Avonmouth starts at Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare . On Saturdays there is a similar level of service , at 24 trains per day . Sunday sees a roughly hourly service to and from Bristol , ten trains per day , with only two services extending to Severn Beach , except during the May – September timetable period when all services are extended . The first and last Sunday trains towards Bristol are extended to Taunton via Weston @-@ super @-@ Mare , and there are similar workings in the other direction .
Most trains from Avonmouth to Temple Meads call at all stations , but some services omit Lawrence Hill . Trains making the journey to and from Severn Beach call at St Andrews Road alternately on the outward or return leg . The typical journey time to Bristol Temple Meads is roughly 30 minutes , and 12 minutes to Severn Beach . In 2012 , the single fare to Clifton Down or Severn Beach was £ 1 @.@ 50 , and £ 3 return for the whole line .
= = History = =
= = = Construction and early operations = = =
The railways first came to Avonmouth in 1865 , when services began on the Bristol Port Railway and Pier ( BPRP ) , a self @-@ contained railway which ran along the north bank of the River Avon to a deep water pier on the Severn Estuary . The BPRP line ran through the site of the current station and 1 mile 72 chains ( 3 @.@ 1 km ) beyond to a terminus at the first Avonmouth station . The BPRP ran into trouble by 1871 when the terminal pier at Avonmouth became difficult to use due to a build @-@ up of silt . With no prospect of a proper dock being funded without a connection to the national rail network , the Clifton Extension Railway ( CER ) was approved . This was a joint venture by the BPRP , Great Western Railway ( GWR ) and Midland Railway ( MR ) which ran from Sneyd Park Junction , south of Sea Mills , via Clifton Down , to join up with the national network at Narroways Hill Junction . The link opened in 1877 , but initially only for goods trains . The route from Sneyd Park Junction to Clifton Down was subsequently cleared for passenger use on 3 August 1878 , but the Midland and Great Western Railways did not think the BPRP track was in a suitable condition and so refused to run any passenger trains beyond Clifton Down .
The station , originally known as Avonmouth Dock , was opened in 1877 , shortly after the opening of the Avonmouth Docks in February that year . It was built on , or very near to , the site of a halt built in 1868 for the Docks ' construction workers . The local area was still mostly rural – there were a few buildings around the station area , as well as the docks , with the closest extent of the Bristol conurbation 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) away at Shirehampton . The station cost £ 275 to build , and was merely a platform on the south side of the single track , served by eight trains per day between Hotwells and the BPRP 's Avonmouth terminus , increasing to ten per day from 1887 . The Great Western and Midland Railways considered the station inadequate for the passenger numbers expected , and so purchased additional land to enhance the station with extra tracks . The new station comprised a wide island platform – the northern face on the original through line , the southern face being for a new terminal line . The station , now known as Avonmouth Dock Joint , was constructed using mainly wood and corrugated iron . It was opened on 1 September 1885 , coinciding with the beginning of passenger services beyond Clifton Down . The Great Western initially offered six trains per day each direction between Avonmouth Dock and Bristol Temple Meads . Fearing competition , the BPRP did not allow passengers to use GWR services between its stations . The Midland Railway did not run any passenger services beyond Clifton Down , apart from a one @-@ month trial service in September 1885 . Despite the increased traffic the BPRP suffered financially , and was taken over by the CER in 1890 . The BPRP 's Avonmouth terminus closed to the public in 1902 , after which all trains terminated at Avonmouth Dock .
= = = Early twentieth century = = =
The station went through numerous enhancements in the first part of the twentieth century . A new platform canopy and urinal were provided in 1900 at a cost of £ 250 . Further improvements followed in 1902 at a cost of £ 80 ; and in August 1904 significant enhancements to the station buildings and an extension of the platform cost a total of £ 1 @,@ 570 . A 60 feet ( 18 m ) turntable was constructed in December 1903 , with a signal box , known as Avonmouth Dock Passenger , installed at the end of the platform . Dedicated goods staff were employed from the start of 1904 , with that year also seeing the installation of a run @-@ around loop for the terminal platform . A small engine shed was added in January 1905 . In 1910 , some passenger trains once again began to run beyond Avonmouth Dock , continuing towards Henbury on the newly opened Henbury Loop Line , which allowed goods trains to the docks to avoid the steep Clifton Down Tunnel . Other trains arrived from London via the loop , connecting with steamer services to Canada and Jamaica . At this point there were 17 trains from Bristol to Avonmouth Dock and 15 back each day ; increasing to 21 and 19 respectively by 1920 . The station was well @-@ staffed , with 25 station staff and 47 goods staff in 1913 . Positions included stationmaster ; booking clerks ; posters ; and outdoor porters , who took goods to ships in the docks .
During the First World War , an Army Remount Service depot was located near Shirehampton . Over the course of the war , Avonmouth Dock Joint handled 35 @,@ 000 animals , mainly horses and mules , en route to the depot . July 1917 saw the introduction of platform tickets , to capitalise on people using the station to bid farewell to friends heading overseas , or to welcome those returning . The platform was lengthened to 330 feet ( 100 m ) in December 1917 . A second through track was added in 1918 , and so a new cinder @-@ covered platform was built on the north side of the line . The two platforms were linked by a footbridge and a level crossing . The cost of the new platform and the lengthening works was £ 7 @,@ 420 .
After the war , construction of the Bristol Portway along the Avon Gorge necessitated the closure of the line from Sneyd Park Junction to Hotwells , with trains along it ceasing on 3 July 1922 . By this point there were nine trains per day from Hotwells , and eight return . To compensate for the loss of service , the Great Western provided an additional four trains daily from Avonmouth Dock to Bristol and six return . In 1923 , grouping resulted in the Midland Railway being absorbed into the London , Midland and Scottish Railway ( LMS ) , and the line continued in a joint arrangement between the Great Western and the LMS . The engine shed was closed in 1924 .
By the mid @-@ 1920s , the station was proving inadequate for the passenger numbers , and so work began on a comprehensive rebuild in 1926 . The new buildings were made of brick ; with a large , four @-@ chimneyed building containing most of the facilities ; as well as a separate parcels office . The northern platform had a wooden awning built , which is still in place today .
From 1928 many services to Avonmouth Dock were extended to Severn Beach . By 1947 , just before the railways were nationalised , there were 33 services each direction between Avonmouth Dock and Temple Meads , with 18 on Sundays . Some trains made circular trips to and from Temple Meads via Clifton Down and Henbury or Pilning .
= = = British Rail and privatisation = = =
When the railways were nationalised in 1948 , services at Avonmouth Dock came under the aegis of the Western Region of British Railways . By 1955 , service levels had decreased slightly to 28 trains per day from Bristol and 29 return , but the services were at regular intervals . Passenger numbers however dropped sharply in 1961 as the result of a fare increase , and so in 1962 a new reduced timetable was enacted , which lost more passengers . A year later in 1963 , the Beeching report suggested the complete withdrawal of services along the line , but ultimately only those beyond Severn Beach or via Henbury were withdrawn . Goods services from the station ended on 20 June 1966 , the same day that the station was renamed " Avonmouth " . The bay platform was taken out of use and the land later taken for industrial buildings . From 17 July 1967 all staffing was withdrawn from stations along the line , including Avonmouth , with tickets issued by the train guard . The station buildings on the island platform survived into the 1970s , as did the footbridge , but with the exception of the parcels office , all were later demolished . The parcels office was in use in 2006 as a hairdressing salon . The signal box was closed in January 1969 , and in September 1973 the wooden level crossing gates were replaced by automatic lifting barriers . By 1974 , service had reduced to 19 trains per day in each direction , with no Sunday services to Severn Beach .
British Rail was split into business @-@ led sectors in the 1980s , at which time operations at Avonmouth passed to Regional Railways . At this time , all trains ran to Severn Beach , but the service pattern was irregular . This changed in 1995 when an hourly timetable was introduced for peak times , but northbound services were terminated at Avonmouth .
When the railway was privatised in 1997 , local services were franchised to Wales & West , which was succeeded by Wessex Trains , an arm of National Express , in 2001 . Following action by Friends of Severn Beach Railway and a string of protests , services had increased to 10 per day in each direction by 2005 , with Bristol City Council providing a subsidy to Wessex Trains . The Wessex franchise was amalgamated with the Great Western franchise into the Greater Western franchise from 2006 , and responsibility passed to First Great Western , a subsidiary company of FirstGroup , subsequently rebranded as Great Western Railway in 2015 . A minimum service requirement was written into the franchise agreement , ensuring an hourly service along the line , and this has since been increased to three trains every two hours ( 25 trains per day ) . Sunday services to Severn Beach were restored in 2010 .
= = Future = =
The last remaining station building , the old parcels office , is threatened with demolition by Network Rail , which owns the station . Network Rail states that the building is beyond economic repair , but local rail campaigners , including Friends of Suburban Bristol Railways and MP Charlotte Leslie , have petitioned to prevent the demolition .
First Great Western declined a contractual option to continue the Greater Western passenger franchise ( of which services at Avonmouth are a part ) beyond 2013 , citing a desire for a longer @-@ term contract due to the impending upgrade to the Great Western Main Line . The franchise was put out to tender , but the process was halted and later scrapped due to the fallout from the collapse of the InterCity West Coast franchise competition . A two @-@ year franchise extension until September 2015 was agreed in October 2013 , and subsequently extended until March 2019 .
With the coming upgrade to the Great Western Main Line , the main line from London to Bristol is due to be electrified by 2016 . However , the electrification will not extend beyond the main lines , so Avonmouth will continue to be served by diesel trains , with the current " Sprinter " units expected to be replaced by Class 165 and 166 " Networker Turbo " units . Stephen Williams , MP for Bristol West ; and the group Friends of Suburban Bristol Railways support the electrification being extended to the Severn Beach Line .
Improved services at Avonmouth are called for as part of the Greater Bristol Metro scheme , a rail transport plan which aims to enhance transport capacity in the Bristol area . There is an aspiration for half @-@ hourly services , with trains towards Bristol terminating alternately at Portishead and Bath Spa , however due to the large sections of the Severn Beach Line which are single @-@ track , and to the congested main line from Temple Meads , such frequency is not currently feasible . The enhancement scheme was given the go @-@ ahead in July 2012 as part of the City Deal , whereby local councils would be given greater control over money by the government . There are also calls for the reopening of the Henbury Loop Line , which could allow a direct service from Avonmouth to Bristol Parkway . Plans for a loop were rejected by the West of England Joint Transport Board , however Bristol City Councillors voted to send the decision back to the board for further discussion .
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= Atlantic hurricane reanalysis project =
The Atlantic hurricane reanalysis project of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration seeks to correct and add new information about past North Atlantic hurricanes . It was started around 2000 to update HURDAT , the official hurricane database for the Atlantic Basin , which has become outdated since its creation due to various systematic errors introduced into the database over time . This effort has involved reanalyses of ship observations from the International Comprehensive Ocean @-@ Atmosphere Data Set ( ICOADS ) as well as reanalyses done by other researchers over the years . It has been ongoing for fourteen years now , and should last another four years .
= = Inaccuracies and omissions in existing data = =
= = = Errors = = =
HURDAT contains a number of errors which need to be corrected , such demonstrated by the outliers in the a pressure vs. wind speed graph of datapoints in the database ( right ) . Some of these errors have existed since the database 's creation during NASA 's Apollo Program , where it was used to help produce probabilities of tropical cyclone @-@ induced winds in critical areas such as Cape Kennedy ( now Cape Canaveral ) .
= = = New information = = =
A significant amount of new data for systems between 1851 and 1886 became available after a major basin @-@ wide reanalysis in 1996 , a project led by Jose Fernandez @-@ Paratagas with the collaboration of Henry Diaz . The new data was constructed using old newspaper articles and the hemispheric weather map series . Hurricane histories for individual states had been constructed by the 1990s as well , which proposed new storms and increased the knowledge of tropical cyclones already in the database . Due to this profusion of relevant information not included in HURDAT , and evolving definitions for tropical and subtropical cyclones over the decades , the project was started around 2000 to update the official database . Since then , the International Comprehensive Ocean @-@ Atmosphere Data Set has been utilized to check for older ship reports which were either not utilized nor available to previous researchers .
= = = Incompleteness of dataset = = =
As early as 1957 , it was recognized that an increasing trend in the number of tropical cyclones each season in the Atlantic Basin was at least partially tied to increasing observations and better records . By analyzing the density of ship tracks over time , it has been estimated that between 1900 and 1966 , an average of two storms per year are missing from HURDAT . This is mainly due to a lack of satellite imagery and lack of reconnaissance aircraft prior to 1943 . An additional storm per year is likely missing prior to the advent of new technologies . These technologies include satellite @-@ derived Quikscat winds , satellite @-@ derived temperature profile information , and Robert Hart 's cyclone phase space diagrams , which have led to a recent increase in tropical cyclone detection . Quikscat was launched in 1999 , and has been credited with allowing Chantal to be named during the 2007 Atlantic hurricane season . The last two help determine whether or not a low pressure area is an extratropical cyclone , subtropical cyclone , or tropical cyclone .
Christopher Landsea noted that the efforts to reanalyze the Atlantic hurricane database
will not be able to recover observations of open ocean tropical cyclones that were just never taken . Researchers cannot assume that the Atlantic tropical cyclone database presents a complete depiction of frequency of events before the advent of satellite imagery in the mid @-@ 1960s . Moreover , newly available advanced tools and techniques are also contributing toward monitoring about one additional Atlantic tropical cyclone per year since 2002 . Thus large , long @-@ term ' trends ' in tropical cyclone frequency are primarily manifestations of increased monitoring capabilities and likely not related to any real change in the climate in which they develop .
= = Progress = =
The project has currently reanalyzed storms from the period 1886 to 1955 , and has extended HURDAT back to 1851 . In 2001 , data for the years 1851 – 1885 were added to the official database from the Fernández @-@ Partagás series of publications . Also , a paleotempestology conference was held at the University of South Carolina which proposed to increase the scope of HURDAT from a starting year of 1851 to a start of 1800 . The conference also discussed ways of exchanging information for the inclusion of older tropical cyclones , such as via compact disc or a Wikipedia @-@ style website . While the reanalysis has mostly proceeded sequentially , notable exceptions have been made for the reanalysis of some significant tropical cyclones . In 2002 , for the tenth anniversary of Hurricane Andrew , the reanalysis was completed for the hurricane , which upgraded the cyclone to a Category 5 hurricane . In 2014 , a similar reanalysis was completed for Hurricane Camille .
Work by Michael Chenoweth , in collaboration with Cary Mock , increased knowledge of tropical cyclones in the Caribbean Sea for 1750 to 1786 . Chenoweth conducted a basin @-@ wide reassessment for old source material from the 1700 to 1855 period by using surface weather observations mainly in the form of ship reports , newspapers , and various diaries and journals from the region around the Caribbean Sea .
= = = Future efforts in other basins = = =
There is agreement within tropical cyclone circles of doing an " Atlantic @-@ style " reanalysis for other ocean basins . Some efforts are underway to start similar reanalyses across the western and eastern north Pacific Ocean , but are likely to take longer to complete . This is due to the need for coordination between the multiple Regional Specialized Meteorological Centres , which have the responsibility for tracking and forecasting tropical cyclones across that ocean . These tropical cyclone reanalyses are important , as theories concerning climate change and tropical cyclone trends hinge upon the quality of these databases .
= = = World Wide Web = = =
= = = Books = = =
Michael Chenoweth . The 18th Century Climate of Jamaica . American Philosophical Society : Philadelphia , 2003 .
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= American Cream Draft =
The American Cream Draft is a rare draft horse breed , the only such breed developed in the United States that is still in existence . It is recognized by its cream color , known as " gold champagne " , produced by the action of the champagne gene upon a chestnut base color , and by its amber eyes , also characteristic of the gene ; the only other color found in the breed is chestnut . Like several other breeds of draft horses , the American Cream is at risk for the autosomal recessive genetic disease junctional epidermolysis bullosa .
The breed was developed in Iowa during the early 20th century , beginning with a cream @-@ colored mare named Old Granny . The Great Depression threatened the breed 's existence , but several breeders worked to improve the color and type of the breed , and in 1944 a breed registry was formed . The mechanization of farming in the mid @-@ 20th century led to a decrease in the breed 's population and the registry became inactive for several decades . It was reactivated in 1982 and population numbers have slowly grown since then . However , population numbers are still considered critical by The Livestock Conservancy and the Equus Survival Trust .
= = Characteristics = =
American Creams have refined heads , with flat facial profiles that are neither concave nor convex . They have wide chests , sloping shoulders and short , strong backs . Their ribs are well sprung , and they are short @-@ coupled with well @-@ muscled hindquarters and with strong well @-@ proportioned legs set well apart . They are sure @-@ footed with strong hooves , and their movement is free and easy . According to enthusiasts , the breed has a calm , willing temperament , particularly suited for owners who are new to handling draft horses . Mares stand 15 – 16 hands ( 60 – 64 inches , 152 – 163 cm ) high and weigh 1 @,@ 500 – 1 @,@ 600 pounds ( 680 – 730 kg ) , while stallions and geldings stand 16 – 16 @.@ 3 hands ( 64 – 67 inches , 163 – 170 cm ) and weigh 1 @,@ 800 pounds ( 820 kg ) or more .
The ideal coat color for the breed is a medium cream with pink skin , amber eyes and a white mane and tail . The characteristic cream color of the breed is produced by the champagne gene . Recognized colors include light , medium and dark cream , with amber or hazel eyes . A cream mare with dark skin and a light mane and tail may be accepted by the registry as foundation stock , while stallions must have pink skin and white manes and tails to be registered . Purebred American Cream foals that are too dark to be accepted into the main breed registry may be recorded into an appendix registry . The appendix will also accept half @-@ bred Cream Draft horses crossed with other draft bloodlines if they meet certain requirements , and the registry provides an upgrade system that uses appendix horses to strengthen genes , increase breed numbers , and allow more diversified bloodlines .
= = = Color genetics = = =
The champagne gene produces diluted color , and the gold champagne body color , light skin , light eyes , and ivory mane and tail associated with the American Cream Draft are produced by the action of the champagne gene on a chestnut base coat . In the adult horse , the skin is pink with abundant dark freckles or mottling , and the eyes are hazel or amber . The eyes of champagne foals are blue at birth , darkening as they age , and a foal 's skin is bright pink . The breed registry describes foals ' eyes as " almost white " , which is consistent with the nature of the champagne blue foal eye , which is creamier than other types of blue eye .
Champagne is a dominant trait , based on a mutation in the SLC36A1 gene . The mapping of the gene was announced in 2008 , and the American Cream Draft cross was among the breeds studied . The authors of this study noted that it was difficult to distinguish between homozygous and heterozygous animals , thus distinguishing champagne from incomplete dominant dilutions such as the cream gene . However they noted that homozygotes may have less mottling or a slightly lighter hair color than heterozygotes . Anecdotal reports also note mild differences , including lighter freckling , skin and hair coat , though eye color remains the same .
Dark @-@ skinned American Cream Draft horses are actually chestnuts , as the breed is not homozygous for the champagne gene ; only one allele is needed to produce the proper color . Champagne dilutes any base coat color , and in the American Cream Draft , the underlying genetic base color is chestnut . As of 2003 , scientists have not found the breed to carry the cream gene , even though breeders refer to the desired color as " cream " . The American Cream Draft is never cremello or white , and though the gold coat color with a white mane and tail resembles palomino , the breed 's defining characteristics are the result of the champagne gene .
= = = Junctional epidermolysis bullosa = = =
The autosomal recessive genetic disease junctional epidermolysis bullosa ( JEB ) has been found in some American Cream Drafts . This is a lethal genetic disorder that causes newborn foals to lose large areas of skin and have other abnormalities , normally leading to euthanasia of the animal . It is most commonly associated with Belgian horses , but is also found in other draft breeds . A DNA test was developed in 2002 , and JEB can be avoided as long as two carriers are not bred to one another . The American Cream registry states that it has " been pro @-@ active in testing its registered animals since JEB was discovered " .
= = Breed history = =
The American Cream is the only breed of draft horse developed in the United States that is still in existence today . The breed descends from a foundation mare named Old Granny . She was probably foaled between 1900 and 1905 , and was first noticed at an auction in Story County , Iowa , in 1911 and purchased by Harry Lakin , a well known stock dealer . She was eventually sold to Nelson Brothers Farm in Jewell , Iowa . Her breeding is not known , but she was cream @-@ colored and many of her foals were as well ; they sold for above @-@ average prices because of their color . Her cream @-@ colored coat , pink skin and amber eyes are defining standards for the breed , and the color is now known as gold champagne . In 1946 , two years after the breed registry was formed , 98 percent of the horses registered could be traced back to Old Granny .
In 1920 , a colt of Old Granny 's named Nelson 's Buck No. 2 impressed veterinarian Eric Christian to the point that Christian asked the Nelsons not to geld him . They agreed to let him remain a stallion , and he sired several cream @-@ colored foals , though only one was registered : a colt named Yancy No. 3 , whose dam was a black mare of Percheron breeding . Yancy sired Knox 1st , born in 1926 to an unregistered bay mare of mixed Shire ancestry . From this sire line , in 1931 , a great @-@ great @-@ grandson of Nelson 's Buck was born , named Silver Lace No. 9 . Silver Lace was to become one of the most influential stallions of the American Cream breed . His dam was a Belgian mare with light chestnut coloring , and she is credited with Silver Lace 's size – at 2 @,@ 230 pounds ( 1 @,@ 010 kg ) he weighed considerably more than most of his bloodline . Silver Lace quickly became a popular stallion in Iowa . However , stallions standing for public stud service in Iowa were required to be registered with the Iowa Department of Agriculture , and this agency only allowed horses of recognized breeds . As Silver Lace was not registered with any breed registry , his owners created a breeding syndicate , and mare owners who bought shares in the " Silver Lace Horse Company " could breed their mares to him . However , his main breeding career coincided with the economic struggles of the Great Depression , and Silver Lace was at one point hidden in a neighbor 's barn to prevent his sale at auction . Another significant foundation stallion was Ead 's Captain , whose bloodlines appear in about one @-@ third of all American Cream Drafts .
Around 1935 , despite the Depression , a few breeders started to linebreed and inbreed cream @-@ colored horses to fix their color and type . In particular , C.T. Rierson began buying cream @-@ colored mares sired by Silver Lace and developing the American Cream breed in earnest . In 1944 , a breed association , the American Cream Association , was formed by 20 owners and breeders and granted a corporate charter in the state of Iowa . In 1950 , the breed was finally recognized by the Iowa Department of Agriculture , based on a 1948 recommendation by the National Stallion Enrollment Board .
The mechanization of farming in the mid @-@ 20th century led to a decrease in the overall draft horse population , and with Rierson 's death in 1957 , American Cream Draft numbers began to decline . By the late 1950s there were only 200 living American Creams registered , owned by only 41 breeders . The registry became inactive until 1982 , when three families who had retained their herds reactivated and reorganized the registry . In 1994 , the organization officially changed its name to the American Cream Draft Horse Association ( ACDHA ) .
= = = 1990s to the present = = =
In 1982 , owners began blood @-@ typing their horses , and by 1990 , genetic testing found that " compared with other draft breeds and based upon gene marker data , the Creams form a distinct group within the draft horses . " The American Cream Draft was found to have a genetic relationship with the Belgian breed that was no closer than the ones it had with the Percheron , Suffolk Punch and Haflinger breeds . Registry records dating to the early 20th century show no bloodlines other than draft breeding . As of 2000 there were 222 registered horses , a number that increased to 350 as of 2004 . Of these , 40 were " tracking horses " – either purebred American Creams that did not meet color requirements or crossbred horses that mix American Cream and other draft blood , but still meet the physical requirements for the registry . These tracking horses are allowed by certain regulations to be used as breeding stock , with the resulting foals able to be registered as purebred American Creams . Around 30 new horses are registered each year . The Livestock Conservancy considers the breed to be at " critical " status , meaning that the estimated global population of the breed is less than 2 @,@ 000 and there are less than 200 registrations annually in the US . The Equus Survival Trust also considers the population to be " critical " , meaning that there are between 100 and 300 active adult breeding mares in existence today . To help replenish numbers , the ACDHA has developed regulations to permit foals to be registered when produced via methods such as artificial insemination and embryo transfer . Careful use of the appendix registry also allows numbers to increase .
The American Creams that live in Colonial Williamsburg have been called " the most famous of all American Cream Draft horses " . In the village they are used for wagon and carriage rides , and as of 2006 there is a breeding program run by Colonial Williamsburg that is working to increase breed numbers .
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= M @-@ 42 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 42 is a rural state trunkline highway in the U.S. state of Michigan . It is located in the northwestern Lower Peninsula of the state . Along its route , M @-@ 42 begins in Manton and ends north of Lake City , some 10 @.@ 356 miles ( 16 @.@ 666 km ) apart . The highway used to run much farther . Former termini included the Traverse City area from 1919 until 1940 and Mesick from 1940 until 2007 .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 42 is a rural , two @-@ lane highway connecting Manton and Lake City . It runs through wooded terrain on gently rolling hills . Between the western terminus at Michigan Avenue and the US 131 freeway in Manton , M @-@ 42 is concurrently designated with Bus . US 131 along Seventh Street . It runs east along Seventh Street to a folded diamond interchange at Exit 191 on US 131 east of downtown . Continuing east , it is known as North 16 ½ Road until it crosses the Wexford – Missaukee county line at Seeley Road approximately 2 @.@ 5 miles ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) east of the freeway . Here the road name changes to Mike and Tony Road before M @-@ 42 curves southeasterly crossing Morrisy Creek on West Walker Road . East of the unincorporated community of Arlene the highway turns ninety degrees to the south off Walker Road before angling southeasterly skirting the edge of some hills near Dyer Lake just west of M @-@ 66 . The road turns back due east between Al Moses Road and M @-@ 66 , where it ends north of Lake City . No section of the trunkline is part of the National Highway System .
= = History = =
M @-@ 42 is an original state trunkline dating back to the 1919 signage of the highway system in Michigan . The original highway routing started at M @-@ 13 in Manton and ran due west to Mesick . From there the highway turned north and met M @-@ 11 at Chums Corners . M @-@ 11 / M @-@ 42 ran concurrently northward into the City of Traverse City where M @-@ 42 ended . By May 1929 , M @-@ 42 was extended east to connect to Lake City . The highway was further extended before 1936 up the Old Mission Peninsula north of Traverse City . In the latter half of 1940 , the M @-@ 37 designation replace M @-@ 42 north of Mesick through Traverse City to Old Mission . The last sections of highway were paved in late 1951 and early 1952 .
In 2007 , the stretch of M @-@ 42 between M @-@ 37 and US 131 along 16 Road was transferred to the Wexford County Road Commission . This change shortened the highway from 25 @.@ 255 miles ( 40 @.@ 644 km ) to 10 @.@ 356 miles ( 16 @.@ 666 km ) . The section of transferred highway in Wexford County was labeled as " flexible pavements " on the 2006 MDOT Truck Operators Map . This classification meant truck traffic on the roadway was subject to weight and load restrictions during spring . This classification is unlike the other highways in the county and surrounding area which were marked as " all @-@ weather highways " and would not carry such restrictions .
= = Major intersections = =
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= Washington State Route 290 =
State Route 290 ( SR 290 ) , named Hamilton Street and Trent Avenue , is a 18 @.@ 38 @-@ mile ( 29 @.@ 58 km ) long state highway serving Spokane County in the U.S. state of Washington . SR 290 travels parallel to a Union Pacific railroad from Interstate 90 ( I @-@ 90 ) in Spokane through Millwood and across the Spokane River three times towards Spokane Valley , where the highway intersects SR 27 . From Spokane Valley , the roadway continues to the Idaho state border , where it becomes Idaho State Highway 53 .
The current route of SR 290 was formerly county roads between 1901 and 1937 , when it became Secondary State Highway 2H ( SSH 2H ) . The highway ran from U.S. Route 2 ( US 2 ) and US 395 in Downtown Spokane to Idaho until a 1964 renumbering of state highways , which re @-@ designated SSH 2H as SR 290 . A short spur route connecting the main highway to I @-@ 90 was also added during the renumbering , but SR 290 was realigned to replace the route in 2005 .
= = Route description = =
SR 290 begins as a short divided highway at a directional T @-@ interchange with Interstate 90 ( I @-@ 90 ) east of downtown Spokane . This interchange was originally built for a planned North Spokane Corridor in the 1970s . The freeway continues north to an interchange with 2nd Avenue that only allows eastbound traffic to enter and westbound traffic to exit the freeway . The highway is named Hamilton Street and travels north over Sprague Avenue , BNSF Railway tracks , and the Spokane River before intersecting Trent Avenue , the former route of the roadway prior to 2005 . At the intersection , located near Gonzaga University , SR 290 turns east and becomes Trent Avneue before crossing the Spokane River again . Trent Avenue travels northeast through an industrial district , paralleling the Spokane International branch of the Union Pacific Railroad , through Millwood before intersecting SR 27 , locally named Pines Road . The highway crosses the Spokane River a third time and enters the Trentwood neighborhood of Spokane Valley , where it intersects Sullivan Road by way of a diamond interchange . From Spokane Valley , the roadway travels northeast through farmland to Newman Lake , where it crosses into Idaho and becomes Idaho State Highway 53 , which continues east to Rathdrum as Trent Road .
Every year the Washington State Department of Transportation ( WSDOT ) conducts a series of surveys on its highways in the state to measure traffic volume . This is expressed in terms of average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) , which is a measure of traffic volume for any average day of the year . In 2009 , WSDOT calculated that as few as 6 @,@ 800 cars traveled through Millwood , and as many as 35 @,@ 00 cars on the short divided highway north of I @-@ 90 .
= = History = =
A road following the Great Northern Railway and Northern Pacific Railway line from Spokane to the Idaho state border at Newman Lake has existed since 1901 . In 1937 , the road became Secondary State Highway 2H ( SSH 2H ) and ran from Primary State Highway 2 in Spokane to Wellesley Avenue at the Idaho state border . SSH 2H was scheduled to be designated SR 290 in 1970 after a highway renumbering in 1964 . The new designation was made to align with the sign route , now state route , system . In 1967 , the eastern terminus of SSH 2H was shifted north to align with Idaho State Highway 53 ( ID 53 ) . In 1970 , the state route system came into effect and SR 290 was established along with a spur route connecting the main highway to Interstate 90 ( I @-@ 90 ) . In 2005 , the western terminus of SR 290 was moved southeast to an exit with I @-@ 90 , replacing the spur route .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire highway is in Spokane County .
= = Spur route = =
Washington State Route 290 Spur was a 0 @.@ 67 @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 08 km ) long spur route of SR 290 prior to 2005 . The spur route served as a short connector to Interstate 90 ( I @-@ 90 ) east of downtown Spokane and ran from SR 290 at the intersection of Trent Avenue and Hamilton Street near Gonzaga University to a directional T @-@ interchange with I @-@ 90 , via a bridge over the Spokane River . The highway was originally established along with SR 290 , which went east from U.S. Route 2 ( US 2 ) and U.S. Route 395 ( US 395 ) in downtown Spokane to Idaho . This spur route was proposed to be the southern terminus of the North / South Freeway that would bypass Downtown Spokane and a freeway segment was built , but never finished due to priority going to the Interstate Highways . The western terminus of SR 290 was realigned in 2005 , ending at I @-@ 90 along the former route of SR 290 Spur .
Major intersections
The entire highway was in Spokane , Spokane County .
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= H ( EP ) =
H is an EP by Japanese recording artist Ayumi Hamasaki , featuring songs later included on her fifth studio album Rainbow ( 2002 ) . The EP contains the songs " Independent " , " July 1st " and " Hanabi " , all written and co @-@ composed by Hamasaki ( under the alias Crea ) , alongside composer Dai Nagao and producer Max Matsuura . Hamasaki had written and recorded the three songs when she was still hurt and influenced by the events of the September 11 attacks and the completion of her fourth studio album I Am ... ( 2002 ) .
The attacks influenced Hamasaki 's lyrical and musical direction , and had made her decide to create more worldly @-@ inspired music . The EP utilizes dance and pop music , with each song being influenced by pop rock , electronica , and trip hop music . Like Rainbow , it contains ambient @-@ influenced sounds such as handclaps and cheering . The lyrical content deals with freedom , fun and sadness , continuing themes seen on her previous album .
The EP received mostly positive reviews from music critics , who commended the production value . Many critics praised it as being one of Hamasaki 's career highlights . The EP was commercially successful in her native Japan , peaking at number one on the weekly Oricon Singles Chart . It became the only single in 2002 the same year to sell over one million units in Japan , and was certified by the Recording Industry Association of Japan for one million copies shipped to stores .
No music videos were created to promote the EP , which makes only one of three single or extended play releases by Hamasaki to lack videos ( including A ( 1999 ) , " Unite ! " ( 2001 ) and " Terminal " ( 2014 ) . However , the singles did have commercial endorsed videos by product companies that featured Hamasaki . The songs have been performed several times on her domestic and nationwide tours including A @-@ nation and her stadium tours Ayumi Hamasaki Stadium Tour 2002 A and Ayumi Hamasaki Countdown Live 2002 – 2003 A.
= = Background = =
On New Years Day 2002 , Hamasaki released her fourth studio album I Am ... from Avex Trax . The album saw a new direction for Hamasaki , whose first three studio albums was dominated by a pop rock sound , and lyrics based on loneliness , confusion , sadness , relationships and individualism . The result was not well @-@ received from critics , who felt the effort was " unassuming " , particularly on her debut release A Song for × × ( 1999 ) . After being affected emotionally by the September 11 attacks , Hamasaki quickly changed the album 's planned musical direction , and updated the album cover to support world peace . This effort was Hamasaki 's first album to focus on lighter themes , such as faith , humanity and serenity . I Am ... became a success and sold over 2 @.@ 3 million copies in Japan , and was certified triple million by the RIAJ .
Hamasaki begun work on Rainbow the same year , and intended to focus on the same themes again . While promoting I Am ... , Hamasaki performed for the first time outside Japan at the 2002 MTV Asia Music Awards in Singapore . Her performance has been seem as an influencing factor for Japanese musical acts to begin performing overseas . At the ceremony , Hamasaki felt that by only writing Japanese lyrics , she was not able to bring her " message " to other countries and decided to write in English . Rainbow contained three songs with English lyrics ; " Real Me " , " Heartplace " and " Over " . Despite this , none of the three songs on H feature English lyrics .
Three months before the release of H , Hamasaki released her first single from Rainbow , " Free & Easy " , on April 24 , 2002 . The song received positive reviews from critics and was a commercial success , peaking at number one on the Oricon Charts and selling over 400 @,@ 000 copies .
= = Recording and production = =
The September 11 attacks influenced Hamasaki 's writing for her studio albums I Am ... and Rainbow . I Am ... focused on world peace and political aspects and featured " A Song Is Born " , a song particularly influenced by the event which had been included on Song Nation , a non @-@ profit album funded by her label Avex Trax for the September 11 victims . The song itself sold over 400 @,@ 000 units in Japan and the profits were donated towards the American government to help with the damages .
Rainbow and the H tracks were recorded in Tokyo at Avex Studios , Prime Sound Studio , JVC Victor Studios , as well as at other recording studios in Japan . " Hanabi " and " Independent " was mixed by Yasuo Matsumoto , while " July 1st " was mixed by Koji Morimoto . In order to expand her creative control , she had composed nine tracks on Rainbow and subsequently co @-@ composed all the tracks from H. " Independent " was the first song recorded for the studio album . Avex Trax director Yasuyuki Tomita and Hamasaki had discussed having a song with a baseball theme . While she was convinced by his idea , Tomita later reconsidered the idea and scrapped it . Japanese producer Dai Nagao , who had co @-@ composed Hamasaki 's album Loveppears , thought of a similar concept and suggested the idea to Hamasaki , which she accepted . The single version of " Independent " was not featured on Rainbow , a version of the song titled " Independent + " was included as a hidden track . This was the third time Hamasaki had included a song as a hidden track , after " Kanariya " on Loveppears ( 1999 ) . The song discusses independence and adulthood .
The second track , " July 1st " was composed by Nagao and Hamasaki . Japanese disc jockey Cool @-@ K also included additional scratching on the track . As H was released during the Japanese summer , Hamasaki decided to incorporate a " summer vibe " to the tracks and , according to Tomita , " July 1st " was her strongest song to feature this . These themes had also been explored throughout I Am .... The lyrical content is " uplifting and cheerful " and talks about fun experiences ; Hamasaki commented , " This was the first time I had ever written a song [ " July 1st " ] from this viewpoint , and I even surprised myself ! " " Hanabi " talks about Hamasaki 's views of the world , and discusses personal nostalgia . Hamasaki wanted the songs to be deeper , and Tomita commented that " Hanabi " was the first time he saw Hamasaki feel more engaged with global artists and incorporating those influences , rather than simply being influenced by Japanese music . " Hanabi " ' s title was written in English characters , and is the Japanese word for fireworks . The title was re @-@ used on her single & for the track " Hanabi ( Episode II ) " .
= = Musical styles = =
H incorporates different genres including trip hop , dance @-@ rock and electronica . " Independent " is a pop rock song with elements of modern electronica . The song features more " relaxed " vocals and " softer " lyrical content . According to Tomita , Hamasaki had placed microphones in Tokyo Dome during one of her concerts , to recorded the audience 's voices and " cheerleader " hand claps , as a way to incorporate inspiration from her fans .
" July 1st " is a Eurodance and dance @-@ pop influenced song . According to CDJournal , the song starts with a " natural breezy " guitar flow . " Hanabi " is inspired by British trip hop and dub music , and is also strongly influenced by ambient music . The song 's lyrical content and composition were based on the theme of nostalgia , which Hamasaki felt was one of her more deep songs . She felt that putting " Hanabi " after " July 1st " was perfect because it interrupted the emotions created by the " summery vibe " of " July 1st " ; Hamasaki herself had stated that her idea was to create " a summer that ends in deep sadness . " Tomita felt that Hamasaki was trying to move outside of the Japanese domestic market by incorporating British trip hop influences .
= = Cover art = =
The cover sleeve was directed by Shinichi Hara . Shinichi has been Hamasaki 's creative director for photoshoots , album and single sleeves , and began collaborating with her in 1998 with her on debut album . His final work was directing the sleeve for Hamasaki 's 2009 single " Sunrise / Sunset ( Love Is All ) " . The photographer , Keita Haginiwa , directed the photoshoot , which featured Hamasaki on a beach front . On different versions of the cover artwork , Hamasaki is accompanied by the male model Atsuko Kubota , who professionally goes by the name Minori . The artwork features Hamasaki sitting on a Harley Davidson in front of a beach , leaning and smiling away from the camera .
H has five different sleeves featuring photos from the same shoot . All of these were housed in a trasparent jewel case . The next three covers contained limited @-@ edition colours ; a pink edition , a green edition and a blue edition , all with different cover artwork with a border of each colour . All physical editions featured an additional black and white lyric sheet , a post card from Avex Trax and a Japanese Windows Media Player promotion flyer . All tracks were listed the same and were protected by the Copy Control Association . After the EP achieved one million sales in November 2002 , Avex Trax re @-@ released the EP as a digipak , containing all the colored covers inside , and used the original artwork for the front display .
= = Release = =
H was digitally released worldwide with the original artwork . Each song has been featured on several greatest hits compilation albums by Hamasaki . For " Independent " , it was featured on A Best 2 ( 2007 ) , A Complete : All Singles ( 2008 ) and A Summer Best ( 2009 ) . For " July 1st " , it was featured on her A Best 2 and A Summer Best compilation and the final track " Hanabi " was featured on A Ballads ( 2004 ) , A Best 2 and A Summer Best . For the A Best 2 series , which the first two tracks were featured on the white version and the latter track on the black version . All of the songs from H were remastered in Los Angeles , California by Bernie Grundman and Brian " Big Bass " Gardner , in order to have a " more powerful " feel on the compilation . " July 1st " was re @-@ released as the b @-@ side single for Hamasaki 's 2015 digital single " Step by Step " .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
H received favorable reviews from most music critics . Adam Greenberg from Allmusic reviewed the parent album Rainbow and favoured " Independent " and " Hanabi " , but failed to mention " July 1st " . He felt that " Hanabi " " focuses strongly on her vocal qualities as well as some interesting phrasing [ ... ] " , while he concluded that the song " Close to You " " [ ... ] never quite gets off the ground , especially when compared to the ending track , [ " Independent " , ] " Greenberg , who had written the extended biography of Hamasaki on the same website , had listed " Hanabi " as one of her career standouts . CDJournal had reviewed each track on their mini @-@ review . For " Independent " , the reviewer called it a " upper dance tune " and felt the song sounded " aggressive . " For the second track , the reviewer commended the song 's composition and production and called it a " summery , refreshing dance tune . " However , slight criticism was directed on the chorus that needed " minor adjustment . " For the third track , the reviewer felt that the song expressed the sadness of the end of summer through a Japanese fireworks motif , and praised her freely expressed world view .
Tetsuo Hiraga from Hot Express commended the tracks . Regarding " July 1st " and " Independent " , Hiraga praised the songs for showing positive messages and having more personality drawn towards the songs and said the songs had shown more " respect . " Regarding " Hanabi " , Hiraga commended the sadder songs which also included " Over " . Hiraga exemplified the lyric ( " There 's never a day that I have / To remember you because / I never for a moment forgot you . " ) for being one of his favorite lyrics on the album .
Hamasaki hosted an online voting poll for fans to choose their favorite tracks to be featured on her Ayumi Hamasaki 15th Anniversary Tour Best Live Tour . As a result , all three songs from H were featured on the list . H won the Song of the Year Award at the Japan Gold Disc Awards in 2003 , alongside " Free & Easy " and " Voyage " .
= = = Commercial response = = =
H debuted at number one on the Weekly Singles Chart and peaked at number one for three non @-@ consecutive weeks , including its debut week , its second week and its fourth week on the chart , with the third week being occupied by Misia 's single " Nemurenu Yoru wa Kimi no Sei " . The song stayed in the top ten for seven weeks , slipping to number thirteen in its eighth week . The song lasted thirteen weeks inside the top forty and ultimately finished its charting run at number sixty @-@ three in its nineteenth week . With a total of nineteen weeks in the singles chart , it has become Hamasaki 's second @-@ longest charting single since " Seasons " , which charted for over twenty weeks .
H sold over one million units in Japan and was certified Million by the Recording Industry Association of Japan ( RIAJ ) on 24 November 2002 for shipments of one million units . This became the best selling single of the year in Japan and surpassed Hikaru Utada 's 2002 single " Traveling " which sold over 850 @,@ 000 units throughout the year . " Traveling " and H were the only singles of the year to be certified for one million copies shipped by RIAJ . Overall , H was the only single to sell over one million units that year and became Hamasaki 's first and only single to be the yearly number one . According to Oricon sales , H is Hamasaki 's fifth @-@ best @-@ selling single in her musical career , behind A , " Seasons " , " M " and " Boys & Girls " .
H also remains Hamasaki 's last single to sell over one million units and is the only million @-@ selling single on Rainbow . It is her fourth single to sell over one million physical units , after " Boys & Girls " and A from Loveppears ( 1999 ) , " Seasons " from Duty ( 2000 ) and " M " from I Am .... Hamasaki 's last highest selling single close to the one million physical sales mark was the next single " Voyage " which peaked at number one , but only sold an estimated 679 @,@ 000 units in Japan and was certified double platinum .
The song " Hanabi " was a commercially successful sleeper hit , becoming certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of Japan in January 2015 , for selling 100 @,@ 000 legal downloads since its release twelve and a half years prior .
= = Promotion = =
The H tracks did not received a music video . This was her first EP single since A ( 1999 ) and her first single since " Unite ! " ( 2001 ) that did not feature videos . This was her last single release that did not feature a music video until her October 2014 single " Terminal " .
Each song from the H EP were released through endorsement deals . For " Independent " , the song was on Nippon TV for the program The Baseball . This was the only commercial that Hamasaki was not present on . For " July 1st " , Hamasaki was featured with the song on a lipstick commercial for KOSE Visee make @-@ up in Japan . For " Hanabi " , the song was used as a cellphone advert in Japan .
= = Live performances = =
Hamasaki has performed the three songs on several of her Asian @-@ based tours ;
Ayumi Hamasaki Arena Tour 2002 A ( " Independent " )
Ayumi Hamasaki Stadium Tour 2002 A ( All tracks )
Ayumi Hamasaki Countdown Live 2002 – 2003 A ( All tracks )
Ayumi Hamasaki Arena Tour 2003 – 2004 A ( " Independent " )
Ayumi Hamasaki Countdown Live 2004 – 2005 A ( " Independent " )
Tour of Secret ( " Independent " )
Ayumi Hamasaki Asia Tour 2008 : 10th Anniversary ( " Hanabi " and " Independent " )
Ayumi Hamasaki Premium Countdown Live 2008 – 2009 A ( " Independent " )
Premium Showcase : Feel the Love ( " July 1st " )
= = Personnel = =
Credits adapted from the EP 's liner notes .
= = = Song credits = = =
Ayumi Hamasaki – songwriting , composition , vocal production , additional production ( All tracks )
Dai Nagao – composition ( All tracks )
Yasuyuki Tomita – A & R
Shigeo Miyamoto – mastering , engineering
Shinji Hayashi – additional production
Max Matsuura – executive producer , vocal production , additional production
= = = Cover credits = = =
Shinichi Hara – art direction
Shigeru Kasai and Takuma Noriage – design
Naoki Ueda – creative coordinator
Keita Haginiwa – photographer
Koji Matsumoto – fashion director
Fumihara Minoshima – stylist
Keizo Kuroda and Takahiro Yamashita – hair assistant and make @-@ up stylist
Kanako Miura – nail artist
Atsuko Kubota – stand in
Katsutaka Numakura – transportation assistant
= = Track listing = =
All lyrics written by Ayumi Hamasaki .
Source :
= = Charts , peaks and positions = =
= = Release history = =
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= Slow Down Your Neighbors =
" Slow Down Your Neighbors " is the 11th episode of the second season of Modern Family and the 35th episode overall . It originally aired on January 5 , 2011 on the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) . The episode was written by Ilana Wernick and was directed by Gail Mancuso , who were also both credited for the previous episode , " Dance Dance Revelation " . The episode features a guest appearance from James Marsden as Barry , Cameron and Mitchell 's new neighbor .
In the episode , Claire becomes a neighborhood vigilante hoping to catch and stop a car that speeds through their streets . Meanwhile , Phil is busy trying to land an important listing with a difficult client , Jay struggles to teach Gloria and Manny how to ride a bike , Manny is surprisingly great at it and yet Gloria continues to try , and Mitchell and Cameron meet a charming mysterious neighbor .
" Slow Down Your Neighbors " received mostly positive reviews from critics , many of whom praised the performance of Nolan Gould . The episode was viewed by 11 @.@ 756 million households and received a 4 @.@ 8 rating / 13 % share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 marking a 14 % rise from the previous episode , " Dance Dance Revelation " . The episode was the second highest @-@ rated scripted program of the week behind The Simpsons which had received abnormally high ratings due to the NFL playoffs .
The episode was one of the three episodes of Modern Family that received nominations for Outstanding Directing for a Comedy Series at the 63rd Primetime Emmy Awards with Gail Mancuso as the nominee , along with " See You Next Fall " by Steven Levitan , but lost to Michael Spiller for directing " Halloween " .
Ariel Winter does not appear in the episode .
= = Plot = =
Claire ( Julie Bowen ) becomes a determined neighborhood vigilante hoping to catch and stop a sports car that is speeding through the suburban streets while Phil ( Ty Burrell ) sells a house nearby for a difficult client , Laura ( Jami Gertz ) , who happens to be the driver of the car .
Claire prints out several posters , intending to say " slow down , " with the license plate of the car below , and signed " your neighbors " below the license plate . However , the rest of her family point out that as presented , the posters actually state " slow down your neighbors . " Regardless , Claire orders Phil to put them up . Later , Claire chases the car on a bicycle , but loses track of the car . She meets Phil at the open house he has arranged for Laura and is introduced to her . Laura is just about to leave and offers Claire a lift back to her home , she enters the car , realizing too late that Laura is the driver she despises , while Laura criticizes the posters ' creator as a sex @-@ starved woman without knowing that Claire had created the posters .
Manny ( Rico Rodriguez ) is about to ride his first bicycle to school . However , his stepfather Jay ( Ed O 'Neill ) finds training wheels on the bike , set up by Manny 's mother , Gloria ( Sofía Vergara ) . Jay decides to teach Manny to ride without the stabilizers , and comes to realize Manny is a natural at riding a bike by himself . As Gloria has never ridden a bike either , after being traumatized by her mother that riding a bicycle is the best way to getting kidnapped , Jay tries to teach her , but she is unsuccessful .
Gloria turns to Phil for bike riding lessons but he is about to leave for the open house at Laura 's . Luke ( Nolan Gould ) decides to teach her by squirting her with a water gun , and Gloria manages to ride it , but soon fails after Claire steals her bike while Gloria is still on it . Seeing as this teaching method is a success , Luke does the same to his big sister Haley ( Sarah Hyland ) to get her to study , with Phil 's consent .
Mitchell ( Jesse Tyler Ferguson ) and Cameron ( Eric Stonestreet ) find out that they have a charming new neighbor named Barry ( James Marsden ) who has moved to the apartment above . Cameron takes an immediate liking to Barry , though Mitchell is reluctant because Barry is fond of reiki , which he considers as a bunch of hot air . However , as Mitchell starts to trust him , Cameron hears from his landlady ( Sharon Omi ) that nobody has moved into the apartment above and Cameron realizes Barry is living in his daughter 's princess castle . When Cameron tells Barry to leave , he and Barry get into a physical struggle inside the castle ; Cameron gets Mitchell to call the police but not after affirming that he was right in writing Barry off .
= = Production = =
" Slow Down Your Neighbors " was written by Ilana Wernick and directed by Gail Mancuso . The episode is the third writing credit for Ilana Wernick after the first season finale , " Family Portrait " and the previously aired episode , " Dance Dance Revelation " . The episode is also the second directing credit for Gail Mancuso after the previous episode , " Dance Dance Revelation " .
" Slow Down Your Neighbors " originally aired on January 5 , 2011 on American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) . The episode was filmed on October 27 , and October 29 , 2010 .
In October 2010 , William Keck of TV Guide reported that James Marsden would guest star on Modern Family as Cameron and Mitchell 's new shirtless neighbor . Marsden filmed his appearance on October 29 , 2010 which he described as a great experience saying they have " Really great comedians and writers on the show and it was great to have that behind you " . The episode also featured a guest appearance from Jami Gertz , who played Laura , who was Phil 's new client as well as the speedy driver .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
In its original American broadcast on January 5 , 2011 , " Slow Down Your Neighbors " was viewed by an estimated 11 @.@ 756 million viewers and received a 4 @.@ 8 rating / 13 % share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . This means that it was seen by 4 @.@ 8 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 13 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . This marked a 14 percent rise in the 18 – 49 demographic from the previous original episode , " Dance Dance Revelation " . The episode became the highest @-@ rated show on ABC and finished 6th in the ratings for the week of January 3 to January 9 , 2010 . The episode also became the second highest @-@ rated scripted show after the episode of The Simpsons " Moms I 'd Like to Forget " which had followed the highly rated NFL play @-@ offs . Added with DVR viewers , " Slow Down Your Neighbors " received a 6 @.@ 5 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , adding a 1 @.@ 7 to the original viewership .
= = = Reviews = = =
The episode received mostly positive reviews from critics .
Donna Bowman of The A.V. Club praised " Slow Down Your Neighbors " for the use of all the characters , writing " Attention to detail may be one of the factors that makes Modern Family such a solid sitcom specimen . " She ultimately rated the episode with an A- .
TV Squad writer Joel Keller was positive , but noted the episode " felt a little slapstick and predictable " . Despite this he said " some pretty funny moments crossing our screens . "
Lesley Savage of Entertainment Weekly complemented James Marsden 's performance naming it the second best moment of the episode and commented that the scene of his character and Cameron fighting in the Lily 's princess castle " the best moment of the entire show " . New York writer Rachael Maddux commented that " the show kicked off its second season 's second half in such fine form " . Kara Klenc of TV Guide called the episode " great " .
Sam Morgan of Hollywood complimented the writers for adding a " twist on a traditional sitcom story " for the Mitchell @-@ Cameron storyline . Morgan also praised the performance of Ty Burrell saying that it " showed that Ty Burrell deserved the Emmy over Eric Stonestreet " .
Not all reviews were positive . HitFix reviewer Alan Sepinwall wrote that the episode " didn 't really work for me " due to the Claire @-@ Phil storyline although he did compliment Marsden 's performance .
Multiple critics praised the performance of Nolan Gould . Time contributor James Poniewozik wrote it was a " great episode for his character all around " and called him " the topper in this episode " . Joel Keller called Gould 's character Luke , " one of the funniest dumb kids ever created for television " . He also praised the scene featuring Luke spraying Gloria with a water gun and then later drinking from it saying that " it reminded us that this new hard @-@ ass is still Luke at the end of the day " .
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= 1906 Vanderbilt Commodores football team =
The 1906 Vanderbilt Commodores football team represented Vanderbilt University during the 1906 college football season . The team 's head coach was Dan McGugin , who served his third season in that capacity . Members of the Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Association ( SIAA ) , the Commodores played seven home games in Nashville , Tennessee at Curry Field , and finished the season with a record of 8 – 1 overall and 5 – 0 in SIAA .
The 1906 Vanderbilt team had one of the best seasons in the school 's history , outscoring opponents 278 – 16 . Innis Brown rated the 1906 team as the best the South ever had . Vanderbilt won all of its home games , finishing the season on a 22 @-@ game home win streak . Their only loss came on the road to western power Michigan , 10 – 4 ; the game had been tied until the closing minutes .
Seven of the Commodores ' eight wins came by shutout – only two teams scored on them all season . Several teams failed to gain a single first down against the Commodores . The team most notably defeated northern power Carlisle by a single Bob Blake field goal 4 – 0 . Back Owsley Manier was selected third @-@ team All @-@ America by Walter Camp , the South 's first .
= = Before the season = =
Notable losses from the 1905 team included Bachelor of Ugliness Ed Hamilton , captain Innis Brown , and quarterback Frank Kyle .
= = = Rule changes = = =
At the end of 1905 football looked about to be abolished due to all of the reoccurring violence during games . Football was a sport that had degenerated into dangerous tactics such as : the flying wedge , punching , kicking , piling @-@ on , and elbows to the face . Almost any violent behavior was allowed . Fatalities and injuries mounted during the 1905 season .
As a result , the 1906 season was played under a new set of rules . The rules governing intercollegiate football were changed to promote a more open and less dangerous style of play . An intercollegiate conference , which would become the forerunner of the NCAA , approved radical changes including the legalization of the forward pass , allowing the punting team to recover an on @-@ side kick as a live ball , abolishing the dangerous flying wedge , creating a neutral zone between offense and defense , and doubling the first @-@ down distance to 10 yards , to be gained in three downs .
= = Schedule = =
= = Season summary = =
= = = Week 1 : Kentucky State = = =
In a 28 – 0 win over Kentucky State College to open the season , Owsley Manier scored three touchdowns and the Commodores as a whole rushed for 630 yards . G. A. Hall had a 33 @-@ yard punt return for a touchdown . The Commodores were penalized several times . Kentucky never had a first down and had to punt after second down .
The starting lineup against Kentucky State was : Stone ( left end ) ; Pritchard ( left tackle ) ; King ( left guard ) ; Wynne ( center ) ; Sherrill ( right guard ) ; E. Noel ( right tackle ) ; B. Blake ( right end ) ; Costen ( quarterback ) ; Crawford ( left halfback ) ; Craig ( right halfback ) ; Manier ( fullback ) .
= = = Week 2 : Mississippi = = =
Vanderbilt easily beat Mississippi 29 – 0 . Like McGugin , Mississippi 's coach Thomas S. Hammond was a Michigan alumnus . One account reads : " whatever hopes the spectators had of seeing a close and exciting football game today when Vanderbilt faced Mississippi were shattered in the very first five minutes of play . " The stars of the contest were Dan Blake and Honus Craig . Mississippi failed to gain a single first down . Umpire Henry D. Phillips kicked Joe Pritchard out of the contest for roughing .
The starting lineup against Mississippi was : V. Blake ( left end ) ; E. Noel ( left tackle ) ; McLain ( left guard ) ; Stone ( center ) ; Chorn ( right guard ) ; Pritchard ( right tackle ) ; B. Blake ( right end ) ; Costen ( quarterback ) ; D. Blake ( left halfback ) ; Craig ( right halfback ) ; Manier ( fullback ) .
= = = Week 3 : Alabama = = =
The only loss of the year for the Alabama Crimson Tide was its biggest ever loss to Vanderbilt , 78 – 0 . Seven of Alabama 's regular players were out with injuries . Vanderbilt executed several onside kicks from scrimmage . Owsley Manier scored five touchdowns as : " the back field frequently went twenty @-@ five or thirty yards over the line " . Alabama was held to just a single first down . Due to injuries , Alabama had not wished to play , and : " the comparatively few who came to see them play were scarcely rewarded by seeing touchdowns made every two minutes . "
The starting lineup against Alabama was : V. Blake ( left end ) ; Pritchard ( left tackle ) ; McLain ( left guard ) ; Stone ( center ) , Chorn ( right guard ) ; E. Noel ( right tackle ) ; B. Blake ( right end ) ; Costen ( quarterback ) ; D. Blake ( left halfback ) ; Craig ( right halfback ) ; Manier ( fullback ) .
= = = Week 4 : Texas = = =
Vanderbilt romped over the Texas Longhorns 45 – 0 . Sam Costen had a run of 61 yards , Dan Blake one of 52 , and Vaughn Blake 42 . Two other touchdowns were had by Vanderbilt but referee Bradley Walker called the team back for holding . The Texas men seemed equal to Vanderbilt 's in physique , yet they too failed to net a first down .
The starting lineup against Texas was : V. Blake ( left end ) ; Pritchard ( left tackle ) ; Chorn ( left guard ) ; Stone ( center ) ; McLain ( right guard ) ; E. Noel ( right tackle ) ; B. Blake ( right end ) ; Costen ( quarterback ) ; Craig ( left halfback ) ; D. Blake ( right halfback ) ; Manier ( fullback ) .
= = = Week 5 : at Michigan = = =
On November 3 , Vanderbilt lost to the Michigan Wolverines by a 10 – 4 score . The game remained tied at 4 – 4 until the closing minutes . The Masonic Theater in Nashville was crowded with those who had come to see the game detailed .
Before the game , Michigan coach Fielding Yost said : " I have said right along that the Vanderbilt team would come nearer beating us than any team ever did ... In Craig , Blake , and Manier I think Vanderbilt has the three greatest backs of any one team in the country . " On the night just before the game , 4 @,@ 200 students attended a mass meeting at University Hall . McGugin and Yost both spoke to the crowd and agreed that the game would be one of the closest played in Ann Arbor in many years . D. G. Fite , father @-@ in @-@ law of both McGugin and Yost , traveled from his home in Tennessee to watch the game .
John Garrels put Michigan ahead with a field goal from the 25 @-@ yard line . On the preceding drive , Garrels had completed a 15 @-@ yard forward pass to Bishop , the first legal forward pass completed by Michigan under the new rules . Michigan led , 4 – 0 , at halftime . Early in the second half , Vanderbilt tied the score with a field goal by Dan Blake from the 30 @-@ yard line . With two minutes left in the game , Garrels ran 68 yards for a touchdown . The Chicago Daily Tribune wrote : " Garrels , on a fake kick , with splendid interference by Hammond , Curtis , and Workman , ran Vanderbilt 's left end at lightning speed for sixty @-@ eight yards and a touchdown . " Curtis kicked the extra point , and Michigan led , 10 – 4 .
Vanderbilt 's lineup against Michigan was : V. Blake ( left end ) ; Pritchard ( left tackle ) ; Chorn ( left guard ) ; Stone ( center ) ; McLain ( right guard ) ; E. Noel ( right tackle ) ; B. Blake ( right end ) ; Costen ( quarterback ) ; Craig ( left halfback ) ; D. Blake ( right halfback ) ; Manier ( fullback ) .
= = = Week 6 : Rose Polytechnic = = =
The 33 to 0 win over Rose Polytechnic proved the surprise of the season . Owsley Manier again scored five touchdowns , but he also : " probably prevented the visitors from scoring by his clever defensive work . " Bob Blake kicked four extra points and a 20 @-@ yard field goal from placement .
The starting lineup against Rose Tech was : V. Blake ( left end ) ; Pritchard ( left tackle ) ; McLain ( left guard ) ; Stone ( center ) ; Chorn ( right guard ) ; E. Noel ( right tackle ) ; B. Blake ( right end ) ; Costen ( quarterback ) ; D. Blake ( left halfback ) ; Craig ( right halfback ) ; Manier ( fullback ) .
= = = Week 7 : at Georgia Tech = = =
Vanderbilt defeated coach John Heisman , who had helped legalize the forward pass , and his Georgia Tech team in the rain and mud of Atlanta 37 – 6 . Lobster Brown scored Tech 's points . Atlanta Constitution sportswriter Alex Lynn wrote after the game that Owsley Manier was : " the greatest fullback and all round man ever seen in Atlanta . " He again scored five touchdowns .
The starting lineup against Georgia Tech was : V. Blake ( left end ) ; Pritchard ( left tackle ) ; McLain ( left guard ) ; Stone ( center ) ; Chorn ( right guard ) ; E. Noel ( right tackle ) ; B. Blake ( right end ) ; Costen ( quarterback ) ; D. Blake ( left halfback ) ; Craig ( right halfback ) ; Manier ( fullback ) .
= = = Week 8 : Carlisle = = =
On Thanksgiving , the Commodores reached the season 's high point and beat the Carlisle Indians 4 – 0 . Just a week before the contest , Vanderbilt negotiated a game with Carlisle to fill an open date . The Nashville Banner predicted it would be : " the greatest game the south ever saw . " The game started forty @-@ five minutes late to accommodate the large crowd .
Vanderbilt won by a single , 17 @-@ yard Bob Blake field goal 4 – 0 . In the first two minutes of play , the Indians drove the ball to Vanderbilt 's 3 @-@ yard line , but the Commodores line held and they got no further . Frank Mount Pleasant , one of the first regular spiral pass quarterbacks , attempted four field goals , but missed them all .
Atlanta Constitution sporting editor A. W. Lynn wrote : " The general surprises are numerous enough , but the largest particular one was the Commodore – Indian contest , when Vanderbilt took off the greatest honors ever falling to the lot of a southern football team in the hardest battle ever fought on a southern gridiron . John Heisman wrote : " Manier bucked the Indians ' line . Costen handled the ball surely and well downed Mt . Pleasant in his tracks on most of Blake 's punts ... I am still convinced that outside Yale and Princeton , the Commodores would have an even break with any other team in the country . " Vanderbilt running back Honus Craig called this his hardest game , giving special praise to Albert Exendine as : " the fastest end I ever saw . "
One source claims the Carlisle Indians failed to receive supplies on the trip to Nashville , including their receiving carboys emptied of water . " The Indians had the poorest kind of accommodations at Nashville , and on account of the change of water every one of them became ill . "
The starting lineup for Vanderbilt was : V. Blake ( left end ) ; Pritchard ( left tackle ) ; McLain ( left guard ) ; Stone ( center ) ; Chorn ( right guard ) ; E. Noel ( right tackle ) ; B. Blake ( right end ) ; Costen ( quarterback ) ; D. Blake ( left halfback ) ; Craig ( right halfback ) ; Manier ( fullback ) .
= = = Week 9 : Sewanee = = =
Despite Vanderbilt 's strong record , the Sewanee Tigers were undefeated and felt cause for optimism in the effective Southern championship . One account recalls : " A high authority on foot @-@ ball said the other day : Vanderbilt is not invincible , by a good deal . The Sewanee " Tigers " are going to Nashville on Thursday to prove that fact . " Vanderbilt struggled , but still won 20 – 0 . " With Vandy making only 20 points – Vandy was stale , was the explanation . " After the big win over Carlisle , " a matter @-@ of @-@ course feeling pervaded the entire game . " The first score of the game came on a 25 @-@ yard field goal . The first touchdown came from Owsley Manier . In the second half , Bob Blake made a 22 @-@ yard field goal , and Manier got another touchdown .
The starting lineup against Sewanee was : V. Blake ( left end ) ; Pritchard ( left tackle ) ; McLain ( left guard ) ; Stone ( center ) ; Chorn ( right guard ) ; E. Noel ( right tackle ) ; B. Blake ( right end ) ; Costen ( quarter ) ; D. Blake ( left halfback ) ; Craig ( right halfback ) ; Manier ( fullback ) .
= = Post @-@ season = =
Vanderbilt won an SIAA championship . Coach McGugin called the Carlisle victory " the crowning feat of the Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Association season . "
Dan Blake , Owsley Manier , and Joe Pritchard all graduated . Manier went on to receive an M. D. from the University of Pennsylvania , and played one season on the football team . " But his effectiveness at Pennsylvania was lessened by the attempt of the coaches to change his style of bucking a line from the low , plunging dive to running into it erect , knees drawn high and great dependence upon his companion backs to " hike " him . " At Penn he was shifted to halfback , and mostly used for swift plunges into the line . Penn defeated Michigan , exacting revenge for the multiple losses suffered by Manier to Michigan at Vanderbilt .
Dan Blake went on to coach at Hopkinsville High School in Hopkinsville , Kentucky . While there he was manager of the electric light and gas plants of the Kentucky Public Service Company . Pritchard coached at LSU for part of one season and was later a Presbyterian dental missionary at Luebo in the Congo until he was forced to return to the United States due to poor health sometime before 1915 .
= = = Awards and honors = = =
For some , Vanderbilt 's eleven was the entire All @-@ Southern team . Fullback Owsley Manier was selected third @-@ team All @-@ America by Walter Camp . This makes Manier the first Southern player to make any of Camp 's teams .
= = = Legacy = = =
In 1911 , Innis Brown rated the 1906 team as the best the South ever had . Sportswriter Joe Williams recalled " I suppose the first great Southern team was Vanderbilt of 1906 . "
= = Personnel = =
= = = Depth chart = = =
The following chart provides a visual depiction of Vanderbilt 's lineup during the 1906 season with games started at the position reflected in parenthesis . The chart mimics a short punt formation while on offense , with the quarterback under center .
= = = Varsity letter winners = = =
= = = = Line = = = =
= = = = Backfield = = = =
= = = Subs = = =
= = = Scoring leaders = = =
In 1906 , touchdowns were worth 5 points and field goals 4 .
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= Matthew Hale ( jurist ) =
Sir Matthew Hale SL ( 1 November 1609 — 25 December 1676 ) was an influential English barrister , judge and lawyer most noted for his treatise Historia Placitorum Coronæ , or The History of the Pleas of the Crown . Born to a barrister and his wife , who had both died by the time he was 5 , Hale was raised by his father 's relative , a strict Puritan , and inherited his faith . In 1626 he matriculated at Magdalen Hall , Oxford ( now Hertford College ) , intending to become a priest , but after a series of distractions was persuaded to become a barrister like his father thanks to an encounter with a Serjeant @-@ at @-@ Law in a dispute over his estate . On 8 November 1628 he joined Lincoln 's Inn , where he was called to the Bar on 17 May 1636 . As a barrister , Hale represented a variety of Royalist figures during the prelude and duration of the English Civil War , including Thomas Wentworth and William Laud ; it has been hypothesised that Hale was to represent Charles I at his state trial , and conceived the defence Charles used . Despite the Royalist loss , Hale 's reputation for integrity and his political neutrality saved him from any repercussions , and under the Commonwealth of England he was made Chairman of the Hale Commission , which investigated law reform . Following the Commission 's dissolution , Oliver Cromwell made him a Justice of the Common Pleas .
As a judge , Hale was noted for his resistance to bribery and his willingness to make politically unpopular decisions which upheld the law . He sat in Parliament , either in the Commons or the Upper House , in every Parliament from the First Protectorate Parliament to the Convention Parliament , and following the Declaration of Breda was the Member of Parliament who moved to consider Charles II 's reinstatement as monarch , sparking the English Restoration . Under Charles , Hale was made first Chief Baron of the Exchequer and then Chief Justice of the King 's Bench . In both positions , he was again noted for his integrity , although not as a particularly innovative judge . Following a bout of illness he retired on 20 February 1676 , dying ten months later on 25 December 1676 .
Hale is almost universally appreciated as an excellent judge and jurist , with his central legacy coming through his written work , published after his death . His Historia Placitorum Coronæ , dealing with capital offences against the Crown , is considered " of the highest authority " , while his Analysis of the Common Law is noted as the first published history of English law and a strong influence on William Blackstone 's Commentaries on the Laws of England . Hale 's jurisprudence struck a middle @-@ ground between Edward Coke 's " appeal to reason " and John Selden 's " appeal to contract " , while refuting elements of Thomas Hobbes 's theory of natural law . His thoughts on marital rape , expressed in the Historia , continued in English law until 1991 , and he was cited in court as recently as 1993 .
= = Life = =
= = = Early life and education = = =
Hale was born on 1 November 1609 in West End House ( now known as The Grange or Alderley Grange ) in Alderley , Gloucestershire to Robert Hale , a barrister of Lincoln 's Inn , and Joanna Poyntz . His father gave up his practise as a barrister several years before Hale 's birth " because he could not understand the reason of giving colour in pleadings " . This refers to a process through which the defendant would refer a case over the validity of his title to land to a judge instead of a jury , through claiming a ( false ) allegation about this right . Such an allegation would be a question of law rather than a question of fact , and as such decided by the judge with no reference to the jurors . Although in common use , Robert Hale apparently saw this as deceptive and " contrary to the exactness of truth and justice which became a Christian ; so that he withdrew himself from the inns of court to live on his estate in the country " . John Hostettler , in his biography of Matthew Hale , points out that his father 's concerns about giving colour in pleadings could not have been very strong " since he not only retired to his estate at Alderley where he managed to live on his wife 's inherited income , but also directed in his will that Matthew should make a career in the law " .
Both of Hale 's parents died before he was five ; Joanna in 1612 , and Robert in 1614 . It was then revealed that Robert had been so generous in giving money to the poor that at his death his estate provided only £ 100 of income a year , of which £ 20 was to be paid to the local poor . Hale thus passed into the care of Anthony Kingscot , one of his father 's relatives . A strong Puritan , Kingscot had Hale taught by a Mr. Stanton , the vicar of Wotton known as the " scandalous vicar " due to his extremist puritan views . On 20 October 1626 , at the age of 16 , Hale matriculated at the University of Oxford as a member of Magdalen Hall , with the goal of becoming a priest . Both Kingscot and Stanton had intended this to be his career , and his education had been conducted with that in mind . He was taught by Obadiah Sedgwick , another Puritan , and excelled in both his studies and fencing . Hale also regularly attended church , private prayer @-@ meetings , and was described as " simple in his attire , and rather aesthetic " . After a company of actors came to Oxford , Hale attended so many plays and other social activities that his studies began to suffer , and he began to turn away from Puritanism . In light of this , he abandoned his desire to become a priest and instead decided to become a soldier . His relatives were unable to persuade him to become a priest , or even a lawyer , with Hale describing lawyers as " a barbarous set of people unfit for anything but their own trade " .
His plans to become a soldier died after a legal battle concerning his estate , in which he consulted John Glanville . Glanville successfully persuaded Hale to become a lawyer , and , after leaving Oxford at the age of 20 before obtaining a degree , he joined Lincoln 's Inn on 8 November 1628 . Fearing that the theatre might dissuade him from his legal studies as it had at Oxford , he swore " never to see a stage @-@ play again " . At around this time he was drinking with a group of friends when one of them became so drunk he fainted ; Hale prayed to God to forgive and save his friend , and forgive him for his previous excesses . His friend recovered , and Hale was restored to his Puritan faith , never drinking to someone 's health again ( not even drinking to the King ) and going to church every Sunday for 36 years . He instead settled into his studies , working for up to 16 hours a day during his first two years at Lincoln 's Inn before reducing it to eight hours due to health concerns . As well as reading the law reports and statutes , Hale also studied the Roman civil law and jurisprudence . Outside of the law , Hale studied anatomy , history , philosophy and mathematics . He refused to read the news or attend social events , and occupied himself entirely with his studies and visits to church .
= = = Civil War , Commonwealth and Protectorate = = =
= = = = Barrister = = = =
On 17 May 1636 , Hale was called to the Bar by Lincoln 's Inn , and immediately became the pupil of William Noy . Hale and Noy became close friends , to the point where he was referred to as " the young Noy " , and more crucially he also met and befriended John Selden , a " man of almost universal learning , whose theories were to dominate much of [ Hale 's ] later thought " . Selden persuaded him to continue with his studies outside the law , and much of Hale 's written work is concerned with theology and science as well as legal theory . Hale gained a good legal practise , although he allowed his Christian faith to govern his work . He sought to help the court reach a just verdict , whatever his client 's concerns , and normally returned half his fee or charged a standard fee of 10 shillings rather than allow costs to inflate . He refused to accept unjust cases , and always tried to be on the " right " side of any case ; John Campbell wrote that " If he saw that a cause was unjust , he for a great while would not meddle further in it but to give his advice that it was so ; if the parties after that would go on , they were to seek another counsellor , for he would assist none in acts of injustice " .
Despite this , he was wealthy enough to purchase land worth £ 4 @,@ 200 in 1648 . He was in great demand ; law reporters began recording his cases and in 1641 he advised Thomas Wentworth , the first Earl of Strafford , over his attainder for high treason . Although unsuccessful , Hale was then called to represent William Laud , the Archbishop of Canterbury , during his impeachment by the House of Lords in October 1644 . Hale , along with John Herne , argued that none of Laud 's alleged offences constituted treason , and that the Treason Act 1351 had abolished all common law treasons . John Wilde , arguing for the prosecution , admitted that none of Laud 's actions amounted to treason , but argued that all of them together did . Herne , in his arguments written by Hale , retorted that " I crave your mercy , [ Wilde ] . I never understood before this time that two hundred couple of black rabbits would make a black horse ! " The case against Laud began to fail , but Parliament issued an Act of Attainder which declared him guilty , and sentenced him to death . After the capture of Charles I , Hale was expected to defend him , and indeed offered to do so ; the King refused to submit to the court , claiming he did not recognise its jurisdiction . Edward Foss writes , based on the statement of Charles Runnington , that it was Hale who actually provided the King with this defence , and that it was only because the defence prevented any counsel being called for the King that Hale did not appear in court .
When it became clear that the King was losing the Civil War , and only Oxford held out , Hale decided to act as a commissioner to negotiate its surrender , fearing that the city might otherwise be destroyed . Thanks to his intercession , honourable terms were reached , and the libraries preserved . Despite practising in the politically charged environment of the English Civil War and primarily defending opponents of the resulting Commonwealth of England , Hale 's reputation did not suffer . First , he largely kept out of the war , even ignoring news of its progress , and instead translating The Life and Death of Pomponious Atticus into English . Second , he was acknowledged as universally able and of high integrity during his cases , retorting to those who complained of his defence of the Royalists that he was " pleading in defence of the laws which they professed they would maintain and preserve ; and that he was doing his duty to his client and was not to be daunted by such threatenings " .
= = = = Hale Commission = = = =
During the rule of both the Commonwealth and the Protectorate , there was considerable desire for law reform . Many judges and lawyers were corrupt , and the criminal law followed no real reason or philosophy . Any felony was punishable by death , proceedings were in a form of Norman French , and judges regularly imprisoned judges for reaching a verdict they disagreed with . Oliver Cromwell and the Rump Parliament aimed to establish a " new society " , which included reforming the law . To that end , on 30 January 1652 Hale was appointed chairman of a commission to investigate law reform , which soon became known as the Hale Commission . The Commission 's official remit was defined by the Commons ; " taking into consideration what inconveniences there are in the law ; and how the mischiefs which grow from delays , the chargeableness and irregularities in the proceedings in the law may be prevented , and the speediest way to reform the same , and to present their opinions to such committee as the Parliament shall appoint " . The Commission consisted of eight lawyers and 13 laymen , which sat from 23 January approximately three times a week .
The Commission recommended various changes , such as reducing the use of the death penalty , allowing defendants access to legal counsel , legal aid and the abolition of peine forte et dure as a torture mechanism . Dissolved on 23 July 1652 after producing 16 bills , none of the Commission 's recommendations immediately made it into law , although two ( to abolish fines for original writs and to develop procedures for civil marriages ) were brought into force through statutes by the Barebone 's Parliament . Almost all of the recommendations eventually became part of English law , with John Hostettler , in his biography of Hale , writing that if the measures had been put into law immediately , " we would have been honouring such pioneers for their farsightedness in enhancing our legal system and the concept of justice " .
= = = = Justice of the Common Pleas = = = =
Oliver Cromwell , noting Hale 's abilities , asked him to become a Justice of the Common Pleas . Although Hale considered that taking this commission would make others think he supported the Commonwealth , he was persuaded to do so , replacing John Puleston . Only Serjeants @-@ at @-@ Law could become judges , and as such Hale was made a Serjeant on 25 January 1653 . He was formally appointed a Justice of the Court of Common Pleas , one of the three principal Westminster courts , on 31 January 1653 , on the condition that he " would not be required to acknowledge the usurper 's authority " . He also refused to put people to death for offences against the government ; he believed that because the government authorising him to do so was an illegal one , " putting men to death on that account was murder " . William Blackstone later wrote that " if judgment of death be given by a judge not authorized by lawful commission , and execution is done accordingly , the judge is guilty of murder ; and upon this argument Sir Matthew Hale himself , though he accepted the place of a judge of the Common Pleas under Cromwell 's government , yet declined to sit on the crown side at the assizes , and try prisoners , having very strong objections to the legality of the usurper 's commission " . Hale also made decisions which negatively impacted on the Commonwealth , executing a soldier for murdering a civilian in 1655 , and actively refusing to attend a court hearing outside term time . On another occasion , Cromwell personally selected a jury in a trial he was concerned with , something contrary to law ; as a result , Hale dismissed the jury and refused to hear the case . On 15 May 1659 , Hale chose to retire , and was replaced by John Archer .
= = = = Member of Parliament = = = =
On 3 September 1654 , the First Protectorate Parliament was called ; of the 400 English members , only two were lawyers — Hooke , a Baron of the Exchequer , and Hale , who was elected Member of Parliament for his home county of Gloucestershire . Hale was an active MP , persuading the Commons to reject a motion to destroy the Tower of London 's archives , and introducing several motions to preserve the authority of Parliament . The first was that the government should be " in a Parliament and a single person limited and restrained as the Parliament should think fit " , and he later proposed that the English Council of State be subject to re @-@ election every three years by the House of Commons , that the militia should be controlled by Parliament , and that supplies should only be granted to the army for limited periods . While these proposals got support , Cromwell refused to allow any MPs into the Commons until they signed an oath recognising his authority , which Hale refused to do . As such , none of them were passed . Dissatisfied with the First Protectorate Parliament , Cromwell dissolved it on 22 January 1655 .
A Second Protectorate Parliament was called on 17 September 1656 , which wrote a constitution titled Humble Petition and Advice that called for the creation of an Upper House to perform the job of the former House of Lords . Cromwell accepted this constitution , and in December 1657 nominated the Upper House 's members . Hale , as a judge , was called to it . This new House 's extensive jurisdiction and authority was immediately questioned by the Commons , and Cromwell responded by dissolving the Parliament on 4 February 1658 . On 3 September 1658 , Oliver Cromwell died and was replaced by his son , Richard Cromwell . Richard Cromwell summoned a new Parliament on 27 January 1659 , and Hale was returned as MP for Oxford University . Richard Cromwell was a weak leader , however , and ruled for only 8 months before resigning . On 16 March 1660 General Monck forced the Parliament to vote for its own dissolution and call new elections . At the same time , Charles II made the Declaration of Breda , and when the Convention Parliament met on 25 April 1660 ( with Hale a member from Gloucestershire again ) it immediately began negotiations with the King . Hale moved in the Commons that " a committee might be appointed to look into the overtures that had been made , and the concessions that had been offered , by [ Charles I ] " and " from thence to digest such propositions , as they should think fit to be sent over to [ Charles II ] " who was still in Breda . On 1 May Parliament restored the King , and Charles II landed in Dover three weeks later , prompting the English Restoration .
= = = English Restoration = = =
= = = = Chief Baron and Chief Justice = = = =
Hale 's first task in the new regime was as part of the Special Commission of 37 judges who tried the 29 regicides not included in the Declaration of Breda , between 9 and 19 October 1660 . All were found guilty of treason , and 10 of them were hanged , drawn and quartered . Sitting as a judge in this trial led to some viewing Hale as hypocritical , with F.A. Inderwick later writing " I confess to a feeling of pain at finding [ Hale ] in October 1660 , sitting as a judge at the Old Bailey , trying and condemning to death batches of the regicides , men under whose orders he had himself acted , who had been his colleagues in Parliament , with whom he had sat on committees to alter the law " . Perhaps as reward for this , he became Chief Baron of the Exchequer on 7 November 1660 , replacing Sir Orlando Bridgeman . Hale had no wish to receive the knighthood that accompanied this appointment and so tried to avoid being near the King ; in response , the Lord Chancellor Lord Clarendon invited him to his house , where the King was present . Hale was knighted on the spot .
There were many instances of parties to a case attempting to bribe Hale . When a Duke approached him before a case " to help the judge understand a case that was to come before him " , Hale said that he would only hear about cases in court . In another case , he was sent venison by a party . After noticing the man 's name and verifying that he had indeed sent Hale some venison , Hale refused to let the case proceed until he had paid the man for the food . When Sir John Croke , suspected in engaging in a conspiracy , sent him some sugar loaves to excuse his absence from a case , Hale remarked that " I cannot think that Sir John believes that the King 's Justices come into the country to take bribes . Some other person , having a design to put a trick upon him , sent them in his name " . Hale returned the loaves , and refused to continue until Croke appeared before him . Hale was noted during this period for giving latitude to those accused of religious impropriety , and through doing so " secured the confidence and affection of all classes of his countrymen " . His knowledge of equity was considered as great as his knowledge of the law , and Lord Nottingham , considered the " father of equity " , " worshipped Hale as a great master " .
On 2 September 1666 , the Great Fire of London broke out . Over 100 @,@ 000 people were made homeless , and by the time the fire ended over 13 @,@ 000 houses and 400 streets had been destroyed . An Act of Parliament enacted on 8 February 1667 constituted a Court of Fire , tasked with dealing with property disputes over ownership , liability and the rebuilding of the city . Hale was tasked with sitting in this court , which met in Clifford 's Inn , and heard 140 of the 374 cases the court dealt with during its first year in operation .
On 18 May 1671 , Hale was made Chief Justice of the King 's Bench after the death of John Kelynge . Edward Turnour replaced him as Chief Baron of the Exchequer . Hale was not noted as a particularly innovative judge , but took pains to ensure that his decisions were easy to understand and informative . Roger North wrote that " I have known the Court of King 's Bench sitting every day from eight to 12 , and the Lord Chief Justice Hale 's managing matters of law to all imaginable advantage to the students , and in that he took a pleasure or rather pride ; he encouraged arguing when it was to the purpose , and used to debate with counsel , so that the court might have been taken for an academy of sciences as well as the seat of justice " . He was noted for allowing counsel to fix any problems with pleadings , and for letting them correct him if he made an error in his summing up . He disliked eloquence , writing that " If the judge or jury has a right understanding it signifies nothing but a waste of time and loss of words , and if they are weak , and easily wrought upon , it is a more decent way of corrupting them by bribing their fancies and biassing their affections . " As a judge , however , he was noted by Lord Nottingham as the greatest orator on the bench .
= = = = Retirement and death = = = =
By 1675 , Hale had begun to suffer from ill @-@ health ; his arms became swollen , and although a course of bloodletting relieved the pain temporarily , by the next February his legs were so stiff he could not walk . His initial attempts to resign as Chief Justice were declined by the King , but when Hale applied for a writ of ease the King reluctantly allowed him to retire on 20 February 1676 , granting him a pension of £ 1 @,@ 000 a year . He was replaced as Chief Justice by Richard Raynsford . After suffering for ten more months , Hale died on 25 December 1676 at his country home , The Lower House ( now the site of the present day Alderley House ) . He was buried next to his first wife 's tomb in the churchyard of St Kenelm 's , the church which adjoined his home at Alderley , with a monument erected that reads :
Here is buried the body of Matthew Hale , Knight , the only son of Robert Hale , and Joanna his wife ; born in this parish of Alderley on the 1st day of November , in the year of our Lord 1609 , and died in the same place on the 25th day of December in the year of our lord 1676 ; in the 67th year of his age .
His estate was largely left for his widow , with his legal texts given to his grandson Gabriel if Gabriel chose to study the law , and his more valuable manuscripts and books given to Lincoln 's Inn . The male line of his family died out in 1784 with the death of Matthew Hale , his great grandson ; also a barrister .
= = = Personal life = = =
In 1642 Hale married Anne Moore , the daughter of Sir Henry Moore , a Royalist soldier , and the granddaughter of Sir Francis Moore , a Serjeant @-@ at @-@ Law under James I. Moore and Hale had 10 children , but she was evidently a highly extravagant woman , with Hale warning his children that " an idle or expensive wife is most times an ill bargain , though she bring a great portion " . Moore died in 1658 , and in 1667 Hale married Anne Bishop , his housekeeper . Descriptions of Bishop differ ; Roger North wrote that " [ Hale ] was unfortunate in his family ; for he married his own servant made , and then , for an excuse , said there was no wisdom below the girdle " . Richard Baxter , on the other hand , described Anne as " one of [ Hale 's ] own judgment and temper , prudent and loving , and fit to please him ; and that would not draw on him the trouble of much acquaintance and relations " . Hale himself described her as a " most dutiful , faithful , and loving wife " who was appointed an executrix on his death .
= = Legacy = =
Hale is universally considered an excellent judge and jurist , particularly due to his writings . Edward Foss wrote that he was an " eminent judge , whom all look up to as one of the brightest luminaries of the law , as well for the soundness of his learning as for the excellence of his life " . Similarly , John Campbell in his Lives of the Chief Justices of England , wrote that Hale was " one of the most pure , the most pious , the most independent , and the most learned " of judges . Henry Flanders , writing in the University of Pennsylvania Law Review , describes Hale during his lifetime as " the most learned , the most able , the most honorable man to be found in the profession of the law " . Hale 's writings have been cited as recently as 1993 , in the case of R v Kingston , where the Court of Appeal relied on his statement that " drunkenness is not a defence " to uphold a conviction . William Holdsworth argues that it was his learning in Roman law and jurisprudence which allowed him to work so effectively ; because he had seen other legal systems at work , he " could both criticise the defects of English law and state its rules in a more orderly form than they had ever been stated before " . Hale 's political neutrality and personal integrity has been attributed to his Puritanism , and his support of the common law ; " Regimes come and go , the common law abides ... For Hale ... legal continuity was vital for civic identity " .
Much comparison has been made of Hale with Edward Coke . Campbell considered Hale to be the superior lawyer , because while he failed to engage in public life he treated law as a science , and maintained judicial independence and neutrality . Hostettler , while considering Hale a better lawyer than Coke and more influential , says that Coke was better overall . While Hale was in possession of judicial impartiality , and his written works are considered highly important , his lack of venture into public affairs limited his progressive influence . Coke 's active intervention allowed him to " breath new life into medieval law and use it to oppose conciliar justice " , encouraging judges to be more independent and " unfettered except by the common law whose supremacy it was their duty to uphold " . J.H. Corbett , writing in the Alberta Law Quarterly , notes that with Hale 's popularity at the time ( Parliamentary constituencies " fought over the privilege of returning him " ) he could have been just as successful as Coke if he had chosen to take an active role in public affairs .
= = = Writings = = =
Hale 's posthumous legacy is his written work . He wrote a variety of texts , treatises and manuscripts , the most major of which are A History and Analysis of the Common Law of England , published in 1713 , and the Historia Placitorum Coronæ , or The History of the Pleas of the Crown , published in 1736 .
The Analysis was based on lectures he gave to students , and was most likely not intended to be published ; it is considered the first history of English law ever written . Divided into 13 chapters , the book dealt with the history of English law and some suggestions for reform . William Blackstone , when writing his Commentaries on the Laws of England , noted in his preface that " of all the earlier schemes for digesting the Laws of England the most natural and scientific , as well as the most comprehensive , appeared to be that of Sir Matthew Hale in his posthumous Analysis of the Law " . Hale proposed the creation of county courts , and also drew a strong distinction between written laws , such as statutes , and customary , unwritten laws . He also argued that the common law was subject to Parliament , far before the confirmation of Parliamentary supremacy , and that the law should protect the rights and civil liberties of the King 's subjects . He also argued for the confirmation of trial by jury , which he described as " the best mode of trial in the world " , while the 13th chapter divided the law into the laws of persons and of property , and dealt with the rights , wrongs and remedies recognised by the law at the time . William Holdsworth , himself considered one of the greatest common law historians , described it as " the ablest introductory sketch of a history of English law that appeared till the publication of Pollock and Maitland 's volumes in 1895 " .
The Historia is perhaps Hale 's most famous work . Pleas of the Crown were capital offences committed " against the peace of our Lord the King , his Crown and dignity " ; as such , the book dealt with capital crimes and the associated procedure . The 710 @-@ page work followed the pattern of Coke 's Institutes of the Lawes of England , but was far more methodical ; James Fitzjames Stephen said that Hale 's work " was not only of the highest authority but shows a depth of thought which puts it in quite a different category from Coke 's Institute ... [ it ] is far more of a treatise and far less of an index or mere work of practice " . The book dealt with the criminal capacity of infants , insanity and idiocy , the defence of drunkenness , capital offences , treason , homicide and theft . In the 19th century , Andrew Amos wrote a critique of the Historia titled Ruins of Time exemplified in Sir Matthew Hale 's History of the Pleas of the Crown , which both criticised and praised Hale 's work while directing the main criticism at the judges and lawyers who cited the Historia without considering that it was dated .
Hale also reorganised the first of Coke 's Institutes , which dealt with Thomas de Littleton 's Treatise on Tenures ; Hale 's edition was the most commonly used , and the first to extract Coke 's broader philosophical points . His written works , however , were fragmentary , and did not individually lay out his jurisprudence . Harold J. Berman , writing in the Yale Law Journal , notes that it is only " possible by a study of the entire corpus of Hale 's writings to reconstruct the coherent legal philosophy that underlies them " .
Hale 's writings on witchcraft and marital rape were extremely influential . In 1662 , he was involved in " one of the most notorious of the seventeenth century English witchcraft trials " , where he sentenced two women ( Amy Duny and Rose Callender ) to death for witchcraft , sorcery and " unnatural love " . The judgment of Hale in this case was extremely influential in future cases , and was used in the Salem witch trials to justify the forfeiture of the accused 's lands . G. Geis , writing in the British Journal of Law and Society , ties Hale 's opinions on witchcraft in with his writings on marital rape , which are found in the Historia . Hale believed that a marriage was a contract , which merged the legal entities of husband and wife into one body . As such , " The husband cannot be guilty of a rape committed by himself upon his lawful wife , for by their mutual consent and contract the wife hath given up herself in this kind unto her husband , which she cannot retract " . This exception to the law of rape existed in England and Wales until 1991 , primarily due to his influence , until it was repealed by the House of Lords in R v R.
There are still dozens of volumes of Hale 's manuscripts that have not been published , including numerous theological treatises . The majority of these manuscripts are found in the Fairhurst Papers at the Lambeth Palace Library . His largest work in manuscript , " De Deo " ( ca . 1662 @-@ 1667 ) , consists of ten books filling five volumes and is estimated to contain nearly a million words . There are also three copies of a treatise on natural law at the British Library . A critical edition of this treatise on natural law has been published as Of the Law of Nature ( 2015 ) , which contains chapters on law in general and the law of nature . In the same work , Hale criticizes the reduction of natural law to self @-@ preservation as " the only Cardinall Law ” ( the view normally associated with Thomas Hobbes ) , cites John Selden 's De jure naturali et gentium juxta disciplinam Ebraeorum repeatedly , and appears to share conceptual continuities with both Hugo Grotius 's De jure belli ac pacis and Francisco Suárez 's Tractatus de legibus ac deo legislatore .
= = = Jurisprudence = = =
During Hale 's period as a barrister and judge , the general conclusion in England was that the repository of the law and conventional wisdom was not politics , as in Renaissance Europe , but the common law . This had been brought about thanks to Sir Edward Coke , who in his Institutes and practice as a judge advocated judge @-@ made law . Coke asserted that judge @-@ made law had the answer to any question asked of it , and as a result , " a learned judge ... was the natural arbiter of politics " . This principle was known as the " appeal to reason " , with " reason " referring not to rationality but the method and logic used by judges in upholding and striking down laws . Coke 's theory meant that certainty of the law and " intellectual beauty " was the way to see if a law was just and correct , and that the system of law could eventually become sophisticated enough to be predictable . John Selden held similar beliefs , in that he thought that the common law was the proper law of England . However , he argued that this did not necessarily create judicial discretion to play with it , and that proper did not necessarily equal perfect . The law was nothing more than a contract made by the English people ; this is known as the " appeal to contract " . Thomas Hobbes argued against Coke 's theory . Along with Francis Bacon , he argued for natural law , created by the King 's authority , not by any individual judge . Hobbes felt that there was no skill unique to lawyers , and that the law could be understood not through Coke 's " reason " ( the method used by lawyers ) but through understanding the King 's instructions . While the judges did make law , this was only valid because it was " tacitly confirmed ( because not disapproved ) by the [ King ] " .
Hale 's legal theory was highly influenced by both Coke and Selden . He argued that the making of the law was a contract , but that it was subject to a test of " reasonable " character , something that only the judges could rule on . In this way , he sat in a middle ground between Selden and Coke . This was in conflict with the argument of Hobbes . In 1835 , Hale 's " Reflections on Hobbes ' Dialogue " was discovered ; Frederick Pollock posits that since Hobbes ' Dialogue was first published in 1681 , six years after Hale 's death , Hale must have seen an early copy or draft . D.E.C. Yale , writing in the Cambridge Law Journal , suggests that Chief Justice Vaughan had access to the Dialogue , and may have passed a copy on to Hale before his death . In his Reflections , Hale agreed with Coke that the judge 's task was to bring the reason of the common law ( the coherence of the legal system ) in line with the reason of the law in question ( to justify that law ) . He disagreed with Hobbes that a layman could understand the law , saying that " he that hath been educated in the study of the law hath a great advantage over those that have been otherwise exercised " . The distinction between Coke and Hale is that Hale agreed with Selden that law was created through agreement , and disagreed that reason had an inherent binding power . Hale agreed with Hobbes that the interpretation of the law could not be left to individual reason , and that the law is not an exact science ; the best that can be produced is a set of laws which give a reasonable outcome in the majority of cases .
= = = List of works = = =
Hale 's full works include :
Contemplations , Moral and Divine ( 1676 ) .
The Primitive Origination of Mankind , Considered and Examined According to the Light of Nature ( 1677 ) .
The Life and Death of Pomponius Atticus written by his contemporary and acquaintance Cornelius Nepos . Translated out of his fragments , together with observations political and moral thereon ( 1677 ) .
Pleas of the Crown . A Methodical Summary ( 1678 ) .
A Discourse of the Knowledge of God and of Ourselves ( 1688 ) .
On Pomponious Atticus ( 1689 ) .
Origin of Mankind by Natural Propagation .
The Original Institution , Power and Jurisdiction of Parliament ( 1707 ) .
The History of the Common Law of England ( 1713 ) .
Government in General , its Origin , Alteration and Trials .
The History of the Pleas of the Crown ( 1736 ) .
The Analysis of the Law . Being a Scheme , or Abstract , of the several Titles and Partitions of the Law of England , Digested into Method ( 1739 ) .
Considerations Touching the Amendment or Alterations of Laws ( 1787 ) .
The Jurisdiction of the Lord 's House , or , Parliament Considered According to Ancient Records ( 1796 ) .
Reflections on Hobbes ' Dialogue of the Law ( 1835 ) .
Of the Law of Nature ( 2015 ) .
He also wrote the preface to Rolle 's Abridgment .
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= Middlesex =
Middlesex ( / ˈmɪdəlsɛks / , abbreviation : Middx ) was a county in southeast England that is now mostly part of Greater London , with small sections in neighbouring counties . It was established in the Anglo @-@ Saxon system from the territory of the Middle Saxons . The historic county included land stretching north of the River Thames from 3 miles ( 5 km ) east to 17 miles ( 27 km ) west of the City of London with the rivers Colne and Lea and a ridge of hills as the other boundaries . The largely low @-@ lying county , dominated by clay in its north and alluvium on gravel in its south , was the second smallest by area in 1831 .
The City of London was a county in its own right from the 12th century and was able to exert political control over Middlesex . Westminster Abbey dominated most of the early financial , judicial and ecclesiastical aspects of the county . As London grew into Middlesex , the Corporation of London resisted attempts to expand the city boundaries into the county , which posed problems for the administration of local government and justice . In the 18th and 19th centuries the population density was especially high in the southeast of the county , including the East End and West End of London . From 1855 the southeast was administered , with sections of Kent and Surrey , as part of the area of the Metropolitan Board of Works . When county councils were introduced in England in 1889 about 20 % of the area of Middlesex , along with a third of its population , was transferred to the new County of London and the remainder became an administrative county governed by the Middlesex County Council that met regularly at the Middlesex Guildhall in Westminster , in the County of London . The City of London , and Middlesex , became separate counties for other purposes and Middlesex regained the right to appoint its own sheriff , lost in 1199 .
In the interwar years suburban London expanded further , with improvement and expansion of public transport , and the setting up of new industries . After the Second World War , the population of the County of London and inner Middlesex was in steady decline , with high population growth continuing in the outer parts . After a Royal Commission on Local Government in Greater London , almost all of the original area was incorporated into an enlarged Greater London in 1965 , with the rest transferred to neighbouring counties . Since 1965 various areas called Middlesex have been used for cricket and other sports . Middlesex was the former postal county of 25 post towns .
= = History = =
= = = Toponymy = = =
The name means territory of the middle Saxons and refers to the tribal origin of its inhabitants . The word is formed from the Anglo @-@ Saxon , i.e. Old English , ' middel ' and ' Seaxe ' ( cf . Essex , Sussex and Wessex ) . In an 8th @-@ century charter the region is recorded as Middleseaxon and in 704 it is recorded as Middleseaxan .
= = = Early settlement = = =
There were settlements in the area of Middlesex that can be traced back thousands of years before the creation of a county . Middlesex was formerly part of the Kingdom of Essex It was recorded in the Domesday Book as being divided into the six hundreds of Edmonton , Elthorne , Gore , Hounslow ( Isleworth in all later records ) , Ossulstone and Spelthorne . The City of London has been self @-@ governing since the thirteenth century and became a county in its own right , a county corporate . Middlesex also included Westminster , which also had a high degree of autonomy . Of the six hundreds , Ossulstone contained the districts closest to the City of London . During the 17th century it was divided into four divisions , which , along with the Liberty of Westminster , largely took over the administrative functions of the hundred . The divisions were named Finsbury , Holborn , Kensington and Tower . The county had parliamentary representation from the 13th century . The title Earl of Middlesex was created twice , in 1622 and 1677 , but became extinct in 1843 .
= = = Economic development = = =
The economy of the county was dependent on the City of London from early times and was primarily agricultural . A variety of goods were provided for the City , including crops such as grain and hay , livestock and building materials . Recreation at day trip destinations such as Hackney , Islington , Highgate and Twickenham , as well as coaching , inn @-@ keeping and sale of goods and services at daily shops and stalls to the considerable passing trade provided much local employment and also formed part of the early economy . However , during the 18th century the inner parishes of Middlesex became suburbs of the City and were increasingly urbanised . The Middlesex volume of John Norden 's Speculum Britanniae ( a chorography ) of 1593 summarises :
This is plentifully stored , as it seemeth beautiful , with many fair and comely buildings , especially of the merchants of London , who have planted their houses of recreation not in the meanest places , which also they have cunningly contrived , curiously beautified with divers [ e ] devices , neatly decked with rare inventions , environed with orchards of sundry , delicate fruits , gardens with delectable walks , arbours , alleys and a great variety of pleasing dainties : all of which seem to be beautiful ornaments unto this country .
Similarly Thomas Cox wrote in 1794 :
We may call it almost all London , being chiefly inhabited by the citizens , who fill the towns in it with their country houses , to which they often resort that they may breathe a little sweet air , free from the fogs and smoke of the City .
In 1803 Sir John Sinclair , president of the Board of Agriculture , spoke of the need to cultivate the substantial Finchley Common and Hounslow Heath ( perhaps prophetic of the Dig for Victory campaign of World War II ) and fellow Board member Middleton estimated that one tenth of the county , 17 @,@ 000 acres ( 6 @,@ 900 ha ) , was uncultivated common , capable of improvement . However William Cobbett , in casual travel writing in 1822 , said that " A more ugly country between Egham ( Surrey ) and Kensington would with great difficulty be found in England . Flat as a pancake , and until you come to Hammersmith , the soil is a nasty , stony dirt upon a bed of gravel . Hounslow Heath which is only a little worse than the general run , is a sample of all that is bad in soil and villainous in look . Yet this is now enclosed , and what they call ' cultivated ' . Here is a fresh robbery of villages , hamlets , and farm and labourers ' buildings and abodes . " Thomas Babington wrote in 1843 , " An acre in Middlesex is worth a principality in Utopia " which contrasts neatly with its agricultural description .
The building of radial railway lines from 1839 caused a fundamental shift away from agricultural supply for London towards large scale house building . Tottenham , Edmonton and Enfield in the north developed first as working @-@ class residential suburbs with easy access to central London . The line to Windsor through Middlesex was completed in 1848 , and the railway to Potters Bar in 1850 ; and the Metropolitan and District Railways started a series of extensions into the county in 1878 . Closer to London , the districts of Acton , Willesden , Ealing and Hornsey came within reach of the tram and bus networks , providing cheap transport to central London .
After World War I , the availability of labour and proximity to London made areas such as Hayes and Park Royal ideal locations for the developing new industries . New jobs attracted more people to the county and the population continued to rise , reaching a peak in 1951 .
= = Governance = =
= = = The Metropolis = = =
By the 19th century , the East End of London had expanded to the eastern boundary with Essex , and the Tower division had reached a population of over a million . When the railways were built , the north western suburbs of London steadily spread over large parts of the county . The areas closest to London were served by the Metropolitan Police from 1829 , and from 1840 the entire county was included in the Metropolitan Police District . Local government in the county was unaffected by the Municipal Corporations Act 1835 , and civic works continued to be the responsibility of the individual parish vestries or ad hoc improvement commissioners . In 1855 , the parishes of the densely populated area in the south east , but excluding the City of London , came within the responsibility of the Metropolitan Board of Works . Despite this innovation , the system was described by commentators at the time as one " in chaos " . In 1889 , under the Local Government Act 1888 , the metropolitan area of approximately 30 @,@ 000 acres ( 120 km2 ) became part of the County of London . The Act also provided that the part of Middlesex in the administrative county of London should be " severed from [ Middlesex ] , and form a separate county for all non @-@ administrative purposes " .
The part of the County of London that had been transferred from Middlesex was divided in 1900 into 18 metropolitan boroughs , which were merged in 1965 to form seven of the present @-@ day inner London boroughs :
Camden was formed from the metropolitan boroughs of Hampstead , Holborn and St Pancras
Hackney was formed from the metropolitan boroughs of Hackney , Shoreditch and Stoke Newington
Hammersmith ( known as Hammersmith and Fulham from 1979 ) was formed from the metropolitan boroughs of Hammersmith and Fulham
Islington was formed from the metropolitan boroughs of Finsbury and Islington
Kensington and Chelsea was formed from the metropolitan boroughs of Chelsea and Kensington
Tower Hamlets was formed from the metropolitan boroughs of Bethnal Green , Poplar and Stepney
The City of Westminster was formed from the metropolitan boroughs of Paddington and St Marylebone and the City of Westminster .
= = = Extra @-@ metropolitan area = = =
Middlesex outside the metropolitan area remained largely rural until the middle of the 19th century and so the special boards of local government for various metropolitan areas were late in developing . Other than the Cities of London and Westminster , there were no ancient boroughs . The importance of the hundred courts declined , and such local administration as there was divided between " county business " conducted by the justices of the peace meeting in quarter sessions , and the local matters dealt with by parish vestries . As the suburbs of London spread into the area , unplanned development and outbreaks of cholera forced the creation of local boards and poor law unions to help govern most areas ; in a few cases parishes appointed improvement commissioners . In rural areas , parishes began to be grouped for different administrative purposes . From 1875 these local bodies were designated as urban or rural sanitary districts .
Following the Local Government Act 1888 , the remaining county came under the control of Middlesex County Council except for the parish of Monken Hadley , which became part of Hertfordshire . The area of responsibility of the Lord Lieutenant of Middlesex was reduced accordingly . Middlesex did not contain any county boroughs , so the county and administrative county ( the area of county council control ) were identical .
The Local Government Act 1894 divided the administrative county into four rural districts and thirty @-@ one urban districts , based on existing sanitary districts . One urban district , South Hornsey , was an exclave of Middlesex within the County of London until 1900 , when it was transferred to the latter county . The rural districts were Hendon , South Mimms , Staines and Uxbridge . Because of increasing urbanisation these had all been abolished by 1934 . Urban districts had been created , merged , and many had gained the status of municipal borough by 1965 . The districts as at the 1961 census were :
After 1889 the growth of London continued , and the county became almost entirely filled by suburbs of London , with a big rise in population density . This process was accelerated by the Metro @-@ land developments , which covered a large part of the county . The expanding urbanisation had , however , been foretold in 1771 by Tobias Smollett in The Expedition of Humphry Clinker , in which it is said :
Pimlico and Knightsbridge are almost joined to Chelsea and Kensington , and , if this infatuation continues for half a century , then , I suppose , the whole county of Middlesex will be covered in brick .
Public transport in the county , including the extensive network of trams , buses and the London Underground came under control of the London Passenger Transport Board in 1933 and a New Works Programme was developed to further enhance services during the 1930s . Partly because of its proximity to the capital , the county had a major role during the Second World War . The county was subject to aerial bombardment and contained various military establishments , such as RAF Uxbridge and RAF Heston , which were involved in the Battle of Britain .
= = = County town = = =
Middlesex arguably never , and certainly not since 1789 , had a single , established county town . London could be regarded as its county town for most purposes and provided different locations for the various , mostly judicial , county purposes . The County Assizes for Middlesex were held at the Old Bailey in the City of London . Until 1889 , the High Sheriff of Middlesex was chosen by the City of London Corporation . The sessions house for the Middlesex Quarter Sessions was at Clerkenwell Green from the early 18th century . The quarter sessions at the former Middlesex Sessions House performed most of the limited administration on a county level until the creation of the Middlesex County Council in 1889 . New Brentford was first promulgated as the county town in 1789 , on the basis that it was where elections of Knights of the Shire ( or Members of Parliament ) were held from 1701 . Thus a traveller 's and historian 's London regional summary of 1795 states that ( New ) Brentford was " considered as the county @-@ town ; but there is no town @-@ hall or other public building " . Middlesex County Council took over at the Guildhall in Westminster , which became the Middlesex Guildhall . In the same year , this location was placed into the new County of London , and was thus outside the council 's area of jurisdiction .
= = = Arms of Middlesex County Council = = =
Coats of arms were attributed by the mediaeval heralds to the Kingdoms of the Anglo @-@ Saxon Heptarchy . That assigned to the Kingdom of the Middle and East Saxons depicted three " seaxes " or short notched swords on a red background . The seaxe was a weapon carried by Anglo @-@ Saxon warriors , and the term " Saxon " may be derived from the word . These arms became associated with the two counties that approximated to the kingdom : Middlesex and Essex . County authorities , militia and volunteer regiments associated with both counties used the attributed arms .
In 1910 , it was noted that the county councils of Essex and Middlesex and the Sheriff 's Office of the County of London were all using the same arms . Middlesex County Council decided to apply for a formal grant of arms from the College of Arms , with the addition of an heraldic " difference " to the attributed arms . Colonel Otley Parry , a Justice of the Peace for Middlesex and author of a book on military badges , was asked to devise an addition to the shield . The chosen addition was a " Saxon Crown " , derived from the portrait of King Athelstan on a silver penny of his reign , stated to be the earliest form of crown associated with any English sovereign . The grant of arms was made by letters patent dated 7 November 1910 .
The undifferenced arms of the Kingdom were eventually granted to Essex County Council in 1932 . Seaxes were also used in the insignia of many of the boroughs and urban districts in the county , while the Saxon crown came to be a common heraldic charge in English civic arms . On the creation of the Greater London Council in 1965 a Saxon crown was introduced in its coat of arms . Seaxes appear in the arms of several London borough councils and of Spelthorne Borough Council , whose area was in Middlesex .
= = = Creation of Greater London = = =
The population of inner London ( then the County of London ) had been in decline as more residents moved into the outer suburbs since its creation in 1889 , and this continued after the Second World War . In contrast , the population of Middlesex had increased steadily during that period . From 1951 to 1961 the population of the inner districts of the county started to fall , and the population grew only in eight of the suburban outer districts . According to the 1961 census , Ealing , Enfield , Harrow , Hendon , Heston & Isleworth , Tottenham , Wembley , Willesden and Twickenham had each reached a population greater than 100 @,@ 000 , which would normally have entitled each of them to seek county borough status . If this status were to be granted to all those boroughs it would mean that the population of the administrative county of Middlesex would be reduced by over half , to just under one million .
Evidence submitted to the Royal Commission on Local Government in Greater London included a recommendation to divide Middlesex into two counties of North Middlesex and West Middlesex . However , the commission instead proposed abolition of the county and merging of the boroughs and districts . This was enacted by Parliament as the London Government Act 1963 , which came into force on 1 April 1965 .
The Act abolished the administrative counties of Middlesex and London . The Administration of Justice Act 1964 abolished the Middlesex magistracy and lieutenancy , and altered the jurisdiction of the Central Criminal Court . In April 1965 , nearly all of Middlesex became part of Greater London , under the control of the Greater London Council , and formed the new outer London boroughs of Barnet ( part only ) , Brent , Ealing , Enfield , Haringey , Harrow , Hillingdon , Hounslow and Richmond upon Thames ( part only ) . The remaining areas were Potters Bar Urban District , which became part of Hertfordshire , and Sunbury @-@ on @-@ Thames Urban District and Staines Urban District , which became part of Surrey . Following the changes , local acts of Parliament relating to Middlesex were henceforth to apply to the entirety of the nine " North West London Boroughs " . In 1974 , the three urban districts that had been transferred to Hertfordshire and Surrey were abolished and became the districts of Hertsmere ( part only ) and Spelthorne respectively . In 1995 the village of Poyle was transferred from Spelthorne to the Berkshire borough of Slough . Additionally , since 1965 the Greater London boundary to the west and north has been subject to several small changes .
= = Geography = =
The county lay within the London Basin and the most significant feature was the River Thames , which formed the southern boundary . The River Lea and the River Colne formed natural boundaries to the east and west . The entire south west boundary of Middlesex followed a gently descending meander of the Thames without hills . In many places " Middlesex bank " is more accurate than " north bank " — for instance at Teddington the river flows north @-@ westward , so the left ( Middlesex ) bank is the south @-@ west bank . In the north , the boundary ran along a WSW / ENE aligned ridge of hills broken by Barnet or ' Dollis ' valleys . ( South of the boundary , these feed into the Welsh Harp Lake or Brent Reservoir which becomes the River Brent ) . This formed a long protrusion of Hertfordshire into the county . The county was thickly wooded , with much of it covered by the ancient Forest of Middlesex . The highest point was the High Road by Bushey Heath at 502 feet ( 153 m ) , which is now one of the highest points in London .
= = Legacy = =
" Middlesex " is used in the names of organisations based in the area such as Middlesex County Cricket Club , the Middlesex Cricket Board and Middlesex University . ( The last two of these were formed some time after Middlesex was abolished as an administrative county . ) There is a Middlesex County Football Association , and two teams that are now within Surrey , Staines Town and Ashford Town ( Middlesex ) as well as Potters Bar Town in Hertfordshire , compete in the Middlesex County Cup . Sir John Betjeman , a native of North London and Poet Laureate , published several poems about Middlesex and the suburban experience . Many were featured in the televised readings Metroland .
As part of a 2002 marketing campaign , the plant conservation charity Plantlife chose the wood anemone as the county flower . In 2003 , an early day motion with two signatures noted that 16 May is the anniversary of the Battle of Albuera and in recent years has been celebrated as " Middlesex Day " , commemorating the valiant efforts of the Middlesex Regiment ( the " Die @-@ hards " ) in that battle . The idea is to recognise and celebrate the historic county . On its creation in 1965 , Greater London was divided into five commission areas for the administration of justice . One was named " Middlesex " and consisted of the boroughs of Barnet , Brent , Ealing , Enfield , Haringey , Harrow , Hillingdon and Hounslow . This was abolished on 1 July 2003 . For genealogical research it was assigned Chapman code MDX , except for the City of London which was assigned code LND .
= = = Former postal county = = =
Middlesex ( abbreviated Middx ) was a former postal county . This was an element of postal addressing in routine use until 1996 , intended to avoid confusion between post towns , and no longer required for the routing of the mail . The postal county did not match the boundaries of Middlesex because of the presence of the London postal district , which stretched into the county to include Tottenham , Willesden , Hornsey and Chiswick . Addresses in this area included " LONDON " but did not include a county . In 1965 Royal Mail retained the postal county because it would have been too costly to amend addresses throughout Greater London . Exceptionally , the Potters Bar post town was transferred to Hertfordshire . Geographically the postal county consisted of two unconnected areas , 6 miles ( 10 km ) apart . These were the smaller area around Enfield and the larger area to the west . It comprised 25 post towns :
† = postal county was not required
The postal county had many border inconsistencies where its constituent post towns encroached on neighbouring counties , such as the villages of Denham in Buckinghamshire , Wraysbury in Berkshire and Eastbury in Hertfordshire which were respectively in the post towns of Uxbridge , Staines and Northwood and therefore in the postal county of Middlesex . Egham Hythe , Surrey also had postal addresses of Staines , Middlesex . Conversely , Hampton Wick was conveniently placed in Kingston , Surrey with its sorting offices just across the river . Nearby Hampton Court Palace has a postal address of East Molesey , therefore associating it with Surrey .
The Enfield post town in the EN postcode area was in the former postal county . All post towns in the HA postcode area and UB postcode area were in the former postal county . Most of the TW postcode area was in the former postal county .
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= Oryzomys peninsulae =
Oryzomys peninsulae , also known as the Lower California rice rat , is a species of rodent from western Mexico . Restricted to the southern tip of the Baja California peninsula , it is a member of the genus Oryzomys of family Cricetidae . Only about twenty individuals , collected around 1900 , are known , and subsequent destruction of its riverine habitat may have driven the species to extinction .
Medium in size for its genus , it was first described as a separate species , but later lumped into other , widespread species until it was reinstated as separate in 2009 . It is distinctive in fur color — grayish brown on the forequarters and reddish brown on the hindquarters — and in some dimensions of its skull , with a high braincase , robust zygomatic arches ( cheekbones ) , and long incisive foramina ( perforations of the palate between the incisors and the molars ) .
= = Taxonomy = =
Oryzomys peninsulae was first collected in 1896 and Oldfield Thomas described it in 1897 as a full species of Oryzomys . It was retained as a distinct species related to O. couesi and O. palustris until 1971 , when Philip Hershkovitz swept it , and other outlying populations of the same species group , as subspecies under an expanded concept of O. palustris . Raymond Hall concurred in the second edition ( 1981 ) of Mammals of North America , arguing that O. peninsulae differed less from mainland Oryzomys populations ( currently classified as O. couesi mexicanus ) than some other forms he included in O. palustris differed from each other . After studies of the contact zone between North American O. palustris and Central American O. couesi in southern Texas and northeastern Tamaulipas ( by Benson and Gehlbach in 1979 and Schmidt and Engstrom in 1994 ) made clear that the two are distinct from each other , O. peninsulae remained as a subspecies of O. couesi . In 2009 , Michael Carleton and Joaquín Arroyo @-@ Cabrales reviewed the classification of western Mexican Oryzomys and used morphological and morphometrical data to characterize four distinct Oryzomys species in the region . O. peninsulae and another isolated population , O. nelsoni from the Islas Marías , were both retained as separate species , as was O. albiventer from montane mainland Mexico . They kept the population in the coastal lowlands as a subspecies , O. couesi mexicanus , of Oryzomys couesi .
The genus Oryzomys currently includes about eight species distributed from the eastern United States ( O. palustris ) into northwestern South America ( O. gorgasi ) . O. peninsulae is part of the O. couesi section , which is centered on the widespread Central American O. couesi and also includes various other species with more limited and peripheral distributions . Many aspects of the systematics of this section remain unclear and it is likely that the current classification underestimates the group 's true diversity . Oryzomys was previously a much larger genus , but most species were progressively removed in various studies , culminating in contributions by Marcelo Weksler and coworkers in 2006 that excluded more than forty species from the genus . Oryzomys and many of the species removed from it are classified in the tribe Oryzomyini ( " rice rats " ) , a diverse assemblage of American rodents of over a hundred species , and on higher taxonomic levels in the subfamily Sigmodontinae of family Cricetidae , along with hundreds of other species of mainly small rodents .
= = Description = =
Oryzomys peninsulae is a medium @-@ sized member of the genus , smaller than O. albiventer but larger than O. couesi mexicanus . Its fur is grayish @-@ brown on the forequarters , but reddish @-@ brown on the hindquarters ; this coloration pattern is unique among western Mexican Oryzomys . The underparts are a dirty white , the feet white above , and the tail dark or brownish above and dirty white below .
In the skull , the braincase is high , the zygomatic arches ( cheekbones ) are broad and squared , and the incisive foramina , which perforate the palate between the incisors and the molars , are long and broad . The upper incisors are orthodont , with their cutting edge nearly vertical . Morphometrically , the skull of O. peninsulae is sharply distinct from other western Mexican Oryzomys .
In fourteen specimens measured by Carleton and Arroyo @-@ Cabrales , total length was 227 to 305 mm ( 8 @.@ 9 to 12 @.@ 0 in ) , averaging 265 @.@ 6 mm ( 10 @.@ 46 in ) ; head and body length was 113 to 152 mm ( 4 @.@ 4 to 6 @.@ 0 in ) , averaging 128 @.@ 9 mm ( 5 @.@ 07 in ) ; tail length was 114 to 156 mm ( 4 @.@ 5 to 6 @.@ 1 in ) , averaging 136 @.@ 8 mm ( 5 @.@ 39 in ) ; hindfoot length was 29 to 34 mm ( 1 @.@ 1 to 1 @.@ 3 in ) , averaging 32 @.@ 0 mm ( 1 @.@ 26 in ) ; and occipitonasal length ( a measure of total skull length ) was 27 @.@ 8 to 34 @.@ 3 mm ( 1 @.@ 09 to 1 @.@ 35 in ) , averaging 31 @.@ 5 mm ( 1 @.@ 24 in ) .
= = Distribution , ecology , and status = =
Twenty @-@ one specimens of O. peninsulae are known : six were caught at Santa Anita in 1896 by D. Coolidge , and Edward William Nelson and Edward Alphonso Goldman obtained fifteen additional individuals in 1906 at San José del Cabo . The two localities , which are about 13 km ( 8 @.@ 1 mi ) apart , were both located along the Río San José , a river in southernmost Baja California Sur , near the southern tip of the Baja California peninsula . Like other Oryzomys species , O. peninsulae is semiaquatic , spending much of its time in the water , but suitable habitat for such a species is estimated to be no more than 13 km2 ( 5 @.@ 0 sq mi ) on the arid Baja California peninsula .
Río San José no longer exists , having fallen prey to irrigation projects , and touristic development of its estuary has resulted in pollution . Biologists working in the area in 1979 and from 1991 to 1993 failed to find O. peninsulae , casting doubt on its continued existence . The lack of records for over a century , small distribution , and destruction of the only known habitat led Carleton and Arroyo @-@ Cabrales to consider the conservation status of O. peninsulae as " critically endangered , if not extinct " . They noted that the status of the species had previously been obscured because it had been lumped for decades with O. couesi , a widely distributed and secure species .
= = Origin = =
It is uncertain how Oryzomys peninsulae arrived at its recent locale in Baja California Sur . In 1922 , Nelson suggested that it may have been introduced from another part of Mexico in a shipment of farm products , but this hypothesis is disproved by the clear differentiation from other western Mexican Oryzomys that the species exhibits .
The species 's range may be relictual in nature : while Oryzomys is currently found along the eastern coast of the Gulf of California only as far north as coastal southern Sonora , the past distribution of the genus may have extended further northward , perhaps even into the southwestern United States , and from there south into Baja California . Subsequent disappearnce of Oryzomys from the northern regions would have led to its observed disjunct distribution , with O. peninsulae isolated on the peninsula . This possibility is supported by the relatively close resemblance between O. peninsulae and O. couesi mexicanus , from coastal western Mexico .
Alternatively , the ancestor of Oryzomys peninsulae may have arrived by rafting during the late Miocene , about six million years ago , when the southern tip of the Baja California peninsula was an island located near what is now Nayarit and Jalisco in western Mexico . Some plants and birds from the area may have a similar biogeographic heritage .
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= Battle of Mycale =
The Battle of Mycale ( Ancient Greek : Μάχη τῆς Μυκάλης ; Machē tēs Mykalēs ) was one of the two major battles that ended the second Persian invasion of Greece during the Greco @-@ Persian Wars . It took place on or about August 27 , 479 BC on the slopes of Mount Mycale , on the coast of Ionia , opposite the island of Samos . The battle was fought between an alliance of the Greek city @-@ states , including Sparta , Athens and Corinth , and the Persian Empire of Xerxes I.
The previous year , the Persian invasion force , led by Xerxes himself , had scored victories at the battles of Thermopylae and Artemisium , and conquered Thessaly , Boeotia and Attica ; however , at the ensuing Battle of Salamis , the allied Greek navies had won an unlikely victory , and therefore prevented the conquest of the Peloponnese . Xerxes then retreated , leaving his general Mardonius with a substantial army to finish off the Greeks the following year .
In the summer of 479 BC , the Greeks assembled a huge army ( by contemporary standards ) , and marched to confront Mardonius at the Battle of Plataea . At the same time , the allied fleet sailed to Samos , where the demoralised remnants of the Persian navy were based . The Persians , seeking to avoid a battle , beached their fleet below the slopes of Mycale , and , with the support of a Persian army group , built a palisaded camp . The Greek commander Leotychides decided to attack the Persians anyway , landing the fleet 's complement of marines to do so .
Although the Persian forces put up stout resistance , the heavily armoured Greek hoplites again proved themselves superior in combat , and eventually routed the Persian troops , who fled to their camp . The Ionian Greek contingents in the Persian army defected , and the camp was assailed and a large number of Persians slaughtered . The Persian ships were then captured and burned . The complete destruction of the Persian navy , along with the destruction of Mardonius 's army at Plataea ( allegedly on the same day as the Battle of Mycale ) , decisively ended the invasion of Greece . After Plataea and Mycale , the allied Greeks would take the offensive against the Persians , marking a new phase of the Greco @-@ Persian Wars . Although Mycale was in every sense a decisive victory , it does not seem to have been attributed the same significance ( even at the time ) as , for example the Athenian victory at the Battle of Marathon or even the Greek defeat at Thermopylae .
= = Background = =
The Greek city @-@ states of Athens and Eretria had supported the unsuccessful Ionian Revolt against the Persian Empire of Darius I in 499 @-@ 494 BC . The Persian Empire was still relatively young , and prone to revolts amongst its subject peoples . Moreover , Darius was a usurper , and had spent considerable time extinguishing revolts against his rule . The Ionian revolt threatened the integrity of his empire , and Darius thus vowed to punish those involved ( especially those not already part of the empire ) . Darius also saw the opportunity to expand his empire into the fractious world of Ancient Greece . A preliminary expedition under Mardonius , in 492 BC , to secure the land approaches to Greece ended with the re @-@ conquest of Thrace and forced Macedon to become a client kingdom of Persia . An amphibious task force was then sent out under Datis and Artaphernes in 490 BC , successfully sacking Naxos and Eretria , before moving to attack Athens . However , at the ensuing Battle of Marathon , the Athenians won a remarkable victory , which resulted in the withdrawal of the Persian army to Asia .
Darius therefore began raising a huge new army with which he meant to completely subjugate Greece . However , he died before the invasion could begin . The throne of Persia passed to his son Xerxes I , who quickly resumed the preparations for the invasion of Greece , including building two pontoon bridges across the Hellespont . In 481 BC , Xerxes sent ambassadors around Greece asking for earth and water as a gesture of their submission , but making the very deliberate omission of Athens and Sparta ( both of whom were at open war with Persia ) . Support thus began to coalesce around these two leading states . A congress of city states met at Corinth in late autumn of 481 BC , and a confederate alliance of Greek city @-@ states was formed ( hereafter referred to as ' the Allies ' ) . This was remarkable for the disjointed Greek world , especially since many of the city @-@ states in attendance were still technically at war with each other .
The Allies initially adopted a strategy of blocking the land and sea approaches to southern Greece . Thus , in August 480 BC , after hearing of Xerxes 's approach , a small Allied army led by the Spartan king Leonidas I blocked the Pass of Thermopylae , whilst an Athenian @-@ dominated navy sailed to the Straits of Artemisium . Famously , the vastly outnumbered Greek army held Thermopylae against the Persians army for six days in total , before being outflanked by a mountain path . Although much of the Greek army retreated , the rearguard , formed of the Spartan and Thespian contingents , was surrounded and annihilated . The simultaneous Battle of Artemisium , consisting of a series of naval encounters , was up to that point a stalemate ; however , when news of Thermopylae reached them , they also retreated , since holding the straits of Artemisium was now a moot point .
Following Thermopylae , the Persian army had proceeded to burn and sack the Boeotian cities which had not surrendered , Plataea and Thespiae , before taking possession of the now @-@ evacuated city of Athens . The allied army , meanwhile , prepared to defend the Isthmus of Corinth . Xerxes wished for a final crushing defeat of the Allies to finish the conquest of Greece in that campaigning season ; conversely the allies sought a decisive victory over the Persian navy that would guarantee the security of the Peloponnese . The ensuing naval Battle of Salamis ended in a decisive victory for the Allies , marking a turning point in the conflict .
Following the defeat of his navy at the Salamis , Xerxes retreated to Asia with , according to Herodotus at least , the majority of the army . Herodotus suggests that this was because he feared the Greeks would sail to the Hellespont and destroy the pontoon bridges , thereby trapping his army in Europe . He thus left Mardonius , with handpicked troops , to complete the conquest of Greece the following year . Mardonius evacuated Attica , and wintered in Thessaly ; the Athenians then reoccupied their destroyed city . Over the winter , there seems to have been some tension among the Allies . In particular , the Athenians , who were not protected by the Isthmus , but whose fleet were the key to the security of the Peloponnese , felt hard done by , and demanded an allied army march north the following year . When the Allies failed to commit to this , the Athenian fleet refused to join the Allied navy in spring . The navy , now under the command of the Spartan king Leotychides , thus skulked off Delos , whilst the remnants of the Persian fleet skulked off Samos , both sides unwilling to risk battle . Similarly , Mardonius remained in Thessaly , knowing an attack on the Isthmus was pointless , whilst the Allies refused to send an army outside the Peloponnese .
Mardonius moved to break the stalemate by trying to win over the Athenians and their fleet through the mediation of Alexander I of Macedon , offering peace , self @-@ government and territorial expansion . The Athenians made sure that a Spartan delegation was also on hand to hear the offer , and rejected it :
The degree to which we are put in the shadow by the Medes ' strength is hardly something you need to bring to our attention . We are already well aware of it . But even so , such is our love of liberty , that we will never surrender .
Upon this refusal , the Persians marched south again . Athens was again evacuated and left to the Persians . Mardonius now repeated his offer of peace to the Athenian refugees on Salamis . Athens , along with Megara and Plataea , sent emissaries to Sparta demanding assistance , and threatening to accept the Persian terms if not . According to Herodotus , the Spartans , who were at that time celebrating the festival of Hyacinthus , delayed making a decision until they were persuaded by a guest , Chileos of Tegea , who pointed out the danger to all of Greece if the Athenians surrendered . When the Athenian emissaries delivered an ultimatum to the Spartans the next day , they were amazed to hear that a task force was in fact already en route ; the Spartan army was marching to meet the Persians .
In response , the Athenian navy under Xanthippus joined with the Allied fleet off Delos . They were then approached by a delegation from Samos , who suggested that the Ionian cities would revolt if the Allied fleet successfully engaged the Persian fleet . They furthermore pointed out the poor morale and reduced seaworthiness of the Persian fleet . Leotychides decided to attempt this , and sailed for Samos .
= = Prelude = =
When the Persians heard that the Allied fleet was approaching , they set sail from Samos towards the Ionian mainland . According to Herodotus , this was because they had decided in council that they could not beat the Allies in a naval battle . They sent the Phoenician ships away ( Herodotus does not explain why ) , and then sailed to the shore near Mount Mycale . Xerxes had left an army there , under the command of Tigranes , to guard Ionia . The Persians beached their ships , built a palisade around them , and prepared to guard the makeshift fort .
Finding the Persian fleet gone from Samos , the Allies were thrown into uncertainty . Eventually they resolved that they would sail to the mainland , and equipped themselves for a naval battle . However , when the Allies approached Mycale , the Persians did not attempt to engage them , and remained guarding their camp . Leotychides therefore sailed as close to the camp as possible , and had a herald make an appeal to the Ionians :
" Men of Ionia , you who hear us , understand what I say , for by no means will the Persians understand anything I charge you with when we join battle ; first of all it is right for each man to remember his freedom and next the battle @-@ cry Hebe : and let him who hears me tell him who has not heard it . "
Herodotus suggests that the purpose of this message was twofold ; firstly to encourage the Ionians , unbeknownst to the Persians , to fight for the Allies ( or at least not to fight against them ) ; or , if the message became known to the Persians , to make the Persians mistrust the Ionians .
Following this appeal , the Allies also beached their ships , and began to prepare to assault the camp . The Persians , guessing that their Samian contingent would support the allies , took away their armour . Furthermore , they sent the Milesians to guard the passes over Mycale , suspecting that the Milesians might also defect . Thus rid of two potential internal threats , the Persians left their camp , and prepared for battle . It is probable that the relatively small number of marines that the Allies had disembarked for the battle made them overconfident , encouraging the Persians to leave the safety of their camp .
Herodotus reports that as the Allies approached the Persian camp , rumour spread amongst them of an Allied victory at Plataea ; Diodorus also claims that Leotychides informed the Allies of victory at Plataea before the battle began . Their morale boosted by this omen , they set forth to win their own victory . Various explanations have been attempted to explain this occurrence , and also the alleged fact that Plataea and Mycale took place on the same day . Green suggests that following the victory at Plataea , the Allied commander Pausanias took control of the Persian beacon system that Xerxes had used to communicate with Asia , and used it to send tidings of Plataea to the Allied fleet . This would explain the rumour of victory and near simultaneous attack , but is only one possible theory .
= = Opposing Forces = =
= = = The Persians = = =
The number of Persian ships and men involved with the battle are , as so often in the Greco @-@ Persian Wars , somewhat problematic . It is clear that the Persian fleet did not dare conduct operations against the Greeks , and thus must have been approximately equal to , or smaller than the Greek fleet . Herodotus gives the size of the Persian fleet at 300 ships ; the Greeks had 378 at Salamis , but must have suffered significant losses , and so they probably also had around 300 in total ( though not necessarily all these ships formed part of the allied fleet for 479 BC ) . The Phoenician ships were dismissed from the Persian fleet before the battle , which reduced its strength further .
Diodorus tells us that to guard the camp and the ships the Persians gathered 100 @,@ 000 men in total , while Herodotus suggests that there were 60 @,@ 000 men in the army under the command of Tigranes . Squaring these two accounts , might suggest that there were c . 40 @,@ 000 men with the fleet . Given that the Persian fleet appears to have been undermanned in the aftermath of Salamis , 200 @-@ 300 ships would indeed give this number of naval personnel ( using Herodotus 's standard complement of 200 men per ship ) . However , this total of 100 @,@ 000 is probably too high ; to accommodate 100 @,@ 000 men and 200 + ships , the Persian camp would have to have been enormous . Estimates made of Mardonius 's huge camp at Plataea , which was planned and built with plenty of time , suggest it might have accommodated 70 @,@ 000 @-@ 120 @,@ 000 men ; it is improbable that such a large camp could have been built at Mycale in the time @-@ frame that Herodotus suggests . It is therefore possible that the 60 @,@ 000 quoted by Herodotus is actually the total number of Persians present at Mycale ; the Persians certainly outnumbered the Allies , emerging from the palisade in confidence after seeing the smaller number of the Allied troops .
= = = The Greeks = = =
Numbers of ships and men for the Allies are also somewhat problematic . Herodotus claims that Leotychides had 110 triremes under his command . However , the previous year , the allies had fielded 271 triremes at the Battle of Artemisium , and then 378 at the Battle of Salamis . We are also told that the Allies had " command of the sea " after Salamis , which implies that they could at least equal the Persian fleet . Diodorus , on the other hand , tells us the allies had 250 ships , which is more consistent with their force levels of the previous year . These two numbers can be reconciled by assuming that Leotychides had 110 triremes under his command before being joined by Xanthippus and the Athenian ships , after the Allied army had marched out from the Peloponnesus . This is the approach taken by Holland , and gives a naval force which might well match the remnants of the Persian fleet .
Although the Athenians had sent 8 @,@ 000 hoplites to Plataea , they would still have had ample manpower to man a large fleet of triremes , especially since rowers tended to be of the lower classes ( the thetes ) who could not afford the equipment to fight as hoplites . The standard complement of a trireme was 200 men , including 14 marines . In the second Persian invasion of Greece , each Persian ship had carried thirty extra marines , and this was probably also true in the first invasion when the whole invasion force was apparently carried in triremes . Furthermore , the Chian ships at the Battle of Lade also carried 40 marines each . This suggests that a trireme could probably carry a maximum of 40 – 45 soldiers — triremes seem to have been easily destabilised by extra weight . Combining these numbers yields a range of 22 @,@ 000 – 58 @,@ 000 men for the Allies , with 3 @,@ 300 – 11 @,@ 250 more heavily armoured marines . Estimates of around 40 @,@ 000 men are given in some sources , which is approximately the median of the possible range , and seems as likely a number as any . However , since only the marines were expected to fight hand to hand , the rowers in the Allied fleet were probably not equipped to fight in a land battle ; it is likely therefore that it was only the marines who contested the battle .
= = Strategic & tactical considerations = =
From a strategic point of view , battle was not necessary for either side ; the main strategic theatre was mainland Greece itself . Although destroying the enemy navy would result in a clear strategic advantage for both sides , attempting this risked the loss of their own navy . The actions of the two sides thus reflect more upon their morale and confidence than on any strategic considerations . The Persians , seeing little to gain in battle , demoralised and riven with dissent , thus sought to avoid a naval battle . Conversely , the Allies , who had initially been as nervous of a battle as the Persians , sought to press home their morale advantage once they were informed of the state of the Persian fleet .
Tactically , the Persian fleet should have held the advantage at sea , since the Athenian part of the Greek fleet was , despite their efforts at Artemisium and Salamis , still raw in seamanship . However , whether because of their low morale , or because they were in fact outnumbered , the Persians sought instead the tactical advantage of joining up with the army under Tigranes , and fortifying a position . However , when the Greeks chose to fight on land , the Persians then threw away the advantage of their fortifications by emerging to fight the Greeks in the open field . Furthermore , as Marathon and Thermopylae had shown , large numbers conferred little advantage against the more heavily armoured hoplites ; thus , as the battle began , it was the Greeks who had the tactical upper hand .
= = The battle = =
The Allies seem to have formed into two wings ; on the right were the Athenians , Corinthians , Sicyonians and Troezenians , and on the left were the Spartans with other contingents . The right wing marched across level ground straight towards the Persian camp , whilst the left wing attempted to outflank the Persians by passing through more broken ground . The right wing thus began fighting with the Persians while the left wing was still approaching . Herodotus reports that the Persians fought well at first , but that the Athenians and the contingents with them wished to win the victory before the Spartans arrived , and thus attacked ever more zealously .
Although the Persians stood their ground for a while , they eventually broke and fled to the palisade . The soldiers of the right wing followed them into the camp , at which point many of the Persian army fled from the camp , except the ethnic Persian troops , who grouped together and fought the Allied soldiers who entered the camp . Finally , the left wing arrived , outflanking the camp and falling on the rear of the remaining Persian forces , thereby completing the rout .
Herodotus tells us that , on seeing the outcome of the battle hung in the balance , the disarmed Samians had joined in on the side of the allies , doing what they could . This inspired the other Ionian contingents to turn on the Persians as well . At which stage in the battle this happened is not clear ; the Samians were presumably not in the main battle line ( being disarmed ) , so it may have been after the Persians retreated to the camp . Meanwhile , the Milesians who were guarding the passes of Mycale also turned on the Persians . At first they misdirected the fleeing Persian contingents so that they ended up back amongst the Allied troops ; then , perhaps seeing the outcome of the battle was certain , they began killing the fleeing Persians .
Herodotus does not mention specific figures for casualties , merely saying that losses were heavy on both sides . The Sicyonians in particular suffered , also losing their general Perilaus . On the Persian side , the admiral Mardontes and the general Tigranes were both killed , though Artayntes escaped . Herodotus says that a few Persians troops escaped the battle and made their way to Sardis . Diodorus claims that there were 40 @,@ 000 Persian casualties , and also suggests that the survivors made their way to Sardis .
= = Aftermath = =
When the Spartans arrived , the Persian camp was looted and their beached ships destroyed . Returning to Samos they then discussed their next moves . Leotychides proposed that they evacuate the cities of the Ionian Greeks and bring the population to the Greek mainland , since it would be difficult to defend Ionia against further Persian attacks . Xanthippus however vehemently objected to this , since the Ionian cities were originally Greek colonies . The Ionian Greeks later joined the Athenians in the " Delian League " against Persia .
With the twin victories of Plataea and Mycale , the second Persian invasion of Greece was over . Moreover , the threat of a future invasion was abated ; although the Greeks remained worried that Xerxes would try again , over time it became apparent that the Persian desire to conquer Greece was much diminished .
After the victory at Mycale , the Allied fleet sailed to the Hellespont to break down the pontoon bridges , but found that this was already done . The Peloponnesians sailed home , but the Athenians remained to attack the Chersonesos , still held by the Persians . The Persians in the region , and their allies , made for Sestos , the strongest town in the region , and the Athenians laid siege to them there . After a protracted siege , Sestos fell to the Athenians , marking the beginning of a new phase in the Greco @-@ Persian Wars , the Greek counterattack . Herodotus ended his Histories after the Siege of Sestos . Over the next 30 years , the Greeks , primarily the Athenian @-@ dominated Delian League , would expel ( or help expel ) the Persians from Macedon , Thrace , the Aegean islands and Ionia . Peace with Persia finally came in 449 BC with the Peace of Callias , finally ending the half @-@ century of warfare .
= = Significance = =
Mycale and Plataea have great significance in ancient history as the battles which decisively ended the second Persian invasion of Greece , thereby swinging the balance of the Greco @-@ Persian Wars in favour of the Greeks . The Battle of Salamis saved Greece from immediate conquest , but it was Mycale and Plataea which effectively ended that threat . However , neither of these battles are as well known as Thermopylae , Salamis or Marathon . The reason for this discrepancy is not entirely clear ; it might however be a result of the circumstances in which the battle was fought . The fame of Thermopylae certainly lies in the doomed heroism of the Greeks in the face of overwhelming numbers ; Marathon and Salamis perhaps because they were both fought against the odds , and in dire strategic situations . Conversely , the Battles of Plataea and Mycale were both fought from a relative position of Greek strength , and against lesser odds ; perhaps the Greeks were even expecting to win and had certainly seen the opportunity to deal the final blow .
Militarily , the major lesson of both Mycale and Plataea ( since both were fought on land ) was the repeated confirmation of the superiority of the hoplite over the more lightly armed Persian infantry , as had first been demonstrated at Marathon . Taking on this lesson , after the Greco @-@ Persian Wars the Persian empire started recruiting and relying on Greek mercenaries . This was amply illustrated later on by the Ten Thousand and Xenophon .
= = = Ancient sources = = =
Herodotus , The Histories Perseus online version
Ctesias , Persica ( excerpt in Photius 's epitome )
Diodorus Siculus , Biblioteca Historica
Plutarch , Aristides
Xenophon , Anabasis
= = = Modern sources = = =
Holland , Tom . Persian Fire . Abacus , 2005 ( ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 349 @-@ 11717 @-@ 1 )
Green , Peter . The Greco @-@ Persian Wars . Berkeley : University of California Press , 1970 ; revised ed . , 1996 ( hardcover , ISBN 0 @-@ 520 @-@ 20573 @-@ 1 ) ; 1998 ( paperback , ISBN 0 @-@ 520 @-@ 20313 @-@ 5 )
Lazenby , JF . The Defence of Greece 490 – 479 BC . Aris & Phillips Ltd . , 1993 ( ISBN 0 @-@ 85668 @-@ 591 @-@ 7 )
Fehling , D. Herodotus and His " Sources " : Citation , Invention , and Narrative Art . Translated by J.G. Howie . Arca Classical and Medieval Texts , Papers , and Monographs , 21 . Leeds : Francis Cairns , 1989
Connolly , P. Greece and Rome at War , 1981
Finley , Moses ( 1972 ) . " Introduction " . Thucydides – History of the Peloponnesian War ( translated by Rex Warner ) . Penguin . ISBN 0 @-@ 14 @-@ 044039 @-@ 9 .
Goldsworthy , A. ( 2003 ) . The Fall of Carthage . Cassel . ISBN 0 @-@ 304 @-@ 36642 @-@ 0 .
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= Caulfield Grammar School =
Caulfield Grammar School is an independent , co @-@ educational , Anglican , day and boarding school , located in Melbourne , Victoria , Australia . Founded in 1881 as a boys ' school , Caulfield began admitting girls exactly one hundred years later . The school amalgamated with Malvern Memorial Grammar School ( MMGS ) in 1961 , with the MMGS campus becoming Malvern Campus .
Caulfield has three day campuses in Victoria , Caulfield ( Years 7 – 12 ) , Wheelers Hill ( Kindergarten – Year 12 ) , and Malvern House ( Kindergarten – Year 6 ) . It has an outdoor education campus at Yarra Junction , and a student centre in Nanjing , China where the Year 9 internationalism programme is conducted . Caulfield is the only Melbourne @-@ based APS school to provide boarding for both boys and girls , with 95 boarding students , and is the second largest school in Victoria , currently catering for approximately 3 @,@ 000 students .
= = History = =
Joseph Henry Davies , who had served as a missionary in southern India , purchased the site for the school — it was adjacent to the Elsternwick railway station , and had been a small lolly shop — for £ 25 on 16 April and employed his sister and two brothers as teachers . Davies ' aim was " that the School should be a thoroughly Christian one " that looked to render " Christian service " .
Although the school was originally located in Elsternwick , it is thought to have been named Caulfield Grammar School because Caulfield was the regional locality — and the geographical boundaries of Melbourne 's suburban areas were not strictly defined or precisely named at the time — also , it is significant that the vicar of St Mary 's Anglican Church in Caulfield had provided Davies with support when opening the school . Davies had gone to India under the auspices of St Mary 's , having been a member of the church for several years before that .
Caulfield Grammar School was founded on 25 April 1881 , by Davies , with just nine pupils . Davies ' original intention was to commence classes on Wednesday , 20 April 1881 ; however , due to circumstances that were never clearly explained , Davies postponed the school 's opening , at the last minute , until Monday , 25 April 1881 .
Davies later went to Korea as a missionary under the auspices of the Victorian Presbyterian church , having been ordained as Presbyterian minister at Scots ' Church , Melbourne on 5 August 1889 ; he had broken from the Church of England and , through this act , also broken from the Church Missionary Society .
A year after opening , the school had 32 students enrolled . To house the growing student body , the school then moved to a nearby small building nearby , destroyed in a fire in 1890 . In 1896 , the school subsumed Hawksburn Grammar School , a smaller local Christian school , situated in Wynnstay Road , Prahran , after Hawksburn 's headmaster , Walter Murray Buntine , was appointed as headmaster at Caulfield . Hawksburn 's 55 students subsequently transferred to Caulfield . The current site , a property near Sir Frederick Sargood 's Rippon Lea Estate on what is now Glen Eira Road , St Kilda East was purchased in 1909 . Classes began on the site on 9 February 1909 and the school 's boarding house opened in 1912 .
By 1931 , the school 's 50th anniversary , attendance had grown to 500 students but Caulfield was still considered small compared to schools such as Scotch College , Melbourne , Wesley College Melbourne and Melbourne Grammar School . To celebrate the Golden Jubilee , a Jubilee Fair was held at the school in May . In the same year , the school moved from private ownership to a registered company governed by a School Council , an organisational structure still used today , with formal affiliation with the Church of England . In 1958 Caulfield joined the exclusive Associated Public Schools of Victoria schoolboy sporting competition . Caulfield was Victoria 's fifth largest school in 1959 , with over 800 students .
In 1961 , Caulfield affiliated with Malvern Memorial Grammar School . Malvern Grammar School opened in 1890 as a boys @-@ only secondary school and in 1924 moved into the Valentine 's Mansion , formerly the home of Sir John Mark Davies ( no relation to the school 's founder ) , a Victorian Cabinet minister . The mansion was built in 1892 and contains a large ballroom . Valentine 's Mansion has been listed as a place of historical and architecture significance by both the Victorian Heritage Register and the Register of the National Estate .
The school was renamed Malvern Memorial Grammar School in 1947 to honour old boys who had fought in World Wars I and II . Malvern Memorial Grammar School amalgamated with Shaw House in 1971 and became the Malvern Campus , a primary school located in the Valentine 's Mansion , and its students began to wear the Caulfield Grammar School uniform . From 1949 to 1979 , Caulfield had operated Shaw House , its primary school located in Mayfield Street , St Kilda East , offering kindergarten and schooling from Years 1 to 3 .
During the 1960s and 1970s , student activism saw changes in the school 's policies relating to students . Appointed prefects were replaced in 1970 by an elected School Committee to represent the student body , the publication of a student newsletter Demos — containing editorials on aspects of the school — was allowed , religious education classes were made voluntary for senior year levels , the position of school chaplain was abolished , and Caulfield was the only APS school to allow its students to participate in moratorium marches protesting the Vietnam War on 8 May 1970 .
The school 's centenary year , 1981 , marked the appearance of the first girls at Caulfield , as a second senior school campus opened at Wheelers Hill on 26 April . Caulfield had purchased the land for a future project in 1969 , and a new campus was established to celebrate the centenary . Wheelers Hill began as a coeducational school for all year levels . In 1993 , the other campuses opened to girls , making Caulfield fully coeducational .
The school established a computer network in 1997 with all students and staff having individual log in details , email accounts , and file space . Unlike other Australian independent schools , Caulfield Grammar School has not followed the trend of making laptops compulsory for students . However , the school provides an online login system or Intranet for students and staff that is accessed via existing entry passwords and usernames . This capability is referred to as the School 's sixth or " virtual " campus , and enables access to email and files from the school network over the Internet .
After Caulfield Campus ' historic War Memorial Hall , built in 1958 , was burnt down in an electrical fire on 14 November 2000 — a Melbourne Cup public holiday — Caulfield Grammar School began to plan the construction of major halls at both Caulfield and Wheelers Hill campuses , naming the project " The Twin Halls " . The Memorial Hall at Wheelers Hill was officially opened on 28 July 2005 and the Cripps Centre at Caulfield Campus opened on 25 October 2005 . Each hall seats 650 people ; the Wheelers Hill hall including a new chapel fitted with a multimedia centre and Caulfield hall including a music / visual art department .
Caulfield Grammar School now has over 3 @,@ 000 students throughout its three @-@ day campuses . It is the only Melbourne @-@ based school in the APS to provide boarding for both boys and girls , with nearly 100 boarding students from rural Australia , Melbourne and overseas . For non @-@ international students , fees range from A $ 14 @,@ 000 to A $ 25 @,@ 000 per year for day students , and in excess of $ 30 @,@ 000 for boarding students . Caulfield received A $ 2 @,@ 134 @,@ 444 as estimated ERI ( federal funding ) in 2000 , which increased to A $ 6 @,@ 573 @,@ 791 in 2004 . As with most Australian independent schools , Caulfield is not a full fee paying institution ; full fees apply only to international students , who are not subsidised by government funding .
The 125th anniversary of Caulfield 's founding was marked in 2006 and various events were held in commemoration . On 26 April 2006 , the school community held a day of celebrations ( ANZAC Day — a national public holiday — is held in Australia on 25 April , the actual anniversary of the founding ) . Staff and students at all five campuses of the school — with student groups visiting both the Nanjing and Yarra Junction campuses at the time — formed " 125TH " at their respective campuses and an aerial photograph was taken . Other celebrations during the year included a 125th Anniversary Ball at Crown Casino for past and present staff and parents , as well as past students . The annual Founders ' Day service at St Paul 's Cathedral was attended by guest of honour , Governor of Victoria Dr. David de Kretser , a past parent of the school . The School Council commissioned author Helen Penrose to write a history of the school entitled Outside the Square , which was released in 2006 .
The school is a member of the Associated Public Schools of Victoria ( APS ) , and is affiliated with the Headmasters ' and Headmistresses ' Conference , the Association of Heads of Independent Schools of Australia ( AHISA ) , the Junior School Heads Association of Australia ( JSHAA ) , the Australian Boarding Schools ' Association , and the Association of Independent Schools of Victoria ( AISV ) .
= = = Yarra Junction Campus = = =
In 1947 , a country centre opened at Yarra Junction on land donated by the Cuming family . Cuming House was the first outdoor education campus for an Australian school , set in the Australian bush and close to the Yarra River . The Yarra Junction Campus today allows students to live in sustainable eco @-@ cabins with rainwater tanks and solar power technology . The Earth Studies Centre , Wadambawilam ( Aboriginal term for ' learning place ' ) , operates on wind and solar power , and uses many environmentally sound practices to teach students about long @-@ term environmental sustainability . Also on campus is a commercial dairy which produces over 1 million litres of milk annually . On United Nations World Environment Day 2001 the Yarra Junction Campus won an award for Best School Based Environment Project for its energy @-@ saving eco @-@ cabins project .
= = = Nanjing Campus = = =
The school opened a fifth campus in Nanjing , China in 1998 , with a residential campus constructed on property owned by the High School Affiliated to Nanjing Normal University . This became the first overseas campus for an Australian high school , and the first campus established by a foreign secondary school in China . It is staffed by six full @-@ time Australian teachers , as well as four trainees selected from the school 's annual graduating Year 12 class who complete 12 month gap year placements . Most Caulfield Year 9 students take part in five week internationalism programs and are based in Nanjing .
Former Australian Prime Minister John Howard and then @-@ Victorian Premier Jeff Kennett both sent formal congratulations letters to Caulfield on the campus ' establishment , and Australian Minister for Foreign Affairs Alexander Downer witnessed the signing of an agreement to build the campus in 1996 ; also present were the Mayor of Nanjing , the Principal of the High School Affiliated to Nanjing Normal University , and Caulfield 's principal Stephen Newton . The Governor of Victoria James Gobbo officially opened the campus on 6 May 1998 . Caulfield focuses on Mandarin Chinese as its major Language Other Than English , with the language first offered as a senior school subject in 1963 , and later becoming the sole Asian language taught as it had higher student enrolments than Indonesian . It has been taught at every year level across all three campuses since 1994 , and the establishment of a campus in Nanjing allowed the school to strengthen its ties with the region . Nanjing was selected as the campus ' location in part because Jiangsu province , of which Nanjing is the capital and largest city , is Victoria 's sister @-@ state , and Nanjing University had previously established an Australian studies department .
Controversy arose in June 2001 when a group of six Caulfield students at the Ming Tombs were found to have graffitied this site , writing their full names on a wall near to the tomb entrance . The story was reported on the front page of Melbourne 's major newspapers , The Herald Sun and The Age , after the students were returned home to Australia . The school , in conjunction with Australian consular officials , resolved the issue with the Chinese government .
When a global outbreak of severe acute respiratory syndrome ( SARS ) occurred in 2003 , and had the highest confirmed cases in China , the school postponed all scheduled trips to China in 2003 indefinitely . The group which was in China at the time of the outbreak – March and April 2003 – travelled to Xi 'an instead of Beijing to avoid the peak areas of infection , and returned to Australia via Tokyo 's International Airport several days before the scheduled departure on the advice of the Australian Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade . The remaining groups returned in the second half of 2003 to participate in shortened three @-@ week programmes .
On 5 May 2008 , Caulfield celebrated the 10th anniversary of the Nanjing Campus and held two concerts hosted at the High School Affiliated to Nanjing Normal University .
Stephen Newton , Caulfield 's principal from 1993 to 2011 , was made an Officer of the Order of Australia in 2012 , for " distinguished service to education in the independent schools sector , through executive roles with professional organisations and advisory bodies , and to the development of educational development opportunities with China , " recognising his role in founding the Nanjing Campus .
= = Academics = =
Caulfield offers students a wide range of subjects in its academic curriculum . All students study Mandarin Chinese – the school 's major Language Other Than English , taught because of China 's developing importance in the Asia @-@ Pacific region – from primary school to Year 8 , and German in Years 7 and 8 , and may continue these languages as electives thereafter . The school awards scholarships for a range of fields , including academic excellence , theatre , music , art and sports .
= = = Middle school structure = = =
Caulfield has reorganised the early years of secondary school , which had previously been overshadowed by the VCE ( Years 10 – 12 ) and attempts to upgrade programmes for senior students . Years 7 through 9 make up the middle school , and operate differently from the later VCE years . New initiatives at the middle school include a learning mentor programme , introduced in 2004 at the Year 8 level , and expanded to Year 7 in 2005 . This provides every class with two teachers to around 30 students . Each class is assigned a learning mentor , who attends all of that group 's lessons and assists each student with improving their own learning style . The mentor focuses on both academic and pastoral issues , while the designated subject teacher is responsible for preparing and teaching the set curriculum .
Year 9 at Caulfield is seen as a year where students prepare to undertake the VCE ( Years 10 – 12 ) . Students do not have examinations , as would happen in any other senior school year at Caulfield , but rather focus on their classroom studies and the Learning Journeys programme . Learning Journeys is a combination of various subjects previously studied in Year 9 – history , geography , religious education and personal development – with students working in groups of around 15 pupils to one teacher . Classes last for one full school day each week , and students regularly participate in numerous excursions as part of the subject 's curriculum .
Year 9 is also the year in which most students participate in the China internationalism programme at the Nanjing campus . Approximately 300 students attend the campus annually ; students who do not take part in the programme study international culture in Australia and are based in Melbourne . Students study five key themes of Chinese culture during one of six five @-@ week programmes offered throughout the year : heritage , work , family , education and environment . Students are based at the residential campus in Nanjing , and also spend three days in Shanghai , one day in Tong Li , Suzhou , and four days in Beijing , with lessons based around visits to sites such as the Great Wall of China , the Forbidden City and the Ming Xiaoling Mausoleum . They also complete two day homestay visits with students from the High School Affiliated to Nanjing Normal University , and participate in English and Mandarin language lessons with their homestay partners . In addition to the Year 9 programmes , a two @-@ week study tour for Year 11 students studying Chinese as a Second Language is held annually in the break between Term 3 and 4 . These students travelling to the Nanjing campus for language lessons and activities , including a homestay visit with students from the High School Affiliated to Nanjing Normal University , and also spend time in Shanghai and Hangzhou .
= = = Victorian Certificate of Education = = =
Caulfield Grammar School senior students study for the Victorian Certificate of Education ( Caulfield does not offer the International Baccalaureate ) , achieved after graduating from Year 12 . While the VCE is usually completed over two years , in 2003 Caulfield began to encourage Year 10 students to take as many as three VCE Unit 1 / 2 courses usually studied at Year 11 . This programme is seen as giving students a taste of the VCE a year earlier , thereby giving them a chance to prepare for what is to come ; it also allows Year 11 students to undertake Unit 3 / 4 studies , so that they effectively begin part of their Year 12 course a year earlier , maximising their ATAR scores by studying up to six subjects over this time .
Year 11 students studying Mandarin may return to China on a two @-@ week language @-@ focused study tour at the Nanjing campus . For students studying German , there are places available for exchanges to Germany during the summer holidays .
Both of Caulfield 's campuses ranked in the top 40 schools in Victoria for 2009 results , including the top 30 amongst private schools . Caulfield also has associations with Australian universities which have led to the introduction of annual awards for VCE students at the school . One Year 12 graduate from the school is awarded a Collegiate Partnership Scholarship to attend Bond University , a private university in Queensland , with 50 % of tuition for an undergraduate degree provided .
= = = Outdoor education = = =
The Yarra Junction campus hosts student camps at various year levels : Year 3 students attend for one day , Year 5 students for three days , Year 7 students have one week camps , and Year 8 students have 11 day programmes including a three @-@ day outdoor camping activity . At each of the camps involving overnight stays by students , student leaders currently in Years 10 and 11 accompany groups for the duration of their programmes . Year 10 and 11 students wishing to act as leaders attend a leadership camp at the campus at the end of the previous school year , and a number are then selected to take part in student camps . As part of various camps , students stay in eco @-@ cabins and must monitor their use of both water and electricity . Lessons also take place at Wadambawilam and at the campus dairy .
= = Student life = =
Caulfield offers an extracurricular activities programme for students . The major components of the programme are sport , music and the Arts .
= = = Sport = = =
Students from Years 5 to 12 participate in school sport as part of the APS competition .
Caulfield was one of the founding members of the Schools ' Association of Victoria in 1882 , but when the legitimacy of the association 's amateur status was questioned , Caulfield and Brighton Grammar School formed the Schools ' Amateur Athletic Association of Victoria in 1911 ( renamed the Associated Grammar Schools of Victoria in 1921 ) , and were joined by other Melbourne private and church schools in the competition . In 1958 , Caulfield accepted an offer to join the Associated Public Schools of Victoria . The APS was Victoria 's most competitive school sporting association , and after initially poor results the school introduced compulsory involvement in sporting teams in 1958 in an attempt to improve its performance . Caulfield currently holds an APS record for winning 12 consecutive APS Boys ' Athletics Championships from 1994 to 2005 , and has won numerous 1st Division premierships throughout its history . The First XVIII football team won 18 consecutive premierships from 1913 to 1930 – the longest championship run for a Caulfield Firsts team .
For students from Years 5 to 12 , inter @-@ school sport is a compulsory activity . Teams usually train twice a week , often travelling between Caulfield and Wheelers Hill or to other sporting venues , and play matches against other APS schools on Saturdays . Sports played include cricket , football , rowing , athletics and swimming . A United Kingdom Cricket and Tennis tour every three years sees Caulfield Grammar students play matches against students from such schools as Eton College and The King 's School , Canterbury .
The main facilities for sport are shared over both Caulfield and Wheelers Hill campus . At Caulfield , the Lindsay Thompson Centre is used for indoor sports such as basketball and netball , and the Alfred Mills Oval is the traditional home of the First XI cricket and First XVIII football teams . The oval has been a venue of matches in the 2004 Commonwealth Bank Under 19 Cricket Championships , and the venue for a match between the England women 's cricket team and the Victoria Spirit women 's team in January 2008 . Wheelers Hill includes four sports ovals , AstroTurf tennis and hockey courts , and outdoor netball courts .
= = = Controversy = = =
Like many other private schools , Caulfield Grammar School has withstood a deal of criticism on the practice of offering lucrative scholarships to students who excel in sporting competitions . The Age has reported that several students from Christian Brothers College , St. Kilda were lured to Caulfield after sporting events . Although the school does not offer sports scholarships as such , many talented students are attending on ' General excellence ' scholarships .
= = = The Arts = = =
Primary students in Year 2 learn to play either the violin , viola or cello , and for most students this is their first introduction to the Caulfield music programme . Year 4 students choose one of seven of woodwind and brass instruments to learn for a year . Year 7 students also take part in compulsory music tuition where they may choose one instrument to learn as part of a small group , with a range of musical groups represented including guitars , brass , woodwind and percussion . They may also take part in a singing group , or work in a composition workshop where they learn about songwriting , patterns in music and improvisation . Students who wish to learn an instrument in private lessons may do so from prep through to Year 12 , and many of these musicians go on to join various musical ensembles available at Caulfield . School bands , choirs and orchestras are open to students from Year 3 onwards , and many of these musical groups are on show at the annual Caulfield Grammar School Concert at Melbourne 's Hamer Hall . Senior choirs and bands also take part in such events as the Kodaly Choral Festival and Melbourne Bands Festival .
Caulfield 's most senior orchestral group is the Galamian Orchestra , which is primarily a string group , but expands to add other instruments when required . The group went on a small tour to England and Austria in June and July 2000 . In 2006 , the " No Strings Attached " stage band and the senior concert band toured European nations , and was featured in the Montreux Jazz Festival on 5 July 2006 . School music groups rehearse regularly in the music departments at each of the three campuses , and students from Wheelers Hill and Caulfield perform together in the three premier groups at Caulfield Grammar – the Galamian Orchestra , the No Strings Attached stage band , and the Chamber Choir . These groups perform at major school events such as the annual year @-@ ending Speech Night presentations , the Founders ' Day chapel service , and the School Concert , as well as performing at music festivals in Melbourne and on tours . In 2005 renowned Australian jazz musician James Morrison performed with the " No Strings Attached " stage band at Monash University .
Caulfield also competes in the Debaters Association of Victoria Schools competition , and Caulfield Campus is the host venue for the Caulfield regional competition . Five debates are held each year , and Caulfield teams debate against other Melbourne schools on various current interest topics . Students are also involved in mooting , where teams argue legal matters based on evidence and precedent , and compete in the Bond University Mooting competition .
The school 's theatre department produces productions at both primary and secondary level across all three metropolitan campuses . Previously , students have performed in drama tours to European and Asian countries .
= = Alumni = =
All past students of the school are members of the Caulfield Grammarians ' Association ( CGA ) , which coordinates reunions , alumni sporting teams and other activities for alumni , known as Caulfield Grammarians . The CGA was formed in 1885 , and is believed to have been in continuous operation since 1906 , the year of the 25th anniversary of Caulfield 's founding . The Caulfield Grammarians Football Club competes in the Victorian Amateur Football Association , and has been represented by notable former Australian rules football players , including Dean Anderson and Duncan Kellaway ( both past students of Caulfield ) , as well as Glenn Archer and Anthony Stevens .
A number of Caulfield alumni have made significant contributions in the fields of government , sports , music , business and academia among others . Among those who have had involvement in politics , Peter Dowding ( Western Australia ) and Lindsay Thompson ( Victoria ) , have served as state premiers . Chris Judd and John Schultz have both been awarded the Brownlow Medal for the fairest and best player in the Victorian / Australian Football League , and John Landy has held both the men 's mile world record in athletics and the office of Governor of Victoria . John Clifford Valentine Behan , later second Warden of Trinity College at the University of Melbourne , became the first Victorian Rhodes Scholar after graduating as the Dux of Caulfield Grammar School in 1895 . Fred Walker founded the company that first created and sold Vegemite , an Australian spread and cultural icon .
The rock group The Birthday Party was formed by Nick Cave , Mick Harvey and Phill Calvert while they were students at the school in 1973 , and Cave and Harvey would later form the band Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds , which released Top 10 albums in Australia and the United Kingdom . Cave and Harvey had been members of the school choir under the direction of Norman Kaye , who became a noted actor and musician after working at Caulfield as a music teacher and choirmaster .
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= University Mall ( Little Rock , Arkansas ) =
University Mall was a shopping center in central Arkansas which operated for approximately 40 years , from 1967 until 2007 . When it closed , University Mall was the oldest enclosed shopping center in the Little Rock metropolitan area . Located in the central part of Little Rock , the site is situated along South University Avenue , north of the University of Arkansas at Little Rock and Interstate 630 . The mall was managed by Indianapolis @-@ based Simon Property Group .
The Mall was initially a huge success , but its popularity declined as new retail outlets in Little Rock drew customers away . Then the departure of its anchor stores , beginning with the bankruptcy of Montgomery Ward in 2001 , left more than half the building empty . Throughout the 1990s , the mall steadily declined as retailers and customers left . Due to the waning popularity and litigation involving the deterioration of the building , the mall was sold in 2007 to Strode Property Company , and the remaining few tenants were told to vacate . Demolition began for the primary structure in early 2008 . Prior to this , associated buildings were razed beginning in December 2007 , starting with the former Montgomery Ward auto center , as well as the former JCPenney auto center , which had been used several years as an automotive maintenance facility for the City of Little Rock .
= = History = =
= = = Development = = =
The developer was Melvin Simon & Associates , an Indianapolis @-@ based real estate developer and management company that is now known as the Simon Property Group Inc . This was the company 's first venture in Arkansas ; however , they had already built around 40 other shopping centers in the United States . The landowners were stockholders in a corporation that was listed as Developers Inc . Developers Inc. included " Judge " William J. Smith , a prominent Little Rock Attorney and adviser to Gov. Orval E. Faubus . Smith 's wife , daughter , and Son in Law Mr. and Mrs. William L. Patton , Jr. and John Cella of St. Louis who owned Oaklawn Jockey Club , the thoroughbred racetrack in Hot Springs , Arkansas . Developers Inc. dissolved a few months before the announcement of the mall . According to newspapers from the time stockholders of the former corporation became the owners of the mall property . George Cella and Bill Patton , children of the original corporation owners , were mentioned in the later litigation regarding the property that led to its closure and sale in 2007 .
Smith told a reporter that he got the idea for the mall when he was driving down University Avenue in the 1950s , when it was known as Hayes Street . He felt that it was a good buy and called John Cella and told him it would be a good investment for them . During the next 15 years , the two managed to acquire the surrounding 28 acres ( 110 @,@ 000 m2 ) for the mall site . This included a cemetery that was moved during construction . The acreage was leased to the Simon Property Group until 2026 .
Plans for the mall were announced in 1965 . Simon is quoted as saying that the site offered " the best potential he had ever seen " for a city the size of Little Rock . The mall complex comprised 565 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 52 @,@ 500 m2 ) leasable square feet , the rest for parking of 2 @,@ 500 cars , and was a single level structure when it opened . MM Cohn was the first major department store to sign a lease at the new mall . At the time , it was one of the three big locally owned department stores in downtown Little Rock . A few weeks later , Montgomery Ward and J.C. Penney announced that they too would build their own stores on the property as well . Montgomery Ward built a 136 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 12 @,@ 600 m2 ) square foot store on the southeast corner of the mall . It marked a return of the national store to full @-@ scale operation in Little Rock , where it had operated only a catalog store downtown for 11 years . The addition and a 37 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 3 @,@ 400 m2 ) warehouse took up about 40 percent of the mall 's square footage . The J.C. Penney store , at the west end of the mall , contained some 160 @,@ 000 square feet ( 15 @,@ 000 m2 ) and a free @-@ standing auto center , marking it the largest department store in the state .
= = = 1975 and 1987 renovations = = =
In 1975 , the mall underwent some cosmetic renovation and was renamed from simply The Mall to University Mall , probably to diversify it from the new McCain Mall Simon was planning for North Little Rock . The mall 's reopening was held in March of that year . News accounts say that special emphasis was placed on a security program . University Mall drew thousands of shoppers yearly and was known for its holiday displays and programs . It also became a favorite place for many walkers , including retirees and heart patients from St. Vincent Infirmary Medical Center , located just across University Avenue .
In October 1987 , Simon announced a $ 15 million expansion and renovation of the University Mall structure . The renovation was handled by the Vratsinas Construction Co. of Tulsa and started in 1988 , ending about a year later . The expansion would add 70 @,@ 000 square feet ( 6 @,@ 500 m2 ) to existing 565 @,@ 000 square feet ( 52 @,@ 500 m2 ) in the mall . Several existing tenants also said they would spend another $ 3 million on remodeling and expansion . MM Cohn updated their store and added a mall entrance on their second floor . The J.C. Penney store was enlarged . This expansion gave the mall its most distinctive feature , the unusual Teflon @-@ coated tent @-@ like structure over part of the new concourse . It was referred to as the skylight because it let so much light in . The skylight reached nine stories high and a height variance had to be sought for its construction . The concourse was expanded to two levels connected by escalators and an elevator . The new upper level had a cantilevered walkway overlooking the bottom level and a 9 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 840 m2 ) food court . A multi @-@ level parking garage was also built on the north side of the mall .
A grand four @-@ day reopening was held in November 1988 . Corbin Bernsen of the television show L.A. Law was brought in to help celebrate . An oversized electrical switch turned on the lights that officially reopened the renovated mall . The reopening also featured an elaborate carousel as its centerpiece .
By this time , the mall had about 55 stores and was expecting eventually to house 70 . The mall had some 697 @,@ 000 square feet ( 64 @,@ 800 m2 ) of leasable space . However , there was other retail activity in the city that would eventually affect University Mall . Herring Marathon Group Inc. of Dallas unveiled plans to convert the then @-@ open @-@ air Park Plaza shopping center into an enclosed mall directly across Markham Street , just north of University Mall . The Park Plaza shopping center was almost 30 years old at the time , and a landmark of the rapidly expanding West Little Rock area . Herring Marathon said that it would completely rebuild and enclose the total area , increasing it to 676 @,@ 569 square feet ( 62 @,@ 855 @.@ 3 m2 ) — including 25 @,@ 000 square feet ( 2 @,@ 300 m2 ) of new retail area , plus a new 86 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 8 @,@ 000 m2 ) Dillard 's store anchoring the west end of Park Plaza . Builders estimated that the work would cost about $ 20 million . Renaissance Properties Ltd. of Little Rock , which had created the Main Street Mall in downtown Little Rock , announced its 22 initial tenants . For the next decade , University Mall still had plenty of business . But when the Main Street Mall succumbed to the effects of Little Rock 's dying downtown , McCain Mall and Park Plaza emerged as the best places to shop .
= = = Decline = = =
The first real problems with University Mall started appearing in the 1980s when tenants voiced concerns about remodeling and marketing efforts . Osco Drug began closing its stores everywhere , three in Little Rock alone in 1997 . In 2001 , Montgomery Ward went bankrupt and closed all of its stores leaving a two @-@ story 140 @,@ 900 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 13 @,@ 090 m2 ) vacant building on the University Mall site . Shopping traffic dropped dramatically afterward and a steady stream of tenants began leaving the property . In the beginning of 2001 Simon Property said the occupancy of University Mall was at 95 percent . In April 2001 , after the departure of Montgomery Ward , a report by the Urban Land Institute of Washington , D.C. , said 40 percent of the mall was vacant . In 2004 the William L. Patton Jr . Family Limited Partnership of Arkansas and southern Real Estate and Financial Co. sued Simon Property Group Inc seeking an injunction forcing Simon to " undertake any and all actions necessary " to restore the mall to good conditions . The land owners said the entire mall was in a state of disrepair and neglect . They claimed that Simon 's neglect to maintain the building had been driving away tenants for decades . A team of inspectors hired by the landowners to document the condition of the mall testified in 2005 that the vacant Montgomery Ward space was full of puddles , moldy ceiling tiles , and dead pigeons .
In December 2006 , Simon presented a proposal to raze the mall and build a 625 @,@ 000 to 675 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 62 @,@ 700 m2 ) mixed use facility with retail , office , medical , and residential space at a news conference at the Little Rock Regional Chamber of Commerce building in Little Rock . The project would have potentially included half a dozen individual structures , including a big @-@ box retailer on the west , two high @-@ rise multifamily residential buildings on the north and a multistory medical office complex on University Avenue . Paschall Strategic Communications , who was assisting with Simon ’ s public relations campaign on the project , said that the negotiations were “ going very well ” , however these plans did not apparently come to pass .
In June 2007 , US District Judge Bill Wilson , Jr. ruled that Simon must make more than $ 7 million in repairs to get the mall into " good and tenable condition " . Pending the sale of the property , the lawsuit was dropped .
= = = Demolition = = =
In October 2007 , the William L. Patton , Jr . Family Limited Partnership and the Southern Real Estate & Financial Co. sold the 27 acres ( 110 @,@ 000 m2 ) beneath the mall and another acre with a convenience store on the corner of Markham and McKinley . Dallas @-@ based Strode Property Company , led by Jim Strode , under the name of SPC Park Avenue Limited Partnership took out a loan for $ 27 @.@ 65 million mortgage from Texas State Bank of Dallas and purchased the mall property for $ 21 million . The Simon management issued a deadline to the remaining tenants to vacate the mall by midnight on October 27 . Strode reportedly planned to demolish the mall and build an open @-@ air shopping center called " Park Avenue " similar to the Midtowne Little Rock shopping center just to the northeast of the property . Strode said that after knocking down the old mall he planned to build a “ lifestyle center ” with a Main Street feel . The only parts of the old University Mall that would be integrated into Park Avenue were the parking deck , with a possible third level added , and the Montgomery Ward basement .
Saturday , October 27 , 2007 was the last shopping day at the mall , although only two locally owned retailers remained open — Paul 's Shoes and Nouri Dress Shop . ( Both businesses relocated to Shackleford Crossings , on the property which had been slated as the long @-@ disputed potential Summit Mall site . ) The entire University Mall property was then surrounded by chain link fence or other barricades following the exit of all tenants . Demolition of buildings in outer parcels began in December 2007 , with demolition of the primary structure starting January 2008 and finishing up in March . Strode projected that its mixed @-@ used Park Avenue development would open on the site in 2010 .
The property where the mall was is now a Target store and parking lot .
= = Anchors = =
M.M. Cohn ( 27 @,@ 800 square feet ) - Opened 1967 / Expanded to 70 @,@ 000 square feet in 1972 / Shuttered in September 2007
Montgomery Ward ( 136 @,@ 000 square feet ) - Opened 1967 / Shuttered March 2001
J.C. Penney ( 159 @,@ 400 square feet ) - Opened 1967 / Shuttered September 2007
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= Peter Trombino =
Peter Trombino is a retired lacrosse attackman who played professional field lacrosse in the Major League Lacrosse ( MLL ) from 2007 to 2008 . He starred as a member of the Princeton Tigers men 's lacrosse team from 2004 through 2007 . He earned Ivy League Rookie of the Year honors , two United States Intercollegiate Lacrosse Association ( USILA ) All @-@ American honorable mention recognitions and three All @-@ Ivy League selections ( one first team and two second team ) . During his college career , Princeton earned two Ivy League championships and three NCAA Men 's Lacrosse Championship tournament invitations . In high school he won a state championship in lacrosse and two league championships in American football .
= = Background = =
Born , September 23 , 1985 , Trombino is the son of Anthony and Cathleen Trombino . His brother Brian played lacrosse at Hofstra . He also has a younger brother Christopher and younger sister Elizabeth . Trombino attended St. Anthony 's , which is a Roman Catholic college preparatory private high school , in South Huntington , New York on Long Island . He participated on both the lacrosse and American football teams in high school . Trombino also competed in the Empire State Games in lacrosse . He earned varsity letters in both lacrosse and American high school football for the St. Anthony 's Friars .
In American football , as a junior in high school , Trombino made a fourth quarter interception in the end zone to help St. Anthony 's earn a Long Island Catholic High School Football League championship game in high school football . He played cornerback on the two @-@ time league champions who went 22 – 1 during his career .
In lacrosse , Trombino was an all @-@ Long Island selection . He led his school to a 20 – 1 record and the Catholic League state championship during his senior year . Additionally , he was an Empire State Games gold medalist .
= = College career = =
Trombino attended Princeton University where he was a history major . He was also a lacrosse player for four years and is the only Princeton player to have at least 20 goals and 10 assists each year of a four @-@ year career . Princeton qualified for the NCAA Men 's Lacrosse Championship in three of Trombino 's four years ( 2004 , 2006 & 2007 ) .
As a freshman , Trombino was expected to be a midfielder , but he surprisingly earned a spot in the first team attack unit . He became the first Princeton freshman to score at least one goal in all 15 of his games ( the prior record had been a goal in 10 different games ) . Trombino was the 2004 Men 's Ivy League Rookie of the Year . The team were Ivy League co @-@ champions with Cornell . As a freshman in the 2004 NCAA Division I Men 's Lacrosse Championship , he scored an overtime game @-@ winning goal in a 9 – 8 quarterfinals victory over Maryland that was set up by Ryan Boyle . However , in the semifinals the following week against Navy , Trombino 's shot was stopped with eight seconds left in the 8 – 7 loss .
In 2005 , Trombino was Princeton 's leading scorer . He was a second team All @-@ Ivy League selection . In March 2006 , Trombino scored two goals and an assist in the defeat of Johns Hopkins that ended the defending national champion Blue Jays ' 17 @-@ game winning streak and 37 @-@ game ( 38 was the NCAA record ) home winning streak . In the game , he had to shift from attack to midfield in the second half when Mike Gaudio suffered a knee injury . The team finished the season as Ivy League co @-@ champion with Cornell . He was a second team All @-@ Ivy League selection that year as well as an honorable mention USILA All @-@ American Team selection . In the 2006 NCAA Division I Men 's Lacrosse Championship first round 11 – 8 victory over UMBC Trombino scored two goals and had two assists . In the quarterfinals , Princeton was eliminated by Maryland 11 – 6 in the subsequent game .
Princeton qualified for the 2007 NCAA Division I Men 's Lacrosse Championship , but was eliminated by Georgetown 9 – 8 in the first round . In 2007 , Trombino was a first team All @-@ Ivy League selection . He was an honorable mention USILA All @-@ American Team selection . As a senior , Trombino served as co @-@ captain of the 2007 team . He wrote his senior thesis on The Influence of Sir William Johnson Among the Iroquois Indians .
= = Professional career = =
He played with the Philadelphia Barrage during the 2007 and 2008 seasons . During the 2008 season with the Philadelphia Barrage , he once scored nine goals over a two @-@ game stretch on the road ( against the New Jersey Pride and Los Angeles Riptide ) . He only appeared in one game for Philadelphia in 2007 . However , in 2008 , he played in 10 games and scored fifteen goals , including one two @-@ pointer , and had seven assists . He had a total of thirty @-@ eight shot attempts in his career , all in 2008 .
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= 1920 Hammond Pros season =
The 1920 Hammond Pros season was the franchise 's inaugural season in the American Professional Football Association ( APFA ) and second as an American football team . The Pros entered 1920 coming off a 4 @-@ win , 2 @-@ loss , 3 @-@ tie ( 4 – 2 – 3 ) record in 1919 as an independent team . Several representatives from another professional football league , the Ohio League , wanted to form a new national league , and thus the APFA was created .
The Pros opened the 1920 season with a 26 – 0 loss to the Rock Island Independents . The team did not score a point until their third game , and ended the season with a 2 – 5 record , which placed it tied for 11th place in the final standings . The sportswriter Bruce Copeland compiled the 1920 All @-@ Pro list , but no players from the Pros were on it . As of 2012 , no player from the 1920 Hammond Pros roster has been enshrined in the Pro Football Hall of Fame .
= = Offseason = =
The Hammond Pros , who were named the Hammond All @-@ Stars , finished 4 – 2 – 3 in their 1919 season as an independent team . The All @-@ Stars disbanded , and three teams were created from those players : the Chicago Tigers , the Decatur Staleys , and the Pros . After the 1919 season , representatives of four Ohio League , a professional football league based in Ohio , teams — the Canton Bulldogs , the Cleveland Tigers , the Dayton Triangles , and the Akron Pros — called a meeting on August 20 , 1920 to discuss the formation of a new professional league . At the meeting , they tentatively agreed on a salary cap and pledged not to sign college players or players already under contract with other teams . They also agreed on a name for the circuit : the American Professional Football Conference . They then invited other professional teams to a second meeting on September 17 .
At that meeting , held at Bulldogs owner Ralph Hay 's Hupmobile showroom in Canton , representatives of the Rock Island Independents , the Muncie Flyers , the Decatur Staleys , the Racine Cardinals , the Massillon Tigers , the Chicago Cardinals , and the Hammond Pros agreed to join the league . Representatives of the Buffalo All @-@ Americans and Rochester Jeffersons could not attend the meeting but sent letters to Hay asking to be included in the league . Team representatives changed the league 's name slightly to the American Professional Football Association and elected officers , installing Jim Thorpe as president . Under the new league structure , teams created their schedules dynamically as the season progressed , so there were no minimum or maximum number of games needed to be played . Also , representatives of each team voted to determine the winner of the APFA trophy .
= = = Roster = = =
Mose Bashaw
Tony Catalano
Edward Davis
Guil Falcon
Hank Gillo
Wilbur Henderson
Wally Hess
Max Hicks
Carol Johnson
Klinks Meyers
= = Schedule = =
The table below was compiled using the information from NFL History , which uses various contemporary newspapers . If a team has a dagger ( ) , then that team in a non @-@ APFA team . For the results column , the winning team 's score is posted first followed by the result for the Pros . For the attendance , if a cell is greyed out and has " N / A " , then that means there is an unknown figure for that game . The green @-@ colored cells indicates a win ; and the red @-@ colored cells indicate a loss . The Pros , who did not have a scheduled home game , were a traveling team .
= = Game summaries = =
= = = Week 3 : at Rock Island Independents = = =
October 10 , 1920 at Douglas Park
The Pros started their season in week three with a game against the Rock Island Independents . The Independents already played two games and were undefeated . There were no scores by either team in the first or third quarters , but the Independents scored 13 points in the second and fourth . Running backs Fred Chicken , Ray Kuehl , and Gerald Mansfield accounting for four touchdowns throughout the game . Quarterback Pudge Wyman throw two touchdowns — a 35 @-@ yard one to Kuehl and a 20 @-@ yard one to Mansfield . Hammond started to purposely injure their opponents during the game because they realized the Independents were a much greater team . As a result , Rube Ursella suffered a twisted knee . Duey Lyle was kicked in the face and required seven stitches . Lastly , Ed Healey was kicked in the face needed five stitches in the cheek .
= = = Week 4 : at Dayton Triangles = = =
October 17 , 1920 at Triangle Park
The Dayton Triangles were the Pros ' next opponent . For a second week in a row , the Pros did not score a point . In the first quarter , Triangle back Al Mahrt had a one @-@ yard rushing touchdown . The Triangles scored three touchdowns in the second quarter : a 50 @-@ yard receiving touchdown from Mahrt , a 35 @-@ yard receiving touchdown from end Dave Reese , and a rushing touchdown from back Lou Partlow . The extra point was missed after the first touchdown . In the next quarter , back George Roudebush kicked a 35 @-@ yard field goal . The last score of the game was a receiving touchdown from back Norb Sacksteder . The final score of the game was 44 – 0 before a crowd of 2 @,@ 000 .
= = = Week 6 : at Logan Squares = = =
October 31 , 1920 at Logan Square Park
After two losses , the Pros decided to not schedule a game in week five and challenge a non @-@ APFA team in week six . Their next opponent , the Logan Squares from Chicago , Illinois , were on a two @-@ game winning streak . The scoring summary is unavailable , but the Pros defeated the Squares 14 – 9 in front of 3 @,@ 000 attendees .
= = = Week 7 : at Pullman Thorns = = =
November 7 , 1920 in Chicago , Illinois
In week seven , the Pros challenged the Pullman Thorns , a non @-@ APFA team . The Thorns were undefeated going into this game with a record of 3 – 0 . The scoring summary is unknown . For the Pros , Hank Gillo and Mace Roberts both scored rushing touchdowns ; for the Thorns , LaForest had two rushing touchdowns . The Pros converted two extra points , while the Thorns only converted one . The final score of the game was a 14 – 13 victory for the Pros .
= = = Week 8 : at Gary Elks = = =
November 14 , 1920 at Gleason Field
After a two @-@ game winning streak , the Pros played the Gary Elks , a non @-@ APFA team , at Gleason Field , with 2 @,@ 000 people in attendance . The Elks game into the game with an undefeated 5 – 0 – 1 record . The Pros were the first team to score when Gilo had a 20 @-@ yard rushing touchdown in the first quarter ; the extra point was missed , however . The score would stay 6 – 0 until Smeltzer of the Elks caught a pass from Leverette in the fourth quarter . The extra point was made , and the final score of the game was a 7 – 6 loss for the Pros .
= = = Week 9 : at Decatur Staleys = = =
November 21 , 1920 at Staley Field
In week 9 , the Pros battled the Decatur Staleys in front of 3 @,@ 000 fans . In the first quarter , Staley back Ralph Lanum scored a 23 @-@ yard rushing touchdown . This touchdown was Lanum 's only score of the entire 1920 season . Ed Sternaman of the Staleys scored a 10 @-@ yard rushing touchdown in the second quarter . Also , George Halas caught a 15 @-@ yard receiving touchdown from Jimmy Conzelman to have the game 21 – 0 going into halftime . In the third quarter , the Staleys did not score , but the Pros put points on the board . Wally Hess caught a 15 @-@ yard pass from Emmett Specht for a touchdown . In the final quarter , Halas scored a 26 @-@ yard receiving touchdown , and the game ended 28 – 7 .
= = = Week 10 : at Chicago Boosters = = =
November 25 , 1920 at DePaul Field
In their final game of the 1920 season , the Pros played the Chicago Boosters , a non @-@ APFA team . The Boosters came into the game with an undefeated record of 3 – 0 – 4 . The scoring summary is unknown , but four players of the Boosters — Annan , Bond , Reilly , Applehans — scored a touchdown . The final score of the game was a 27 – 0 loss for the Pros .
= = Standings = =
Awarded the Brunswick @-@ Balke Collender Cup and named APFA Champions.Note : Tie games were not officially counted in the standings until 1972 .
= = Post season = =
With a losing record , the Pros could not contend for the APFA Championship . After the season was over , the team hired Max Hicks to be the coach for the following season . The Pros ' 1920 record of 2 – 5 – 2 would be their best outing until 1924 ; the team folded two years later . Sportswriter Bruce Copeland compiled the 1920 All Pro team , but no player made the list . As of 2012 , no players from the 1920 Hammond Pros were enshrined in the Pro Football Hall of Fame .
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= Kingdom of the Isles =
The Kingdom of the Isles comprised the Hebrides , the islands of the Firth of Clyde and the Isle of Man from the 9th to the 13th centuries AD . The islands were known to the Norse as the Suðreyjar , or " Southern Isles " as distinct from the Norðreyjar or Northern Isles of Orkney and Shetland . The historical record is incomplete , and the kingdom was not a continuous entity throughout the entire period . The islands concerned are sometimes referred to as the Kingdom of Mann and the Isles , although only some of the later rulers claimed that title . At times the rulers were independent of external control , although for much of the period they had overlords in Norway , Ireland , England , Scotland or Orkney . At times there also appear to have been competing claims for all or parts of the territory . The islands involved have a total land area of over 8 @,@ 300 square kilometres ( 3 @,@ 205 sq mi ) and extend for more than 500 kilometres ( 310 mi ) from north to south .
Viking influence in the area commenced in the late 8th century , and whilst there is no doubt that the Uí Ímair dynasty played a prominent role in this early period , the records for the dates and details of the rulers are speculative until the mid @-@ 10th century . Hostility between the Kings of the Isles and the rulers of Ireland , and intervention by the crown of Norway ( either directly or through their vassal the Earl of Orkney ) were recurring themes .
Invasion by Magnus Barefoot in the late 11th century resulted in a brief period of direct Norwegian rule over the kingdom , but soon the descendants of Godred Crovan re @-@ asserted a further period of largely independent overlordship . This came to an end with the emergence of Somerled , on whose death in 1164 the kingdom was split in two . Just over a century later the islands became part of the Kingdom of Scotland , following the 1266 Treaty of Perth .
= = Geography = =
The principal islands under consideration are as follows :
The Isle of Man , located in the Irish Sea equidistant from modern England , Northern Ireland , Scotland and Wales .
The islands of the Firth of Clyde some 140 kilometres ( 87 mi ) to the north , the largest of which are Bute and Arran .
The southern Inner Hebrides to the west and north of the Kintyre peninsula , including Islay , Jura , Mull and Iona .
The Inner Hebrides to the north of Ardnamurchan , made up of the Small Isles ( including Eigg and Rùm ) , Skye , Raasay and their outliers .
The Outer Hebrides , aka the " Long Island " to the west , separated from the northern Inner Hebrides by the waters of The Minch .
These islands , often referred to as the Sudreys , have a total land area of approximately 8 @,@ 374 square kilometres ( 3 @,@ 233 sq mi ) of which :
the Isle of Man is 572 square kilometres ( 221 sq mi ) , 7 % of the total
the Islands of the Clyde 574 square kilometres ( 222 sq mi ) , 7 % of the total
the Inner Hebrides 4 @,@ 158 square kilometres ( 1 @,@ 605 sq mi ) , 50 % of the total and
the Outer Hebrides 3 @,@ 070 square kilometres ( 1 @,@ 185 sq mi ) , 36 % of the total .
Anglesey in modern Wales may also have been part of the insular Viking world from an early stage .
Orkney is some 180 kilometres ( 110 mi ) east @-@ northeast of the Outer Hebrides , Shetland is a further 80 kilometres ( 50 mi ) further northeast and Norway some 300 kilometres ( 190 mi ) due east of Shetland . The total distance from the southern tip of the Isle of Man to the Butt of Lewis , the northern extremity of the Outer Hebrides , is approximately 515 kilometres ( 320 mi ) .
= = Early history = =
= = = Early Viking incursions in the Hebrides = = =
Prior to the Viking incursions the southern Hebrides formed part of the Gaelic kingdom of Dál Riata ( or Dalriada ) . North of Dál Riata the Inner and Outer Hebrides were nominally under Pictish control although the historical record is sparse . According to Ó Corráin ( 1998 ) " when and how the Vikings conquered and occupied the Isles is unknown , perhaps unknowable " , although from 793 onwards repeated raids by Vikings on the British Isles are recorded . " All the islands of Britain " were devastated in 794 with Iona being sacked in 802 and 806 . Various named Viking leaders , who were probably based in Scotland , appear in the Irish annals : Soxulfr in 837 , Turges in 845 and Hákon in 847 . Another early reference to the Norse presence in the Irish records is that there was a king of " Viking Scotland " whose heir , Thórir , took an army to Ireland in 848 .
In the 9th century the first references to the Gallgáedil ( i.e. " foreign Gaels " ) first appear . This term was variously used in succeeding centuries to refer to individuals of mixed Scandinavian @-@ Celtic descent and / or culture who became dominant in southwest Scotland , parts of northern England and the isles .
According to the Orkneyinga Saga , in about 872 Harald Fairhair became King of a united Norway and many of his opponents fled to the islands of Scotland including the Hebrides of the west coast , and the Northern Isles . Harald pursued his enemies and incorporated the Northern Isles into his kingdom in 875 and then , perhaps a little over a decade later , the Hebrides as well . The following year the local Viking chieftains of the Hebrides rebelled . Harald then sent Ketill Flatnose to subdue them , which he did quickly , but then he declared himself an independent " King of the Isles " , a title he retained for the rest of his life . Ketill is also sometimes equated with Caittil Find , a reported leader of the Gallgáedil fighting in Ireland in 857 , although this connection is far from definite . Ketill left no successors and there is little record of the succeeding four decades . However , Woolf ( 2007 ) suggests that his appearance in the sagas " looks very much like a story created in later days to legitimise Norwegian claims to sovereignty in the region . "
There are similar problems with the provenance of Gofraid mac Fergusa , the supposed 9th @-@ century ruler of the Hebrides and ancestor of Clan Donald . It has been suggested that his appearance looks " very much like the product of fourteenth @-@ century propagandists from Clann Donald " .
= = = House of Ímar = = =
In 870 Dumbarton was besieged by Amlaíb Conung and Ímar , " the two kings of the Northmen " , who " returned to Dublin from Britain " the following year with numerous captives . It is therefore likely that Scandinavian hegemony was already significant on the western coasts of Scotland by then . Amlaíb Conung is described as the " son of the king of Lochlainn " in the Fragmentary Annals of Ireland and Ó Corráin ( 1998 ) argues that Lochlainn " is Viking Scotland and probably includes Man " at this time suggesting an early date for an organised Kingdom of the Isles . In the same source Amlaíb Conung is also recorded as having gone to the aid of his father Gofraidh , who was under assault from Vikings in Lochlainn in about 872 . Gofraidh died in 873 and may have been succeeded briefly by Ímar who also died that year . Amlaíb probably died in 874 . A lament for Áed mac Cináeda , a Pictish king who died in 878 , suggests Kintyre may have been lost to his kingdom at that time . The Norse may have taken the Isle of Man in 877 and they certainly held it by 900 . In 902 the Vikings were expelled from Dublin for up to a dozen years , and a year later Ímar , the " grandson of Ímar " was killed in battle with the forces of Constantine II in mainland Scotland . However these events were setbacks for the Norse rather than a definitive moment . Internecine fighting is recorded in the Annals of Ulster of 914 , which describe Ragnall ua Ímair 's defeat of Bárid mac Oitir in a naval battle off the Isle of Man .
The first four decades of the 10th century are an obscure period so far as the Hebrides are concerned . It is possible that Ragnall ua Ímair , who probably ruled Mann during this period may have had some influence . However , Amlaíb Cuarán is the next King of the Isles on record . After the death of Amlaíb mac Gofraid in 941 , Amlaíb Cuarán became King of Northumbria and probably succeeded his cousin Amlaíb as King of Mann . The former is recorded as being the Rex plurimarum insularum , suggesting he may have been the first King of both Mann and the Western Isles of Scotland .
Amlaíb , who died some four decades later in 980 or 981 whilst in " religious retirement " on Iona , was succeeded by Maccus mac Arailt , who was probably his nephew . Maccus 's brother Gofraid mac Arailt then succeeded him . During their lifetimes these two " sons of Harald " are known to have launched at least two major expeditions against Ireland , and the latter is recorded as having won " the battle of Man " in 987 . Iona was sacked twice , in 986 and 987 , Amlaíb Cuarán 's later piety notwithstanding . This battle of Man , recorded by the Annals of Ulster , is said to have been won by Gofraid and " the Danes " – possibly forces directly from Scandinavia under the command of Olaf Tryggvason . The Annals of Ulster record Gofraid 's death in Dalriada in 989 , describing him as " king of Innse Gall " although it is not clear if this was a completely new term or had originally been used earlier , perhaps to refer to Amlaíb Cuarán 's island kingdom . The complex geography of western Scotland and the lack of written records makes certainty about the extent and nature of these kingdoms hard to fathom . For example , the Chronicle of the Kings of Alba indicates that almost all these kings who reigned from the mid @-@ 10th to the late 11th century were buried on Iona . This may mean that Iona and Mull lay either within or close to the emerging Kingdom of Scotland . Furthermore , two records in the Annals of Innisfallen hint that the Western Isles may not have been " organised into a kingdom or earldom " at this time but rather that they were " ruled by assemblies of freeholders who regularly elected lawmen to preside over their public affairs " .
= = = Earls of Orkney and Kings of Dublin = = =
At this point the Orkneyinga Saga once again becomes the main source of information about the north . In 990 Sigurd the Stout , Earl of Orkney took control of the Hebrides , and placed a jarl called Gilli in charge . By 1004 the isles ' independence had been re @-@ asserted under Gofraid 's son Ragnal mac Gofraid , who died in that year . It is possible their rule overlapped , with Gilli 's zone of influence to the north and Ragnal 's to the south . On Ragnal 's death Sigurd re @-@ asserted control , which he held until his death at the Battle of Clontarf after which the islands may have been held by Håkon Eiriksson . According to the Welsh text Historia Grufudd vab Kenan Olaf Sigtryggsson is recorded as having been king of a wide variety of places on his death in 1034 . These included the Isle of Man , " many of the other islands of Denmark " , Galloway , the Rhinns , and Anglesey . Olaf was an Uí Ímair dynast and it is difficult to reconcile his rule with that of the Norwegians who apparently came before and after him according to the sagas . There is also an obscure reference in The Prophecy of Berchán hinting that King Máel Coluim mac Cináeda of Scotland may have been active in Islay and Arran at about this time , emphasising the potentially fluid nature of Scandinavian , Norse @-@ Gael and Scots influence during this period .
The next recorded ruler is Sigurd the Stout 's son Thorfinn the Mighty , who took control circa 1035 until his own death some two decades later . The continuing close alliance of the Isles with Norway is suggested by a record from the Annals of Tigernach for the year 1058 : " A fleet was led by the son of the king of Norway , with the Gaill of Orkney , the Hebrides and Dublin , to seize the kingdom of England , but God consented not to this " . This monarch of Norway was Magnus Haraldsson , who may have used the death of Thorfinn as an excuse to exert direct rule of Orkney and the Hebrides .
However , in the mid @-@ 11th century the Uí Ímair dynast Echmarcach mac Ragnaill is said to be the ruler of Mann . He was also King of Dublin from 1036 – 38 and 1046 – 52 as well as possibly being the King of the Rhinns in Galloway , suggesting that the overlordship of the Isle of Man and the Hebrides were once again sundered , ( although it is possible he ruled over part or all of the Hebrides as well ) .
Murchad mac Diarmata is then recorded as having control of Mann and Dublin followed by his father Diarmait mac Maíl na mBó , the High King of Ireland , who took possession of Mann and the Isles until his death in 1072 . Godred Sitricson and his son Fingal Godredson then ruled in Mann at least , but the records for the rulers of the Hebrides remain obscure until the arrival of Godred Crovan .
= = = Godred Crovan and Irish influence = = =
" Crovan " probably means " white hand " although the reason is unknown and his origins are also uncertain . Godred may have been a son or nephew of Imar mac Arailt , King of Dublin and by extension a descendant of Amlaíb Cuarán . He was a survivor of Harald Hardraade 's defeat at the Battle of Stamford Bridge in 1066 and fled from there to Man . Little is then heard of him until he succeeded in taking the island from Fingal in 1079 , possibly with the help of troops from the Western Isles . The ancestor of many of the succeeding rulers of Mann and the Isles he also became King of Dublin , but no contemporary source refers either to him or any of his predecessors as " King of Mann and the Isles " as such . He was eventually ousted from Dublin by Muirchertach Ua Briain and fled to Islay , where he died in the plague of 1095 . It is not clear the extent to which Ui Briain dominance was now asserted in the islands north of Man , but growing Irish influence in these seas brought a rapid and decisive response from Norway . A high level of political instability is suggested by the battle fought on the Isle of Man at Santwat in 1098 . This was internal strife between the men of the north of the island under Jarl Óttar , and the southerners led by a man named MacManus or Macmaras .
= = Later history = =
= = = Norse and Uí Briain influence = = =
Perhaps as a result of general disorder in the islands , and to counter Irish influence there , Magnus Barelegs had re @-@ established direct Norwegian overlordship by 1098 . He first took Orkney , the northern Scottish mainland and the Hebrides , where he " dyed his sword red in blood " in the Uists . According to the Heimskringla , Magnus had his longship dragged across the isthmus north of Kintyre in 1093 as part of his campaign . By taking command of his ship 's tiller and " sailing " across the isthmus he was able to claim the entire peninsula was an island , and it remained under Norwegian rule for more than a dozen years as a result .
In 1098 , Edgar of Scotland signed a treaty with Magnus that settled much of the boundary between the Scots and Norwegian claims in the islands . Edgar formally acknowledged the existing situation by giving up his claims to the Hebrides and Kintyre .
A second expedition in 1102 saw incursions into Ireland ; the Heimskringla saga reports that he obtained Muirchertach Ua Briain 's daughter Bjaðmunjo in marriage to his young son , Sigurd , whom he then left in nominal charge of the isles . This arrangement did not last long . On 23 August 1103 Magnus was killed fighting in Ulster and the 14 @-@ year @-@ old Sigurd returned to Norway without his bride . The next king was Lagmann Godredsson , Godred Crovan 's son , who was apparently appointed with Sigurd 's consent . He successfully fought off a rebellion by his brother Harald and after reigning for seven years he abdicated " repenting that he had put out his brother 's eyes " and went on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem , where he died .
Lagmann abdicated during his surviving son Olave 's minority , and either by force or the invitation of the nobility of the Isles Domnall mac Taidc Ua Briain ( Domnall MacTade ) , a grandson of Echmarcach mac Ragnaill , became overlord of the isles in 1111 . Whatever his route to accession , he proved to be an unpopular tyrant and was expelled by the Islesmen after two years , fleeing to Ireland .
Two years later Sigurd attempted to appoint Ingemund ( whose background is unknown ) to take possession of the kingdom of the Isles . However , when Ingemund arrived on Lewis he sent messengers to all the chiefs of the Isles to summon them to assemble and declare him king . In the meantime he and his followers spent the time in " plundering and revelling . They violated girls and matrons , and gave themselves up to every species of pleasure amid sensual gratification . When the news reached the chiefs of the Isles , who had already assembled to appoint him king , they were inflamed with great rage , hastened against him , and coming upon him in the night , set fire to the house in which he was , and destroyed , partly by the sword and partly by the flames , Ingemund and all his followers . "
The next recorded king was Godred Crovan 's son Olave Godredsson , also known as " the Red " to the Highlanders and " Bitling " to the Norwegians , the latter apparently on account of his small size . He had spent time at the court of Henry I of England , who may have encouraged his ambitions in an attempt to minimise Ui Briain dominance over the Irish Sea and environs . Olave reigned for forty years , managing to maintain a degree of peace and stability throughout . Nevertheless , the era was not without incident . During his time Oitir Mac mic Oitir , one of the Hebridean nobles , took Dublin by force and held it for six years before his assassination in 1148 . Oitir 's son Thorfinn was described as the most powerful of the Hebridean lords in 1150 . In 1152 Olave 's nephews in Dublin rose against him and attacked Man , killing him in the process .
Olave 's son Godred the Black succeeded him and had his father 's killers executed . Shortly thereafter the warring Mac Lochlainn clan in Ireland along with " the fleet of Galloway , Arran , Kintyre , Man , and the territories of Scotland " are recorded fighting a naval battle off Inishowen against the Ui Briain dynasty . During his reign the citizens of Dublin offered Godred the rule of the city , which he accepted . Then , according to the Manx Chronicle , he inflicted a heavy defeat on his erstwhile Mac Lochlainn allies , following which he and his chieftains returned to the islands , leaving the city to the invading forces of Diarmait Mac Murchada .
= = = Somerled = = =
Godred 's dictatorial style appears to have made him very unpopular with the Islesmen , and the ensuing conflicts were the beginning of the end for Mann and the Isles as a coherent territory under the rule of a single magnate . The powerful barons of the isles began plotting with an emerging and forceful figure – Somerled , Lord of Argyll . Somerled 's parental origins are obscure , but it is known that he had married Ragnhildis , daughter of Olave the Red and Godred 's half @-@ sister . It is possible that Somerled first found favour with Olave by helping him wrest control of the northern Hebrides from the Earls of Orkney , whose influence had once more spread into the Sudreys . Somerled 's popularity led to his son with Ragnhildis , Dubgall , being heralded throughout the Isles ( save Man itself ) as a future King of the Isles by " Thorfinn , son of Ottar " . When Godred heard of this he engaged Somerled 's forces in the naval Battle of Epiphany in 1156 . There was no clear victor , but it was subsequently agreed that Godred would remain the ruler of Man , the northern Inner Hebrides and the Outer Hebrides , whilst Somerled 's young sons would nominally control the southern Inner Hebrides , Kintyre and the islands of the Clyde under their father 's supervision . Two years later Somerled 's invasion of the Isle of Man caused Godred to flee to Norway , leaving the former as undisputed ruler of the entire realm .
The Hebrides had been difficult to control from a distance since the days of Ketill Flatnose , and even in the time of Magnus Barelegs it is likely that de facto control was that of local rulers rather than nominal governance from over the seas . Somerled took this to its ultimate conclusion , declaring himself an independent ruler of the isles from his power base in the southern Hebrides and Kintyre and he had , in effect , recreated Dalriada . There has been some debate about the source of legitimacy Somerled used . It has been suggested that claims of his descent from Gofraid mac Fergusa are " preserved in Gaelic tradition and accepted as broadly authentic by modern scholars " . However , Woolf ( 2005 ) asserts that " contrary to the image , projected by recent clan @-@ historians , of Clann Somhairle as Gaelic nationalists liberating the Isles from Scandinavians , it is quite explicit in our two extended narrative accounts from the thirteenth century , Orkneyinga saga and The Chronicle of the Kings of Man and the Isles , that the early leaders of Clann Somhairle saw themselves as competitors for the kingship of the Isles on the basis of their descent through their mother Ragnhilt " and that their claim " to royal status was based on its position as a segment of Uí Ímair . " This prince of Argyll is one of the best known historical figures from the Gàidhealtachd of Scotland , and is known in Gaelic as Somairle mac Gille Brigte , although his Norse name , Somarlidi , has the literal meaning of " summer traveller " , a common name for a Viking .
Somerled met his death in 1164 , possibly assassinated in his tent as he camped near Renfrew during an invasion of the Scottish mainland . At this point Godred re @-@ took possession of his pre @-@ 1158 territories and the southern isles were distributed amongst Somerled 's sons as previously agreed : Dubgall received Mull , Coll , Tiree and Jura ; Islay and Kintyre went to Raghnall ; Bute to Aonghas , with Arran possibly divided between him and Reginald . Dugall and Raghnall at least were styled " Kings of the Isles " . However , their descendants do not seem to have held this title and The Chronicle of Man and the Sudreys lamented that Somerled 's marriage to Ragnhildis " was the cause of the ruin of the whole kingdom of the Isles " .
= = = A divided kingdom = = =
Somerled 's descendants eventually became known as the Lords of the Isles , with Dubgall giving rise to Clan MacDougall , and Raghnall to Clan Donald and Clan Macruari . Aonghas and his three sons were killed on Skye in 1210 . In theory Somerled and his descendents ' island territories were subject to Norway and his mainland ones to the Kingdom of Alba , whilst the Kings of Mann and the North Isles were vassals of the Kings of Norway .
However , both during and after Somerled 's life the Scottish monarchs sought to take control of the islands he and his descendants held . Diplomacy having failed to achieve much , in 1249 Alexander II took personal command of a large fleet that sailed from the Firth of Clyde and anchored off the island of Kerrera . Alexander became ill and died there , but the action was continued by his successor Alexander III . This strategy eventually led to an invasion by Haakon Haakonarson , King of Norway . After the stalemate of the Battle of Largs , Haakon retreated to Orkney , where he died in December 1263 , entertained on his death bed by recitations of the sagas . Following this ill @-@ fated expedition , the Hebrides and Mann and all rights that the Norwegian crown " had of old therein " were yielded to the Kingdom of Scotland as a result of the 1266 Treaty of Perth .
In Man , having overcome his usurper brother Ragnald who reigned for a brief time in 1164 , Godred the Black resumed his kingship of Mann and the North Isles . On his death in 1187 , the kingship passed to his eldest son , Raghnall mac Gofraidh , rather than his chosen successor , Olaf the Black ( Raghnall 's half @-@ brother ) , who instead became overlord of Lewis . In 1228 , Olaf battled Raghnall at Tynwald and the latter was slain . On 21 May 1237 , Olaf died on St Patrick 's Isle , and was succeeded by his three sons who all ruled the kingdom in turn : Harald ( reigned 1237 – 48 ) , Ragnvald ( 1249 ) , and Magnus ( 1252 – 65 ) . Magnus Olafsson was the last of the Norse kings to rule Mann , which was absorbed into the Kingdom of Scotland on his death .
= = Life in Norse times = =
As with written records , the archaeological evidence for this period is not extensive , and knowledge of the daily lives of the population is lacking . It is known that the Hebrides were taxed using the Ounceland system and evidence from Bornais suggests that settlers there may have been more prosperous than families of a similar status in the Northern Isles , possibly owing to a more relaxed political regime . Latterly , the Hebrides sent eight representatives from Lewis , Harris and Skye and another eight from the southern Hebrides to the Tynwald parliament on Man .
Colonsay and Oronsay have produced important pagan Norse burial grounds . An 11th @-@ century cross slab decorated with Irish and Ringerike Viking art found on Islay was found in 1838 . Rubha an Dùnain , today an uninhabited peninsula to the south of the Cuillin hills on Skye , contains the small Loch na h @-@ Airde , which is connected to the sea by a short artificial canal . This loch was an important site for maritime activity for many centuries , spanning the Viking and later periods of Scottish clan rule . There is a stone @-@ built quay and a system to maintain constant water levels . Boat timbers discovered there have been dated to the 12th century . Only three rune stones are known from the west coast of Scotland , on Christian memorials found on Barra , Inchmarnock and Iona .
Gaelic continued to exist as a spoken language in the southern Hebrides throughout the Norse settlement period , but place @-@ name evidence suggests it had a lowly status . The obliteration of pre @-@ Norse names is almost total . There is little continuity of style between Pictish pottery in the north and that of the early Viking period . The similarities that do exist suggests the later pots may have been made by Norse who had settled in Ireland , or by Irish slaves . In the Firth of Clyde , Norse burials have been found on Arran , although not on Bute , and place @-@ name evidence suggests a settlement pattern that was much less well @-@ developed than in the Hebrides . There are numerous Manx Runestones and place names of Norse origin on the Isle of Man .
Initially a pagan culture , detailed information about the return of the Christian religion to the islands during the Norse @-@ era is elusive , although the modern @-@ day Diocese of Sodor and Man retains the centuries @-@ old name .
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= The British Invasion ( Dexter ) =
" The British Invasion " is the twelfth episode and finale of the second season , and twenty @-@ fourth overall episode , of the American television drama series Dexter , which first aired on 16 December 2007 on Showtime in the United States . The episode was written by Daniel Cerone ( based on a story by Cerone and Melissa Rosenberg ) and was directed by Steve Shill . In the episode , Lila Tournay ( Jaime Murray ) finds Sgt. James Doakes ( Erik King ) imprisoned in an Everglades cabin and learns from him that her object of affection , Dexter Morgan ( Michael C. Hall ) , is the serial killer known as the " Bay Harbor Butcher " . She decides to help Dexter and kills Doakes by setting the cabin on fire . Meanwhile , Dexter 's sister Debra ( Jennifer Carpenter ) questions whether her career is more important than her relationship with FBI Special Agent Frank Lundy ( Keith Carradine ) .
" The British Invasion " was filmed in early November 2007 . Doakes 's death , according to Dexter 's writers , was premeditated from the show 's pilot episode because the character was " too good to not kill " . The episode was seen by 1 @.@ 4 million viewers , according to Nielsen ratings , and received mixed reviews from critics . It was nominated for an Emmy Award for Outstanding Cinematography for a One @-@ Hour Series and a Golden Reel Award for Best Sound Editing – Sound Effects and Foley for Short Form Television . The episode was included in TV Guide 's 100 Greatest TV Episodes at no . 49 .
= = Title = =
The episode 's title refers to the influx of British rock ' n ' roll bands to the US in the 1960s .
= = Plot = =
Using Dexter Morgan 's ( Michael C. Hall ) satellite navigation system , Lila Tournay ( Jaime Murray ) arrives at the cabin in the Everglades . She breaks in to find an imprisoned Sgt. James Doakes ( Erik King ) , who tells her that Dexter is the Bay Harbor Butcher . She can only sympathize with Dexter , however , for having to hide such an enormous secret , and refuses to unlock Doakes 's cage . Convinced that Dexter is her soul mate , Lila tries to help him by blowing up the cabin with Doakes inside . Meanwhile , FBI Special Agent Frank Lundy 's ( Keith Carradine ) task force has determined Doakes 's location , and Dexter must race his colleagues to reach the cabin first . When he arrives at the cabin , he discovers that it has been destroyed in a fire and at first believes it to be a miracle . The next morning , the police find Doakes 's body in the water , while Dexter embraces his freedom . He visits his girlfriend Rita Bennett 's ( Julie Benz ) house , where they reconcile after having sex .
Lt. María LaGuerta ( Lauren Vélez ) , grieving the loss of her former partner , is in denial over Doakes 's incrimination and tries to collect donations for his memorial service . Debra Morgan ( Jennifer Carpenter ) remains determined not to let the end of the Bay Harbor Butcher case break up her relationship with Lundy , but their plans for a vacation are crushed when Lundy is called to Oregon to work on another murder case .
With all of the evidence of the Bay Harbor Butcher murders pointing to Doakes as the killer , the case is closed . Forensic investigator Vince Masuka ( C. S. Lee ) tells Dexter the gas in the cabin was turned on while the stove was lit , and when Dexter sees his own satellite navigation system while cataloging evidence , he realizes that Lila must have found the cabin . He meets with her at the aquarium and tells her that he , like her , has no emotion and lives a life devoid of feeling . They form plans to leave Miami together , though Dexter secretly intends to kill her . When he visits her apartment the next day , though , he finds Debra there , trying to persuade Lila to leave town . Dexter is forced to lie about running away with Lila in front of Debra , so a hurt Lila then leaves with what she recognizes as Dexter 's bag of murder equipment . She goes to Rita 's house and drugs the babysitter so that she can abduct the children , Astor and Cody ( Christina Robinson and Preston Bailey ) . When Dexter realizes that Astor and Cody are missing , he goes straight to Lila 's apartment , where she lights another fire and locks the three of them inside . Rita calls Debra for her help , and Debra decides to skip her flight to Oregon with Lundy to help with finding the children . Dexter manages to free Astor and Cody through a small window and eventually rams down a thin wall allowing him to escape .
Sometime later , Dexter travels to Paris , where Lila has fled to , and kills her in her hotel room . Back in Miami , he attends Doakes ' memorial service with LaGuerta . Debra and Detective Angel Batista ( David Zayas ) are awarded for their work on the Bay Harbor Butcher case .
= = Production = =
Dexter staff writers Daniel Cerone and Melissa Rosenberg were initially planning to write the script of the finale together . They were in the process of developing the story , however , when Rosenberg was hired to write the film adaptation of the novel Twilight . She described Cerone as " incredibly understanding " when she asked him to write the teleplay himself , though they had both worked on the episode 's story .
The writers planned from the pilot episode to eventually kill Doakes off the show . Executive producer Clyde Phillips said that Doakes " always had a shelf life because of the collision course [ with Dexter ] " , while executive producer Sara Colleton believed it would be unrealistic to keep Doakes on for a third season without having him discover that Dexter is a murderer . Rosenberg said that risks had to be taken on the show , and Doakes was " too good to not kill " . The character was killed to prevent recycling of used ideas , so that the writers would " stay aggressive and on top of it rather than repeat ourselves " , according to Phillips . Erik King , who plays Doakes , mentioned the difficulty in killing Doakes off the show because Dexter could not murder an innocent man , and so Lila was Doakes ' killer .
Filming of " The British Invasion " concluded production on the second season , and ended in early November 2007 . Filming locations for the episode included Miami , Florida as well as Palos Verdes Estates ( including Rolling Hills United Methodist Church ) , Long Beach ( including the Aquarium of the Pacific ) , Marina del Rey , Rolling Hills Estates , and Los Angeles , California . A " skeleton crew " flew to France to film scenes of Lila walking the streets of Paris .
= = Reception = =
" The British Invasion " drew 1 @.@ 4 million viewers on its first broadcast , a 14 percent improvement from the first season finale , " Born Free " . It was Dexter 's most @-@ watched episode until the airing of the third season finale , " Do You Take Dexter Morgan ? " .
" The British Invasion " received positive to mixed reviews from critics . Eric Goldman of IGN felt that the episode was thrilling and intriguing , though ultimately " not quite terrific " and rated it 7 @.@ 8 / 10 . He found Doakes 's death dramatically unsatisfying since Dexter was absent , and was disappointed with Debra 's portrayal as " relentlessly needy " . The A.V. Club 's Scott Tobias gave the episode a B + grade , saying that the episode was " for the most part exciting and satisfying " . He felt cheated , however , that Dexter was not forced to decide whether to kill Doakes , and was disappointed that Lila 's character primarily served as a plot device . Writing for TV Guide , Paula Paige believed that the finale " did not disappoint " . She was particularly impressed by Debra 's choice to leave Lundy and LaGuerta 's grief over Doakes 's death . TV Squad 's Keith McDuffee thought that " The British Invasion " was unsurprising and predictable but enjoyable nonetheless . Zap2it reviewer Daniel Fienberg felt that the episode was disappointing in comparison to the first season finale , " Born Free " . He was displeased with the unheroic circumstances of Doakes 's death , the lack of direction in LaGuerta 's character arc and the abrupt end to Debra and Lundy 's relationship . DVD Verdict 's Adam Arseneau called the finale " preposterous " but still " one of the most entertaining cable show finales in recent memory " .
Cinematographer Romeo Tirone 's work on the episode was nominated for an Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Cinematography for a One Hour Series , and Dexter 's team of sound editors were nominated for a Golden Reel Award for " The British Invasion " in the category of Best Sound Editing – Sound Effects and Foley for Short Form Television . The episode was unsuccessfully submitted to the Primetime Emmy Awards judging panel for consideration for Outstanding Directing ( Steve Shill ) and Outstanding Supporting Actor ( C. S. Lee ) .
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= Operation Irma =
Operation Irma was the name applied to a series of airlifts of injured civilians from Bosnia and Hercegovina during the Siege of Sarajevo . The airlifts were initiated after the wounding of five @-@ year @-@ old Irma Hadžimuratović attracted international media attention . The programme was reported to have evacuated hundreds of Sarajevans during the second half 1993 , but attracted significant controversy concerning its scale , evacuee selection criteria , and the motivations of the western European governments and press that inspired it .
= = Wounding of Irma Hadžimuratović = =
= = = Siege of Sarajevo = = =
The Bosnian War erupted in March 1992 , following Bosnia and Hercegovina 's declaration of independence from the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia . In April 1992 , Bosnian Serb forces , representing the Republika Srpska and the Yugoslav People 's Army , took up positions in the areas surrounding the Bosnian capital Sarajevo and initiated a siege that was to last for four years . The siege was characterized by sniper fire and shelling directed at the city 's buildings and infrastructure and at civilian residents of the city . Reports showed that between the beginning of the siege and November 1992 , an average of eight persons were killed and 44 wounded in Sarajevo per day .
= = = July 1993 marketplace mortar = = =
On 30 July 1993 , a mortar shell fired by Bosnian Serb troops hit a Sarajevo neighbourhood , injuring five @-@ year @-@ old Irma Hadžimuratović and killing several others , including her mother . Sarajevo 's overstretched Koševo hospital was unable to provide adequate treatment for the injuries Irma received to her spine , head and abdomen . She developed bacterial meningitis as a result . Edo Jaganjac , the surgeon treating Hadžimuratović , tried unsuccessfully to have her evacuated on a UN relief flight . He then resorted to distributing her photograph among foreign journalists in Sarajevo . Several picked up Irma 's story , giving it widespread coverage in the international ( and especially the British ) press . On the evening of 8 August , BBC news led with coverage of Irma 's injuries . On 9 August , British Prime Minister John Major personally intervened , dispatching an RAF Hercules to airlift Irma to London 's Great Ormond Street Hospital .
= = = Commencement of " Operation Irma " = = =
In the following days and months dozens more Bosnians were evacuated under a program the UK media dubbed " Operation Irma " . During the week beginning on 9 August , 41 people were taken out of Sarajevo . It was reported later that hundreds were eventually evacuated under the programme . Other countries , including Sweden and Ireland , organized further airlifts , and the Czech Republic , Finland , France , Italy , Norway , and Poland also offered hospital beds .
= = Reaction and criticism = =
Though Operation Irma was widely publicized , and was reported in September 1993 to have raised £ 1 million in donations to evacuate the wounded from Sarajevo , it attracted a number of criticisms . These addressed the operation 's limited scale , the motives of the British press and foreign governments in launching the airlifts , the devotion of resources to evacuation instead of supplying material support to local medical services , and the broader issue of the United Kingdom 's response to the war in Bosnia .
= = = Criticisms over scale = = =
Some critics focused on the small numbers of persons evacuated via the operation . During August 1993 the violence in Bosnia killed on average three children each day , and thousands of others were injured or made homeless . Between the beginning of the siege on April 5 , 1992 and the first airlifts under Operation Irma the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees ( UNHCR ) had approved only 200 of Sarajevo 's 50 @,@ 000 critically wounded patients for medical evacuation . The British press storm had prompted offers of 1250 hospital beds in 17 countries by August 15 ; though a vast increase on prior offers of help , the total was dwarfed by the estimated 39 @,@ 000 children requiring hospital treatment throughout Bosnia .
= = = The " supermarket " argument = = =
As well as the scale of the response , critics questioned the criteria against which patients were selected for evacuation . At first the UK was challenged over its decision to include only children in the transports while tens of thousands of adults remained wounded in the city . Sylvana Foa , spokesperson for the UNHCR , commented that Sarajevo should not be regarded as a " supermarket " of photogenic potential refugees , asking " Does this mean Britain only wants to help children ? Maybe it only wants children under six , or blond children , or blue @-@ eyed children ? " Patrick Peillod , head of the United Nations medical evacuation committee , said that the UK had treated Bosnian children " like animals in a zoo " and was trying to pick and choose evacuees to suit a public relations agenda . When the government revised its approach and included adults on flights out of the city , claims were made that wounded combatants had been among those taken to the UK , Sweden , and Italy , and that patients had paid bribes to be included in the transports .
UK Foreign Minister Douglas Hurd , on 9 August , countered that though the operation would evacuate relatively few of the city 's wounded , it was still a benefit : " Because you can 't help everybody , it doesn 't mean you shouldn 't help somebody . " Sylvana Foa also later acknowledged that , after months of Western European indifference toward the war in the former Yugoslavia , the new public sympathy inspired by Irma 's case was " like day following night . "
= = = Criticisms of the British government and press = = =
Beyond these questions of scale and selection , the motives of both the British press and the government in publicizing Hadzimuratovic 's case and then in launching Operation Irma were challenged . Some critics disparaged as hypocritical the sudden intensity of coverage devoted to a single victim of what was already a protracted siege . In December 1993 another Sarajevo evacuation program , ' Operation Angel , ' received minimal press coverage in the UK , and the Financial Times suggested that such human interest stories captured the popular imagination only during the British press 's summer ' silly season ' when Parliament was in recess . Susan Douglas , in the October 1993 edition of American magazine The Progressive , said British papers had indulged in " a ghoulish competition to scoop each other over Irma 's condition and to use her evacuation to salve British guilt about standing apart from the carnage in Bosnia . "
The British government was widely depicted as having launched Operation Irma in direct response to the level of press interest . Rescuers themselves joked that " Operation IRMA " was an acronym for " Instant Response to Media Attention . " A Council of Europe publication later noted that European governments had been criticized for regarding the exercise as having " more to do with a political and media operation than with humanitarian relief . " The mission also received some criticism in the domestic press : Mark Lawson in The Independent called prime minister Major 's efforts with the mission a " failure ... to silence the hostile snipers " based on a misunderstanding of popular indecision about Bosnia and on a failure to manage domestic press skepticism .
Meanwhile , within the former Yugoslavia , Operation Irma was regarded as evidence that the British government had taken sides in the conflict , favouring Bosnian Muslims over Croats or Serbs .
= = = Evacuation or local treatment ? = = =
Some UN aid workers immediately criticized the operation , arguing that very sick children were poorly served by programmes that obliged them to travel hundreds of miles . They argued , too , that with costs of around £ 100 @,@ 000 per evacuated child the programme was devouring funds that could have been used to improve local facilities and treatment . The head of Kosevo Hospital 's plastic surgery department said " It would be much better if you sent the tools to do our jobs properly than for you to make a big show of a few token evacuations . " Countering this , A.D. Redmond of the Overseas Development Administration ( the predecessor to the Department for International Development ) wrote in November 1993 to the British Medical Journal :
The Overseas Development Administration has been foremost in supplying medical and humanitarian aid to the people of Bosnia throughout the conflict ... In some circumstances medical teams are needed , requested , and supplied , but in others medical supplies alone are the most appropriate form of aid . I have also , however , received personal pleas from doctors whom I know well to evacuate patients who cannot be treated in Sarajevo ... No solution will suffice . We are all trying to help .
= = Aftermath = =
The press coverage surrounding the evacuation was later cited as an example of " disaster pornography " , in academic analyses concerned with the portrayal of child victims of violence and disaster in ways that reaffirm those victims ' remoteness from and subjectivity to western ( here , Northwestern European ) agency . In a similar vein , Dominic Strinati has presented the press interest in Operation Irma as evidence of a popular appetite for news stories that resemble the structure and tone of fictional narratives on war : " War films work most effectively ... by stripping back the too easily confusing contextual details of a conflict and focusing instead on the ' existential ' problem of the protagonist 's experience – the problem of being human in dehumanising circumstances ... News reporting – in this case from the Balkans – then has to compete even at the level of basic comprehension with this already established way of understanding things ... It may not be surprising , therefore , that one of the most memorable news ' stories ' to come out of Bosnia was that of Irma , a rescued child . " The operation has also been portrayed as representative of a trend whereby public reaction to media coverage of disasters leads and shapes official state response , even precipitating the creation of policy where none has existed before . Erica Burman , developing this theme , has argued that Irma Hadžimuratović became an " emotional focus " for a British public dismayed by its government 's ambiguous and cautious attitude to the conflict in Bosnia :
The widespread anxieties and consternation over government inactivity throughout the crisis could be deflected and resolved by rescuing a handful of children . In terms of recovering a sense of agency ( in a conflict characterised by protestations of powerlessness by political and military authorities alike ) , the desire to do ( and be seen to do ) something was expressed and assuaged by transporting and incorporating some of the need and distress into the UK where it could be tended to and made better .
A textbook on public relations cites the episode as an example of a " bargaining game " in which various players – the UNHCR , British government , and press – all sought to achieve individual advantage .
Despite initial improvement , Irma Hadžimuratović was paralyzed from the neck down and required a ventilator to breathe . She died of septicaemia in Great Ormond Street on 1 April 1995 , aged seven , following twenty months in intensive care . The coroner at her inquest called her " a victim of war " .
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= Into Temptation ( film ) =
Into Temptation is a 2009 independent drama film written and directed by Patrick Coyle , and starring Jeremy Sisto , Kristin Chenoweth , Brian Baumgartner , Bruce A. Young and Amy Matthews . It tells the story of a prostitute ( Chenoweth ) who confesses to a Catholic priest ( Sisto ) that she plans to kill herself on her birthday . The priest attempts to find and save her , and in doing so plunges himself into a darker side of society .
The film was partially inspired by Coyle 's father , a kind but belligerent man who had considered becoming a priest in his early life . The script won the McKnight Screenwriting Fellowship from the IFP Minnesota Center for Media Arts . Into Temptation was filmed and set in Coyle 's hometown of Minneapolis , Minnesota . Several supporting roles were filled with actors from the Minneapolis – Saint Paul theater area , and Coyle himself performed in a supporting role .
It was produced by Ten Ten Films and Farnam Street II , and distributed by First Look International . With a budget of less than $ 1 million , filming began in May 2008 . Cinematography was provided by David Doyle , Russell Holsapple composed the score , and Lee Percy worked as editor . The film touches on themes of temptation , sin , good and evil , redemption and celibacy , as well as the boundaries between a priest providing counsel and getting personally involved with helping parishioners .
Into Temptation was optioned in Hollywood , but talks fell through due to complications from the global recession . The film did not receive a national release but played at theaters in several cities . Although first publicly shown for Coyle 's father in December 2008 , Into Temptation officially premiered on April 26 , 2009 , at the Newport Beach Film Festival , where Sisto won the " Outstanding Achievement in Acting " award . The film received generally positive reviews . It was released on DVD on October 27 , 2009 .
= = Plot = =
Father John Buerlein ( Jeremy Sisto ) is the mild @-@ mannered Catholic priest of a small parish in Minneapolis , Minnesota . Overworked and underpaid , he has grown jaded with the profession and has trouble connecting with his parishioners . During confession , a mysterious and unnamed prostitute ( Kristin Chenoweth ) confesses to a sin she has not yet committed : she plans to commit suicide on her birthday . Father John is taken aback . The confession ends abruptly , and he is unable to stop the woman before she disappears . He only knows she wears a crucifix and is an Aries , which means her birthday is soon . Father John grows obsessed with finding and helping this woman , and begins visiting the city 's red @-@ light district with the hopes of finding her . On his way home , Father John meets a homeless man named Gus ( Gene Larche ) , but with no money for him , he gives him a rosary instead . Later , he seeks counsel from his friend Father Ralph O 'Brien ( Brian Baumgartner ) , who advises him not to become too personally involved .
Father John returns to the red @-@ light district and speaks to a prostitute named Miriam ( Greta Oglesby ) , who suggests a powerful pimp named James St. Clair ( Ansa Akyea ) might know about the woman . As they speak in a bar , the mysterious prostitute enters and solicits a john ( Patrick Coyle ) , who leaves with her immediately . As she goes , Father John catches a glimpse of the crucifix she is wearing and tries to chase her down . She leaves in the john 's car before he can catch them , but he writes down the license plate as they drive off . Back at church , his sermons start to grow more unorthodox , and Father Ralph warns him that his unusual church manner and trips to the red @-@ light district have the archbishop concerned . Meanwhile , Father John is contacted by his ex @-@ girlfriend Nadine Brennan ( Amy Matthews ) , who tells him she is divorcing her husband and still harbors romantic feelings for Father John .
Father John learns the john 's car belongs to an accountant named Steven Miller , who tells Father John the prostitute is Linda , an expensive call girl who is widely considered among the best at her profession . Meanwhile , Linda visits her dying , elderly stepfather Donald Dupree ( Tom Carey ) , who repeatedly raped Linda in her childhood and ultimately set her on the path to prostitution . Linda confronts him about their past , but claims she has forgiven him his sins , even though he continues to deny any wrongdoing . A drunk Nadine goes to talk to Father John in confession about her loneliness and feelings for him . He admits to caring for her as well , but they agree to remain friends . Later , Father John hires Lloyd Montag ( Bruce A. Young ) , an unemployed boxer at his church , to serve as his bodyguard as he talks to St. Clair . The pimp , who knows Lloyd from his boxing days , tells Father John what neighborhood Linda lives in . There , Father John and Lloyd find Zeke ( Tony Papenfuss ) , a taxi driver who knows they are looking for Linda and agrees to take them to her apartment . Zeke explains he had driven her to the church when she first spoke to Father John at confession , and Zeke later visited the church to watch Father John preach .
At the apartment , Father John and Lloyd find Linda has moved out , but they discover she had possessed a 12 @-@ year @-@ old newspaper clipping about Father John 's ordination . Father John offers Lloyd a job helping out at the church , which Lloyd accepts . Father John then returns to his church and cries , fearing he is too late to save Linda . Meanwhile , Linda goes to a bridge and is about to jump off when she encounters Gus , who offers her the rosary he received earlier from Father John . A grateful and emotional Linda hugs Gus . It is not revealed whether she commits suicide or not . In a confession to Father Ralph , Father John expresses guilt he did not absolve Linda before her confession abruptly ended . Father Ralph says that even if Linda is dead , her soul is immortal , and that Father John 's penance is to absolve her now . Father John does so . The film ends with a childhood memory of young Linda at church , where a group of boys laugh at her old torn clothes until she is defended by a young John Buerlein , whose act seems to make a strong positive impact upon her .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
Into Temptation marks the second film by independent filmmaker Patrick Coyle , who wrote and directed the 2003 drama film Detective Fiction . Coyle said Into Temptation was partially inspired by his father , James Patrick Coyle , a kind but belligerent man who had been encouraged by his mother to become a priest . James entered seminary but dropped out before ordination after he was drafted into serving overseas in World War II and met Margaret Mary Quinlan , who would become his wife and Patrick Coyle 's mother . Coyle conceived of the script for Into Temptation while imagining what kind of priest his father would have been . His father strongly approved of the project , and told Coyle , " Go make that movie . And tell the truth . " Coyle was also partially inspired by his childhood pastor and friend , the Reverend Damian Zuerlein , who performed the marriage ceremony for Coyle and his wife and baptized their children . Coyle said of him , " He 's just a young , energetic , competent , committed , devoted man working with a poor parish . And he loves his work . I was inspired by that . " Coyle said when writing Into Temptation , he did not intend to make a religious film , and said of protagonist Father John Buerlein , " The character could have been a minister or a rabbi or a public defender . He 's a good man trying to do a job the best he can . "
Ann Luster , the film 's producer , helped with the script from the earliest stages , and claimed she and Coyle had a deep understanding of how to handle the characters from the start . The film was set in Minneapolis , Minnesota , where Coyle lived and worked as a writer and actor at the time . The fictional church in the story , St. Mary Magdalen 's Downtown Catholic Church , is based in part on the St. Mary Magdalene church in Omaha , Nebraska , where Coyle was raised . However , the real @-@ life church was also very different from the fictional church in that it lacked a shelter and drew very large congregations for weekend mass , compared to the half @-@ empty pews in the fictional church . The fictional church is also based in part on Our Lady of Guadalupe , another Catholic church in south Omaha . The Into Temptation script won the McKnight Screenwriting Fellowship from IFP Minnesota Center for Media Arts , and investors were sought through public readings . After reading the script , Patrick Coyle 's wife said , " If you get a good Father John , you 'll have a good movie . "
= = = Casting = = =
Jeremy Sisto said he was drawn to the script , and was excited to take on a different project than his regular role of Detective Cyrus Lupo on the NBC crime drama series Law & Order . Sisto said of working on the show , " For nine months we basically do the same episode over and over . This [ Into Tempation script ] came out of nowhere . " Sisto said of working on Into Temptation : " Having just come off a job where there is little room to find true moments and to create a full character , I felt this respite from the task of trying to force a space where I could express something more personal through my job was no less than a creative life saver . "
Coyle cold called Kristin Chenoweth 's agent and proposed the part , which is different from her usual roles , and her agent said it was the exact part the actress was seeking . In order to film Into Temptation , Chenoweth took a five @-@ day hiatus from her supporting role on the ABC television series Pushing Daisies . Brian Baumgartner , best known for his supporting role as Kevin Malone in the NBC comedy series The Office , was a regular theater performer in the Minneapolis – Saint Paul area before joining that show . While visiting New York City in May 2008 for an upfront presentation , shortly after having finished filming the fourth season of The Office , Baumgartner was offered the Into Temptation script by Coyle , who asked him to consider taking the role of Father Ralph O 'Brien . Baumgartner said he enjoyed the script and agreed to the part .
Writer and director Patrick Coyle plays Steven Miller , one of Linda 's clients . Many of the other minor roles were filled by local Minneapolis actors and community members . Greta Oglesby , who played the street @-@ smart prostitute Miriam , and Isabell Monk O ’ Connor , who played a librarian who helps Father John , were both veterans of the Minneapolis – Saint Paul theater circuit . Ansa Akyea , who played pimp James St. Clair , and Amy Matthews , who played Father John 's ex @-@ girlfriend , were also from the Minneapolis – Saint Paul area .
= = = Filming = = =
Into Temptation was produced by Coyle 's production company , Ten Ten Films , and the company Farnam Street II , in association with Cabin 14 Productions . It was distributed by First Look International . About a year before the film was released , Coyle asked Anne Marie Gillen to serve as executive producer . Gillen said she had not responded to a script in such an emotional way since the 1991 drama film Fried Green Tomatoes , which she also produced . Filming , which began in May 2008 , took place entirely in Minneapolis . It included several scenes staged in the city 's Uptown commercial district , where Coyle lived .
In addition to his personal connections to the city , Coyle said filming took place in Minneapolis because it was relatively inexpensive to shoot there and hire local actors . He said , " Shooting in Uptown is a filmmaker 's paradise . You 've got everything here . " Into Tempation was produced and shot on a very low budget of less than $ 1 million . Cinematography was provided by David Doyle , who made extensive use of the Red Digital Cinema Camera . The church scenes were filmed at the Incarnation Church in the city . Sisto and Chenoweth both attended mass services at the church as part of their research for the roles . Exterior car scenes were shot in the Uptown district . During one scene in particular , a police car with a siren passed by the actors during a shot . The actors continued uninterrupted , and the final shot was used in the film .
Coyle approached Russell Holsapple , a Minneapolis – Saint Paul native and relatively inexperienced composer , to create the score for Into Temptation . Holsapple was given only a few weeks to create the score , which was composed mostly of piano music . Holsapple said Coyle gave him a great deal of artistic freedom and was largely receptive to the themes he wrote . James R. Bakkom worked as production designer on the film , and Deborah Fiscus served as costume designer . Both are natives of the Minneapolis – Saint Paul area . Vanessa Miles was set decorator , while Sarah Jean Kruchowski and Amy Hubbard both worked as art directors .
Lee Percy served as editor of the film . He said the final cuts provided to him already contained the actors ' strongest performances , but that he placed a greater focus on Father John 's character in an effort to " help the audience get inside him and connect emotionally " . Percy was assisted by editor Scott Ferril . Patrick Coyle 's father , Jim , followed production of the film closely , making weekly calls to inquire about it . When his father 's health started to decline , Patrick Coyle " worked like hell " to finish the film quickly so his father could see it before he died . The film was finished in December 2008 .
= = Release = =
= = = Distribution = = =
Into Temptation was optioned in Hollywood , but Coyle was displeased when industry officials wanted him to change the ending and make the sex scenes more risque . Due to complications from the financial crisis of 2007 – 2010 , the Hollywood discussions eventually collapsed . It did not receive a national release , but played at theaters in New York City , Los Angeles , Fargo , North Dakota , and several cities throughout Minnesota , including Minneapolis and Duluth . Coyle first publicly showed the film on December 26 , 2008 , at the Omaha hospice where his father Jim was staying for an audience of about 15 people . Jim Coyle , who died a few weeks after the screening , loved the film , describing it as very powerful and truthful . It officially premiered on April 26 , 2009 , at the Newport Beach Film Festival in Newport Beach , California .
During its opening weekend at the Lagoon Cinema in Minneapolis , Into Temptation sold more tickets in three days than any other film during its debut weekend , and sold twice the tickets of such major studio films as Taking Woodstock and Quentin Tarantino 's Inglourious Basterds . This resulted in an extended run and strong word @-@ of @-@ mouth that led to exhibitions in other cities . The film earned a total of $ 97 @,@ 457 in gross revenue in the United States . The Into Temptation DVD was released on October 27 , 2009 , with no bonus features .
= = = Critical response = = =
Into Temptation received generally positive reviews . Variety magazine writer Rob Nelson called it a well @-@ photographed film of " occasionally irreverent wit " , and that Coyle " strikes a near @-@ perfect balance between humor and holiness " . Nelson said the film " falters only in its hokey characterization " of the Chenoweth character . Colin Covert of the Star Tribune called it a " haunting , carefully crafted movie " with simple " matter @-@ of @-@ fact " direction , a " trim and efficient " screenplay , strong acting and solid characters . Covert said , " This is one of very few American films to deal with religious beliefs about faith and salvation with empathy and insight . " OC Weekly writer Matt Coker said Into Temptation had a cohesive script which " strikes just the right cord of reverence for the Catholic faith " . He also praised the moments of comic relief with Sisto and Baumgartner , which he said complimented some of the film 's heavier moments . L. Kent Wolgamott of the Lincoln Journal Star called Into Temptation a well @-@ made film that " gets the mood right from start to finish " . He complimented the performances and said although pornography and prostitution were familiar film topics , " the film 's nuanced understanding of the priest and his conflicted role in trying to save Linda adds a new element to the old story . "
Bob Fischbach of the Omaha World @-@ Herald called the cinematography sharp , the editing crisp , and the acting " uniformly good " . He added , " Best of all , the writing is anchored in reality . Coyle lets his film show rather than tell , and lets viewers reach their own conclusions . " Lavender magazine writer John Townsend said the film conveyed compassionate views of Christianity and complimented the cinematography . Townsend particularly praised Baumgartner 's performance and described the scenes between Sisto and a young boy troubled by his homosexual feelings ( John Skelley ) as " exquisite " . Chelsa Doyle , a writer with the website Blogcritics , called it " a touching and introspective film about faith , hope and choice " . Doyle praised the film 's quiet tone and the performances of Sisto and Chenoweth , but said it " occasionally gets a little sleepy in the middle " , and that the subplot involving Father John 's ex @-@ girlfriend could have been cut altogether . Denver Post film critic Lisa Kennedy praised the performances of Sisto and Chenoweth , and complimented Coyle 's understanding of the pastoral work of a parish priest . However , she added that the film " doesn 't break ground as a story , even one about redemption " . Andrea Gronvall of the Chicago Reader called it a " cheesy melodrama " , and wrote , " Writer @-@ director Patrick Coyle tackles such weighty issues as child abuse , alcoholism , hypocrisy , celibacy , and Catholic reforms , but the movie 's spiritual agenda is belied by its voyeurism . "
Jeremy Sisto was awarded " Outstanding Achievement in Acting " from the 2009 Newport Beach Film Festival awards .
= = Themes = =
Throughout the film , Father John is warned that his role as a priest comes with boundaries , and that he should not become personally involved with the congregants or try to solve their problems except through counseling . However , Father John begins to question those boundaries and reconsider whether the role as priest goes far enough in having a positive , substantive impact on the lives of those in his care , particularly Linda . And , in addition to questioning whether he is helping his congregants , Father John questions whether staying within those boundaries is enough to personally fulfill himself as a priest and provide his own life with meaning . He ultimately crosses over those boundaries and gets personally involved in trying to help Linda by delving into the city 's red @-@ light district to seek her .
The film takes a modern , liberal approach to the rules and constraints of Catholicism . Even before Father John decides to help Linda , he is questioning the constraints of his religion and calling . While speaking to a prospective mother struggling over whether to raise her daughter within the strict confines of Catholicism , Father John gives her advice beyond the official dogma and encourages her to be flexible , telling her she should " take what works " from the church teachings . Father John also has an unorthodox view of homosexuality compared to the normal views of the church . This is demonstrated in a scene in which the priest comforts a young man who is struggling with his homosexual feelings . In meeting and interacting with the pimps and prostitutes of the red @-@ light district , Into Temptation blurs the lines between good and evil , and between right and wrong . The negative responses Father John encounters from congregants and the church regarding his trips to the red @-@ light district demonstrate the way sex and poverty are often stigmatized in society .
As the title suggests , one of the major themes of the film involves the temptations Father John faces to sin and stray from his priestly calling . This is perhaps most strongly manifested in his apparent ambivalence regarding the vow of celibacy required of Catholic priests . As Father John goes deeper into the red @-@ light district and the seedier aspects of Minneapolis , he appears to face temptations from the prostitution and overt sexuality surrounding him . Additionally , it can be interpreted that his interest in Linda is one of physical attraction , as well as a desire to help her . This is further manifested through the sudden reappearance of his former girlfriend , for whom Father John admits to still harboring romantic feelings . The priest demonstrates conflicting emotions when it comes to maintaining his priestly vows and his relationship with Nadine .
Into Temptation is also a story of redemption , both for Linda , who is seeking redemption for a life of sin and prostitution , and for Father John , who is seeking redemption for his failure to help Linda and his own doubts about religion and priesthood . At the start of the film , Father John appears to be questioning his duty to the church and its dwindling congregation ; this is especially demonstrated when he appears bored during confession and does crossword puzzles to pass the time . Such struggles are not uncommon in priesthood . But after he resists the church boundaries and attempts to help Linda , his faith in the congregation and belief in the profession are restored , and he returns to the church a stronger and more content priest . The film demonstrates the power of compassion and individual kindness , particularly in the way that John 's simple act of defending Linda during her childhood was such a profound moment in her life . The film also advocates repentance , and the extent of Linda 's victimization can be interpreted as a sign of how catastrophic an unrepentant life can be .
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= Toy Story 2 =
Toy Story 2 is a 1999 American computer @-@ animated comedy adventure film produced by Pixar Animation Studios and released by Walt Disney Pictures . Directed by John Lasseter and co @-@ directed by Lee Unkrich and Ash Brannon , it is the sequel to the 1995 film Toy Story .
In the film , Woody is stolen by a toy collector , prompting Buzz Lightyear and his friends to vow to rescue him , but Woody is then tempted by the idea of immortality in a museum . Many of the original characters and voices from Toy Story return for this sequel , and several new characters — including Jessie ( voiced by Joan Cusack ) , Barbie ( voiced by Jodi Benson ) , Stinky Pete ( voiced by Kelsey Grammer ) and Mrs. Potato Head ( voiced by Estelle Harris ) — are introduced .
Disney initially envisioned the film as a direct @-@ to @-@ video sequel . Toy Story 2 began production in a building separated from Pixar , on a small scale , as most of the main Pixar staff were busy working on A Bug 's Life ( 1998 ) . When story reels proved promising , Disney upgraded the film to theatrical release , but Pixar was unhappy with the film 's quality . Lasseter and the story team redeveloped the entire plot in one weekend . Although most Pixar features take years to develop , the established release date could not be moved and the production schedule for Toy Story 2 was compressed into nine months .
Despite production struggles , Toy Story 2 opened in November 1999 to wildly successful box office numbers , eventually grossing over $ 485 million , and received universal acclaim from critics . Toy Story 2 has been considered by critics to be one of the few sequels to outshine the original , and it continues to be featured frequently on lists of the greatest animated films ever made . The film has seen multiple home media releases and a theatrical 3 @-@ D re @-@ release in 2009 , 10 years after its initial release . Toy Story 3 was released in 2010 , which was also critically and commercially successful .
= = Plot = =
Woody prepares to go to cowboy camp with Andy , but Andy nearly rips Woody 's right arm off , which leaves it paralysed . Andy decides to leave Woody behind , and Andy 's mother puts Woody on a shelf . The next day , Woody discovers Wheezy , a penguin squeaky toy , has been shelved for months due to a broken squeaker . When Andy 's mother puts Wheezy in a yard sale , Woody rescues him , only to be stolen by a greedy toy collector , who takes him to his apartment . Buzz Lightyear and all of Andy 's other toys identify the thief from a commercial as Al McWhiggin , the owner of a toy store called Al 's Toy Barn . Buzz , Hamm , Mr. Potato Head , Slinky Dog , and Rex all set out to rescue Woody .
At Al 's apartment , Woody learns that he is a valuable collectable based on a 1950s TV show called Woody 's Roundup and is set to be sold to a toy museum in Tokyo , Japan . While the other toys from the show — Jessie , Woody 's horse Bullseye , and Stinky Pete — are excited about going , Woody wants to return home because he is still one of Andy 's toys . Jessie is upset because the museum is only interested in the collection if Woody is in it , meaning they will return to storage if he is absent from the collection . When his arm is torn off accidentally , Woody attempts to retrieve it and escape but is foiled by someone mysteriously turning on Al 's television set . The next morning , a cleaner repairs his arm and Woody learns that Jessie was once the beloved toy of a child named Emily , who eventually outgrew her and gave her away . Stinky Pete warns him that the same fate awaits him when Andy grows up , whereas he will last forever in the museum . This convinces Woody to stay , now believing that all toys eventually get discarded by their owners .
Meanwhile , Buzz and the other toys eventually reach Al 's Toy Barn . While searching for Woody , Buzz is imprisoned in a cardboard box by another Buzz Lightyear action figure with a utility belt , who thinks he is a real space ranger , like the original Buzz from the first film . The new Buzz joins the other toys , who mistake him as their Buzz . After discovering Al 's plan , they arrive at his apartment while Buzz escapes and pursues them , accidentally freeing an Emperor Zurg toy , who immediately goes after him , intent on destroying him . After the toys find Woody , Buzz rejoins them and proves that he is Andy 's Buzz , but Woody refuses to go home . Buzz reminds Woody of a toy 's " true purpose " and warns him that in the museum , he will only be able to watch children from behind glass and never be played with again . After seeing a boy play with him on the TV , Woody changes his mind and asks the Roundup toys to come with him , but Stinky Pete prevents their escape .
Having foiled Woody 's escape the previous night , Stinky Pete reveals that he wants to go to Japan because he was never sold to children , allowing Al to take the Roundup toys with him . Buzz and the gang follow Al , but are caught by Zurg , who battles the new Buzz until Rex knocks him down Al 's apartment . The new Buzz then chooses to remain behind with an injured Zurg . Accompanied by three toy Aliens , Andy 's toys steal a Pizza Planet delivery truck and follow Al to an airport , where they enter the baggage handling system and free Woody . Stinky Pete rips Woody 's arm again while preventing his escape , but is stuffed into a little girl 's Barbie backpack by Andy 's toys to teach him a lesson of what it is like to be played with . They free Bullseye , only for Jessie to end up on the plane bound for Japan . Assisted by Buzz and Bullseye , Woody frees Jessie and the toys find their way home .
When Andy returns from camp , he accepts Jessie , Bullseye , and the Aliens as his new toys , thinking his mother bought them , and repairs Woody 's torn arm . Meanwhile , Al 's business has suffered due to his failure to sell the Roundup toys . Woody tells Buzz that he is not worried about Andy discarding him because , when he does , they will still have each other for company . Wheezy 's squeaker has been fixed and he performs a Frank Sinatra @-@ style version of " You 've Got a Friend in Me " .
= = Cast = =
Tom Hanks as Sheriff Woody
Tim Allen as Buzz Lightyear
Joan Cusack as Jessie ( Mary Kay Bergman as Jessie 's yodeling voice )
Kelsey Grammer as Stinky Pete
Don Rickles as Mr. Potato Head
Jim Varney as Slinky Dog
Wallace Shawn as Rex
John Ratzenberger as Hamm
Annie Potts as Bo Peep
Estelle Harris as Mrs. Potato Head
Wayne Knight as Al McWhiggin
John Morris as Andy
Laurie Metcalf as Andy 's Mom
R. Lee Ermey as Sarge
Jodi Benson as Barbie
Jonathan Harris as Geri the Cleaner
Joe Ranft as Wheezy and Heimlich ( Robert Goulet as Wheezy 's singing voice )
Jeff Pidgeon as Squeeze Toy Aliens
Andrew Stanton as Zurg
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Talk of a sequel to Toy Story began around a month after the film 's opening , in December 1995 . A few days after the original film 's release , Lasseter was traveling with his family and found a young boy clutching a Woody doll at an airport . Lasseter described how the boy 's excitement to show it to his father touched him deeply . Lasseter realized that his character no longer belonged to him only , but rather it belonged to others , as well . The memory was a defining factor in the production of Toy Story 2 , with Lasseter moved to create a great film for that child and for everyone else who loved the characters .
Ed Catmull , Lasseter , and Ralph Guggenheim visited Joe Roth , successor to recently ousted Jeffrey Katzenberg as chairman of Walt Disney Studios , shortly afterward . Roth was pleased and embraced the idea of a sequel . Disney had recently begun making direct @-@ to @-@ video sequels to its successful features , and Roth wanted to handle the Toy Story sequel this way , as well . Prior releases , such as 1994 's Aladdin sequel , The Return of Jafar , had returned an estimated $ 100 million in profits .
Initially , everything regarding the sequel was uncertain at first : whether stars Tom Hanks and Tim Allen would be available and affordable , what the story premise would be , and even whether the film would be computer @-@ animated at Pixar or traditionally at Walt Disney Feature Animation . Lasseter regarded the project as a chance to groom new directing talent , as top choices were already immersed in other projects ( Andrew Stanton in A Bug 's Life and Pete Docter in early development work for a film that would eventually become Monsters , Inc . ) . Instead , Lasseter turned to Ash Brannon , a young directing animator on Toy Story whose work he admired . Brannon , a CalArts graduate , joined the Toy Story team in 1993 . Disney and Pixar officially announced the sequel in a press release on March 12 , 1997 .
= = = Story = = =
Lasseter 's intention with a sequel was to respect the original film and create that world again . The story originated with him wondering what a toy would find upsetting , how a toy would feel if it were not played with by a child or , worse , a child growing out of a toy . Brannon suggested the idea of a yard sale where the collector recognizes Woody as a rare artifact . The concept of Woody as a collectible set came from the draft story of A Tin Toy Christmas , an original half @-@ hour special pitched by Pixar to Disney in 1990 . The obsessive toy collector named Al McWhiggin , who had appeared in a draft of Toy Story but was later expunged , was inserted into the film . Lasseter claimed that Al was inspired by himself .
Secondary characters in Woody 's set were inspired by 1950s cowboy shows for children , such as Howdy Doody and Hopalong Cassidy . The development of Jessie was kindled by Lasseter 's wife Nancy , who pressed him to include a strong female character in the sequel , one with more substance than Bo Peep . The scope for the original Toy Story was basic and only extended over two residential homes , whereas Toy Story 2 has been described by Unkrich as something " all over the map " .
To make the project ready for theaters , Lasseter would need to add 12 minutes or so of material and strengthen what was already there . The extra material would be a challenge , since it could not be mere padding — it would have to feel as if it had always been there , an organic part of the film . With the scheduled delivery date less than a year away , Lasseter called Stanton , Docter , Joe Ranft , and some Disney story people to his house for a weekend . There , he hosted what he called a " story summit " , a crash exercise that would yield a finished story in just two days .
Back at the office that Monday , Lasseter assembled the company in a screening room and pitched the revised version of Toy Story 2 from exposition to resolution . Story elements were recycled from the original drafts of the first Toy Story . The original film 's original opening sequence featured a Buzz Lightyear cartoon playing on television , which evolved into the Buzz Lightyear video game that would be shown in the opening Toy Story 2 . A deleted scene from Toy Story , featuring Woody having a nightmare involving him being thrown into a trash can , was incorporated in a milder form for depicting Woody 's fear of losing Andy . The idea of a squeak @-@ toy penguin with a broken squeaker also resurfaced from an early version of Toy Story .
= = = Animation = = =
As the story approached the production stage in early 1997 , it was unclear whether Pixar would produce the film , as the entire team of 300 was busy working on A Bug 's Life for a 1998 release . The Interactive Products Group , with a staff of 95 , had its own animators , art department , and engineers . Under intense time pressure , they had put out two successful CD @-@ ROM titles the previous year — The Toy Story Animated StoryBook and The Toy Story Activity Center . Between the two products , the group had created as much original animation as there was in Toy Story itself . Steve Jobs made the decision to shut down the computer games operation and the staff became the initial core of the Toy Story 2 production team .
Before the switch from direct @-@ to @-@ video to feature film , the Toy Story 2 crew had been on its own , placed in a new building that was well @-@ separated from the rest of the company by railroad tracks . " We were just the small film and we were off playing in our sandbox , " co @-@ producer Karen Jackson said . Lasseter looked closely at every shot that had already been animated and called for tweaks throughout . The film reused digital elements from Toy Story but , true to the company 's " prevailing culture of perfectionism , [ ... ] it reused less of Toy Story than might be expected " . Character models received major upgrades internally and shaders went through revisions to bring about subtle improvements . The team freely borrowed models from other productions , such as Geri from Pixar 's 1997 short Geri 's Game , who became the Cleaner in Toy Story 2 . Supervising animator Glenn McQueen inspired the animators to do spectacular work in the short amount of time given , assigning different shots to suit each animators ' strengths .
Whilst producing Toy Story , the crew was careful in creating new locations , working within available technology at that time . By production on Toy Story 2 , technology had advanced farther to allow more complicated camera shots than were possible in the first film . In making the sequel , the team at Pixar did not want to stray too far from the first film 's look , but the company had developed a lot of new software since the first feature had been completed . To achieve the dust visible after Woody is placed on top of a shelf , the crew was faced with the challenge of animating dust , an incredibly difficult task . After much experimentation , a tiny particle of dust was animated and the computer distributed that image throughout the entire shelf . Over two million dust particles are in place on the shelf in the completed film .
= = = Controversy and troubled production = = =
Disney became unhappy with the pace of the work on the film and demanded in June 1997 that Guggenheim be replaced as producer , and Pixar complied . As a result , Karen Jackson and Helene Plotkin , associate producers , moved up into the roles of co @-@ producers . Lasseter would remain fully preoccupied with A Bug 's Life until it wrapped in the fall . Once available , he took over directing duties and added Lee Unkrich as co @-@ director . Unkrich , also fresh from supervising editor duties on A Bug 's Life , would focus on layout and cinematography , while Brannon would be credited as co @-@ director .
In November 1997 , Disney executives Roth and Peter Schneider viewed the film 's story reels , with some finished animation , in a screening room at Pixar . They were impressed with the quality of work and became interested in releasing Toy Story 2 in theaters . In addition to the unexpected artistic caliber , there were other reasons that made the case for a theatrical release more compelling . The economics of a direct @-@ to @-@ video Pixar release were not working as well as hoped thanks to the higher salaries of the crew . After negotiations , Jobs and Roth agreed that the split of costs and profits for Toy Story 2 would follow the model of a newly created five @-@ film deal — but Toy Story 2 would not count as one of the five films . Disney had bargained in the contract for five original features , not sequels , thus assuring five sets of new characters for its theme parks and merchandise . Jobs gathered the crew and announced the change in plans for the film on February 5 , 1998 .
The work done on the film to date was nearly lost in 1998 when one of the animators , while routinely clearing some files , accidentally started a deletion of the root folder of the Toy Story 2 assets on Pixar 's internal servers . Associate technical director Oren Jacobs was one of the first to notice as character models disappeared from their works in progress . They shut down the file servers but had lost 90 % of the last two years of work , and the backups were found to have failed some time previously . The film was saved when technical director Galyn Susman , who had been working from home to take care of her newborn child , revealed she had backups of the assets on her home computer . The Pixar team was able to recover nearly all of the lost assets save for a few recent days of work , allowing the film to proceed .
Many of the creative staff at Pixar were not happy with how the sequel was turning out . Lasseter , upon returning from the European promotion of A Bug 's Life , watched the development reels and agreed that it was not working . Pixar met with Disney , telling them that the film would have to be redone . Disney disagreed , and noted that Pixar did not have enough time to remake the film before its established release date . Pixar decided that they simply could not allow the film to be released in its existing state , and asked Lasseter to take over the production . Lasseter agreed , and recruited the first film 's creative team to redevelop the story . To meet Disney 's deadline , Pixar had to complete the entire film in nine months .
Unkrich , concerned with the dwindling amount of time remaining , asked Jobs whether the release date could be pushed back . Jobs explained that there was no choice , presumably in reference to the film 's licensees and marketing partners , who were getting toys and promotions ready . Brannon focused on development , story and animation , Lasseter was in charge of art , modeling and lighting , and Unkrich oversaw editorial and layout . Since they met daily to discuss their progress with each other ( they wanted to ensure they were all progressing in the same direction ) , the boundaries of their responsibilities overlapped .
As was common with Pixar features , the production became difficult as delivery dates loomed and hours inevitably became longer . Still , Toy Story 2 , with its highly compressed production schedule , was especially trying . While hard work and long hours were common to the team by that point ( especially so to Lasseter ) , running flat @-@ out on Toy Story 2 for month after month began to take a toll . The overwork spun out into carpal tunnel syndrome for some animators , and repetitive strain injuries for others . Catmull would later disclose that " a full third of the staff " ended up with some form of RSI by the time the film was finished . Pixar did not encourage long hours , and , in fact , set limits on how many hours employees could work by approving or disapproving overtime . Employees ' self @-@ imposed compulsions to excel often trumped any other constraints , and were especially common to younger employees . In one instance , an animator had forgotten to drop his child off at daycare one morning and , in a mental haze , forgot the baby in the back seat of his car in the parking lot . " Although quick action by rescue workers headed off the worst , the incident became a horrible indicator that some on the crew were working too hard , " wrote David Price in his 2008 book The Pixar Touch .
= = Music = =
Toy Story 2 : An Original Walt Disney Records Soundtrack is the original score soundtrack album to Toy Story 2 . Although out of print in the U.S. , the CD is available in the U.S. as an import and all but one song is available digitally .
All songs written and composed by Randy Newman .
Randy Newman wrote two new songs for Toy Story 2 as well as the complete original score :
" When She Loved Me " – performed by Sarah McLachlan : Used for the flashback montage in which Jessie experiences being loved , forgotten , then abandoned by her owner , Emily . The song was nominated at the Academy Awards in 2000 for Best Original Song , though the award went to Phil Collins for " You 'll Be in My Heart " from another Disney animated film Tarzan .
" Woody 's Roundup " – performed by Riders in the Sky : Theme song for the " Woody 's Roundup " TV show , and also used in the end @-@ credit music .
The film carried over one song from Toy Story , " You 've Got a Friend in Me , " sung at different points during the film by Tom Hanks and Robert Goulet .
Chart positions
= = Release = =
Pixar showed the completed film at CalArts on November 12 , 1999 , in recognition of the school 's ties with Lasseter and more than 40 other alumni who worked on the film . The students were captivated . The film held its official premiere the next day at the El Capitan Theatre in Los Angeles — the same venue as Toy Story 's — and was released across the United States on November 24 , 1999 . The film 's initial theatrical and video releases include Luxo Jr . , Pixar 's first short film released in 1986 , starring Pixar 's titular mascot . Before Luxo Jr . , a message states : " In 1986 Pixar Animation Studios produced their first film . This is why we have a hopping lamp in our logo " .
= = = Re @-@ releases = = =
In 2009 , both Toy Story and Toy Story 2 were converted to 3 @-@ D for a two @-@ week limited theatrical re @-@ release , which was extended due to its success . Lasseter said , " The Toy Story films and characters will always hold a very special place in our hearts and we 're so excited to be bringing this landmark film back for audiences to enjoy in a whole new way , thanks to the latest in 3 @-@ D technology . With Toy Story 3 shaping up to be another great adventure for Buzz , Woody and the gang from Andy 's room , we thought it would be great to let audiences experience the first two films all over again and in a brand new way " .
Translating the films into 3 @-@ D involved revisiting the original computer data and virtually placing a second camera into each scene , creating left @-@ eye and right @-@ eye views needed to achieve the perception of depth . Unique to computer animation , Lasseter referred to this process as " digital archaeology " . The lead stereographer Bob Whitehill oversaw this process and sought to achieve an effect that impacted the film 's emotional storytelling . It took four months to resurrect the old data and get it in working order . Then , adding 3 @-@ D to each of the films took six months per film .
The double feature was opened in 1 @,@ 745 theaters on October 2 , 2009 , and made $ 12 @,@ 491 @,@ 789 in its opening weekend , finishing in third place at the box office . The features closed on November 5 , 2009 , with a worldwide gross of $ 32 @,@ 284 @,@ 600 . Unlike other countries , the U.K. and Argentina received the films in 3 @-@ D as separate releases . Toy Story 2 was released January 22 , 2010 in the U.K. , and February 18 , 2010 , in Argentina .
= = = Home media = = =
Toy Story 2 was released on both VHS and DVD and as a DVD two @-@ pack with Toy Story on October 17 , 2000 . That same day , an " Ultimate Toy Box " set was released containing both films and a third disc of bonus materials . The standard VHS , DVD , DVD two @-@ pack , and the " Ultimate Toy Box " sets returned to the vault on May 1 , 2003 . On December 26 , 2005 , it was re @-@ released as a " 2 @-@ Disc Special Edition " alongside the first film 's 10th Anniversary Edition , which came out on September 6 . Both editions returned to the Disney Vault on January 31 , 2009 .
The film was available for the first time on Blu @-@ ray Disc in a Special Edition Combo Pack released on March 23 , 2010 , along with the first film . On November 1 , 2011 , along with the DVD and Blu @-@ ray release of Cars 2 , Toy Story 2 and the other two films were released on each DVD / Blu @-@ ray / Blu @-@ ray 3D / Digital Copy combo pack ( 4 discs each for the first two films , and 5 for the third film ) .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Reviewers found the film to be a sequel that managed to equal or even outshine the original . " Toy Story 2 does what few sequels ever do , " The Hollywood Reporter proclaimed . " Instead of essentially remaking an earlier film and deeming it a sequel , the creative team , led by director John Lasseter , delves deeper into their characters while retaining the fun spirit of the original film " .
Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes reported that 100 % of critics gave the film a positive review based on 163 reviews , with an average score of 8 @.@ 6 / 10 . The film is No. 27 on Rotten Tomatoes ' list of " Best Rated Films " , and is the third best rated animated film . Rotten Tomatoes summarizes the critical consensus with " The rare sequel that arguably improves on its predecessor , Toy Story 2 uses inventive storytelling , gorgeous animation , and a talented cast to deliver another rich moviegoing experience for all ages . " The film also holds an 88 / 100 on Metacritic , indicating " Universal acclaim " . CinemaScore reported that audiences gave the film a rare " A + " grade .
Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times gave the film three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of four and said in his print review " I forgot something about toys a long time ago , and Toy Story 2 reminded me " . Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times said " Toy Story 2 may not have the most original title , but everything else about it is , well , mint in the box " . Lisa Schwarzbaum of Entertainment Weekly said " It 's a great , IQ @-@ flattering entertainment both wonderful and wise " .
= = = Box office = = =
The film was no less successful than its predecessor in a commercial perspective . It became 1999 's highest @-@ grossing animated film , earning $ 245 million domestically and $ 485 million worldwide — beating both Pixar 's previous releases by a significant margin . It became the second highest @-@ grossing animated film of all @-@ time , behind Disney 's The Lion King ( 1994 ) . Toy Story 2 opened over the Thanksgiving Day weekend at No. 1 to a three @-@ day tally of $ 57 @,@ 388 @,@ 839 from 3 @,@ 236 theaters , averaging $ 17 @,@ 734 per theater over three days , making $ 80 @,@ 102 @,@ 784 since its Wednesday launch and staying at No. 1 for the next two weekends . By New Year 's Day , it had made more than $ 200 million in the U.S. alone , and it eventually made $ 245 @,@ 852 @,@ 179 domestically and $ 239 @,@ 163 @,@ 000 overseas for a total worldwide gross of $ 485 @,@ 015 @,@ 179 , becoming 1999 's third highest grossing film and far surpassing the original . Box Office Mojo estimates that the film sold over 47 @.@ 8 million tickets in North America .
= = = Accolades = = =
Toy Story 2 received several recognitions , including seven Annie Awards , but none of them were previous nominations . The first went to Pixar for Outstanding Achievement in an Animated Theatrical Feature . The Outstanding Individual Achievement for Directing in an Animated Feature Production award was given to John Lasseter , Lee Unkrich and Ash Brannon . Randy Newman won an Annie Award for Outstanding Individual Achievement for Music in an Animated Feature Production . Joan Cusack won the Outstanding Individual Achievement for Voice Acting by a Female Performer in an Animated Feature Production , while Tim Allen for Outstanding Individual Achievement for Voice Acting by a Male Performer in an animated feature Production . The last Annie was received by John Lasseter , Pete Docter , Ash Brannon , Andrew Stanton , Rita Hsiao , Doug Chamberlin and Chris Webb for Outstanding Individual Achievement for Writing in an Animated Feature Production .
The film itself also won many awards , including the Blockbuster Entertainment Award for Favorite Family Film ( Internet Only ) , the Critics Choice Award for Best Animated Film , the Bogey Award , and a Golden Globe Award for Best Motion Picture – Musical or Comedy . Along with his other awards , Randy Newman and his song " When She Loved Me " won a Grammy Award for Best Song Written for a Motion Picture , Television or Other Visual Media . A Satellite Award was given for Outstanding Youth DVD , and a Golden Satellite Award for Best Motion Picture , Animated or Mixed Media , and one for Best Original Song " When She Loved Me " .
= = = = American Film Institute = = = =
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Heroes & Villains :
Buzz Lightyear – Nominated Hero
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Songs :
" When She Loved Me " – Nominated
AFI 's 10 Top 10 – Nominated Animated Film
= = Video games = =
Toy Story 2 : Buzz Lightyear to the Rescue , a video game for the PC , PlayStation , Nintendo 64 and Dreamcast , was released in November 1999 . The game featured original cast voices and clips from the film as introductions to levels . Once earned , these clips could be viewed at the player 's discretion . Another game was released for the Game Boy Color .
= = Sequel = =
A sequel , Toy Story 3 , was released on June 18 , 2010 .
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= John Day Fossil Beds National Monument =
John Day Fossil Beds National Monument is a U.S. National Monument in Wheeler and Grant counties in east @-@ central Oregon . Located within the John Day River basin and managed by the National Park Service , the park is known for its well @-@ preserved layers of fossil plants and mammals that lived in the region between the late Eocene , about 45 million years ago , and the late Miocene , about 5 million years ago . The monument consists of three geographically separate units : Sheep Rock , Painted Hills , and Clarno .
The units cover a total of 13 @,@ 944 acres ( 5 @,@ 643 ha ) of semi @-@ desert shrublands , riparian zones , and colorful badlands . About 184 @,@ 000 people frequented the park in 2014 to engage in outdoor recreation or to visit the Thomas Condon Paleontology Center or the James Cant Ranch Historic District .
Before the arrival of Euro @-@ Americans in the 19th century , the John Day basin was frequented by Sahaptin people who hunted , fished , and gathered roots and berries in the region . After road @-@ building made the valley more accessible , settlers established farms , ranches , and a few small towns along the river and its tributaries . Paleontologists have been unearthing and studying the fossils in the region since 1864 , when Thomas Condon , a missionary and amateur geologist , recognized their importance and made them known globally . Parts of the basin became a National Monument in 1975 .
Averaging about 2 @,@ 200 feet ( 670 m ) in elevation , the monument has a dry climate with temperatures that vary from summer highs of about 90 ° F ( 32 ° C ) to winter lows below freezing . The monument has more than 80 soil types that support a wide variety of flora , ranging from willow trees near the river to grasses on alluvial fans to cactus among rocks at higher elevations . Fauna include more than 50 species of resident and migratory birds . Large mammals like elk and smaller animals such as raccoons , coyotes , and voles frequent these units , which are also populated by a wide variety of reptiles , fish , butterflies , and other creatures adapted to particular niches of a mountainous semi @-@ desert terrain .
= = Geography = =
The John Day Fossil Beds National Monument consists of three widely separated units — Sheep Rock , Painted Hills , and Clarno — in the John Day River basin of east @-@ central Oregon . Located in rugged terrain in the counties of Wheeler and Grant , the park units are characterized by hills , deep ravines , and eroded fossil @-@ bearing rock formations . To the west lies the Cascade Range , to the south the Ochoco Mountains , and to the east the Blue Mountains . Elevations within the 13 @,@ 944 @-@ acre ( 5 @,@ 643 ha ) park range from 2 @,@ 000 to 4 @,@ 500 feet ( 610 to 1 @,@ 370 m ) .
The Clarno Unit , the westernmost of the three units , consists of 1 @,@ 969 acres ( 797 ha ) located 18 miles ( 29 km ) west of Fossil along Oregon Route 218 . The Painted Hills Unit , which lies about halfway between the other two , covers 3 @,@ 132 acres ( 1 @,@ 267 ha ) . It is situated about 9 miles ( 14 km ) northwest of Mitchell along Burnt Ranch Road , which intersects U.S. Route 26 west of Mitchell . These two units are entirely within Wheeler County . The remaining 8 @,@ 843 acres ( 3 @,@ 579 ha ) of the park , the Sheep Rock Unit , are located along Oregon Route 19 and the John Day River upstream of the unincorporated community of Kimberly . This unit is mostly in Grant County , although a small part extends into Wheeler County . The Sheep Rock Unit is further subdivided into the Mascall Formation Overlook , Picture Gorge , the James Cant Ranch Historic District , Cathedral Rock , Blue Basin , and the Foree Area . Some of these are separated from one another by farms , ranches , and other parcels of land that are not part of the park .
The park headquarters and main visitor center , both in the Sheep Rock Unit , are 122 miles ( 196 km ) northeast of Bend and 240 miles ( 390 km ) southeast of Portland by highway . The shortest highway distances from unit to unit within the park are Sheep Rock to Painted Hills , 45 miles ( 72 km ) ; Painted Hills to Clarno , 75 miles ( 121 km ) , and Clarno to Sheep Rock , 81 miles ( 130 km ) .
The John Day River , a tributary of the Columbia River , flows generally west from the Strawberry Mountains before reaching the national monument . It turns sharply north between the Mascall Formation Overlook and Kimberly , where the North Fork John Day River joins the main stem . Downstream of Kimberly , the river flows generally west to downstream of the unincorporated community of Twickenham , and generally north thereafter . Rock Creek enters the river at the north end of Picture Gorge . Bridge Creek passes through Mitchell , then north along the eastern edge of the Painted Hills Unit to meet the John Day downstream of Twickenham . Intermittent streams in the Clarno Unit empty into Pine Creek , which flows just beyond the south edge of the unit and enters the John Day upstream of the unincorporated community of Clarno .
= = History = =
Early inhabitants of north @-@ central Oregon included Sahaptin @-@ speaking people of the Umatilla , Wasco , and Warm Springs tribes as well as the Northern Paiutes , speakers of a Uzo @-@ Aztecan ( Shoshonean ) language . All were hunter @-@ gatherers competing for resources such as elk , huckleberries , and salmon . Researchers have identified 36 sites of related archeological interest , including rock shelters and cairns , in or adjacent to the John Day Fossil Beds National Monument . Most significant among the prehistoric sites are the Picture Gorge pictographs , consisting of six panels of rock art in the canyon at the south end of the Sheep Rock Unit . The art is of undetermined origin and age but is " centuries old " .
The John Day basin remained largely unexplored by non @-@ natives until the mid @-@ 19th century . Lewis and Clark noted but did not explore the John Day River while traveling along the Columbia River in 1805 . John Day , for whom the river is named , apparently visited only its confluence with the Columbia in 1812 . In 1829 , Peter Skene Ogden , working for the Hudson 's Bay Company ( HBC ) , led a company of explorers and fur trappers along the river through what would later become the Sheep Rock Unit . John Work , also of the HBC , visited this part of the river in 1831 .
In the 1840s , thousands of settlers , attracted in part by the lure of free land , began emigrating west over the Oregon Trail . Leaving drought , worn @-@ out farms , and economic problems behind , they emigrated from states like Missouri , Illinois , and Iowa in the Midwest to Oregon , especially the Willamette Valley in the western part of the state . After passage of the Homestead Act of 1862 and the discovery of gold in the upper John Day basin , a fraction of these newcomers abandoned the Willamette Valley in favor of eastern Oregon . Some established villages and engaged in subsistence farming and ranching near streams . Settlement was made more practical by a supply route from The Dalles on the Columbia River to gold mines at Canyon City in the upper John Day valley . By the late 1860s , the route became formalized as The Dalles Military Road , which passed along Bridge Creek and south of Sheep Rock . Clashes between natives and non @-@ natives and the desire of the U.S. Government to populate the region with Euro @-@ Americans led to the gradual removal of native residents to reservations , including three in north @-@ central Oregon : Warm Springs , Burns Paiute , and Umatilla .
In 1864 , a company of soldiers sent to protect mining camps from raids by Northern Paiutes discovered fossils in the Crooked River region , south of the John Day basin . One of their leaders , Captain John M. Drake , collected some of these fossils for Thomas Condon , a missionary pastor and amateur geologist who lived in The Dalles . Recognizing the scientific importance of the fossils , Condon accompanied soldiers traveling through the region . He discovered rich fossil beds along Bridge Creek and near Sheep Rock in 1865 . Condon 's trips to the area and his public lectures and reports about his finds led to wide interest in the fossil beds among scientists such as Edward Drinker Cope of the Academy of Natural Sciences . One of them , paleontologist Othneil C. Marsh of Yale , accompanied Condon on a trip to the region in 1871 . Condon 's work led to his appointment in 1872 as Oregon 's first state geologist and to international fame for the fossil beds . Specimens from the beds were sent to the Smithsonian Institution and other museums worldwide , and by 1900 more than 100 articles and books had been published about the John Day Fossil Beds . During the first half of the 20th century , scientists such as John C. Merriam , Ralph Chaney , Frank H. Knowlton , and Alonzo W. Hancock continued work in the fossil beds , including those discovered near Clarno in about 1890 .
Remote and arid , the John Day basin near the fossil beds was slow to attract homesteaders . The first settler in what became the Sheep Rock Unit is thought to have been Frank Butler , who built a cabin along the river in 1877 . In 1881 , Eli Casey Officer began grazing sheep on a homestead claim in same general area . His son Floyd later lived there with his family and sometimes accompanied Condon on his fossil hunts . In 1910 , James and Elizabeth Cant bought 700 acres ( 280 ha ) from the Officer family. and converted it to a sheep ranch , which was eventually expanded to a sheep @-@ and @-@ cattle ranch of about 6 @,@ 000 acres ( 2 @,@ 400 ha ) .
Merriam , a University of California paleontologist who had led expeditions to the region in 1899 and 1900 , encouraged the State of Oregon to protect the area . In the early 1930s the state began to buy land for state parks at Picture Gorge , the Painted Hills , and Clarno that later became part of the national monument . In 1951 the Oregon Museum of Science and Industry established Camp Hancock , a field school for young students of geology , paleontology , and other sciences , on public lands surrounded by what would later become the Clarno Unit . In 1974 Congress authorized the National Park Service to establish the national monument , and President Gerald R. Ford signed the authorization . After the State of Oregon had completed the land transfer of the three state parks to the federal government , the monument was officially established on October 8 , 1975 .
The Cant Ranch House and associated land and outbuildings were listed on the National Register of Historic Places as the 200 @-@ acre ( 81 ha ) James Cant Ranch Historic District in 1984 . After the monument opened in 1975 , the ranch house served as headquarters for all three units . In 2005 , the lower floor of the ranch house was opened to the public ; it features exhibits about the cultural history of the region . The Thomas Condon Paleontology Center , a $ 7 @.@ 5 million museum and visitor center at the Sheep Rock Unit , also opened in 2005 . Among the center 's offerings are displays of fossils , murals depicting life in the basin during eight geologic times ranging from about 45 million to about 5 million years ago , and views of the paleontology laboratory .
In March 2011 , the Park Service installed two webcams at the Sheep Rock Unit . Both transmit continuous real @-@ time images ; one shows the paleontology lab at the Condon Center and the other depicts Sheep Rock and nearby features . In June 2011 , work was finished on a new ranger residence in the Painted Hills Unit that makes the unit almost carbon @-@ neutral . Solar panels generate enough electricity to power the house as well as the ranger 's electric vehicle , on loan from its manufacturer for a year . The project is part of ongoing efforts to make the whole park carbon @-@ neutral .
= = Geology and paleontology = =
The John Day Fossil Beds National Monument lies within the Blue Mountains physiographic province , which originated during the late Jurassic and early Cretaceous , about 118 to 93 million years ago . Northeastern Oregon was assembled in large blocks ( exotic terranes ) of Permian , Triassic , and Jurassic rock shifted by tectonic forces and accreted to what was then the western edge of the North American continent , near the Idaho border . By the beginning of the Cenozoic era , 66 million years ago , the Blue Mountains province was uplifting ( that is , was being pushed higher by tectonic forces ) , and the Pacific Ocean shoreline , formerly near Idaho , had shifted to the west .
Volcanic eruptions about 44 million years ago during the Eocene deposited lavas accompanied by debris flows ( lahars ) atop the older rocks in the western part of the province . Containing fragments of shale , siltstone , conglomerates , and breccias , the debris flows entombed plants and animals caught in their paths ; the remnants of these ancient flows comprise the rock formations exposed in the Clarno Unit . Preserved in the Clarno Nut Beds are fossils of tropical and subtropical nuts , fruits , roots , branches , and seeds . The Clarno Formation also contains bones , palm leaves longer than 24 inches ( 61 cm ) , avocado trees , and other subtropical plants from 50 million years ago , when the climate was warmer and wetter than it is in the 21st century . Large mammals that inhabited this region between 50 and 35 million years ago included browsers such as brontotheres and amynodonts , scavengers like the hyaenodonts , as well as Patriofelis and other predators . Eroded remnants of the Clarno stratovolcanoes , once the size of Mount Hood , are still visible near the monument , for example Black Butte , White Butte , and other buttes near Mitchell .
After the Clarno volcanoes had subsided , they were replaced about 36 million years ago by eruptions from volcanoes to the west , in the general vicinity of what would become the Cascade Range . The John Day volcanoes , as they are called , emitted large volumes of ash and dust , much of which settled in the John Day basin . As with the earlier Clarno debris flows , the rapid deposition of ash preserved the remains of plants and animals living in the region . Because ash and other debris fell during varied climatic and volcanic conditions and accumulated from many further eruptions extending into the early Miocene ( about 20 million years ago ) , the sediment layers in the fossil beds vary in their chemical composition and color . Laid down on top of the Clarno Strata , the younger John Day Strata consist of several distinct groups of layers . The lowermost contains red ash such as that exposed in the Painted Hills Unit . The layer above it is mainly pea @-@ green clay . On top of the pea @-@ green layer are buff @-@ colored layers . Fossils found in the John Day Strata include a wide variety of plants and more than 100 species of mammals , including dogs , cats , oreodonts , saber @-@ toothed tigers , horses , camels , and rodents . The Blue Basin and the Sheep Rock unit contain many of these same fossils , as well as turtles , opossums , and large pigs . More than 60 plant species are fossilized in these strata , such as hydrangea , peas , hawthorn , and mulberry , as well as pines and many deciduous trees . One of the notable plant fossils is the Metasequoia ( dawn redwood ) , a genus thought to have gone extinct worldwide until it was discovered alive in China in the early 20th century .
After another period of erosion , a series of lava eruptions from fissures across northeastern Oregon , southeastern Washington , and western Idaho inundated much of the Blue Mountain province with liquid basalt . Extruded in the middle Miocene between 17 and 12 million years ago , more than 40 separate flows contributing to the Columbia River Basalt Group have been identified , the largest of which involved up to 400 cubic miles ( 1 @,@ 700 km3 ) of lava . The most prominent of these formations within the monument is the Picture Gorge Basalt , which rests above the John Day Strata .
Subsequent ashfall from eruptions in the Cascade Range in the late Miocene contributed to the Mascall Strata , layers of stream @-@ deposited volcanic tuffs laid atop the Picture Gorge Basalt . Preserved in the Mascall are fossils of animals such as horses , camels , rhinoceroses , bears , pronghorn , deer , weasels , raccoons , cats , dogs , and sloths . These fauna thrived in the monument 's open woodland and savannah between 15 and 12 million years ago . The fossils of oak , sycamore , maple , ginkgo , and elm trees reflect the area 's cool climate during this time period .
The last major eruption occurred in the late Miocene , about 7 million years ago . The resulting stratum , the Rattlesnake Formation , lies on top of the Mascall and is capped by an ignimbrite . The Rattlesnake stratum has fossils of mastodons , camels , rhinoceroses , the ancestors of dogs , lions , bears , and horses , and others that grazed on the grasslands of the time . Two fossilized teeth found recently in the Rattlesnake stratum near Dayville are the earliest record of beaver , Castor californicus , in North America . The beaver teeth , which are about 7 million years old , have been scheduled for display at the Condon Center .
The monument contains extensive deposits of well @-@ preserved fossils from various periods spanning more than 40 million years . Taken as a whole , the fossils present an unusually detailed view of plants and animals since the late Eocene . In addition , analysis of the John Day fossils has contributed to paleoclimatology ( the study of Earth 's past climates ) and the study of evolution .
Paleontologists at the monument find , describe the location of , and collect fossil @-@ bearing rocks from more than 700 sites . They take them to the paleontology laboratory at the visitor center , where the fossils are stabilized , separated from their rock matrix , and cleaned . The fossil specimens are then catalogued , indexed , stored in climate @-@ controlled cabinets , and made available for research . In addition to preparing fossils , the paleontologists coordinate the monument 's basic research in paleobotany and other scientific areas and manage the fossil museum in the visitor center .
= = Climate = =
Average precipitation , limited by the rain shadow effects of the Cascade Range and the Ochoco Mountains , varies from 9 to 16 inches ( 230 to 410 mm ) a year . In winter , much of the precipitation arrives as snow .
Weather data for the city of Mitchell , near the Painted Hills Unit , show that July and August are the warmest months , with an average high of 86 ° F ( 30 ° C ) and an average low of 52 ° F ( 11 ° C ) . January is the coldest month , when highs average 42 ° F ( 6 ° C ) and lows average 24 ° F ( − 4 ° C ) . The highest recorded temperature in Mitchell was 107 ° F ( 42 ° C ) in 1972 , and the lowest was − 27 ° F ( − 33 ° C ) in 1983 . May is generally the wettest month , when precipitation averages 1 @.@ 65 inches ( 42 mm ) .
= = Biology = =
= = = Flora = = =
More than 80 soil types support a wide variety of flora within the monument . These soils stem from past and present geologic activity as well as ongoing additions of organic matter from life forms on or near the surface . Adapted to particular soil types and surface conditions , these plant communities range from riparian vegetation near the river to greasewood and saltgrass on the alluvial fans to plants such as hedgehog cactus in rocky outcrops at high elevation . Important to many of these communities is a black cryptobiotic crust that resists erosion , stores water , and fixes nitrogen used by the plants . The crust is composed of algae , lichens , mosses , fungi , and bacteria . Other areas of the monument have little or no flora . Volcanic tuffs and claystones that lack essential nutrients support few microorganisms and plants . Likewise , hard rock surfaces and steep slopes from which soils wash or blow away tend to remain bare .
Native grasses thrive in many parts of the monument despite competition from western junipers , medusahead rye , Dalmatian toadflax , cheatgrass , and other invasive species . Bunchgrasses in the park include basin wildrye , Idaho fescue , Thurber 's needlegrass , Indian ricegrass , and bottlebrush squirreltail , among others . Native grasses that form sod in parts of the monument include Sandberg 's bluegrass and other bluegrass species . Reed canary grass , if mowed , also forms sod along stream banks .
Limited by their need for water , trees such as willows , alders , and ponderosa pines are found only near the monument 's streams or springs . Serviceberry bushes and shrubs like mountain mahogany are found in places where moisture collects near rock slides and ledges . Elsewhere long @-@ rooted rabbitbrush has adapted to survive in dry areas . Other shrubs with adaptive properties include greasewood , sagebrush , shadscale , broom snakeweed , antelope bitterbrush , and purple sage . Western junipers , which have extensive root systems , thrive in the dry climate ; in the absence of periodic fires they tend to displace grasses and sagebrush and to create relatively barren landscapes . The Park Service is considering controlled burning to limit the junipers and to create open areas for bunchgrasses that re @-@ sprout from their roots after a fire .
Wildflowers , which bloom mainly in the spring and early summer , include pincushions , golden bee plant , dwarf purple monkey flower , and sagebrush mariposa lily at the Painted Hills Unit . Munro 's globemallow , lupines , yellow fritillary , hedgehog cactus , and Applegate 's Indian paintbrush are commonly seen at the Clarno and Sheep Rock units .
= = = Fauna = = =
Birds are the animals most often seen in the monument . Included among the more than 50 species observed are red @-@ tailed hawks , American kestrels , great horned owls , common nighthawks , and great blue herons . Geese nest in the park each summer , and flocks of sandhill cranes and swans pass overhead each year on their migratory flights . California quail , chukar partridges , and mourning doves are also common . Others seen near the Cant Ranch and the visitor 's center include rufous hummingbirds , Say 's phoebe , yellow warblers , western meadowlarks , and American goldfinches . Visitors on trails may encounter canyon wrens , mountain bluebirds , mountain chickadees , black @-@ billed magpies , and other birds .
Large animals that frequent the park include elk , deer , cougar , and pronghorn . Beaver , otter , mink , and raccoons are found in or near the river . Coyotes , bats , and badgers are among the park 's other mammals . Predators hunt smaller animals such as the rabbits , voles , mice , and shrews found in the park 's grasslands and sagebrush @-@ covered hills . Bushy @-@ tailed woodrats inhabit caves and crevices in the monument 's rock formations . Bighorn sheep , wiped out in this region in the early 20th century , were reintroduced in the Foree Area of the Sheep Rock Unit in 2010 . Many habitats in the monument support populations of snakes and lizards . Southern alligator and western fence lizards are common ; others that live here include short @-@ horned and common side @-@ blotched lizards and western skinks . Garter and gopher snakes and western yellow @-@ bellied racers frequent floodplains and canyon bottoms . Rattlesnakes , though venomous , are shy and usually flee before being seen . The springs and seeps in the park contain isolated populations of western toads , American spadefoot toads , Pacific tree frogs , and long @-@ toed salamanders .
A 2003 – 04 survey of the monument found 55 species of butterflies such as the common sootywing , orange sulphur , great spangled fritillary , and monarch . The monument 's other insects have not been completely inventoried .
The John Day River , which passes through the Sheep Rock Unit , is the longest undammed tributary of the Columbia River , although two Columbia River dams below the John Day River mouth impede migratory fish travel to some degree . Chinook salmon and steelhead pass through the monument on their way to and from upstream spawning beds and the Pacific Ocean . Species observed at the Sheep Rock Unit also include those able to tolerate warm summer river temperatures : bridgelip suckers , northern pikeminnow , redside shiners , and smallmouth bass . From October through June , when the water is cooler , Columbia River redband trout and sculpin are among species that move downriver through the park . The Park Service has removed or replaced irrigation diversions along the river or Rock Creek that formerly impeded fish movement , and it is restoring riparian vegetation such as black cottonwood trees that shade the water in summer and provide habitat for aquatic insects .
= = Activities = =
Entrance to the park and its visitor center , museums , and exhibits is free , and trails , overlooks , and picnic sites at all three units are open during daylight hours year @-@ round . No food , lodging , or fuel is available in the park , and camping is not allowed . Hours of operation for the Cant Ranch and its cultural museum vary seasonally . The Thomas Condon Paleontology Center is open every day from 10 a.m. to 5 p.m except for federal holidays during the winter season from Veterans Day in November through Presidents ' Day in February . Its amenities include a fossil museum , theater , education classroom , bookstore , restrooms , and drinking fountains . There is no cell phone or pay telephone service in the monument . Water taps at picnic areas are shut down in the colder months .
The Sheep Rock Unit has eight trails ranging in length from 300 feet ( 91 m ) at the Mascall Formation Overlook to 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) at Blue Basin . Four trails of a quarter @-@ mile to 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) long cross parts of the Painted Hills Unit . At the Clarno Unit , three separate quarter @-@ mile trails begin at a parking lot along Oregon Route 218 , below the face of the Clarno Palisades . Many of the trails have interpretive signs about the history , geology , and fossils of the region , and three trails — Story in Stone at the Sheep Rock Unit , and Painted Cove and Leaf Hill at the Painted Hills Unit — are accessible by wheelchair . Visitors are asked to stay on the trails and off bare rock and hardpan to avoid damage to fossils and fragile soils .
Ranger @-@ led events at the monument have historically included indoor and outdoor talks , showings of an 18 @-@ minute orientation film , hikes in Blue Basin , Cant Ranch walking tours , and astronomy programs at the Painted Hills Unit . These events are free and most do not require reservations . Specific times for the activities are available from rangers at the monument . For students and teachers , the Park Service offers programs at the monument as well as fossil kits and other materials for classroom use .
Pets are allowed in developed areas and along hiking trails but must be leashed or otherwise restrained . Horses are not allowed on hiking trails , in picnic areas , or on bare rock exposures in undeveloped areas of the monument . Digging , disturbing , or collecting any of the park 's natural resources , including fossils , is prohibited . Fossil theft is an ongoing problem . No mountain biking is allowed on monument land , although the Malheur National Forest east of Dayville has biking trails . Fishing is legal from monument lands along the John Day River for anyone with an Oregon fishing license . Rafting on the John Day River is seasonally popular , although the favored runs begin at or downstream of Service Creek and do not pass through the monument . Risks to monument visitors include extremely hot summer temperatures and icy winter roads , two species of venomous rattlesnakes , two species of poisonous spiders , ticks , scorpions , puncturevine , and poison ivy .
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= Demon core =
The demon core was a 6 @.@ 2 @-@ kilogram ( 14 lb ) , 89 @-@ millimetre @-@ diameter ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) subcritical mass of plutonium that was involved in two criticality accidents . It briefly went supercritical in two separate accidents at the Los Alamos laboratory in 1945 and 1946 , and resulted in the acute radiation poisoning and subsequent deaths of scientists Harry Daghlian and Louis Slotin . After these incidents the spherical plutonium core was referred to as the " demon core " .
= = Manufacturing and early history = =
The demon core ( like the second core used in the bombing of Nagasaki ) was a solid 6 @.@ 2 @-@ kilogram ( 14 lb ) 3 @.@ 5 @-@ inch @-@ diameter ( 89 mm ) sphere . It consisted of three parts : two plutonium @-@ gallium hemispheres and a ring , designed to keep neutron flux from " jetting " out of the joined surface between the hemispheres during implosion . The core of the device used in the Trinity nuclear test at the Alamogordo Bombing and Gunnery Range in July did not have such a ring .
The refined plutonium was shipped from the Hanford Site in Washington state to the Los Alamos Laboratory ; an inventory document dated August 30 shows Los Alamos had expended " HS @-@ 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 ; R @-@ 1 " ( the components of the Trinity and Nagasaki bombs ) and had in its possession " HS @-@ 5 , 6 ; R @-@ 2 " , finished and in the hands of quality control . Material for " HS @-@ 7 , R @-@ 3 " was in the Los Alamos metallurgy section , and would also be ready by September 5 ( it is not certain whether this date allowed for the unmentioned " HS @-@ 8 " ' s fabrication to complete the fourth core ) . The metallurgists used a plutonium @-@ gallium alloy , which stabilized the δ phase allotrope of plutonium so it could be hot pressed into the desired spherical shape . As plutonium was found to corrode readily , the sphere was then coated with nickel .
On August 10 , Major General Leslie R. Groves , Jr . , wrote to General of the Army George C. Marshall , the Chief of Staff of the United States Army , to inform him that :
The next bomb of the implosion type had been scheduled to be ready for delivery on the target on the first good weather after August 24th , 1945 . We have gained 4 days in manufacture and expect to ship the final components from New Mexico on August 12th or 13th . Providing there are no unforeseen difficulties in manufacture , in transportation to the theatre or after arrival in the theatre , the bomb should be ready for delivery on the first suitable weather after August 17th or 18th .
Marshall added an annotation , " It is not to be released on Japan without express authority from the President " , as President Harry S. Truman was waiting to see the effects of the first two attacks . On August 13 , the third bomb was scheduled . It was anticipated that it would be ready by August 16 to be dropped on August 19 . This was pre @-@ empted by Japan 's surrender on August 15 , 1945 , while preparations were still being made for it to be couriered to Kirtland Field . The third core remained at Los Alamos .
= = First incident = =
The core , assembled , was designed to be at " -5 cents " , or 5 percent below critical mass . In this state it takes but a small amount of additional criticality @-@ enhancing factors to cause the core to become supercritical , and then prompt critical , " a transient @-@ state of extremely rapid power increase " . Fortunately these factors are not common in the environment ; they are circumstances like the compression of the solid metallic core – which would eventually be the method used to explode the bomb , the addition of more nuclear material or provision of an external reflector which would reflect outbound neutrons back into the core . The experiments conducted at Los Alamos leading to the two fatal accidents were designed to guarantee that the core was indeed close to the critical point by arranging such reflectors and seeing how much ( or little ) neutron reflection was required to approach supercriticality .
On August 21 , 1945 , the plutonium core produced a burst of neutron radiation that led to Harry Daghlian 's death . Daghlian , a physicist , made a mistake while performing neutron reflector experiments on the core . He was working alone ; a security guard , Private Robert J. Hemmerly , was seated at a desk 10 to 12 feet ( 3 to 4 m ) away . The core was placed within a stack of neutron @-@ reflective tungsten carbide bricks and the addition of each brick moved the assembly closer to criticality . While attempting to stack another brick around the assembly , Daghlian accidentally dropped it onto the core and thereby caused the core to go well into supercriticality , a self @-@ sustaining critical chain reaction . Despite quick action in moving the brick off the assembly , Daghlian received a fatal dose of radiation . He died 25 days later from acute radiation poisoning .
= = Second incident = =
On May 21 , 1946 , physicist Louis Slotin and seven other Los Alamos personnel were in a Los Alamos laboratory conducting another experiment to verify the exact point at which a subcritical mass ( core ) of fissile material could be made critical by the positioning of neutron reflectors . Slotin , who was leaving Los Alamos , was showing the technique to Alvin C. Graves , who would use it in a final test before the Operation Crossroads nuclear tests scheduled a month later at Bikini Atoll . It required the operator to place two half @-@ spheres of beryllium ( a neutron reflector ) around the core to be tested and manually lower the top reflector over the core via a thumb hole on the top . As the reflectors were manually moved closer and farther away from each other , scintillation counters measured the relative activity from the core . Allowing them to close completely could result in the instantaneous formation of a critical mass and a lethal power excursion . Under Slotin 's unapproved protocol , the only thing preventing this was the blade of a standard straight screwdriver , manipulated by the scientist 's other hand . Slotin , who was given to bravado , became the local expert , performing the test on almost a dozen occasions , often in his trademark blue jeans and cowboy boots , in front of a roomful of observers . Enrico Fermi reportedly told Slotin and others they would be " dead within a year " if they continued performing it .
On the day of the accident , Slotin 's screwdriver slipped outward a fraction of an inch while he was lowering the top reflector , allowing the reflector to fall into place around the core . Instantly there was a flash of blue light and a wave of heat across Slotin 's skin ; the core had become supercritical , releasing an intense burst of neutron radiation estimated to have lasted about a half second . Slotin quickly twisted his wrist , flipping the top shell to the floor . The heating of the core and shells stopped the criticality within seconds of its initiation , while Slotin 's reaction prevented a recurrence and ended the accident . The position of Slotin 's body over the apparatus also shielded the others from much of the neutron radiation , but he received a lethal dose of 1 @,@ 000 rad ( 10 Gy ) neutron / 114 rad ( 1 @.@ 14 Gy ) gamma in under a second and died nine days later from acute radiation poisoning . The nearest person to Slotin , Graves , who was watching over Slotin 's shoulder and was thus partially shielded by him , received a high but non @-@ lethal radiation dose . Graves was hospitalized for several weeks with severe radiation poisoning and developed chronic neurological and vision problems as a result of the exposure . He died 20 years later of a heart attack . This heart attack may have been caused by hidden complications from radiation exposure , but its cause could also have been genetic , as his father had died from the same cause .
There have been five studies done of the amount of radiation each person involved received in the accident ; these are the latest , dated 1978 , from a table in this reference :
Two machinists in another part of the building were not treated : Paul Long and another , unidentified .
After these incidents the core , originally known as " Rufus " , was referred to as the " demon core " . Hands @-@ on criticality experiments were stopped , and remote @-@ control machines were designed by Schreiber , one of the survivors , to perform such experiments with all personnel at a quarter @-@ mile distance .
= = Operation Crossroads = =
The core was intended to be used in the Operation Crossroads nuclear tests , but after the criticality accident , time was needed for its radioactivity to decline . It was therefore scheduled for the third test of the series , provisionally named Charlie , but this was cancelled due to the unexpected level of radioactivity after the underwater Baker test and the inability to decontaminate the target warships . It was later melted down and the material reused in another core .
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= William Blackstone =
Sir William Blackstone SL KC ( 10 July 1723 – 14 February 1780 ) was an English jurist , judge and Tory politician of the eighteenth century . He is most noted for writing the Commentaries on the Laws of England . Born into a middle @-@ class family in London , Blackstone was educated at Charterhouse School before matriculating at Pembroke College , Oxford in 1738 . After switching to and completing a Bachelor of Civil Law degree , he was made a Fellow of All Souls , Oxford on 2 November 1743 , admitted to Middle Temple , and called to the Bar there in 1746 . Following a slow start to his career as a barrister , Blackstone became heavily involved in university administration , becoming accountant , treasurer and bursar on 28 November 1746 and Senior Bursar in 1750 . Blackstone is considered responsible for completing the Codrington Library and Warton Building , and simplifying the complex accounting system used by the college . On 3 July 1753 he formally gave up his practice as a barrister and instead embarked on a series of lectures on English law , the first of their kind . These were massively successful , earning him a total of £ 453 ( £ 63 @,@ 000 in 2016 terms ) , and led to the publication of An Analysis of the Laws of England in 1756 , which repeatedly sold out and was used to preface his later works .
On 20 October 1758 Blackstone was confirmed as the first Vinerian Professor of English Law , immediately embarking on another series of lectures and publishing a similarly successful second treatise , titled A Discourse on the Study of the Law . With his growing fame , Blackstone successfully returned to the bar and maintained a good practice , also securing election as Tory Member of Parliament for the rotten borough of Hindon on 30 March 1761 . In February 1766 he published the first volume of Commentaries on the Laws of England , considered his magnum opus — the completed work earned Blackstone £ 14 @,@ 000 ( £ 1 @,@ 756 @,@ 000 in 2016 terms ) . After repeated failures , he successfully gained appointment to the judiciary as a Justice of the Court of King 's Bench on 16 February 1770 , leaving to replace Edward Clive as a Justice of the Common Pleas on 25 June . He remained in this position until his death , on 14 February 1780 .
Blackstone 's legacy and main work of note is his Commentaries . Designed to provide a complete overview of English law , the four @-@ volume treatise was repeatedly republished in 1770 , 1773 , 1774 , 1775 , 1778 and in a posthumous edition in 1783 . Reprints of the first edition , intended for practical use rather than antiquary interest , were published until the 1870s in England and Wales , and a working version by Henry John Stephen , first published in 1841 , was reprinted until after the Second World War . Legal education in England had stalled ; Blackstone 's work gave the law " at least a veneer of scholarly respectability " . William Searle Holdsworth , one of Blackstone 's successors as Vinerian Professor , argued that " If the Commentaries had not been written when they were written , I think it very doubtful that [ the United States ] , and other English speaking countries would have so universally adopted the common law . " In the United States , the Commentaries influenced Alexander Hamilton , John Marshall , James Wilson , John Jay , John Adams , James Kent and Abraham Lincoln , and remain frequently cited in Supreme Court decisions .
= = Early life and education = =
William 's father , Charles Blackstone , was a silk mercer from Cheapside , the son of a wealthy apothecary . He became firm friends with Thomas Bigg , a surgeon and the son of Lovelace Bigg , a gentleman from Wiltshire . After Bigg 's sister Mary came to London , Charles eventually persuaded her to marry him in 1718 . This was not seen as a good match for her , but the couple lived happily and had four sons , three of whom lived into adulthood . Charles ( born August 1719 ) and Henry ( May 1722 ) , both became fellows of New College , Oxford and took holy orders . Their last son , William , was born on 10 July 1723 , five months after Charles ' death in February .
Although Charles and Mary Blackstone were members of the middle class rather than landed gentry , they were particularly prosperous . Tax records show Charles Blackstone to have been the second most prosperous man in the parish in 1722 , and death registers show that the family had several servants . This , along with Thomas Bigg 's assistance to the family following Charles ' death , helps explain the educational upbringing of the children . William Blackstone was sent to Charterhouse School in 1730 , nominated by Charles Wither , a relative of Mary Blackstone . William did well there , and became head of the school by age 15 . However , after Charles ' death the family fortunes declined , and after Mary died ( 5 January 1736 ) the family 's resources largely went to meet unpaid bills . William was able to remain at Charterhouse as a " poor scholar " , having been named to that position in June 1735 after being nominated by Sir Robert Walpole .
Blackstone revelled in Charterhouse 's academic curriculum , particularly the Latin poetry of Ovid and Virgil . He began to attract note as a poet at school , writing a 30 @-@ line set of rhyming couplets to celebrate the wedding of James Hotchkis , the headmaster . He also won a silver medal for his Latin verses on John Milton , gave the annual Latin oration in 1738 , and was noted as having been the favourite student of his masters . On 1 October 1738 , taking advantage of a new scholarship available to Charterhouse students , Blackstone matriculated at Pembroke College , Oxford .
= = Oxford = =
= = = Study = = =
There are few surviving records of Blackstone 's undergraduate term at Oxford , but the curriculum of Pembroke College had been set out in 1624 , and Prest notes that it was probably still followed in 1738 , so Blackstone would have studied Greek , science , logic , rhetoric , philosophy , mathematics , geography and poetry . Blackstone was particularly good at Greek , mathematics and poetry , with his notes on William Shakespeare being included in George Steevens ' 1781 edition of Shakespeare 's plays . Many of Blackstone 's undergraduate texts survive , and they include few legal texts , instead being wide @-@ ranging ; politics , current affairs , poetry , geometry and controversial theological texts . The last element is understandable , given his family 's theological interests , but the more surprising element is the sheer number of texts he owned given his relative poverty as a student .
On 9 July 1740 , after only a year and a half as a Bachelor of Arts student , Blackstone was admitted to study for a Bachelor of Civil Law degree , civil law being the only legal area recognised by his university . This degree course was seven years long , the first two " supposedly devoted to a broad course of reading in humane studies " , which allowed him to study his own interests . On 20 November 1741 he was admitted to the Middle Temple , the first step on the road to becoming a barrister , but this imposed no obligations and simply allowed a legal career to be an option . At the time there was no proper legal education system , and Blackstone read ( in his own time ) Coke on Littleton , the works of Henry Finch , and related legal tracts .
In addition to his formal studies , Blackstone published a collection of poetry which included the draft version of The Lawyer to his Muse , his most famous literary work . In 1743 he published Elements of Architecture and An Abridgement of Architecture , two treatises on the rules governing the art of construction . His next work ( 1747 ) was The Pantheon : A Vision , an anonymously published book of poetry covering the various religions in the world . It depicts a narrator 's walking dream through the buildings of various religions , which are all ( other than Christianity ) depicted in a negative light . This followed his election as a Fellow of All Souls , Oxford on 2 November 1743 , and his call to the Bar by the Middle Temple on 28 November 1746 .
His call to the Bar saw Blackstone begin to alternate between Oxford and London , occupying chambers in Pump Court but living at All Souls College . As the central courts only sat for three months of the year , the rest of his time was spent on Assize when his work at All Souls permitted . He regularly acted as a law reporter ; his personal notes on cases start with Hankey v Trotman ( 1746 ) . Blackstone 's barrister practice began slowly ; his first case in the Court of King 's Bench was in 1748 , and he had only 6 additional motions there through 1751 . Two appearances in the Court of Chancery are also noted , and he is known to have been consulted in Roger Newdigate 's long @-@ running lawsuit there , but his early court appearances are infrequent . This is considered to have been due to bad luck , with his call to the Bar occurring at the same time as the massive contraction in business by the central courts , along with his singular lack of connections due to his status as an orphan from the middle class ; he was described as " unrecognised and unemployed " . He filled his time by acting as counsel for Oxford , and from May 1749 with his election as Recorder of Wallingford .
= = = University administration = = =
While dividing his time , Blackstone became an administrator at All Souls , securing appointment as accountant , treasurer and bursar on 28 November 1746 . Completion of the Codrington Library and Warton Building , first started in 1710 and 1720 respectively but not built until 1748 , is attributed to his work . In 1749 he became Steward of the Manors , and in 1750 was made Senior Bursar . Records show a " perfectionist zeal " in organising the estates and finances of All Souls , and Blackstone was noted for massively simplifying the complex accounting system used by the college . In 1750 Blackstone completed his first legal tract , An Essay on Collateral Consanguinity , which dealt with those claiming a familial tie to the founder or All Souls in an attempt to gain preeminence in elections . Completion of his Doctor of Civil Law degree , which he was awarded in April 1750 , admitted him to Convocation , the governing body of Oxford , which elected the two burgesses who represented it in the House of Commons , along with most of the university officers . With this and with his continuing work at the university , Blackstone announced on 3 July 1753 his intentions to " no longer attend the Courts at Westminster , but to pursue my Profession in a Way more agreeable to me in all respects , by residing at Oxford [ and ] to engraft upon this Resolution a Scheme which I am told may be beneficial to the University as well as myself " , which was to give a set of lectures on the common law – the first lectures of that sort in the world .
This was not entirely out of benevolence ; according to Prest , Blackstone was likely aware that an Oxford alumnus , Charles Viner , was planning to endow a professorship of English law . The Regius Professorship of Civil Law had also become vacant in 1753 ; despite support from Lord Mansfield , Blackstone had been rejected in favour of Robert Jenner , widely considered Blackstone 's lesser intellectually but a far greater political mind . In addition , a private lecture series would be extremely lucrative . While his All Souls fellowship gave him £ 70 a year , records show that the lecture series brought him £ 116 , £ 226 and £ 111 a year respectively from 1753 to 1755 – a total of £ 453 ( £ 63 @,@ 000 in 2016 terms ) . A prospectus was issued on 23 June 1753 , and with a class of approximately 20 students , the first set of lectures were completed by July 1754 . Despite Blackstone 's limited oratory skills and a speaking style described by Jeremy Bentham as " formal , precise and affected " , Blackstone 's lectures were warmly appreciated . The second and third series were far more popular , partly due to the then unusual use of printed handouts and lists of suggested reading . No copies of these handouts exist , but Alexander Popham , later a close friend of Blackstone , attended the lectures and made notes , which survive . These show Blackstone 's attempts to reduce English law to a logical system , with the division of subjects later being the basis for his Commentaries .
Following his lecture series , Blackstone became more prominent in convocation and other university activities . Oxford and Cambridge at the time had a strange system of law ; due to their unique natures , they had exclusive jurisdiction over both academics and students in a fashion which followed either the common law or their own customs , based on the civil law . With his appointment as assessor ( or chief legal officer ) of the Chancellor 's Court , Blackstone became far more involved in the university 's peculiar legal system , and records show him sitting between eight and ten times a year from 1753 to 1759 , mainly dealing with small claims of debt . He also wrote a manual on the Court 's practice , and through his position gained a large number of contacts and connections , as well as visibility , which aided his legal career significantly . This period also saw Blackstone write his last known piece of poetry , Friendship : An Ode , in 1756 .
In 1756 Blackstone published the first of his full legal texts , the 200 page An Analysis of the Laws of England . Published by the Clarendon Press , the treatise was intended to demonstrate the " Order , and principal Divisions " of his lecture series , and a structured introduction to English law . Prest calls this " a marked advance on any previous introduction to English law . . including constitutional , civil and criminal law , public and private law , substantive law and procedure , as well as some introductory jurisprudential content " . The initial print run of 1 @,@ 000 copies almost immediately sold out , leading to the printing of three more 1 @,@ 000 @-@ book lots over the next three years , which all sold out . A fifth edition was published in 1762 , and a sixth , edited to take into account Blackstone 's Commentaries on the Laws of England , in 1771 . Because of the success of the Commentaries , Prest remarks that " relatively little scholarly attention has been paid to this work " ; at the time , however , it was hailed as " an elegant performance . . calculated to facilitate this branch of knowledge " .
= = = Vinerian Professor of English Law = = =
On 8 March 1758 , the group executing Charles Viner 's will reported to Convocation that Viner recommended creating a Chair of English Law , with a £ 200 salary . After much debate , this position was created , and on 20 October 1758 Blackstone was confirmed as the first Vinerian Professor of English Law . On 24 October he gave his first lecture , to " a crowded audience " ; the text was soon printed and published as A Discourse on the Study of the Law . The lecture was tremendously popular , being described as a " sensible , spirited and manly exhortation to the study of the law " ; the initial print run sold out , necessitating the publication of another 1 @,@ 000 copies , and it was used to preface later versions of the Analysis and the first volume of the Commentaries . Within the university , however , Blackstone was not as popular . As soon as the lecture series opened , an anonymously written open letter was published charging that Blackstone had " violated the Statutes of the University , by arbitrarily changing the Day appointed for reading his solemn Lectures " . Blackstone suffered a nervous breakdown soon after the first lecture , and on 24 November he launched a suit in the Chancellor 's Court against " William Jackson of the City of Oxford Printer " for £ 500 damages , justified by Jackson " printing and publishing a scandalous Libell notoriously reflecting on the Character of him the said William Blackstone " . Jackson had refused to reveal who ordered the anonymous pamphlet , leading to the suit , but it evidently did not proceed further .
This suit , along with the struggle over the Vinerian Professorship and other controversies , damaged his reputation within the university , as evidenced by his failure to win election as Vice Warden in April 1759 , losing to John White . Prest attributes Blackstone 's unpopularity to specific personality traits , saying his " determination ... in pursuit of causes to which he committed himself could irritate as well as intimidate those of a more relaxed disposition . While quick to take offence at perceived slights on his own character and motives , he could also show surprising indifference to the effect his words and actions might have on others " . This marked the beginning of his break with Oxford , which coincided with his growing influence outside the university . In 1759 Lord Bute , Prince George 's official tutor , requested copies of Blackstone 's lectures , which he forwarded . Later that year Blackstone was paid £ 200 by the Prince , who became an " appreciative , loyal , and soon to be incomparably influential patron " . This patronage , and Blackstone 's purchase of a set of chambers in the Inner Temple , also transferring to that Inn , were significant steps in his departure from Oxford . In 1759 Blackstone published another two works , The Great Charter and the Charter of the Forest , with other authentic Instruments , described as a " major piece of pioneering scholarship " leading to Blackstone 's election to the Society of Antiquaries in February 1761 , and A Treatise on the Law of Descents in Fee Simple , which was later used , almost verbatim , as chapters 14 and 15 of the Commentaries .
= = London = =
= = = Work at the Bar = = =
With sponsorship from the Prince of Wales and his success with the Analysis , Blackstone began work as a barrister , although he kept up his lecture series at Oxford . By 1760 he had become " a very eminent figure indeed in the world of letters " , and his legal practice grew as a result . Although not considered a great barrister of the period , he maintained a steady flow of cases , primarily in the King 's Bench and Exchequer of Pleas . On the death of the third Earl of Abingdon , Blackstone was retained as counsel for the executors and trustees to oversee the family 's attempts to pay off debts and meet other obligations . On 5 May 1761 he married Sarah Clitherow , a member of a family of lesser gentry from Middlesex . Their first child , William Bertie Blackstone , born 21 August 1762 , did not survive to adulthood . Seven more children were born ; Henry , James , Sarah , Mary , Philippa , William , Charles , and George , who also died in childhood . The Blackstones had a large estate in Wallingford , including 120 acres ( 46 ha ) of pastureland around the River Thames and the right of advowson over St Peter 's Church .
In February 1761 Blackstone was considered as a potential Tory candidate for the rotten borough of Hindon . After consultation with friends , he agreed to this prospect – at the same time refusing the offer of appointment as Lord Chief Justice of Ireland . On 30 March 1761 he was returned for Hindon , and took his seat . This did not limit his legal work , initially , with the seat being given without a requirement to attend or vote in a particular way , and the grant of a patent of precedence at the same time actually increased the demand on his time . Court records show him pleading before Lord Mansfield in the Court of King 's Bench soon after his election , and acting as counsel in Tonson v Collins , a copyright case , Thiquet v Bath , an important case on international law , and R v d 'Eon , acting for the prosecution in a feud over Louis XV 's newly appointed cross @-@ dressing Ambassador to the United Kingdom .
With this increase in his practice , Blackstone also saw an increase in his out @-@ of @-@ court work , writing opinions and recommendations for various Oxford colleges , the MP Jonathan Rashleigh and the fourth Earl of Abingdon , who paid him to draft several private Acts of Parliament . In April 1765 Blackstone began to actively seek judicial appointment . In December 1761 he asked Lord Shelburne , a patron , for his assistance in gaining appointment as Chief Justice of Chester , writing again in July 1762 to " prevail upon Lord Bute to recommend me to his Majesty 's Notice " , anticipating an upcoming vacancy in the Court of Common Pleas . Parliamentary service was considered a " desirable if never absolutely essential qualification for would @-@ be English judges " , something that did not necessarily bode well for Blackstone . Naturally inarticulate and reticent , he was an infrequent and " indifferent " speaker during his first session of Parliament , speaking only 14 times in seven years . His chosen career did lend him to politics , in that the lawyers in the House of Commons were often added to select committees to provide them with technical expertise in drafting legislation . He again applied for a judicial post in December 1762 , after an opening in the Exchequer of Pleas came up , but lost to George Perrott , a leading Exchequer barrister . The next five vacancies also failed to go to Blackstone , after the appointment of Lord Camden ( a Whig ) as Lord Chancellor .
= = = Commentaries on the Laws of England = = =
In 1765 Blackstone announced his resignation from the Vinerian Chair , effective after his 1766 lectures . These were divided into two 14 @-@ lecture series , on " private wrongs " and " public wrongs " delivered between 12 February and 24 April . At this point Blackstone had published nothing new since A Treatise on the Law of Descents in Fee Simple in 1759 . The decision to resign was most likely due to the increasing demands of his legal practice and the reduced profit from the lectures , which , after peaking at £ 340 in 1762 , dropped to £ 239 a year later and to £ 203 for the final round of lectures in 1765 @-@ 6 . In response , Blackstone decided to publish a new book – Commentaries on the Laws of England . The first volume was published in November 1765 , bringing the author £ 1 @,@ 600 – the full work would eventually bring in over £ 14 @,@ 000 . Owen Ruffhead described Volume I as " masterly " , noting that " Mr Blackstone is perhaps the first who has treated the body of the law in a liberal , elegant and constitutional manner . A vein of good sense and moderation runs through every page " . Every copy was sold within six months , and the second and third volumes , published in October 1766 and June 1768 , received a similar reception . The fourth and final volume appeared in 1770 , dealing with Criminal Law . With the financial success of the Commentaries , Blackstone moved in 1768 from his London property in Carey Fields to No. 55 Lincoln 's Inn Fields . Neighbours included the Sardinian ambassador , Sir Walter Rawlinson , Lord Northington , John Morton and the Third Earl of Abingdon , making it an appropriate house for a " great and able Lawyer " .
Blackstone 's treatise was republished in 1770 , 1773 , 1774 , 1775 , 1778 and in a posthumous edition in 1783 . Reprints of the first edition , intended for practical use rather than antiquary interest , were published until the 1870s in England and Wales , and a working version by Henry John Stephen , first published in 1841 , was reprinted until after the Second World War . The first American edition was produced in 1772 ; prior to this , over 1 @,@ 000 copies had already been sold in the Thirteen Colonies .
= = = Judge = = =
Even after the publication of the Commentaries , Blackstone 's chances of judicial appointment remained slim . While he was old enough , experienced enough and widely respected , the presence of Lord Camden as Lord Chancellor and Blackstone 's lack of aristocratic patrons at the time hindered his chances . In January 1770 , however , Lord Grafton 's government began to fall , with Camden resigning on 17 January and Solicitor @-@ General John Dunning , following him . George III appointed Lord North as Prime Minister , and North picked Charles Yorke as Lord Chancellor . Yorke 's death on 20 January , after holding the position for less than three days , left several important legal positions within the government open . As such , Blackstone , now MP for Westbury , was apparently approached to become Solicitor @-@ General ; he refused , not wanting to deal with the complicated duties attached to the position .
On 9 February 1770 – apparently with the intervention of the King , and possibly Lord Mansfield – Blackstone became a Justice of the Common Pleas , succeeding Edward Clive , and was made a Serjeant @-@ at @-@ Law on 12 February . After only four days it was announced that Joseph Yates was to move to the Common Pleas , and Blackstone was again sworn in as a judge , this time of the Court of King 's Bench . This was apparently due to Yates ' poor health ; Lord Mansfield ran a busy court as Lord Chief Justice , and it was felt that his transfer to the Common Pleas was for the best . Others commented that it was instead due to political and judicial disagreement , with Yates unwilling to stomach the changes which Mansfield made to English law . Blackstone sat regularly as a judge , despite bouts of ill health , and also served on various circuit courts . Prest describes him as an " exceptionally careful , conscientious and well @-@ respected judge . . his judgments ranging between narrowly framed technicalities [ and ] broad statements of public commentary " . He was , however , considered a poor trial judge , being reversed on appeal more frequently than any of his peers .
Blackstone returned to the Common Pleas on 25 June 1770 , having spent less than six months in the King 's Bench ; Jeremy Bentham asserted that this was due to Mansfield 's having Blackstone removed similarly to his removal of Yates . Bentham asserted that in the King 's Bench , Blackstone was " always in hot water " , and that there was " heartburning " between the two ; Bentham 's account is considered dubious because historically , Mansfield and Blackstone had an excellent relationship , with the third volume of the Commentaries describing Mansfield as " a judge , whose masterly acquaintance with the law of nations was known and revered by every state in Europe " . There is only one recorded King 's Bench case , R v Proprietors of Birmingham Canal Navigation , in which Blackstone and Mansfield disagreed .
In the Common Pleas , Blackstone operated under a civil jurisdiction rather than a mixed civil and criminal one . This played to his strengths , and many of his decisions are considered farsighted ; the principle in Blaney v Hendricks , for example , that interest is due on an account where money was lent , which anticipated Section 3 of the Law Reform ( Miscellaneous Provisions ) Act 1934 . Blackstone 's decision in Goldswain 's Case was later repeated by Lord Denning in Falmouth Boat Construction Co v Howell in 1950 .
= = Death = =
Blackstone had long suffered from gout , and by November 1779 also had a nervous disorder which caused dizziness , obesity , high blood pressure and possibly diabetes . By 3 February 1780 he was too weak to write , and after " some Days almost totally insensible " , he died on 14 February . After a service conducted by Bishop Barrington on 22 February , Blackstone was buried in the family vault under St Peter 's Church , Wallingford . His estate at his death was worth less than £ 15 @,@ 000 ; therefore William Eden secured a £ 400 annual royal pension for Sarah Blackstone . The initial reaction to Blackstone 's death was subdued , but in December 1780 the Fellows of All Souls College agreed that " a Statue be erected to the memory of Sr W Blackstone deceased " . Constructed by John Bacon , the life @-@ sized statue of Blackstone in his judicial robes cost £ 539 , and has rested in the Codrington Library since 1872 . His brother @-@ in @-@ law , James Clitherow , also published two volumes of his law reports which added £ 1 @,@ 287 to the estate , and in 1782 the Biographical History of Sir William Blackstone appeared .
= = Legacy = =
Blackstone 's primary legacy is his written work , specifically the Commentaries on the Laws of England . Demand for reprinted , abridged and translated versions was " almost inexhaustible " in the 18th and 19th centuries , although the Commentaries ' emphasis on the sovereignty of Parliament drew ire . Alexis de Tocqueville described Blackstone as " an inferior writer , without liberality of mind or depth of judgment " . Other commentators differ ; one described him as " the core element in the British Enlightenment " , comparing him to Montesquieu , Beccaria and Voltaire . Academics have said that the Commentaries were crucial in changing English Law from a system based on actions to a system of substantive law . At the time of publication , the common law of England was still , in some ways , in its infancy , with people uncertain as to what the law was . The Commentaries helped to solidify legal thinking . At the same time , legal education had stalled , and Blackstone 's work gave the Law " at least a veneer of scholarly respectability " . William Searle Holdsworth , one of Blackstone 's successors as Vinerian Professor , argued that " if the Commentaries had not been written when they were written , I think it very doubtful that [ the United States ] , and other English speaking countries would have so universally adopted the [ common ] law " .
The Commentaries had a particular influence in the United States ; James Iredell , an original Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States wrote that the Commentaries were " Books admirably calculated for a young Student , and indeed may instruct the most learned . . Pleasure and Instruction go hand in hand " . When the Commentaries were first printed in North America , 1 @,@ 400 copies were ordered for Philadelphia alone . Academics have also noted the early reliance of the Supreme Court on the Commentaries , probably due to a lack of US legal tradition at that time . Robert Ferguson notes that " all our formative documents – the Declaration of Independence , the Constitution , the Federalist Papers and the seminal decisions of the Supreme Court under John Marshall – were drafted by attorneys steeped in Sir William Blackstone 's Commentaries on the Laws of England . So much was this the case that the Commentaries rank second only to the Bible as a literary and intellectual influence on the history of American institutions " . Even today , the Commentaries are cited in Supreme Court decisions between 10 and 12 times a year .
Within United States academia and practise , as well as within the judiciary , the Commentaries had a substantial impact ; with the scarcity of law books on the frontier , they were " both the only law school and the only law library most American lawyers used to practise law in America for nearly a century after they were published " . Blackstone had drawn up a plan for a dedicated School of Law , and submitted it to the University of Oxford ; when the idea was rejected he included it in the Commentaries . It is from this plan that the modern system of American law schools comes . Subscribers to the first edition of Blackstone , and later readers who were profoundly influenced by it , include James Iredell , John Marshall , James Wilson , John Jay , John Adams , James Kent and Abraham Lincoln . In advocating for American independence , Alexander Hamilton cited Blackstone for the proposition that " the law of nature , ' which , being coequal with mankind , and dictated by God himself , is , of course , superior in obligation to any other . It is binding over all the globe , in all countries , and at all times . No human laws are of any validity , if contrary to this ; and such of them as are valid , derive all their authority , mediately , or immediately , from this original . ' "
In the early 1920s the American Bar Association presented a statue of Blackstone to the English Bar Association , however , at the time , the sculpture was too tall to be placed in the Royal Courts of Justice . The sculpture , designed by Paul Wayland Bartlett was eventually cast in Europe and presented back to the United States for display . Congress approved the placement of the sculpture in Washington , D.C. on 15 March 1943 , and appropriated $ 10 @,@ 000 for the installation . The bronze statue is a nine @-@ foot ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) standing portrait of Blackstone wearing judicial robes and a long curly wig , holding a copy of Commentaries . It is placed on a tall granite base and stands on Constitution Avenue & 3rd Street NW . The town of Blackstone , Virginia is named after him .
= = = Blackstone 's Ratio = = =
Among the most well @-@ known of Blackstone 's contributions to judicial theory is his own statement of the principle that it " is better that ten guilty persons escape than that one innocent suffer " .
While this argument originates at least as far back as Genesis 18 : 23 – 32 in the Bible , as well as versions by Maimonides and Sir John Fortescue , Blackstone 's analysis is the one picked up by Benjamin Franklin and others , so that the term has become known as " Blackstone 's Ratio " .
As John Adams , having studied Blackstone , put it :
Blackstone 's Ratio is a maxim of English law , having been established as such within a few decades of Blackstone 's work being published . It is also cited in courts and law in the US , and is strongly emphasised to American law students .
= = Works = =
Elements of Architecture ( 1743 )
An Abridgement of Architecture ( 1743 )
The Pantheon : A Vision ( 1747 )
An Analysis of the Laws of England ( 1756 )
A Discourse on the Study of the Law ( 1758 )
The Great Charter and the Charter of the Forest , with other authentic Instruments ( 1759 )
A Treatise on the Law of Descents in Fee Simple ( 1759 )
Commentaries on the Laws of England ( 1766 )
Reports in K.B. and C.P. , from 1746 to 1779 ( 1780 )
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= Chongqing model =
The " Chongqing model " refers to a series of social and economic policies adopted in the Chinese megalopolis of Chongqing . It is most closely associated with Bo Xilai , who served as the city 's Communist Party secretary from 2007 to 2012 , though some policies were put in place by Bo 's predecessors .
The Chongqing model was characterized in part by increased state control and the promotion of a neo @-@ leftist ideology . It involved a sweeping and sometimes extrajudicial campaign against organized crime , and increased the security and police presence in the city . As a means of addressing declining public morality , Bo launched a " red culture " movement to promote Maoist @-@ era socialist ethics . On the economic front , he actively courted foreign investment and focused on manufacturing for domestic consumption . The Chongqing model was also characterized by massive public works programs , subsidized housing for the poor , and social policies intended to make it easier for rural citizens to move to the city .
The Chongqing model represented an alternative model of development which diverged from the policies favored by the reformist faction led by Party general secretary Hu Jintao and Premier Wen Jiabao . When Bo Xilai was removed from his posts in the spring of 2012 , authorities began a campaign to reverse several of the policies that characterized the Chongqing model , including by cracking down on expressions of " red culture " . Individuals , who believed they had been wrongly persecuted under the anti @-@ corruption campaign , also began seeking legal redress .
= = Background = =
Bo Xilai , son of Communist Party icon Bo Yibo , was assigned as Communist Party secretary for Chongqing during the 17th Party Congress in October 2007 . His predecessor , Wang Yang , was reassigned to helm the Communist Party in Guangdong province . At the time , Chongqing was reeling from problems such as air and water pollution , unemployment , poor public health , and complications from the Three Gorges Dam . Prior to the appointment , Bo had served as Minister of Commerce . Bo was initially reluctant to assume the Chongqing post , which was widely viewed as a demotion ; he had hoped to become vice @-@ premier instead .
Although Bo was initially unhappy about his reassignment as Communist Party secretary in Chongqing , he soon resolved to use his new position as a staging ground for a return to higher national office . Bo made no secret of his desire to enter the nine @-@ member Politburo Standing Committee ( PSC ) during the 18th Party Congress in autumn 2012 , when seven of the nine members of the PSC — including General Secretary Hu Jintao and Premier Wen Jiabao — were expected to retire . The transition would be an opportunity for the ambitious Bo to join the highest echelon of national leadership , likely as a replacement for ally Zhou Yongkang , head of the party 's security apparatus .
Bo used his leadership of Chongqing to pioneer the " Chongqing Model " — a systematic set of social and economic policies intended to address diverse challenges facing modern China . The Chongqing model represented a rebuke of the policies favored by the reformist faction dominated by Wen Jiabao and Hu Jintao . It is also frequently contrasted with the Guangdong model championed by Bo 's predecessor and political opponent Wang Yang . Whereas the Chongqing model placed emphasized the role of the state in economic and social life , the Guangdong model is characterized by comparatively liberal economic and political policies .
= = = Crackdown on organized crime = = =
Bo 's tenure in Chongqing was dominated by a protracted war ostensibly against organized crime and corruption known as " Striking Black " ( " Da Hei " ) . Since 2009 , an estimated 5 @,@ 700 people were arrested in the sweeping campaign that ensnared not only criminals , but also businessmen , members of the police force , judges , government officials , and political adversaries who were accused of corruption or criminal collaboration . The campaign was overseen by police chief and vice mayor Wang Lijun , whom Bo had worked with previously in Liaoning province . Reports from the Jamestown Foundation suggest the initiative was given approval by general secretary Hu Jintao , and Bo struck a careful balance between claiming credit for the campaign and praising Beijing 's leadership in the crackdown on crime .
The Striking Black campaign earned Bo national recognition and widespread popularity in Chongqing — all the more because of the city ’ s reputation as a center for criminal activity . The apparent success of Bo 's campaign raised Bo 's national and international profile and resulted in calls for a nationwide campaign based on his experiences in Chongqing . Through the campaign , Bo gained the support of a number of powerful members of the Politburo Standing Committee , including Wu Bangguo , Jia Qinglin , Li Changchun , Xi Jinping and Zhou Yongkang , all of whom visited Chongqing or praised Bo 's achievements sometime between 2010 and 2011 .
Bo 's measures were criticized for neglecting due process and contributing to the erosion of the rule of law . " By all accounts , " wrote Stanley Lubman in The Wall Street Journal , the campaign " involved misuse of both the courts and the police . " Individuals targeted in the campaign were arbitrarily detained by the authorities , with an estimated 1 @,@ 000 being sent to forced labor . Lawyers for the accused were reportedly intimidated ; one lawyer was sentenced to 18 months in prison . Allegations also surfaced over the use of torture to extract confessions . Moreover , many of those targeted in the campaign were not criminals , but businessmen and political rivals whose assets were reportedly seized in order to help pay for Bo ’ s popular social housing programs . The Wall Street Journal reported estimates that $ 11 billion was seized through the campaign . Li Jun , a fugitive businessman , told The Financial Times that Chongqing security forces seized his $ 700 million real estate business and tortured him as retaliation for attempting to purchase land that was also sought by the government . One microblogger was sentenced to a year in labor camp for criticizing Bo ’ s alleged abuse of the court system during the campaign .
The campaign to combat crime and maintain political stability also involved the launch of a major electronic surveillance operation in the city . Wang Lijun , Bo ’ s police chief , served as the architect of the state @-@ funded project , which was described in official media as a " comprehensive package bugging system covering telecommunications to the Internet . " The system involved wiretaps , eavesdropping , and monitoring of internet communications . According the New York Times , the eavesdropping operations did not only target local criminals , but also the communications of top Chinese leaders . In August 2011 , a phone call between Hu Jintao and anti @-@ corruption official Ma Wen was found to be wiretapped under Bo ’ s orders . The revelation about the eavesdropping operation resulted in intense scrutiny from the Central Commission for Discipline Inspection , and contributed to Bo ’ s downfall in 2012 .
= = = Social policies = = =
A cornerstone of Bo ’ s Chongqing model was a series of egalitarian social policies aimed at lessening the gap between rich and poor and easing the rural @-@ urban divide . Bo promoted the notion of pursuing " red GDP " — an economic model embodying communist egalitarianism — and suggested that , if economic development were analogous to ' baking a cake ' , then the primary task should be to divide the cake fairly rather than building a larger cake .
To that end , the city reportedly spent $ 15 @.@ 8 billion on public apartment complexes for use by recent college graduates , migrant workers , and low @-@ income residents . Bo aimed to provide housing for 2 @.@ 4 million residents by 2012 . Residents whose incomes were under 3 @,@ 000 yuan ( $ 480 ) per month would be eligible to rent apartments for three years , with an option to buy thereafter . Huang Qifan , who served as mayor under Bo Xilai , indicated in 2010 that the subsidized housing project was " designed to free up more money for people to consume and drive the economy , ” and noted that it would borrow elements from Singapore 's Housing Development Board .
In 2007 , the cities of Chongqing and Chengdu were selected to run pilot projects intended to mitigate the rural @-@ urban divide and ease integration of rural residents into the cities . Under China ’ s hukou registration system , citizens are classified as either rural or urban — a distinction that determines not only where they may live , but also affects educational opportunities , taxation , property rights , and so on . Of Chongqing ’ s 32 million residents , only 27 % held urban hukou certificates as of 2007 . The 2007 project made it easier for rural residents to obtain urban status — a policy intended not only to help balance inequality , but also to enable the government to develop underused rural land . Under Bo ’ s leadership , Chongqing established " land exchanges " where rural villages could earn credits for maximizing farmland . Bo pledged to move three million rural residents into urban areas .
Bo 's populist approach to social policy was demonstrated during the November 2008 taxi strikes , which saw over 8 @,@ 000 taxi drivers take to the streets for two days in protests over high fees , unregulated competition , and rising fuel charges . Similar protests in China are frequently suppressed — sometimes forcefully — with official media sometimes blaming labor unrest on criminal instigation . Bo 's government instead held televised roundtable dialogues with the protesters and citizens , and agreed to allow the formation of a trade union . His handling of situation earned him praise as a comparatively progressive leader . A businessman who was reportedly involved in organizing the strike was later sentenced on 20 years in prison for disrupting transport and gangsterism .
The Chongqing model also involved a major campaign to " green " the city through a tree @-@ planting initiative . The city reportedly imported millions of trees — many of them ginkos — as part of the campaign . The cost of the greening initiative was estimated to be as high as 10 billion yuan .
= = = Red culture movement = = =
During his time in Chongqing , Bo initiated a series of Maoist @-@ style campaigns to revive " red culture " and improve public morale . The initiative included the promotion of Maoist quotes , " singing red songs " ( changhong ) , revolutionary television programming and operas , and initiatives to encourage students to work in the countryside , akin to the way students were required to do during the Down to the Countryside Movement of the Cultural Revolution .
Prior to the 60th Anniversary of the People 's Republic of China celebrations , for instance , Bo sent out " red text messages " to the city 's 13 million cellphone users . According to Xinhua News Agency , Bo 's text messages are usually quotes from Mao 's Little Red Book , and include phrases such as " I like how Chairman Mao puts it : The world is ours , we will all have to work together , " and " responsibility and seriousness can conquer the world , and the Chinese Communist Party members represent these qualities . " Bo and his team of municipal administrators also raised new Mao statues in Chongqing , while providing social housing to the city 's less well @-@ off . Some scholars have characterized this as an example of the revival of Maoism in the Chinese Communist ethos .
In 2011 , Bo and the city 's Media Department initiated a " Red Songs campaign " that demanded every district , government department , commercial enterprise , educational institution , and state radio and TV station begin " singing red songs " praising the achievements of the Communist Party of China . Bo pledged to reinvigorate the city with Marxist ideals reminiscent of the Mao era .
Reactions to the red culture movement were divided . Bo ’ s revival of Mao @-@ era culture and accompanying social welfare programs were popular within certain segments of society , and made Bo popular with both Marxists and neo @-@ leftists . One student quoted in The Washington Post embraced the ethos of the campaign , saying , " When I sing red songs , I find a kind of spirit I never felt when singing modern songs … To surround yourself with material stuff is just a waste of time . " A group of retired participants in a red song routine told the Los Angeles Times " We know these songs from our youth . We grew up with revolutionary spirit and we want to pass that on to our children . ” Another noted that he felt compelled to participate in order to express appreciation to the Communist Party for the country ’ s strong economy .
However , the campaign was unsettling to others — particularly the intelligentsia . A 57 @-@ year @-@ old lawyer told The Washington Post , " I saw the beatings of the teachers by the Red Guards . It was horrible … Young people may not recognize it . But for us who lived through it , how can we possibly sing ? " An academic quoted in The Daily Telegraph described the mandatory campaign as akin to being " drowned in a Red sea . " In September 2009 , a mid @-@ level official in the city committed suicide after being pressured to organize his work unit to participate in the red songs campaign . The official , Xie Dajun , reportedly disagreed with the campaign , which evoked painful memories of the Cultural Revolution . Bo ’ s critics and opponents derisively referred to him as " little Mao , " with some expressing concern about the resemblance of the red culture campaign to the Cultural Revolution .
= = = Economic policies = = =
Another major component of Bo ’ s Chongqing model concerned the city ’ s economic policies . Just as he had done in Liaoning province , Bo ambitiously pursued foreign investment in the city , lowered corporate income tax rates ( 15 % compared to the 25 % national average ) , and sought to stimulate rapid urbanization and industrialization . He also carried on with policies initiated by his predecessors which focused on domestic consumption , rather than export @-@ led growth . The Chongqing model also placed emphasis on the importance of state @-@ owned enterprises ; in 2010 , Bo stressed that China " [ needs ] to have things that are state @-@ owned . "
During his tenure , Chongqing reported annual GDP growth far exceeding the national average . In 2008 , for instance , nationwide GDP growth was reported at 8 % , while Chongqing reported 14 @.@ 3 % ; the same year , foreign trade rose by 28 % , and bank loans were up 29 % . Several major corporations built or greatly expanded their manufacturing operations in Chongqing , including Hewlett @-@ Packard , Foxconn , Ford motors , and BASF .
Bo 's model of economic growth won national and international praise , but it also had its detractors . In particular , the so @-@ called " red GDP " of subsidized infrastructure , housing and public works projects were criticized for running up the city ’ s budget deficits . A former head of a Chongqing business association told The Daily Telegraph that under Bo , " lots of officials were not getting their salaries on time , getting an IOU instead . Eventually the economy was going to break . " Chongqing received a disproportionately higher share of stimulus money from the central government in 2008 , with $ 34 billion going to the city . Political rivals such as Bo ’ s predecessor Wang Yang also suggested that economic figures such as those in Chongqing were " rigged " — artificially inflated through unnecessary construction and public works projects .
= = Reassessments = =
Bo Xilai 's political fortunes came to an abrupt end when his police chief , Wang Lijun , fled to the American consulate in Chengdu hoping to gain political asylum . Wang reportedly provided the consulate with information on Bo 's alleged misconduct , including his role obstructing investigations into the homicide of British citizen and Bo family associate Neil Heywood . In the fallout , Bo was removed as Chongqing party chief in March 2012 and suspended from the politburo in April 2012 .
Following the removal of Bo Xilai from his official positions , Chinese leaders began an effort to discredit him . On 14 March , Premier Wen Jiabao reprimanded Bo during his annual press conference . Wen called the achievements of Chongqing " significant , " but the result of " multiple administrations , " rather than just Bo himself . Wen also made numerous allusions to the damage wrought by the Cultural Revolution — an indirect rebuke of Bo 's efforts to revive " red culture " .
Apparently wary of the associations to the Cultural Revolution , a campaign was launched cracking down on expressions of " red culture " that Bo had championed . The crypto @-@ Maoist campaign of singing red songs is also likely to be stopped . However , other aspects of the Chongqing model — in particular the egalitarian social policies , subsidized education and low @-@ income housing projects — drew grassroots and popular support . At least in this regard , the successes of the Chongqing Model are likely to be remembered and studied , according to analyst Wu Zhong .
Critics asserted in the aftermath of Bo 's removal that the " Striking Black " campaign against organized crime and corruption may have been policy a " political ploy designed to cast a negative light on his predecessor and political opponent , Wang Yang , and take advantage of popular resentment against corruption " . Following Bo 's removal , Chongqing 's new vice mayor He Ting signaled that the city 's security force would be overhauled . Some legal scholars and activists expressed hope that the forced labor sentences meted out under Bo might be reexamined . A collection of civil rights lawyers led by Liu Yang circulated an open letter online suggesting a review of criminal sentences under Bo 's administration . Soon thereafter , Liu was reportedly instructed to desist in these efforts by the Beijing Bureau of Legal Affairs . The Washington Post reported that several relatives of individuals detained amidst the campaign began been seeking legal counsel from prominent civil rights lawyers — including Beijing @-@ based Li Zhuang — in hopes of having the sentences overturned . The first person to petition for redress was Fang Hong , a dissident blogger who had been sent to one year in a labor camp for writing a poem mocking Bo . In May 2012 , Fang filed to have his guilty verdict overturned , and sought compensation from the court . His appeal was successful , with a Chongqing court ruling in late June 2012 that there was an insufficient evidence to justify his detention .
Authorities also launched investigations into the city 's spending policies , including the costly tree @-@ planting campaign . Shortly after Bo 's removal from his Chongqing party post , the city 's finance bureau and economic planning office reportedly issued an urgent notice to government and party officials in the city to " clean up " investment projects . An official with the city 's finance bureau indicated the investigation would focus on " how the money was raised , spent and managed . " However , the Wall Street Journal reported that it was " unclear whether the scrutiny of Chongqing 's spending stems from concern about potential wrongdoing or the city 's debt burden , or whether it is primarily a politically motivated attempt to attack Mr. Bo 's ' Chongqing model . ' "
Yang Fan , a leading " new left " scholar at China University of Political Science and Law and co @-@ author of the book The Chongqing Model , also signaled that a reassessment of the Chongqing model would be in order , saying " since a big scandal has hit Chongqing , it is imperative that we take a second look at the Chongqing Model " .
Bo 's downfall , and the subsequent reassessments of the Chongqing model , has been viewed by some commentators as a victory for Wang Yang 's Guangdong model . In assessing the fall @-@ out , John Wagner Givens wrote that " If there is a hope among China 's leadership , it might be Mr. Bo 's predecessor Wang Yang . While Mr. Wang may not have Bo 's populist flair , he appears to have made some real , though small , political reforms . "
Wu Jinglian , a Chinese liberal economist , and Sun Jian , a researcher at the Communist party journal Seeking Truth , warned that vested interest blocs , such as the Gang of Princelings , should not block or unwind current reform .
Zhou Lian , an associate professor of philosophy at Renmin University of China , and Ai Weiwei , an artist in Beijing , have publicly criticized Bo and his Chongqing Model for being wrong and lowering trust . Li Zhuang , a lawyer who was imprisoned as part of the " Striking Black " policy , said that " the Chongqing model is problematic because the city 's leaders do not follow the rule of law " . According to Andrew J. Nathan , a political scientist at Columbia University , " the risk for China is that this scandal could taint everyone in power and challenge the legitimacy of the regime " . Furthermore , he said , “ All the worst things you ever imagined are actually true ” and “ It ’ s not like nobody knew about this stuff , but now they know that it really is true and it ’ s as bad as it can possibly be . ”
Zhang Musheng , an economist and journalist , is leading a new movement and is gaining followers for a plan to add checks and balances to the Communist Party and to significantly increase welfare benefits . Populists want to remake the party to reflect Chairman Mao 's early vision . However , Mao @-@ style populism is hated by most current older Chinese leaders , and Bo , its leading advocate , was destroyed by scandal . Because of this , few commentators expect China to willingly remake itself soon . And even those within the elite prepared to discuss major changes , including the second @-@ generation " Gang of Princelings " , have an interest in protecting the status quo .
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= Nepal house martin =
The Nepal house martin ( Delichon nipalense ) is a non @-@ migratory passerine of the swallow family Hirundinidae . Its two subspecies breed in the Himalayas from northwestern India through Nepal to Burma , northern Vietnam , and just into China . It occurs in river valleys and rugged wooded mountain ridges at heights between 1 @,@ 000 – 4 @,@ 000 m ( 3 @,@ 300 – 13 @,@ 100 ft ) altitude , where it nests in colonies beneath overhangs on vertical cliffs , laying three or four white eggs in an enclosed mud nest .
This martin has blue @-@ black upperparts with a contrasting white rump , and white underparts . It resembles its close relatives , the Asian house martin and common house martin , but unlike those species it has a black throat and black undertail . It feeds in flocks with other swallows , catching flies and other insects in flight . It is subject to predation and parasites , but its status within its limited range appears secure .
= = Taxonomy = =
The Nepal house martin was first described by British entomologist Frederic Moore in 1854 , and placed in a new genus Delichon created by Moore and American naturalist Thomas Horsfield . The specimen or its description was attributed by Moore to Brian Houghton Hodgson and early literature sometimes refers to in as Hodgson 's martin . Some older taxonomic sources such as those by S D Ripley specify the binomial author as " Hodgson = Moore in Horsfield & Moore , 1854 " . Its closest relatives are the two other members of the genus , the Asian house martin and the common house martin . This martin has a distinctive subspecies , D. n. cuttingi , described by American biologist Ernst W. Mayr in 1941 from a specimen taken near the Burma @-@ Yunnan border . White @-@ throated birds in the southern extension of the range are similar in appearance to the nominate subspecies , but because of their geographical separation are sometimes considered to be a third race , D. n. bartletti . Delichon is an anagram of the Ancient Greek term χελιδών ( chelīdōn ) , meaning " swallow " , and nipalense refers to Nepal , where the type specimen was obtained .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The nominate subspecies D. n. nipalense breeds in the Himalayas from Garhwal east through Nepal , northeastern India and Bangladesh as far as western Burma . The race D. n. cuttingi is found in northern Burma , along Burma 's border with Chinese Yunnan and in northern Tonkin , Vietnam . The Nepal house martin is largely resident , but may move to lower altitudes when not breeding , and has been occasionally recorded in northern Thailand in winter . The range in Thailand is poorly known .
The habitat is river valleys and wooded ridges at 1 @,@ 000 – 4 @,@ 000 m ( 3 @,@ 300 – 13 @,@ 100 ft ) altitude , although mainly below 3 @,@ 000 m ( 9 @,@ 800 ft ) . When not breeding , birds may descend as low as 350 m ( 1 @,@ 150 ft ) . The range of this species overlaps with that of the nominate subspecies of Asian house martin , although they breed at different altitudes . The height separation and the small differences in appearance seem sufficient to prevent interbreeding .
= = Description = =
The adult Nepal house martin is 13 cm ( 5 @.@ 1 in ) long , mainly blue @-@ black above and white below . It has a contrasting pure white rump , the tail and upperwings are brownish @-@ black , and the underwings are grey @-@ brown . The legs and feet are brownish @-@ pink and covered with white feathers , the eyes are brown , and the bill is black . The chin is black but the extent varies clinally . In the northeast of the range , birds of the race D. n. cuttingi have black on the whole of the throat and the uppermost breast , but further west or south the black increasingly becomes restricted to the chin . There are no differences in appearance between the sexes , but the juvenile bird is less glossy and has a duskier throat and buff @-@ washed underparts .
The eastern form D. n. cuttingi has a wing length of 99 – 106 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 – 4 @.@ 2 in ) , slightly larger than the nominate subspecies at 90 – 98 mm ( 3 @.@ 5 – 3 @.@ 9 in ) . Both subspecies can be distinguished from the similar Asian and common house martins by their black chin , black undertail coverts and much squarer tail .
This is an exceptionally fast @-@ flying martin which gives an occasional short chi @-@ i call in flight . It is otherwise is a rather quiet bird , but it has a brief three @-@ note breeding song .
= = Behaviour = =
= = = Breeding = = =
The Nepal house martin breeds between March and July , with some variation in timing depending on locality , and usually raises two broods . It normally builds its nest , a deep mud bowl lined with grasses or feathers , under an overhang on a vertical cliff . Very occasionally , buildings may be used as nest sites , and in Sikkim this bird is recorded as nesting under school roofs near the Fambong Lho Wildlife Sanctuary . This martin is a colonial breeder , with colonies sometimes containing hundreds of nests . Some birds may remain at the colonies throughout the year , using the nests as a winter roost . The normal clutch is three or four plain white eggs averaging 18 @.@ 6 mm × 12 @.@ 8 mm ( 0 @.@ 73 in × 0 @.@ 50 in ) and weighing 1 @.@ 6 g ( 0 @.@ 056 oz ) . The incubation and fledging times are unknown , but are probably similar to those of the common house martin , which has an incubation period of 14 – 16 days until the eggs hatch , and a further 22 – 32 days to fledging . Both sexes build the nest , incubate the eggs and feed the chicks .
= = = Feeding = = =
The Nepal house martin feeds on insects taken in flight , hunting along ridges or above treetops . The diet is not well known , but includes flies . This bird is gregarious , feeding in flocks often with other aerial predators like the Himalayan swiftlet , or other hirundines such as the barn swallow , striated swallow or common house martin .
= = = Predators and parasites = = =
Predators of this martin have been little studied , but it was the only bird recorded in a study of the diet of the mainly insectivorous collared falconet . It is parasitised by a flea of the genus Callopsylla .
= = Conservation status = =
The Nepal house martin has a large range that does not appear to be contracting , and its numbers appear to be stable , although the population is unknown . Since the range is more than 20 @,@ 000 square kilometres ( 7 @,@ 700 sq mi ) , and there are more 10 @,@ 000 mature individuals , in the absence of any large decline in distribution or numbers the species does not appear to meet the criteria to be considered vulnerable , and is currently evaluated as Least Concern . Although often localised due to the requirement for suitable cliff nesting sites , this species is fairly common in Nepal as a whole , and very common in some regions . Some earlier authors have noted this species as uncommon in Nepal .
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= Cornish people =
Cornish people or Cornish ( Cornish : Kernowyon ) are an ethnic group associated with Cornwall , in the south west of Great Britain , administered as part of England , and a recognised national minority in the United Kingdom . The Cornish thus represent a distinct ethnic group within the UK , which can trace its roots to the ancient Britons who inhabited southern and central Great Britain before the Roman conquest , and some in the county today continue to assert a distinct identity , separately or in addition to English or British identities . Cornish identity has been adopted by migrants into Cornwall , as well as by emigrant and descendant communities from Cornwall , the latter sometimes referred to as the Cornish diaspora . Although not included as an explicit option in the UK census , the numbers of those claiming Cornish ethnic and national identity are officially recognised and recorded .
Throughout classical antiquity , the ancient Britons formed a series of tribes , cultures and identities in Great Britain ; the Dumnonii and Cornovii were the Celtic tribes who inhabited what was to become Cornwall during the Iron Age , Roman and post @-@ Roman periods . The name Cornwall and its demonym Cornish are derived from the Celtic Cornovii tribe . The Anglo @-@ Saxon invasion and settlement of Britain in the 5th to 6th centuries pushed Celtic culture and some Celtic peoples to the northern and western fringes of Britain . The Cornish people , who shared the Brythonic language with the Welsh and Bretons across the sea , were referred to in the Old English language as the " Westwalas " meaning West Welsh . The Battle of Deorham between the Britons and Anglo @-@ Saxons is thought to have resulted in a loss of landlinks with the people of Wales .
The Cornish people and their Brythonic Cornish language experienced a process of anglicisation and attrition during the Medieval and early Modern Period . By the 18th century , and following the creation of the Kingdom of Great Britain , the Cornish language and identity had faded , replaced by the English language and British identity . A Celtic revival during the early @-@ 20th century enabled a cultural self @-@ consciousness in Cornwall that revitalised the Cornish language and roused the Cornish to express a distinctly Celtic heritage . The Cornish language was granted official recognition under the European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages in 2002 , and in 2014 the Cornish people were recognised and afforded protection by the UK Government under the Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities .
In the 2011 census , the population of Cornwall , including the Isles of Scilly was estimated to be 532 @,@ 300 . The Cornish self @-@ government movement has called for greater recognition of Cornish culture , politics and language , and urged that Cornish people be accorded greater status , exemplified by the call for them to be one of the listed ethnic groups in the United Kingdom Census 2011 form .
= = Classification = =
Both geographic and historical factors distinguish the Cornish as an ethnic group further supported by identifiable genetic variance between the populations of Cornwall , neighbouring Devon and England as published in a 2012 Oxford University study . Throughout medieval and Early Modern Britain , the Cornish were at some points accorded the same status as the English and Welsh and considered a separate race or nation , distinct from their neighbours , with their own language , society and customs . A process of Anglicisation between 1485 and 1700 led to the Cornish adopting English language , culture and civic identity , a view reinforced by Cornish historian A. L. Rowse who said they were gradually " absorbed into the mainstream of English life " . Although " decidedly modern " and " largely retrospective " in its identity politics , Cornish and Celtic associations have advanced the notion of a distinct Cornish national and ethnic identity since the late 20th century . In the United Kingdom Census 2001 , despite no explicit " Cornish " option being available , approximately 34 @,@ 000 people in Cornwall and 3 @,@ 500 people elsewhere in the UK — a combined total equal to nearly 7 per cent of the population of Cornwall — identified themselves as ethnic Cornish by writing this in under the " other " ethnicity option . The census figures show a change in identity from West to East , in Penwith 9 @.@ 2 per cent identified as ethnically Cornish , in Kerrier it was 7 @.@ 5 per cent , in Carrick 6 @.@ 6 per cent , Restormel 6 @.@ 3 per cent , North Cornwall 6 per cent , and Caradon 5 @.@ 6 per cent . Weighting of the 2001 Census data gives a figure of 154 @,@ 791 people with Cornish ethnicity living in Cornwall .
The Cornish have been described as " a special case " in England , with an " ethnic rather than regional identity " . Structural changes to the politics of the United Kingdom , particularly the European Union and devolution , have been the cited as the main stimulus to " a growing interest in Cornish identity and distinctiveness " in late @-@ 20th century Britain . The British are the citizens of the United Kingdom , a people who by convention consist of four national groups : the English , Northern Irish , Scots and Welsh . In the 1990s it was said that the notion that the Cornish are to be classified as a nation comparable to the English , Irish , Scots and Welsh , " has practically vanished from the popular consciousness " outside Cornwall , and that , despite a " real and substantive " identity , the Cornish " struggle for recognition as a national group distinct from the English " . However , in 2014 , after a 15 @-@ year campaign , the UK government officially recognised the Cornish as a national minority under the Council of Europe 's Framework Convention for the Protection of National Minorities , giving the Cornish the same status as the Welsh , Scots and Irish within the UK .
Inhabitants of Cornwall may have multiple political allegiances , adopting mixed , dual or hyphenated identities such as " Cornish first and British second " , " Cornish and British and European " , or , like Phil Vickery ( a rugby union prop for the England national rugby union team and British and Irish Lions ) , describe themselves as " Cornish " and " English " . Meanwhile , another international rugby union player , Josh Matavesi , describes himself as Cornish @-@ Fijian and Cornish not English .
A survey by Plymouth University in 2000 found that 30 % of children in Cornwall felt " Cornish , not English " . A 2004 survey on national identity by the finance firm Morgan Stanley found that 44 % of respondents in Cornwall saw themselves as Cornish rather than British or English . A 2008 University of Exeter study conducted in 16 towns across Cornwall found that 59 % felt themselves to be Cornish and 41 % felt " More Cornish than English " , while for over a third of respondents the Cornish identity formed their primary national identity . Genealogy and family history were considered to be the chief criteria for ‘ being ’ Cornish , particularly among those who possessed such ties , while being born in Cornwall was also held to be important .
A 2008 study by the University of Edinburgh of 15- and 16 @-@ year @-@ old schoolchildren in Cornwall found that 58 % of respondents felt themselves to be either ‘ Fairly ’ or ‘ Very much ’ Cornish . The other 42 % may be the result of in @-@ migration to the area during the second half of the twentieth century .
A 2010 study by the University of Exeter into the meaning of contemporary Cornish identity across Cornwall found that there was a " west @-@ east distance decay in the strength of the Cornish identity . " The study was conducted amongst the farming community as they were deemed to be the socio @-@ professional group most objectively representative of Cornishness . All participants categorised themselves as Cornish and identified Cornish as their primary ethnic group orientation . Those in the west primarily thought of themselves as Cornish and British / Celtic , while those in the east tended to think of themselves as Cornish and English . All participants in West Cornwall who identified as Cornish and not English described people in East Cornwall , without hesitation , as equally Cornish as themselves . Those who identified as Cornish and English stressed the primacy of their Cornishness and a capacity to distance themselves from their Englishness . Ancestry was seen as the most important criterion for being categorised as Cornish , above place of birth or growing up in Cornwall . This study supports a 1988 study by Mary McArthur that had found that the meanings of Cornishness varied substantially , from local to national identity . Both studies also observed that the Cornish were less materialistic than the English . The Cornish generally saw the English , or city people , as being " less friendly and more aggressively self @-@ promoting and insensitive . " The Cornish saw themselves as friendly , welcoming and caring .
In November 2010 British prime @-@ minister , David Cameron , said " I think Cornish national identity is very powerful " and that his government would " devolve a lot of power to Cornwall – that will go to the Cornish unitary authority . "
= = = 2011 UK Census = = =
A campaign for the inclusion of a Cornish tick @-@ box in the nationality section of the 2011 census failed to win the support of parliament in 2009 . As a consequence , posters were created by the census organisation and Cornwall Council which advised residents how they could identify themselves as Cornish by writing it in the national identity and ethnicity sections and record Cornish in the main language section . Additionally , people could record Cornwall as their country of birth .
Like other identities , Cornish has an allocated census code , ( 06 ) , the same as for 2001 , which applied and was counted throughout Britain . People were first able to record their ethnicity as Cornish in the 2001 UK Census , and some 37 @,@ 000 people did so by writing it in .
A total of 83 @,@ 499 people in England and Wales were described as having a Cornish national identity . 59 @,@ 456 of these were described as Cornish only , 6 @,@ 261 as Cornish and British , and 17 @,@ 782 as Cornish and at least one other identity , with or without British . Within Cornwall the total was 73 @,@ 220 ( 14 % of the population ) with 52 @,@ 793 ( 9 @.@ 9 % ) as Cornish only , 5 @,@ 185 ( 1 % ) as Cornish and British , and 15 @,@ 242 ( 2 @.@ 9 % ) as Cornish and at least one other identity , with or without British .
In Scotland 467 people described themselves as having Cornish national identity . 254 with Cornish identity only , 39 as Scottish and Cornish , and 174 having Cornish identity and a least one other UK identity ( excluding Scottish ) .
= = = Schools census ( PLASC ) = = =
Since 2006 school children in Cornwall have been able to record themselves as ethnically Cornish on the annual Schools Census ( PLASC ) . Since then the number identifying as Cornish has risen from 24 % to 46 % . The Department for Education recommends that parents and guardians determine the ethnicity of children at primary schools whilst pupils at secondary schools can decide their own ethnicity .
2006 : 23 @.@ 7 percent – 17 @,@ 218 pupils out of 72 @,@ 571
2007 : 27 @.@ 3 percent – 19 @,@ 988 pupils out of 72 @,@ 842
2008 : 30 @.@ 3 percent – 21 @,@ 610 pupils out of 71 @,@ 302
2009 : 33 @.@ 9 percent – 23 @,@ 808 pupils out of 70 @,@ 275
2010 : 37 @.@ 2 percent – 26 @,@ 140 pupils out of 69 @,@ 950
2011 : 40 @.@ 9 percent – 28 @,@ 584 pupils out of 69 @,@ 811
2012 : 43 @.@ 0 percent – 30 @,@ 181 pupils out of 69 @,@ 909
2013 : 46 @.@ 0 percent – 32 @,@ 254 pupils out of 70 @,@ 097
= = History = =
= = = Ancestral roots = = =
Traditional accounts of Cornish ancestry teach that they are descended from the Celts making them distinct from the English , many ( but not all ) of whom are descended from the Anglo @-@ Saxons who colonised Great Britain from their homelands in northern Europe and drove the Celts to Britain 's western and northern fringes . However , some DNA research investigating the genetic history of the British Isles suggests that three quarters of contemporary Y @-@ chromosomes of British people — including the Cornish — originate from hunter @-@ gatherers who settled in Atlantic Europe during the Paleolithic era , " after the melting of the ice caps but before the land broke away from the mainland and divided into islands " . Archaeological evidence supports pre @-@ historic human habitation in Cornwall , at least as early as the Lower Paleolithic . Although there was a separation of the British Isles from continental Europe as a consequence of the last ice age , genetic evidence indicates that the people of Great Britain broadly share a common ancestry with the Basque people who live in the Basque Country by the Pyrenees . On this basis , geneticist Stephen Oppenheimer suggests that the first settlers of Great Britain were unlikely to have spoken one of the Celtic languages , but rather an ancient tongue related to the Basque language . The next historical immigration to Great Britain occurred during the Neolithic period , interpreted by Bryan Sykes — professor of human genetics at the University of Oxford — as the arrival of the Celts from the Iberian Peninsula , and the origin of Britain 's and Ireland 's Celtic tribes . It is these people who are considered the progenitors of the Cornish . A study by the Wellcome Trust , led by Sir Walter Bodmer and published on Channel 4 's Faces of Britain in April 2007 , showed that the Cornish people have a particular variant of the Melanocortin 1 receptor gene , identifying them as Celts more closely related to the Welsh than to the English . Within the areas of the UK studied , this gene appeared in 26 per cent of the population of Orkney , 23 per cent of Devon , 21 per cent of Wales , 16 per cent of Cornwall , 13 per cent of Kent , and 11 per cent of North East England . According to a DNA survey carried out for the Royal Society and published in 2012 by Peter Donnelly , professor of statistical science at Oxford University and director of the Wellcome Trust genetics centre , Cornish people , along with the Welsh and people of Devon , were found to be among the most genetically distinct groups in Britain . Others in England and Britain were found to have a greater range of genetic ancestries , with people from Cornwall being distinct from those elsewhere in England and the neighbouring population of Devon , though overall still very closely related to the ' English ' possibly due to their stronger genetic links to the tribes that arrived after the last ice age . However , a more recent study by Oxford University geneticist Professor Peter Donnelly suggests that the Cornish have DNA that is more similar to that of other English groups than to the Welsh or the Scots . Both Cornish and Devonians have similar but distinct genetic profiles which show less continental ' German ' influence and more northern ' French ' material than the English and Scots ; all showing a similar portion of " Nordic " material suggesting the idea of a uniform " Celtic " genetic race is false .
Throughout classical antiquity the Celts spoke Celtic languages , and formed a series of tribes , cultures and identities , notably the Picts and Gaels in the north and the Britons in the south . The Britons were themselves a divided people ; although they shared the Brythonic languages , they were tribal , and divided into regional societies , and within them sub @-@ groups . Examples of these tribal societies were the Brigantes in the north , and the Ordovices , the Demetae , the Silures and the Deceangli in the west . In the extreme southwest , what was to become Cornwall , were the Dumnonii and Cornovii , who lived in the Kingdom of Dumnonia . The Roman conquest of Britain in the 1st century introduced Romans to Britain , who upon their arrival initially recorded the Dumnonii , but later reported on the Cornovii , who were possibly a sub @-@ group of the Dumnonii . Although the Romans colonised much of central and southern Britain , Dumnonia was " virtually unaffected " by the conquest ; Roman rule had little or no impact on the region , meaning it could flourish as a semi- or fully independent kingdom which evidence shows was sometimes under the dominion of the kings of the Britons , and sometimes to have been governed by its own Dumnonian monarchy , either by the title of duke or king . This petty kingdom shared strong linguistic , political and cultural links with Brittany , a peninsula on continental Europe south of Cornwall inhabited by Britons ; the Cornish and Breton languages were nearly indistinguishable in this period , and both Cornwall and Brittany remain dotted with dedications to the same Celtic saints .
The Sack of Rome in the year 410 prompted a complete Roman departure from Britain , and Cornwall then experienced an influx of Celtic Christian missionaries from Ireland who had a profound effect upon the early Cornish people , their culture , faith and architecture . The ensuing decline of the Roman Empire encouraged the Anglo @-@ Saxon invasion of Britain . The Angles , Jutes , Frisii and Saxons , Germanic peoples from northern Europe , established petty kingdoms and settled in different regions of what was to become England , and parts of southern Scotland , progressively defeating the Britons in battle . The Saxons of the Kingdom of Wessex in particular were expanding their territory westwards towards Cornwall . The Cornish were frequently embattled with the West Saxons , who used their Germanic word walha ( modern English : Welsh ) meaning " stranger " or " foreigner " , to describe their opponents , later specifying them as the Westwalas ( West Welsh ) or Cornwalas ( the Cornish ) . Conflict continued until King Athelstan of England determined that the River Tamar be the formal boundary between the West Saxons and the Cornish in the year 936 , making Cornwall one of the last retreats of the Britons encouraging the development of a distinct Cornish identity ; Brittonic culture in Britain became confined to Cornwall , parts of Devon , North West England , South West Scotland and Wales . Although a treaty was agreed , Anglo @-@ Saxon political influence stretched westwards until some time in the late 10th century when " Cornwall was definitively incorporated into the Kingdom of England " .
= = = Anglicisation and rebellion = = =
The Norman conquest of England , which began with an invasion by the troops of William , Duke of Normandy ( later , King William I of England ) in 1066 , resulted in the removal of the Anglo @-@ Saxon derived monarchy , aristocracy , and clerical hierarchy and its replacement by Normans , Scandinavian Vikings from northern France and their Breton allies , who , in many cases , maintained rule in the Brittonic @-@ speaking parts of the conquered lands . The shires of England were progressively divided amongst the companions of William I of England , who served as England 's new nobility . The English would come to absorb the Normans , but the Cornish " vigorously resisted " their influence . At the time of the conquest , Cornwall was under the governance of Cadoc of Cornwall , the last Earl of Cornwall to be directly descended from the ancient monarchy of Cornwall . The Earldom of Cornwall had held devolved semi @-@ sovereignty from England , but in 1067 was granted to Robert , Count of Mortain , King William I 's half @-@ brother , and ruled thereafter by an Anglo @-@ Norman aristocracy ; in the Domesday Book , the record of the great survey of England completed in 1086 , " virtually all " landowners in Cornwall " had English names , making it impossible to be sure who was Cornish and who was English by race " . However , there was a persistent and " continuing differentiation " between the English and Cornish peoples during the Middle Ages , as evidenced by documents such as the 1173 charter of Truro which made explicit mention of both peoples as distinct .
The Earldom of Cornwall passed to various English nobles throughout the High Middle Ages , but in 1337 the earldom was given the status of a duchy , and Edward , the Black Prince , the first son and heir of King Edward III of England , became the first Duke of Cornwall as a means for the prince to raise his own capital . Large parts of Cornwall were owned by Edward , 1st Duke of Cornwall , and successive English Dukes of Cornwall became the largest landowners in Cornwall ; The monarchy of England established two special administrative institutions in Cornwall , the first being the Duchy of Cornwall ( one of only two in the Kingdom of England ) and the second being the Cornish Stannary Courts and Parliaments ( which governed Cornwall 's tin industry ) . These two institutions allowed " ordinary Cornish people to believe that they had been granted a unique constitutional status to reflect their unique cultural identity " . However , the Duchy of Cornwall gradually lost its political autonomy from England , a state which became increasingly centralised in London , and by the early @-@ Tudor period the Cornish had begun to see themselves as " a conquered people whose culture , liberties , and prosperity had been downgraded by the English " . This view was exacerbated in the 1490s by heavy taxation imposed by King Henry VII of England upon the impoverished Cornish to raise funds for his military campaigns against King James IV of Scotland and Perkin Warbeck , as well as Henry VII 's suspension of the privileges of the Cornish Stannaries . Having provided " more than their fair share of soldiers and sailors " for the conflict in northern England , and feeling aggrieved at " Cornwall 's status as England 's poorest county " , a popular uprising out of Cornwall ensued — the Cornish Rebellion of 1497 . The rebellion was initially a political march from St Keverne to London led by Thomas Flamank and Michael An Gof , motivated by a " mixture of reasons " ; to raise money for charity ; to celebrate their community ; to present their grievances to the Parliament of England , but gathered pace across the West Country as a revolt against the king .
Cornish was the most widely spoken language west of the River Tamar until around the mid @-@ 1300s , when Middle English began to be adopted as a common language of the Cornish people . As late as 1542 Andrew Boorde , an English traveller , physician and writer , wrote that in Cornwall were two languages , " Cornysshe " and " Englysshe " , but that " there may be many men and women " in Cornwall who could not understand English . While the Norman language was in use by much of the English aristocracy , Cornish was used as a lingua franca , particularly in the remote far west of Cornwall . Many Cornish landed gentry chose mottos in the Cornish language for their coat of arms , highlighting its socially high status . However , in 1549 and following the English Reformation , King Edward VI of England commanded that the Book of Common Prayer , an Anglican liturgical text in the English language , should be introduced to all churches in his kingdom , meaning that Latin and Celtic customs and services should be discontinued . The Prayer Book Rebellion was a militant revolt in Cornwall and parts of neighbouring Devon against the Act of Uniformity 1549 , which outlawed all languages from church services apart from English , and is specified as a testament to the affection and loyalty the Cornish people held for the Cornish language . In the rebellion , separate risings occurred simultaneously in Bodmin in Corwall , and Sampford Courtenay in Devon — which would both converge at Exeter , laying siege to the region 's largest Protestant city . However , the rebellion was suppressed thanks largely to the aid of foreign mercenaries in a series of battles in which " hundreds were killed " , effectively ending Cornish as the common language of the Cornish people . The Anglicanism of the Reformation served as a vehicle for Anglicisation in Cornwall ; Protestantism had a lasting cultural effect upon the Cornish by way of linking Cornwall more closely with England , while lessening political and linguistic ties with the Bretons of Brittany .
The English Civil War , a series of armed conflicts and political machinations between Parliamentarians and Royalists , polarised the populations of England and Wales . However , Cornwall in the English Civil War was a staunchly Royalist enclave , an " important focus of support for the Royalist cause " . Cornish soldiers were used as scouts and spies during the war , for their language was not understood by English Parliamentarians . The peace that followed the close of the war led to a further shift to the English language by the Cornish people , which encouraged an influx of English people to Cornwall . By the mid @-@ 17th century the use of the Cornish language had retreated far enough west to prompt concern and investigation by antiquarians , such as William Scawen . As the Cornish language diminished the people of Cornwall underwent a process of English enculturation and assimilation , becoming " absorbed into the mainstream of English life " .
= = = Industry , revival and the modern period = = =
The Industrial Revolution had a major impact upon the Cornish people . Cornwall 's economy was fully integrated into England 's , and mining in Cornwall , always an important source of employment and stability of the Cornish , experienced a process of industrialisation resulting in 30 per cent of Cornwall 's adult population being employed by its mines . During this period , efforts were made by Cornish engineers to design steam engines with which to power water pumps for Cornish mines thus aiding the extraction of mineral ore . Industrial scale tin and copper mining operations in Cornwall melded Cornish identity with engines and heavy industry , and Cornwall 's leading mining engineer , Richard Trevithick , became " as much a part of Cornwall 's heritage as any legendary giant from its Celtic past " . Trevithick 's most significant success was a high @-@ pressure steam engine used to pump water and refuse from mines , but he was also the builder of the first full @-@ scale working railway steam locomotive . On 21 February 1804 , the world 's first locomotive @-@ hauled railway journey took place as Trevithick 's unnamed steam locomotive hauled a train along the tramway of the Penydarren ironworks , near Merthyr Tydfil in Wales .
The construction of the Great Western Railway during the Victorian era allowed for an influx of tourists to Cornwall from across Great Britain . Well into the Edwardian era and interwar period , Cornwall was branded as a rural retreat , a " primitive land of magic and romance " , and as an " earlier incarnation of Englishness , a place more English than an England ravaged by modernity " . Cornwall , the United Kingdom 's only region with a subtropical @-@ like climate , became a centre for English tourism , its coastline dominated by resort towns increasingly composed of bungalows and villas . Tourists visiting Cornwall are called emmets by locals , a Cornish language word for insects , referring to the creatures that the visitors resemble when swarming Cornwall 's resorts . John Nichols Thom , or Mad Tom , ( 1799 – 31 May 1838 ) was a Cornishman self @-@ declared messiah who , in the 19th century led the last battle to be fought on English soil , known as the Battle of Bossenden Wood . While not akin to the Cornish rebellions of the past , he did attract some Cornish support as well as mostly Kentish labourers , although his support was primarily of religious followers .
In the latter half of the 19th century Cornwall experienced rapid deindustrialisation , with the closure of mines in particular considered by the Cornish to be both an economic and cultural disaster . This , coupled with the rise of Romantic nationalism in Europe inspired and influenced a Celtic Revival in Cornwall , a social , linguistic and artistic movement interested in Cornish medieval ethnology . This Revivalist upsurge investigated Cornwall 's pre @-@ industrial culture , using the Cornish language as the " principal badge of [ Cornish ] nationality and ethnic kinship ” . The first effective revival of Cornish began in 1904 when Henry Jenner , a Celtic language enthusiast , published his book Handbook of the Cornish Language . His orthography , Unified Cornish , was based on Cornish as it was spoken in the 18th century , although his pupil Robert Morton Nance later steered the revival more towards the Middle Cornish that had been used in the 16th century , before the language became influenced by English .
The visit of King George IV to Scotland in 1822 reinvigorated Scottish national identity , melding it with romanticist notions of tartan , kilts and the Scottish Highlands . As Pan @-@ Celticism gathered pace in the early 20th century , Cornishman L. C. R. Duncombe @-@ Jewell and the Cowethas Kelto @-@ Kernuak ( a Cornish language interest group ) asserted the use of Cornish kilts and tartans as a " national dress ... common to all Celtic countries " . In 1924 the Federation of Old Cornwall Societies was formed to facilitate , preserve and maintain Celticity in Cornwall , followed by the similar Gorseth Kernow in 1928 , and the formation of the Cornish nationalist political party Mebyon Kernow in 1951 . Increased interest and communication across the Celtic nations in Celtic languages and culture during the 1960s and 1970s spurred on the popularisation of the Cornish self @-@ government movement . Since devolution in Scotland , Wales and Northern Ireland , enthusiasts for Cornish culture have pressed for the Cornish language to be taught formally in Cornish schools , while Cornish nationalists have demanded greater political autonomy for Cornwall , for example that it be constituted as the United Kingdom 's fifth consistuent country with its own Cornish Assembly .
= = Geographic distribution = =
The Cornish people are concentrated in Cornwall , but after the Age of Discovery in the early modern period were involved in the British colonisation of the Americas and other transcontinental and transatlantic migrations . Initially , the number of migrants was comparatively small , with those who left Cornwall typically settling in North America or else amongst the ports and plantations of the Caribbean .
In the first half of the 19th century , the Cornish people were leaders in tin and copper smelting , while mining in Cornwall was the people 's major occupation . Increased competition from Australia , British Malaya and Bolivia , coupled with the depletion of mineral deposits brought about an economic decline for Cornish mining lasting half a century , and prompting mass human migration from Cornwall . In each decade from 1861 to 1901 , " around 20 % of the Cornish male population migrated abroad " — three times that of the average of England and Wales — and totalling over a quarter of a million people lost to emigration between 1841 and 1901 . There was a displacement of skilled Cornish engineers , farmers , merchants , miners and tradesmen , but their commercial and occupational expertise , particularly in hard rock mining , was highly valued by the communities they met . Within Great Britain , Cornish families were attracted from Cornwall to North East England — particularly on Teesside — to partake in coal mining as a means to earn wealth by using their mining skill . This has resulted in a concentration of Cornish names on and around Teesside that persists into the 21st century .
Large numbers of the 19th century Cornish emigrants eventually returned to Cornwall , whilst the rate of emigration from Cornwall declined after World War I. However , the global connections of the remaining Cornish diaspora , which is concentrated in English @-@ speaking countries such as Australia , Canada , South Africa and the United States , are " very strong " . Their outreach has contributed to the international spread of Methodism , a movement within Protestant Christianity that was popular with the Cornish people at the time of their mass migration . " Cousin Jacks " is a nickname for the overseas Cornish , thought to derive from the practice of Cornishmen asking if job vacancies could be filled by their cousin named Jack in Cornwall .
= = = Australia = = =
From the beginning of Australia 's colonial period until after the Second World War , people from the United Kingdom made up a large majority of people coming to Australia , meaning that many Australian @-@ born people can trace their origins to Britain . The Cornish people in particular were actively encouraged to emigrate to Australia following the demise of Cornish mining in the 19th century . A " vigorous recruiting campaign " was launched to encourage the Cornish to aid with mining in Australia because of their experience and expertise . Free passage to South Australia in particular was granted to hundreds of Cornish miners and their families , so much so , that a large Cornish community gathered in Australia 's Copper Coast , and South Australia 's Yorke Peninsula became known as " Little Cornwall ” . It has been estimated between 1837 and 1840 , 15 per cent of all assisted migrants to South Australia were Cornish .
Cornish settlement impacted upon social , cultural and religious life throughout the history of South Australia . Cornish identity was embraced strongly in the Yorke Peninsula , but also in the more outlying mining towns of Kapunda and Burra , where Cornish miners constituted a sizeable community . Methodism , was the main form of religious practice for the Cornish . Methodist sensibilities were held with strong conviction by the migrant Cornish in a direct rivalry with Catholic Irish people in Australia . The Kernewek Lowender is the largest Cornish festival in the world , held in the Kadina , Moonta and Wallaroo towns on the Yorke Peninsula , which attracts tens of thousands of visitors bi @-@ annually .
= = = Canada = = =
European fishing ventures in and around Newfoundland during the 16th century were the earliest Cornish activity in what was to become Canada . However , permanent settlement by the Cornish across the Atlantic Ocean was rare until at least the 19th century . The British colonisation of the Americas encouraged additional migration of the Cornish to the Canadas , particularly by those who served in Great Britain 's Royal Navy . The creation of the colony of British North America spurred more people from Cornwall to settle in North America ; they were registered as English migrants . Many Cornish ( and other West Country ) immigrants who had been agricultural labourers settled in an area of what is now South Central Ontario in what were the counties of Northumberland , Durham and Ontario , ranging from the towns of Port Hope and Cobourg in the east , to Whitby in the west and to the north ends of those counties .
= = = Mexico = = =
In 1825 a band of 60 Cornishmen left Falmouth for Mineral del Monte in central Mexico with 1 @,@ 500 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 500 long tons ; 1 @,@ 700 short tons ) of mining machinery with which to apply their mining skill and technologies to resuscitate Mexico 's ailing silver mining industry after the neglect caused by the Mexican War of Independence . Following their sea voyage they attempted to dock at Veracruz but were forced away by the Spanish to a beach at Mocambo from where they hauled their machinery through jungle and swamp to Santa Fe . During this haul through the jungle , the Cornishmen and their Mexican helpers fell victim to yellow fever , resulting in 30 Cornish and 100 Mexican fatalities . The fever forced the survivors to abandon their equipment and head inland up into the mountains to Xalapa to try and escape the mosquitos for three months , until the end of the rainy season . Once the rainy season closed the Cornish and Mexican miners continued their 250 @-@ mile ( 402 km ) " Great Trek " to Mineral del Monte , transporting their machinery to an altitude of 10 @,@ 000 feet ( 3 @,@ 048 m ) above sea level and arriving at their destination on 1 May 1826 . Following their arrival , the Cornish community flourished and stayed in central Mexico until the Mexican Revolution in 1910 . Although the Cornish community in Mexico broadly returned to Cornwall , they left a cultural legacy ; Cornish pasties , Cornish mining museums and a Cornish Mexican Cultural Society are all part of the local heritage and tradition in and around Mineral del Monte .
= = = South Africa = = =
The Witwatersrand Gold Rush of 1886 encouraged large numbers of Cornish miners to migrate to the South African Republic . Although an international gold rush , the Cornish overwhelmingly formed the skilled labour force in the Witwatersrand , until the outbreak of the Second Boer War prompted a retreat .
= = = United States = = =
The discovery of lead ore and copper in North America prompted an influx of Cornish miners to the continent , particularly around the Upper Mississippi River . By the early 19th century Cornish people were present in the Upper Peninsula of Michigan — particularly the mining town of Ishpeming . Additional waves of Cornish migrants followed the California Gold Rush of the mid @-@ 19th century ; in the 1890s it was estimated that in California 's Grass Valley , over 60 per cent of the population was Cornish . It has a tradition of carols stemming from the Cornish who settled the area as gold miners in the 19th century . The carols have become " the identity of the town " , some of the members of the Grass Valley Cornish Carol Choir are descendents of the original Cornish settlers .
Most migratory Cornish to the United States were classified as English or British , meaning that the precise number of Cornish Americans is difficult to estimate . The aggregate number of immigrants from Cornwall to the United States before World War I is suggested to be around 100 @,@ 000 .
= = Culture = =
The survival of a distinct Cornish culture has been attributed to Cornwall 's geographic isolation . Contemporaneously , the underlying notion of Cornish culture is that it is distinct from the culture of England , despite its anglicisation , and that it is instead part of a Celtic tradition . According to American academic Paul Robert Magocsi , modern @-@ day Cornish activists have claimed several Victorian era inventions including the Cornish engine , Christmas carols , rugby football and brass bands as part of this Cornish tradition . Cornish cultural tradition is most strongly associated with the people 's most historical occupation , mining , an aspect of Cornish history and culture that has influenced its cuisine , symbols and identity .
Cornwall has its own tradition of Christian saints , derived from Celtic extraction , that have given rise to localised dedications . Saint Piran is the 5th century Christian abbot , supposedly of Irish origin , who is patron saint of both tin miners and Cornwall . According to popular mythology , Piran , an Irish scholar who studied Christianity in Ancient Rome was to be drowned in the Irish Sea by the High Kings of Ireland , but instead floated across to Perranporth in Cornwall by the will of God to preach the ministry of Jesus . Saint Piran 's Flag , a centred white cross on a black field , was described as the " Standard of Cornwall " in 1838 and was re @-@ introduced by Celtic Revivalists thereafter as a county flag of Cornwall . It has been seized upon by the Cornish people as a symbol of their identity , displayed on cars and flying from buildings including those of Cornwall Council . St Piran 's Day is an annual patronal fete , and the pre @-@ eminent Cornish festival celebrating Cornish culture and history on 5 March .
= = = Language = = =
The Cornish language is derived from the Brythonic branch of the Insular Celtic languages . It is closely related to the Breton language , and to a lesser extent shares commonalities with the Welsh language , although they are not mutually intelligible . The language functioned as a community language in Cornwall until a language shift to the English language was completed during the late 18th century . The demise of the Cornish language is attributed to English cultural influence , particularly the political and religious dominance of the English Reformation and the Act of Uniformity 1549 which outlawed all church services within the Kingdom of England that were not in English . The exact date of the death of Cornish is unclear and disputed , but popularly it is claimed that the last monolingual Cornish speaker was Dolly Pentreath , a Mousehole resident who died in 1777 .
The revival of Cornish began in 1904 when Henry Jenner , a Celtic language enthusiast , published his book Handbook of the Cornish Language . He based his work on Cornish as it was spoken in the 18th century , although his pupil Robert Morton Nance , with his orthography , Unified Cornish , later steered the revival more towards the Middle Cornish that had been used in the 16th century , before the language became more heavily influenced by English . This set the tone for the next few decades ; as the revival gained pace , learners of the language disagreed on which style of Cornish to use , and a number of competing orthographies — Unified Cornish , Unified Cornish Revised , Modern Cornish , Kernewek Kemmyn — were in use by the end of the 20th century . A standard written form was agreed in 2008 .
Cornish is a restored and living modern language , but most of its speakers are enthusiasts , persons who have learned the language through private study . Cornish speakers are geographically dispersed , meaning there is no part of Cornwall where it is spoken as a community language . As of 2009 , it is taught in fifty primary schools , although regular broadcast in Cornish is limited to a weekly bilingual programme on BBC Radio Cornwall . Daily life in Cornwall therefore is conducted in the English language , albeit with some regional peculiarities .
Legends of the Fall , a novella by American author Jim Harrison , detailing the lives of a Cornish American family in the early 20th century , contains several Cornish language terms . These were also included in the Academy Award winning film of the same name starring Anthony Hopkins as Col. William Ludlow and Brad Pitt as Tristan Ludlow .
= = = Literature and folklore = = =
Early medieval Cornwall was associated with the Matter of Britain , a national myth recounting a legendary Celtic history of Brittonic warriors , including King Arthur . The Matter of Britain was supported by texts such as the Historia Regum Britanniae , a pseudohistorical account of the history of the ancient Britons , written in the mid @-@ 12th century by Geoffrey of Monmouth . The Historia Regum Britanniae chronicled the lives of legendary kings of the Britons in a narrative spanning a time of two thousand years , beginning with the Trojans founding the ancient British nation and continuing until the Anglo @-@ Saxon invasion of Britain in the 7th century forced the Celtic Britons to the west coast , namely Wales and Cornwall . Although broadly thought of as a work of fiction , Geoffrey of Monmouth 's work had a lasting effect upon the identity of the Cornish . His " historical construct " characterised the ancient Britons as heroes , which later helped Celtic revivalists to redefine Cornishness as an identity closely related to ancient heroic Celtic folklore .
Another strand of Cornish folklore is derived from tales of seafaring pirates and smugglers who thrived in and around Cornwall from the early modern period through to the 19th century . Cornish pirates exploited both their knowledge of the Cornish coastline as well as its sheltered creeks and hidden anchorages . For many fishing villages , loot and contraband provided by pirates supported a strong and secretive underground economy in Cornwall .
Legendary creatures that appear in Cornish folklore include buccas , knockers and piskies . Tales of these creatures are thought to have developed as supernatural explanations for the frequent and deadly cave @-@ ins that occurred during 18th @-@ century Cornish tin mining , or else a creation of the oxygen @-@ starved minds of exhausted miners who returned from the underground .
= = = Performing and visual arts = = =
Celtic crosses , many dating from between the 7th and 15th centuries , are found in Cornwall and have been used as inspiration in modern and contemporary Cornish visual arts . In the 1780s , John Opie was the first Cornish @-@ born painter to gain widespread attention ; his work was exhibited at the Royal Academy and he was described by Joshua Reynolds as " like Caravaggio and Velázquez in one " . Artists who appreciated the quality of Cornwall 's natural light , such as J. M. W. Turner , began to visit , with more following after the opening of the Great Western Railway , including Whistler and Sickert . Stanhope Forbes and Frank Bramley settled in Cornwall in the 1880s , establishing the Newlyn School of painting en plein air . By the 1920s , the ceramicist Bernard Leach was established at St Ives , and the St Ives School for abstract artists formed there , influenced by naive painters such as Alfred Wallis , and involving the work of Ben Nicholson , his wife Barbara Hepworth , Naum Gabo and Patrick Heron .
= = = Religion = = =
Anciently , the religion of the Cornish Britons was Celtic polytheism , a pagan , animistic faith , assumed to be led by Druids in full or in part . Early Christianity is thought to have existed in Cornwall during the 1st century , but limited to individual travellers and visitors , possibly including Priscillian , a Galician theologian who may have been exiled to the Isles of Scilly . Celtic Christianity was introduced to Cornwall in the year 520 by Saint Petroc , a Brython from the kingdom of Glywysing , and other missionaries from Wales , as well as by Gaelic monks and holy women from Ireland ; this " formative period " has left a legacy of granite high cross monuments throughout Cornwall . Dedications to many different Cornish saints can also be traced to this period . In the Middle Ages , Roman Catholicism was dominant in Cornwall , and even in the 17th century the Cornish were " fervently Roman Catholic " , slow to accept the Protestant Reformation , according to some scholars . The adoption of Anglicanism was , eventually , near @-@ universal in Cornwall and facilitated the anglicisation of the Cornish people . A variety of dissenting congregations such as the Quakers and Baptists were to be found in certain districts . Through a combination of tours of Cornwall by John Wesley , rural isolation and compatibility with Cornish tastes and sensibilities , Methodism , an evangelical revival movement within the Church of England , became the form of Christianity practised by the majority of the population all over Cornwall during the 19th century . During this time other kinds of Methodist churches appeared such as the Bible Christians and there were also Evangelical and Anglo @-@ Catholic revivals within the Church of England .
= = = Cuisine = = =
Cornish cuisine is a regional variety of British cuisine , strongly rooted in a tradition of using local produce , which is used to create relatively simple dishes . Most prominent in Cornish cuisine is the pasty ( sometimes known as the Cornish pasty ) made from diced beef , potato , onion and swede ( commonly called ' turnip ' by the Cornish ) , enclosed within a pastry crust and then baked . One idea of its origins suggests that it evolved as a portable lunch for Cornish miners , the crust serving as a disposable handle that could be held by a miner 's hand without soiling the filling . Fish was an important element of the Cornish diet , but international commercial fishing was also well established by the 16th century , and tons of pilchards were exported from Cornwall to France , Italy and Spain every year . Stargazy pie is an occasional festive Cornish dish with the heads of fish standing on their tails , originally pilchards , piercing a pastry crust . The saffron bun , also known as the tea treat bun , is a sweet bread with its origins in Cornwall .
= = = Sport = = =
With its comparatively small , rural population , major contribution by the Cornish to national sport in the United Kingdom has been limited . There are no teams affiliated to the Cornwall County Football Association that play in the Football League of England and Wales , and the Cornwall County Cricket Club plays as one of the minor counties of English cricket . Viewed as an " important identifier of ethnic affiliation " , rugby union has become a sport strongly tied with notions of Cornishness , and since the 20th century , rugby union in Cornwall has emerged as one of the most popular spectator and team sports in Cornwall , with professional Cornish rugby footballers being described as a " formidable force " , " naturally independent , both in thought and deed , yet paradoxically staunch English patriots whose top players have represented England with pride and passion " . In 1985 , sports journalist Alan Gibson made a direct connection between love of rugby in Cornwall and the ancient parish games of hurling and wrestling that existed for centuries before rugby officially began .
Cornish wrestling ( also known as Wrasslin ' ) is a regional , folk style of grappling or martial arts . The Cornish Wrestling Association was formed in 1923 , to standardise the rules of the sport and to promote Cornish wrestling throughout Cornwall and the world . Together with Cornish hurling ( a localised form of medieval football ) , Wrasslin ' has been promoted as a distinctly Celtic game , tied closely with Cornish identity .
Surfing was popularised in Cornwall during the late 20th century , and has since become readily associated with Cornishness . The waves around the Cornish coastline are created by low pressure systems from the Atlantic Ocean which unleash powerful swells eastwards creating multiple , excellent surfing conditions in some parts of the coast of Cornwall . Newquay , one of Britain 's " premier surfing towns " , regularly hosts world championship surfing events .
= = Institutions and politics = =
The politics of Cornwall take place within a wider national political framework of a constitutional monarchy , in which the United Kingdom 's monarch is head of state and the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom is the head of government , and the supranational framework of the European Union . Cornish politics are marked by a long tradition of Liberalism .
Important historical institutions were the Duchy of Cornwall and the Cornish Stannary Courts and Parliaments . The Stannary court administered equity , through special laws and legal exemptions , for all matters relating to the tin mines and tin trade in Cornwall . Cornish miners were effectively exempt from the jurisdiction of the law courts at Westminster , except " in such cases as should affect land , life or limb " . The ancient privileges of the Stannary Courts and Parliaments were confirmed by successive Royal Charters in the Middle Ages , including those administered by Kings John , Edward I and Edward III of England . As the tin mines of Cornwall lost their economic importance during the 18th and 19th centuries , so the Stannary institutions lost political power . The last Stannary parliament was held at Truro in 1752 , and continued , by adjournments , until 11 September 1753 .
As in the rest of Great Britain , the Liberal Party dominated Cornish politics during the 19th century , although Socialism gained limited support in western Cornwall , and the Labour Party won preference after World War I. Nationalism ( or regionalism ) in Cornwall traces its roots to the Irish Home Rule bills of the late 19th century , and is represented by the Cornish self @-@ government movement , a political action group that is predominantly organised to promote Cornwall as the national homeland of the Cornish , campaign for devolution , and win it the status as a fifth country within the UK rather than outright separatism . More " militant " variants of Cornish nationalism however claim that because of historical constitutional peculiarities regarding the status of Cornwall , the law of the European Union does or should not have jurisdiction over Cornwall until Cornish sovereignty is recognised . Popularisation of Cornish nationalism is attributed to a Celtic cultural revival in Cornwall which itself began with a newed interested in the Cornish language in the 1920s . The revival of the Cornish language encouraged a parallel revival of Celtic traditions , which by the 1970s had spurred on Cornish nationalism . The United Kingdom 's entry into the European Economic Community in 1973 prompted claims that the Cornish should be granted their own devolved national assembly — the Cornish Assembly — comparable to that of the National Assembly for Wales . Mebyon Kernow is a left @-@ wing political party based in Cornwall , founded in 1951 . Its main objective is attaining greater autonomy for Cornwall through the establishment of a legislative Cornish Assembly . As at 2009 Mebyon Kernow has no Members of Parliament elected to the House of Commons of the United Kingdom , and in the United Kingdom local elections , 2009 received 4 per cent of votes to elect councillors to Cornwall Council , behind the Conservative Party ( 34 per cent ) , Liberal Democrats ( 28 per cent ) , and Independents ( 23 per cent ) Since the 2009 structural changes to local government in England , Cornwall Council has been a unitary authority , serving as the sole executive , deliberative , and legislative body responsible for local policy , setting council tax , and allocating budgets .
Following the Cornwall Council election in May 2013 , the council remained as " no overall control " , with the Independent politicians becoming the largest grouping on the council through a modest gain of councillors from the previous election . The Liberal Democrats remained the second largest party after losing 2 councillors and the Conservatives slipped to third after losing over a third of their councillors . The Labour Party ( + 8 ) , UKIP ( + 6 ) , and the Green Party ( + 1 ) all gained seats , with UKIP and the Greens entering Cornwall Council for the first time . Mebyon Kernow had 6 councilors prior to the election , having added 2 since the 2009 election , their total following the election was reduced to 4 .
In the 2015 general election all Cornish seats were won by the Conservatives .
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= Ricketts Glen State Park =
Ricketts Glen State Park is a Pennsylvania state park on 13 @,@ 050 acres ( 5 @,@ 280 ha ) in Columbia , Luzerne , and Sullivan counties in Pennsylvania in the United States . Ricketts Glen is a National Natural Landmark known for its old @-@ growth forest and 24 named waterfalls along Kitchen Creek , which flows down the Allegheny Front escarpment from the Allegheny Plateau to the Ridge @-@ and @-@ Valley Appalachians . The park is near the borough of Benton on Pennsylvania Route 118 and Pennsylvania Route 487 , and is in five townships : Sugarloaf in Columbia County , Fairmount and Ross in Luzerne County , and Colley and Davidson in Sullivan County .
Ricketts Glen 's land was once home to Native Americans . From 1822 to 1827 , a turnpike was built along the course of PA 487 in what is now the park , where two squatters harvested cherry trees to make bed frames from about 1830 to 1860 . The park 's waterfalls were one of the main attractions for a hotel from 1873 to 1903 ; the park is named for the hotel 's proprietor , R. Bruce Ricketts , who built the trail along the waterfalls . By the 1890s Ricketts owned or controlled over 80 @,@ 000 acres ( 320 km2 ; 120 sq mi ) and made his fortune clearcutting almost all of that land , including much of what is now the park ; however he preserved about 2 @,@ 000 acres ( 810 ha ) of virgin forest in the creek 's three glens . The sawmill was at the village of Ricketts , which was mostly north of the park . After his death in 1918 , Ricketts ' heirs began selling land to the state for Pennsylvania State Game Lands .
Plans to make Ricketts Glen a national park in the 1930s were ended by budget issues and the Second World War ; Pennsylvania began purchasing the land in 1942 and fully opened Ricketts Glen State Park in 1944 . The Benton Air Force Station , a Cold War radar installation in the park , operated from 1951 to 1975 and still serves as airport radar for nearby Wilkes @-@ Barre and as the Red Rock Job Corps Center . Improvements since the creation of the state park include a new dam for the 245 @-@ acre ( 99 ha ) Lake Jean , the breaching of two other dams Ricketts built , trail modifications , and a fire tower . In 1999 Hurricane Floyd briefly closed the park and downed thousands of trees ; helicopter logging protected the ecosystem while harvesting lumber worth nearly $ 7 million , some of which paid for a new park office in 2001 .
The park offers hiking , ten cabins , camping ( one of the two camping areas is on a peninsula in the lake ) , horseback riding , and hunting . Lake Jean is used for swimming , fishing , canoeing and kayaking . In winter there is cross @-@ country skiing , ice fishing on the lake , and ice climbing on the frozen falls . The Glens Natural Area has eight named waterfalls in Glen Leigh and ten in Ganoga Glen , these come together at Waters Meet ; downstream in Ricketts Glen there are four to six named waterfalls . The park has four rock formations from the Devonian and Carboniferous periods , and is home to a wide variety of plants and animals . It was named an Important Bird Area by the Pennsylvania Audubon Society and is an Important Mammal Area too . Ricketts Glen State Park was chosen by the Pennsylvania Department of Conservation and Natural Resources ( DCNR ) and its Bureau of State Parks as one of " 25 Must @-@ See Pennsylvania State Parks " .
= = History = =
= = = Native Americans = = =
Ricketts Glen State Park is in Pennsylvania , where humans have lived since at least 10000 BC . The first settlers in the state were Paleo @-@ Indian nomadic hunters known from their stone tools . The hunter @-@ gatherers of the Archaic period , which lasted locally from 7000 to 1000 BC , used a greater variety of more sophisticated stone artifacts . The Woodland period marked the gradual transition to semi @-@ permanent villages and horticulture , between 1000 BC and 1500 AD . Archeological evidence found in the state from this time includes a range of pottery types and styles , burial mounds , pipes , bows and arrows , and ornaments .
The park is in the Susquehanna River drainage basin , the earliest recorded inhabitants of which were the Iroquoian @-@ speaking Susquehannocks . They were a matriarchal society that lived in stockaded villages of large longhouses , but their numbers were greatly reduced by disease and warfare with the Five Nations of the Iroquois , and by 1675 they had died out , moved away , or been assimilated into other tribes .
After the demise of the Susquehannocks , the lands of the Susquehanna River valley were under the nominal control of the Iroquois , who also lived in longhouses , primarily in what is now the state of New York . The Iroquois had a strong confederacy which gave them power beyond their numbers . To fill the void left by the demise of the Susquehannocks , the Iroquois encouraged displaced tribes from the east to settle in the Susquehanna watershed , including the Shawnee and Lenape ( or Delaware ) .
The French and Indian War ( 1754 – 1763 ) and subsequent colonial expansion encouraged the migration of many Native Americans westward to the Ohio River basin . On November 5 , 1768 , the British acquired land , known in Pennsylvania as the New Purchase , from the Iroquois in the Treaty of Fort Stanwix ; this included what is now Ricketts Glen State Park . After the American Revolutionary War , Native Americans almost entirely left Pennsylvania . About 1890 a Native American pot , decorated in the style of " the peoples of the Susquehanna region " , was found under a rock ledge on Kitchen Creek by Murray Reynolds , for whom a waterfall is named .
= = = Early inhabitants = = =
Ricketts Glen State Park is in five townships in three counties . After the 1768 purchase , the land became part of Northumberland County , but was soon divided among other counties . Most of the park is in Luzerne County , which was formed in 1786 from part of Northumberland County . Within Luzerne County , the majority of the park , including all of the waterfalls and most of Lake Jean , is in Fairmount Township , which was settled in 1792 and incorporated in 1834 ; the easternmost part of the park is in Ross Township , which was settled in 1795 and incorporated in 1842 . The northwest part of the park is in Sullivan County , which was formed in 1847 from Lycoming County ; Davidson Township was settled by 1808 and incorporated in 1833 , while Colley Township , which has the park office and part of Lake Jean , was settled in the early 19th century and incorporated in 1849 . A small part of the southwest part of the park is in Sugarloaf Township in Columbia County ; the township was settled in 1792 and incorporated in 1812 , the next year Columbia County was formed from Northumberland County .
A hunter named Robinson was the first inhabitant in the area whose name is known ; around 1800 he had a cabin on the shores of Long Pond ( now called Lake Ganoga ) , which is less than 0 @.@ 4 miles ( 0 @.@ 6 km ) northwest of the park . The first development within the park was the construction of the Susquehanna and Tioga Turnpike , which was built from 1822 to 1827 between the Pennsylvania communities of Berwick in the south and Towanda in the north . The turnpike , which Pennsylvania Route 487 mostly follows through the park , had daily stagecoach service from 1827 to 1851 ; the northbound stagecoach left Berwick in the morning and stopped for lunch at the Long Pond Tavern on the lake about noon .
The earliest settlers in what became the park were two squatters who built sawmills to make bed frames from cherry trees they cut for lumber . One squatter , Jesse Dodson , cut trees from around 1830 to 1860 and built a mill and the dam for what became Lake Rose in 1842 . Dodson also built a dam south of Mud Pond , near what became Lake Jean ; both dams were on the Ganoga Glen branch of Kitchen Creek , and each was used to make a " log splash pond " . The other squatter , named Sickler , also built a mill and log dam , at what became Lake Leigh on the Glen Leigh branch of Kitchen Creek . Sickler was active from 1838 to about 1860 .
In 1865 , a well was drilled at the Dodson mill site , after a Mr. Hadley fraudulently added oil to springs in what became the park . Hadley , who had hoped that investors would think petroleum was present , got the Wheeler & Wilson sewing machine company to invest $ 40 @,@ 000 ( $ 620 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) in his scheme . In the next two years they drilled two wells , one 2 @,@ 100 feet ( 640 m ) deep at the former Dodson sawmill at Lake Rose and the other 1 @,@ 900 feet ( 580 m ) deep near the Ricketts mansion . No oil was ever found , and Hadley eventually fled to Canada .
= = = R. Bruce Ricketts = = =
While on a hunting trip on Loyalsock Creek north of the park in 1850 , brothers Elijah and Clemuel Ricketts were frustrated at having to spend the night on a hotel 's parlor floor . In 1851 or 1853 they bought 5 @,@ 000 acres ( 2 @,@ 000 ha ) , including what is now Lake Ganoga and some of the park , as their own hunting preserve , and built a stone house on the lake shore by 1852 or 1855 . The stone house served as their lodge and as a tavern ; it was known as " Ricketts Folly " for its isolated location in the wilderness . Clemuel died in 1858 and Elijah bought his share of the land and house . The Ricketts family was not aware of the glens and their waterfalls until about 1865 , when they were discovered by two guests from the stone house who went fishing and wandered down Kitchen Creek .
Elijah 's son Robert Bruce Ricketts , for whom the park is named , joined the Union Army as a private at the outbreak of the American Civil War and rose through the ranks to become a colonel in the artillery . After the war , R. Bruce Ricketts returned to Pennsylvania and in 1869 began purchasing the land around the lake from his father . By 1873 he controlled or owned 66 @,@ 000 acres ( 27 @,@ 000 ha ) , and eventually this grew to more than 80 @,@ 000 acres ( 32 @,@ 000 ha ) , including the glens and waterfalls and most of the park .
While the stone house had served as a home and inn since its construction , in 1872 R. Bruce Ricketts built a three @-@ story wooden addition north of the house . The addition used lumber from a sawmill Ricketts and his partners operated from 1872 to 1875 , about 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) southeast of the stone house . The North Mountain House hotel opened in 1873 ; Ricketts ' brother Frank , for whom a waterfall is named , managed it from then until 1898 . Many of the hotel 's guests were Ricketts ' friends and relations , who arrived after school let out in June and stayed all summer until school resumed in September . In 1876 and 1877 , Ricketts ran the first summer school in the United States at his house and hotel ; one of the teachers was Joseph Rothrock , later known as the " Father of Forestry " in Pennsylvania .
The waterfalls and Ganoga Lake were the hotel 's biggest attractions . By 1875 Ricketts had named the tallest waterfall Ganoga Falls ; he eventually named 22 of the waterfalls . Ricketts gave most of them Native American names , and named others for relatives and friends . Ricketts renamed Long Pond as Ganoga Lake in 1881 . The name Ganoga was suggested by Pennsylvania senator Charles R. Buckalew ; it is an Iroquoian word which Buckalew said meant " water on the mountain " in the Seneca language . Donehoo 's A History of the Indian Villages and Place Names in Pennsylvania identifies it as a Cayuga language word meaning " place of floating oil " and the name of a Cayuga village in New York . Whatever the meaning , Ricketts also named the glen with the tallest waterfall in the park " Ganoga " .
Ricketts ' stone house served as the base for the Ozone hiking club of Wilkes @-@ Barre 's excursions on the mountain ; the club gave its name to Ozone waterfall in the park . In 1879 Ricketts started the North Mountain Fishing Club , for anglers on the lake and creek . Guests of the hotel paid one dollar to fish as a club member . In 1889 Ricketts hired Matt Hirlinger and five other men to build the trails along the branches of Kitchen Creek and its waterfalls . It took them four years to complete the trails and stone steps through the glens .
One of the highest spots on North Mountain ( and in the park today ) was an outlook point where Ricketts built a 40 @-@ foot ( 12 m ) wooden observation tower for his guests . After the first tower collapsed , he built a 100 @-@ foot ( 30 m ) replacement , and named the site Grand View . From the tower , people could see for 20 miles ( 32 km ) .
= = = Lumber era = = =
For over 20 years , Ricketts was " land poor " ; he owed much on the mortgages on his vast land holdings , and there were no good means to transport the estimated 1 @,@ 400 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 board feet ( 3 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 m3 ) of lumber from most of his land to sawmills . Large @-@ scale lumber operations of that time floated logs on major streams or used logging railroads , but neither was available to Ricketts . His small sawmill near the stone house closed by 1875 , and he was only able to sell two major tracts of land in his lifetime . In 1872 he sold 14 @,@ 000 acres ( 5 @,@ 700 ha ) north of the park to a group of investors that included himself ; this deal seems to have been for shares of stock ( not cash ) , and the deed for the sale was not recorded until 1893 . Ricketts sold 13 @,@ 000 acres ( 5 @,@ 300 ha ) along Bowman Creek , including the easternmost parts of the park , to Albert Lewis in 1876 ; Lewis hoped to build a branch line of the Lehigh Valley Railroad along the creek . In the 1870s and 1880s , Ricketts tried repeatedly and unsuccessfully to find partners and investors who would help him cut the lumber on his land and build a rail line to it .
Finally in 1890 , Harry Clay Trexler , J.H. Turrell , Ricketts , and partners formed the Trexler and Turrell Lumber Company and leased 5 @,@ 000 acres ( 2 @,@ 000 ha ) of Ricketts ' land near Ganoga Lake . The company built a sawmill and lumber town named Ricketts on Mehoopany Creek . The town , which was in both Sullivan and Wyoming counties , had 800 inhabitants at its peak and extended into the northernmost section of the park . Rail lines were built to the mills at Ricketts , including the Bowman Creek branch of the Lehigh Valley Railroad which opened in 1883 , and also provided passenger service to the hotel on Lake Ganoga . According to Petrillo 's Ghost Towns of North Mountain : Ricketts , Mountain Springs , Stull : " Ricketts was on the verge of financial disaster for two decades until the Lehigh Valley Railroad was constructed through his lands . "
Trexler and Turrell paid Ricketts $ 50 @,@ 000 in both 1890 and 1891 , and continued to cut his land and pay him for the timber until 1913 . By 1911 , the main sawmill at Ricketts could cut 125 @,@ 000 board feet ( 290 m3 ) a day and was supported by three locomotives with 62 cars on 22 miles ( 35 km ) of track . Within the park , the area around what became Lake Jean was cut in the 1890s , and Cherry Ridge ( east of Red Rock Job Corps Center ) and land around Lake Leigh were the last areas cut by the Ricketts mill . Timber in the east part of the park and along Bowman Creek was cut by Lewis ' company , which also used logging railroads and even ran track down the Allegheny Front at Phillips Creek . Lewis ' firm built a splash dam on Bowman Creek to help float logs downstream in 1891 , then used the lake to cut ice for refrigeration . A second dam and lake were added in 1909 and the icehouses were on state park land ; the ice industry supported the small village and post office of Mountain Springs . Ricketts ran his own ice cutting business on Ganoga Lake from 1895 to about 1915 .
Within a decade of the railroad reaching his lands , Ricketts was out of the hotel business . The North Mountain House hotel was threatened by a forest fire in 1900 ; the subsequent loss of much of the surrounding old @-@ growth forest led to decreased numbers of hotel guests . Changing tastes may have also played a role in the decline in popularity ; the hotel had over 150 guests in August 1878 , but only about 70 guests in August 1894 . The wooden addition was torn down in 1897 or 1903 , and " despite profits , Ricketts became disenchanted with the hotel business and closed his hotel in 1903 " , though the stone house remained the Ricketts family 's summer home . Passenger rail service to Ganoga Lake ended when the hotel closed ; the fishing club closed that year as well , but was re @-@ formed in 1907 . In 1903 another large fire on North Mountain threatened the sawmill in the lumber town of Ricketts .
Not all of Ricketts ' plans were financially successful ; between 1905 and 1907 he built three dams to generate hydroelectric power within what became the park , forming Lake Leigh at the site of Sickler 's mill , Lake Rose at the site of Dodson 's mill , and Lake Jean ( which incorporated the natural Mud Pond ) north of these . Lakes Leigh and Jean were named for Ricketts ' daughters , while Rose was a Ricketts family name . The Lake Leigh dam was made of concrete and cost $ 165 @,@ 000 ( approximately $ 4 @,@ 190 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) , while the other two dams were log cribs filled with earth and cost a total of $ 300 @,@ 000 ( approximately $ 7 @,@ 619 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) . If the project had been successful , the plan was to rebuild the two log and timber dams in concrete , however , the " dams were poorly constructed and could not be used for hydroelectric purposes " . After the Panic of 1907 , Ricketts wife told him to stop the hydroelectric project before he lost all of their money ; this prompted him to say " I used to be land poor , but now I 'm dam poor " .
= = = Modern era = = =
In 1913 , Ricketts opened the glens and their waterfalls to the public , charging $ 1 for parking . Although this fee was unpopular , it remained in place until the land became a state park . After Ricketts died in 1918 , the Pennsylvania Game Commission bought 48 @,@ 000 acres ( 19 @,@ 000 ha ) from his heirs , via the Central Pennsylvania Lumber Company , between 1920 and 1924 . This became most of Pennsylvania State Game Lands Number 13 , west of the park in Sullivan County . These sales left the Ricketts heirs with over 12 @,@ 000 acres ( 4 @,@ 900 ha ) surrounding Ganoga Lake , Lake Jean and the glens area of the park . An area encompassing 22 @,@ 000 acres ( 8 @,@ 900 ha ) was approved as a national park site in 1935 , and the National Park Service operated a Civilian Conservation Corps camp at " Ricketts Glynn " ( sic ) . The funding to create a National Park at Ricketts Glen was " sidetracked " in 1936 when the money was redirected to the Resettlement Administration for " direct relief " . Similar projects at French Creek , Raccoon Creek , Laurel Hill , Blue Knob , and Hickory Run were also defunded ( all are now Pennsylvania state parks ) . The financial difficulties of the Great Depression and World War II brought an end to this plan for development .
Arthur James , the Governor of Pennsylvania , signed legislation creating Ricketts Glen State Park on August 1 , 1941 . The Commonwealth of Pennsylvania bought 1 @,@ 261 acres ( 510 ha ) , including the glens and their waterfalls , from the heirs for $ 82 @,@ 000 on December 31 , 1942 . The new state park opened to the public on August 1 , 1943 ; however , the park 's official history says " recreational facilities first opened in 1944 " . The state bought a total of 16 @,@ 000 acres ( 6 @,@ 500 ha ) more from the heirs in 1945 and 1950 for $ 68 @,@ 000 ; the park today has about 10 @,@ 000 acres ( 4 @,@ 000 ha ) from the Ricketts family and about 3 @,@ 000 acres ( 1 @,@ 200 ha ) acquired from others .
The state 's original plans for the new park included building an inn , an 18 @-@ hole golf course and country club , and a winter sports complex for skiing , ice boating , and tobogganing , as well as a beach with bathing facilities , cabins , and a tent camping area . Only the last three were actually built , all south of Lake Jean ; the Hayfield area north of Lake Jean was to have had the facilities for golf and tennis , and the inn and winter sports complex were to have been atop Cherry Ridge , at an elevation of 2 @,@ 461 feet ( 750 m ) .
A 1947 newspaper article estimated that the new park would have 50 @,@ 000 visitors that year , and detailed the work the state had done since acquiring the land . The Falls Trail through the glens was rebuilt , all the stone steps were replaced , and signs were added . Out of concern for greater safety , footbridges with handrails replaced those made from hewn logs , overhanging rock ledges were removed in places , and the trail was rerouted near some falls . In the southern end of the new park , the state built the Evergreen Trail past Adams Falls , as well as a new parking area for 200 cars and a concession stand , both along Pennsylvania Route 118 ( PA 118 ) .
The state made other improvements in the park , including replacing or removing all of Ricketts ' dams . At Lake Jean it built an earthen dam in 1949 – 1950 to replace Ricketts ' 1905 timber dam ; the new dam increased the size of Lake Jean to 245 acres ( 99 ha ) and its eastern end now included the former Mud Pond . On April 20 , 1958 , the 1907 concrete dam at Lake Leigh developed a hole , causing Pennsylvania State Police to evacuate close to 2 @,@ 000 people from the park . Engineers from the state inspected the dam and made a second breach in the dam near ground level , draining the lake . The resulting flow of water destroyed some of the hiking paths in Glen Leigh and the fish stocked in the lake wound up in Kitchen Creek . The Lake Jean dam was repaired in 1956 . The last of Ricketts ' dams , at Lake Rose , was breached in 1959 after remnants of a hurricane filled the lake to capacity . The rest of the 1905 dam was removed in 1969 . At Grand View the state built a wooden fire tower at the site of Ricketts ' earlier observation tower , then replaced it with a 100 @-@ foot ( 30 m ) steel tower . The tower is usually closed to the public , but may be visited if it is staffed by a forest fire warden . From the tower , three states and eleven Pennsylvania counties can be seen .
Ricketts Glen State Park was the site of a Cold War era radar station . The Benton Air Force Station in the north of the park at what is now the Red Rock Job Corps Center was constructed during 1950 and 1951 . Part of the 648th Aircraft Control and Warning Squadron based at Fort Indiantown Gap , the radar station was a " frontline defender of national security " . About 300 airmen served at the radar station during the height of the Cold War . Barracks were constructed and recreational facilities for the airmen were provided . In 1963 the Federal Aviation Administration ( FAA ) began jointly operating the radar station ; the 648th Squadron was inactivated in 1975 and the Job Corps center was established in 1978 , using the barracks and recreational facilities as the Red Rock Job Corps Center . As of 2010 , the radar dome is still fully functional and is used by the FAA as an auxiliary radar to the tower at Wilkes @-@ Barre / Scranton International Airport .
On October 12 , 1969 , the Glens Natural Area and its waterfalls was named a National Natural Landmark , and it became a Pennsylvania State Park Natural Area in 1993 , which guarantees it " will be protected and maintained in a natural state " . In 1987 the park 's ten cabins opened . In 1997 the park was named one of the first 73 Important Bird Areas in the state by the Pennsylvania chapter of the National Audubon Society . That same year heavy rains washed out two bridges on the Falls Trail ; because of the difficulty of transporting materials on the trail , an Army National Guard helicopter dropped 36 @-@ foot ( 11 m ) poles into the glens to rebuild the bridges in early 1997 . In the winter of 1997 ice climbing was allowed in the Ganoga Glen section of the park for the first time . That same year training was undertaken by local fire companies to rescue people injured in the park when icy conditions make reaching and transporting them especially treacherous . In 1998 a project to " repair and improve the Falls Trail " began , with three park employees carrying materials in on foot to stabilize the trail , fix steps , cut down on erosion , and repair some bridges . Originally planned to take four years ; it ended up taking six years to complete and cost nearly $ 1 million .
In September 1999 the remnants of Hurricane Floyd caused massive damage to the park , temporarily closing it and downing thousands of trees . The DCNR hired Carson Helicopters to salvage timber from the downed beech , cherry , maple , and oak trees for $ 994 @,@ 000 ; a crew of 36 workers spent several months cutting the fallen trees into manageable logs , then helicopters flew the logs to the Hayfield area of the park . The salvage operation ran until the fall of 2001 , and yielded 3 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 board feet ( 8 @,@ 300 m3 ) of lumber . The operation had revenue of almost $ 7 million , and had the ecological advantage of not requiring heavy logging equipment or new roads in the park .
Some of the money from the helicopter logging operation was used for park improvements , including a new $ 1 @.@ 7 million visitor center and park office , which opened in December 2001 . In 2002 the park had " up to a half @-@ million visitors each year " . Beginning in 2003 the campsites in the park , by then over 50 years old , were refurbished . In 2004 the park and surrounding Pennsylvania State Game Lands were named an Important Mammal Area , and in July the park was featured as a day trip in the Travel section of The New York Times . On June 28 , 2006 a 100 @-@ year flood caused widespread damage in the park , washing out many of the recently completed improvements to the hiking trails along Kitchen Creek . In 2007 the park was one of the first ten parks to be featured in the Pennsylvania Cable Network 's series on the state 's park system . The DCNR has named Ricketts Glen one of " 25 Must @-@ See Pennsylvania State Parks " , citing its old @-@ growth forest and many waterfalls and its status as a National Natural Landmark .
= = Geology and climate = =
Ricketts Glen State Park covers two different physiographic provinces : the Allegheny Plateau in the north , and the Ridge @-@ and @-@ Valley Appalachians in the south . The boundary between these is a steep escarpment known as the Allegheny Front , which rises up to 1 @,@ 200 feet ( 370 m ) above the land to the south . Within the park , Kitchen Creek has its headwaters on the dissected plateau , then drops approximately 1 @,@ 000 feet ( 300 m ) down the Allegheny Front in 2 @.@ 25 miles ( 3 @.@ 62 km ) . Much of this drop occurs in Glen Leigh and Ganoga Glen , two narrow valleys carved by branches of Kitchen Creek , which come together at Waters Meet . Ricketts Glen lies south of and downstream from Waters Meet , and here the terrain becomes less steep . There are 24 named waterfalls in the three glens .
The rocks exposed in the park were formed in the Devonian and Carboniferous periods between 370 and 340 million years ago , when the land was part of the coastline of a shallow sea that covered a great portion of what is now North America . The high mountains to the east of the sea gradually eroded , causing a build @-@ up of sediment made up primarily of clay , sand and gravel . Tremendous pressure caused the formation of the sedimentary rocks that are found in the park and in the Kitchen Creek drainage basin : sandstone , shale , siltstone , and conglomerates .
There are four distinct rock formations within Ricketts Glen State Park . The most recent and highest of these is the late Mississippian Mauch Chunk Formation , composed of " grayish @-@ red shale , siltstone , sandstone , and some conglomerate " . This forms the highest points on the Allegheny Plateau and is found north of Lake Jean , forming the land beneath the Red Rocks Job Corps Center and Cherry Ridge to the east . The next formation below this is the Mississippian Pocono Formation , which is buff or gray sandstone with conglomerate and siltstone inclusions . This forms most of the Allegheny Plateau and underlies the park office , Lake Jean and the former Lakes Rose and Leigh . The boulders of the Midway Crevasse , which the Highland Trail passes through , are Pocono Formation sandstone .
The third of the rock formations within the park is the Huntley Mountain Formation , from the late Devonian and early Mississippian . This is made of layers of olive green to gray sandstone and gray to red shale . The Huntley Mountain Formation is relatively hard and erosion resistant . It caps the Allegheny Front and has kept it from eroding as much as the softer Catskill Formation , to the south . The Catskill Formation is the lowest and oldest layer in the park , and is composed of red shale and siltstone up to 370 million years old . The Allegheny Front within the park is named North Mountain and Red Rock Mountain , with the latter name coming from an exposed band of Huntley Formation red shale and sandstone visible along Pennsylvania Route 487 ( PA 487 ) .
Geologists and the official Ricketts Glen State Park web page classify the falls at Ricketts Glen State Park into two types . Wedding @-@ cake falls descend in a series of small steps . Within the park , this type of falls usually flows over thin layers of Huntley Mountain Formation sandstone . In bridal @-@ veil falls , the second type , water falls over a ledge and drops vertically into a plunge pool in the stream bed below . Within the park , this type of falls flows over Catskill Formation rocks or the red shale and sandstone of the Huntley Formation . In the park , the harder caprock which forms the ledge from which the bridal @-@ veil falls drops is gray sandstone . The softer red shale below is eroded away by water , sand and gravel to form the plunge pool . Brown 's book Pennsylvania waterfalls : a guide for hikers and photographers uses four types to classify waterfalls : falls , cascade , slide , and chute .
About 300 to 250 million years ago , the Allegheny Plateau , Allegheny Front , and Appalachian Mountains all formed in the Alleghenian orogeny . This happened long after the sedimentary rocks in the park were deposited , when the part of Gondwana that became Africa collided with what became North America , forming Pangaea . In the years since , up to 5 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 500 m ) of rock has been eroded away by streams and weather . At least three major glaciations in the past million years have been the final factor in shaping the land that makes up the park today .
The effects of glaciation have made Kitchen Creek within the park " unique compared to all other nearby streams that flow down the Allegheny Front " , as it is the only one with an " almost continuous series of waterfalls " . Before the last ice age , Kitchen Creek had a much smaller drainage basin ; during the ice age , glaciers covered all of the park except the Grand View outcrop . About 20 @,@ 000 years ago the glaciers retreated to the northeast and glacial lakes formed . Drainage from the melting glacier and lakes cut a sluiceway , or channel , that diverted the headwaters of South Branch Bowman Creek into the Glen Leigh branch of Kitchen Creek . Glacial deposits of debris 20 to 30 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 to 9 @.@ 1 m ) thick formed a dam blocking water from Ganoga Lake and what became Lake Jean from draining into Big Run , a tributary of Fishing Creek . The water was instead diverted into the Ganoga Glen branch of Kitchen Creek .
These diversions added about 7 square miles ( 18 km2 ) to the Kitchen Creek drainage basin , increasing it by just over 50 percent . The result was increased water flow in Kitchen Creek , which has been cutting the falls in the glens since . The gradient or slope of Kitchen Creek was fairly stable for its flow when it had a much smaller drainage basin , as Phillips Creek to the east still does . Kitchen Creek is now too steep for its present amount of water flow , and over time erosion will decrease the creek 's slope and make it less steep . There are rocks with glacial striations visible within the park .
According to the United States Geological Survey Geographic Names Information System , Ricketts Glen State Park is at an elevation of 2 @,@ 198 feet ( 670 m ) . The two highest points in the park are Cherry Ridge , made of Mauch Chunk Formation rock , at 2 @,@ 461 feet ( 750 m ) , and the Grand View outcrop of Huntley Mountain Formation sandstone , at 2 @,@ 444 feet ( 745 m ) . The highest elevation waterfall in the park is Mohawk Falls in Ganoga Glen at 2 @,@ 165 feet ( 660 m ) ; the lowest elevation waterfall is Adams Falls , in Ricketts Glen just south of PA 118 , at 1 @,@ 214 feet ( 370 m ) .
= = = Weather = = =
Ricketts Glen State Park is on the Allegheny Plateau , which has a continental climate with occasional severe low temperatures in winter and average daily temperature ranges ( the difference between the daily high and low ) of 20 ° F ( 11 ° C ) in winter and 26 ° F ( 14 ° C ) in summer . The park is in the Huntington Creek watershed , where the mean annual precipitation is 40 to 48 inches ( 1016 to 1219 mm ) . Weather records for Ricketts Glen State Park show that the highest recorded temperature at the park was 103 ° F ( 39 ° C ) in 1988 , and the record low was − 17 ° F ( − 27 ° C ) in 1984 . On average , January is the coldest month , July is the hottest month , and June is the wettest month .
= = Ecology = =
It has been estimated that before the arrival of William Penn and his Quaker colonists in 1682 , up to 90 percent of what is now Pennsylvania was covered with woods : over 31 @,@ 000 square miles ( 80 @,@ 000 km2 ) of eastern white pine , eastern hemlock , and a mix of hardwoods . By 1890 , Ricketts ' land was the largest tract of old @-@ growth forest remaining in the state , and though he made his fortune clearcutting nearly all his land , the forests in the glens of Ricketts Glen State Park were " saved from the lumberman 's axe through the foresight of the Ricketts family " . The rough terrain of the glens made it difficult to harvest timber from the area . Many of the old @-@ growth trees are believed to be over 500 years old , and ring counts on fallen trees have revealed ages of over 900 years .
The forests in and around Ricketts Glen State Park are some of the most extensive in northeastern Pennsylvania , and provide habitat for a wide variety of woodland creatures . The swampy areas in the park provide a habitat for plants like black gum , yellow birch , cinnamon fern , sphagnum and various sedges . The old @-@ growth forest in the Glens Natural Area is mostly eastern hemlock , eastern white pine , and oaks , and the park is home to 85 species of shrubs , woody vines , and trees , including seven kinds of conifers .
The streams and lakes of Ricketts are fisheries for many fish species , although fishing is prohibited in the glens area . In 2009 , 4 @.@ 15 miles ( 6 @.@ 68 km ) of Kitchen Creek downstream from Waters Meet and all of Phillips Creek were classified as Class A Wild Trout Waters , defined by the Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission as " streams which support a population of naturally produced trout of sufficient size and abundance to support a long @-@ term and rewarding sport fishery " .
Lake Jean is home to brook trout , brown trout , brown bullhead , and yellow bullhead . Acid rain with a pH near 3 @.@ 0 has altered the ecology of the lakes and region ; in Lake Jean low pH has decreased the number and quality of insects and plankton at the base of the food chain . Fish which are acid tolerant are predominant , including fathead minnows , muskellunge , pumpkinseed , walleye , and yellow perch . Predators like chain pickerel and largemouth bass are relatively few in number , and adult fish appear to grow rapidly but breed comparatively poorly . Since 1996 , the DCNR has added 11 short tons ( 10 @.@ 0 t ) of powdered lime to the lake each year to make the pH more neutral .
= = = Glens Natural Area = = =
A registered National Natural Landmark since 1969 , the Glens Natural Area is the main scenic attraction in the park and covers 2 @,@ 845 acres ( 1 @,@ 151 ha ) . Among perhaps 2 @,@ 000 acres ( 810 ha ) of old @-@ growth forest , two branches of Kitchen Creek cut through the deep gorges of Ganoga Glen and Glen Leigh and unite at Waters Meet ; then flow through Ricketts Glen . These old trees are commonly up to 100 feet ( 30 m ) tall , with diameters of almost 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) . The park has a great variety of trees as it lies at the boundary between the northern and southern types of hardwoods . In 1993 , the state designated the Glens Natural Area a State Park Natural Area , which means that it " will be protected and maintained in a natural state " . No buildings or latrines are allowed in the natural area , and the bridges in it are built with wood , not steel or concrete .
A series of trails parallels the branches of Kitchen Creek as they course down the Glens . Glen Leigh features eight named waterfalls and is south of the former Lake Leigh . Ganoga Glen is southeast of the former Lake Rose and has ten named falls , including the 94 @-@ foot ( 29 m ) Ganoga Falls , the tallest in the park . The DCNR recognizes three named waterfalls in Ricketts Glen just south of Waters Meet , plus Adams Falls 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) farther downstream at PA 118 . Adams Falls , the southernmost and one of the most scenic in the park , is about 0 @.@ 1 miles ( 160 m ) south of PA 118 , via an easy stroll along a trail from the parking lot .
Brown 's Pennsylvania waterfalls : a guide for hikers and photographers recognizes these 22 named falls plus two more in the park . One is on Shingle Cabin Brook as it enters Kitchen Creek just south of Waters Meet ; the other , Kitchen Creek Falls , is directly below the PA 118 highway bridge , which obscures much of the view . There are also several unnamed falls in the park , such as a good @-@ sized unnamed waterfall on a tributary of the Ganoga Glen branch of Kitchen Creek , or the " forgotten falls " on the South Branch Bowman Creek .
The Falls Trail includes the trails through the glens , plus the 1 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 9 km ) Highland Trail , which connects the top ends of Ganoga Glen and Glen Leigh to form a 3 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 5 @.@ 1 km ) triangular loop , and passes through the " Midway Crevasse , " a crack in Pocono Formation rock . All but two of the named waterfalls are either on the triangular loop or 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) south of it . Hiking the entire Glens area on the Falls Trail loop , beginning and ending at PA 118 , covers 7 @.@ 2 miles ( 11 @.@ 6 km ) . A shorter hike involves parking at Lake Rose , near the junction of Ganoga Glen and the Highland Trail .
= = = Mammals = = =
Ricketts Glen State Park was named part of an Important Mammal Area because it " support [ s ] critical habitat for a wide range of mammals " ; Pennsylvania has 64 wild mammal species . The park has an extensive forest cover of hemlock @-@ filled valleys and hardwood @-@ covered mountains , which makes it a habitat for big woods wildlife . Animals such as white @-@ tailed deer , black bear , red and gray squirrels , porcupine , and raccoon are seen fairly regularly . Less common creatures include beaver , bobcat , coyote , fisher , mink , muskrat , red fox , and river otter . In addition to mammals , Ricketts Glen is also known for its wild turkeys , wild flowers , butterflies , dragonflies , and the occasional timber rattlesnake .
White @-@ tailed deer became locally extinct on Ricketts ' land by 1912 , mirroring the sharp decline in Pennsylvania 's deer population from overhunting and loss of habitat in the late 19th and early 20th centuries . The state imported nearly 1 @,@ 200 white @-@ tailed deer from Michigan between 1906 and 1925 to re @-@ establish the species throughout Pennsylvania , and Ricketts brought deer to the area of the park in 1914 . Pennsylvania 's deer population rebounded from roughly one thousand in 1905 to roughly one million in 1928 . Deer are now one of the most numerous mammals in the park , and their overbrowsing threatens development of trees and plants there . The deer eat most of the saplings and shrubs before they can reach their full size , which reduces the number of low lying plants many birds use for shelter . The white @-@ tailed deer became the official state animal in 1959 . By 2001 , deer populations had increased to the point where it was feared that " Pennsylvania is losing its vegetative diversity from deer over @-@ browsing " .
Other locally extinct mammals in Pennsylvania include bison , grey wolf , lynx , marten , moose , mountain lion , and wolverine . Beaver and river otter have been successfully reintroduced . In 1995 and 1996 , 39 fishers were released in the State Game Lands adjoining the park , and breeding populations appear to have been reestablished . The coyote seems to have come to the state in the 1930s . Black bear and wild turkey populations were also severely affected by overhunting and loss of habitat ; the recovery of their populations in the 20th century has been " aided by the re @-@ growth of the eastern deciduous forest " . Bears prefer a mixed forest of hickory and oak with an understory of shrubs such as blueberry and laurel ; they use patches of coniferous forest for cover during the winter months .
= = = Important Bird Area = = =
Pennsylvania Important Bird Area ( IBA ) # 48 , also known as the North Mountain IBA , encompasses 114 @,@ 978 acres ( 46 @,@ 530 ha ) , including all 13 @,@ 047 acres ( 5 @,@ 280 ha ) of the state park and Pennsylvania State Game Lands Numbers 13 , 57 , and 66 . The Pennsylvania Audubon Society designated the IBA , which is defined as a globally important habitat for the conservation of bird populations . Ricketts Glen State Park is featured in the Audubon Society 's Susquehanna River Birding and Wildlife Trail Guide .
Ornithologists and bird watchers have recorded a total of 75 species at Ricketts Glen State Park and within the IBA . Several factors contribute to the high total of bird species observed : there is a large area of forest in the park , as well as great habitat diversity . The location of the IBA along the Allegheny Front also contributes to the diverse bird populations . The IBA is said to be the " largest extant forest " in northeastern Pennsylvania and one of the largest forests in the state of Pennsylvania . The North Mountain IBA has officially been adopted by the North Branch Bird Club and is " well @-@ known " by members of the Greater Wyoming Valley Audubon , Valley Forge Audubon , and the Pennsylvania Society for Ornithology .
Ricketts Glen State Park provides a breeding habitat for four species of flycatchers and two species of waterthrushes . American bittern nest near the park . Bald eagle are frequent visitors to the park , and some ornithologists believe they may be nesting there since adult pairs have been observed with their young . The park is a nesting location for three " rare " birds , including two birds of prey ( the northern goshawk and northern harrier ) , and Swainson 's thrush , as well as one " at risk " duck , the green @-@ winged teal .
Ricketts Glen State Park has extensive acreage of " interior forest " that is far from open space ; several bird species that are area @-@ sensitive are found within these forests in the park , including the black @-@ throated green warbler , red @-@ eyed vireo , dark @-@ eyed junco and black @-@ capped chickadee . Two species of owl , barred and northern saw @-@ whet , inhabit the deep forests . The hemlock forests of the glens are home to the Louisiana waterthrush , Acadian flycatcher , Blackburnian warbler , blue @-@ headed vireo , magnolia warbler , brown creeper , golden @-@ crowned kinglet and winter wren . Wood thrush are found in the lower elevations of the park and are replaced within the ecosystem by hermit thrush at the higher elevations . The Canada warbler and black @-@ throated blue warbler are on several watchlists , but are common within the park . The Canada warbler inhabits blueberry thickets with white @-@ throated sparrow , while the black @-@ throated blue warbler is found in the forests atop the plateau with the least flycatcher . Common raven are regularly seen soaring over the forests of the park looking for carrion . Canada goose are present in the park and have been classified as a " pest " due to their high numbers and the large amount of fecal waste they leave on the shores of Lake Jean . Ricketts Glen 's forests also support populations of Nashville and yellow @-@ rumped warblers , yellow @-@ bellied sapsucker , red @-@ breasted nuthatch , and purple finch .
= = Recreation = =
= = = Hunting , fishing and boating = = =
10 @,@ 144 acres ( 4 @,@ 105 ha ) of the park are open to hunting and trapping . Common game animals include black bear , gray squirrel , ring @-@ necked pheasant , ruffed grouse , wild turkey , and white @-@ tailed deer . The common fur @-@ bearing animals in Ricketts Glen State Park are beaver , bobcat , coyote , mink , muskrat , and raccoon .
Lake Jean is a 245 @-@ acre ( 99 ha ) warm @-@ water fishery that is open to fishing , ice fishing , swimming , and boating . Common game fish include panfish , trout and bass . Boating is permitted on the lake , which has two boat launches . Gasoline @-@ powered boats are prohibited . Canoes and other human @-@ powered boats are permitted , as are sail boats and electric @-@ powered vessels . There is a boat rental concession on the lake , which has canoes , kayaks , row boats , and paddle boats available . No fishing is allowed in the Glens Natural Area .
= = = Cabins , camping , swimming , and picnics = = =
Ricketts Glen State Park has 10 modern cabins that are available to rent on a year @-@ round basis . All cabins are furnished with electric heat , two or three bedrooms , living room , kitchen , and bath . Cabin renters must bring their own household items such as linens and cookware . One cabin is ADA accessible . There are 120 campsites at Ricketts Glen State Park . Each campsite has access to washhouses with flush toilets , showers , and laundry tubs . The campsites also have fire rings and picnic tables . There are two camping areas on the shores of Lake Jean , with one of the campgrounds on a peninsula . There is also an organized group tenting area , which can accommodate six groups of up to 40 persons .
The 600 @-@ foot ( 180 m ) beach on Lake Jean is open from mid @-@ May through mid @-@ September . A concession stand and modern restrooms are at the beach . Lifeguards have not been provided since 2008 ; visitors swim at their own risk . Picnic areas are at Lake Jean and the PA 118 access area at the Falls Loop Trail trailhead . Charcoal grills are provided for use at the picnic areas .
= = = Environmental education and trails = = =
Environmental education specialists lead guided tours of parts of the park from March through November . The walks give school groups , scouting organizations , and other visitors a close and informed look at natural wetlands , old @-@ growth forests , waterfalls , flora and fauna , and geologic formations . Other programs are held in the park office , on topics such as safety around wild animals . In summer and fall , park educators lead " Ghost Town Walks " to the ruins of the lumber village of Ricketts and to adjoining State Game Lands .
There are 26 miles ( 42 km ) of hiking trails at Ricketts Glen State Park , and a 12 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 20 @.@ 1 km ) trail loop is open for horseback riding . The trails range from " easy " hikes like the Beach Trail along Lake Jean , to " difficult " hikes such as the Falls Trail loop , which passes by many of the waterfalls of the park . In 2001 , John Young in Hike Pennsylvania : An Atlas of Pennsylvania 's Greatest Hiking Adventures wrote of the Falls Trail : " This is not only the most magnificent hike in the state , but it ranks up there with the top hikes in the East . " In 2003 , Backpacker Magazine named the park 's Falls Trail loop one of its 30 favorite day hikes in the contiguous United States .
Many of the trails in the park are difficult and hikers are urged to use caution , especially on the Falls Trail , which is steep and often wet and slippery . Each year hikers fall in the glens and have to be rescued , which usually takes dozens of volunteers and up to 11 hours because of the remote locations and rugged terrain . As of 2008 , the former concession stand along PA 118 in the southern end of the park was used for storage of rescue equipment .
Falls Trail is a 7 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 11 @.@ 6 km ) difficult loop , estimated to take 4 to 5 hours to hike . The January 2009 issue of Backpacker Magazine named the Falls Trail loop the best hike in Pennsylvania , as part of the magazine 's Reader 's Choice Awards . It boasts a series of wild , free @-@ flowing waterfalls , each cascading though rock @-@ strewn clefts , and passes through a stand of old @-@ growth forest . The park 's website stresses the difficulty of the trail , and The New York Times calls it " difficult and potentially dangerous " near the top of glens . The Falls Trail was " rehabilitated " in 2008 to make the " easier to hike " . The trail is closed during the winter months to hiking , but it is open to ice climbing . The ice climbers must use an ice axe , crampons , and rope .
Highland Trail is a 1 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 9 km ) moderate hiking trail at the top of the Falls Trail loop . It passes through the Midway Crevasse , a narrow gap between two large blocks of Pocono sandstone conglomerate .
Ganoga View Trail is a 2 @.@ 8 @-@ mile ( 4 @.@ 5 km ) moderate trail named for Ganoga Falls , the highest waterfall in the park . Ganoga View Trail is an alternative route to Ganoga Falls and less difficult than the Falls Trail .
Grand View Trail is a moderate 1 @.@ 9 @-@ mile ( 3 @.@ 1 km ) trail which reaches an elevation of 2 @,@ 449 feet ( 746 m ) , the highest point on Red Rock Mountain ( which is part of the Allegheny Front ) . The area is known for its flora , including blooms of mountain laurel in June and rhododendron in July . A firetower is open during the fire season for further viewing .
Old Beaver Dam Road Trail is a 1 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 9 km ) easy loop trail that is accessed from a parking lot on PA 487 or the Lake Rose parking area .
Beach Trail is an easy 0 @.@ 8 @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 3 km ) trail that provides access to the Lake Jean day @-@ use and swimming areas from both camping areas .
Old Bulldozer Road Trail is a 2 @.@ 9 @-@ mile ( 4 @.@ 7 km ) difficult trail that ascends a bulldozer road that was built during the construction of Ricketts Glen State Park . The trail begins at the parking lot on PA 118 with a short but steep climb and connects with Mountain Springs Trail .
The Bear Walk Trail is an easy 1 @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) trail from the cabin area to Lake Rose that serves as an access to the longer hiking , cross @-@ country , and snowmobiling trails of the park .
Evergreen Trail is a self @-@ guided , 1 @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) ecological trail that passes through a stand of old @-@ growth forest that includes an Eastern Hemlock that pre @-@ dates the 1492 arrival of Christopher Columbus .
Mountain Springs Trail is a 4 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) moderate trail that is " off the beaten path " . It passes the remains of the Lake Leigh dam , the " forgotten falls " and descends the South Branch of Bowman Creek to Mountain Springs Lake , which is owned by the Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission .
Cherry Run Trail is near the Lake Leigh dam access . It is a 4 @.@ 6 @-@ mile ( 7 @.@ 4 km ) moderate trail that passes through groves of cherry trees on an old logging road .
= = Nearby state parks = =
The following state parks are within 30 miles ( 48 km ) of Ricketts Glen State Park :
Frances Slocum State Park ( Luzerne County )
Nescopeck State Park ( Luzerne County )
Worlds End State Park ( Sullivan County )
= = Map = =
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= Mario & Luigi : Partners in Time =
Mario & Luigi : Partners in Time , known in Japan as Mario & Luigi RPG 2 × 2 ( マリオ & ルイージRPG2 × 2 , Mario ando Ruīji Aru Pī Jī Tsū bai Tsū ) , is a role @-@ playing video game developed by AlphaDream and published by Nintendo for the Nintendo DS handheld game console in 2005 . It is the second game in the Mario & Luigi series , and is the sequel to Mario & Luigi : Superstar Saga for the Game Boy Advance . The game was followed by Mario & Luigi : Bowser 's Inside Story , released in 2009 .
Although the sequel to Superstar Saga , the game 's plot is unrelated to that of its predecessor with an emphasis on the time @-@ traveling theme , which involves the protagonists traveling between the past and present of the Mushroom Kingdom . The adventure follows Mario , Luigi , Baby Mario , and Baby Luigi as they search for Princess Peach , who has been abducted by an alien species known as the Shroobs . The gameplay centers on the co @-@ operation between the quartet , who must use their specific qualities and skills to solve puzzles to progress through and features multiple role @-@ playing game elements , but with a turn @-@ based battle system focused on timing accuracy . The game is considerably darker in tone than its predecessor , especially in its plot and themes .
Partners in Time was positively received by the media , gaining an aggregate score of 86 @.@ 80 % from Game Rankings and an 87 from Metacritic . Like its predecessor , the game was praised by critics for its characterization and comical style , as well as its use of the DS 's dual screen and the rumble feature .
= = Gameplay = =
The gameplay of Partners in Time , with an emphasis on role @-@ playing games elements and co @-@ operative puzzle solving , is similar to that of its predecessor , although gameplay differences exist between the games . For the majority of Partners in Time , the overworld of the game is presented on the DS 's touchscreen , while a map is present on the top screen , showing relevant information such as the location of each character and save albums . Additionally , the perspective changes when battling or accessing the inventory , and when the quartet is separated into two pairs , in which a pair is visible on each screen .
= = = Overworld = = =
The player is able to control the four main protagonists — Mario , Luigi , Baby Mario , and Baby Luigi — either as a quartet or alternatively in separate pairs . The player can choose to separate the adults from the babies , which is usually required when entrances or holes in the overworld are too small to be accessed by the adult characters . Such instances form multiple puzzles in the game , in which items or switches can be only be accessed by use of the babies ' specific qualities . The pairs can also perform special moves while they are separated , which are gained as the player progresses through the game . Each action attained is assigned to a specific button on the DS for a character , which is present on the screen ; pressing the corresponding button results in the action . These actions , such as the " Spin Jump " that allows the older brothers to twirl through the air , are required to advance through the game and solve the various puzzles .
The game retains many of the RPG aspects present in its predecessor , including the interaction with non @-@ player characters , which is required to advance the plot and gameplay . Each character 's progress is measured by experience points , which are needed to " level up " , a process by which battle @-@ related statistical fields such as speed and power are boosted . As in Superstar Saga , there is also a currency used to purchase items and status @-@ enhancing equipment known as badges and clothes .
= = = Battle = = =
The battle system is similar to its predecessor 's , with the effectiveness of an attack dependent on the timing accuracy of separate actions . The battles still consist of turn @-@ based attacks executed by Mario and Luigi , although these are compounded by the babies ' actions during an attack . The Bros. moves — moves performed by Mario and Luigi collectively — have been replaced by Bros. Items , which are finite attacks that are gained in the overworld . Similar to the Bros. moves , these are more damaging attacks that can be performed by all four characters collectively . Only the adults receive damage , even though the babies will become vulnerable once their respective partners have been eliminated from battle . The elimination of babies will also affect battle as some Bros. Items will become disabled , and the party will not be able to defend itself with hammers , which are wielded exclusively by the babies .
= = Plot = =
Unlike Superstar Saga , Partners in Time is not set in the Beanbean Kingdom , but the traditional Mushroom Kingdom featured in most games of the Mario series . The setting features a mixture of locations , from those that appeared in previous Mario games , such as Bowser 's Castle , to original locations such as Koopaseum . Mario and Luigi can travel into the past via " time holes " , which is how the concept of baby characters is introduced .
= = = Story = = =
The game begins as Professor E. Gadd completes his newest invention of a time machine powered by a gem called the Cobalt Star , which is presented at Peach 's Castle . Peach enters the time machine into the past , but fails to return , only leaving a member of an alien species known only as the Shroobs within the damaged time machine . The Mushroom Kingdom of the past had actually been invaded by the Shroobs , with Peach being kidnapped and held hostage at her castle . After defeating the monster , a time hole opens , leaving a passageway into the past . While searching for Peach , Mario and Luigi locate their younger selves , and agree to locate the crystal shards , which are remnants of the Cobalt Star which had been shattered during Peach 's journey . Unwittingly , the brothers collect all of the shards , while being pestered by Baby Bowser ( Bowser in the past ) who wants the Cobalt Star . At the end , they restore the Cobalt Star only to unleash the Elder Princess Shroob , who serves as the game 's final boss character . The story ends when she is defeated , Peach is rescued , and the past returns to normal .
= = = Characters = = =
Partners in Time features both original characters and those that were introduced before the game . Professor E. Gadd provides the player with advice throughout the game , while Toadsworth teaches the player new moves and skills to progress through the adventure . Although the older Peach is kidnapped , Baby Peach is retrieved from the past into the present by Toadsworth , where she is nurtured by both the old and young renditions of him . Baby Bowser appeared near the beginning of the game in the past to kidnap Baby Peach , although his plans were halted by an encounter with the Mario bros. and a subsequent attack from the Shroobs . Baby Bowser harasses the quartet frequently during their journey by stealing their Cobalt Star shards , and later attacking the group with his older self . Kamek the Magikoopa , Petey Piranha and Fawful , an antagonist from Mario & Luigi : Superstar Saga , appear in the game as well .
The Shroobs , introduced in Partners in Time , are fungal like creatures who are the main antagonists of the game . The Shroobs derive from the " Shroob planet " and are ruled by Princess Shroob , who is the primary antagonist . After invading the Mushroom Kingdom , both she and her twin sister , Elder Princess Shroob , are defeated . Different species of Shroobs ( with designs based on existing Mario franchise characters and enemies ) are present throughout the game as both minor enemies and boss characters . AlphaDream also introduced Stuffwell , a talking briefcase who gives the player advice regarding items and accessories , which he stores .
= = Development = =
Nintendo revealed Partners in Time at E3 2005 , where a playable demonstration of the game was available . The demos consisted of three levels , each accompanied with a tutorial to guide the player . Each level had a different objective and represented the characters ' abilities in the game , such as the use of the hammer . Between the game 's unveiling at E3 and its release , Nintendo of America revealed details of the game relating to Partners in Time 's plot and gameplay , as well as the fact that it would be compatible with the " Rumble Pak " feature . AlphaDream , developers of Superstar Saga , developed this game , with experienced contributors to the Mario series such as Koji Kondo and Charles Martinet working on sound support and voice acting , respectively . The music was composed by Yoko Shimomura , who also scored Superstar Saga . Partners in Time was first released in North America on November 28 , 2005 .
= = Reception = =
Partners in Time received positive reviews , with reviewers lauding the game 's use of characters and plot . IGN 's Craig Harris commended the game 's comic style , stating " much of the charm from Mario & Luigi comes from the focus on humor that 's bizarre and out there " . Despite this , GameSpot 's Ricardo Torres stated that " The self @-@ referential humor that gave the original game its bite isn 't as prevalent " . Nintendo World Report 's Jonathan Metts praised the game for returning to the traditional Mushroom Kingdom setting , claiming it led to more distinctive character and plot elements . While appreciating Partners in Time 's use of humour , RPGamer 's Derek Cavin criticised the game 's plot , describing it as " a basic story that doesn 't develop as much as it could have " . The game 's characterisation in particular was well received , with Eurogamer commending Stuffwell , who was compared to Fawful , a character in Superstar Saga .
Critics welcomed Partners in Time 's use of the dual screen , as well as the rumble pak feature . GameSpot criticised the momentary use of the touchscreen , labeling it as " tacked on " ; Eurogamer 's John Walker , also critical of this , felt that the game was better without utilising the DS 's touchscreen . Reviewers complained about the game 's controls , expressing difficulty with coordinating the four characters , with problems arising specifically in enemy encounters with characters that were not being controlled . The alterations to the battle system received a mixed response — GameSpot praised the more complicated and " richer " boss fights , while Nintendo World Report criticised the added complexity , stating " the growth in enemy resilience outpaces your growth in strength , so battles get longer and longer " . IGN noted that " Partners in Time 's quest starts out a little too easy " , although they acknowledged that the game became increasingly difficult as it progressed .
Partners in Time 's visuals and presentation were well received , with Eurogamer describing it as " utterly lovely " . GameSpot appreciated the " added flair " in animation gained by the DS , although the perspective made such things as hitting blocks and countering attack " trickier than it should be " . Torres proceeded to criticise the game 's soundtrack , labeling it as the " weakest link " , although other critics lauded the game 's audio . On its first week of release in Japan , Mario & Luigi : Partners in Time sold 132 @,@ 726 units . As of July 25 , 2007 , Mario & Luigi : Partners in Time has sold 1 @.@ 39 million copies worldwide . In addition , the game has received the Editors ' Choice Award at IGN . The game was ranked 50th in Official Nintendo Magazine 's " 100 Greatest Nintendo Games " feature .
= = Sequels = =
A sequel to Partners in Time was announced at the Nintendo Conference on October 2 , 2008 , titled Bowser 's Inside Story . It was released in Japan in February 2009 , North America in September 2009 and in Europe and Australia in October 2009 . Dream Team was released in Europe , Australia , Japan in July 2013 and in North America in August 2013 . Paper Jam , a crossover with the Paper Mario series , was released in December 2015 in Japan , Europe and Australia and in January 2016 in North America .
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= Burnham Pavilions =
The Burnham Pavilions were public sculptures by Zaha Hadid and Ben van Berkel in Millennium Park , which were located in the Loop community area of Chicago , Illinois . Both pavilions were located in the Chase Promenade South . Their purpose was to commemorate the 100th anniversary of Daniel Burnham ’ s Plan of Chicago , and symbolize the city 's continued pursuit of the Plan 's architectural vision with contemporary architecture and planning . The sculptures were privately funded and reside in Millennium Park . The pavilions were designed to be temporary structures .
Both Pavilions were scheduled to be unveiled on June 19 , 2009 . However , the Pavilion by Hadid endured construction delays and a construction team change , which led to nationwide coverage of the delay in publications such as The New York Times and The Wall Street Journal . Only its skeleton was availed to the public on the scheduled date , and the work was completed and unveiled on August 4 , 2009 . The van Berkel pavilion endured a temporary closure due to unanticipated wear and tear from August 10 – 14 .
= = Details = =
In June 2008 , there was an announcement that the pavilions would be constructed . The pavilions were commissioned by the Burnham Plan Centennial Committee , a group of civic leaders who collaborated closely with the City of Chicago Department of Cultural Affairs , the Art Institute of Chicago , and Millennium Park Inc . On April 7 , 2009 , the designs were unveiled for the pavilions set to open on June 19 and to continue on display on the south end of the Chase Promenade until October 31 . Delays were caused as a result of manufacturing . This may cause the pavilions to stay on exhibit until November . Additionally , the Hadid Pavilion may be situated in a different part of the park for part of 2010 . The choices of Hadid and van Berkel were somewhat controversial because Burnham was a classicist and they are both avant @-@ garde modernists . Additionally , local architects complained that it was a bit of a slight that two European architects were chosen to produce works to serve as the focal points of the Burnham Plan Centennial celebration . The pavilions were scheduled to be a focal point of the centennial celebration of the 1909 Plan of Chicago , which is a yearlong celebration . However , Hadid 's Pavilion encountered manufacturer 's difficulty in executing Hadid 's complex , computer @-@ aided design .
= = = The Hadid Pavilion = = =
The pavilion by Hadid , the first woman to win the Pritzker Prize , is a tensioned fabric shell fitted over a curving aluminum framework exceeding 7 @,@ 000 pieces . Although the frame is composed of 7 @,@ 000 individually bent pieces , no two of which are alike , the shell is made up of a mere 24 custom @-@ made panels of fabric . As expected it accommodates a centennial @-@ themed , audio and video presentation on its interior fabric walls . Its opening was originally expected to be delayed until at least mid @-@ July 2009 . The themed presentation that portrays Chicago ’ s transformation as a result of Burnham 's plan is by London @-@ based , Chicago @-@ trained filmmaker Thomas Gray . It is accompanied by a multi @-@ channel soundtrack created by Chicago 's Lou Mallozzi of Experimental Sound Studio . The pavilion is described as resembling a " futuristic camping tent " . Hadid conceptualized how tension alters appearance as fabric is pulled taut or twisted , which resulted in the elliptical structure and its strategic light @-@ availing gashes and pod @-@ like openings for visitors to experience . The diagonal lines in the structure are a reflection of Burnham ’ s 1909 city plan , which envisioned a fanned grid of streets emanating diagonally from Chicago ’ s city center out into the suburbs .
The project was daunting in its physical complexity . TenFab Design , a tensioned fabric trade @-@ show booth design company from Evanston , Illinois , worked nearly five months with numerous structural engineers on plans before construction could begin . As an example the inclusion of a 400 @-@ pound ( 180 kg ) projector challenged the dynamics of the lightweight structure . The centennial committee initiated discussions with TenFab in November 2008 at which time the company requested a six @-@ month design and assembly schedule , but the company was not hired until late February 2009 . The expected completion fell behind schedule .
In July , construction responsibilities were passed from TenFab Design to a Fabric Images , an Elgin , Illinois @-@ based company , and the anticipated opening was delayed until August 1 , and the new contract has penalties for delays beyond that date . As the construction costs of the privately funded project ballooned from $ 500 @,@ 000 to $ 650 @,@ 000 due to the change in materials and contractors , the difference was compensated for by a shift in funds from the advertising budget . The unfinished work was visible for the opening weekend on June 19 , but the following Monday it was tented while being completed . Eventually , a canvas stretched across the frame to form a structure that resembled a cocoon .
On July 20 , the fabric began being formed around the aluminum shell while it remained in the tent , and although construction was expected to be completed on August 1 , the opening was not anticipated at that time due to both weekend crowds and the cost of disassembling the tent on the weekend . The weekday opening should allow officials a better opportunity to gauge the wear and tear on the structure by visitors . What eventually amounted to over 1 @,@ 600 yards ( 1 @,@ 500 m ) of fabric was stitched and fitted by over a dozen workers . It opened to the public on August 4 as rescheduled . Upon the completion of the temporary exhibition , the pavilion will be deeded to the city to lend or rent out to other cities . It is not designed to withstand snow loads of a Chicago winter . The pavilion is made of aluminum , donated by Marmon / Keystone Industries , a member of the Marmon Group , and a tensile fabric .
The current pavilion is not Hadid 's original design , which had a greater emphasis an angularity and incorporated hard surfaces of wood and aluminum . When the committee sent the original proposal out for bid " it was way over budget . " Hadid eventually submitted a new cost @-@ conscious design of a cloth shell supported by aluminum ribs of different sizes . The pavilion 's inner walls were planned to serve as projection surfaces for a film about Chicago by Gray .
Hadid had previously been commissioned to a temporary pavilion for the London 's Serpentine Gallery in 2000 . The pavilion was such a success that the gallery has added annual temporary pavilions every year since . Architects such as Frank Gehry and artists like Olafur Eliasson have attempted to achieve the same success in the subsequent years . She also created a mobile temporary work for Chanel that was displayed in Hong Kong , Tokyo and New York in 2008 . Hadid will design the London Aquatics Centre for the 2012 Summer Olympics and the Guangzhou Opera House in China .
The Chicago Tribune 's Pulitzer Prize @-@ winning architecture critic Blair Kamin spoke glowingly of the pavilion upon its August 4 , 2009 , completion , describing it as " a virtuoso display of structure , space and light " with an " arresting combination of naturalistic forms and alien shapes , plus a dazzling video installation " . He notes that pavilion resembles a conch shell with openings like shark 's mouths . By daylight the pavilion is enticing , but the use of sunlight limits the multimedia duality to dusk and until the park 's closing , when the 7 @.@ 5 minute video is able to be seen on the pavilion 's inner surface . He felt that the pavilion succeeded in enticing the viewer to envision a better future for Chicago in a manner like Burnham did himself . Kamin is very wary of the public 's likelihood of damaging the pavilion . His concerns were born out quickly as stanchions were required to curb human nature .
= = = The van Berkel Pavilion = = =
The pavilion by van Berkel of UNStudio , referred to by some as the UNStudio pavilion , is composed of two parallel rectangular planes joined by curving scoops . It is built on a steel frame and has a skin of glossy white plywood that starts off in familiar right angles and that graduates into double curves of bent plywood . It is situated on a raised platform and it hosts a grid of 42 computer @-@ controlled , LED lights on the underside of the roof . The floor slab is cantilevered and is sliced by a ramp entrance making it ADA accessible . The roof , which is described as floating , also has eye @-@ like openings . The pavilion is composed of steel donated by Chicago @-@ based ArcelorMittal and is intended to be de @-@ constructed and recycled .
The pavilion did not prove to be durable enough for the interactive environment of Millennium Park . Kamin feels that the Pavilion was designed more for veneration like indoor museum works of art and outdoor sculpture on pedestals . However , skateboarders , avid fireworks spectators and youthful climbers have been part of the multiple causation of the decline of the pavilion that led to its closure during the week of August 10 – 14 .
= = Related events = =
The Burnham Plan is credited with guiding the transformation of the city from an industrial center to leading contemporary city . The Wall Street Journal describes the plan as unrivaled in its elegance and ambition for urban planning and describes Chicago as a monumental manifestation of the plan . The unveiling of the Pavilions was part of a June 19 citywide centennial celebration that included concerts by the Grant Park Orchestra , directed by Carlos Kalmar . The concert featured the world premiere of Michael Torke 's symphony and chorus work entitled Plans , that was paired with Rachmaninoff 's Piano Concerto No. 3 . The ongoing celebration includes lectures , walking tours and art exhibitions throughout the calendar year . The pavilions are accompanied by exhibit panels that promote the Burnham Plan Centennial celebration and continuing opportunities to pursue the plan 's vision for Metropolitan Chicago . The pavilions serve as a focal point for the public ’ s attention to steer them toward the hundreds of exhibits , events , and other activities of the more than 250 Centennial Program Partners in the Chicago metropolitan area . The ground near the pavilions host an interactive touch @-@ screen public kiosk installation geared toward " inventing the future " of the metropolitan Chicago region .
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= Batrachotomus =
Batrachotomus / ˌbætrəˈkɒtoʊməs / is a genus of prehistoric archosaur . Fossils of this animal have been found in southern Germany and dated from the Ladinian stage of the Middle Triassic period , around 242 to 235 million years ago . Batrachotomus was described by palaeontologist David J. Gower 22 years after its discovery .
The locality where Batrachotomus lived was a swampy region and the name comes from the Greek batrachos / βάτραχος ( frog ) and tome / τομή ( cutting , slicing ) , which refers to its preying on the large amphibian Mastodonsaurus . In contrast with sprawling reptiles , like crocodiles , this large carnivore was very agile with locomotor superiority due to its erect stance . A remarkable feature seen on its back was a row of paired , flattened bony plates . Batrachotomus was possibly an early relative of Postosuchus , which lived during the dawn of the dinosaurs .
= = Description = =
Batrachotomus was a heavily built , large quadrupedal reptile reaching 6 metres ( 20 ft ) in length . A trait that characterized Batrachotomus , compared to other crurotarsans , was a series of paired small plates on its back which were attached to each vertebra . These bony deposits forming scales are called osteoderms . Flattened and leaf @-@ shaped , these extended from behind the head along the column and reducing in size , ended at the tail . There is also evidence that osteoderms were present on the ventral region of the tail , as seen in Ticinosuchus ferox , and even on the flank , belly and limbs .
Like rauisuchians , Batrachotomus walked with an erect posture , although the limbs were not located directly under the trunk . The limbs were not equal in length as the forelimbs were about 70 % of the hindlimbs . The toe bones ( phalanges ) are poorly preserved and the only well known bone is a fifth metatarsal ( bone in hindlimbs attached to the toe bones ) which was hooked in shape . However , hypotheses suggest that probably each forelimb had four toes and each hindlimb five .
Batrachotomus had a tall and narrow skull estimated at 40 to 50 cm ( 1 @.@ 3 to 1 @.@ 6 ft ) in length . It had five pairs of fenestrae ( skull openings ) , two pairs of which were for the eyes ( called orbits ) and the nostrils . Behind the orbits were two temporal fenestrae . These holes probably helped to reduce the weight of the skull and enabled the jaw to open more widely . As a typical archosaur , Batrachotomus had two antorbital fenestrae between the orbits and nostrils , and a fifth pair of small openings at the rear part of the lower jaw .
The jaws contained sharp teeth which were compressed laterally and unequal in size and shape , and this variation of tooth shape is known as heterodonty . The teeth on the premaxillae ( bones at the very tip of the upper jaw ) were slender , unlike those of the maxillae ( the main tooth @-@ bearing bones in the upper jaw ) which had a straight posterior edge . The upper jaw bore 30 teeth , with each premaxilla carrying about 4 teeth and each maxilla 11 , while the lower jaw held 22 teeth .
= = Discovery and history = =
Remains of Batrachotomus have been found in southern Germany , mainly in the Kupferzell fossil locality in northern Baden @-@ Württemberg . Fossil collector Johann G. Wegele discovered the first specimens in a 1977 excavation at the Erfurt Formation , dated from the Longobardian ( late Ladinian ) age . Other remains attributed to Batrachotomus have been collected in Vellberg @-@ Eschenau , about 10 km east of Schwäbisch Hall , and in Crailsheim . The most notable are from Vellberg @-@ Eschenau , which are represented by well preserved ribs and vertebrae ( MHI 1895 ) , and evidence of forelimbs and hindlimbs ( SMNS 90018 ) . Batrachotomus today is displayed in the Muschelkalk Museum , Ingelfingen , Stuttgart .
The fossils recovered from a marlstone remained undescribed until 1999 and palaeontologists referred to the genus simply as " rauisuchid " or " Kupferzellia " . In 1999 , palaeontologist David J. Gower described the holotype ( SMNS 52970 ) from the 1977 excavation , which is the largest specimen of the genus , comprised by incomplete skull and postcranial materials . Anatomy of the braincase ( SMNS 80260 ) was made three years later , shedding light on the evolutionary relationships of the poorly known group of Rauisuchia . In 2009 , Gower and Rainer R. Schoch reported a detailed reconstruction of the postcranial skeleton for the first time .
= = Classification = =
Batrachotomus was a prestosuchid , a member of a family of carnivorous archosaurs within the larger group Rauisuchia . The family name " Prestosuchidae " was established in 1966 by American paleontologist Alfred Romer . Prestosuchids were quadrupedal reptiles , medium to large in size , characterized by erect posture , large and narrow skull and large antorbital openings .
Attention was first brought to Batrachotomus in 1993 by Michael Parrish , a palaeontologist at Northern Illinois University . Parrish hypothesized that Batrachotomus ( then " Kupferzellia " ) belonged to the family of Rauisuchidae , another clade of carnivorous reptiles , and species of Rauisuchus . However , the description of the braincase and a revisited cladistic analysis by Benton and Walker , showing the close relationships between Batrachotomus and Prestosuchus , led to the transfer of Batrachotomus to the family Prestosuchidae .
Sterling J. Nesbitt ( 2011 ) revised the classification of basal archosaurs , and using the most comprehensive phylogenetic analysis for this group ( to date ) found Prestosuchidae to be non @-@ monophyletic . The members of this clade were recovered as basal loricatan , of which Batrachotomus was found to be the most derived i.e. most closely related to the clade containing Crocodylomorpha and Rauisuchidae . Subsequent derivatives of this analysis further support this hypothesis . In a yet to be formally published revision of Heptasuchus , a medium @-@ sized ( ~ 5 m long ) " rauisuchian " from the upper Chugwater Group of Wyoming , it was recovered as the sister taxon of Batrachotomus using a derivative of Nesbitt ( 2011 ) analysis .
The cladogram below follows an analysis by Sterling J. Nesbitt ( 2011 ) :
= = Paleoecology = =
Since 1977 , the rich vertebrate fauna found at Baden @-@ Württemberg reflect a moist region of the Middle Triassic in Germany . Along with Batrachotomus , palaeontologists recovered remains of fishes , amphibians , such as Gerrothorax and Mastodonsaurus , and even animals like nothosaurs and the distinct marine reptile Tanystropheus . Flora of the locality consisted of horsetails , ferns , cycads and conifers , suggesting that there was rich vegetation .
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= Cyclone Agni =
Severe Cyclonic Storm Agni was a tropical cyclone of the 2004 North Indian Ocean cyclone season notable for its record proximity to the equator . It was the second North Indian Ocean cyclone to receive a name , after Onil earlier in the year . Agni formed on November 28 well to the southwest of India in the Arabian Sea , and steadily intensified as it tracked northwestward . The Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) estimated peak 1 minute sustained winds of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) , while the India Meteorological Department ( IMD ) estimated peak 3 minute sustained winds of 100 km / h ( 65 mph ) ; the IMD is the official warning center for the north Indian Ocean . After peaking , it weakened due to wind shear , dry air , and cooler waters , and the JTWC issued its final advisory on December 3 as it approached the coast of Somalia . The remnants of Agni moved along the Somalian coastline until dissipating on December 5 .
= = Meteorological history = =
A tropical disturbance was observed on November 19 about 800 km ( 500 mi ) southeast of Colombo , Sri Lanka in the Bay of Bengal . The disturbance tracked westward , gradually organizing and prompting the JTWC to issue a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert ( TCFA ) on November 22 . After passing south of Sri Lanka , it became disorganized and was no longer considered likely to develop into a tropical cyclone . The circulation associated with the system continued westward , reorganizing on November 26 in the Arabian Sea . Despite being located unusually close to the equator , the disturbance maintained convection , or thunderstorms , which was becoming organized around the weak low @-@ level circulation . With low wind shear and diffluence aloft , the JTWC remarked the system had a fair chance of developing .
While the system was organizing , the center crossed the equator to reach about 0 @.@ 5 ° S , thus becoming an anticyclonic circulation in the southern hemisphere . This was unusual , as the Coriolis effect is nonexistent along the equator — the Coriolis effect refers to planetary vorticity , which provides the spin in a cyclone . The JTWC later assessed the system as remaining in the northern hemisphere , reaching as far south as 0 @.@ 7 ° N , or about 80 km ( 50 mi ) from the equator . After the circulation organized further beneath the convection , the JTWC issued another TCFA at 0300 UTC on November 28 . Three hours later , the agency classified the system as Tropical Cyclone 05A about 1300 km ( 800 mi ) southwest of the southern tip of India . In a post @-@ season analysis , the JTWC estimated the cyclone became a tropical storm six hours earlier . At around the same time , the IMD classified it as a " low pressure area ... likely to become well marked . "
Upon being classified , the tropical cyclone was moving northwestward under the influence of a ridge over India . Its outflow to the north and south became better defined , although its proximity to the equator limited its southerly outflow somewhat due to wind shear . Early on November 29 , the IMD classified the system as a depression , and throughout the day it rapidly intensified to become a cyclonic storm ; a cyclonic storm is a tropical cyclone with at least 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) winds sustained for 3 minutes . Around that time , the JTWC assessed the cyclone as reaching peak winds of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) , sustained for 1 minute , along with gusts to 150 km / h ( 90 mph ) . Late on November 29 , the cyclone weakened slightly , only to regain its peak intensity by November 30 ; at that time , it developed a banding eye , and was located about 1500 km ( 900 mi ) southeast of the coast of Somalia . At 1200 UTC on November 30 , the IMD issued its first complete advisory on the cyclone , naming it Severe Cyclonic Storm Agni and estimating peak winds at 100 km / h ( 65 mph ) ; the agency predicted the storm would continue northwestward and strengthen slightly before weakening . At its peak , the cyclone had a barometric pressure of 985 mbar .
After reaching peak intensity , an increase in wind shear caused the eye to disappear , and the convection decreased significantly . On December 1 , the IMD estimated Agni weakened to cyclonic storm status , around which time the center became exposed from the convection . The cyclone continued its steady weakening continued due to the wind shear , the presence of dry air , and cooler water temperatures , and by December 2 , the IMD downgraded Agni to depression status , which was its final warning on the system . As it approached the coast of Somalia , it turned westward due to the building of a ridge over Saudi Arabia . Despite unfavorable conditions , thunderstorms briefly reformed over the circulation , which allowed the storm to maintain its intensity . By late on December 3 , Agni weakened to below tropical storm status , and the JTWC issued its final warning while the storm was about 450 km ( 275 mi ) south @-@ southeast of Cape Guardafui — the easternmost point of the Horn of Africa . The circulation became difficult to locate by early on December 4 , by which time the system had little remaining convection . It turned southwestward and later to the south , moving ashore on eastern Somalia before dissipating on December 5 near Ceel Huur over water .
= = Records , naming , and impact = =
According to RSMC New Delhi , Cyclone Agni developed into a depression at 1 @.@ 5 ° N , which is the same latitude as where according to RSMC Tokyo , Tropical Storm Vamei formed during December 2001 . However , according to RSMC La Reunion , the precursor low to Cyclone Agni moved into the Southern Hemisphere and became an anticyclone as it had kept its counter @-@ clockwise circulation .
Agni was the second storm in the north Indian Ocean to receive a name , after the IMD began tropical cyclone naming in the middle of 2004 .
As the cyclone was weak when it moved over Somalia , no casualties or significant damage was reported .
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= Christmas Party ( The Office ) =
" Christmas Party " is the tenth episode of the second season of the American comedy television series The Office , and the show 's sixteenth episode overall . It was written by Michael Schur and directed by Charles McDougall . It was first broadcast on December 6 , 2005 on NBC . The episode guest stars David Koechner as Todd Packer .
The series depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton , Pennsylvania branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In this episode , the office throws a Christmas party and plays Secret Santa . Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) , having put a lot of effort into finding a gift for Pam ( Jenna Fischer ) , becomes frustrated when Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) makes everyone play " Yankee Swap " , and an iPod that Michael bought for Ryan Howard ( B.J. Novak ) becomes the hot object of the game .
The episode received positive reviews from television critics , with many applauding Michael 's " Yankee Swap " scene . The episode was nominated for two Primetime Emmy awards , one for Outstanding Single @-@ Camera Picture Editing for a Comedy Series , and one for Outstanding Writing for a Comedy Series . " Christmas Party " earned a Nielsen rating of 4 @.@ 3 in the 18 – 49 demographic , being viewed by 9 @.@ 7 million viewers , making it , at the time of its airing , the highest @-@ rated episode of the season .
= = Plot = =
The office staffers hold a " Secret Santa " gift exchange at their Christmas party . Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) received Pam Beesly 's ( Jenna Fischer ) name , and puts a great deal of effort into getting her the perfect gift ( a teapot filled with some small items and a personal letter from him to her ) . Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) buys a $ 400 video iPod as his gift to Ryan Howard ( B.J. Novak ) , far exceeding the $ 20 limit . He is disappointed by the handmade item he receives from Phyllis Lapin ( Phyllis Smith ) and introduces a " Yankee Swap " , in which someone can choose to steal someone else 's gift or open a new one .
Jim is left feeling uncertain about the fate of his special present for Pam — which is eventually claimed by Dwight — while the staff competes for the iPod . Although Pam ends up with the iPod at the end of the swap , she elects to trade the iPod for Jim 's gift that was meant for her to show her appreciation . While she goes through the various aspects of her gift , Jim sneaks the letter he wrote for her into his pocket .
After ruining his staff 's mood , Michael disobeys company policy by buying an obscene amount of alcohol for the Christmas party to compensate . Everyone ends up having a good time , with the exception of Angela Martin ( Angela Kinsey ) , who is furious that she received no appreciation for her efforts toward arranging the Christmas party , as well as the fact that Kelly makes advances on Dwight , whom Angela is secretly dating . The episode ends with a drunken Meredith Palmer ( Kate Flannery ) exposing herself to a shocked Michael , who takes a picture and then quickly flees .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
" Christmas Party " was written by Michael Schur , who portrays Mose Schrute in the series . The episode was his third contribution after the first season entry " The Alliance " and second season episode " Office Olympics " . B.J. Novak later noted that , compared to Schur 's previous episode " The Alliance " , the " driving force of the mayhem " in the episode is Michael 's desire to make all of his workers " happy " , rather than him being " a jerk " . The scene wherein Dwight plugs the Christmas tree in , only for the office to be underwhelmed by the dismal lights was based on a real moment Schur and his wife experienced during their first Christmas together . Schur based the Christmas party sequences on a scene in Rushmore that happens after the main character does his Vietnam play . He noted that he wanted it to be " pastiche @-@ y " and feature " small groups of people talking to each other " . Meredith flashing Michael was based on a real @-@ life experience Greg Daniels 's dad had at a former job ; at the end of one particular Christmas party , there was a stain on the office couch , which he called an " inappropriate ending " for the party . Daniels 's father kept pressuring him to make a Christmas episode of The Office , and so Daniels utilized this experience .
Daniels was unsure as to what to call the Christmas exchange . He had heard the names " Nasty Christmas " , " White Elephant " , and " Yankee Swap " used to describe the game , and so he wrote all three into the script in order " to cover all regions of the country " . Schur created a list of who receives what gift in order to preserve continuity in the episode . Gifts featured in the episode include Toby giving Angela a baby poster , Kelly getting Oscar a shower radio , Michael buying Ryan an iPod , Kevin buying a foot bath for himself , Creed giving Jim an old shirt , Oscar buying Creed a keychain , and Jim purchasing Pam a teapot . The teapot was chosen because it needed to fit other gifts inside of it , as well as be something that Dwight could have a use for later on in the episode . Fischer was allowed to pick the color of the teapot featured in the episode . She picked teal , due to it being her then @-@ husband James Gunn 's favorite color . Jenna Fischer recalled that fans always ask her what Jim wrote in Pam 's note . Fischer noted that John Krasinski wrote the note himself and that the contents are " a secret " . Jim finally gives Pam the note in the penultimate ninth season episode " A.A.R.M. "
Reportedly , the writers for the show wanted Michael to " give a cool gift that the show 's co @-@ workers would later resent " . They eventually decided that he would buy an iPod for Ryan . Apple Inc. received over four minutes of publicity for the device , despite the fact that the company did not pay for the placement . The poster that Toby gives to Angela was created by one of the show 's prop workers . Several of the series ' crew members brought in their own children for the picture , an act that Kate Flannery jokingly called " so great " . Schur revealed in the commentary for the episode that Stanley bought Kelly her nameplate , Dwight 's paintballs were intended for Phyllis , Meredith bought Dwight shot glasses , Ryan got Toby a book of short stories , Angela purchased Stanley a picture frame , and Pam drew Meredith a picture of the office . Pam 's picture was initially drawn by an on @-@ staff artist . However , the producers felt that he was not able to capture Pam 's " feminine side " and so several young female artists were asked to draw the building . One was eventually chosen , and the artists returned to draw Pam 's doodles in the later episode " Boys and Girls " .
= = = Directing = = =
The episode was directed by Charles McDougall , his first credit for the series . According to Kinsey , McDougal , in order to set the characters ' moods , would start every scene by saying " everyone happy , Angela pissed ! " McDougal sought to bring movement to the Secret Santa scene , due to it being a largely stationary sequence . The cold opening was shot four different times , and almost every time , the ceiling tile that Michael displaces with a tree " crashed through the ceiling and almost killed Steve Carell " . The scene wherein Angela starts crying when the Christmas party descends into chaos was based on a deleted scene from the earlier season two episode " The Fire " , where Angela starts crying during a talking head due to the stress of the situation . The scenes featuring snow were created by a company that specialized in producing fake snow . Daniels was initially worried that the shots would look fake , but he was pleased with the final results . According to Fischer , on the last day of shooting , the cast had a snowball fight — a scene that is included in the episode — which she called a " magic moment " . Fischer later recounted that the prop egg nog and pigs in a blanket were kept out for three straight days , an act that she felt was revolting . In order to make her scenes more real Phyllis Smith forced herself to cry for " 30 minutes " between takes . Many of the cast members asked her what was wrong , but Smith refused to speak to them , in order to stay in character . The series ' writers researched local Pennsylvania laws and discovered one that states a liquor salesman must wear a tie . Thus , the show features a liquor store worker wearing a tie . Several of the scenes were improvised on the spot . During the sequence where Angela angrily throws Christmas bulbs at a wall , Angela Kinsey was unable to get them to break , so she decided to stomp on them . Kate Flannery improvised her line about not drinking only during the week while she was filming her talking head .
During the flashing scene , Carell told Flannery that he " wasn 't staring at " her breasts , rather , he was looking at her clavicle . Despite what it appears on camera , Flannery was not completely topless , as she was wearing pasties . The scene was shot several times ; Flannery admitted that the shooting was excruiating and it felt like they had been shooting the one scene for " 14 hours " . To preserve Flannery 's modesty , the series ' monitors were shut off and the memory card for the digital camera was removed . Carell actually took pictures during the Christmas party shoot . All of the photos were released online .
The Season Two DVD contains a number of deleted scenes from this episode . Notable cut scenes include Oscar and Creed moving a desk , Phyllis confiding to the camera that her new boyfriend is Bob Vance , Dwight comparing humans opening presents to bears , Kevin singing " Christmas in Hollis " by Run DMC , Angela scolding Kelly , and Michael explaining that Christmas is about seeing people envy the gifts that you give to others .
= = Reception = =
" Christmas Party " originally aired on NBC in the United States on December 6 , 2005 . The episode received a 4 @.@ 3 rating / 10 percent share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . This means that it was seen by 3 @.@ 9 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 9 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . The episode was ranked number one in adults , men , and women in the 18 – 23 demographic and number one in all key adult male demographics as well . The episode was viewed by 9 @.@ 7 million viewers , making it , at the time , the highest @-@ rated episode of the season . An encore presentation of the episode on December 28 received a 3 @.@ 2 rating / 8 percent share and was viewed by over 6 @.@ 5 million viewers and was ranked number one in the adults 18 – 34 demographic .
The episode received largely positive reviews from television critics . M. Giant of Television Without Pity gave the episode an " A " grade . Matt Fowler of IGN named the episode the second @-@ best Christmas special of the series , calling it " a classic full of holiday cheer " with " one of the best comedic experiences ever " . The Cincinnati Post named the episode , and specifically the scene where Michael makes the office play " Yankee Swap , " one of the 2005 " Holiday Highlights " . In addition , the episode was nominated for two Primetime Emmy awards , one for Outstanding Single @-@ Camera Picture Editing for a Comedy Series , and one for Outstanding Writing for a Comedy Series .
Erik Adams of The A.V. Club awarded the episode an " A – " , and applauded its vignette @-@ style presentation , noting that this format " work [ s ] in the show ’ s favor . " He also applauded the characterization of Michael , writing that it allowed him to " indulge in some David Brent @-@ like behavior without it coming off as a lackluster impression or a bad shade on the show . " Ultimately , he positively commented upon the fact that the episode start The Office 's tradition of delivering usually strong Christmas @-@ themed episodes .
Several lines from the episode were met with critical praise . Fowler cited Michael 's line apologizing for Jesus ' birthday being " so lame " as the best in the episode . TV Fanatic reviewed several of the quotes for the episode . The site ranked Kevin 's admission that he got himself in secret santa , Dwight 's declaration that " Yankee Swap " is like " Machiavelli meets Christmas " , Michael 's explanation about the true meaning of Christmas , and Michael 's question about whether or not 15 bottles of vodka is enough " to get 20 people plastered " , a five out of five .
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= Scott Bacigalupo =
Scott S. Bacigalupo is a former lacrosse goaltender . He was a high school All @-@ American , four @-@ time collegiate United States Intercollegiate Lacrosse Association ( USILA ) All @-@ American , three @-@ time National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) goaltender of the year , two @-@ time NCAA tournament outstanding player and a national player of the year . Scott Bacigalupo starred as a member of the Princeton Tigers men 's lacrosse team from 1991 through 1994 where he helped them win their first two NCAA Men 's Lacrosse Championships and was inducted into the Lacrosse Museum and National Hall of Fame on October 30 , 2010 . Scott was selected to the NCAA Lacrosse Silver Anniversary team in 1995 . He was a four @-@ time All @-@ Ivy League ( three times first team ) selection . In his four @-@ year college career , Princeton won its first two NCAA tournament Championships , two Ivy League Championships and earned four NCAA Men 's Lacrosse Championship tournament invitations .
= = Background = =
Scott Bacigalupo was a high school All @-@ American at St. Paul 's of Brooklandville , Maryland .
= = College career = =
Bacigalupo started all 60 of Princeton 's games during his career from 1991 to 1994 . During those four years , Princeton posted a 52 – 8 record , including a 7 – 2 record in four NCAA tournament appearances . On five different occasions he recorded 15 or more saves in a NCAA Division I Men 's Lacrosse Championship tournament game , and the Tigers won the NCAA Division I Men 's Lacrosse Championship in both 1992 and 1994 . The 1992 and 1993 teams were undefeated 6 – 0 outright Ivy League champions .
Bacigalupo will be inducted into the Lacrosse Museum and National Hall of Fame on October 30 , 2010 . He is a three time winner of the Ensign C. Markland Kelly , Jr . Award ( 1992 , 1993 , 1994 ) as the NCAA 's best goaltender and a former Lt. Raymond Enners Award @-@ winner ( 1994 ) as the NCAA Division I lacrosse player of the year . He was a first team USILA All @-@ American Team selection in 1992 , 1993 , and 1994 and a second team selection in 1991 . In addition , he was a 1994 USILA Scholar All @-@ American . He was first team all @-@ Ivy League in 1991 , 1992 and 1993 and a second team selection in 1994 . His 732 career saves are 122 more than any other Princeton goaltender . Lacrosse Magazine named him to its All @-@ Century team and he participated in the 1994 North / South All @-@ Star Game .
During the 1992 NCAA Division I Men 's Lacrosse Championship game against Syracuse , Bacigalupo allowed Syracuse to tie the score when he lost a ball near his own goal , but he made a key save in the first overtime . The Tigers eventually won their first NCAA championship in the second overtime , and Bacigalupo was selected as the most outstanding player of the tournament . Bacigalupo also performed well in the 1993 NCAA Division I Men 's Lacrosse Championships and was again the most outstanding player during the 1994 NCAA Division I Men 's Lacrosse Championship tournament when the Tigers won the championship for a second time .
= = Professional career = =
After college , he took a Wall Street job with Merrill Lynch . Bacigalupo has not played professionally in either the National Lacrosse League or Major League Lacrosse .
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= Battle of Schliengen =
At the Battle of Schliengen ( 24 October 1796 ) , both the French Army of the Rhine and Moselle under the command of Jean @-@ Victor Moreau and the Austrian army under the command of Archduke Charles of Austria claimed victories . The village of Schliengen lies in the present @-@ day Kreis Lörrach close to the border of present @-@ day Baden @-@ Württemberg ( Germany ) , the Haut @-@ Rhin ( France ) , and the Canton of Basel @-@ Stadt ( Switzerland ) .
During the French Revolutionary Wars , Schliengen was a strategically important location for the armies of both Republican France and Habsburg Austria . Control of the area gave either combatant access to southwestern German states and important Rhine river crossings . On 20 October Moreau retreated from Freiburg im Breisgau and established his army along a ridge of hills . The severe condition of the roads prevented Archduke Charles from flanking the French right wing . The French left wing lay too close to the Rhine to outflank , and the French center , positioned in a 7 @-@ mile ( 11 km ) semi @-@ circle on heights that commanded the terrain below , was unassailable . Instead , he attacked the French flanks directly , and in force , which increased casualties for both sides .
Although the French and the Austrians claimed victory at the time , military historians generally agree that the Austrians achieved a strategic advantage . However , the French withdrew from the battlefield in good order and several days later crossed the Rhine River at Hüningen . A confusion of politics and diplomacy in Vienna wasted any strategic advantage that Charles might have obtained and locked the Habsburg force into two sieges on the Rhine , when the troops were badly needed in northern Italy . The battle is commemorated on a monument in Vienna and on the Arc de Triomphe in Paris .
= = Background = =
Initially , the rulers of Europe viewed the French Revolution as a dispute between the French king and his subjects , and not something in which they should interfere . As revolutionary rhetoric grew more strident , they declared the interest of the monarchs of Europe as one with the interests of Louis XVI and his family ; this Declaration of Pilnitz ( 27 August 1791 ) threatened ambiguous , but quite serious , consequences if anything should happen to the royal family . The position of the revolutionaries became increasingly difficult . Compounding their problems in international relations , French émigrés continued to agitate for support of a counter @-@ revolution . Finally , on 20 April 1792 , the French National Convention declared war on Austria . In this War of the First Coalition ( 1792 – 98 ) , France ranged itself against most of the European states sharing land or water borders with her , plus Portugal and the Ottoman Empire . Despite some victories in 1792 , by early 1793 , France was in terrible crisis : French forces had been pushed out of Belgium ; also there was revolt in the Vendée over conscription ; wide @-@ spread resentment of the Civil Constitution of the Clergy ; and the French king had just been executed . The armies of the French Republic were in a state of disruption ; the problems became even more acute following the introduction of mass conscription , the levée en masse , which saturated an already distressed army with thousands of illiterate , untrained men . For the French , the Rhine Campaign of 1795 proved especially disastrous , although they had achieved some success in other theaters of war ( see for example , War of the Pyrenees ( 1793 – 95 ) ) .
= = = Campaign in 1796 = = =
The armies of the First Coalition included the imperial contingents and the infantry and cavalry of the various states , amounting to about 125 @,@ 000 ( including three autonomous corps ) , a sizable force by eighteenth century standards but a moderate force by the standards of the Revolutionary wars . In total , though , the commander @-@ in @-@ chief Archduke Charles ' troops stretched from Switzerland to the North Sea and Dagobert Sigmund von Wurmser 's , from the Swiss @-@ Italian border to the Adriatic . Habsburg troops comprised the bulk of the army , but the thin white line of Habsburg infantry could not cover the territory from Basel to Frankfurt with sufficient depth to resist the pressure of their opponents . Compared to French coverage , Charles had half the number of troops covering a 211 @-@ mile ( 340 km ) front that stretched from Renchen near Basel to Bingen . Furthermore , he had concentrated the bulk of his force , commanded by Count Baillet Latour , between Karlsruhe and Darmstadt , where the confluence of the Rhine and the Main made an attack most likely , as it offered a gateway into eastern German states and ultimately to Vienna , with good bridges crossing a relatively well @-@ defined river bank . To his north , Wilhelm von Wartensleben 's autonomous corps covered the line between Mainz and Giessen . The Austrian army consisted of professionals , many moved from the border regions in the Balkans , and conscripts drafted from the imperial circles .
Two French generals , Jean Baptiste Jourdan and Jean Victor Moreau , commanded ( respectively ) the Army of Sambre @-@ et @-@ Meuse and the Army of the Rhine and Moselle at the outset of the 1796 campaign . The French citizens ' army , created by mass conscription of young men and systematically divested of old men who might have tempered the rash impulses of teenagers and young adults , and had already made itself odious , by reputation and rumor at least , throughout France . Furthermore , it was an army entirely dependent upon the countryside for its material support . After April 1796 , pay was made in metallic value , but pay was still in arrears . Throughout the spring and early summer , the unpaid French army was in almost constant mutiny : in May 1796 , in the border town of Zweibrücken , the 74th Demi @-@ brigade revolted . In June , the 17th Demi @-@ brigade was insubordinate ( frequently ) and in the 84th Demi @-@ brigade , two companies rebelled . The French commanders understood that an assault into the German states was essential , not only in terms of war aims , but also in practical terms : the French Directory believed that war should pay for itself , and did not budget for the payment or feeding of its troops .
In Spring , 1796 , when resumption of war appeared eminent , the 88 members of the Swabian Circle , which included most of the states ( ecclesiastical , secular , and dynastic ) in Upper Swabia , had raised a small force of about 7 @,@ 000 men . These were literally raw recruits , field hands and day laborers drafted for service , but usually untrained in military matters . It was largely guess work where they should be placed , and Charles did not like to use the militias in any vital location . Consequently , in early late May and early June , when the French started to mass troops by Mainz as if they would cross there — they even engaged the Imperial force at Altenkirchen ( 4 June ) and Wetzler and Uckerath ( 15 June ) — Charles thought that main attack would occur there and felt few qualms placing the 7 @,@ 000 @-@ man Swabian militia at the crossing by Kehl . On 24 June , though , at Kehl , Moreau 's advance guard , 10 @,@ 000 , preceded the main force of 27 @,@ 000 infantry and 3 @,@ 000 cavalry directed at the Swabian pickets on the bridge . The Swabians were hopelessly outnumbered and could not be reinforced . Most of the Imperial Army of the Rhine was stationed further north , by Mannheim , where the river was easier to cross , but too far away to support the smaller force at Kehl . Neither the Condé 's troops in Freiburg nor Karl Aloys zu Fürstenberg 's force in Rastatt could reach Kehl in time to support them . Within a day , Moreau had four divisions across the river . Thrust out of Kehl , the Swabian contingent reformed at Rastatt by 5 July . There they managed to hold the city until the French turned both flanks . Charles could not move much of his army away from Mannheim or Karlsruhe , where the French had also formed across the river , and Fürstenberg could not hold the southern flank . Furthermore , at Hüningen , near Basel , on the same day that Moreau 's advance guard crossed at Kehl , Ferino executed a full crossing , and advanced unopposed east along the German shore of the Rhine with the 16th and 50th Demi @-@ brigades , the 68th , 50th and 68th line infantry , and six squadrons of cavalry that included the 3rd and 7th Hussars and the 10th Dragoons .
The Habsburg and Imperial armies were in danger of encirclement , as the French pressed hard at Rastatt . Ferino moved quickly east along the shore of the Rhine ; from there , an approach from the rear might have flanked the entire force . To prevent this , Charles executed an orderly withdrawal in four columns through the Black Forest , across the Upper Danube valley , and toward Bavaria , trying to maintain consistent contact with all flanks as each column withdrew through the Black Forest and the Upper Danube . By mid @-@ July , the column encamped near Stuttgart . The third column , which included the Condé 's Corps , retreated through Waldsee to Stockach , and eventually Ravensburg . The fourth Austrian column , the smallest ( three battalions and four squadrons ) , Ludwig Wolff de la Marselle , marched the length of the Bodensee 's northern shore , via Überlingen , Meersburg , Buchhorn , and the Austrian city of Bregenz .
Given the size of the attacking force , Charles had to withdraw far enough into Bavaria to align his northern flank in a perpendicular line with Wartensleben 's autonomous corps to protect the Danube valley and deny the French primary access to Vienna . His own front would prevent Moreau from flanking Wartensleben from the south and together they could resist the French onslaught . In the course of this withdrawal , he abandoned the Swabian Circle to the French . For the Swabians to negotiate neutrality , their militia needed to disband . At the end of July , eight thousand of Charles ' men executed a dawn attack on the camp of the remaining three thousand Swabian and Condé 's immigrant troops , disarmed them , and impounded their weapons . As Charles withdrew further east , the neutral zone established in Swabia expanded , eventually to encompass most of southern German states and the Ernestine Duchies .
= = = Summer of maneuvers = = =
The summer and fall included various conflicts throughout the southern territories of the German states as the armies of the Coalition and the armies of the Directory sought to flank each other :
By mid @-@ summer , the situation looked grim for the Coalition : Wartensleben continued to withdraw to the east @-@ northeast despite Charles ' orders to unite with him . It appeared probable that Jourdan or Moreau would outmaneuver Charles by driving a wedge between his force and that of Wartensleben . At Neresheim on 11 August , Moreau crushed Charles ' force , forcing him to withdraw further east . At last , however , with this loss , Wartensleben recognized the danger and changed direction , moving his corps to join at Charles ' northern flank . At Amberg on 24 August , Charles inflicted a defeat on the French , yet that same day , his commanders lost a battle to the French at Friedberg . Regardless , the tide had turned in the Coalition 's favor . Both Jourdan and Moreau had overstretched their lines , moving far into the German states , and were separated too far from each other for one to offer the other aid or security . The Coalition 's concentration of troops forced a wider wedge between the two armies of Jourdan and Moreau , similar to what the French had tried to do to Charles and Wartensleben . As the French withdrew toward the Rhine , Charles and Wartensleben pressed forward . On 3 September at Würzburg , Jourdan attempted to halt his retreat . Once Moreau received word of the French defeat , he had to withdraw from southern Germany . He pulled his troops back through the Black Forest , with Ferino supervising the rear guard . The Austrian corps commanded by Latour drew too close to Moreau at Biberach and lost 4 @,@ 000 men taken as prisoners , some standards and artillery , after which Latour followed at a more prudent distance .
= = Terrain = =
The Rhine River flows west along the border between the German states and the Swiss Cantons . The High Rhine ( Hochrhein ) , the 80 @-@ mile ( 130 km ) stretch between the Rhine Falls near Schaffhausen and Basel , cuts through steep hillsides over a gravel bed ; in such places as the former rapids at Laufenburg , it moves in torrents . A few miles north and east of Basel , the terrain flattens . The Rhine makes a wide , northerly turn , in what is called the Rhine knee , and enters the so @-@ called Rhine ditch ( Rheingraben ) , part of a rift valley bordered by the Black Forest on the east and Vosges Mountains on the west . In 1796 , the plain on both sides of the river , some 19 miles ( 31 km ) wide , was dotted with villages and farms . At the farthest edges of the flood plain , especially on the eastern side , the old mountains created dark shadows on the horizon . Tributaries cut through the hilly terrain of the Black Forest , creating deep defiles in the mountains . The tributaries then wound in rivulets through the flood plain to the river .
The landscape was impressive , but rugged . As a nineteenth @-@ century traveler described it ,
the mountains in the vicinity [ of Müllheim ] are bold ; the dark ravines contrasting with its sunny fronts offer some exquisite scenes . The Rhine ... lay revealed before us for many a league , twisting and twining like a serpent of silver ... dotted with innumerable islands , and flowing through a most extensive plain , perfectly flat . Our elevation was considerable and the eye ranged over a great extent of country : Elsace [ sic ] , in France , and the level country as far as Bingen , would have been seen to their furthest limits had not the distance melted the extreme verges into ' thin air ' . Many were the villages , and hamlets , and woods sprinkled over the landscape ....
The traveler described additional walks , in which the forest of dark pine bordered directly on the road , " checquered [ sic ] by glades in which browsed sheep and goats . "
The Rhine River itself looked different in the 1790s than it does today ; the passage from Basel to Iffezheim was " corrected " ( straightened ) between 1817 and 1875 . Between 1927 and 1975 , a canal was constructed to control the water level . In 1790 , though , the river was wild and unpredictable , in some places four times wider or more than it is in the twenty @-@ first century , even under regular water levels . Its channels wound through marsh and meadow , and created islands of trees and vegetation that were periodically submerged by floods .
= = Battle = =
= = = Key participants = = =
= = = Preliminaries to the action at Schliengen = = =
Throughout September and early October , Charles maintained his pressure on Moreau 's army , pushing it further to the west . On 18 September , part of an Austrian division under Feldmarschall @-@ Leutnant Petrasch swept from Karlsruhe , south to Kehl and stormed the Rhine bridgehead there ; he succeeded in holding it , with high losses ( about 2 @,@ 000 of his 5 @,@ 000 men were killed , wounded or missing ) . Immediately , though , General Schauenburg , the French garrison commander , counter @-@ attacked and drove the Austrians back ; the French lost 1 @,@ 200 killed or wounded , and 800 captured . Even though the French still held the crossing at Kehl and Strasbourg , Petrasch 's Austrians prevented Moreau from using the crossing to escape to France , leaving as his only reliable route to France the bridge at Hüningen . If Moreau , at that point situated in Freiburg , withdrew too soon from the Breisgau , Pierre Marie Barthélemy Ferino ' s column would be trapped there .
The next contact occurred on 19 October at Emmendingen , in the Elz valley which winds through the Black Forest . The section of the valley involved in the battle runs southwest through the mountains from Elzach , through Bleibach and Waldkirch . Just to the southwest of Waldkirch , the river emerges from the mountains and flows north @-@ west towards the Rhine , with the Black Forest to its right . This section of the river passes through Emmendingen before it reaches Riegel . Riegel sits in a narrow gap between the Black Forest and an isolated outcropping of volcanic hills known as the Kaiserstuhl . Here the archduke split his force into four columns .
Column Nauendorf , in the upper Elz , had 8 battalions and 14 squadrons , advancing southwest to Waldkirch ; column Wartensleben had 12 battalions and 23 squadrons advancing south to capture the Elz bridge at Emmendingen . Latour , with 6 @,@ 000 men , was to cross the foothills via Heimbach and Malterdingen , and capture the bridge of Köndringen , between Riegel and Emmendingen , and column Fürstenberg held Kinzingen , about 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) north of Riegel . Michael Fröhlich and Condé ( part of Friedrich Joseph , Count of Nauendorf 's column ) were to pin down Ferino and the French right wing in the Stieg valley . Nauendorf 's men were able to ambush Saint ' Cyr 's advance ; Latour 's columns attacked Beaupuy at Matterdingen , killing the general and throwing his column into confusion . Wartensleben , in the center , was held up by French riflemen until his third ( reserve ) detachment arrived to outflank them . In the ensuing melee , Wartensleben was mortally wounded . The French retreated across the rivers , destroying all the bridges .
Lack of bridges did not slow the Coalition pursuit . The Austrians repaired the bridges by Matterdingen , and moved on Moreau at Freiburg . On 20 October , Moreau 's army of 20 @,@ 000 united south of Freiburg im Breisgau with Ferino 's column . Ferino 's force was smaller than Moreau had hoped , bringing the total of the combined French force to about 32 @,@ 000 . Charles ' combined forces of 24 @,@ 000 closely followed Moreau 's rear guard from Freiburg , southwest , to a line of hills stretching between Kandern and the river .
= = = French dispositions = = =
After a retreat of approximately 38 miles ( 61 km ) in which his rear guard was continually harassed by the vanguard of his enemy , Moreau halted at Schliengen and distributed his army in a 7 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 12 km ) semicircle along a ridge that commanded the approaches from Freiburg . He placed his right wing , commanded by Ferino , at the neighboring heights of Kandern ( altitude 1 @,@ 155 feet ( 352 m ) ) and Sitzenkirch , and his left wing at Steinstadt . His center occupied the village of Schliengen ( altitude 820 feet or 250 meters ) , which lay about 3 miles ( 5 km ) from the Rhine river . His entire force guarded a front protected by a small stream , the 14 @-@ mile ( 23 km ) long Kander that meandered out of the mountains west of Kandern and plunged 755 feet ( 230 m ) into the Rhine when it passed Steinstadt . For extra protection , Moreau also posted a body of infantry in front of his center , giving it added depth . His position on the heights gave him the advantage in any approach ; his troops could fire downhill on any advancing troops . The French position , in the chain of abrupt and woody heights , seemed nearly impregnable .
= = = Austrian strategy = = =
The Austrian army , augmented by the Army of Condé under the prince 's command , approached from Freiburg . Charles had a couple of options open to him . Any direct assault on the French position would be costly ; Moreau had chosen an almost unassailable position , especially for his center . Any Habsburg force would have to cross the Kandern ; in most cases , it would have to advance uphill into withering fire . Charles could avoid a battle by leaving a force to keep the French occupied and directing a part of his army through the mountains to the left of the Kandern , descending into the valley to Wies and disrupt the French line with Hüningen . However , this operation would take time , and the roads were bad from the rain , making any such maneuver difficult .
Rather than see his enemy slip from his grasp , Charles decided to turn Moreau 's right flank at Kandern . He redistributed the four columns : Condé 's Emigré Corps formed the far right column , and Condé 's grandson , Louis Antoine , Duke of Enghien , commanded its vanguard ; the second column , commanded by the young but reliable Karl Aloys zu Fürstenberg , included 9 battalions and 26 squadrons . Charles ordered the first two columns to keep the left wing of the French army in check , preventing it from swinging around his own army 's rear in a flanking maneuver . This force also maintained contact with Petrasch 's force by Kehl .
The third column , commanded by the experienced Maximilian Anton Karl , Count Baillet de Latour , included 11 battalions and 2 regiments of cavalry . The fourth , commanded by the dependable Friedrich Joseph , Count of Nauendorf , included the entire vanguard of Charles ' corps and approached on the far Austrian left . The two larger columns , under Latour and Nauendorf , were to attack the French right wing in force , and to turn it so that the French army 's back was to the Rhine . This was by far the most grueling of the proposed advances : they would approach the French uphill from them . Nauendorf divided his column into several smaller groups , and approached Kandern from several sides , up the steep slopes , by coordinating contact between his column and Latour 's , using Maximilian , Count of Merveldt 's regiment as the link between them .
= = = Combat = = =
Condé 's Corps formed down river at Neuburg and Karl Aloys zu Fürstenberg 's column formed at Müllheim . Their role was specific : keep the French left from flanking the main Austrian force . Yet , despite specific orders to the contrary , the Duke of Enghien , Condé 's grandson , led a spirited attack on Steinstadt with the Army of Condé ; they took the village with a bayonet charge and remained there under severe artillery and musket fire for the rest of the daylight hours . Republican fire continued , incessant and terrible . An officer was killed as he stood between the Royal Highnesses ( Condé , his son , and grandson ) and the Duke of Berry . Taking advantage of the royalist acquisition , the second column took the hill opposite Schliengen , which was heavily defended by General of Division Gouvion Saint @-@ Cyr . Saint @-@ Cyr tried several times to retake the position , but Fürstenberg 's column clung to its prize throughout the day , despite a heavy cannonade from the French divisions opposite it .
On the opposite side of the battlefield , Latour 's column marched through part of the night to Feldburg , passed through Vögisheim at 47 ° 47 ′ N 7 ° 37 ′ E to Feldberg , after which it separated into two smaller columns . At 07 : 00 , the right column attacked Ferino 's positions in two vineyards which lay approximately 6 miles ( 10 km ) to the northeast at 47 ° 46 ′ 0 @.@ 12 ″ N 7 ° 39 ′ 0 @.@ 00 ″ E. This column forced the French to retire behind Liel at 47 ° 45 ′ N 7 ° 36 ′ E , 0 @.@ 8 miles ( 1 km ) east of Schliengen . The left column , meanwhile , had attacked another position by Egennen . After fierce fighting , Latour 's column dislodged the French after obstinate resistance ; the second portion of Latour 's column approached the hamlet Eckenheim from the reverse angle , and forced a French contingent from the village . Grueling combat followed as the Austrians made the steep , uphill advance .
The greater part of the battle , yet to come , fell to Nauendorf 's column . His men had marched all of the preceding night ; his column moved with the corps of General Latour to Feldburg , but by the castle of Bürgeln 3 @.@ 9 miles ( 6 km ) to the east at 47 ° 44 ′ 0 ″ N 7 ° 49 ′ 0 ″ E , it turned to the left ( west ) to penetrate to the source of the Kandern stream . Finally , by 14 : 00 , two in the afternoon , Nauendorf 's column had slogged through mud and muck and came fully into the action . Despite determined opposition , his troops ousted the French from Kandern and Sitzenkirch , and all the high ground above the river and Feurbach . The fighting there , between Ferino 's and Nauendorf 's columns , was intense and horrific : Moreau later recounted that Ferino 's troops performed " prodigies of valor " from daybreak to nightfall . When Nauendorf finished pushing the French from Kandern , and two hamlets beside it , and he sent a note with this information to Latour . As the battle finished , a ferocious storm unleashed hail and wind . So ended the first day of the battle during which Charles ' army had successfully ousted both French flanks from their positions . Overnight , Charles drew up his plans to attack the French center on the following morning . It promised to be a long and bloody second day .
= = = Withdrawal = = =
Moreau appreciated his untenable position , especially on his right where the bulk of Charles ' force stood ready to attack again in the morning . The Austrian army occupied a line which passed obliquely across the extremity of his right , and another line which passed along his left ; they both intersected in front of him , where the main force of Charles ' army blocked any movement forward . With luck , his troops might hold the Austrians off another day , but there were hazards : principally , the Austrians could break either wing , swing behind him and cut him off from the bridge at Hüningen , which was his only escape route back to France . Consequently , that night he withdrew his right wing to the heights of Tannenkirch at 47 ° 43 ′ N 7 ° 37 ′ E , a position scarcely less impregnable than that which it had abandoned . With a strong rear guard provided by Abbatucci and Lariboisière , he abandoned his position the same night and retreated part of the 9 @.@ 7 miles ( 16 km ) to Hüningen . The right and left wings followed . By 3 November he had reached Haltingen and evacuated his troops over the bridge into France .
= = Aftermath = =
With their backs to the river , Ferino and Moreau had to retreat across the Rhine into France , but retained control of the fortifications at Kehl and Hüningen and , more importantly , the tête @-@ du @-@ ponts of the star @-@ shaped fortresses where the bridges crossed the river . Moreau offered an armistice to Charles , which the archduke was inclined to accept . He wanted to secure the Rhine crossings and send troops to northern Italy to relieve Dagobert Sigmund von Wurmser at besieged Mantua ; an armistice with Moreau would allow him to do that . However , his brother , Francis II , the Holy Roman Emperor , and the civilian military advisers of the Aulic Council categorically refused such an armistice , forcing Charles to order simultaneous sieges at Kehl and Hüningen . These tied his army to the Rhine for most of the winter . He moved north with the bulk of his force to invest Kehl , and instructed Karl Aloys zu Fürstenberg to conduct the siege in the south by Basel . While the Austrians besieged these Rhine crossings , Moreau had sufficient surplus troops to send 14 demi @-@ brigades ( approximately 12 @,@ 000 troops ) into Italy to assist in the siege at Mantua .
There are three general sources of Singapore law : legislation , judicial precedents ( case law ) , and custom .
Legislation is divided into statutes and subsidiary legislation . Statutes are written laws enacted by the Singapore Parliament , as well as by other bodies that had power to pass laws for Singapore in the past . Statutes enacted by these other bodies may still be in force if they have not been repealed . One particularly important statute is the Constitution of the Republic of Singapore , which is the supreme law of Singapore . Any law the Legislature enacts after the commencement of the Constitution that is inconsistent with it is , to the extent of the inconsistency , void . Subsidiary legislation , also known as " delegated legislation " or " subordinate legislation " , is written law made by ministers or other administrative agencies such as government departments and statutory boards under the authority of a statute ( often called its " parent Act " ) or other lawful authority , and not directly by Parliament .
As Singapore is a common law jurisdiction , judgments handed down by the courts are considered a source of law . Judgments may interpret statutes or subsidiary legislation , or develop principles of common law and equity laid down , not by the legislature , but by previous generations of judges . Major portions of Singapore law , particularly contract law , equity and trust law , property law and tort law , are largely judge @-@ made , though certain aspects have now been modified to some extent by statutes .
A custom is an established practice or course of behaviour that is regarded by the persons engaged in the practice as law . Customs do not have the force of law unless they are recognized in a case . " Legal " or " trade " customs are not given recognition as law unless they are certain and not unreasonable or illegal . In Singapore , custom is a minor source of law as not many customs have been given judicial recognition .
= = Legislation = =
Legislation , or statutory law , can be divided into statutes and subsidiary legislation .
= = = Statutes = = =
Statutes are written laws enacted by the Singapore Parliament , as well as by other bodies such as the British Parliament , Governor @-@ General of India in Council and Legislative Council of the Straits Settlements , which had power to pass laws for Singapore in the past . Statutes enacted by these other bodies may still be in force if they have not been repealed . One particularly important statute is the Constitution of the Republic of Singapore , which is the supreme law of Singapore . Any law the Legislature enacts after the commencement of the Constitution that is inconsistent with it is , to the extent of the inconsistency , void . Statutes of the Singapore Parliament , as well as English statutes in force in Singapore by virtue of the Application of English Law Act 1993 , are published in looseleaf form in a series called the Statutes of the Republic of Singapore , which is gathered in red binders , and are also accessible on @-@ line from Singapore Statutes Online , a free service provided by the Attorney @-@ General 's Chambers of Singapore .
Most statutes , apart from amending Acts and certain Acts such as Supply Acts , are assigned chapter numbers ( the word " chapter " is usually abbreviated " Cap . " ) . Revised editions ( abbreviated " Rev. Ed . " ) of statutes that consolidate all amendments to statutes within certain periods of time are published regularly .
= = = = Passage of bills through Parliament = = = =
A statute of the Singapore Parliament begins its life as a bill , which is usually introduced in Parliament by a government minister . In practice , most legislation is initiated by the Cabinet , either acting on its own or on the advice of senior civil servants . Bills go through the following stages in Parliament :
The introduction and first reading .
The second reading .
The committee stage .
The third reading .
At the first reading , the bill is introduced into Parliament , usually by the responsible minister . No debate on the bill takes place . The bill is considered has having been read after the MP introducing it has read aloud its long title and laid a copy of it on the Table of the House , and the Clerk of Parliament has read out its short title . Copies of the bill are then distributed to MPs , and it is published in the Government Gazette for the public 's information . The bill is then scheduled for its second reading . If a bill makes substantial , and not merely incidental , provision for :
imposing or increasing any tax or abolishing , reducing or remitting any existing tax ;
the borrowing of money , or the giving of any guarantee , by the Government , or the amendment of the law relating to the financial obligations of the Government ;
the custody of the Consolidated Fund , the charging of any money on the Consolidated Fund or the abolition or alteration of any such charge ;
the payment of money into the Consolidated Fund or the payment , issue or withdrawal from the Consolidated Fund of any money not charged on it , or any increase in the amount of such a payment , issue or withdrawal ; or
the receipt of any money on account of the Consolidated Fund or the custody or issue of such money ,
the Minister for Finance must signify that the President has recommended the introduction of the bill , otherwise it may not be introduced in Parliament .
On the second reading , the minister responsible for moving the bill usually makes a speech explaining the objects and reasons behind the bill . The general merits and principles of the bill are then debated .
The bill then proceeds to the committee stage , where the details of the drafting of the proposed law are examined . Where a bill is relatively uncontroversial , it is referred to a committee of the whole Parliament ; in other words , all the MPs attending the sitting form a committee and discuss the bill clause by clause . Bills that are more controversial , or that require the views of interested groups or the public , are often referred to a select committee . This is a committee of selected MPs who invite interested people to make representations to the committee . Public hearings to hear submissions on the bill may be held . The select committee then reports its findings , together with any suggested amendments to the bill , to Parliament .
The bill then goes through a third reading . At this stage , only amendments not of a material character may be made to the bill . The minister moving the third reading may also make a speech outlining the changes made to the bill . The bill is then put to the vote . In most cases , a simple majority of Parliament is all that is needed for the bill to be approved . However , bills seeking to amend the Constitution must be carried by a special majority : not less than two @-@ thirds of all MPs on the second and third readings .
= = = = Scrutiny of bills by the Presidential Council for Minority Rights = = = =
Once most bills have been passed by Parliament , they must be submitted to a non @-@ elected advisory body called the Presidential Council for Minority Rights ( PCMR ) . The PCMR 's responsibility is to draw attention to any legislation that , in its opinion , is a " differentiating measure " , that is , one that discriminates against any racial or religious community . When the Council makes a favourable report or no report within the time prescribed ( in which case the bill is conclusively presumed not to contain any differentiating measures ) , the bill is presented to the President for assent .
If the PCMR submits an adverse report , Parliament can either make amendments to the bill and resubmit it to the Council for approval , or decide to present the bill for the President 's assent nonetheless provided that a Parliamentary motion for such action has been passed by at least two @-@ thirds of all MPs . The PCMR has not rendered any adverse reports since it was set up in 1970 .
Three types of bills need not be submitted to the PCMR :
Money Bills ;
Bills the Prime Minister certifies as affecting the defence or security of Singapore , or that relate to public safety , peace or good order in Singapore
Bills the Prime Minister certifies are so urgent that it is not in the public interest to delay enactment
= = = = Assent to bills by the President = = = =
The President generally exercises his constitutional function of assenting to bills in accordance with Cabinet 's advice and does not act in his personal discretion . Therefore , except in certain instances described below , he may not refuse to assent to bills that have been validly passed by Parliament . The words of enactment in Singapore statutes are : " Be it enacted by the President with the advice and consent of the Parliament of Singapore , as follows : " .
The President may act in his discretion in withholding assent to any of the following types of bills passed by Parliament :
A bill seeking to amend the Constitution that provides , directly or indirectly , for the circumvention or curtailment of the discretionary powers conferred upon the President by the Constitution .
A bill not seeking to amend the Constitution that provides , directly or indirectly , for the circumvention or curtailment of the discretionary powers conferred upon the President by the Constitution .
A bill that provides , directly or indirectly , for varying , changing or increasing the powers of the Central Provident Fund Board to invest the moneys belonging to the Central Provident Fund .
A bill providing , directly or indirectly , for the borrowing of money , the giving of any guarantee or the raising of any loan by the Government if , in the opinion of the President , the bill is likely to draw on reserves of the Government that the Government did not accumulate in its current term of office .
A Supply Bill , Supplementary Supply Bill or Final Supply Bill for any financial year if , in the President 's opinion , the estimates of revenue and expenditure for that year , the supplementary estimates or the statement of excess , as the case may be , are likely to lead to a drawing on the reserves that were not accumulated by the Government during its current term of office .
As regards a bill mentioned in paragraph 1 , the President , acting in accordance with the advice of the Cabinet , may refer to a Constitutional Tribunal the question of whether the bill circumvents or curtails the discretionary powers conferred on him or her by the Constitution . If the Tribunal is of the opinion that the bill does not have this effect , the President is deemed to have assented to the bill on the day after the day when the Tribunal 's opinion is pronounced in open court . On the other hand , if the Tribunal feels that the bill does have the circumventing or curtailing effect , and the President either has withheld or withholds his assent to the bill , the Prime Minister may direct that the bill be submitted to the electors for a national referendum . In that case , the bill only becomes law if it is supported by not less than two @-@ thirds of the total number of votes cast at the referendum . If 30 days have expired after a bill has been presented to the President for assent and he or she has neither signified the withholding of assent nor referred the Bill to a Constitutional Tribunal , the bill is deemed to have been assented to on the day following the expiry of the 30 @-@ day period . The procedure is similar for a bill mentioned in paragraph 2 , except that if the Constitutional Tribunal rules that the bill has a circumventing or curtailing effect , the Prime Minister has no power to put the bill to a referendum . This ensures that changes to the President 's discretionary powers can only be made by way of constitutional amendments and not ordinary statutes .
If the President withholds his assent to any Supply Bill , Supplementary Supply Bill or Final Supply Bill referred to in paragraph 5 contrary to the recommendation of the Council of Presidential Advisers , Parliament may by resolution passed by not less than two @-@ thirds of the total number of elected MPs overrule the decision of the President . If Parliament does not do so within 30 days of the withholding of assent , it may authorize expenditure or supplementary expenditure , from the Consolidated Fund and Development Fund during the relevant financial year , provided that :
where the President withholds his assent to a Supply Bill , the expenditure so authorized for any service or purpose for that financial year cannot exceed the total amount appropriated for that service or purpose in the preceding financial year ; or
where the President withholds his assent to a Supplementary Supply Bill or Final Supply Bill , the expenditure so authorized for any service or purpose shall not exceed the amount necessary to replace an amount advanced from any Contingencies Fund under Article 148C ( 1 ) of the Constitution for that service or purpose .
If 30 days have passed after a Supply Bill , Supplementary Supply Bill or Final Supply Bill has been presented to the President for assent and her or she has not signified the withholding of assent , the President is deemed to have assented to the bill on the day immediately following the expiration of the 30 @-@ day period .
Upon receiving presidential assent , a bill becomes law and is known as an Act of Parliament . However , the Act only comes into force on the date of its publication in the Government Gazette , or on such other date that is stipulated by the Act or another law , or a notification made under a law .
= = = = Examples of statutes = = = =
The Application of English Law Act sets out the extent to which English law applies in Singapore today .
Under section 17 ( 1 ) of the Environmental Public Health Act , it is an offence to :
( a ) deposit , drop , place or throw any dust , dirt , paper , ash , carcase , refuse , box , barrel , bale or any other article or thing in any public place ;
( b ) keep or leave any article or thing in any place where it or particles therefrom have passed or are likely to pass into any public place ;
( c ) dry any article of food or any other article or thing in any public place ;
( d ) place , scatter , spill or throw any blood , brine , noxious liquid , swill or any other offensive or filthy matter of any kind in such manner as to run or fall into any public place ;
( e ) beat , clean , shake , sieve or otherwise agitate any ash , hair , feathers , lime , sand , waste paper or other substance in such manner that it is carried or likely to be carried by the wind to any public place ;
( f ) throw or leave behind any bottle , can , food container , food wrapper , glass , particles of food or any other article or thing in any public place ;
( g ) spit any substance or expel mucus from the nose upon or onto any street or any public place ; or
( h ) discard or abandon in any public place any motor vehicle whose registration has been cancelled under section 27 of the Road Traffic Act , any furniture or any other bulky article .
The penalty is a fine not exceeding S $ 5 @,@ 000 and , in the case of a second or subsequent conviction , a fine not exceeding $ 10 @,@ 000 or to imprisonment for a term not exceeding three months or both . In addition , where a person who is 16 years of age or above is convicted of an offence under section 17 , and if the court by or before which he is convicted is satisfied that it is expedient with a view to his reformation and the protection of the environment and environmental public health that he should be required to perform unpaid work in relation to the cleaning of any premises , the Court shall , in lieu of or in addition to any other order , punishment or sentence and unless it has special reasons for not so doing , make a corrective work order requiring him to perform such work under the supervision of a supervision officer .
The Maintenance of Religious Harmony Act , among other things , authorises the making of restraining orders against officials or members of religious groups or institutions who have committed or are attempting to commit any of the following acts :
( a ) causing feelings of enmity , hatred , ill @-@ will or hostility between different religious groups ;
( b ) carrying out activities to promote a political cause , or a cause of any political party while , or under the guise of , propagating or practising any religious belief ;
( c ) carrying out subversive activities under the guise of propagating or practising any religious belief ; or
( d ) exciting disaffection against the President or the Government while , or under the guise of , propagating or practising any religious belief .
Under section 27A ( 1 ) of the Miscellaneous Offences ( Public Order and Nuisance ) Act , it is an offence to appears nude in a public place , or in a private place and is exposed to public view . The penalty is a fine not exceeding $ 2 @,@ 000 or imprisonment for a term not exceeding three months or both . The reference in sub @-@ section ( 1 ) to a person appearing nude includes a person who is clad in such a manner as to offend against public decency or order .
The Penal Code states the elements and penalties of common criminal offences such as homicide , theft and cheating , and also sets out general principles of criminal law in Singapore .
The Sale of Goods Act , an English Act made applicable to Singapore by the Application of English Law Act , sets out legal rules relating to the sale and purchase of goods .
The Women 's Charter sets out the law relating to marriage , divorce and separation , family violence , and the protection of women and girls .
= = = Subsidiary legislation = = =
Subsidiary legislation , also known as " delegated legislation " or " subordinate legislation " , is written law made by ministers or other administrative agencies such as government departments and statutory boards under the authority of a statute ( often called its " parent Act " ) or other lawful authority , and not directly by Parliament . Although there is no general requirement ( as there is in the United Kingdom ) for subsidiary legislation to be laid before Parliament for its information , this is usually done in Singapore .
Subsidiary legislation is known by a variety of names . Section 2 ( 1 ) of the Interpretation Act defines " subsidiary legislation " as meaning " any order in council , proclamation , rule , regulation , order , notification , by @-@ law or other instrument made under any Act , Ordinance or other lawful authority and having legislative effect " .
An Order in Council is a law made directly by the British Crown in the exercise of its prerogative law @-@ making power it previously possessed in respect of Singapore . Orders @-@ in @-@ council are made only on the advice of ministers , and operate subject to provisions made by or under any Act of Parliament .
A proclamation is an announcement made by or under the authority of the Crown .
Rules are generally legal instruments such as Rules of Court that regulate judicial or other procedure .
Regulations are legal instruments implementing the substantive content of Acts of Parliament that have a continuing regulating effect .
An order is a legal instrument that has an executive flavour and expresses an obvious command . Often , its effect is limited to a particular moment in time , rather than continuing .
A notification is a legal instrument that provides factual information . For example , notifications are used to inform the public of the dates of commencement of statutes and the appointment of individuals to government posts .
By @-@ laws are regulations made by certain public and private bodies , for instance , strata title management corporations . Their extent is usually limited to a relatively small geographical area or to the operations of a particular body only .
Subsidiary legislation must , unless otherwise expressly provided in any statute , be published in the Government Gazette and , unless expressly provided in the subsidiary legislation itself , takes effect and comes into operation on the date of its publication .
No subsidiary legislation made under an Act of Parliament may be inconsistent with the provisions of any Act . This means that any subsidiary legislation that was made ultra vires its parent Act ( that is , the Act did not confer power on the agency to make the subsidiary legislation ) or is not consistent with any other statute is void to the extent of the inconsistency .
Subsidiary legislation currently in force in Singapore is published in looseleaf form in a series called the Subsidiary Legislation of the Republic of Singapore , which is gathered in black binders . New subsidiary legislation published in the Gazette may be viewed for free on @-@ line for five days on the Electronic Gazette website .
= = = = Examples of subsidiary legislation = = = =
Under regulation 16 of the Environmental Public Health ( Public Cleansing ) Regulations made under the Environmental Public Health Act , any person who has urinated or defecated in any sanitary convenience with a flushing system to which the public has access shall flush the sanitary convenience immediately after using it . Contravention of this regulation is an offence punishable :
( a ) for a first offence , to a fine not exceeding $ 1 @,@ 000 and to a further fine not exceeding $ 100 for every day or part thereof during which the offence continues after conviction ;
( b ) for a second offence , to a fine not exceeding $ 2 @,@ 000 and to a further fine not exceeding $ 200 for every day or part thereof during which the offence continues after conviction ; and
( c ) for a third or subsequent offence , to a fine not exceeding $ 5 @,@ 000 and to a further fine not exceeding $ 500 for every day or part thereof during which the offence continues after conviction .
The Miscellaneous Offences ( Public Order and Nuisance ) ( Assemblies and Processions ) Rules made under the Miscellaneous Offences ( Public Order and Nuisance ) Act require a permit for any public assembly or procession of five or more persons in any public place . The rationale given for this law is that a large group of people who gather for a peaceful purpose can turn violent . In the 1950s and 1960s there were several violent riots in Singapore , the last incident being the 1964 race riots in which 36 people were killed . Although there have only been a few minor protests since then , the authorities continue to take a tough stance against unlicensed outdoor protests . On 31 December 2000 , 15 members of Falun Gong consisting of 13 foreigners and two Singaporeans were arrested at MacRitchie Park for holding an illegal assembly .
Public speaking at Speakers ' Corner is regulated by the Public Entertainments and Meetings ( Speakers ' Corner ) ( Exemption ) Order made under the Public Entertainments and Meetings Act .
Under regulation 14 of the Rapid Transit Systems Regulations made under the Rapid Transit Systems Act , it is an offence to consume or attempt to consume any food or drinks while in or upon any part of the railway premises except in such places as are designated for this purpose by the Land Transport Authority or its licensee , or consume or attempt to consume any chewing gum or bubble gum while in or upon any part of the railway premises . Regulation 15 makes it an offence to spit , litter or soil any part of the railway premises . The maximum penalties for these offences are fines of up to $ 500 and $ 5 @,@ 000 respectively .
The Sale of Food ( Prohibition of Chewing Gum ) Regulations made under the Sale of Food Act prohibits the sale or advertisement for sale of any chewing gum . The prohibition does not apply to the sale or advertisement of any chewing gum in respect of which a product licence has been granted under the Medicines Act . Thus , it is now possible to purchase chewing gum for dental or medical purposes ( for instance , for the purpose of nicotine replacement therapy ) from pharmacies without a prescription .
= = Judicial precedents = =
As Singapore is a common law jurisdiction , judgments of the courts are considered a source of law . Judgments may interpret statutes or subsidiary legislation , or develop principles of common law and equity that have been laid down , not by the legislature , but by previous generations of judges . Major portions of Singapore law , particularly contract law , equity and trust law , property law and tort law , are largely judge @-@ made , though certain aspects have now been modified to some extent by statutes .
Legal certainty and the orderly development of legal principles are promoted by the application of the doctrine of stare decisis , also known as the doctrine of binding precedent . According to this doctrine , the decisions of higher courts are binding on lower courts . Thus , judgments of the Court of Appeal are binding on the High Court , and judgments of both of these superior courts are binding on subordinate courts . A judge is generally not bound by previous decisions made by other judges in courts of the same level . Thus , a judge hearing a High Court case need not follow previous High Court decisions . Nonetheless , courts generally do so as a matter of comity , unless there are good reasons for doing otherwise . As the final appellate court in Singapore , the Court of Appeal is not bound by its previous decisions or those of predecessor courts such as the Privy Council . However , the Court continues to treat such decisions as " normally binding " and only departs from them " where adherence to such prior decisions would cause injustice in a particular case or constrain the development of the law in conformity with the circumstances of Singapore " . Only the ratio decidendi ( that is , the legal principle that determines the outcome ) of a case is binding according to the doctrine of stare decisis ; other legal principles expressed that are not crucial to the final decision ( obiter dicta ) are only persuasive .
As English courts do not form part of Singapore 's hierarchy of courts , decisions of such courts are not binding on Singapore courts . However , as a result of Singapore 's colonial heritage , English judicial precedents continue to exercise a strong influence on the legal system and are regarded as highly persuasive , particularly as regards the development of the common law , and the interpretation of English statutes applicable in Singapore and Singapore statutes modelled on English enactments . Judicial precedents from other jurisdictions may also be persuasive in specific areas of Singapore law . For instance , Indian decisions are persuasive in the areas of criminal law and procedure because Singapore borrowed heavily from India in these areas .
The Constitution provides that the President may refer to a tribunal consisting of not less than three judges of the Supreme Court for its opinion any question as to the effect of any provision of the Constitution that has arisen or appears likely to arise . Where a Constitutional Tribunal has given an opinion , no court has jurisdiction to question the opinion , or the validity of any law the bill for which was the subject of a reference to the Tribunal .
During Straits Settlements times , cases pertaining to Singapore appeared in various privately produced and official series of law reports such as Kyshe 's Reports ( covering cases decided between 1808 and 1939 ) , the Straits Law Journal ( 1839 – 1891 ) and the Straits Settlements Law Reports ( 1867 – 1942 ) . From 1932 until 1992 , Singapore cases appeared regularly in the Malayan Law Journal ( MLJ ) , the only local series of law reports published continuously since the 1930s , except during World War II . The MLJ is still consulted for Singapore cases decided prior to full independence in 1965 . Since 1992 , judgments of the High Court , Court of Appeal and Constitutional Tribunal of Singapore have appeared in the Singapore Law Reports ( SLR ) , which is published by the Singapore Academy of Law under an exclusive licence from the Supreme Court of Singapore . The Academy has also republished cases decided since Singapore 's full independence in 1965 that appeared in the MLJ in special volumes of the SLR , and is currently working on a reissue of this body of case law . Cases published in the SLR as well as unreported judgments of the Supreme Court and Subordinate Courts are available on @-@ line from a fee @-@ based service called LawNet , which is also managed by the Academy .
= = = Examples of judicial precedents = = =
Chng Suan Tze v. Minister for Home Affairs ( 1988 ) was a landmark Court of Appeal case in administrative law , specifically with regards to reviewing the grounds of detention without trial under the Internal Security Act . One of the main issues before the court was whether the test for judicial review was objective or subjective ; in other words , whether judges could examine whether the executive 's decision to detain a person was in fact based on national security considerations , as well as whether the executive 's considerations in determining the detention fell within the scope of the purposes specified in section 8 ( 1 ) of the Act . The court , in an obiter ruling , advocated the objective standard , stating : " All power has legal limits and the rule of law demands that the courts should be able to examine the exercise of discretionary power . " Although the case was legislatively overruled in respect of internal security matters by amendments to the Constitution of Singapore and the Internal Security Act , the principle still applies in judicial review proceedings not involving the Act .
Fay Michael Peter v. Public Prosecutor ( 1994 ) concerned an American teenager , Michael P. Fay , who was arrested in 1994 for vandalizing cars and stealing street signs . He pleaded guilty to two charges of vandalizing by spraying paint on a number of cars . On conviction by a subordinate court , he was sentenced to a total of four months ' imprisonment and six strokes of the cane . For the purposes of sentencing , other charges were taken into consideration , including 16 charges of vandalism involving paint . Fay appealed to the High Court against the sentences , arguing that ( a ) proviso to section 3 of the Vandalism Act required the prosecution to prove beyond reasonable doubt the indelible quality of the paint used before caning could be imposed ; ( b ) a probation order was appropriate in this case ; and ( c ) the trial judge below should have ordered a pre @-@ sentencing report with a view to ordering probation . The appeal was dismissed . The case generated intense media interest in the United States , culminating in a formal request from the US Government for the caning sentence not to be carried out . The Singapore Government rejected the request on the basis that foreigners in Singapore could not be held to a different standard from citizens . However , it recommended that the President reduce the caning from six strokes to four .
= = Custom = =
In law , a custom is an established practice or behaviour that is considered to be law by the persons engaged in it . Customs do not have the force of law unless recognized in a case . " Legal " or " trade " customs are not recognized as law unless they are certain and not unreasonable or illegal . In Singapore , custom is a minor source of law as not many customs have been given judicial recognition .
= = = Examples of custom = = =
The general reception of English law under the Second Charter of Justice ( see the article " Law of Singapore " ) was subject to three qualifications – one of which was that English law should be modified in application to Singapore so as not to cause injustice or oppression to the indigenous people of the island . Regard was to be had to their religions , usages and manners . This principle generally applied in family law and related matters . Thus in certain early , cases English law was modified by Chinese , Malay and Hindu customary law , and some native usages or customs acquired the force of law . However , the enactment of the Women 's Charter in 1961 has unified the family law for all ethno @-@ religious groups in Singapore except the Muslims , who are separately regulated by the Administration of Muslim Law Act .
Where Malay Muslims are concerned , the application of Muslim law is modified by Malay custom as regards marriage , divorce and the distribution of the estate of an intestate person . In fact , Muslim customary law and the Malay custom applicable to Malay Muslims appear to be the only strands of customary law that continue to have some significance in Singapore .
The practice of marking cheques is a recognized banking custom in Singapore .
= = = General = = =
Law in Singapore , by the C.J. Koh Law Library , National University of Singapore
LawNet
Singaporelaw.sg , by the Singapore Academy of Law
Singapore Law Watch , by the Singapore Academy of Law
Singapore Laws on the Internet from WWLegal.com – contains a list of Singapore legal resources on the Internet ( published 15 January 2005 )
= = = The Legislature and legislation = = =
Parliament of Singapore
Electronic Gazette
Singapore Statutes Online – a service of the Attorney @-@ General 's Chambers , Singapore
= = = The Judiciary and judicial precedents = = =
Supreme Court of Singapore
Subordinate Courts of Singapore
Family Court of Singapore
Juvenile Court of Singapore
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= 22nd Regiment Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry =
The 22nd Regiment Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry was an infantry regiment in the Union army during the American Civil War . The 22nd Massachusetts was organized by Senator Henry Wilson ( future Vice @-@ President during the Ulysses Grant administration ) and was therefore known as " Henry Wilson 's Regiment . " It was formed in Boston , Massachusetts , and established on September 28 , 1861 , for a term of three years .
Arriving in Washington in October 1861 , the regiment spent the following winter in camp at Hall 's Hill , near Arlington in Virginia . It became part of the Army of the Potomac , with which it would be associated for its entire term of service . The regiment saw its first action during the Siege of Yorktown in April 1862 . It was involved in the Peninsular Campaign , particularly the Battle of Gaines ' Mill during which it suffered its worst casualties ( numerically ) of the war . Their worst casualties in terms of percentages took place during the Battle of Gettysburg ( 60 percent ) . The 22nd Massachusetts was present for virtually all of the major battles in which the Army of the Potomac fought , including the Second Battle of Bull Run , the Battle of Antietam , the Battle of Fredericksburg , the Battle of Chancellorsville , the Battle of Gettysburg and Lieutenant General Ulysses Grant 's Overland Campaign . The 22nd was especially proficient in skirmish drill and was frequently deployed in that capacity throughout the war .
During the Siege of Petersburg in October 1864 , the 22nd Massachusetts was removed from the lines and sent home to Massachusetts . Of the 1 @,@ 100 who initially belonged to the unit , only 125 returned at the end of their three years of service . Of these losses , roughly 300 were killed in action or died from wounds received in action , approximately 500 were discharged due to wounds or disease , and approximately 175 were lost or discharged due to capture , resignation , or desertion .
= = Organization and early duty = =
Henry Wilson , a Senator from Massachusetts and chairman of the Senate 's Committee on Military Affairs , witnessed the First Battle of Bull Run on July 21 , 1861 . The disastrous defeat of the Union army convinced Wilson , and the federal government in general , of the urgent need for more troops . Immediately after the battle , Wilson promised both President Abraham Lincoln and Massachusetts Governor John Andrew that he would raise a full brigade including units of infantry , artillery , cavalry and sharpshooters .
Wilson 's prestige encouraged the almost immediate formation of more than a dozen companies of infantry in and around Boston . The pressing need to send troops to the front required Wilson to abandon his original intention of raising multiple regiments of infantry and he instead selected the 10 companies closest to readiness , thus creating the 22nd Massachusetts Regiment . To this regiment were attached the 3rd Massachusetts Light Artillery and the 2nd Company Massachusetts Sharpshooters . Thus , the 22nd Massachusetts became one of the few infantry units in the Civil War with attached artillery and sharpshooters .
Many of the officers of the 22nd , and some of the enlisted men , had just completed an enlistment with early war regiments ( the so @-@ called " ninety day regiments " ) , including the 5th Massachusetts and the 6th Massachusetts . Five of the 10 companies were recruited in Boston . The remaining five came from Taunton , Roxbury , Woburn , Cambridge and Haverhill .
The regiment was signed into existence by Gov. Andrew on September 28 , 1861 . Wilson was appointed its first colonel . The recruits of the 22nd Massachusetts trained at a camp in Lynnfield , Massachusetts , during September and left for the front , numbering 1 @,@ 117 , on October 8 , 1861 . Traveling by railroad , the regiment paused in New York City , marching down Fifth Avenue , and was received with a formal ceremony and the presentation of a national battle flag made by a committee of the ladies of New York .
The 22nd arrived in Washington on October 11 , and on October 13 , marched across the Potomac to go into winter camp at Halls Hill , just outside Arlington , Virginia . Here the Army of the Potomac was organized during the winter of 1861 – 1862 . The 22nd became part of Brig. Gen. John H. Martindale 's brigade and was initially attached to the III Corps .
On October 28 , 1861 , Col. Wilson resigned his command , turning the regiment over to Col. Jesse Gove . Gove , a Regular Army officer , had seen service in the Mexican – American War . He was a strict disciplinarian and , according to John Parker ( the regimental historian ) Gove soon became the " idol of the regiment " . During its first winter of service , the 22nd remained at Hall 's Hill and became proficient in military drill .
= = Peninsular Campaign = =
Major General George B. McClellan , commanding the Army of the Potomac , determined to take the Confederate capital of Richmond via the Virginia Peninsula . This unexpected move would , in theory , allow McClellan 's army to move quickly up the peninsula rather than fighting through Northern Virginia . During March 1862 , the Army of the Potomac was gradually transferred by water to Fortress Monroe at the end of the Virginia Peninsula . On March 10 , 1862 , the 22nd left their winter camp and were shipped to Fortress Monroe . By April 4 , the regiment began to advance , along with many other elements of the Army of the Potomac , up the peninsula .
= = = Siege of Yorktown = = =
As Union forces approached Yorktown , Virginia they encountered defensive lines established by Confederate Major General John B. Magruder . Initially , Magruder 's forces numbered only 11 @,@ 000 with McClellan 's numbering 53 @,@ 000 . McClellan also had the rest of the Army of the Potomac en route and Union troops outside of Yorktown would soon number more than 100 @,@ 000 . Despite this , McClellan believed he faced a much larger force and settled in for a month @-@ long siege of Yorktown .
The 22nd Massachusetts saw their first action of the war near Yorktown on April 5 , 1862 , as the regiment was ordered to probe the Confederate lines . During the action , a portion of the regiment deployed as skirmishers under fire with great precision . The 22nd 's reputation for expertise at skirmish drill would continue throughout the war and the regiment would frequently be used in this capacity . Over the course of the month @-@ long siege , the 22nd was encamped near Wormley Creek approximately 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) southeast of Yorktown , frequently forming up at a moment 's notice in expectation of an attack . On May 4 , the Confederates evacuated their lines , retreating towards Richmond . The 22nd was on picket duty when rumors of the evacuation began to circulate . Colonel Gove determined to investigate and advanced the 22nd towards the Confederate trenches . According to the regimental historian , Gove was the first Union soldier to mount the Confederate works and the 22nd 's flag was the first planted on the ramparts outside of Yorktown .
Over the next three weeks , McClellan pushed his army northwest up the Peninsula towards Richmond . The 22nd traveled by steamship and by foot , eventually reaching Gaines ' Mill , Virginia where they set up camp on May 26 , 1862 , about 8 miles ( 13 km ) northeast of Richmond . During this movement , the V Corps of the Union army was formed and the 22nd became part of the 1st Brigade , 1st Division , V Corps . The regiment would remain a part of the V Corps for the duration of their service .
= = = Battle of Gaines ' Mill = = =
After seeing minor action in the Battle of Hanover Court House on May 27 , the 22nd remained in camp at Gaines ' Mill for nearly a month as McClellan positioned his army for an assault on Richmond . The men of the 22nd could see the steeples of Richmond from their camp . By this time , the regiment had been reduced to roughly 750 men due to sickness over the course of the campaign and minor casualties in action .
On June 25 , 1862 , McClellan ordered an ineffective offensive triggering the Seven Days Battles . On June 26 , General Robert E. Lee , who had recently taken command of the Army of Northern Virginia , launched a daring counter @-@ offensive intended to drive McClellan 's army away from Richmond . For the 22nd , the third day of the Seven Days Battles , the Battle of Gaines ' Mill , proved to be devastating as they suffered their worst casualties of the war .
On June 27 , 1862 , the V Corps , including the 22nd , pulled back to Gaines ' Mill after successfully repulsing the Confederate counter @-@ offensive at Mechanicsville . Although McClellan regarded Mechanicsville as a victory , he had lost the initiative to Lee and was already pulling his army away from Richmond despite holding the advantage of numbers . During the Battle of Gaines ' Mill , the 22nd was held in reserve , behind the other regiments of their brigade . Over the course of the day , the Union regiments in their front successfully repulsed several Confederate charges . But at 6 p.m. , the Union lines broke and the 22nd was suddenly exposed to the brunt of the Confederate attack . With the 22nd flanked on both sides , Colonel Gove soon gave the order to retire . Then , reluctant to yield the ground , he ordered the 22nd to about face and stand fast . Colonel Gove was killed almost immediately after delivering this order . His body was never recovered . Captain John Dunning , commanding Company D , was also killed . In the subsequent fighting the 22nd lost 71 killed , 86 wounded and 177 captured . Maj. William S. Tilton was captured and later paroled . With Lieutenant Colonel Charles Griswold on sick leave , command fell to Captain Walter S. Sampson . The 22nd eventually fell back to a ridge where they were able to make a stand with the 3rd Massachusetts Battery .
The regimental historian wrote , " It was a sad night for the Twenty @-@ second . Not a man but had lost a comrade , for one @-@ half of those who marched in the morning were no longer in the ranks . Colonel Gove was killed and that was , without a doubt , one of the greatest disasters of the day . " The 22nd Massachusetts and the 83rd Pennsylvania suffered roughly the same casualty rate and the two regiments lost more men killed in action than any other units on the field that day . Both regiments lost their colonels .
= = = Battle of Malvern Hill = = =
The 22nd played little role in the next three days of fighting , with the exception of brief action during the Battle of Glendale during which the regiment supported the 3rd Massachusetts Battery and was credited with saving the battery from capture . By June 30 , the regiment was encamped near Malvern Hill with the rest of the V Corps . The Army of the Potomac had retreated roughly 15 miles ( 24 km ) during a running fight over the past six days and was suffering low morale . However , by July 1 , the Union army was in a strong position and , that day , during the Battle of Malvern Hill , the Army of the Potomac finally stopped Lee 's offensive . The 22nd , during this action , was ordered to support the 5th United States Battery . While firing in line with the battery , the men of the 22nd sang " John Brown 's Body " and exhausted their 60 rounds of ammunition . After they were pulled off the line , the 22nd marched through the night to Harrison 's Landing . The regiment lost nine killed , 41 wounded and eight prisoners during the Battle of Malvern Hill , roughly 20 percent .
= = Northern Virginia Campaign = =
On July 15 , 1862 , while the 22nd was still in camp at Harrison 's Landing , Lieutenant Colonel Griswold returned from sick leave , was promoted to colonel and took command of the regiment . On August 14 , the regiment broke camp and marched with the V Corps to Newport News , Virginia . McClellan had abandoned his Peninsular Campaign and had been ordered to move the Army of the Potomac back to Northern Virginia to support the advance of a newly organized Union army , the Army of Virginia , under the command of Major General John Pope . The 22nd was transported by steamship to Aquia Creek , Virginia , by railroad to Fredericksburg , and by August 28 they had marched with the V Corps to Gainesville , Virginia . In the course of this march , the 22nd was detached from their brigade and assigned to picket duty . As a result , the regiment played no role in the subsequent Second Battle of Bull Run on August 30 , 1862 , in which the rest of their brigade was heavily engaged .
Following the disastrous defeat of Pope 's army at the Second Battle of Bull Run , the Army of the Potomac , with McClellan still in command , was quickly reorganized outside of Washington during the first week of September 1862 . The 22nd returned to their old camp at Halls Hill , Virginia , which they had occupied the previous winter . Sen. Wilson visited the 22nd at Halls Hill . Finding just 200 war @-@ torn men in contrast to the 1 @,@ 100 he had recruited , Wilson , with tears in his eyes , asked , " Is this my old regiment ? "
= = Maryland Campaign = =
The 22nd did not stay long at Halls Hill . With the Army of the Potomac in disarray and the Confederates on the offensive , an attack on Washington was expected at any moment . The 22nd was shifted to several different defensive entrenchments outside of Arlington , Virginia during the first week of September . Lee , however , set out to invade Western Maryland , the lead elements of his army crossing the Potomac on September 4 , 1862 . McClellan was slow to react to this development , but began moving elements of the Army of the Potomac northwest from Washington on September 6 . On September 10 , Lieutenant Colonel Tilton , having been released from Libby Prison through an officer exchange , returned to the 22nd and took command . The 22nd left Arlington on September 12 . The march through Maryland was remembered by the 22nd as wearisome and profoundly dusty .
= = = Battle of Antietam = = =
As the Union army approached , Lee chose to make a stand at Sharpsburg , Maryland along Antietam Creek . On September 17 , 1862 , the armies engaged in the Battle of Antietam . The V Corps was held in reserve in the center of Union lines during the battle . The 22nd had a clear view of both flanks of the Union army and watched the assaults that took place over the course of the day . The V Corps , however , took no part in these assaults . Historians have criticized McClellan for his uncoordinated attacks at Antietam and for not committing the V Corps which might have broken Lee 's army .
= = = Battle of Shepherdstown = = =
Lee evacuated Sharpsburg on September 18 , retreating towards Virginia . The 22nd , with other regiments of its corps , moved through the town the next day . As the Confederate army crossed over the Potomac , two divisions of the V Corps , including the 22nd Massachusetts , were ordered to cross into Virginia via Blackford 's Ford at Shepherdstown , Virginia ( now West Virginia ) . The movement was an ineffective attempt on McClellan 's part to prevent the escape of Lee 's army . The pursuing Union forces were hit with a decisive Confederate counterattack at the Battle of Shepherdstown on September 20 , 1862 , causing the Union divisions to quickly retreat in disorder back across the Potomac . The 22nd struggled across the river and reached the Maryland shore " half drowned " . The engagement ended any efforts by McClellan to pursue Lee 's army .
= = Fredericksburg Campaign = =
The 22nd Massachusetts remained in camp on the Maryland side of the Potomac for more than a month . On October 30 , 1862 , the 22nd broke camp and began marching south into Virginia . On November 5 , Lincoln removed McClellan from command of the Army of the Potomac and replaced him with Major General Ambrose Burnside . The army moved to Falmouth , Virginia , where Burnside spent weeks orchestrating his attack on Fredericksburg just across the Rappahannock River .
= = = Battle of Fredericksburg = = =
The Army of the Potomac , having constructed pontoon bridges across the Rappahannock , commenced the Battle of Fredericksburg on the morning of December 13 , 1862 . The Confederate army occupied the city of Fredericksburg and a high ridge behind the city known as Marye 's Heights . By late morning , Union forces had taken the city and began the assault on Marye 's Heights . At approximately 3 : 30 in the afternoon the 22nd Massachusetts , with the rest of Colonel James Barnes 's brigade , crossed one of the pontoon bridges and moved through a railroad cut to the outskirts of the city . The regiment numbered about 200 men . Barnes 's brigade was ordered to relieve a brigade of the IX Corps which had made a charge on the stone wall along Marye 's Heights and become pinned down by Confederate fire . By the time they formed up battle lines on the open slope in front of Marye 's Heights , the 22nd was under intense artillery fire from the Confederates . According to the regimental historian , " the men instinctively turned their sides to the storm " of bullets , shot and shell as they advanced and casualties were heavy . Their brigade reached Nagle 's brigade and the 22nd relieved the 12th Rhode Island , taking shelter on ground covered by that regiment 's casualties . Here the 22nd fired in prone position , exhausting their ammunition , yelling and cheering to keep up their courage .
Around nightfall , the 22nd was relieved by the 20th Maine . Falling back to a sunken road on the outskirts of Fredericksburg , the 22nd was still exposed to Confederate artillery and took cover as best they could . Many of the regiment had thrown away their haversacks in an effort to lighten their burden before the charge and were subsequently without food . During the night , they resorted to searching the haversacks of fallen soldiers for rations .
Just before dawn on December 14 , ammunition was issued and the 22nd moved forward slightly , to about the position on the open slope that they had occupied the day before . Here they spent another day pinned to the ground , unable to advance or retire due to the constant fire of Confederate riflemen . Nightfall finally brought relief as another unit took their place on the field and the 22nd retired to the city of Fredericksburg .
The 22nd spent the next day , December 15 , in the city of Fredericksburg , hearing rumors that Burnside intended to personally lead another assault on the heights . But no attack materialized , night came , and the V Corps crossed the pontoon bridges back to Falmouth , with the 22nd acting as rear guard . During the battle of Frederickburg , the 22nd lost 12 killed and 42 wounded , roughly 28 percent casualties .
= = Camp Gove = =
The 22nd set up winter camp on the outskirts of Falmouth , Virginia on December 22 , 1862 . The camp was located about 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) northeast of Stoneman 's Station , now known as Leeland Station . The men built crude log huts with improvised chimneys made of mud and sticks . Here the regiment would remain for approximately six months during the first half of 1863 . The camp was named " Camp Gove " in honor of their fallen colonel .
While at Camp Gove , the 22nd Massachusetts , with the rest of the V Corps , was frequently deployed on expeditions of varying importance . On January 20 , 1863 , the regiment took part in the infamous Mud March during which Burnside attempted to attack the flank of the Confederate army which was still encamped at Fredericksburg . The roads were so impassable that the Union army bogged down and the entire effort was aborted . The 22nd returned to Camp Gove five days after they left .
The 22nd also participated , in a minor capacity , in the Battle of Chancellorsville . On April 27 , Brig. Gen. Charles Griffin 's division , including the 22nd , was ordered to secure the fords along the Rapidan River . It was a long , rapid , forced march for the division . The Confederate army launched a daring and successful flank attack against the Army of the Potomac at Chancellorsville on May 2 , 1863 , during which the 22nd saw little action . The Union army , badly defeated , retreated back across the Rappahannock and the 22nd returned to Camp Gove on May 8 .
In late May , Colonel Tilton of the 22nd was promoted to the command of the brigade and Lieutenant Colonel Thomas Sherwin assumed command of the 22nd .
= = Gettysburg Campaign = =
On May 28 , 1863 , the 22nd Massachusetts packed up and left Camp Gove . Their corps was deployed along the Rappahannock , upriver of Fredericksburg , as an observation force to determine what movements were being made by Lee 's army . In this , they were unsuccessful . Lee 's army slipped away from Fredericksburg on June 3 and began a long march that would lead to an invasion of Pennsylvania . The 22nd learned of Lee 's movements on June 13 when the V Corps was ordered to march northward . By this time , the entire Army of the Potomac was on the move . The two armies would eventually meet , almost three weeks later , at Gettysburg , Pennsylvania .
= = = Battle of Gettysburg = = =
By June 30 , 1863 , the 22nd had reached Union Mills , Maryland after weeks of hard marching . On July 1 , they marched 10 miles ( 16 km ) to Hanover , Pennsylvania , completely unaware that elements of the Army of the Potomac had engaged the Confederates some 15 miles ( 24 km ) away in the first day of fighting during the Battle of Gettysburg . Not long after they settled down for the evening , orders came for them to march . The 22nd , and the rest of the V Corps , marched through the night to Gettysburg , reaching the battle around dawn on July 2 . The V Corps was stationed well behind the center of the Union lines , awaiting deployment to one flank or the other . The men of the 22nd fell to the ground and caught a few hours sleep even as the second morning of battle raged not far from their position . At Gettysburg , the regiment had only 67 men .
At about 4 p.m. , the V Corps was ordered to advance in support of the III Corps . Barnes 's division passed north of Little Round Top and deployed just south of the Wheatfield along a small , stony hill within sight of the Rose farmouse which was directly in their front . Once deployed , the soldiers of the 22nd began to pile paper cartridges on the ground in front of them , sensing they would be holding that ground for some time .
As the III Corps retreated , Tilton 's brigade was directly exposed to the oncoming Confederates . The 22nd was soon engaged by Kershaw 's brigade of South Carolinians . Apparently unnerved by the sudden Confederate advance and perceiving that his right flank was exposed , Brig. Gen. Barnes , the 22nd 's division commander , ordered the withdrawal of his division . The men of the 22nd picked up their cartridges and yielded the ground . This withdrawal back across the Wheatfield to Trostle 's Farm left a gap in the Union line . Barnes and Tilton were both subject to much criticism from other officers on the field for this withdrawal , which Barnes apparently ordered without consulting his superiors . The gap left by Barnes 's division was eventually filled by brigades of the II Corps after hard The 22nd fought from their new position along a stone wall on Trostle 's Farm and was eventually pulled back to the north side of Little Round Top by about 6 p.m.
On the third and final day of the Battle of Gettysburg , the 22nd was posted in the ravine between Little Round Top and Big Round Top . The ground was heavily wooded and rocky . Here they piled up stones and took shelter from the Confederate sharpshooters in Devil 's Den about 500 yards ( 460 m ) to their front . The regiment remained in this position while Pickett 's Charge , Lee 's unsuccessful attempt to break Union lines , took place well north of the 22nd 's position .
During the Battle of Gettysburg , the regiment suffered 15 killed and 25 wounded or 60 percent . In terms of percentages , this represented the regiment 's highest number of casualties in an individual battle .
= = Camp Barnes = =
On September 9 , 1863 , the 22nd was reinforced by 200 draftees , once again fielding respectable numbers . During the latter half of 1863 , the 22nd was involved in some minor engagements along the Rappahannock River including the Second Battle of Rappahannock Station and the Battle of Mine Run . No significant progress was made by the Army of the Potomac that fall , and the 22nd settled into a camp near Brandy Station , Virginia which they named " Camp Barnes " after their division commander who had been wounded at Gettysburg . In March 1864 , Col. Tilton was relieved of command of his brigade and returned to the command of the 22nd Massachusetts .
= = Overland Campaign and the Siege of Petersburg = =
On April 30 , 1864 , the 22nd broke camp and marched southeast from Rappahannock Station . Lieutenant General Ulysses Grant had now assumed command of Union forces as general @-@ in @-@ chief and although Major General George Meade remained in command of the Army of the Potomac , Grant was determined to follow the army in the field , directing its movements . The resulting campaign during the spring of 1864 was known as the Overland Campaign and saw relentless attacks on the part of the Union army under Grant . The reinforced 22nd began the campaign with about 300 men . By the close of the campaign , the regiment would be reduced to about 100 .
During the Battle of the Wilderness on May 5 – 6 , 1864 , the regiment lost 15 killed and 36 wounded . The regiment was heavily engaged in the Battle of Spotsylvania on May 9 – 10 . On May 10 , the 22nd was ordered to take a line of rifle pits that had been abandoned by Union troops and taken by the Confederates . The 22nd deployed as skirmishers under the command of Major Mason Burt and advanced under heavy fire . The regiment was successful in taking the Confederate position , but at a heavy cost of 17 killed and 57 wounded , nearly 50 percent . During the Battles of North Anna and Totopotomoy Creek , the 22nd acted again as skirmishers , winning praise for their maneuvers in advance of their division .
By this time , Grant had pushed Lee 's army south to within 10 miles ( 16 km ) of Richmond . The final assault of the Overland Campaign came with the Battle of Cold Harbor — a number of futile attempts by Grant over the course of June 1 – 3 to break the heavily entrenched Confederate lines . The 22nd was active during all three days of the battle , particularly on June 3 when they were again deployed as skirmishers in front of their brigade , now commanded by Col. Jacob B. Sweitzer , in the vicinity of Bethesda Church . Sweitzer 's brigade , with the 22nd in the advance , made a charge across open ground , pushing back the Confederate forces in their front . During the Battle of Cold Harbor , the 22nd lost 11 killed and 11 wounded , now numbering less than 100 .
Lee 's army now dug in around Petersburg , Virginia and the long Siege of Petersburg commenced with several frontal assaults on the Confederate position . The 22nd took part in the assault on June 18 , 1864 . Again the regiment was deployed as skirmishers in front of their brigade . They were ordered to take a ravine alongside the Norfolk Railroad . Advancing at a run in the face of heavy canister fire , the 22nd reached the ravine . However , in that position they were subjected to severe musket and artillery fire from the Confederates , and so they pushed forward to the Norfolk Railroad cut , forcing the Confederates back to their entrenchments . In the assault on Petersburg , the 22nd lost seven killed and 14 wounded .
During the latter part of June 1864 , the 22nd was marched to several different positions along the siege lines outside of Petersburg , expecting to participate in another assault . Finally , around June 30 , 1864 , the regiment was stationed in the trenches and remained there for six weeks .
= = Mustering out = =
On August 8 , 1864 , the 22nd was pulled from the trenches and posted on guard duty at City Point , Virginia , the main supply depot of the Union army . Maj. Gen. Meade had specifically requested a depleted unit whose term of service was nearly up for this duty . They remained there until October 3 , their three years of service having expired . Those of the regiment who had chosen to re @-@ enlist , along with the remaining draftees who had joined the unit in 1863 , were consolidated with the 32nd Massachusetts . The remaining men of the 22nd who had served their three years and did not wish to re @-@ enlist , 125 in number , returned to Boston by railroad , arriving on October 10 . After ceremonies in Boston , the regiment was officially mustered out on October 17 , 1864 .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Notable members = = =
After the war , several former members of the 22nd Massachusetts went on to achieve notable accomplishments in various fields .
Senator Henry Wilson , founder of the unit , was well known during the war for his antislavery political stance . After the war , he became one of the leading Radical Republicans in Congress , pressing for civil rights for former slaves and harsh treatment of former Confederates . In 1872 , the same year he was elected Vice @-@ President under Ulysses Grant , Wilson published the first volume of his History of the Rise and Fall of the Slave Power , a severe criticism of slave owners and their primary role , according to Wilson , in bringing about the Civil War .
Nelson A. Miles joined the 22nd Massachusetts as a first lieutenant but was soon transferred . In 1862 , he became colonel of the 61st New York Infantry . After the war , Miles became a colonel in the Regular Army and steadily rose through the ranks , ultimately becoming the Commanding General of the United States Army in 1895 .
Arthur Soden served as a hospital steward with the 22nd Massachusetts . After the war , he went on to become an influential figure during the formative years of Major League Baseball as president of the Boston Red Stockings and , briefly , as the president of the National League .
Marshall S. Pike was a well @-@ known singer , poet and songwriter before the war . He served as drum major for the 22nd regimental band and was taken captive at the battle of Gaines ' Mill . After his release in December 1862 , he was discharged and resumed his career as an entertainer and songwriter .
= = = Regimental Association = = =
As the remains of the regiment were en route back to Boston in October 1864 , the officers met to form a regimental association to organize annual reunions of the officers . These reunions were eventually opened to enlisted men and the reunions became large events . In 1870 , the regimental association was more formally organized with the election of officers and the establishment of by @-@ laws . Its purpose was " to preserve the history and perpetuate [ the 22nd 's ] deeds and their men " . The reunions were typically held at the Parker House in Boston . The association organized a number of projects in honor of the 22nd 's former members including placing a bust of Henry Wilson in the Massachusetts State House and the construction , in 1885 , of the 22nd Massachusetts regimental monument near the Wheatfield on the Gettysburg battlefield .
= = = Reenactment group = = =
The 22nd Massachusetts is memorialized by a group of Civil War re @-@ enactors , the 22nd Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry , Inc . , who portray Company D of the regiment at various civic events , educational programs , and Civil War re @-@ enactments . The group is based on the South Shore of Massachusetts .
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= Richie McCaw =
Richard Hugh " Richie " McCaw ONZ ( born 31 December 1980 ) is a former New Zealand rugby union player , who captained the All Blacks – the country 's national team – in 110 out of his 148 test matches . He is the most capped test rugby player of all time .
McCaw predominantly played in the openside flanker position for the New Zealand , Crusaders and Canterbury teams , but had also played as blindside flanker and no . 8 . McCaw has won the World Rugby player of the year award a record three times ( equal with Dan Carter ) . His ability to anticipate play and adaptability to referee 's law interpretations are two of his key attributes . He was raised in Kurow in rural North Otago , before moving to Dunedin in 1994 to board at Otago Boys ' High School . In 1999 he moved to Christchurch to study at Lincoln University and was selected in the national under @-@ 19 team . The following year he played for the Under @-@ 21s and Canterbury in the National Provincial Championship ( NPC ) , before debuting in 2001 for the Crusaders in Super Rugby .
He was selected for the All Blacks ' 2001 end @-@ of @-@ year tour , despite having played only eight minutes of Super 12 rugby . His debut for New Zealand was against Ireland , where he was awarded man @-@ of @-@ the @-@ match and was selected as New Zealand 's first choice openside flanker for the 2003 World Cup . McCaw became a regular selection for New Zealand , only missing a few games due to recurring concussions . In 2006 he was appointed captain of the All Blacks – who he led at the 2007 World Cup . After their elimination in the quarter @-@ finals , his captaincy came under criticism , but he was retained and eventually led the team to consecutive world cup titles in the 2011 and 2015 Rugby World Cups , becoming one of only twenty dual Rugby Union World Cup winners .
During McCaw 's career , Canterbury won the NPC ( later ITM Cup ) five times , and the Crusaders have reached the Super Rugby semi @-@ finals nine times , going on to win the final on four of these occasions . Since his debut , the All Blacks have won seven Tri @-@ Nations titles , completed three successful Grand Slam tours and won the Bledisloe Cup eight times . In 2010 McCaw played his 100th Super Rugby game , made a record @-@ equalling 94th test appearance for his country , and became New Zealand 's most capped All Black captain – leading the side in 87 test matches , making him the highest capped test Captain in Rugby Union history . In 2010 his contract was NZ $ 750 @,@ 000 per year , making him the equal highest paid player in New Zealand . In the 2011 World Cup Pool game against France , McCaw became the first All Black to reach 100 caps . On 23 October , McCaw led his team to their second World Cup title in 24 years by beating France 8 – 7 in the final . In 2012 , after the win against the Springboks in Soweto , McCaw became the first rugby union player to win 100 tests – while at the time only having lost 12 games .
McCaw is the most @-@ capped player in rugby union history with 148 caps , having overtaken former Irish centre Brian O 'Driscoll 's record in 2015 . McCaw has also equaled the record for most appearances at the Rugby World Cup with English prop Jason Leonard .
His autobiography , Richie McCaw : The Open Side , was co @-@ written with Greg McGee and released on 9 October 2012 . In the United Kingdom and United States the book is titled The Real McCaw . It includes some criticism of Wayne Barnes ' appointment as the referee for the All Blacks ' 2007 Rugby World Cup quarter @-@ final , and gives McCaw 's perspective of the coaching appointment of Graham Henry over Robbie Deans .
TVNZ announced on July 6 , 2016 that a film about McCaw 's life is to be released in cinemas on September 1 , 2016 . The film , titled Chasing Great , is written and directed by Michelle Walshe and Justin Pemberton .
= = Early years = =
McCaw 's great @-@ great @-@ grandfather immigrated to New Zealand , from the Scottish Borders in 1893 , and settled in the Hakataramea Valley , South Canterbury . McCaw 's father still works the family farm and his mother is a local teacher . On New Year 's Eve 1980 , Richard Hugh McCaw was born in the nearby town of Oamaru . He grew up on his parents ' farm along with his sister Joanna . McCaw started flying gliders with his grandfather , a Tempest pilot during World War II credited with shooting down 20 V1 missiles , when he was nine years old . He played rugby for the local Kurow rugby club as a youngster , but it was not until 1994 , when he boarded at Otago Boys ' High School in Dunedin , that he started to take the game seriously .
In his last year at Otago Boys High , McCaw was head boy , proxime accessit ( runner up ) to the dux and played in the school 's top rugby team . McCaw came to the attention of national selectors during a 5 @-@ all draw with Rotorua Boys ' High School in the 1998 New Zealand secondary schools rugby final in Christchurch . However , he failed to make the New Zealand Secondary Schools Team , losing out to Sam Harding , Angus McDonald and Hale T @-@ Pole . With Sam Harding moving south to study at the University of Otago , McCaw headed to Christchurch 's Lincoln University to study agricultural science and pursue his rugby interests . He achieved all but two papers for his Bachelor of Agricultural Science degree before rugby became his life . He received an honorary doctorate on recognition of his sporting achievements in April 2012 .
In 1999 , McCaw was selected in the New Zealand under @-@ 19 squad ( coached by Mark Shaw ) , which won the world championship in Wales . During that series , McCaw realised his All Blacks dream could be attainable . The following year he was selected in the New Zealand under @-@ 21 squad and debuted for Canterbury in the National Provincial Championship ( NPC ) against North Harbour . On 31 March 2001 , he made his Super Rugby debut with the Crusaders , playing a few minutes in a losing effort against the Hurricanes . That year he only played twice for the Crusaders , both times as a substitute , for a total of just eight minutes playing time . He did however play a full season with NPC champions Canterbury and captained the New Zealand Under 21s .
= = Playing career = =
= = = International debut = = =
Although the then 20 @-@ year @-@ old McCaw had only played seventeen matches for Canterbury , John Mitchell , the new All Black coach , selected him for the 2001 end of year tour to Ireland , Scotland and Argentina . This led Josh Kronfeld , a former All Black openside flanker , to criticise the selection : " You might as well just give All Black jerseys to everybody . The fact they picked guys off one NPC season is bloody incredible " .
McCaw 's debut international test was against Ireland at Lansdowne Road on 17 November 2001 . His first touch of the game resulted in a knock @-@ on when he was hit in a tackle and New Zealand were trailing the Irish 16 – 7 at half @-@ time . In the second half the All Blacks recovered to win 40 – 29 and McCaw was named man of the match , receiving a standing ovation at the post @-@ match function . A turning point came in the second half when McCaw was able to steal the ball from Ireland , which led to a try to left wing Jonah Lomu . After the match McCaw recalled the experience : " it was a hell of a stadium to play at , a real rugby stadium , a big crowd – something I 'll always remember , very special . "
McCaw played all three tests on the tour , with the All Blacks beating Scotland 37 – 6 and winning 24 – 20 against Argentina . At the end of season rugby awards , McCaw was selected as both the New Zealand Rugby Football Union Under @-@ 21 and Air New Zealand NPC Division One Player of the Year .
= = = 2002 – 03 = = =
In the lead @-@ up to the 2003 World Cup McCaw was a regular player for Canterbury , the Crusaders and the All Blacks . In 2002 and 2003 the Crusaders competed in the Super Rugby final , beating the Brumbies in 2002 and losing to the Blues in 2003 . The Canterbury provincial rugby team lost the semi final to the eventual winners Auckland in 2002 . McCaw and the other All Blacks were " rested " during the 2003 national provincial championship .
In 2002 McCaw played for the All Blacks against the touring Ireland team ( 15 – 6 and 40 – 8 victories ) and in the Tri Nations against Australia and South Africa . Of the six 2002 test matches McCaw played in , five were won by New Zealand with the only loss to Australia . The 14 – 16 loss occurred in New Zealand 's third Tri Nations match and ensured the Bledisloe Cup stayed with Australia . During the All Blacks match against South Africa in Durban a pitch invader attacked Irish referee David McHugh as a scrum was being set , dislocating his shoulder in the process . McCaw and A.J. Venter wrestled the assailant off the referee and , according to McHugh , if they had not got involved his shoulder would have been broken . McCaw was rested , along with 20 other members of the Tri Nations squad , from the 2002 end @-@ of @-@ year tour to Europe .
In 2002 McCaw was voted as Newcomer of the Year by the International Rugby Players Association . This award is voted on by all international players , with players not allowed to vote for members of their own team .
After another successful campaign with the Crusaders in 2003 ( reaching the Super 12 finals ) , McCaw was again selected as first choice openside flanker for the All Blacks . In June he was involved in a narrow 13 – 15 defeat at home to England , was a non @-@ playing reserve in a 55 – 3 victory against Wales and played in a 31 – 23 win over France . The 2003 All Blacks retained the Tri Nations title , regained the Bledisloe Cup for the first time since 1997 and were ranked second behind England leading into the World Cup .
McCaw was selected as openside flanker for the 2003 All Blacks World Cup squad and played in every game at the tournament . New Zealand won all their pool games and beat South Africa in the quarter finals to qualify for a semi @-@ final match @-@ up against Australia . In an upset , the Australians defeated the All Blacks , knocking them out of the tournament . At the end of the season awards McCaw received the Kel Tremain Trophy for the New Zealand Rugby Union player of the year .
= = = 2004 – 05 = = =
The Crusaders finished as runner @-@ ups in the 2004 Super 12 season , losing the final to the Brumbies . Following the World Cup , John Mitchell was dropped as All Black coach and replaced by Graham Henry . McCaw was selected as first choice openside flanker and made vice captain . In the first test against England he was escorted off the field after suffering concussion following a clash of heads with fellow All Black Xavier Rush . He was a late withdrawal from the second England test and then played 70 minutes against Argentina before again leaving the field due to dizziness . Still suffering headaches a month later , he withdrew from the rest of the home campaign and the 2004 Tri Nations to focus on recovery . McCaw returned to captain Canterbury to the finals at the tail end of the NPC season . In November 2004 he returned for the All Blacks ' end @-@ of @-@ season tour to Italy , Wales and France . He was made captain at the age of 23 for the first time against Wales as regular captain Tana Umaga was rested .
In April 2005 , while captaining the Crusaders , McCaw again suffered a concussion . He was stretchered off the field two minutes into the game after attempting a tackle on Bulls prop Richard Bands . After the incident , McCaw visited a young boy in hospital who had broken his neck playing rugby and started to question whether he should be playing the game . Another paraplegic in the ward told him he had broken his neck swimming on holiday in Fiji , convincing McCaw that it could happen anywhere , and you may as well " do what you enjoy " . A month later , in May 2005 , McCaw returned to training with the Crusaders and led them in their semi @-@ final and final victories .
McCaw returned to international rugby in 2005 , playing in the 91 – 0 victory over Fiji before the British and Irish Lions arrived . He then played the first two test against the Lions , including a record 48 – 18 victory in Wellington . The All Blacks defeated the touring Lions 3 – 0 in the series . McCaw was part of the successful Tri Nations campaign ( losing just one game ) and Grand Slam ( when victory is achieved against the four home nations ) end of year tour . He missed the game against England after suffering his third serious head knock against Ireland . Despite his injury concerns , McCaw was shortlisted for the 2005 IRB International Player of the Year , which was won by All Black team @-@ mate Dan Carter .
= = = 2006 – 07 = = =
McCaw led the Crusaders to the Super Rugby title again in 2006 . On May 2006 , at the age of 25 and after 36 test matches , McCaw was named captain of the All Blacks . His first two games as regular captain were against Ireland in New Zealand , while a separate squad led by Jerry Collins was named to travel to Argentina for a one off game . McCaw started his captaincy with victory over Ireland and then mentored stand @-@ in captain Jerry Collins in Argentina . New Zealand emerged as 2006 Tri Nations champions ( the only loss away to South Africa by one point ) and retained the Bledisloe Cup . A successful European tour saw comfortable victories against England , France twice and Wales . McCaw was captain in every match and after being short listed in 2002 , 2003 and 2005 was named the 2006 IRB International Player of the Year .
Because 2007 was a World Cup year , All Black management decided that a select group of 22 players , including McCaw , would undergo " reconditioning " by not playing in the first seven rounds of the Super 14 . McCaw returned to the Crusaders in the eighth round and helped them reach the semi @-@ finals . New Zealand then beat a below @-@ strength France team in two tests and won a one @-@ off test against Canada . McCaw started on the bench for the Canadian match , with Reuben Thorne returning as captain . The Tri Nations was shortened because of the World Cup , with each team playing the other two teams twice ( one home and one away game ) . Led by McCaw , New Zealand again dropped just one game ( this time a five @-@ point loss against Australia in Melbourne ) retaining the Tri Nations crown and the Bledisloe cup .
= = = = 2007 World Cup = = = =
The 2007 World Cup was held in France , Scotland and Wales . The All Blacks were in a pool that included Italy , Portugal , Scotland and Romania . The All Blacks comfortably made it through the pool play with scores of 76 – 14 , 108 – 13 , 40 – 0 and 85 – 8 respectively . McCaw made just three appearances ( two starts and one as a reserve ) due to Henry 's rotation policy . In the quarter @-@ finals the All Blacks lost to France 18 – 20 , resulting in New Zealand 's earliest exit from a World Cup . With semi @-@ final exits after being among the favourites at the 1991 , 1999 and 2003 World Cups , they were once again accused of " choking on the world 's biggest stage " .
An emotional McCaw could not hide his disappointment at the after @-@ match press conference : " If I knew the answers we would have sorted it out . We will be thinking about it for a long time " . McCaw denied New Zealand 's easy run into the quarter @-@ finals played a part in the loss " A lot of the guys have been through this before , they 've played big test matches . " Graham Henry 's policy of using squad rotation and resting key players during the Super 14 was criticised . McCaw also came under attack . He was accused of not inspiring his team , lacking the ability to change policy when plan A was not working and not providing enough leadership on the field .
= = = 2008 = = =
Despite much speculation that Henry would lose the All Black coaching job to coach Robbie Deans , he was retained on a contract for the next two years , later extended to include the 2011 World Cup . He immediately stated that he would retain McCaw as his captain . Robbie Deans instead signed with the Australian Rugby Union , becoming head coach of Australia . In Deans ' last season ( 2008 ) as Crusaders coach they won the Super Rugby title for the seventh time . Ireland and England toured to New Zealand in June 2008 and the All Blacks came away with a hard @-@ fought win against Ireland , and two comfortable victories against England . McCaw tore a ligament in his ankle against England and missed the start of the Tri Nations .
Rodney So 'oialo was made stand @-@ in captain and started the Tri Nations with a win and two losses . McCaw returned for the fourth game and the All Blacks won the remaining three matches to retain the Tri Nations title and Bledisloe Cup . McCaw was seen as an inspiration after his return from injury , with Henry rating his performance in the 19 – 0 win in South Africa ( the first time the South Africans had been kept scoreless on home soil in 105 years ) as his best so far for the All Blacks .
In 2008 a fourth Bledisloe match was played in Hong Kong with the intention of expanding the game of rugby and in a close 19 – 14 game McCaw scored the match winning try . The Grand Slam tour to the United Kingdom and Ireland resulted in victories over Scotland ( 32 – 6 ) , Ireland ( 22 – 3 ) , Wales ( 29 – 9 ) and England ( 32 – 6 ) . During 2008 McCaw won every test he captained and a total of 26 out of 28 games he played in at all levels . The All Blacks won 13 of a record 15 tests , retained the Bledisloe Cup and Tri Nations Trophy , completed the Grand Slam and reclaimed the world No. 1 ranking from South Africa .
McCaw finished 2008 by making his debut for the Barbarians against Australia at Twickenham in a 11 – 18 loss .
= = = 2009 – 10 = = =
The Crusaders , under new coach Todd Blackadder , had a slow start to the 2009 season , losing four of their first five games . They recovered to finish fourth on the table , losing the semi @-@ final at Loftus Versfeld to the Bulls . McCaw injured his knee and missed the start of the international season , returning for the Tri Nations tournament . South Africa beat the All Blacks in every match to win the title and regain the number 1 ranking , with New Zealand beating Australia three times to finish second . It was the first time New Zealand had not won the competition in five years and the fifth time since the Tri Nations started in 1996 . A fourth Bledisloe Test against Australia was played in Japan before New Zealand toured Europe . Although New Zealand won every match on tour , an earlier loss to France and three defeats by the South Africans were the most suffered by the All Blacks in a season since McCaw joined the team in 2001 . Despite the team 's relatively poor season , McCaw was named the IRB International Player of the Year for a second time .
The 2010 season started in much the same way with the Crusaders finishing fourth during the round robin stage and losing to the Bulls in the semi @-@ final . During the season McCaw played his 100th Super Rugby game in a losing effort against the Cape Town @-@ based Stormers . New Zealand recorded victories over the touring Ireland and Wales teams , Ireland losing their match by a record 66 – 28 after number eight Jamie Heaslip received a red card for kneeing McCaw in the head . The All Blacks went through the Tri Nations undefeated with the final game of the tournament against Australia marking McCaw 's 52nd time captaining the All Blacks , surpassing Sean Fitzpatrick as New Zealand 's most @-@ capped test captain .
The fourth Bledisloe Cup match was again scheduled for Hong Kong and Australia ended a ten match losing streak to the All Blacks . It was to be the only loss the All Blacks would suffer that season as they went on to win another Grand Slam tour , defeating England , Scotland , Ireland and Wales . In the match against Ireland McCaw , along with team mate Mils Muliaina played in their 93rd test match passing Sean Fitzpatrick to become the most capped All Blacks . At the end of year McCaw was named the IRB International Player of the Year for the second successive season and the New Zealand sportsperson of the year at the Halberg awards .
= = = 2011 Rugby World Cup = = =
During preseason training in January 2011 McCaw injured his foot , subsequent x @-@ rays revealed that he had received a stress fracture in the fifth metatarsal of his right foot . It was determined his best chance of recovery was to undergo an operation where a pin was inserted . As a result , McCaw missed the opening two months of the SuperRugby season . During the All Black 's third Rugby World Cup pool match against France , McCaw became the first All Black to reach 100 test caps . However , it was also during this match McCaw re @-@ aggravated his foot injury . In order to rest his injury , he was forced to skip the more physical aspects of training and miss the All Blacks ' final pool match against Canada . Prior to the Quarter @-@ final against Argentina McCaw decided against having another x @-@ ray . Following the re @-@ occurrence of his injury it was uncertain whether McCaw could continue to play for the All Blacks , this forced the coaching staff to develop contingency plans and Matt Todd was called into the All Black training squad . McCaw was able to continue to play throughout the World Cup tournament and lifted the Webb Ellis trophy after a tense 8 – 7 victory over France . This was the lowest score in a final in World Cup history . After the final , the All Black coach Graham Henry stated " He can hardly walk and how he played today I just don 't know , " and he acknowledged the All Blacks probably would not have won without him . Following the World Cup x @-@ rays showed that the screw in his foot , necessary to stop the deterioration of the original injury had caused a second fracture . The fracture again , required a further operation .
After the Rugby World Cup McCaw was selected in the RWC Dream Team . This team was determined by public vote , with over 160 @,@ 000 votes cast . In addition , for the second successive year McCaw was named the New Zealand sportsperson of the year at the Halberg awards .
= = = 2012 – 2015 = = =
Under new coach Steve Hansen , the All Blacks won 12 tests , drew one and only lost one test in 2012 , as well as winning the new Rugby Championship with a 100 % winning record . During this time McCaw overtook George Gregan for most times on the winning side with 94 . He also recorded his 100th win against South Africa in Dunedin . Richie McCaw was a nominee for the IRB Player of the Year award but lost out to team mate Dan Carter .
In the first half of 2013 , in order to rest his body and improve his chances of playing in the 2015 Rugby World Cup McCaw enforced the sabbatical clause in his NZRFU contract . As a result , he only played the latter rounds of Super Rugby , and missed the 2013 French Test Series . He later returned to captain the All Blacks as they successfully defended the Rugby Championship . During this campaign , McCaw equalled ( with Brian O 'Driscoll of Ireland and John Smit of South Africa ) the record as captaining the most test matches ( 83 ) . McCaw subsequently overtook this record when playing in Japan on 2 November 2013 . Following the All Blacks victory over the Springboks in Ellis Park , McCaw has played and won at every major Rugby Test stadium . Along with Kieran Read , McCaw led the All Blacks to a perfect season in 2013 , winning 14 out of 14 .
McCaw captained New Zealand for the 100th time on 22 November 2014 in the end of year international against Wales . He is the first rugby union player to achieve 100 caps as captain .
On 15 August 2015 , McCaw surpassed Ireland 's Brian O 'Driscoll world record , as the most capped rugby player when he won his 142 cap against Australia in the Bledisloe Cup .
On 31 October 2015 , McCaw captained New Zealand to retain the Rugby World Cup after a 34 @-@ 17 win against Australia in the final at Twickenham .
On 19 November 2015 , McCaw announced his retirement from rugby .
= = Playing style = =
McCaw predominately played at openside flanker , although he has played in the other " loose forward " positions of blindside flanker and number eight for the Crusaders . The openside flanker binds to the side of the scrum farthest from the touch @-@ line and is usually one of the first players to reach a breakdown . In 2008 , McCaw told the IRB :
" My main role as a flanker is , defensively , to tie in with the back line to ensure that the defence works well . On attack I think my primary role at first phase is to look after our ball . You attack the back line and I 'm usually the first person there to make sure we secure that ball . Thirdly I put pressure on break downs and make sure I disturb their ball and try to turn their ball over . "
McCaw is regarded as the best openside flanker of all time . He has been awarded the IRB Player of the Year a record three times and has been nominated on eight occasions . When he received the IRB Player of The Year award for the third time former Australian lock and award chairperson John Eales described him as " an outstanding captain , a world class player and a role model for our sport " . Along with Dan Carter , he is seen as one of the most influential members of the All Blacks . McCaw considers his ability to anticipate play as one of his most important skills . Australian openside David Pocock , who was also shortlisted for the IRB award , admires the way he reads the game as well as his ability to read the referee . One of McCaw 's strengths is his ability to re @-@ invent himself . For example , he adapted quickly to changes in the breakdown laws ( e.g. , the 2008 the Experimental Law Variations ( ELVS ) and the 2010 New IRB Law Interpretations ) and , over time , other areas of his game .
Following the All Blacks win over Wallabies to claim their 3rd World Cup , All Blacks Coach Steve Hansen praised McCaw 's and Dan Carter 's career efforts , distinguishing McCaw from Carter :
“ Richie is the best All Black we have ever had and Dan is a close second , ” said Hansen . “ The only thing that separates them is Richie has played 148 matches at flanker , which is unheard of - you put your body on the line every time you go there . The challenge for the other guys now is to try and become as great as him and Dan . ”
Not all agree with McCaw 's playing style and many believe that he pushes the boundaries of legality . He has been labeled a " cheat " by both former South Africa coach Peter de Villiers and former Australian coach Bob Dwyer . Longtime Springboks lock Victor Matfield said in 2010 that the referees let " him get away with murder " at the breakdown . Shortly after the 2011 Rugby World Cup Final , veteran France back @-@ rower Imanol Harinordoquy said about McCaw 's play in that match , " He played the whole match in our camp . He did a lot of things and nobody [ specifically match referee Craig Joubert ] told him anything . Three minutes from the end of the game , I saw him dive on the side of a ruck and he stayed there for ages . " Media footage has been released pinpointing unpenalised transgressions during a match against Australia . Former Australian coach Eddie Jones and flanker Phil Waugh say he does no more than any other good openside , but his skill at judging how the referee will interpret the breakdown is the main reason for his success . McCaw admits that he tests the referee early " to know what you can get away with " and that only an " idiot " would not adapt to their rulings .
Teammate Aaron Mauger , along with many New Zealand fans , have suggested that McCaw 's influence and playing style has made him a target for illegitimate play . International players Phil Waugh , Jamie Heaslip , Marcus Horan , Lote Tuqiri , Andy Powell , Dylan Hartley , Quade Cooper , Dean Greyling , Kevin McLaughlin and Scott Higginbotham have been accused of making " cheap shots " on McCaw . He has even been on the receiving end from his All Black teammates when playing for the Crusaders , with Neemia Tialata , Jerry Collins and Ali Williams becoming frustrated with his play . According to McCaw " what happens on the field stays on the field " and if he gets extra attention it is because he " must be doing something right " .
In 2012 , Wallabies fans and Australian media speculated about McCaw 's possible decline . To counter the McCaw threat Wallabies coach Robbie Deans and selectors wagered the potential returns in finishing games with two openside flankers on the field . In September 2012 after the All Blacks v South African Test in Dunedin , current South African coach Heyneke Meyer said that McCaw was the greatest rugby player the world has ever seen .
= = International record by opposition = =
Correct as of 1 November 2015
= = Playing achievements = =
Victory at every major Rugby Test Stadium
= = Leading of the Haka = =
Despite McCaw being a Pākehā ( of European descent ) as captain he had occasionally led the haka for the All Blacks . He led the Ka Mate version 11 times , the first being in November 2006 against France and the last against Australia in August 2015 . In addition to these in the final of the 2015 Rugby World Cup against Australia McCaw led the team in a post match Ka Mate haka ( Keven Mealamu led the prematch Kapa o Pango version ) .
= = Personal life = =
In January 2013 it was reported that he had been seeing hockey player Gemma Flynn for the past six months . McCaw announced his engagement to Flynn in January 2016 .
His other sporting passion is flying and he has been made an honorary Squadron Leader in the Royal New Zealand Air Force . McCaw learned to fly gliders from his grandfather , who flew more than 300 missions in the Second World War . In 2009 he convinced the head of the Discovery network in Australia and New Zealand to do a show about gliding . They filmed McCaw gliding at Omarama on the extreme sports series Sportstar Insider , which was hosted by former Australian rugby league player Andrew Ettingshausen . After the 2010 Canterbury earthquake he auctioned a personal flying lesson through Trade Me to raise money for the badly damaged Hororata St Johns Church . He is also raising money for a young Samoan who broke his neck playing rugby and whose village was destroyed in the 2009 Samoa earthquake and tsunami . It was revealed at his retirement announcement in 2015 that McCaw will work at Christchurch Helicopters , where he is a Director and Shareholder , and is obtaining a commercial helicopter licence .
In 2010 , McCaw and Dan Carter were on a NZ $ 750 @,@ 000 a year contract that will see them through to the end of the 2011 Rugby World Cup , making them the highest paid rugby players in New Zealand at the time . This contract would still apply if they had not been selected for the World Cup squad .
= = = Order of New Zealand = = =
In December 2011 , Prime Minister John Key revealed that he had asked McCaw about the possibility of a knighthood in the 2012 New Year Honours , but that McCaw had turned it down . According to Key , " He made the call that he 's still in his playing career and it didn 't feel quite right for him , that day where he 's no longer on the pitch may be the right time for him . " No formal offer was ultimately made . McCaw was appointed a member of New Zealand 's highest honour , the Order of New Zealand , in the 2016 New Year Honours . The honour surpassed the knighthood he had previously turned down prior to his retirement because only 20 living New Zealanders can gain membership at any one time .
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= Ascension ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" Ascension " is the sixth episode of the second season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It premiered on the Fox network on October 21 , 1994 . It was written by Paul Brown , directed by Michael Lange , and featured guest appearances by Steve Railsback , Nicholas Lea , Steven Williams and Sheila Larken . The episode helped explore the series ' overarching mythology .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . However , the events of " Ascension " are a continuation of the plot of the preceding episode , " Duane Barry " . Following the kidnapping of Scully by an unhinged alien abductee Duane Barry ( Steve Railsback ) , Mulder races to track her down .
The decision to have the character of Scully abducted was driven by necessity , as Anderson had become pregnant and required time off from production . " Ascension " earned a Nielsen household rating of 9 @.@ 6 , being watched by 9 @.@ 2 million households in its initial broadcast , and received positive reviews from critics .
= = Plot = =
Upon hearing the voicemail showing Dana Scully 's ( Gillian Anderson ) kidnapping by Duane Barry , her partner Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) heads to her apartment and surveys the crime scene . He meets with Scully 's mother , Margaret , who claims to have had a dream about her being taken away . The next morning , Assistant Director Walter Skinner tells Mulder that he is " too close " to the case to be involved , and orders another FBI agent , Alex Krycek ( Nicholas Lea ) , to escort him home . Meanwhile , Barry speeds down the Blue Ridge Parkway when he is pulled over by a highway patrol officer . When Scully — locked in the trunk — tries to get the officer 's attention , Barry kills him . Mulder reviews a video of the traffic stop , and sees that Scully is still alive .
Mulder realizes that Barry is heading to a ski resort at Skyland Mountain , the location of Barry 's original abduction ; he is attempting to follow through with his original plan of having the aliens abduct someone there in his place . Krycek informs the Smoking Man ( William B. Davis ) of these findings before departing with Mulder . When they arrive , Mulder boards the resort 's aerial tramway in the hopes of reaching its peak before Barry . However , Krycek tries to delay Mulder by sabotaging the tramway 's journey upward . Mulder manages to complete the journey and witnesses a strange light in the area . Upon finding Barry 's car , Mulder sees no trace of Scully except her necklace . He then encounters a joyous Barry , who claims that she was taken by " them . "
When Mulder interrogates Barry , he becomes so enraged that he nearly strangles him , only to stop himself . When he leaves the room , he orders Krycek to not let anyone inside ; however , he finds Krycek talking to Barry when he returns . When Skinner arrives minutes later , Barry breaks into convulsions and dies . Later , at the FBI Academy in Quantico , Mulder attempts to question the doctor who performed Barry 's autopsy ; she refuses to provide details since it was performed by the military instead of the FBI , claiming no other doctors were available . Mulder and Krycek are ordered to take a polygraph test about Barry 's death .
Krycek meets with the Smoking Man , and suggests that they kill Mulder . However , the Smoking Man orders that Mulder be left alive , unless they want to risk " turning one man 's religion into a crusade " . A desperate Mulder tries to visit Senator Matheson , a patron of his work , only to be discouraged from doing so by his secretive informant , X ( Steven Williams ) . In his car , Mulder finds spent cigarettes from the Smoking Man 's meeting with Krycek . Realizing Krycek 's role in Scully 's abduction , Mulder submits a report to Skinner accusing Krycek of impeding his investigation and killing Barry . Skinner summons Krycek to his office , only to learn that he has disappeared . Skinner then announces to Mulder that he is officially re @-@ opening the X @-@ Files .
Mulder meets with Margaret Scully in a park , and tries to give her Scully 's necklace . Margaret returns the necklace to Mulder , asking that he give it to Scully when he finds her . Margaret also says that she had the dream again about losing her daughter ; Mulder takes this as a hopeful sign that Scully may still be alive . A mournful Mulder later returns to Skyland Mountain , to the field where Scully was abducted . Seemingly alone without her , he looks up into the stars .
= = Production = =
The idea to have Scully abducted originated when Gillian Anderson became pregnant in the middle of the first season . While initially upset , those in charge of the show never considered dropping the actress from the show . Ideas such as having Scully give birth to an alien baby were dismissed and ultimately the writers decided to work around the pregnancy by closing the X @-@ Files , separating Mulder and Scully , and eventually having her be abducted . This permitted the producers to have an explanation for Scully 's absence ( she appears in only two scenes in " Ascension " and not at all in the next episode , " 3 " ) . Series creator Chris Carter commented that both the censors and the producers were reluctant on showing Scully in the trunk , but he " fought for that image " as he considered it conveyed the sense of danger to the character . Carter added the scenes of the experiment were meant to be ambiguous on whether Scully was abducted by aliens , the military , or both .
" Ascension " featured guest appearances from Steve Railsback , Nicholas Lea , Steven Williams and Sheila Larken . David Duchovny provided his own stunts in this episode , including being dangled in the aerial lift , shot in a single day at Grouse Mountain in North Vancouver , British Columbia . The backdrop for Barry 's drive was done in a neighbouring mountain , Mount Seymour . The tagline for this episode is " Deny Everything " , replacing the usual phrase " The Truth is Out There . "
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Ascension " premiered on the Fox network on October 21 , 1994 , and was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC Two on October 2 , 1995 . The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 9 @.@ 6 with a 16 share , meaning that roughly 9 @.@ 6 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 16 percent of households watching TV , were tuned in to the episode . A total of 9 @.@ 2 million households watched this episode during its original airing .
In a retrospective of the second season in Entertainment Weekly , the episode was rated an A , being described as " an expertly paced race against time " . The handling of Anderson 's pregnancy was called " creative " , while the re @-@ opening of the X @-@ Files unit and the revelation of Krycek as a villainous character were noted as highlights . Writing for the A.V. Club , Zack Handlen called " Ascension " an " essential " episode , adding that it serves to " raise the stakes without losing the core of the show 's appeal , and solve a technical problem in the most creatively satisfying way possible " . Handlen also praised Nicholas Lea 's portrayal of agent Alex Krycek , but felt that the character 's role as a double agent was revealed too soon in the series . Critical Myth gave this episode 9 / 10 , stating " [ a ] s convoluted and bastardized as that plot thread would become , at this stage of the game , it was one of the best episodes of the series to date . "
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= Donut Run =
" Donut Run " is the eleventh episode of the second season of the American mystery television series Veronica Mars , and the thirty @-@ third episode overall . Written and directed by series creator Rob Thomas , " Donut Run " premiered on January 25 , 2006 on UPN .
The series depicts the adventures of Veronica Mars ( Kristen Bell ) as she deals with life as a high school student while moonlighting as a private detective . In this episode , after Meg 's death in " One Angry Veronica " , Duncan ( Teddy Dunn ) steals his baby daughter and runs away with her . Meanwhile , Logan ( Jason Dohring ) and Weevil ( Francis Capra ) work together on solving Felix Toombs 's murder .
" Donut Run " was the first episode of the series to be directed by Rob Thomas . The episode also features the final regular appearance by series regular Duncan Kane ( Teddy Dunn ) . Fans often expressed their dislike for the character and his relationship with Veronica , preferring the Veronica @-@ Logan relationship . " Donut Run " was the lowest @-@ rated episode of the series . Nevertheless , it was critically acclaimed .
= = Synopsis = =
Veronica and Logan ride the elevator and reach the apartment before finding Kendall ( Charisma Carpenter ) , indicating that Duncan was sleeping with her . Veronica confronts Duncan , who abruptly breaks up with her in the middle of the fight . After their breakup , Veronica slips into a depression ; Keith ( Enrico Colantoni ) attempts to console her to no avail . Logan and Weevil discuss who killed Felix , and they deduce that whoever it was in cahoots with the Fitzpatricks . Sheriff Lamb ( Michael Muhney ) comes in and informs Veronica that Duncan has disappeared and kidnapped his daughter , Faith . He arrests Veronica as a supposed accomplice . At the police station , Keith pressures Veronica to tell the truth about her unknowing involvement in supplying the finances for the kidnapping . Afterwards , Sheriff Lamb requires her to write down everything she knows on a notepad . Logan asks Dick ( Ryan Hansen ) to get some drugs for the Pacific Coast Highway biker gang . Vinnie Van Lowe ( Ken Marino ) talks to Veronica and says that he ’ ll find Duncan before she does .
Veronica learns that Wallace didn ’ t come back to Neptune to play basketball , as he originally said . Dick delivers the drugs , and Logan learns that Hector is now the prime suspect in Felix 's death . Two FBI agents talk to Sheriff Lamb , intent on getting the baby back . Veronica shows some information about Duncan ’ s computer . Weevil talks to Hector , who denies the accusation . The FBI agents and Sheriff Lamb learn that Duncan stole a boat . However , when the boat is searched they do not find anyone — just evidence that people were there . Veronica thinks that Duncan has been picked up by someone . Veronica asks Vinnie Van Lowe to give a letter to Duncan . Weevil talks to Sean Friedrich ( Kevin Sheridan ) , a drug dealer , but learns that he wasn ’ t working for the Fitzpatricks . Veronica talks to Wallace ( Percy Daggs III ) , who says that a teammate crashed his car into a man and drove away while he was in it . He felt incredibly guilty and decided to come back .
Veronica receives a short call from Duncan just as the FBI agents track Duncan ’ s location . Veronica goes into an abandoned apartment , where she meets Duncan . It turns out that the set of events that seemed to point towards Duncan having stolen the baby were a scam so that Veronica and Duncan could successfully smuggle Duncan and the baby to Mexico together . Sheriff Lamb learns this fact just as Keith finds diapers in the apartment . A reporter contacts Wallace . Sheriff Lamb goes down to Mexico and asks around for Duncan Kane . Keith angrily confronts Veronica about her actions regarding the baby . The FBI agents search Veronica ’ s apartment . Weevil learns that Felix was dating Molly Fitzpatrick . Sheriff Lamb continues his search before finding his trunk unloaded . Duncan , disguised as a hitchhiker , gets picked up by Vinnie Van Lowe and Astrid ( Celeste ’ s assistant ) , and they drive off into the distance .
= = Arc significance = =
Duncan escapes Neptune and leaves the United States with his baby daughter , Faith Manning , whom he has renamed Lilly . Veronica aided him in this escapade , and when Keith learns about her involvement , he states that he will never be able to trust her again . Wallace returned to Neptune because he was involved in a drunk driving incident in Chicago . Weevil and Logan continue to work together to solve Felix 's murder and learn that Felix was dating Molly Fitzpatrick .
= = Production = =
The episode was written and directed by series creator Rob Thomas . Although Thomas had previously written " Pilot " , " Credit Where Credit 's Due " , " Leave It to Beaver " , and " Normal Is the Watchword " , this is his first directing credit for the show and his first professional directing credit . In an interview , Thomas expressed nervousness around the shoot , especially when to call " Action . " Thomas also made sure that he directed an episode that he 'd written . When asked about how it came to be that Thomas directed an episode , he replied :
It could not have made less sense , for me to direct an episode right smack in the middle of the season . And it about killed me . For a month there , I was doing two jobs , and they 're both very full time , directing an episode and still running the show and looking at cuts of the show , looking at scripts , doing casting — all of that had to keep going while I was directing , and it was really difficult . I think if I direct in the future , it 'll be episode 20 , 21 , or 22 , so all the scripts are in , and I don 't have both hats on at the same time .
Being a first @-@ time director , the network is , what 's the word I 'm looking for – they don 't want a first @-@ time director directing one of their sweeps episodes , so it created a limited number of episodes that I could choose from .
The episode features the final regular appearance by Duncan Kane ( played by Teddy Dunn ) , after his character was written off the series . Duncan would later cameo in the season two finale , " Not Pictured " . Thomas attributed Duncan 's departure to the lack of fan interest in Veronica and Duncan 's relationship and the more enthusiastic reception to the Veronica @-@ Logan relationship , stating that " You know , we had two romantic possibilities for Veronica . One sort of dominated the fans ' interest . And it became clear that one suitor won out . "
From the very beginning of the series , fans had expressed dislike towards the character of Duncan . However , he decided to keep playing the character . In a later interview , he said , " Obviously , I acted because I wanted the fans to like the experience . You want your performance to be liked . You don 't want to suck . You don 't want people to think you suck . That wasn 't the goal . " Towards the end of the airing of the first season , he stated , " I 'm going to be there in every episode next season if we get a second season . So people will either continue to hate me or things will change . Things are going to change for Duncan anyway , as the season resolves . There are going to be different sides of him that you 're going to get to see . " Before going into the filming of season two , Thomas had told Dunn that he was being written off the show , and Dunn did not react badly to the news , as by that point , it " was actually a decision " for him to return for the second season at all .
The episode features a special guest @-@ starring appearance by actress Lucy Lawless as an FBI agent . " Donut Run " marks the final appearance of recurring character Celeste Kane .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
In its original broadcast , " Donut Run " received 1 @.@ 62 million viewers , becoming the lowest @-@ rated episode of the series overall and marking a sharp decrease in 1 @.@ 8 million viewers from the previous episode , " One Angry Veronica " and ranking 118th of 121 in the weekly rankings .
= = = Reviews = = =
The episode received critical acclaim . Writing for The A.V. Club , Rowan Kaiser gave the episode a positive review , stating that the characters knowing facts that the audience doesn 't worked . " ' Donut Run ' actually does this well , in large part because the heist that we 're seeing — Duncan and Veronica stealing the coma baby — requires that Duncan and Veronica stage a breakup , meaning that Veronica seems to be a free , bitter agent for the bulk of the episode . " Price Peterson of TV.com heavily praised what he called a " great episode " and " a fitting send @-@ off for Duncan " . He elaborated that " as much as he and Veronica were a good match , there 's only so much you can do dramatically with a happy relationship , you know ? I 'm kind of glad she 's back to being a free agent again . "
Amy Ratcliffe of IGN called the episode the third best episode of the series , behind " Weapons of Class Destruction " and " Leave It to Beaver " . The publication stated that " this fast @-@ paced episode … had switches and secrets and is a tad reminiscent of Oceans 11 " and that the characterization of Vinnie Van Lowe was " a pleasing little touch . " Vulture listed the episode 's use of " How Can You Mend a Broken Heart " by Al Green and " Adelaide " by The Old 97 's on its list of " 16 Perfect Musical Moments from Veronica Mars " . Katie Atkinson of Entertainment Weekly ranked " Donut Run " as one of " the 10 essential episodes of Veronica Mars " , noting " The Air That I Breathe " by The Hollies as a musical standout . Kath Skerry of Give Me My Remote called the episode the 2nd best of the series , behind " Not Pictured " , writing that " This episode is arguably the biggest game @-@ changer of Veronica Mars . It ’ s also one of the saddest , " also writing that it " featured one of the most moving scenes of the series . " BuzzFeed ranked the episode 14th on its list of the best Veronica Mars episodes , writing that " so many great things happen in this one . "
Reviews were not all positive . Television Without Pity gave a more mixed review , saying that there were " quite a few problems " with the episode and grading it a B- . The reviewer argued that the episode lacked clarity in the supporting characters ' involvement in the story and did not provide a satisfying or realistic conclusion to Veronica and Duncan 's relationship . TVLine ranked the episode 40th out of 64 on its list of Veronica Mars episodes .
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= M13 Multiple Gun Motor Carriage =
The M13 Multiple Gun Motor Carriage ( MGMC ) , otherwise known as the M13 Half @-@ track , was a self @-@ propelled anti @-@ aircraft gun used by the U.S. Army during World War II that was armed with two .50 caliber M2HB heavy @-@ barrel Browning machine guns . Developed in response to a requirement for a mobile anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) vehicle , the vehicle was produced by the White Motor Company between July 1942 and May 1943 . The only time it was ever used in combat was when the Americans landed at Anzio in January 1944 . It was replaced by the more heavily armed M16 Multiple Gun Motor Carriage in April 1944 .
The M13 evolved from a series of several unsuccessful prototypes that were trialed from 1940 to 1942 . Of these , the T1E4 was selected and given the official name of the M13 MGMC , before being placed into production . Half of the M13s produced were converted into M16s on the production lines .
= = Specifications = =
The M13 Half @-@ track was 21 feet 4 inches ( 6 @.@ 50 m ) long , 7 feet 1 inches ( 2 @.@ 16 m ) wide , and 7 feet 8 inches ( 2 @.@ 34 m ) high with a wheelbase of 135 @.@ 5 inches ( 3 @.@ 44 m ) . It had bogie suspension for the wheels and vertical volute springs for the tracks . It had a 60 US gallon ( 230 l ) fuel capacity and a range of 175 miles ( 282 km ) . The vehicle was powered by a six @-@ cylinder White 160AX , 128 horsepower ( 95 kW ) , 386 cubic inches ( 6 @,@ 330 cc ) gasoline engine , with a compression ratio of 6 @.@ 3 : 1 . It had a power @-@ to @-@ weight ratio of 15 @.@ 8 horsepower per ton and weighed nine tons . The armor across most of the vehicle was 0 @.@ 25 inch ( 6 mm ) thick with a 0 @.@ 5 inch ( 12 mm ) thick windscreen visor . The vehicle was armed with two 0 @.@ 5 inch M2 Browning heavy machine guns placed on an M33 Maxson mount . The two machine guns were fired remotely and powered by a small electrical motor near the back of the turret . The guns were aimed with a Mark 9 reflector sight . Each vehicle had a crew of five ( commander , driver , gunner , and two ammunition loaders ) .
= = Development = =
= = = Early experiments = = =
In October 1940 , development began to produce a vehicle in response to a long @-@ standing requirement for an anti @-@ aircraft vehicle to protect the U.S. Army 's mechanized troop convoys from aerial attack . The first vehicle produced in the development of a half track with an anti @-@ aircraft armament was the T1 , which had two M2 machine guns on a Bendix machine gun mount — as used on jeeps — on a 4 × 4 truck . The T1E1 had a power @-@ operated Bendix mount , and the T1E2 a Maxson mount . The T1E3 had an electro @-@ dynamic Glenn L. Martin Company aircraft @-@ type turret . Evaluation of these test vehicles led to the T1E2 design being preferred . The T1E2 became the M16 Half @-@ track by replacing the M33 with the M45 mount and the M2 Half @-@ track chassis with the M3 Half @-@ track chassis .
= = = T1E4 and M13 = = =
The next stage of development was to use the T1E2 configuration on the longer chassis of the M3 Half @-@ track , since it could store more ammunition . This vehicle , originally designated as the T1E4 , was accepted into production as the M13 Multiple Gun Motor Carriage on 27 July 1942 . A total of 1 @,@ 103 examples of this variant were produced from 27 July 1942 to 15 May 1943 . Half of them ( 583 ) were converted into M16s by the White Motor Company before reaching the army . Deliveries began in late 1943 .
= = Service history = =
The M13 served at the landing at Anzio with the VI Corps of the Fifth United States Army in January 1944 . It was used as an anti @-@ aircraft weapon during the initial landing and then later as a ground support weapon to repel heavy German panzer attacks on the beachhead . It was replaced three months later by the M16 Multiple Gun Motor Carriage in April 1944 . Only 139 examples were deployed overseas by the U.S. Army .
Ten were transferred to the United Kingdom under Lend @-@ Lease .
= = Prototypes = =
T1 – This variant used two M2 Browning heavy machine guns on a Bendix mount on a 4 × 4 truck . This model , like most of the others , was a prototype . It was tested in June – July 1941 at the Aberdeen Proving Grounds , but was rejected because of the " excessive dispersion of ammunition " .
T1E1 – Another prototype that used the Bendix mount on a M2 Half @-@ track Car . It was cancelled in April 1942 .
T1E2 – This variant was essentially the same as the T1E1 except the Bendix mount was replaced with the M33 Maxson mount . After the M33 was replaced with the M45 Quadmount it was accepted as the M16 Half @-@ track .
T1E3 – A T1E1 with a Martin turret designed for use on bombers .
= = Derivatives = =
T1E4 / M13 – The Martin turret was replaced by the M33 and was based on the M3 Half @-@ track . It was accepted as the M13 Half @-@ track in July 1942 . A total of 139 examples of this variant saw action at Anzio as a ground support weapon used to repel heavy German attacks . It was replaced by the M16 in April 1944 .
M14 Half @-@ track – This variant had the same armament as the M13 but used the slightly different M5 Half @-@ track chassis built by International Harvester for the Lend @-@ Lease Program . The M14 was mostly supplied to Britain , where they were converted back to regular half @-@ tracks . A total of 1602 were produced by International Harvester .
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= Suga Mama =
" Suga Mama " is a song recorded by American R & B singer Beyoncé Knowles for her second studio album , B 'Day ( 2006 ) . It was written by Knowles , Rich Harrison , and Makeba Riddick , and produced by Harrison and Knowles . " Suga Mama " is influenced by 1970s funk and rock music . An R & B and soul song , " Suga Mama " is built on a hip hop and jazzy beat , and samples Jake Wade and the Soul Searchers ' song " Searching for Soul " , written by Chuck Middleton . Lyrically , it features the female protagonist willing to pay large sums of money to keep her love interest contented .
" Suga Mama " was generally well received by music critics , who noted it as one of the highlights from B 'Day and complimented Harrison 's production . However , there was some limited criticism about Knowles ' vocal delivery on the song . Though not released as a single , " Suga Mama " had a music video filmed in black @-@ and @-@ white , and directed by Melina Matsoukas and Knowles , for the B 'Day Anthology Video Album . It received a limited release to British music TV channels . " Suga Mama " was added on the set list of Knowles ' world tour , The Beyoncé Experience ( 2007 ) .
= = Recording = =
Knowles enlisted Harrison as one of the five co @-@ producers of B 'Day , and she arranged for him , Sean Garrett and Rodney Jerkins to be given individual rooms at Sony Music Studios in New York City . Knowles said she fostered " healthy competition " between the producers by going into each of their rooms and commenting on the " great beats " the others were creating . She and Harrison had previously collaborated on her 2003 single " Crazy in Love " , which uses a prominent soul music sample in a similar manner to " Suga Mama " . Fox News said that " Suga Mama " and " Freakum Dress " , Harrison 's other contribution to B 'Day " fall short of originality but mimic the Chi Lites [ sic ] percussion section [ of " Crazy in Love " ] yet again " , adding , " Harrison is like the Indiana Jones of soul , constantly pulling out forgotten gems of the past for sampling [ ... ] You can 't help but think : Thank God someone wrote music in the past that can be repurposed now . "
= = Music and theme = =
" Suga Mama " is a moderate R & B and soul song that displays influences of the 1960s as well as 1970s funk and rock music . It also song contains limited elements of the 1980s go @-@ go and sounds more closely resembling live music than Knowles ' previous recordings . According to the sheet music published by Hal Leonard Corporation , " Suga Mama " was composed using common time in the key of G minor , with a moderate tempo of 94 beats per minute .
Knowles ' vocals span from the low note of C4 to the high note of G5 as she sings on a hip hop and jazzy beat . The main instrumentation is provided by a bluesy guitar . IGN Music noted that " Suga Mama " is built of a " static grit groove " , and Jody Rosen of Entertainment Weekly wrote that the song consists of a mixture of " brute power and slick syncopation " . It samples Jake Wade and the Soul Searchers ' song " Searching for Soul " , which was written by Chuck Middleton .
" Suga Mama " features the female protagonist offering up the keys to her house and car , and her credit card just to keep her love interest and his good loving at home , presumably so that he can listen to her collection of old soul records . These interpretations are shown in the lines : " It 's so good to the point that I 'll do anything just to keep you home ... Tell me what you want me to buy , my accountant 's waiting on the phone ... " . The woman also sees the man as a sex object , asking him to sit on her lap and " take it off while I watch you perform " . Staff members of USA Today contrasted " Suga Mama " with the 1999 song " Bills , Bills , Bills " by Destiny 's Child ( of which Knowles was a member ) , writing that " From needing somebody to pay her automo @-@ bills , [ Knowles is ] now doling out the cash as a satisfaction @-@ seeking ' Suga Mama ' . " Dave de Sylvi of Sputnikmusic noted that Knowles sings : " I could be like a jolly rancher that you get from the corner store " with the same sense of mischief as Christina Aguilera on ' Candyman ' ( 2007 ) . " On the other hand , Gail Mitchell of Billboard magazine noticed that the song 's lyrical arrangement was similar to that of Tina Turner 's work . A remix of the song features American rapper Consequence .
= = Critical reception = =
The song received generally positive reviews . Jim DeRogatis of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times , who reviewed B 'Day negatively , wrote that " Suga Mama " was the " best moment " on the album , and that it " owes much of its charm to lifts from Jake Wade and the Soul Searchers " . Likewise , Bernard Zuel The Sydney Morning Herald cited " Suga Mama " as one of the " good moments " on B 'Day , writing : " ... followed by a dud ... the slinky funk of ' Suga Mama ' is trodden on by the mechanical ' Upgrade U ' and then trampled by the posturing and eventually annoying ' Ring the Alarm ' " . Chris Richards of The Washington Post commented that Rich Harrison " delivers again with ' Suga Mama ' , twisting a vintage Soul Searchers sample into a gritty , loping groove . Beyonce sounds right at home on this one ... And while it doesn 't quite eclipse ' Crazy in Love ' , it 's still B 'Day 's finest moment . " Andy Kellman of Allmusic described " Suga Mama " as a " spectacularly layered " track .
Eb Haynes of AllHipHop considered " Suga Mama " to be an embodiment of " the woman wearing and buying $ 500 stiletto pumps . " Dave de Sylvi of Sputnikmusic wrote that Knowles is as " sweet and faux @-@ innocent " as the 1960s soul stars in the song . Jody Rosen of Entertainment Weekly wrote that songs such as " Suga Mama " showcase of Knowles ' virtuosity and continued , " No one – not R. Kelly , not Usher , to say nothing of her rival pop divas – can match Beyoncé 's genius for dragging her vocal lines [ ... ] " . By contrast , IGN Music criticized Knowles ' vocals in the song , writing that she " comes in over the low @-@ end track with too much earnestness , drowning out the funky grooves with her piercing dramatic mezzo @-@ soprano . If she were a throaty alto , she 'd fit the beats that have been served up to her much more appropriately . "
= = Music video = =
The accompanying music video for " Suga Mama " was released to British music channels in April 2007 . It was shot in black @-@ and @-@ white and was co @-@ directed by Melina Matsoukas alongside Knowles for the B 'Day Anthology Video Album , which was released the same month ; " Suga Mama " was one of eight videos shot in two weeks for the video album . It begins with Knowles sitting in a chair , wearing men 's clothing and smoking a cigar . She gets up and begins to pole dance . The remainder of the video presents Knowles dancing on top of a sugar cube , dancing with backing dancers whose faces are partially concealed , lying in a circle of light , and riding a mechanical bull . Knowles said she is meant to " slowly become a woman " during the video , adding " Well , a sexier woman – I 'm always a woman . "
Knowles rehearsed the pole dancing using two ballet bars , which was when it was decided to add a pole above her head to form an arc . Though she is from Texas , she had never previously been on mechanical bull . There were no problems during warm @-@ ups , but the man operating the bull during the video shoot programmed it to go faster , causing Knowles to fall off when she tried to perform tricks such as lifting up her foot , leaning back and turning around . To minimize the time Knowles spent on the bull , the director shot the sequence at twelve frames per second ( see frame rate ) and Knowles sang twice as quickly , but it wasn 't until 4 : 00 am that they completed work .
= = Live performances = =
Although Knowles did not perform " Suga Mama " in any televised appearances , the song was a part of her set list on The Beyoncé Experience ( 2007 ) . In Los Angeles , Knowles performed segments of the song , dressed in a golden , translucent slip and golden , sparkling panties . It was executed without backup dancers , but with live instrumentation and only backup singers toward the performance 's conclusion . " Suga Mama " was included on her 2007 live album The Beyoncé Experience Live . Bill Friskics @-@ Warren of The Tennessean wrote that the song " was even sexier and more gutbucket than on record " .
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= Carl Edgar Myers =
Carl Edgar Myers ( ( 1842 @-@ 03 @-@ 02 ) March 2 , 1842 – November 30 , 1925 ( 1925 @-@ 11 @-@ 30 ) ) was an American businessman , scientist , inventor , meteorologist , balloonist , and aeronautical engineer . He invented many types of hydrogen balloon airships and related equipment . His business of making passenger airship balloons and instrument balloons at his " balloon farm " was well known throughout the United States in the late nineteenth century and early twentieth century . He invented a machine for varnishing fabric that would make it impervious to hydrogen so that the finished product could be made into large envelopes for lighter @-@ than @-@ air balloons .
Myers also experimented in making artificial rain in areas where rain was deficient for agriculture . He made oxy @-@ hydrogen balloons that were exploded at high altitude to cause rain . He contracted with the U.S. government and lumber companies to make these balloon " bombs " for the production of man @-@ made rain .
Myers was a manager for the 1904 St. Louis World ’ s Fair and the superintendent of their Aeronautic Concourse for balloon demonstrations and aerial races . He made balloon military warships and inventions that could be used for defense in case of attack by air by foreign interests and demonstrated at the Fair .
= = Early life and education = =
Myers , born March 2 , 1842 , was of German descent and the son of Abram Myers and Ann Ela Myers . His birthplace was Fort Herkimer in New York state , but he grew up in the nearby town of Mohawk . Myers attended a school run by a scientist , which stimulated his scientific curiosity . At school he became interested in the principles of electricity and all related matters .
Myers earned extra money from fulfilling requests for art work and building mechanical gadgets for others . He spent most of this money on materials for his experiments and on science books . He spent his extra time in workshops and laboratories to learn scientific principles , and his spare time in the woods to learn about nature . He was a leader among his classmates and the local teenagers .
Myers had mechanical understanding and could improve many devices . One was an invention that he patented of a kerosene lamp damper that reduced considerably the smoke from its flame . Another innovation , of which he was very proud , was an automatic self @-@ recording mercury barometer that recorded its measurements on a strip of paper ; with this meteorological instrument he kept a continuous barometric record that covered a span of 30 years .
= = Career = =
Myers made his own electrical @-@ mechanical apparatuses and tools . He turned his interests , hobbies and experiments into early entrepreneur ventures that earned money for him . He became at one time or another a delivery agent , bill collector , bank clerk , carpenter , chemist , electrician , gas @-@ fitter , mechanic , photographer , plumber , printer , telegrapher , and writer .
At nineteen Myers became a teller and cashier at the Mohawk Valley Bank starting July 5 , 1861 . General Francis E. Spinner was the treasurer of the bank at the time . His first year as a trainee was without pay . Myers then received a salary of $ 100 per year , being higher than normal since he put in extra attention to his work habits . He opened his own little telegraph office in July 1863 within the counting office of the bank . This was the first telegraph office for the town of Mohawk , New York . He constructed all the necessary telegraph equipment needed and taught himself Morse code so he could send and receive messages . Myers ' income from this bank telegraph business was one @-@ half of his total income . He eventually had to give up being a part @-@ time telegraph operator within the bank , as his bank responsibilities took up most of his time . He turned over the telegraph business to the local post office with Austin Shall as the operator .
Myers worked at Mohawk Valley Bank for six years . During this time he developed an interest in counterfeit money . He collected counterfeit bills and assembled a scrapbook of these for study . He then had another book of genuine bills ; he then compared the two to learn the counterfeiters ' techniques . He became an expert in detecting counterfeit bills . This became a valued interest to the bankers and Myers was given all the bank notes to pass through him for approval of genuineness . This ultimately became a basis for the present day method of detecting counterfeit bills .
Myers resigned from the bank in 1867 and moved to Hornellsville , New York . There he bought a photography gallery and ran the business for several years . Myers met Mary Hawley in Hornellsville and married her on November 8 , 1871 . She was 7 years younger , being born in 1849 . In 1873 Myers took up an interest in making hydrogen gas and ballooning . The couple moved back to Mohawk from Hornellsville in 1875 and began activities of balloon manufacturing and flying . Mary became his lab assistant and later a balloon pilot known as Carlotta , the Lady Aeronaut .
= = First balloons = =
Myers built his first balloon in the summer of 1878 in Mohawk Valley . It was over 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) in diameter and could contain 10 @,@ 000 cubic feet of hydrogen gas . The balloon material with its valve weighed almost one hundred pounds . The envelope material was high quality cotton cloth that was unbleached . It was varnished with linseed oil gum thinned with turpentine . Myers invented machinery that applied the coats of varnish onto fabric of silk or cotton . There were several coats of varnish applied to make a balloon envelope impervious to hydrogen . The first of these patented machines , that took fourteen days to construct , was in operation for seven years . Myers made sixty hydrogen balloons in sixty days in 1891 . He built a set of ten hydrogen gas balloons in five days in 1892 .
= = Gates mansion workshops = =
In 1889 Myers purchased the Gates Mansion Victorian style house with five acres of property that was located near Frankfort , New York , previously owned by Fred Gates of the Diamond Match Company . Here Myers and his wife went into the business of manufacturing passenger balloons and specialty purpose gas balloons , many for the US government . The balloons that had just been assembled were partially inflated outdoors to test if they held the hydrogen gas properly . Because of the large balloons half inflated and laid out on the property grounds , it gave the impression they were growing large mushrooms or some unusual new farm crop . In time people figured out they were really making balloons and it became known as the Frankfort " balloon farm . "
The three story mansion house was broken up into workshops and living quarters . The workshops were a chemistry lab , a print shop , a shipping room , a carpentry work area and machine shop facilities . The attic above the third story was devoted entirely for all the machines and associated tools necessary for the construction of airships . One first floor room was a large library with many books on aeronautics and science , where Myers researched often and brainstormed with his wife . There were out @-@ buildings scattered throughout the five acres that contained gas engines , chemical labs , and furnace facilities .
Newspapers reported that Myers had a monopoly on the making of hydrogen gas balloons and was the only producer in the United States of these balloons for the government . A loft in the Myers house was made available for a sewing area of balloon materials to make the large balloons . The fabric material was patterned , sewed together into large strips , and made ready for varnishing . He had a patent of a fabric made from sea island cotton that was used for the varnish application . Myers ' patented varnish formula made the fabric impervious to hydrogen . The varnish used to seal the fabric material for the balloon envelopes was prepared in a low pit outdoors in a ravine behind the house . This was below ground level so the fabric being prepared was sheltered from the wind . It also provided a fire @-@ pit in case the flammable material caught on fire . There was a water @-@ hose handy for putting out a fire .
The liquid varnish was made with a large iron kettle that had a cover on it . Fire was applied under the kettle for the " cooking " of the raw linseed oil formula . The oil mix " cooked " for four to eight hours to a consistency of gum . The gum material was thinned to the consistency of syrup and poured into a sloping vat that lead into a Myers ' patented machine apparatus of various rollers , squeezers , and scrapers . They acted by pressure of springs and weights .
The raw wound fabric of silk or cotton was fed from large rollers into Myers ' varnishing machine for processing . The processed wet fabric , soaked with varnish , was rubbed and pressed so the varnish would go into all the pores . The excess varnish was then removed and the wet fabric cloth hung outdoors in bright sunshine for 6 to 12 hours like laundry . The processed fabric had the elastic properties of rubber . This patented varnish that Myers invented was able to seal the balloon material to hold the hydrogen gas , that otherwise would penetrate even glass and metal . The silk or cloth fabric used required eight to ten applications of the varnish to seal properly to be thoroughly impervious to hydrogen gas .
This same general area of the property was used also for the drying of the varnished fabric . This consisted of twenty foot high clothes line @-@ type poles that were 100 feet apart and further protected by wind @-@ break fences of canvas . Between the poles were strung wires for laying the wet varnished fabric onto for drying . After drying the fabric was then rewound onto rollers and varnished over and over again several more times to each side and thoroughly dried each time . Each application of new varnish added a thin layer .
The basement of the house was used for generating hydrogen gas and pure oxygen . The hydrogen making apparatus consisted of a tank half filled with water . This tank was also filled with iron filings from Navy cast @-@ iron projectiles . Sulfuric acid was added into the tank of water and filings , which was slowly decanted . The acid separated the water into hydrogen and oxygen gases . The iron filings absorbed the oxygen gas which allowed the hydrogen to go up through a pipe into a wash @-@ barrel , which had another pipe to the balloon envelope . The freed hydrogen gas then filled the balloon , which had a lifting ability of 60 pounds per 1 @,@ 000 cubic feet of gas . The balloon was held down to the ground by sandbag weights so that when filled it didn 't float away . A 50 feet ( 15 m ) diameter balloon would hold 65 @,@ 000 cubic feet of hydrogen gas giving the filled balloon a lifting ability of about 4 @,@ 000 pounds .
Myers was known as the " Flying Dutchman " and the " Mohawk Dutchman " because of his location , name , and being a balloonist . His technology was developed to the extent that the balloons he made could hold hydrogen gas in an envelope for up to five days . – outdoors in all kinds of weather .
Myers wrote in newspaper articles how safe his hydrogen balloons were to travel in . One example he often gave was that of encountering rough weather , like a rain storm . He pointed out that an airplane could not stop and hover in mid @-@ air , whereas a balloon could . He pointed out that in a tempest or high wind a balloon was perfectly safe as long as the rider didn 't make any deliberate opposing moves . He claimed that passenger trips would soon be as commonplace as buying a ticket for them .
= = Torpedo airship = =
Myers " balloon farm " was the only place in America by 1902 where hydrogen balloons were manufactured , whether for the government or for private use . These hydrogen aircraft made by him came in a large variety and flew just like one would read about in a children 's book or dream of in a story . The public was allowed to walk through and view his place in the summertime .
The flying aerial @-@ craft airships were not just working models that went a few feet along a track , but flying machines driven by real people . They could ascend , turn and dive . These inventions and innovations of Myers consisted not just of air vessels , but also of scientific application balloons and specialty ordered curiosity balloons contrived of by other inventors . Some even gave the impression they were from the future or another world of advanced people .
Myers realised that normal , globe @-@ shaped hot air passenger balloons were subject to the whim of the direction of the winds . He then thought that perhaps a passenger balloon could be controlled somehow to move against the flow . His first step in an evolution to a controllable balloon was the design of a large elongated spindle instead of a sphere . His theory was that a symmetrical wave line spindle body would have less head resistance when passing through the air than did a blunt globe .
Myers ’ new design would be similar to that of Alberto Santos @-@ Dumont 's balloons . The gas spindle balloon envelope would hold hydrogen gas , a lifting agent since it was lighter than the air around it . This new design was referred to as a " torpedo " airship . His first torpedo airship was 13 feet long and five feet in diameter in the center with its prow and stern sharply pointed . The airship also had a rudder in the front to help in its steering .
The envelope that held the hydrogen gas of Myers ' torpedo airship was made of red and yellow silk . One of its trips was a distance of 600 miles and it ran at an average speed of 12 miles an hour . It was powered forward by a propeller that spun at 5 @,@ 000 revolutions per minute . The caloric engine that drove the propeller was a spontaneous combustion engine " fed " with nitroglycerin semi @-@ translucent fuel pellets . This type of airship could hold up to 10 passengers or a combination of freight and crewmen . Myers ' " torpedo " airships were built later in larger versions . Some were entered in airship contests and one was demonstrated at the St. Louis World 's Fair of 1904 . It was 74 feet long and 21 feet in diameter . It contained 14 @,@ 000 cubic feet of hydrogen gas and would lift 900 pounds of weight . Myers made several successful experimental test flights at his Frankfort " balloon farm " before delivering it to a Mr. Benbow , the purchaser . After that it was referred to as the Benbow airship . The airship had four 10 horse @-@ power gasoline motors that ran propellers of 4 blades each . The four propellers could be manipulated in most any direction so the operator could steer the airship sideways right and left , go up and down , and forward and backwards as desired .
= = Sky @-@ cycle = =
Myers designed a new type balloon vessel based on Carlotta 's discoveries of aerodynamics and how airship bodies acted in the sky . Carlotta was the first woman to use a maneuverable airship . She used a cloth screw @-@ sail and also a cloth rudder for controlling the steering of her aeroplane platform . The platform car device weighted 11 pounds . This was the first time that an ordinary spherical balloon could be controlled by a person . Myers then incorporated new features into balloons based on Carlotta 's findings . For a more efficient steerable airship vessel he made his next balloon gas bag bottom flat so that it would act like an inclined plane .
This airship that lifted a rider consisted of a cigar @-@ shaped hydrogen balloon that looked like an inverted boat wrapped in netting . It had a velocipede seat and steering bar for a rider . A cloth screw propeller was operated by the rider through a cog wheel and ratchet attachment operated by the rider pedaling . He first called the hybrid invention an " air bicycle , " that navigated through the air like driving a bicycle . He later named it a " gas kite , " an " aerial velocipede " , an " aerial bicycle " , and ultimately a " sky @-@ cycle . " The propeller acted like a screw of a boat and propelled the airship forward and up with the backward air current generated . It could go to a thousand feet , be maneuvered , and brought back at will by the rider . Myers ' wife was an expert in sky @-@ cycling .
The airship had tumultuous times at the start . Professor A.W. Bernard of Nashville , Tennessee took claim to his invention in 1897 . Myers sent telegrams to editors of newspapers in the month of May of that year explaining that he was the inventor of the world 's first ' sky @-@ cycle ' airship in spite of what Bernard and others said . Myers explained to the newspapers that his invention had already been displayed in front of a group of people in New York City in August 1895 . Myers showed to them that the basic principles of the controllable airship were already patented by him and his wife on May 26 , 1885 . He further explained that the only ' sky @-@ cycle ' patent ever issued to anybody was granted to him on April 20 , 1897 . Bernard was trying to stake claim that it was his invention and had really just made a duplicate of Myers ' previous recorded patents .
The newspapers then printed articles that explained Myers ' sky @-@ cycle ' airship to the general public , showing that the problems of aerial navigation had already been solved by Myers before August 1895 . He had previously done 3 experimental flights of the ' sky @-@ cycle ' at his Frankfort " balloon farm " in New York state . On August 4 , 1895 a reporter flew Myers ' ' sky @-@ cycle ' in the Brooklyn area of New York City in a forty @-@ mile an hour wind . Myers made on the spot the hydrogen needed for the airship . The 1895 demonstration event took place at the Rockwell Leather Works factory property at the corner of Flushing and Classon avenues .
The article explains the sequence of events of this August 4 New York City demonstration flight of 1895 . When the reporter was all positioned and ready in the sky @-@ cycle he gave word to the ground crew to let go of the ropes that held the hydrogen balloon back and it immediately lifted the sky @-@ cycle into the air . The airship drifted up slowly at first , going towards the factory roof peaks . The driver @-@ reporter immediately dropped one of the sandbag weights and the sky @-@ cycle airship rose up sharply , avoiding the building roofs . When the airship was about a thousand feet high the attached balloon propeller revolved and the sky @-@ cycle airship flew over the East River . The steamships and tugs that spotted the sky @-@ cycle floating above tooted their whistles .
The sky @-@ cycle airship continued to climb to about two thousand feet and then traveled north using the East River as a landmark and went to East Sixtieth Street . The reporter then steered the sky @-@ cycle to One Hundred and Twenty @-@ eighth Street . There he crossed the East River again and then hovered over Greenpoint . The reporter flew the sky @-@ cycle until almost dark and landed safely at the property of P.B. Gupther in Yonkers . Gupther helped the reporter deflate the balloon and pack the airship down to the size of a flat carpet bag . He then drove the reporter with his sky @-@ cycle airship to the railroad station so he could get back to his place of origin .
The sky @-@ cycle was operated and navigated by the rider 's hands and first powered by the rider 's feet for forward motion . It was later equipped with gasoline engines built by Curtis . The sky @-@ cycle made many successful flights and trips with these engines .
= = Artificial rain = =
Myers once made balloons and equipment for the experimentation of making artificial rain and gained renown for that beyond any other scientist . The balloons were referred to as " bombs " – rain @-@ producing explosions . The first demonstration experiments , based on theories by Illinois engineer Edward Powers for making rain , were done in May 1891 for General Robert Saint George Dyrenforth ( Patent Commissioner ) of Washington , D.C. at Myers ' Frankfort " balloon farm " . Dyrenforth , who represented the United States Department of Agriculture , then had Myers make a few balloon " bombs " for a presentation in Washington , D.C. The rain producing tests were done successfully in the early part of July 1891 in front of government officials , scientists , chemists , and engineers .
There was government funding provided of $ 9 @,@ 000 then with support from Senators Charles B. Farwell and Leland Stanford for a full @-@ scale test experiment in northern Texas . There was to be completed a scientific analysis of the results . The man @-@ made rain project was to take place near the town of Midland . The equipment involved in this test was 100 " oxy @-@ hydrogen " balloons , dozens of kites six to twelve feet high , miles of copper wire , nitroglycerine , dynamite , and gunpowder . Myers provided all the balloons and the gases . Electric batteries and generators were also part of the on @-@ site equipment . The design of the rain experiment project was to have explosions stir up particle aggregation . Myers ' balloon " bombs " were the start of many such explosions that were to take place in the rain producing experiment . His balloon " bombs " were one part oxygen gas combined with two parts of hydrogen gas , which would make a huge explosion upon detonation . The side effect of this balloon explosion was that water was produced . This water would drop from the sky at some high altitude and the idea was that all of this action would stimulate the atmosphere to make rain . The balloons made by Myers for the government at his " balloon farm " would hold 500 to 5000 cubic feet of gas . Myers had complete charge of the government rain producing experiments for years .
Each ten foot diameter balloon was filled with one @-@ third oxygen and two @-@ thirds hydrogen . To do this , the empty balloon was spread out on the ground with plenty of room around it . It was then attached to a hose to start filling with oxygen gas . The other end of the hose went to a retort that was filled with chlorinate of potassium and a small amount of manganese oxide . The retort was heated to a high temperature through a gasoline burner . Oxygen gas , generated at 600 cubic feet per hour , went through a lime @-@ water wash and from there to fill the balloon . The balloon was filled up one third of the way . The hose was then connected to the hydrogen gas generator and filled up the remaining two @-@ thirds of the way . The oxygen and hydrogen balloon was referred to as an " oxy @-@ hydrogen " balloon . Each gas had an electric fuse detonator inside , which made it a type of " bomb " when triggered electrically . Wires were used that led from the ground to the balloon and when an electrical charge was made by a dynamo , it passed through the wires to set off the detonator causing an explosion that was brighter than the sun . This caused the oxygen and hydrogen to react , creating water ( H2O ) . This man @-@ made water then acted as a nucleus for making rain out of the atmosphere .
Myers made one hundred oxy @-@ hydrogen balloon bombs for the government to do a full scale experiment of producing rain . The balloons were 10 , 12 , and 20 feet in diameter . The purpose of the Texas experiment was to see if making artificial rain could be done by man @-@ made weather modification . After the experiment took place it was reported that the result was a success of what was hoped for . The news press release of August 20 , 1891 , reported that rain was made to fall two days before at three o 'clock in the afternoon . At the time the sky was clear and there was no prediction of rain in the area for at least a week . The claim was that the rain produced was directly or indirectly caused by the explosion of the oxygen @-@ hydrogen balloon bombs that were exploded electrically at altitudes of 1800 to 3000 feet . That started a sequence of events that lead to a torrent . The rain storm that ensued was reported by ranchers and railroad linemen for some thousand miles across several states . After this Myers was contracted by paper companies in New York state to see about producing rain in their forests that needed it badly . He contended that the Mohawk Valley was a good place to start rain and that the rainfall then would go to the Adirondack Mountains and Catskill Mountains .
= = War Airships = =
Myers was already concerned in 1891 that Europe was much more advanced in balloon technology than the United States . He sent a letter of concern to the national newspapers claiming that if any of the European military powers wanted to they could annihilate New York City or any major city in northeastern United States . Newspapers printed his concerns that the next big war would be fought in the sky . Myers pointed out that Germany , France , England , Spain , the Netherlands , Belgium , Russia , Italy and China all had aeronautical apparatus , schools of practice , and secret experimental construction plants making state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art propeller power driven airships for war . He pointed out as early as October 1890 Commandant Charles Renard was in possession of a motor that could drive La France dirigible airship twenty @-@ eight miles an hour and such an airship or a war airship twice that size traveling at forty @-@ five miles an hour could totally destroy any major city in America without difficulty because of its speed . He was encouraging the government to recognize this and to prepare properly against this potential threat .
Myers said that he was working on defense balloons that could stop them in case of an attack against the United States through a company in Chicago , known as the Chicago Captive Balloon Company . The newspapers printed a counterview that warned against Jingoism and starting rumors that could lead to developing unwanted war airships or a cause for other nations to make military equipment against this new war technology .
Myers made eleven hydrogen balloons for the Navy for Admiral Francis J. Higginson in 1902 for a military exercise . Ten of the balloons were six feet in diameter and used for signaling purposes that troops were nearby . The eleventh balloon of 12 @,@ 000 cubic feet capacity was twenty @-@ eight @-@ feet in diameter . It was capable of carrying two men and all their associated observation equipment . It was used by the Signal Corps for a high altitude observation platform to monitor enemy warships . This balloon was tethered to and controlled by a Navy ship . The intelligence gleaned about the enemy and its possible intentions could be passed on to the Army .
Myers predicted that a combination airship of his " torpedo " airship and " sky @-@ cycle " airship would be ideal for commerce , transportation , and sport events . He claimed that a " war craft " could be made to destroy any fleet , fort , or army within its range . He predicted that if such a combination airship was built and financed by a government then it would dominate the earth .
= = St. Louis World ’ s Fair = =
Myers made passenger balloons for the St. Louis Fair in 1904 . He was the superintendent of the Aeronautic Concourse of the St. Louis World ’ s Fair . He was one of the managers in charge of a purse of $ 200 @,@ 000 prize money for various balloon tournaments and races . He pointed out that building airships was very expensive and took knowledge of advanced balloon techniques that basically nobody in America had . Myers used as an example , to win the $ 20 @,@ 000 prize of the Aero Club the French balloonist Alberto Santos @-@ Dumont spent more than that amount in six airships he entered into the tournament to win . Myers himself had an over abundance of ideas for balloons , but was short on cash to make many of them a reality even though he had the necessary balloon knowledge . The newspapers printed that Myers was making a balloon capable of holding 75 @,@ 000 to 100 @,@ 000 cubic feet of hydrogen .
The World 's Fair airship exhibit was located south of Physical Culture hall and west of the Hall of Congress . The 14 acre " aerial harbor " facility was surrounded by a 42 foot high fence which is where all the airships were located . It was like a marine harbor that would hold steamships , but contained large balloons instead – that were all behind the world ’ s first scientific and largest air @-@ break wall . The north end of the area was equipment for making hydrogen gas to fill up these balloon envelopes of whatever shape and size they came in . The varnished silk bags that held the hydrogen gas were made by Myers .
Myers had also at the World ’ s Fair a torpedo shaped balloon . It was 13 feet in diameter and designed for warfare . The little electric motor propeller that pushed the large airship forward was the size of a fishing reel and smaller than Queen Victoria ’ s brooch on display in a building nearby . His torpedo warships would carry dynamite balls that could be dropped on the enemy remotely from a safe distance away . Myers described how the controlling could be done remotely by transmitting waves of light from a distance .
Myers and his wife did the first balloon ascension on the Fair grounds on July 4 to race the aeronaut Tracy A. Tisdell to draw crowds . A second ascension was done by Myers on August 27 . He had a balloon race with professor G. E. Tomlinson to the Washington Monument . Both were unsuccessful . Myers landed 21 miles from his starting location and Tomlinson ended up hundreds of miles off course before he landed .
= = Titles and awards = =
Myers had commercialized the balloon industry and had a monopoly on the related business in the nineteenth century . He called himself " aeronautic engineer " in 1888 . He was a lecturer at Cooper Institute of New York and at Cornell University . Myers toured the United States and gave lectures on aeronautics on many occasions . He was one of the earliest members of the Aero Club of New York , as its fifth pilot . Myers ' inventions and innovations pertaining to balloon technology have been written up in Scientific American and other scientific journals . His " balloon farm " estate was used for many years by hundreds of aircraft enthusiasts .
= = Later life = =
After a career of balloon ascending performances and managing the " balloon farm " business for several decades Myers retired in 1909 . Myers and his wife moved in 1910 to Atlanta , Georgia to live with their daughter , Elizabeth " Bessie " Aerial ( born 1881 ) . Myers died on November 30 , 1925 at the age of 83 and his wife died in 1932 , also at the age of 83 . During most of his life he was a member of the Episcopal Church and a Republican . In his later life in politics he associated himself with the prohibition party .
= = Patents = =
Guiding Apparatus for balloons – # 318 @,@ 575 . Patented May 26 , 1885
Portable gas @-@ generator – # 320 @,@ 885 . Patented June 23 , 1885
Varnishing machine – # 326051A . Patented September 8 , 1885
Sky @-@ cycle – # 581218A . Patented April 20 , 1897
Balloon Airship – # 1078455A . Patented April 8 , 1908
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= Cold Station 12 =
" Cold Station 12 " is the fifth episode of the fourth season of the American science fiction television series Star Trek : Enterprise , the eighty @-@ first episode overall . It was directed by Mike Vejar from a script by Alan Brennert , and aired on November 5 , 2004 , on UPN . It comprises the middle @-@ act of a three @-@ episode arc , preceded by " Borderland " and followed by " The Augments " .
The series follows the adventures of the first Starfleet starship Enterprise , registration NX @-@ 01 . In this episode , after leaving Enterprise stranded , Doctor Arik Soong and his Augments travel to " Cold Station 12 " , a secretive pathogen and bio @-@ medical facility run by Starfleet Medical and the Denobulans , where much of this episode 's plot unfolds . Once inside , they begin torturing the scientists with the goal of retrieving some 1 @,@ 800 augmented embryos , allowing them to expand their race .
The production team created several new sets to represent the space station itself , as well as re @-@ using some from " Borderland " to represent the Klingon starship . The make @-@ up team were required to make Brent Spiner look younger for flashbacks and to show the progression of a character 's exposure to a number of pathogens . The story @-@ arc has been considered one of the best seen in Enterprise , and critics praised " Cold Station 12 " , specifically for the special effects and character development , but felt that the death scene crossed the line . On first broadcast , the episode was watched by 2 @.@ 1 percent of the population according to Nielsen ratings , placing it in fifth position for the timeslot .
= = Plot = =
After the escape of Doctor Soong and the Augments , Captain Archer and his crew proceed to the coordinates Soong had provided earlier in the mission . On Trialis IV , the away team find an abandoned building where the young Augments were raised and schooled by " father " Soong . They also capture a banished member of the Augments named Udar . Nicknamed " Smike " by his Augment siblings after a handicapped character from the comic novel Nicholas Nickleby by Charles Dickens , he is taken to Enterprise . Analysis reveals that although Udar 's DNA is similar to the other Augments , he has none of their enhanced abilities ( except for superior hearing ) .
Meanwhile , Soong and the Augments capture Barzai , a Denobulan medical ship , and use it to enter the medical facility called Cold Station 12 ( C @-@ 12 ) . They soon overpower security and capture the scientists there , including its chief medical officer , Doctor Jeremy Lucas ( Doctor Phlox 's Interspecies Medical Exchange counterpart ) . Due to security protocols , tensions begin to surface between Soong and Malik , as to how to coerce Lucas into divulging the entry codes . Malik convinces Soong to torture Lucas , and failing that , to expose a scientist to a deadly pathogen using a containment chamber .
Enterprise approaches within transporter range , and beams an away team ( including Phlox ) to the facility . They are soon detected , however , and imprisoned with the facility 's staff . Meanwhile , Commander T 'Pol , having lost contact with the team , attempts to destroy the station , but the Klingon ship intervenes . Malik uses Phlox 's friendship to finally coerce the security codes from Lucas ( by threatening to expose him to a pathogen as well ) . Soong , who had previously stolen 19 genetically enhanced and frozen embryos from C @-@ 12 , is now able to access the remaining 1 @,@ 800 , a carry @-@ over from the Eugenics Wars . Soong and the Augments then escape , but not before Malik kills Smike , helps himself to a number of pathogen samples , and sets the viral containment fields to fail .
= = Production = =
The episode was the second of a three @-@ part storyline , which was intended to link Enterprise more closely to Star Trek : The Original Series with the return of genetically engineered " Augments " which had appeared alongside Khan Noonian Singh in " Space Seed " and the movie Star Trek II : The Wrath of Khan . It was preceded by the episode " Borderland " , and followed by " The Augments " . Production on the episode began on August 24 , 2004 , and concluded on September 1 . There were several swing sets created for the episode , specifically to cover the scenes filmed on board the station . It re @-@ used the sets created for " Borderland " to represent the Klingon vessel captured by the Augments . There we also sets created to represent the compound where Soong raised the genetically altered humans , which was set up different as flashbacks to the character 's childhoods were also shot for this episode . It was directed by Mike Vejar , who had directed several earlier episodes of Star Trek , most recently " Stratagem " . It was written by Consulting Producer Alan Brennert , his first writing credit in the franchise .
There was some specific work required by the make @-@ up department on Brent Spiner as during those flashbacks he was made to look younger which the team created by dying his hair darker and applying more youthful make @-@ up . Also , the team added several different appliances to Kris Iyer to show his character go through a series of levels of infection of a number of diseases at the hands of Soong . These included colored contact lenses , prosthetics to make his veins appear to pulse and gel was added to his eyes to make them bloodshot .
There were several guest actors in " Cold Station 12 " . The character , Dr. Jeremy Lucas , had been previously mentioned in the episodes " Dear Doctor " and " Doctor 's Orders " as a friend of Phlox . But " Cold Station 12 " marked the first occasion that the character appeared on screen , played by Richard Riehle . The actor had previously appeared in the Star Trek : The Next Generation episode " The Inner Light " as well as the Star Trek : Voyager episodes " Fair Haven " and the follow @-@ up episode " Spirit Folk " . Guest stars Spiner , Alec Newman and Abby Brammell resumed their roles from the previous episode in the trilogy , " Borderland " .
= = Reception and home media release = =
" Cold Station 12 " was first broadcast on November 5 , 2004 , on UPN . According to Nielsen ratings , it was watched by 2 @.@ 1 percent of the population of the United States and by four percent of those watching television at the time . This put it in fifth place for the 8pm timeslot , behind Totally Outrageous Behavior and World 's Craziest Videos on Fox .
Bill Gordon , writing for the website Sci @-@ Fi Pulse , said that it was a " nearly flawless episode " , with his one critique in his analysis of the plot being targeted at Captain Archer telling Soong that they were sending over the self @-@ destruct code for the station . He said that there was an " epic " quality to " Cold Station 12 " that made him compare it to the Star Trek film franchise , saying that it had " stellar FX shots , to first class character and story development , to a quality of writing that has been sadly lacking in the Star Trek universe of late . "
In her review for TrekNation , Michelle Erica Green praised the episode , saying it was an improvement on " Borderland " and that Spiner was even better . But she found the murder of the doctor shocking and felt that it had gone too far . She said that themes raised in " Cold Station 12 " mirrored those which could have appeared on The Original Series but that this episode didn 't take the time to discuss them . She hoped that the final episode of the trilogy would cover that ground . The mini @-@ arc featuring the episodes " Borderland " , " Cold Station 12 " and " The Augments " were subsequently ranked the sixth best story of Enterprise by Den of Geek writer James Hunt . Viewing of " Cold Station 12 " was included alongside the Doctor Who episode " The Beast Below " in the course " Captain Picard Meets Dr. Who " at the University of Dubuque to demonstrate the idea of sacrificing one person to save many .
The first home media release of " Cold Station 12 " was as part of the season four DVD box set of Enterprise , originally released in the United States on November 1 , 2005 . The Blu ray release of the fourth season of Enterprise was on April 1 , 2014 .
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= Parc Cwm long cairn =
Parc Cwm long cairn ( Welsh : carn hir Parc Cwm ) , also known as Parc le Breos burial chamber ( siambr gladdu Parc le Breos ) , is a partly restored Neolithic chambered tomb , identified in 1937 as a Severn @-@ Cotswold type of chambered long barrow . The cromlech , a megalithic burial chamber , was built around 5850 years before present ( BP ) , during the early Neolithic . It is about seven 1 ⁄ 2 miles ( 12 km ) west south – west of Swansea , Wales , in what is now known as Coed y Parc Cwm at Parc le Breos , on the Gower Peninsula .
A trapezoidal cairn of rubble – the upper part of the cromlech and its earth covering now removed – about 72 feet ( 22 m ) long by 43 feet ( 13 m ) ( at its widest ) , is revetted by a low dry @-@ stone wall . A bell @-@ shaped , south @-@ facing forecourt , formed by the wall , leads to a central passageway lined with limestone slabs set on end . Human remains had been placed in the two pairs of stone chambers that lead from the passageway . Corpses may have been placed in nearby caves until they decomposed , when the bones were moved to the tomb .
The cromlech was discovered in 1869 by workmen digging for road stone . An excavation later that year revealed human bones ( now known to have belonged to at least 40 people ) , animal remains , and Neolithic pottery . Samples from the site show the tomb to have been in use for between 300 and 800 years . North @-@ West European lifestyles changed around 6000 BP , from the nomadic lives of the hunter @-@ gatherer , to a settled life of agricultural farming : the Neolithic Revolution . However , analysis of the human remains found at Parc Cwm long cairn show the people interred in the cromlech continued to be either hunter @-@ gatherers or herders , rather than agricultural farmers .
Parc Cwm long cairn lies in a former medieval deer park , established in the 1220s CE by the Marcher Lord of Gower as Parc le Breos – an enclosed area of about 2 @,@ 000 acres ( 810 ha ) , now mainly farmland . The cromlech is on the floor of a dry narrow limestone gorge containing about 500 acres ( 2 @.@ 0 km2 ) of woodland . Free pedestrian access is via an asphalt track leading from the park 's entrance , which has free parking for 12 – 15 cars about 250 yards ( 230 m ) from the site . Parc Cwm long cairn is maintained by Cadw , the Welsh Government 's historic environment division .
= = History = =
From the end of the last ice age ( between 12 @,@ 000 and 10 @,@ 000 BP ) Mesolithic hunter @-@ gatherers began to migrate northwards from Central Europe ; the area that would become known as Wales was free of glaciers by about 10 @,@ 250 BP . At that time sea levels were much lower than today , and the shallower parts of what is now the North Sea were dry land . The east coast of present day England and the coasts of present day Denmark , Germany and the Netherlands were connected by the former landmass known as Doggerland , forming the British Peninsula on the European mainland . The post @-@ glacial rise in sea level separated Wales and Ireland , forming the Irish Sea . Doggerland was submerged by the North Sea and , by 8000 BP , the British Peninsula had become an island . By the beginning of the Neolithic ( 6 @,@ 000 BP ) sea levels in the Bristol Channel were still about 33 feet ( 10 m ) lower than today . Historian John Davies has theorised that the story of Cantre 'r Gwaelod 's drowning , and tales in the Mabinogion of the water between Wales and Ireland being narrower and shallower , may be distant folk memories of that time . The warmer climate caused major changes to the flora and fauna of Great Britain , and encouraged the growth of dense forest that covered 80 – 90 % of the island .
Human lifestyles in North @-@ West Europe changed around 6000 BP ; from the Mesolithic ( Middle Stone Age ) nomadic lives of hunting and gathering , to the Neolithic ( New Stone Age ) agrarian life of agriculture and settlement . John Davies notes that such a transformation cannot have been developed by the people living in North @-@ West Europe independently , as neither the grain necessary for crops nor the animals suitable for domestication are indigenous to the area . Recent genetic studies conclude that these cultural changes were introduced to Britain by farmers migrating from the European mainland . They cleared the forests to establish pasture and to cultivate the land , developed new technologies such as ceramics and textile production , and used a similar tradition of long barrow construction that began in continental Europe during the 7th millennium BP – the free standing megalithic structures supporting a sloping capstone ( known as dolmens ) , common across Atlantic Europe that were , according to John Davies , " the first substantial , permanent constructions of man " . Such massive constructions would have needed a large labour force ( up to 200 men ) suggestive of large communities nearby . However , in his contribution to History of Wales , 25 @,@ 000 BC AD 2000 , archaeologist Joshua Pollard notes that not all Neolithic communities were part of the simultaneous " marked transformations in material culture , ideology and technical practices " known as the Neolithic Revolution .
= = Severn @-@ Cotswold tombs = =
The cromlech at Parc le Breos Cwm is one of 120 – 30 sites identified as belonging to the category of long barrow tomb known as the Severn @-@ Cotswold or Cotswold @-@ Severn group . Excavations show these tombs to have been built on sites that had already " gained some significance " . Archaeologist Julian Thomas theorises that these sites may have been " very long @-@ lived woodland clearances " that had become landmarks and meeting @-@ places .
Constructed during the Neolithic , cairns in the Severn @-@ Cotswold tradition share several characteristics : an elongated trapezoidal ( or wedge ) shape up to 328 feet ( 100 m ) long ; a cairn ( a mound of deliberately placed stones or rocks erected as a memorial or marker ) ; a revetment ( retaining wall ) of carefully constructed dry @-@ stone walling that also defines a horned forecourt at the widest end ; huge capstones supported by orthostats ; and a chamber ( or chambers ) in which human remains were placed , accessible after the cairn was completed by way of a gallery ( passageway ) . Diverse internal transept chamber plans exist within the group . The earlier tombs contained multiple chambers set laterally , or pairs of transept chambers leading from a central passageway ; the later , terminally chambered tombs , contained a single chamber .
As the name implies , Severn @-@ Cotswold cairns are concentrated mainly to the east of the River Severn , in and around the Cotswolds , in present @-@ day England . However , similar Severn @-@ Cotswold type structures have been identified in south east Wales – between Brecon , Gower and Gwent – and in Capel Garmon ( near Betws @-@ y @-@ Coed , Conwy , north Wales ) , Wayland 's Smithy ( Oxfordshire , England ) and Avebury ( Wiltshire , England ) . As well as monuments to house and to honour their departed ancestors , these cromlechs may have been communal and ceremonial sites where , according to archaeologist Francis Pryor , people met " to socialise , to meet new partners , to acquire fresh livestock and to exchange ceremonial gifts " .
Parc Cwm long cairn is one of six chambered tombs discovered on Gower and one of 17 in what is commonly known as Glamorgan . Severn @-@ Cotswold cairns are the oldest surviving examples of architecture in Great Britain – Parc Cwm long cairn was built about 1 @,@ 500 to 1 @,@ 300 years before either Stonehenge or the Great Pyramid of Giza , Egypt was completed .
= = Features = =
The megalithic cromlech at Parc le Breos Cwm , known as Parc Cwm long cairn ( carn hir Parc Cwm ) , is a Severn @-@ Cotswold type chambered tomb , built around 5850 BP ( during the early Neolithic ) in what is now known as Gower – about eight miles ( 13 km ) west of Swansea , Wales , and about 1 1 ⁄ 4 miles ( 2 km ) north of the Bristol Channel . Alternative names include Parc le Breos burial chamber ( siambr gladdu Parc le Breos ) , the Long Cairn and the Giant 's Grave .
The cromlech consists of a north – south aligned long mound of locally obtained rocks and cobbles , mainly of limestone , revetted by two coursed , dry @-@ stone kerbs of " a fine standard " . The inner wall was built using a heavier stone . Trapezoid @-@ shaped and about 72 feet ( 22 m ) long , the cromlech tapers from 43 feet ( 13 m ) wide at its southern entrance to about 20 feet ( 6 m ) at its northern end . The wall at the front , right section , is missing or has collapsed , and the rubble has tumbled out leaving a previously covered orthostat exposed .
At the entrance to the tomb the kerbs sweep inwards to form a pair of deep protrusions , or horns , forming a narrow bell @-@ shaped forecourt . A straight central passageway ( or gallery ) , 21 feet ( 6 m ) long by 3 feet ( 1 m ) wide , orientated north – south , leads from the forecourt into the cairn . Each side of the passageway is lined with thin limestone slabs known as orthostats , placed on end and up to 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) high with a coursed dry @-@ stone infill between the slabs . Two pairs of rectangular transept chambers lead from the passageway , averaging 5 1 ⁄ 2 feet ( 1 @.@ 6 m ) , east – west , by 3 1 ⁄ 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 0 m ) ; or " 6 ft by 2 ft " , according to Archaeologia Cambrensis in 1886 . Each , except the south west chamber , has shallow limestone sillstones at its entrance .
Archaeologist R J C Atkinson believed that ( unusually among cairns in the Severn @-@ Cotswold tradition ) Parc Cwm long cairn had been built beside a stream that now flows underground . He noted that the stones on the eastern side had " marked signs of erosion and rounding by silt @-@ laden flood @-@ water " .
Originally , the transept chambers would have been covered with one large ( or several smaller ) capstones , enclosing the chambers containing human remains . The earth covering and the upper part of the cromlech have been removed , leaving the passageway and lateral chambers fully exposed . There is no record of a capstone having been discovered .
= = Excavation = =
Workmen digging for road stone discovered the site in 1869 . John Lubbock and Hussey Vivian excavated it that year , believing it to be a round barrow . The excavation revealed human bones that were " much broken and in no regular arrangement " , animal remains ( " deer and swine 's teeth " ) , and sherds of " plain Western Neolithic pottery " . The bones , initially thought to heve been disturbed by repeated access or subsequent interments , were at first thought to be from 20 – 24 individuals , all of whom except three were adults . Archaeologists Alasdair Whittle and Michael Wysocki note that such estimates were commonly based on the " numbers of skulls or mandibles " , and recent analysis has shown the bones to be from at least 40 individuals . Following the excavation , most of the human remains were reburied in clay pots beneath their original contexts , some are held in the Ashmolean Museum , University of Oxford , England – with the animal and pottery remains – and the whereabouts of the remainder are unrecorded .
An excavation led by Professor Glyn Daniel in 1937 identified the site as a chambered long barrow . However , more recently , long barrows have been defined as having long earthen mounds with wooden internal structures , whereas chambered tombs , while also being covered by a long mound , have internal chambers built of stone . No long barrows with wooden internal structures have been identified in southeast Wales , perhaps because long barrows were usually built where there was no suitable stone .
At Parc Cwm long cairn a variety of mortuary practices was evident and the deliberate ordering of skeletal parts noticeable . Whittle and Wysocki ( 1998 ) note cremated human remains were placed only in the front , right ( south – east ) chamber , where females and males , and all age ranges were represented . The south – east chamber was also unusual in that it contained nearly three times as many individuals as in each of the other chambers , which contained the remains of all representative groups except younger children and infants . At the forecourt entrance Atkinson recorded finds , deposited in groups , including : flint debitage , lithic cores and a bladelet ( burnt and unburnt ) ; a leaf @-@ shaped arrowhead ( burnt ) ; pieces of quartz ; pieces of stalactite ( now missing ) ; sherds of Neolithic pottery ; and cremated bone fragments . Atkinson speculated that the stalactite originated from Cat Hole cave , which ( along with Tooth Hole cave ) Whittle and Wysocki note as a possible source of the quartz too .
Following the excavation led by R J C Atkinson in 1960 , the cromlech was placed under the guardianship of the then Ministry of Public Building and Works and , in 1961 , was partly restored . Atkinson made " minimal " excavation records , and no report of it was published until Whittle and Wysocki 's detailed report in 1998 . In it , they suggest that corpses may have been placed in caves near the cromlech until they decomposed , when the bones were moved to the tomb ; a process known as excarnation .
= = Analysis = =
Few human remains survive in Great Britain from the early Neolithic ( c . 6400 – c . 5850 BP ) , although they are comparatively well preserved in the Black Mountains ( Mynydd Du ) , Gower and the Vale of Glamorgan ( Bro Morgannwg ) where up to 50 individuals have been interred – men , women and children – in each cromlech .
The skeletal remains of over 40 individuals were recovered from the cromlech at Parc le Breos Cwm , some of which showed evidence of weathering and of biting and gnawing by animals . This suggests the corpses lay exposed to decompose and were interred in the burial chambers defleshed , as parcels of bone . Skeletal remains from the passageway were part – articulated , showing no sign of animal scavenging , suggesting they were placed in the cromlech as fleshed corpses . Whittle and Wysocki note that among the human remains are the bones of " 8 dogs , a cat , a red deer , pig , sheep and cattle " . They speculate that the two caves near the cromlech were used as depositories for the corpses prior to decomposition , and that when the bones were collected from the caves for reinterment others already lying in the cave were unwittingly gathered too .
Radiocarbon dated samples from the cromlech show the tomb was accessed by many generations over a period of 300 – 800 years , and that the human bones are the disarticulated remains ( i.e. , not complete skeletons ) of at least 40 individuals : male and female adults , adolescents , children , and infants . One of the red deer bones has been radiocarbon dated to between 2750 BP and 2150 BP , showing that at least some of the bones entered long after the site had been deserted .
= = = Lifestyle indicators = = =
Examination of the bones from which stature could be estimated , indicate that the male mortuary population were " big men " – the 1869 report notes males of " gigantic proportions " – whereas the females were " short and gracile " . Pollard notes that males analysed from Parc Cwm long cairn were " particularly robust " when compared to females .
Prior to the publication of Whittle and Wysocki 's 1998 report , bones and teeth of the mortuary population of Parc Cwm long cairn were re @-@ examined for indications of lifestyle and diet .
Musculoskeletal analysis showed significant gender lifestyle variation . Greater leg muscle development was found in males of the Parc Cwm cromlech , possibly the result of hunting or herding , confirming the sexual dimorphism found in previous analyses of the remains . In contrast , no such variation was noticeable in the remains found during excavations from other nearby sites , for example the Tinkinswood burial chamber , in the Vale of Glamorgan . The variation in musculoskeletal stress markers may indicate a mobile lifestyle for at least some of the males analysed .
Evidence obtained from stable isotope analysis shows plant foods , including cereals , formed only a small proportion of their dietary protein . The majority derived from animals – i.e. , meat , and milk or blood – and contained none from marine sources .
Remains of human teeth were analysed for evidence of arrested development and decay . Arrested development implies periods of nutritional shortage , which could indicate failed harvests . Decay implies either periods of food shortage , or a diet consisting of high proportions of carbohydrate or softer cooked meat , or both . Dental analyses showed no sign of periods of decay or arrested development , even where there was " considerable wear " , indicating a lifestyle that was not dependent on farming cereals . The 1887 bone report notes the " good condition of the teeth " . Whittle and Wysocki noted the " slight " presence of tartar , and that only one tooth had been lost before death , a mandibular incisor .
Whittle and Wysocki conclude , from the skeletal and dental analyses , that the lifestyles of the people who were to be interred in the cromlech either continued to be one of hunting and gathering or , more likely , a pastoral life of herding , rather than one of agrarian @-@ based farming .
= = Cathole Cave = =
The Cathole Cave , Cat Hole Cave or Cathole Rock Cave , is a steep limestone outcrop , about 200 yards ( 180 m ) north of the cromlech along the Parc le Breos Cwm valley and near the top of the gorge , about 50 feet ( 15 m ) from the valley floor . The cave is a deep triangular fissure penetrating the hillside and narrowing towards the top . It has two entrances , with a natural platform outside the larger of the two .
The cave was used as a shelter by bands of Mesolithic hunters and as a Neolithic ossuary . During the first excavation of the cave in 1864 , finds were made only from the Mesolithic to medieval periods . In his " The Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society vol.25 ( 1959 ) , pp. 260 – 69 " , archaeologist Charles McBurney notes that " In the Post Glacial period the cave was much used by Mesolithic hunters " ; a conclusion confirmed by John Campbell 's excavation of 1977 .
A 1984 excavation by Aldhouse @-@ Green revealed the earliest finds from the cave , two tanged points that may date to c . 28 @,@ 000 BP , an interglacial period during the Late Pleistocene roughly contemporaneous with the Red Lady of Paviland . The " lady " was discovered in a cave between Port Eynon and Rhossili , about eight miles ( 13 km ) west of Cathole Cave , and has been radiocarbon dated to c . 29 @,@ 000 BP , the oldest known human burial in Great Britain .
Rock art from the Upper Paleolithic , thought to represent a reindeer , was discovered on the back wall of Cathole Cave in September 2010 . The engraving , measuring approximately 15 x 11 cm , has been radiocarbon dated to 14 @,@ 505 ± 560 BP . According to George Nash , the archeologist who made the discovery , it is " the oldest rock art in the British Isles , if not north @-@ western Europe " .
Late glacial tool finds from the Upper Palaeolithic date to c . 12 @,@ 000 BP : flint blades known as Cheddar points ; smaller bladelets known as Cresswell points ; scrapers ; burins or lithic flakes ; flint and bone awls ; and a bone needle . Flint rarely occurs in Wales other than in drifts , or as small pebbles on beaches . Flint tools would therefore have to have been brought to Gower from other areas , such as those now known as southern or eastern England , or Antrim , either as finished tools or as incomplete , or unworked , nodules . Remains of red fox , Arctic fox , brown bear , tundra vole , and possibly reindeer , were found at the same level as the Upper Palaeolithic tools , providing evidence of the climate c . 12 @,@ 000 BP . Other animal remains excavated during the 19th century , which may predate the Late glacial finds , include mammoth , woolly rhinoceros , red deer and giant deer .
Several finds date to the Bronze Age , including a bronze socketed axe , two human skeletons , and sherds of pottery from burial urns and other vessels .
= = Llethryd Tooth Cave = =
An excavation of the Llethryd Tooth Cave , or Tooth Hole cave , a Bronze Age ossuary site at a cave about 1 @,@ 500 yards ( 1 @.@ 4 km ) north , north west of the cromlech , was carried out by D. P. Webley and J. Harvey in 1962 . It revealed the disarticulated remains of six people , dated to the Early Bronze Age or Beaker culture . Other contemporary finds , now held at the Amgueddfa Cymru – National Museum Wales , Cardiff , include collared urn pottery , flaked knives , a scraper , flint flakes , a bone spatula , a needle and bead , and animal bones – the remains of domesticated animals , including cat and dog . Whittle and Wysocki note that this period of occupation may be " significant " , with respect to Parc Cwm long cairn , as it is " broadly contemporary with the secondary use of the tomb " .
= = Location = =
The Neolithic cromlech at Parc le Breos is about seven 1 ⁄ 2 miles ( 12 km ) west south – west of Swansea , Wales , near the centre of Gower , midway between the villages of Llanrhidian and Bishopston . Its nearest village is Parkmill , a small rural settlement about one mile ( 1 @.@ 5 km ) to the south – east .
Parc Cwm long cairn lies on the floor of a dry , narrow , limestone gorge , at an elevation of about 50 feet ( 15 m ) above sea level , less than 1 1 ⁄ 4 miles ( 2 km ) from the south coast of Gower . It is in about 500 acres ( 200 ha ) of woodland called Coed y Parc , the remnants of a former medieval deer park ( Parc le Breos ) from which the cromlech derives its alternative name : Parc le Breos burial chamber . Established as an enclosed area of about 2 @,@ 000 acres ( 810 ha ) by John de Braose , Marcher Lord of Gower , in about 1221 – 32 CE , the park is now mainly farmland . A 19th @-@ century hunting lodge about 1 @,@ 200 yards ( 1 @.@ 1 km ) north – east of Parc Cwm long cairn has been converted into a hotel and pony trekking ( horse riding ) centre called Parc le Breos .
Coed y Parc is owned and managed by Forestry Commission Wales . The site is open to the public free of charge and has parking for 12 – 15 cars about 750 feet ( 230 m ) away . Facing the car park on the opposite side of the lane , a kissing gate allows wheelchair access to a level asphalt track running past the cromlech down the length of the gorge , passing within about 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) of the cairn . Parc Cwm long cairn is maintained by Cadw ( English : to keep ) , the Welsh Government 's historic environment division .
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= Ray Ray =
Ray Ray is the second studio album by American recording artist Raphael Saadiq , released October 5 , 2004 , on his record label Pookie Entertainment . After being dropped from Universal Records , Saadiq formed the label and worked on the album , for which he sought looser , 1970s @-@ inspired direction than his debut album Instant Vintage ( 2002 ) . He produced Ray Ray with Michael Angelo , Jake and the Phatman , and Kelvin Wooten .
Titled after Saadiq 's childhood nickname , Ray Ray has a looser , more conventional style than his debut album and incorporates funk . Its groove @-@ oriented songs exhibit Saadiq 's characteristic fusion of programmed beats , strings , neo soul melodies , and live guitar . They are arranged in a song cycle and touch on lighthearted romantic themes and socially conscious messages .
The album debuted at number 86 on the U.S. Billboard 200 chart , but fell off the next week . Upon its release , Ray Ray received generally positive reviews from music critics . Although some were ambivalent towards its loose blaxploitation concept and Saadiq 's songwriting , critics praised the album 's production quality and vintage musical approach . It is currently out of print .
= = Background = =
In 2002 , Saadiq released his debut solo album Instant Vintage , which received critical acclaim and earned him five Grammy Award nominations . However , despite attaining a following among listeners in Europe , it was largely ignored by contemporary R & B listeners in the United States and did not sell well . After its release , he was dropped by his record label Universal Records .
Saadiq subsequently formed his own label , Pookie Entertainment , on which he released the double live album All Hits at the House of Blues in 2003 . The live album showcased Saadiq 's solo material and songs he recorded as a part of Tony ! Toni ! Toné ! during the late 1980s and 1990s . Saadiq also continued working as a producer for other recording artists , including Erykah Badu , Kelis , Jill Scott , Nappy Roots , Earth , Wind & Fire , Sunshine Anderson , and Jaguar Wright .
= = Recording = =
Having fulfilled his creative ambition with Instant Vintage , he sought a looser direction for a follow @-@ up studio album . He said of the direction for Ray Ray in an interview for Rolling Stone , " You only get to make a first statement one time , and I had definite ideas of how I wanted it to sound . Ray Ray represents a more fun side of what I do . I wanted to have a good time with it . " In an interview for The Baltimore Sun , Saadiq discussed the inspiration behind the album 's blaxploitation concept , stating :
Saadiq recorded the album with producers Michael Angelo , Focus ... , and Jake and the Phatman , among others . He also worked with singer @-@ songwriter Joi , former Tony ! Toni ! Toné ! member D 'wayne Wiggins , singer @-@ songwriter Teedra Moses , singer Dawn Robinson , formerly of Saadiq 's other group Lucy Pearl , singer @-@ songwriter Babyface , and rapper Allie Baba , Saadiq 's nephew . The album 's title is a reference to his mother 's nickname for him , also a childhood name . Its cover artwork was inspired by the blaxploitation films of the 1970s . It shows Saadiq dressed in a vintage cornflower blue suit , knicker pants , and lime green argyle socks , while leaning on a white 1967 Mercury Cougar .
= = Music and lyrics = =
The album contains a more funk @-@ oriented sound than Instant Vintage , while it features romantic and some message @-@ oriented themes . In comparison to that album , Saadiq has called Ray Ray " more aggressive , more radio @-@ friendly ... one of those good , Saturday @-@ playing records " . It incorporates R & B , funk , and soul styles , as well as elements of gospel and hip hop music .
As with his debut album , Ray Ray features Saadiq 's characteristic fusion of programmed beats , strings , neo soul melodies , and live guitars . The songs are mostly mid @-@ tempo and groove @-@ based , and also feature rubbery bass lines and horns . Allmusic 's Andy Kellman views that the album 's music is " a little funkier and a lot more energetic than 2002 's Instant Vintage , yet just as full of Saadiq 's stylish flourishes . " He writes of the album 's subject matter , " for every song that 's charmingly simple and full of lighthearted romantic sentiments , there 's something message @-@ oriented " . Ken Capobianco of The Boston Globe characterizes the album 's mood as " playful " and writes that it is composed as " a bouncy song cycle that 's a throwback to ' 70s funk . "
The album 's first two tracks , " Blaxploitation " and " Ray Ray Theme " , serve as audio vignettes introducing Saadiq 's alter ego as the main character of a faux @-@ Blaxploitation soundtrack . The latter track has singer Joi calling upon the character , addressing him as " soul brother number one " , to " shoot me with your bop gun " . Both songs help establish the character as a ladies ' man with a penchant for fast cars . However , the concept is not sustained in the following songs on the album . " I Know Shuggie Otis " is a tribute to psychedelic recording artist Shuggie Otis and features a screeching guitar solo . " This One " features orchestral pop and gleeful tones . " Chic Like You " contains elements of G @-@ funk , gospel @-@ styled , vocal " mmms " and fluid , funky keyboards . Its lyrics depict sensual images : " She soaks in green tea lotion / Her legs are so outspoken " .
" Not a Game " features a spare hip hop beat and an emotional vocal delivery by Saadiq . " Rifle Love " utilizes the sounds of barrel clicks and gunshots as a rhythm section in its chorus . Both " Live Without You " and " I Want You Back " are pleas to an ex @-@ lover and have romantic crooning by Saadiq over a gritty funk groove . " I Want You Back " also features elements of Miami bass and electro @-@ styled synthesizers . Saadiq adopts a falsetto / high tenor singing voice on " Grown Folks " . It features socially conscious lyrics and a Latin @-@ tinged arrangement . " Save Us " has a theme of disillusionment and features sparse keyboard and a somber refrain .
= = Release and reception = =
Ray Ray was released by Pookie Entertainment on October 5 , 2004 , in the United States . Two singles were released in promotion of the album , " Chic Like You " and " I Want You Back " . The album debuted on the U.S. Billboard 200 chart in the week of October 23 . It was the album 's only week on the chart . Ray Ray also spent eight weeks on the Billboard Top R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Albums , on which it peaked at number 18 . It eventually went out of print in the U.S. In France , the album charted for two weeks and reached number 145 .
Ray Ray received generally positive reviews from critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream publications , the album received an average score of 66 , based on six reviews . Phil Johnson of The Independent called it " madder and badder " than Saadiq 's debut record and found its sound " more radical " , stating " no one can distress a production like Raphael , whose multi @-@ instrumental talents and Stevie Wonder @-@ ish voice make him a Prince for the Noughties . " Andria Lisle of Paste commended Saadiq 's " versatility " and found the album " softer than Cee @-@ lo and sexier than Ricky Fanté " . Neil Drumming of Entertainment Weekly complimented Saadiq 's " bass virtuosity " and " grown and sexy " vibe , although he viewed some of his songwriting as " amateur " . The Boston Globe 's Ken Capobianco observed an " overriding sense of joy and mischief throughout jams " , and found Saadiq 's " musical exuberance ... infectious " .
Although he found it lacking a " centerpiece track " , Capobianco ultimately praised the album as a " funk " departure from most of the contemporary soul he found " studied and overly reverent " . Slant Magazine editor Sal Cinquemani found it flawed as a concept album , but commended Saadiq for " conjuring soul greats like Stevie Wonder ( ' Live Without You ' ) , Curtis Mayfield ( ' Grown Folks ' ) , and Prince ( ' I Know Shuggie Otis ' ) throughout " , and stated , " just because the storyline ( s ) ... ceases to exist after the first few songs that doesn 't mean the rest of the tracks aren 't good . " Geoffrey Himes of The Washington Post noted Saadiq for having " a rare gift for linking seductive melodies to slinky grooves " and stated , " Ray Ray is just a collection of disconnected songs ... failing to establish a narrative . But what terrific songs they are . "
Allmusic 's Andy Kellman complimented its " varied " subject matter and wrote in summation , " Ray Ray occasionally loses focus , slipping into moments that are either undercooked or worthy of the cutting room , but it 's enjoyable enough to keep his followers happy and will certainly act as a remedy for those who don 't like the gold @-@ bricked path being taken by mainstream R & B. " Ethan Brown of New York stated , " Despite its faults — and there are many ... Ray Ray is a startlingly inventive record " , and found Saadiq " at his best when he revives the sad soul of Sam Cooke " on songs like " Not a Game " . Andrew Simon of Vibe found a " handful " of songs to be poorly conceived and viewed that the album 's strength was Saadiq 's " crisp " production and bass playing , writing that " On a dime , the thick tones of the multi @-@ instrumentalist 's weaopn of choice go from low and rumbly to high and tight . " He ultimately commended Saadiq 's intentions with the album 's concept , stating " Ray Ray hits more than it misses in its celebration of a time when George was making the mothership connection and Marvin just wanted to get it on . "
= = Track listing = =
Credits adapted from liner notes .
• ( co . ) Co @-@ producer
= = Personnel = =
Credits for Ray Ray adapted from liner notes .
= = Charts = =
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= The National ( Scotland ) =
The National is a Scottish daily newspaper owned by Newsquest that began publication on 24 November 2014 , and the first daily newspaper in Scotland to support Scottish independence . Launched as a response to calls from Newsquest 's readership for a pro @-@ independence paper in the wake of the 2014 Scottish independence referendum , it is a sister paper of The Herald and the Sunday Herald , and is edited by Callum Baird . Initially published on weekdays , a Saturday edition was added in May 2015 . The National is printed in tabloid format , and is also available via online subscription .
Details of its launch were announced on 21 November , with further information given at a Scottish National Party ( SNP ) rally the following day . It was launched on a five @-@ day trial basis against the backdrop of a general decline in newspaper sales , with an initial print @-@ run of 60 @,@ 000 copies for its first edition , but this was increased the following day as a result of public demand , and Newsquest decided to print it on a permanent basis after healthy sales continued throughout the first week . By January 2015 , daily sales had fallen to below 20 @,@ 000 . The first front page carried a story about charities urging devolution of powers over welfare legislation to Scotland .
Reception to the newspaper 's launch was mixed in both media and political circles . Libby Brooks of The Guardian praised the depth of its news coverage , but suggested announcing its launch at an SNP event could prove " auspicious " , while the Labour peer George Foulkes branded it " McPravda " . However , the Scottish journalist and broadcaster Lesley Riddoch was more positive , feeling its launch could be a " sound business move " by its publishers . Upon its launch , The National stated that it is a separate entity from the SNP .
= = Background = =
The National describes itself as " the newspaper that supports an independent Scotland " , and has a masthead depicting a map of Scotland . Details of the newspaper were revealed on 21 November 2014 after The Guardian obtained a copy of a letter being circulated to retailers by Newsquest announcing its forthcoming publication . A sister paper of The Herald and the Sunday Herald , The National would be the first daily newspaper in Scotland to support Scottish independence , and was being piloted in response to a request from Herald readers for a pro @-@ independence newspaper . During the 2014 independence referendum , the Sunday Herald had been the only newspaper to support the " Yes " campaign , and saw an increase in its circulation — with sales rising by 60 % in the week preceding the referendum and 111 % in the week afterwards . Richard Walker , editor of the Sunday Herald , was announced as the new paper 's editor . On 22 November , Walker told a gathering of Scottish National Party ( SNP ) supporters assembled at Glasgow 's SSE Hydro that The National 's publishers would trial the newspaper for five days , but that it would become a permanent addition to the market if there was demand for it . Copies would cost 50p , while an online version would also be available via subscription .
The paper was launched with an initial print @-@ run of 60 @,@ 000 , and was edited by a skeleton staff during the trial run , with plans to employ more journalists if it became a permanent publication . Initial contributors included Sunday Herald journalists Jamie Maxwell and Peter Geoghegan , as well as freelance reporter Sarah Cooper . During the initial week of publication , Walker spoke of his belief that The National would continue beyond the trial period , but said the decision was in the hands of its publishers . Following healthy sales in the first few days , Newsquest executives decided on 27 November to continue printing the newspaper , and to allocate it additional resources . On the same day , Neil Mackay , The National 's news editor , confirmed that the paper would be published on a permanent basis . Publication then continued on weekdays until the introduction of a Saturday edition in May 2015 .
On 27 November 2014 , Alex Salmond , the former First Minister of Scotland , publicly endorsed The National when he took a copy of it on stage to accept The Spectator 's award for Politician of the Year . On 27 January 2015 , Newsquest area manager Tim Blott announced that the newspaper 's website would be relaunched in February , while Callum Baird would be appointed as assistant editor . The first Saturday edition of The National was published on 9 May to provide coverage of the results of the 2015 UK general election . Walker subsequently described the response as " very strong " and said that the newspaper would continue to be printed on a Saturday for " as long as there ’ s a public demand for it . " In September 2015 Walker announced his resignation from Newsquest , and consequently the Sunday Herald and The National , but he agreed to continue with The National as a consulting editor . He was succeeded as editor by Callum Baird . As Scotland prepared to welcome its first batch of refugees from the Syrian Civil War an edition of the newspaper published on 17 November 2015 carried the headline " Welcome to Scotland " . The Independent reported that an image of the front page was subsequently shared multiple times among users of social media .
= = Launch = =
Launched as a 32 @-@ page newspaper , and printed in tabloid format , The National was first published on Monday 24 November 2014 , and according to its editor received an " amazing response " from readers , with its print @-@ run for the following day 's edition increased to 100 @,@ 000 . The Press Gazette reported that 80 @,@ 000 copies were produced on the third day , while 12 @,@ 000 online digital subscriptions had been registered at a price of £ 1 @.@ 50 per week . Other sources , including The Guardian , and subsequently The National itself , put the online subscription figure at 11 @,@ 000 . On 27 November , The Guardian reported that of the 100 @,@ 000 copies printed on 25 November , unofficial sales figures indicated that only 50 @,@ 000 had been sold , and that daily sales were stabilising at around the 50 @,@ 000 mark . Sales figures for the first Friday edition , published on 28 November , were reported as 40 @,@ 000 by The Guardian , with an average daily sale for the first week of 44 @,@ 000 copies . On 3 December , The Guardian reported that unofficial industry sales figures indicated 36 @,@ 000 copies were sold for the Monday edition of the second week . On 27 January 2015 , The Guardian reported that daily sales had fallen to below 20 @,@ 000 — a figure consisting of around 15 @,@ 000 print sales , with a further 2 @,@ 500 to 3 @,@ 000 digital subscriptions .
On 27 November 2014 , Newsquest announced plans for the Friday edition , published the following day , to be expanded to 40 pages to accommodate news coverage of the Smith Commission 's report into increased devolution for Scotland , which was published on 27 November , and due to a large demand for space from advertisers . The 28 November edition also included an editorial thanking readers for backing the new publication . Speaking to The Guardian shortly after its launch , Walker said that the initial print run had been set as 30 @,@ 000 , but a last @-@ minute decision was taken to double it , something he described as " in hindsight , a good decision " . The National 's launch and success came at a time of general decline in the print media industry , where news providers were cutting staff and resources due to a downturn in newspaper sales . Douglas Beattie of the New Statesman and Alex Massie of The Spectator reported that copies of the first edition , which sold out , were being auctioned on eBay for at least £ 10 . The Financial Times reported that pro @-@ independence campaigners used social media to help potential readers locate available copies of the paper when the first edition had sold out in many areas .
However , the launch was not without its problems when three major supermarkets did not stock copies . On launch day , Sainsbury 's said that its tills had not been updated in time to enable them to sell the paper , but that it would begin doing so from the following day , while Tesco and Morrisons planned to monitor sales before deciding whether or not to stock it . Morrisons also said that it did not have the space to sell the newspaper without doing so at the expense of local titles . On 27 November , The Guardian reported that the distribution issues had been resolved , while STV News suggested the distribution problems were responsible for the fewer number of printed copies in the latter part of the launch week . Stewart Kirkpatrick , the former digital chief of Yes Scotland noted that The National had no digital presence at the time of its launch , something that prompted him to observe " We 're in the age of ' digital first ' not ' digital when we get round to it ' . "
The first edition of The National carried the headline " Give Scotland the powers to cut child poverty " , an article in which charities urged the Smith Commission to devolve welfare powers to the Scottish Parliament . The newspaper also included a mixture of national and international stories , with Libby Brooks of The Guardian noting the international coverage was " [ stronger ] than one is used to from a Scottish title [ with ] stories from Tunisia and Gaza as well as a profile of [ Iranian President ] Hassan Rouhani " . There was also sport and business coverage , but the BBC 's Jamie McIvor wrote of the first edition that " stories related to independence , Scottish politics and issues which featured in the referendum campaign characterise the news pages " . The newspaper 's opening edition also set out its mission statement :
The status quo is no longer an option and there is an unquenchable desire for greater devolution . Quite simply , the Scottish people want to be more directly and deeply involved in the decisions that affect them and the generations to come . It is with this uppermost in mind that today we launch The National , a daily newspaper that will fly a vibrant flag for independence and the right for Scots to govern themselves .
= = Reception = =
Despite having details of its launch announced at an SNP political event , the newspaper has stated that it is politically independent of that party . Its inaugural editorial says that being a mouthpiece for the party " would not be a healthy course to follow . We will be critical where appropriate and complimentary when merited . " But in The Guardian , Brooks suggested that launching The National at an SNP political rally " might not have been the most auspicious of starts " for the newspaper , while Labour peer George Foulkes quickly dubbed it " McPravda " , a reference to the political newspaper associated with the Communist Party of Russia . Damian Thompson , an associate editor with The Spectator , described the launch event as " creepy " . McIvor wrote that the calibre of its stablemates together with a respected editor had ensured The National was being taken seriously in political and media circles , but that the onus was on it to prove its credibility as a publication that supports independence rather than being viewed as " a propaganda organ , a cynical business exercise or the old media equivalent of some pro @-@ independence websites " . Alan Roden , political editor of the Scottish Daily Mail , claimed it had " rehashed SNP press releases " and was too expensive for its size .
Writing for The Guardian , the journalist and broadcaster Lesley Riddoch took a different view , suggesting that the launch of a pro @-@ independence newspaper in a country where 45 % of the population had recently voted for independence " may be a large but calculated risk and a very sound business move " , and that " Perhaps the novelty and sheer boldness of the National newspaper will match the national mood " . Kirkpatrick , although critical of its online shortfalls , was positive about the paper 's content , describing it as " a lively mix of briefs and longer pieces " . Douglas Beattie of the New Statesman said The National " has a clear raison d ’ etre and will be welcomed by a large number of the 1 @.@ 6 million Scots who voted Yes " . Stephen Daisley of STV News wrote that it was " both frustratingly light [ and ] stodgily worthy " , but drew favourable comparisons with the Scottish Standard , a weekly pro @-@ independence paper launched in 2005 that ceased publication after just seven issues , suggesting The National would succeed because it had more financial backing , and as there was a latent demand for a news sheet supporting independence . Writing in The Guardian , the journalist and author Peter Preston said there were " many good things to say about the National " including its editor , who was leading a newspaper that " helps to reflect public opinion better " .
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= Jan Mayensfield =
Jan Mayensfield ( ICAO : ENJA ) is an aerodrome serving Olonkinbyen in Jan Mayen , Norway . Operated by the Norwegian Armed Forces , it serves the island 's only population at the combined military and meteorological station . It has a 1 @,@ 500 @-@ meter ( 4 @,@ 921 ft ) dirt runway numbered 06 – 24 .
The airfield was built in connection with the LORAN @-@ C transmitter at Olonkinbyen and was completed in 1960 . Jan Mayensfield is served eight times per year by Lockheed C @-@ 130 Hercules aircraft of the 335 Squadron from Bodø Main Air Station , which provide supplies and change crew at the outpost . The nearby Beerenberg volcano can cause a Kármán wind , which creates difficult landing conditions .
= = History = =
North Atlantic Treaty Organization ( NATO ) and the Norwegian Armed Forces started construction of a military communications outpost at Olonkinbyen in 1958 . At first a LORAN @-@ A transmitter was built , followed by a LORAN @-@ C transmitter in 1960 . In August , it was announced that the island would receive an airfield to allow continual operation of the transmitter . Originally , the aerodrome consisted of a 1 @,@ 200 by 30 metres ( 3 @,@ 937 by 98 ft ) section of the island 's dirt road . This was chosen to reduce the bureaucracy of construction . The first aircraft to land was a Consolidated PBY Catalina of the Royal Norwegian Air Force on 17 September 1960 .
The first civilian aircraft was a Douglas DC @-@ 4 operated by Braathens SAFE , which landed with some journalists on board on 29 October 1961 . Other early aircraft operating to Jan Mayen were the Grumman HU @-@ 16 Albatross and the Douglas DC @-@ 6 . The head officer of the Norwegian military 's communications division was later criticized by Chief of Defence Bjarne Øen , who concluded : " Gentlemen , I will not have any construction of airports on Norwegian soil by the Communications Division without the plans being presented to the Central Command . "
In 1970 , a sudden eruption in Beerenberg forced the immediate evacuation of the station . A Hercules was dispatched to the island and successfully landed on the strip . Thereafter the Hercules became the regular military aircraft at Jan Mayen . Aircraft gradually took over more of the transport to the island , and from 1973 all supplies except diesel and special freight was transported by ship . From 1975 the 333 Squadron would occasionally drop mail and supplies using the P @-@ 3 Orion as a supplement to the landings of the Hercules .
= = Facilities = =
Jan Mayensfield 's single regular service is the Royal Norwegian Air Force 's Lockheed C @-@ 130 Hercules , which operate to the island eight times per year . The aircraft are part of the 335 Squadron , based at Gardermoen Air Station , although the flights from Jan Mayen operate from Bodø Main Air Station . The runway is not open for commercial traffic , although it can be used for research and search and rescue operations .
The dirt runway is 1 @,@ 500 by 30 meters ( 4 @,@ 921 by 98 ft ) being aligned 06 – 24 . Jan Mayensfield has variable weather conditions , a lot of fog and often has a Kármán wind . The Kármán wind is created in the wake of the Beerenberg volcano , resulting in regular vortex streets and lee @-@ waves . This can cause sudden change to the wind direction on the island .
= = Accidents and incidents = =
In 1991 , a C @-@ 130 Hercules aircraft from the Royal Norwegian Air Force almost crashed after take off due to Karman wind suddenly shifting .
A WWII plane crash site is also near the airfield .
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= Bruno Rossi =
Bruno Benedetto Rossi ( 13 April 1905 – 21 November 1993 ) was an Italian experimental physicist . He made major contributions to particle physics and the study of cosmic rays . A 1927 graduate of the University of Bologna , he became interested in cosmic rays . To study them , he invented an improved electronic coincidence circuit , and travelled to Eritrea to conduct experiments that showed that cosmic ray intensity from the West was significantly larger than that from the East .
Forced to emigrate in October 1938 because of the Italian Racial Laws , Rossi moved to Denmark , where he worked with Niels Bohr , then to Britain , where he worked with Patrick Blackett at the University of Manchester , and finally to the United States , where he worked with Enrico Fermi at the University of Chicago , and later at Cornell University . Rossi stayed in the United States , and became an American Citizen .
During World War II , Rossi worked on radar at the MIT Radiation Laboratory , and he played a pivotal role in the Manhattan Project , heading the group at the Los Alamos Laboratory that carried out the RaLa Experiments . After the war , he was recruited by Jerrold Zacharias at MIT , where Rossi continued his pre @-@ war research into cosmic rays .
In the 1960s , he pioneered X @-@ ray astronomy and space plasma physics . His instrumentation on Explorer 10 detected the magnetopause , and he initiated the rocket experiments that discovered Scorpius X @-@ 1 , the first extra @-@ solar source of X @-@ rays .
= = Italy = =
Rossi was born to a Jewish family in Venice , Italy . He was the eldest of three sons of Rino Rossi and Lina Minerbi . His father was an electrical engineer , who participated in the electrification of Venice . Rossi was tutored at home until the age of fourteen , after which he attended the Ginnasio and the Liceo in Venice . After beginning his university studies at the University of Padua , he began advanced work at the University of Bologna , where he received a Laurea in Physics in 1927 . His thesis advisor was Quirino Majorana , who was a well @-@ known experimentalist and uncle of the physicist Ettore Majorana .
= = = Florence = = =
In 1928 , Rossi began his career at the University of Florence , as assistant to Antonio Garbasso , who founded the University 's Physics Institute in 1920 . It was located in Arcetri , on a hill overlooking the city . When Rossi arrived , Garbasso was Podestà of Florence , appointed by Benito Mussolini 's fascist government of Italy . However , he brought to the institute a group of brilliant physicists which included Enrico Fermi and Franco Rasetti before they moved to Rome , as well as Gilberto Bernardini , Enrico Persico , and Giulio Racah . In 1929 , Rossi 's first graduate student , Giuseppe Occhialini , was awarded the doctoral degree .
In search of pioneering research , Rossi turned his attention to cosmic rays , which had been discovered by Victor Hess in manned balloon flights in 1911 and 1912 . In 1929 , Rossi read the paper of Walther Bothe and Werner Kolhörster , which described their discovery of charged cosmic ray particles that penetrated 4 @.@ 1 centimetres ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) of gold . This was astonishing , for the most penetrating charged particles known at the time were electrons from radioactive decay , which could penetrate less than a millimetre of gold . In Rossi 's words it
came like a flash of light revealing the existence of an unsuspected world , full of mysteries , which no one had yet begun to explore . It soon became my overwhelming ambition to participate in the exploration .
= = = Rossi coincidence circuit = = =
In 1954 , Bothe was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics " for the coincidence method and his discoveries made therewith " . However , his implementation of this method was very cumbersome , for it involved visual correlation of photographed pulses . Within a few weeks of reading his paper with Kolhörster , Rossi invented an improved electronic coincidence circuit , which made use of triode vacuum tubes . The Rossi coincidence circuit has two major advantages : it offers very precise temporal resolution and it can detect coincidences among any number of pulse sources . These features make it possible to identify interesting events that produce coincident pulses in several counters . These rare events stand out even in the presence of high rates of unrelated background pulses in the individual counters . The circuit not only provided the basis for electronic instrumentation in nuclear and particle physics , but also implemented the first electronic AND circuit , which is a fundamental element of the digital logic that is ubiquitous in modern electronics .
At the time , an improved tubular version of the original Geiger counter , invented by Hans Geiger in 1908 , had just been developed by his student Walther Müller . These Geiger – Müller tubes ( GM tubes or counters ) made possible Bothe 's investigations . With Occhialini 's help in the construction of GM tubes , and with the aid of a practical coincidence circuit , Rossi confirmed and extended the results of Bothe , who invited him to visit Berlin in the summer of 1930 . Here , with financial support arranged by Garbasso , Rossi collaborated on further investigations of cosmic ray penetration . He also studied Carl Størmer 's mathematical description of the trajectories of charged particles in the Earth 's magnetic field . On the basis of these studies , he realised that the intensity of cosmic rays coming from eastward directions might be different from that of westward ones . From Berlin , he submitted the first paper suggesting that observations of this East @-@ West effect could not only confirm that cosmic rays are charged particles , but also determine the sign of their charge .
= = = Rome conference = = =
In the fall of 1931 , Fermi and Orso Mario Corbino organized in Rome an international conference on nuclear physics , which was sponsored by the Royal Academy of Italy . Fermi invited Rossi to give an introductory talk on cosmic rays . In the audience were Robert Millikan and Arthur Compton , both of whom had won the Nobel prize in physics , in 1923 and 1927 , respectively . During the 1920s , Millikan , who is famous for his oil drop experiment , made extensive measurements of the mysterious radiation discovered by Hess . He coined the name " cosmic rays " and proposed that they were photons created by the fusion of hydrogen in interstellar space . He was not pleased by the presentation of evidence that most observed cosmic rays are energetic charged particles . Later , Rossi wrote :
Millikan clearly resented having his beloved theory torn to pieces by a mere youth , so much so that from that moment on he refused to recognise my existence . ( In retrospect , I must admit that I might have been more tactful in my presentation . )
Compton , who is famous for the Compton effect , had a more positive reaction , for he told Rossi later that the talk had motivated him to begin his own research on cosmic rays .
= = = Rossi curve = = =
Immediately after the Rome conference , Rossi carried out two experiments that led to a significant advance in the understanding of cosmic rays . Both involved triple coincidences of pulses from three Geiger counters ; but in the first , the counters were aligned and separated by blocks of lead , while in the second , they were placed in a triangular configuration such that all three could not be traversed by a single particle travelling in a straight line . Results from the first configuration demonstrated the existence of cosmic @-@ ray particles capable of penetrating 1 metre ( 3 ft 3 in ) of lead .
With the second configuration enclosed in a lead box , the results showed that some cosmic rays interact in lead to produce multiple secondary particles . In an extension of the second experiment , he measured the rate of triple coincidences as a function of the amount of the lead above the counters . A plot of this rate against thickness , which came to be known as the Rossi curve , showed a rapid rise as the lead layer was increased , followed by a slow decline . These experiments showed that ground @-@ level cosmic rays consist of two components : a " soft " component which is capable of prolific generation of multiple particle events , and a " hard " component which is capable of traversing great thicknesses of lead . At the time , the physical nature of both was a mystery , for they did not yet fit into the growing body of knowledge about nuclear and particle physics .
Late in 1931 , Rossi arranged for Occhialini to work in the Cavendish Laboratory at the University of Cambridge with Patrick Blackett , whom he had met in Berlin . With the aid of the new technique of electronic coincidence , Occhialini helped Blackett develop the first counter @-@ controlled cloud chamber , with which they confirmed Carl Anderson 's discovery of the positron and deduced that the positive electrons are produced in association with negative ones by pair production . Up to 23 positive and negative electrons were observed in some events , which were clearly related to the showers of Rossi 's soft component .
= = = Padua = = =
In 1932 , Rossi won a competition for an academic position in an Italian university , and was appointed professor of experimental physics at the University of Padua . Soon after Rossi arrived , the rector asked him to oversee the design and construction of Padua 's new Physics Institute . Although this task diverted his attention from research and teaching , he complied willingly , and the institute opened in 1937 .
= = = East @-@ West effect = = =
In spite of this distraction , Rossi was able to complete , in 1933 , an experiment on the East @-@ West effect that he had begun before leaving Arcetri . Because this effect is more prominent near the equator , he organised an expedition to Asmara in Eritrea , which was then an Italian colony on the Red Sea at a latitude of 15 ° N. With Sergio De Bennedetti , he set up a " cosmic ray telescope " , which consisted of two separated GM counters in coincidence , whose axis of maximum sensitivity could be pointed in any direction . It soon became apparent that cosmic ray intensity from the West was significantly larger than that from the East . This meant that there was a larger influx of positive primary particles than of negative ones . At the time , this result was surprising , because most investigators held the preconceived notion that the primaries would be negative electrons .
Just as Rossi left Eritrea , he received news of two observations of a similar East @-@ West effect . These were published in the Physical Review . One was by Thomas H. Johnson , and the other was by Compton and his student , Luis Alvarez , who reported observations at Mexico City , where the latitude is 19 ° N. Because others had carried out the first experimental exploitation of his important idea of 1930 , Rossi was disappointed , but published his results immediately after returning to Padua . Later , with Frederick C. Chromey , Alvarez and Rossi patented a " Vertical Determination Device " , which made use of cosmic ray telescopes .
In Eritrea , Rossi discovered another phenomenon that would become a principal theme of his postwar cosmic ray research : extensive cosmic ray air showers . The discovery occurred during tests to determine the rate of accidental coincidences between the Geiger counters of his detector . To assure that no single particle could trigger the counters he spread them out in a horizontal plane . In this configuration , the frequency of coincidences was greater than that calculated on the basis of the individual rates and the resolving time of the coincidence circuit . Rossi concluded that :
… once in a while the recording equipment is struck by very extensive showers of particles , which cause coincidences between counters , even placed at large distances from one another .
In 1937 , Rossi became acquainted with Nora Lombroso , the daughter of Ugo Lombroso , a professor of physiology at the University of Palermo , and Silvia Forti . Her grandfather was the renowned physician and criminologist Cesare Lombroso , and her aunts , Gina Lombroso and Paola Lombroso Carrara , were well known Italian writers and educators . In April 1938 , Bruno and Nora married and set up a household in Padua .
Although Rossi avoided politics , some of Rossi 's associates were active opponents of the fascist state . For example , he mentored Eugenio Curiel , who became a member of the communist party , while completing a degree at Padua . Later , in 1943 , Curiel joined the resistance in Milan , and in 1945 , was assassinated by soldiers of the Republic of Salò a German puppet state . Similarly , Ettore Pancini , who received his PhD under Rossi in 1938 , spent the war years alternating between cosmic ray research and active participation in the Italian resistance movements of Padua and Venice .
Because of these associations , and because both Rossis were Jewish , they became apprehensive as Italy 's antisemitism grew under the influence of Nazi Germany . Eventually , as a result of anti @-@ Jewish laws resulting from the Manifesto of Race , Rossi was dismissed from his professorship . In his words :
Eventually , in September of 1938 , I learned that I no longer was a citizen of my country , and that , in Italy , my activity as a teacher and a scientist had come to an end .
= = Exile = =
With this setback , Rossi began an important phase of his career . He summarised this period in a memoir : " The Decay of ' Mesotrons ' ( 1939 – 1943 ) : Experimental Particle Physics in the Age of Innocence " , which he presented in a symposium at Fermilab in 1980 . On 12 October 1938 , the Rossis left for Copenhagen , where the Danish physicist , Niels Bohr , had invited him to study . The couple had no intention of returning to Italy , and Bohr facilitated Rossi 's search for a more secure position by sponsoring a conference attended by leading physicists . He hoped that one of them would find Rossi a job , and soon , Rossi received an invitation to come to the University of Manchester , where Blackett was developing a major center of cosmic ray research . After a pleasant two months in Denmark , Rossi and Nora arrived in Manchester .
= = = Manchester = = =
Rossi 's stay in Manchester was brief , but productive . At this time , a clear understanding of the soft component was available . In 1934 , Hans Bethe and Walter Heitler published a quantitative description not only of the production of electron @-@ positron pairs by energetic photons , but also of the production of photons by energetic electrons and positrons . At Manchester , Rossi collaborated with Ludwig Jánossy on an experiment which demonstrated the correctness of the Bethe @-@ Heitler theory of the second process , which had not yet been fully confirmed . This experiment also introduced the technique of anti @-@ coincidence , which has become a ubiquitous feature of instruments for detecting and analyzing energetic particles .
By this time , cloud chamber observations had clarified the nature of the hard component . In 1936 , Anderson and his student , Seth Neddermeyer , discovered cosmic ray particles with mass intermediate between those of the electron and the proton , which Anderson called " mesotrons " . The mesotron subsequently became the known as the " μ meson " , which was shortened to " muon " . Just before the Copenhagen conference , Blackett suggested that observed variations of cosmic ray intensity with atmospheric temperature could be an indication that mesotrons are unstable , and he held intense discussions with Rossi on this subject . As a result , Rossi left Manchester determined to confirm their decay and to measure the lifetime .
= = = Chicago = = =
With war looming over Europe , Blackett and others advised Rossi to leave Britain . Consequently , he wrote to Compton , who invited him to attend a summer symposium in Chicago , and hinted that a job might become available . In June 1939 , the Rossis sailed for New York , where they were greeted by Fermi and his wife Laura , who had also left Italy because of the racial laws . After a brief reunion with the Fermis , the Rossis were offered a ride to Chicago by Bethe . They gratefully accepted , and arrived at the University of Chicago in mid @-@ June 1939 .
= = = Mesotron decay = = =
Immediately after a symposium session on mesotron instability reached a consensus that more definitive observations were needed , Rossi and Compton began to plan an experiment . Because the intensity of the hard component increases with altitude , while the density of air decreases , Compton suggested that the investigations should be carried out on Mount Evans in Colorado , where he had worked in the early 1930s , and where access to a research site at 4 @,@ 310 metres ( 14 @,@ 140 ft ) elevation is provided by the Mount Evans Scenic Byway , the highest paved road in North America . He urged Rossi to begin a series of experiments that summer , before snow blocked the road , and to help , enlisted two of his friends , Norman Hillberry and J. Barton Hoag , and a student , Winston Bostick . Rossi and his helpers hurriedly assembled equipment and loaded it onto a dilapidated bus that Compton borrowed from the Zoology department .
By this time , it was known that the main process by which mesotrons lose energy is ionisation energy loss , which is described by the Bethe formula , and is proportional to the mass per unit area of the layer of material traversed . If this were the only process , the intensity of the hard component passing through a layer of solid material would decrease by the same amount as in an equivalent layer of air . Rossi and his collaborators found that the decrease was significantly larger in the atmosphere than in a corresponding layer of solid carbon . Because the distance traversed in air was much larger than that in carbon , they interpreted this result as evidence for decay of the mesotron , and taking into account the effect of relativistic time dilation , estimated its mean life at rest as roughly 2 microseconds .
The next summer , Rossi returned to Mount Evans where he performed experiments near Echo Lake at an elevation 3 @,@ 230 metres ( 10 @,@ 600 ft ) . With the use of anti coincidence techniques , the apparatus made it possible to measure the mean free path before decay of two groups of mesotrons with different average momentum . The results , published with David B. Hall , not only confirmed the proportionality between particle momentum and the mean free path of mesotrons before decay that is expected on the basis of relativity theory , but also presented an improved estimate of the lifetime at rest : ( 2 @.@ 4 ± 0 @.@ 3 ) microseconds . These results and those of the previous year were not only the first to show definitively that mesotrons are unstable , but also the first experimental confirmation of the time dilation of moving clocks predicted by relativity theory .
= = = Cornell = = =
At Chicago , Rossi 's position as research associate was not permanent , and Compton was unable to secure him a better one . Consequently , he began a job search , during which he gave a seminar at Cornell University , where coincidentally , death had created a vacancy in the Physics department . After Bethe suggested that Rossi should be invited to fill this position , he was appointed associate professor at Cornell . In the fall of 1940 , after returning to Chicago from Colorado , the Rossis left for Ithaca .
At Cornell , Rossi met his first American graduate student , Kenneth Greisen , with whom he wrote an article , " Cosmic @-@ Ray Theory " , which was published in the Reviews of Modern Physics and became known among cosmic @-@ ray researchers as " The Bible " . During the summer of 1941 , Greisen and physicists from Denver and Boulder accompanied Rossi to Mount Evans , where they refined the knowledge of proportionality between mesotron momentum and lifetime before decay . Greisen and Rossi also carried out experiments , which showed , in terms of processes documented in the " Bible " , that not all particles of the soft component , could be produced by mesotrons of the hard component . They interpreted this as evidence for primary electrons or photons , but it became evident later that the soft excess arises from the decay of neutral pions .
After the 1941 expedition to Colorado , Rossi decided that the question of whether mesotrons decay had been answered . However , he was not satisfied with the precision with which the lifetime had been determined , for existing estimates depended on mesotron mass , which was not accurately known . To perform a more direct measurement , he designed apparatus to measure the time interval between the arrival of a mesotron in an absorber , where it stopped , and the emission of an electron when the mesotron decayed . To assist , he obtained the help of graduate student Norris Nereson . At the heart of their experiment , was a " chronometer " , which was an electronic circuit that produced a pulse whose height was accurately proportional to the time interval , and which could be recorded by photographing an oscilloscope trace .
This was the first time @-@ to @-@ amplitude converter , another of Rossi 's contributions to electronic techniques of experimental physics . With absorbers of lead and brass , the number of decays was plotted against time . These decay curves had the same exponential form as those of ordinary radioactive substances , and gave a mean lifetime of 2 @.@ 3 ± 0 @.@ 2 microseconds , which was later refined to 2 @.@ 15 ± 0 @.@ 07 microseconds . After the war , Rossi discovered that his Italian colleagues , Marcello Conversi and Oreste Piccioni , had performed experiments very similar to his and measured a lifetime consistent with his result .
Looking back on what he called the " Age of Innocence " , Rossi wrote :
How is it possible that results bearing on fundamental problems of elementary particle physics could be achieved by experiments of an almost childish simplicity , costing only a few thousand dollars and requiring only the help of one or two graduate students ?
= = Los Alamos = =
With the completion of his work on mesotrons , Rossi turned his attention toward the war effort . In 1942 , while commuting from Ithaca to Cambridge , Massachusetts , he became a consultant on radar development at the Radiation Laboratory of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology . Here , along with Greisen , he invented a " range tracking circuit " , which was patented after the war .
In early July 1943 , Bethe invited Rossi to join the Manhattan Project . Within a month , he reported for duty at Los Alamos Laboratory . A few weeks later , Nora and their three @-@ year @-@ old daughter , Florence , joined Rossi in Los Alamos , New Mexico . The laboratory 's director , Robert Oppenheimer , asked Rossi to form a group to develop diagnostic instruments needed to create the atomic bomb . He soon realized that there already existed a group with a similar mission headed by the Swiss physicist Hans H. Staub . The two decided to merge their efforts into a single " Detector Group " . They were assisted by approximately twenty young researchers , including Matthew Sands an " electronic wizard " , who later earned a PhD under Rossi , and David B. Nicodemus , whom Staub brought from Stanford University , who was an expert on particle detectors .
= = = Fast ionization chamber = = =
Bomb development called for large detectors of ionising radiation , whose response is proportional to the energy released in the detector and follows rapid changes in radiation intensity . From the earliest research on radioactivity , radiation had been measured in terms of Ionisation , but existing Ionisation chambers were slow to respond to changes . To address this problem , Rossi and Staub carried out a careful analysis of the pulses that result when individual charged particles create ions within an ionisation chamber . They realised that the high mobility of free electrons removed from ionised atoms means that the pulses produced by single particles can be very brief . With James S. Allen , Rossi found gas mixtures of high electron mobility and low electron attachment . On the basis of these investigations , Allen and Rossi invented the " fast ionisation chamber " , which they patented after the war . It was a crucial factor in the success of the Manhattan Project and became widely used in postwar research on particle physics .
= = = RaLa experiments = = =
In April 1944 , the Manhattan project experienced a crisis , when Emilio Segrè 's group discovered that plutonium made in reactors would not work in a gun @-@ type plutonium weapon like the " Thin Man " . In response , Oppenheimer completely reorganised the laboratory to focus on development of an implosion @-@ type weapon .
Rossi was enlisted to implement a method to test various weapon designs to arrive at one that produced an accurately symmetrical spherical implosion . The tests measured changes of the absorption of gamma rays in a metal sphere as it underwent implosive compression . The gamma rays were emitted by a pellet of the short @-@ lived radioisotope Lanthanum @-@ 140 positioned in the center of the sphere . The term RaLa experiment is a contraction of Radioactive Lanthanum . As compression progressed , the rapid increase in absorption was detected as a decrease of gamma ray intensity recorded outside of the assembly .
The RaLa experiments revealed many pitfalls on the way to a successful implosion . To understand problematic jets that plagued early implosion designs , other test methods were necessary , but the RaLa experiments played a primary role in the design of explosive lenses . In his history of the Los Alamos project , David Hawkins wrote : " RaLa became the most important single experiment affecting the final bomb design " .
= = = Trinity diagnostics = = =
On 16 July 1945 , an implosion @-@ type plutonium device was detonated at the Trinity site near Alamogordo , New Mexico . The code name for this device was " The gadget " , and its design was very similar to the Fat Man weapon that was dropped on Nagasaki twenty four days later .
In preparation for Trinity , Rossi designed instrumentation to record gamma radiation during the chain reaction , whose duration was expected to be approximately 10 nanoseconds . Observations on this time scale were almost beyond the state of the art in 1945 , but Rossi designed and built a large cylindrical ionisation chamber whose speed of response was adequate because its coaxial electrodes were separated by a narrow gap of only 1 centimetre ( 0 @.@ 39 in ) .
To record the signal , he installed a very fast oscilloscope , provided as a prototype by DuMont Laboratories , in an underground bunker several hundred feet from the Gadget , where it was photographed . To bring the signal to the oscilloscope , he devised an oversized coaxial transmission line , whose inner conductor was made smaller as it went from chamber to oscilloscope . Because this configuration enhanced the signal reaching the oscilloscope , there was no need for amplification . To confirm this surprising behaviour , Rossi consulted with Harvard professor Edward Purcell .
A few days after the test , Rossi went into the darkroom with Fermi , and before the newly developed film was dry , they were able to compute the initial growth rate of nuclear activity , which was crucial information for future weapons development . Of three attempts to measure this rate at Trinity , Rossi 's was the only one that was fully successful .
= = MIT = =
With the success of the Manhattan Project and the Radiation Laboratory , MIT moved into a new era of " big science " funded by the US government . MIT 's expansion in nuclear physics was spearheaded by Jerrold R. Zacharias , who went to Los Alamos late in the war , and recruited Viki Weisskopf and Rossi as MIT professors . Rossi left Los Alamos for Cambridge on 6 February 1946 .
Within the new Laboratory for Nuclear Science , headed by Zacharias , Rossi was delegated to create a cosmic ray research group at MIT . To help , he recruited four young scientists who had been at Los Alamos as PhD candidates : Herbert Bridge , Matthew Sands , Robert Thompson and Robert Williams . Two who had been in the Radiation Laboratory also came to work with him : John Tinlot and Robert Hulsizer . All six were more mature than typical graduate students , for they had several years of wartime research experience . Consequently , they were paid a stipend similar to that of a postdoctoral researcher , which was funded by the Office of Naval Research and enabled them to support families during their graduate studies .
For this new phase of his activities , Rossi made a fundamental change of approach . In his words :
In my new position , my activity would be very different from what it had been in past years . Then , working alone or , at most , with the help of a few students I would build the instruments , take them to the place where they had to be used , make the measurements and analyze the results . Now , I had the responsibility of an entire group , and what mattered was not my own work , but the work of the group . My task was to identify the most promising research programs among those that were within our reach , to help where help was needed in the planning of the instrumentation or in the evaluation of experimental results , all of this without discouraging the individual initiative of the researchers .
= = = Elementary Particles = = =
With the discovery of the pion in 1947 , the search for new elementary particles became a popular research topic . By operating fast ionization chambers within a cloud chamber , Herbert showed that the bursts of ionization they recorded were primarily produced by relatively low energy cosmic rays , whose nuclear interactions typically involve the ejection of several heavily ionising nuclear fragments . On the basis of this effect , he and Rossi demonstrated that the behaviour of these interactions is similar to that of penetrating showers .
Rossi 's group focused on the use of cloud chambers to study their properties and interactions . In 1948 , with the aid of a multi @-@ plate cloud chamber in which lead plates alternated with aluminium ones , Gregory , Rossi and Tinlot showed that the source of the electromagnetic component of cosmic ray interactions was predominantly energetic photons , rather than electrons . This result confirmed Oppenheimer 's suggestion of 1947 that neutral pions are produced in interactions , along with charged ones , and that this component arises from their rapid decay into photons .
To study the new elementary particles , Bridge and Martin Annis operated a large rectangular multi plate cloud chamber at Echo Lake . This investigation provided the basis for a 1951 PhD thesis by Annis , supervised by Rossi . The next year , these authors , with another student of Rossi 's , Stanislaw Olbert , showed how to derive information on particle energies from measurements of their multiple scattering . This added another way to use cloud chambers to measure the properties of elementary particles . In early 1953 , with Bridge , Richard Safford and Charles Peyrou , Rossi published results of a comprehensive cloud chamber study of the elementary particles that became known as kaons . Peyrou was a visitor from at the École Polytechnique , where he had obtained an accurate value of the muon mass in 1947 , and Safford was Rossi 's student .
= = = Bagnères @-@ de @-@ Bigorre conference = = =
By 1952 , a bewildering " zoo " of elementary particles had been reported , with various masses , decay schemes , nomenclature and reliability of identification . To deal with this situation , Blackett and Leprince @-@ Ringuet organized an International Cosmic Ray Conference at Bagnères @-@ de @-@ Bigorre in 1953 . According to James Cronin , " this conference can be placed in importance in the same category as two other famous conferences , the Solvay congress of 1927 and the Shelter Island Conference of 1948 . "
Leprince @-@ Ringuet asked Rossi to give a summary of new information presented at the conference and to propose nomenclature for the new particles . Before the conference , in response to the latter assignment , Rossi circulated a suggestion that particles with mass smaller than that of a neutron be designated by small Greek letters and those with larger mass be designated by capital Greek letters . In his talk , on 11 July 1953 , he reported that conference results , which he had compiled with the aid of Powell and Fretter , were consistent with this scheme , which was commonly used afterwards .
A highlight was Leprince @-@ Ringuet 's declaration in his closing talk that : " ... in the future we must use particle accelerators . " With the 3 GeV Cosmotron already in operation at Brookhaven National Laboratory , this declaration reflected a consensus among the participants . As a result , Rossi 's group began to wind down their cloud chamber experiments . However , in 1954 , Bridge , Hans Courant , Herbert DeStaebler , Jr. and Rossi reported on an unusual event in which a stopping singly charged particle decayed into three photons whose energies totaled more than the proton rest energy . This is the signature of an antiproton annihilation . The next year , a group led by Owen Chamberlain and Emilio Segrè detected antiprotons , for which they were awarded Nobel Prize in Physics in 1960 .
= = = Extensive air showers = = =
By the time of the Bagnères @-@ de @-@ Bigorre conference , Rossi had already turned his attention toward the astrophysical implications of cosmic ray phenomena , particularly extensive air showers . After Rossi 's recognition , in Eritrea , that these events exist , they were extensively studied by Pierre Auger , and by Williams . At this time , the extremely fast response of the newly developed scintillation counters offered a new way to study the structure of air showers . To do this , Rossi enlisted his student , George W. Clark , who completed a PhD in 1952 , and Piero Bassi , who was a visitor from the University of Padua . Because solid scintillating material was unavailable , they decided to use terphenyl dissolved in benzine , which is an efficient liquid scintillator . With the aid of three counters deployed on the roof of the MIT Physics building during the winter of 1952 / 53 , they found that shower particles arrived within only one or two meters of a disk , which travels at nearly the speed of light in the direction of the shower axis .
This result showed that scintillation counters can not only determine of the arrival times of shower disks at many detectors spread over a large area , but also to estimate the number of particles striking each detector . These capabilities combine the " fast @-@ timing " method of determining shower arrival directions with the density sampling method of determining their size and the location of their axes .
= = = = Agassiz experiment = = = =
With this progress , Rossi 's group began a major experiment that could measure both primary energies and arrival directions of extensive air showers . Participating in this effort were : George Clark , William Kraushaar , John Linsley , James Earl , and Frank Scherb . Kraushaar came to MIT from Cornell in 1949 , after earning his PhD under Kenneth Greisen . With the support of Professor Donald Menzel who was director of the Harvard College Observatory , Rossi 's group deployed fifteen liquid scintillators , of area 1 square metre ( 11 sq ft ) on the wooded grounds of the observatory 's Agassiz station . The signals were brought on cables to a Quonset hut , where they were displayed on fifteen oscillographs and recorded photographically .
Shortly after the experiment began to record shower data , lightning ignited the flammable liquid of one of the counters . Local firemen quickly extinguished the resulting fire before it spread to nearby trees , which were soaked with rain water . Because the trees played an essential role in suppressing atmospheric convection that would degrade telescopic observations , Harvard and MIT carried out tense negotiations , until an elaborate system of fire protection was installed , and the experiment was allowed to resume . To eliminate the threat of fire , Clark , Frank Scherb and William B. Smith created a " factory " that made nonflammable plastic scintillator disks , whose thickness was 10 centimetres ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) and whose diameter was approximately 1 metre ( 3 ft 3 in ) .
After a switch to plastic in the late spring of 1956 , the experiment ran continuously . Its findings were reported in Nature and the Physical Review . The most important results were summarized by Rossi as :
1 . A precise measurement of the density of shower particles as a function of distance from the shower center .
2 . A measurement of the energy spectrum of the primary particles responsible for the showers from 1015 electron volts to 1018 electron volts .
3 . The proof that these particles arrive in practically equal numbers from all directions .
4 . The observation of a particle with an energy close to 1019 electron volts .
As the Agassiz experiment came to an end , the group realized that observations near the equator and in the southern hemisphere were needed to extend their conclusion that air shower arrival directions are nearly isotropic . Consequently , Clark , in collaboration with Vikram Sarabhai , ran his smaller experiment at Kodaikanal , India , at a latitude of 10 ° N , and confirmed the absence of anisotropies . Later , at the suggestion of Ismael Escobar , the Agassiz equipment was moved to El Alto at 4200 meters on the Bolivian plateau at 16 ° S. Here , Clark , Escobar and Juan Hersil found no anisotropies , but they showed that the structure of air showers at their maximum development is different from that at sea level .
= = = = Volcano Ranch experiment = = = =
The maximum energy of a particle recorded by Agassiz experiment , 1019 electron volts , is close to energies beyond which charged particles can not be confined to the galactic disc by typical interstellar magnetic fields of 10 − 5 gauss . A detector array of very large dimensions is needed to detect showers of these energies . John Linsley agreed to take on responsibility for building such an array . He came to MIT in 1954 from the University of Minnesota , where he completed a PhD under Edward P. Ney . Soon , he was joined by Livio Scarsi , whom Rossi had recruited from Occhialini 's group at the University of Milan .
Because no large enough tract of open land was available near Boston , the array was constructed on a semi @-@ desert property known asVolcano Ranch , about 16 miles ( 26 km ) west of Albuquerque , New Mexico , at an altitude of 1 @,@ 770 metres ( 5 @,@ 810 ft ) . During 1957 and 1958 , Linsley and Scarsi deployed 19 scintillation counters , which used fluorescent plastic disks similar to those of the Agassiz detectors , except that each counter incorporated four disks viewed by four photomultipliers . Initially the area of the array was 2 @.@ 5 * 106 m2 , which is to be compared with Agassiz 's 105 m2 , but in 1960 , after Scarsi had returned to Milan , Linsley spread the detectors over an area of 107 m2 .
Results from the Volcano Ranch experiment showed that the cosmic @-@ ray intensity decreases smoothly with energy from 1017 - 1018 electron volts. and that primaries in this range arrive isotropically . Of particular significance was the detection of a single particle whose energy of 1020 electron volts is larger than the maximum that could be contained in the galactic disc by galactic magnetic fields . Particles of these energies can only originate in the galactic halo or from beyond the galaxy , and their existence is not consistent with the Greisen @-@ Zatsepin @-@ Kuzmin limit .
= = = Space Plasma Research = = =
On 4 October 1957 , the Soviet Union launched the first artificial Earth satellite , Sputnik 1 . This event created a " wave of near @-@ hysteria " among a surprised American public . In response , the U.S. government increased funding for the National Science Foundation , and in 1958 , created both the National Aeronautics and Space Administration ( NASA ) and the Advanced Research Projects Agency , which was renamed the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency ( DARPA ) in 1972 . On 4 June 1958 , two days after legislation creating NASA was introduced , Detlev W. Bronk , chairman of the National Academy of Sciences , met with the heads of these three agencies to create a new advisory body , the Space Science Board , to provide advice for the expansion of space research and to make sure that funding of fundamental science would be properly emphasized .
The Board convened for its first meeting on 27 June 1958 . Only four members were already engaged in space research : Rossi , Leo Goldberg , John Simpson , and James Van Allen . Rossi formed a subcommittee which included Thomas Gold , Philip Morrison and biologist Salvador Luria , who agreed that investigations of plasma in interplanetary space would be desirable . Consequently , Rossi decided to turn his group 's efforts towards its study . With Herbert Bridge , Rossi designed and tested a plasma probe based on the classical Faraday cup . However , to enhance the instrument 's response to positively charged protons and to suppress its response to photoelectrons produced by sunlight , four grids were deployed within the cup . A key innovation was a modulating voltage applied to one of the grids , which converted the signal into an alternating current , proportional to the proton flux and uncontaminated by any contribution of photoelectrons .
After intense lobbying of Homer Newell , NASA 's deputy director of space flight programs , Rossi secured a flight opportunity on Explorer 10 , " Goddard 's first home @-@ grown satellite " . The unannounced goal was to hit the moon , but after launch on 25 March 1961 , the satellite went into a highly elongated orbit around Earth , whose apogee , at 70 % of the distance to the moon , was well short of this goal .
Nevertheless , during 52 hours of data recorded by the MIT probe before battery power ran out , Rossi 's group found a transition between two distinct regions around earth . Near earth. there were fairly strong and well organised magnetic fields , but no indication of interplanetary protons . At 22 earth radii , the spacecraft entered a region where magnetic fields were weaker and more irregular , and where a substantial flux of protons was observed coming from the general direction of the Sun . On several occasions during the rest of the flight , this flux disappeared and then reappeared again , which indicated that the spacecraft was flying close to the boundary between the two regions and that this boundary was moving irregularly . Eventually , this boundary became known as the magnetopause .
Under Bridge and Rossi , the MIT space plasma group included Frank Scherb , Edwin Lyon , Alan Lazarus , Alberto Bonnetti , Alberto Egidi , John Belcher and Constance Dilworth , who was Occhialini 's wife . Its Faraday cups have collected data on plasma throughout the solar system : near Earth on OGO @-@ 1 , OGO 3 and IMP 8 , in interplanetary space on WIND , and in the Heliosphere and Heliosheath on Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 .
= = = X @-@ Ray astronomy = = =
As a consultant to American Science and Engineering , Inc . , Rossi initiated the rocket experiments that discovered the first extra @-@ solar source of X @-@ rays , Scorpius X @-@ 1 . Rossi was made Institute Professor at MIT in 1966 .
= = = Retirement = = =
Rossi retired from MIT in 1970 . From 1974 to 1980 he taught at the University of Palermo . In retirement he wrote a number of monographs , and a 1990 autobiography , Moments in the Life of a Scientist , which was published by Cambridge University Press . He died from a cardiac arrest at his home in Cambridge on 21 November 1993 . He was survived by his wife , Nora , daughters Florence and Linda and son Frank . He was cremated , and his ashes are in the graveyard of the church of San Miniato al Monte , which overlooks Florence and the hill of Arcetri .
= = Honors and awards = =
= = = Awards = = =
Wolf Prize in Physics for his role in the development of X @-@ ray astronomy ( 1987 )
National Medal of Science ( 1985 )
Rumford Prize award of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences for " discoveries concerning the nature and origins of cosmic radiations " ( 1976 )
Elliott Cresson Medal ( 1974 )
Gold Medal of the Italian Physical Society ( 1970 )
Doctors honoris causa from the universities of Palermo , Durham , and Chicago
= = = Legacy = = =
Rossi X @-@ ray Timing Explorer , a NASA satellite X @-@ ray observatory launched in 1995 .
Bruno Rossi Prize of the High Energy Astrophysics division of the American Astronomical Society .
There is an endowed chair named in honor of Bruno Rossi at MIT . It is currently held by Prof. Claude R. Canizares .
= = Books = =
Rossi , Bruno ( 1952 ) . High @-@ energy Particles . New York : Prentice @-@ Hall . OCLC 289682 .
Rossi , Bruno ( 1964 ) . Cosmic Rays . New York : McGraw @-@ Hill .
Rossi , Bruno ; S. Olbert ( 1970 ) . Introduction to the Physics of Space . New York : McGraw @-@ Hill .
Rossi , Bruno ( 1990 ) . Moments in the Life of a Scientist . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 521 @-@ 36439 @-@ 6 .
Rossi , Bruno ( 1957 ) . Optics . Reading , MA : Addison Wesley .
Rossi , Bruno ( 1959 ) . " High @-@ energy cosmic rays " . Sci . Am . ( Nov 1959 ) 201 ( 5 ) : 135 – 46 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1038 / scientificamerican1159 @-@ 134 . PMID 14439229 .
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= SpongeBob SquarePants ( season 7 ) =
The seventh season of the American animated television series SpongeBob SquarePants , created by marine biologist and animator Stephen Hillenburg , originally aired on Nickelodeon in the United States from July 19 , 2009 to June 11 , 2011 . It contained 26 episodes , beginning with the episodes " Tentacle Vision " and " I Heart Dancing " . The series chronicles the exploits and adventures of the title character and his various friends in the fictional underwater city of Bikini Bottom .
The season was executive produced by series creator Hillenburg and writer Paul Tibbitt , who also acted as the showrunner . In 2011 , Legends of Bikini Bottom , an anthology series consists of five episodes from the season , was launched . A number of guest stars appeared on the season 's episodes . Several compilation DVDs that contained episodes from the season were released . The SpongeBob SquarePants : Complete Seventh Season DVD was released in Region 1 on December 6 , 2011 , Region 2 on September 17 , 2012 , and Region 4 on September 12 , 2012 .
The series won the 2010 Kids ' Choice Awards in the category of Favorite Cartoon . The episode " That Sinking Feeling " was nominated at the 63rd Primetime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Short @-@ format Animated Program . Furthermore , at the 38th Annie Awards , the show won for Best Animated Television Production for Children .
= = Production = =
The season aired on Nickelodeon , which is owned by Viacom , and was produced by United Plankton Pictures and Nickelodeon . The season 's executive producers were series creator Stephen Hillenburg and Paul Tibbitt , who also acted as the series ' showrunner . On March 13 , 2008 , during the broadcast of the sixth season , the network renewed the show for a seventh season , with 26 episodes in order . Cyma Zarghami , president of Nickelodeon & MTVN Kids and Family Group , said , " The strength of the Nickelodeon brand comes from how we embrace everything important to kids , and how we are with them virtually everywhere they want us to be . Our open philosophy to give audiences access to everything they love , and our commitment to making relevant and innovative content , have put us at the top of cable , VOD and online . Nickelodeon has strong momentum as a brand and as a business , and we have a great foundation built on great talent and relationships with some of the best creative leaders in our industry . "
In a statement , Brown Johnson , president of animation for Nickelodeon , said , " We are thrilled to be making another season of SpongeBob SquarePants – a series we hope to make for a long time . " On July 19 , 2009 , the season premiered with the episodes " Tentacle @-@ Vision " and " I Heart Dancing " . The former was written by Luke Brookshier , Nate Cash and Derek Iversen , with Alan Smart serving as animation director . The episode " I Heart Dancing " was written by Casey Alexander , Zeus Cervas , Mr. Lawrence , and was directed by Tom Yasumi .
In 2011 , Nickelodeon debuted an anthology series , Legends of Bikini Bottom , of five seventh season episodes in the show . It was released on January 27 , 2011 on the online social networking service Facebook before it aired on the cable channel Nickelodeon . " Trenchbillies " was the first episode to air on Facebook and was written by Aaron Springer and Richard Pursel , with Andrew Overtoom serving as animation director . Nickelodeon said on January 27 that SpongeBob SquarePants has more than 16 million " friends " on Facebook . The decision of airing the series online was aimed at attracting " the young and the restless hooked to the internet and the social media . " In a press release , Brown Johnson said , " The anthology format of Legends of Bikini Bottom provides a great opportunity to try something new where we can give SpongeBob 's 16 million fans on Facebook a first look , in addition to new content on @-@ air " . Each episode was available for two weeks on Facebook . The other four episodes called " Sponge @-@ Cano ! " , " The Main Drain " , " The Monster Who Came to Bikini Bottom " and " Welcome to the Bikini Bottom Triangle " premiered on Nickelodeon in an hour @-@ long special on January 28 , 2011 .
Animation was handled overseas in South Korea at Rough Draft Studios . Animation directors credited with episodes in the seventh season included Andrew Overtoom , Alan Smart , and Tom Yasumi . Episodes were written by a team of writers , which consisted of Casey Alexander , Steven Banks , Luke Brookshier , Nate Cash , Zeus Cervas , Sean Charmatz , Derek Ivesen , Mr. Lawrence , Dani Michaeli , Richard Pursel , and Aaron Springer . The season was storyboarded by Alexander , Brookshier , Cash , Cervas , Charmatz , and Springer .
= = Cast = =
The seventh season had a cast of six main actors . Tom Kenny provided the voice of the title character SpongeBob SquarePants and his pet snail Gary . SpongeBob 's best friend , a starfish named Patrick Star , was voiced by Bill Fagerbakke , while Rodger Bumpass played the voice of Squidward Tentacles , an arrogant and ill @-@ tempered octopus . Other members of the cast were Carolyn Lawrence as Sandy Cheeks , a squirrel from Texas ; Clancy Brown as Mr. Krabs , a miserly crab obsessed with money who is SpongeBob 's boss at the Krusty Krab ; and Mr. Lawrence as Plankton , a small green copepod and Mr. Krabs ' business rival . The season had a number of secondary characters including Jill Talley as Plankton 's computer wife , Karen ; Mary Jo Catlett as Mrs. Puff , SpongeBob 's driving instructor ; Lori Alan as Pearl , Mr. Krabs ' daughter ; and Brian Doyle @-@ Murray as the Flying Dutchman .
In addition to the regular cast members , episodes feature guest voices from many ranges of professions , including actors , musicians , and artists . For instance , in the episode " Back to the Past " , Ernest Borgnine and Tim Conway returned , reprising their respective roles as Mermaid Man and Barnacle Boy . The episode is also guest starred by the original Batman series stars Adam West as the young Mermaid Man and Burt Ward as the young Barnacle Boy . Borgnie and Conway later voiced their recurring roles in the episode " The Bad Guy Club for Villains " . Comedian and actress Laraine Newman voices the character of Plankton 's Grandma in " Gramma 's Secret Recipe " . In the anthology series Legends of Bikini Bottom , actresses Amy Sedaris and Ginnifer Goodwin guest star . Sedaris appears in the episode " Trenchbillies " as the voice of Ma Angler . Goodwin also guest stars as the voice of a purple @-@ haired mermaid in the episode " Welcome to the Bikini Bottom Triangle " . She lends her voice to a teenage mermaid who steals from others through Bikini Bottom 's version of the Bermuda Triangle . In " The Curse of Hex " , Saturday Night Live 's Kristen Wiig guest stars as the voice of Madame Hagfish . Marion Ross voiced her recurring role as Grandma SquarePants , SpongeBob 's grandmother , in the episode " The Abrasive Side " .
= = Reception = =
The series has received recognition , including the 2010 Kids ' Choice Awards for Favorite Cartoon . The series also won the same category at the succeeding year 's Kids ' Choice Awards and at the 2010 and 2011 Indonesia Kids ' Choice Awards . At the Kids ' Choice Awards Mexico 2010 and Kids ' Choice Awards Argentina 2011 , the show was nominated for Favorite Cartoon , but did not win . The episode " That Sinking Feeling " was nominated at the 63rd Primetime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Short @-@ format Animated Program . Furthermore , at the 38th Annie Awards , the show won for Best Animated Television Production for Children , while the crew members , Jeremy Wakefield , Sage Guyton , Nick Carr and Tuck Tucker , won the Music in a Television Production category . SpongeBob SquarePants also won at the 2011 ASCAP Film and Television Awards for Top Television Series . At the 2010 and 2011 TP de Oro , the series won the Best Children and Youth Program category .
In his review of the seventh season for DVD Talk , Ian Jane wrote that the series " is one of those rare animated shows that can be enjoyed equally as much by both adults and children . " He described the concept of the show as " utterly ludicrous . " He cited the episodes " SpongeBob 's Last Stand " and " Tentacle @-@ Vision " as " interesting stand outs , " while the episodes " The Inside Job " , " Back To The Past " , " Gary in Love " , and " The Abrasive Side " as " memorable episodes this time around . " However , Jane said that the season is not as good as the previous seasons , writing " It 's not that this more recent material isn 't fun , because it is , but by this point in time storylines are beginning to get a little repetitive and as such , the series doesn 't seem quite as fresh and original as it once did . " Jane " recommended " the DVD set , writing " This latest collection of episodes is not a high point in the series but it 's still decent enough family friendly entertainment , even if it does get too repetitive for its own good . "
Josh Rode of DVD Verdict said that the season " has its moments " , but is " by far the least consistently funny season of the venerable cartoon . " Rode also said that the characters of SpongeBob SquarePants and Patrick Star " have become the least engaging parts of the show , which is a problem since they dominate screen time . " He perceived that Patrick " has been dumbed down too far . " As for the character of SpongeBob , he criticized his changing voice that has become " more nasal over the years . " He described the character " like a happy , fun @-@ loving , not @-@ overly @-@ intelligent sponge , " but said that " [ He ] has entirely lost the naïveté which has long been the basis of his charm . "
= = Episodes = =
Key
The following episodes listed in the chart are arranged according to their production order , rather than by their original air dates .
= = DVD release = =
The DVD boxset for season seven was released by Paramount Home Entertainment and Nickelodeon in the United States and Canada in December 2011 , six months after the season had completed broadcast on television . The DVD release features bonus materials , including " animated shorts . "
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= Joe Biden presidential campaign , 1988 =
Joseph Robinette " Joe " Biden , Jr . , a Democratic United States Senator from Delaware at the time , was a candidate for President of the United States in the 1988 United States presidential election .
Biden announced his candidacy in June 1987 , and was considered one of the potentially strongest candidates in the field . However , in September 1987 , newspaper stories stated he had plagiarized a speech by British politician Neil Kinnock . Other allegations of past law school plagiarism and exaggerating his academic record soon followed . Biden withdrew from the race later that month .
= = Leading up to the announcement = =
= = = Development of a candidacy = = =
Biden had been mentioned among possible contenders in the 1984 presidential election . He had considered the notion in 1983 , urged on by pollster Pat Caddell , who thought there was space for a young candidate . A fiery speech he gave to several Democratic audiences had simultaneously scolded Democrats for outdated thinking and encouraged them regarding future directions , and had gained him some notice in the party . However , Biden did not enter the race that season . Nonetheless , he won one vote at the 1984 Democratic National Convention .
Biden was active on the party speaking circuit from 1985 on , and was considered one of the best orators among the potential presidential candidates for 1988 . The declared absence of Senator Ted Kennedy from the field , to whom Biden was sometimes compared , was also encouraging to a possible Biden candidacy .
Biden received considerable attention in the summer of 1986 when he excoriated Secretary of State George Shultz at a Senate hearing because of the Reagan administration 's support of South Africa , which continued to support a system of apartheid .
= = = Status among candidates = = =
Biden was initially considered one of the potentially strongest candidates as campaigning began in 1987 . This was because of his moderate image , his speaking ability on the stump ( rated second only to that of Jesse Jackson ) , his appeal to Baby Boomers , his high profile position as chair of the Senate Judiciary committee , looming for the Robert Bork confirmation hearings , and his fundraising appeal — his $ 1 @.@ 7 million raised in the first quarter of 1987 was more than any other candidate . By the end of April he had raised $ 2 million , using not just contributions from Delaware but also establishing a base of support among young professionals and Jewish voters in a number of urban- and suburban @-@ oriented states . He had no campaign debt , and Fortune magazine termed his " most impressive start " a " surprise " .
When the campaign began , former Senator Gary Hart , who had made a strong nomination run four years earlier , was considered the clear front @-@ runner . Indeed , The Wall Street Journal referred to the eight @-@ person Democratic field as " Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs " . The field 's chances were greatly improved once Hart withdrew from the race in May 1987 , following revelations of Donna Rice and Monkey Business .
However , Biden did not see a rise in his poll numbers immediately after the Hart withdrawal , and was particularly stagnant in polls for the Iowa caucuses . Nevertheless , Biden had confidence that he could prevail ; on the eve of his announcement , he said : " I 'm going to win this thing . I really am . I just know it , I can feel it in my fingertips . " Some political professionals saw Biden as believing that he could simply will himself to win the race , but his continued ability to raise campaign funds gave him credibility as a candidate .
= = Announcement = =
At age of 45 , Biden became one of the official candidates for Democratic nomination , formally declaring his candidacy at the Wilmington train station on June 9 , 1987 .
In his speech , Biden said that Americans should rise above " the mere accumulation of material things " . In language intended to recall John F. Kennedy , he said , " For too long in this society , we have celebrated unrestrained individualism over common community . For too long as a nation , we have been lulled by the anthem of self @-@ interest . For a decade , led by Ronald Reagan , self @-@ aggrandizement has been the full @-@ throated cry of this society : ' I 've got mine so why don 't you get yours ' and ' What 's in it for me ? ' ... We must rekindle the fire of idealism in our society , for nothing suffocates the promise of America more than unbounded cynicism and indifference . "
Biden also laid out the platform he was running on , which included a middle stance between protectionism and free trade , opposition to the Reagan Strategic Defense Initiative , and support for child welfare , reduction of poverty , and the war against illegal drugs . Biden also emphasized the need for integrity in government .
= = Campaign staff and policy team = =
Biden 's campaign manager was Tim Ridley , his press secretary was Larry Rasky , and his pollster and strategist was Pat Caddell . Biden 's Senate chief @-@ of @-@ staff Ted Kaufman served as the campaign treasurer and principle fundraiser . John Marttila served as a political consultant and Tom Donilon served as another strategist . Biden 's sister Valerie Biden Owens also served a major role in running the campaign , as she had in all of his Senate campaigns , and was considered " first among equals " in making decisions .
= = Campaign developments 1987 = =
= = = Summer 1987 = = =
Once underway , Biden 's campaign messaging became confused due to staff rivalries and bickering . Four different themes were presented , sometimes simultaneously : " Pepsi Generation " , " Voice of optimism " , " Save the children " , and " Scold the voters " . Pollster Pat Caddell in particular was a disruptive force within the campaign , but he had been Biden 's friend for 15 years . Another of the themes was generational change ; Biden hoped to inspire a new generation , as John F. Kennedy had inspired his . But that theme was not catching on especially well . Biden was also hurt by his never having been a player in the Washington social scene .
By August 1987 , Biden 's campaign had begun to lag behind those of Michael Dukakis and Richard Gephardt , although he had still raised more funds than all candidates but Dukakis , and was seeing an upturn in Iowa polls .
= = = Kinnock controversy = = =
Major controversy beset Biden 's candidacy , beginning on September 12 , 1987 with high @-@ profile articles in The New York Times and The Des Moines Register . Biden was accused of plagiarizing a speech by Neil Kinnock , leader of the British Labour Party . Kinnock 's speech , delivered to a Welsh Labour Party conference on May 15 , 1987 , and then rebroadcast during the UK 1987 general election , included the lines :
While Biden 's speech included the lines :
Biden went on to duplicate other parts of Kinnock 's speech , such as their forebears ' ability to read and write poetry , their strength in working for hours underground in a mine only to come up and play football afterward , and their being limited by lack of a " platform " upon which to stand .
Biden had in fact cited Kinnock as the source for the formulation on previous occasions . But he made no reference to the original source at the August 23 Democratic debate at the Iowa State Fair being reported on , nor in an August 26 interview for the National Education Association . Moreover , while political speeches often appropriate ideas and language from each other , Biden 's use came under more scrutiny because he fabricated aspects of his own family 's background in order to match Kinnock 's .
Following the Kinnock attention , reports came from the San Jose Mercury News of Biden giving a February 3 , 1987 , speech to the California Democratic Party that reused without credit passages from a 1967 speech by Robert F. Kennedy , and of Biden giving 1985 and 1986 speeches that did the same with a passage from a 1976 speech by Hubert H. Humphrey . In the Kennedy case – which got the greater attention , since there was film footage of both versions that television news programs could play side @-@ by @-@ side – Pat Caddell stated that the reuse without credit was his own fault , and that he had never informed Biden of the source of the material . It was also reported that the California speech had taken a short phrase from the 1961 inaugural address of John F. Kennedy .
After Biden withdrew from the race , it was learned that he had indeed correctly credited Kinnock on other occasions . But in the Iowa speech that was recorded and distributed to reporters ( with a parallel video of Kinnock ) by aides to Michael Dukakis , the eventual nominee , he failed to do so . Dukakis , who disowned any knowledge of the Kinnock video , fired John Sasso , his campaign manager and long @-@ time Chief of Staff , but Biden 's campaign could not recover .
= = = Academic revelations = = =
As a part of the Kinnock controversy , it was revealed that Biden had been involved in a similar incident during his first year at Syracuse University School of Law in 1965 . Biden initially received an “ F ” in an introductory class on legal methodology for writing a paper relying almost exclusively on a single Fordham Law Review article , which he had cited only once . Biden was allowed to repeat the course and passed with high marks . Though the then @-@ dean of the law school , as well as Biden 's former professor , downplayed the incident , they did find that Biden drew " chunks of heavy legal prose directly from " the article in question . Biden said it was inadvertent due to his not knowing the proper rules of citation . After ending his Presidential campaign , Biden requested the Board of Professional Responsibility of the Delaware Supreme Court review the issue . The Board concluded on December 21 , 1987 , after Biden had withdrawn , that the senator had not violated any rules , although Biden did not release this result until May 1989 .
As revealed by a video shown on C @-@ SPAN , when questioned by a New Hampshire resident about his grades in law school , Biden had replied " I think I probably have a much higher IQ than you do , I suspect , " and then inaccurately recollected graduating in the " top half " of his class when he actually graduated 76th from 85 , that he had attended law school on a full scholarship , and had received three degrees in college . In fact , he had earned a single B.A. with a double major in history and political science , and had received a half scholarship to law school based on financial need with some additional assistance based in part upon academics . During this time , Biden also released his undergraduate grades , which were unexceptional .
= = = Withdrawal = = =
The Kinnock and academic revelations were magnified by the limited amount of other news about the nomination race at the time , when most of the public were not yet paying attention to any of the campaigns ; Biden thus fell into what Washington Post writer Paul Taylor described as that year 's trend , a " trial by media ordeal " . Biden lacked a strong demographic or political group of support to help him survive the crisis . The controversy also hit Biden in his most vulnerable area , accentuating the notion that he lacked mental and verbal discipline .
Biden withdrew from the nomination race on September 23 , 1987 , saying his candidacy had been overrun by " the exaggerated shadow " of his past mistakes . His formal campaign had lasted only three and a half months .
= = Aftermath = =
Because of his early withdrawal , Biden did not participate in the 1988 caucuses and primaries , in which Governor Michael Dukakis defeated Jesse Jackson , Senators Al Gore and Paul Simon , and other longer @-@ standing contenders .
In retrospect , Biden would take the blame for his mistakes during the campaign . On one , he said , " All I had to say was ' Like Kinnock . ' If I 'd just said those two words , ' Like Kinnock , ' and I didn 't . It was my fault , nobody else 's fault . " On another , he ruefully recalled , " ' Hey pal , you want to compare IQs ? ' What an immature thing to say . "
Biden had felt poorly physically during parts of the campaign , suffering repeated headaches and at one point in September 1987 having to halt a speech in New Hampshire for 15 minutes after feeling faint . In February 1988 , he suffered the first of two brain aneurysms that required life @-@ saving surgery and seven months away from the Senate in order to convalesce . Biden and others would speculate that had his campaign not ended early , the aneurysms might have been more severe or detected later and that he might not have lived out the year .
In any case , Biden would not run again for the presidency until his 2008 campaign , twenty years later . This time he made it to the Iowa caucuses , but withdrew after a poor showing . Meanwhile , Biden and Kinnock had become close friends after the plagiarism incident . Meeting in August 2008 , after Biden had been chosen by Democratic nominee Barack Obama as his running mate , Biden introduced Kinnock to his Senate staff by saying : “ Hey , you people ! Do you know this guy ? He used to be my greatest speechwriter . ” Obama and Biden proceeded to win the general election against the Republican ticket of John McCain and Sarah Palin ; Biden 's 1988 campaign lapses were never a significant issue in the race , and Biden invited Kinnock to the inauguration .
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= Olive baboon =
The olive baboon ( Papio anubis ) , also called the Anubis baboon , is a member of the family Cercopithecidae ( Old World monkeys ) . The species is the most wide @-@ ranging of all baboons , being found in 25 countries throughout Africa , extending from Mali eastward to Ethiopia and Tanzania . Isolated populations are also present in some mountainous regions of the Sahara . It inhabits savannahs , steppes , and forests . The common name is derived from its coat color , which is a shade of green @-@ grey at a distance . A variety of communications , vocal and non @-@ vocal , facilitate a complex social structure .
= = Physical characteristics = =
The olive baboon is named for its coat , which , at a distance , is a shade of green @-@ grey . Its alternative name comes from the Egyptian god Anubis , who was often represented by a dog head resembling the dog @-@ like muzzle of the baboon . At closer range , its coat is multicolored , due to rings of yellow @-@ brown and black on the hairs . The hair on the baboon 's face , however , is coarser and ranges from dark grey to black . This coloration is shared by both sexes , although males have a mane of longer hair that tapers down to ordinary length along the back .
Besides the mane , the male olive baboon differs from the female in terms of size and weight , and canine tooth size ; males are , on average , 70 cm ( 28 in ) tall while standing and females measure 60 cm ( 24 in ) in height . The olive baboon is one of the largest species of monkey ; only the chacma baboon and the mandrill attain similar sizes . The head @-@ and @-@ body length can range from 50 to 114 cm ( 20 to 45 in ) , with a species average of around 85 cm ( 33 in ) . At the shoulder on all fours , females average 55 cm ( 22 in ) against males , which average 70 cm ( 28 in ) . The typical weight range for both sexes is reportedly 10 – 37 kg ( 22 – 82 lb ) , with males averaging 24 kg ( 53 lb ) and females averaging 14 @.@ 7 kg ( 32 lb ) . Some males may weigh as much as 50 kg ( 110 lb ) .
Like other baboons , the olive baboon has an elongated , dog @-@ like muzzle . In fact , along with the muzzle , the animal 's tail ( 38 – 58 cm or 15 – 23 in ) and four @-@ legged gait can make baboons seem very canine . The tail almost looks as if it is broken , as it is erect for the first quarter , after which it drops down sharply . The bare patch of a baboon 's rump , famously seen in cartoons and movies , is a good deal smaller in the olive baboon . The olive baboon , like most cercopithecines , has a cheek pouch with which to store food .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The species inhabits a strip of 25 equatorial African countries , very nearly ranging from the east to west coasts of the continent . The exact boundaries of this strip are not clearly defined , as the species ' territory overlaps with that of other baboon species . In many places , this has resulted in cross @-@ breeding between species . For example , considerable hybridization has occurred between the olive baboon and the hamadryas baboon in Ethiopia . Cross @-@ breeding with the yellow baboon and the Guinea baboon has also been observed . Although this has been noted , the hybrids have not as yet been well studied .
Throughout its wide range , the olive baboon can be found in a number of different habitats . It is usually classified as savanna @-@ dwelling , living in the wide plains of the grasslands . The grasslands , especially those near open woodland , do make up a large part of its habitat , but the baboon also inhabits rainforests and deserts . Uganda and the Democratic Republic of the Congo , for instance , both support olive baboon populations in dense tropical forests .
= = Behaviour and ecology = =
= = = Social structure = = =
The olive baboon lives in groups of 15 to 150 , made up of a few males , many females , and their young . Each baboon has a social ranking somewhere in the group , depending on its dominance . Female dominance is hereditary , with daughters having nearly the same rank as their mothers , and adult females forming the core of the social system . Female relatives form their own subgroups in the troop . Related females are largely friendly to each other . They tend to stay close together and groom one another , and team up in aggressive encounters within the troop . Female kin form these strong bonds because they do not emigrate from their natal groups .
Occasionally , groups may split up when they become so large that competition for resources is problematic , but even then , members of matrilines tend to stick together . Dominant females procure more food , matings , and supporters . Among olive baboons in Tanzania , high @-@ ranking females give birth at shorter intervals to infants with a higher survival rate , and their daughters tend to mature faster than low @-@ ranking females . However , these high @-@ ranking females also appear to have a higher probability of miscarriages and some high @-@ ranking matrilines have inexplicably low fertility . One theory suggests this occurs due to stress on the high @-@ ranking females , although this theory is controversial .
A female often forms a long @-@ lasting social relationship with a male in her troop , known as a " friendship " . These nonsexual affiliative friendships benefit both the male and female . Males benefit from these relationships because they are usually formed soon after he immigrates into a new group , and helps the male integrate into the group more easily . He could also potentially end up mating with his female friend in the future . Females gain protection from threats to themselves and their infants ( if they have any ) . Males occasionally " baby @-@ sit " for their female friends , so she can feed and forage freely without the burden of having to carry or watch the infant . Sexually receptive females and newly immigrated males can form such friendships . These relationships are sometimes enduring and the pair grooms and remains close to each other . They also travel , forage , sleep , and raise infants together , as well as fight together against aggressive conspecifics .
Males establish their dominance more forcefully than females . A male disperses , or leaves his natal group and joins another group , after reaching sexual maturity . Adult males are very competitive with each other and fight for access to females . Higher dominance means better access to mating and earlier access to food , so naturally a great deal of fighting over rank occurs , with younger males constantly trying to rise in position . Because females stay with their groups their entire lives , and males emigrate to others , often a new male challenges an older one for dominance . Frequently , when older baboons drop in the social hierarchy , they move to another tribe . The younger males who pushed them down often bullies and harasses them . Older males tend to have more supportive and equal relationships than those of the younger males . The former may form coalitions against the latter .
Despite being hierarchical , baboons appear to be " democratic " when it comes to deciding the direction of collective movement . Individuals are more likely to follow when multiple decision @-@ makers agree on what direction to go rather than simply following dominant individuals .
= = = Reproduction and parenting = = =
Females are sexually mature at seven to eight years old , and males at seven to 10 years . The beginning of a female 's ovulation is a signal to the males that she is ready to mate . During ovulation , the skin of the female 's anogenital area swells and turns a bright red / pink . The swelling makes it difficult to move and increases the female 's chance of microbial or parasitic infection . Females with more swollen anogenital areas reproduce while younger , produce more offspring per year , and those offspring have a better chance of surviving . These females also attract more males , and are more likely to cause aggressive fights between them . Olive baboons tend to mate promiscuously . A male forms a mating consortship with an estrous female , staying close to and copulating with her . Males guard their partner against any other male trying to mate with her . Unless a female is in a multiday consortship , she often copulates with more than one male each day . Multiple copulations are not necessary for reproduction , but may function to make the actual paternity of the female 's offspring ambiguous . This lack of paternal certainty could help reduce the occurrence of infanticide . Occasionally , male olive baboons monopolize a female for her entire period of probable conception . The male protects his female from being mated by other males during consortship .
Newborns have black natal coats and bright pink skin . Females are the primary caregivers of infants , but males also play a role . In its first few days , the infant may be unable to stay attached to its mother and relies on her for physical support . However , its grasp grows stronger by its first week and it is able to cling to its mother 's fur by itself . By two weeks , the infant begins to explore its surroundings for short periods , but stays near her . The distance the infant spends away from its mother increases the older it gets . In general , higher @-@ ranking females are usually more relaxed parents than females of lower rank , which usually keep their offspring close to them . However , this difference only lasts for approximately the first eight weeks of an infant 's life . Olive baboons do not seem to practice co @-@ operative parenting , but a female may groom an infant that is not hers . Subadult and juvenile females are more likely to care for another 's young , as they have not yet produced offspring of their own . One theory for why immature females tend to seek out infants is that they can prepare for their future roles as mothers . Infant baboons born to first @-@ time mothers suffer higher mortality than those born to experienced mothers , which suggests that prior experience in caring for infants is important . Adult males in the groups also care for the infants , as they are likely to be related to them . Males groom infants , reducing the amount of parasites they may have , and calm them when they are stressed . They may also protect them from predators , such as chimpanzees . However , adult males exploit infants and use them to reduce the likelihood that other males will threaten them .
= = = Communication = = =
Olive baboons communicate with various vocalizations and facial expressions . Throughout the day , baboons of all ages emit the " basic grunt " . Adults give a range of calls . The " roargrunt " is made by adult males displaying to each other . The " cough @-@ bark " , and the " cough geck " are made when low @-@ flying birds or humans they do not know are sighted . A " wa @-@ hoo " call is made in response to predators or neighboring groups at night and during stressful situations . Other vocalizations include " broken grunting " ( low @-@ volume , quick series of grunts made during relatively calm aggressive encounters ) , " pant @-@ grunts " ( made when aggressive encounters escalate ) , " shrill barks " ( loud calls given when potential threats appear suddenly ) , and " screams " ( continuous high @-@ pitch sounds responding to strong emotions ) . The most common facial expression of the olive baboon is " lipsmacking " , which is associated with a number of behaviors . " Ear flattening " , " eyes narrowed " , " head shaking " , " jaw @-@ clapping " , lipsmacking , and " tongue protrusion " are used when baboons are greeting each other , and are sometimes made with a " rear present " . " Eyebrow raising " , " molar grinding " , " staring " , and " yawning " are used to threaten other baboons . A submissive baboon responds with displays such as the " fear grin " , the " rigid crouch " , and " tail erect " .
= = = Diet = = =
One major reason for its widespread success is that the olive baboon is omnivorous . As such it is able to find nutrition in almost any environment , and it is able to adapt with different foraging tactics . For instance , the olive baboon in grassland goes about finding food differently from one in a forest . The baboon forages on all levels of an environment , above and beneath the ground and in the canopy of forests . Most animals only look for food at one level ; an arboreal species such as a lemur does not look for food on the ground . The olive baboon searches as wide an area as it can , and it eats virtually everything it finds .
The diet typically includes a large variety of plants , and invertebrates and small mammals , as well as birds . The olive baboon eats leaves , grass , roots , bark , flowers , fruit , lichens , tubers , seeds , mushrooms , corms , and rhizomes . Corms and rhizomes are especially important in times of drought , because grass loses a great deal of its nutritional value . In dry , arid regions , such as the northeastern deserts , small invertebrates like insects , spiders , and scorpions fill out its diet .
The olive baboon also actively hunts prey , from small rodents and hares to foxes and other primates . Its limit is usually small antelope , such as Thomson 's gazelle and also , rarely , sheep , goats , and live chickens , which may amount to 33 @.@ 5 % of its food from hunting . Hunting is usually a group activity , with both males and females participating . Interestingly , this systematic predation was apparently developed recently . In a field study , such behavior was observed as starting with the males of one troop and spreading through all ages and sexes .
In Eritrea , the olive baboon has formed a symbiotic relationship with that country 's endangered elephant population . The baboons use the water holes dug by the elephants , while the elephants use the tree @-@ top baboons as an early warning system .
= = Conservation status = =
The olive baboon is listed as least concern by the IUCN because " this species is very widespread and abundant and although persecuted as a crop raider there are no major threats believed to be resulting in a range @-@ wide population decline " . Despite persecution , the baboon is still widespread and numerous . However , competition and disease have possibly led to fewer baboons in closed forests . It has been actively persecuted as a pest .
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= Action of 4 August 1800 =
The Action of 4 August 1800 was a highly unusual naval engagement that took place off the Brazilian coast during the French Revolutionary Wars . A French frigate force that had been raiding British commerce off West Africa approached and attempted to attack a convoy of valuable East Indiamen , large and heavily armed merchant vessels sailing from Britain to British India and China , two ships sailing for Botany Bay , and a whaler sailing for the South Seas ' whale fishery . The small British ship of the line HMS Belliqueux escorted the convoy , which otherwise had to rely on the ships ' individual armament to protect them from attack . Due to their large size , the East Indiamen could be mistaken for ships of the line at a distance , and the French commander Commodore Jean @-@ François Landolphe was un @-@ nerved when the convoy formed a line of battle . Assuming his target to be a fleet of powerful warships he turned to escape and the British commander , Captain Rowley Bulteel , immediately ordered a pursuit . To preserve the impression of warships he also ordered four of his most powerful East Indiamen to join the chase .
Belliqueux rapidly out ran Landolphe 's flagship Concorde , leaving Landolphe with no option but to surrender without any serious resistance . The rest of the French squadron continued to flee separately during the night , each pursued by two East Indiamen . After an hour and a half in pursuit , with darkness falling , the East Indiaman Exeter came alongside the French Médée , giving the impression by use of lights that she was a large ship of the line . Believing himself outgunned , Captain Jean @-@ Daniel Coudin surrendered , only discovering his assailant 's true identity when he came aboard . The action is the only occasion during the war in which a British merchant vessel captured a large French warship .
= = Background = =
By 1800 , the British and French had been at war for seven years and the British dominated the sea , following a number of significant victories over the French , Dutch and Spanish fleets . Off every French port , large squadrons of British ships of the line and frigates awaited French movements and whenever possible intercepted and destroyed French merchant vessels and warships . While British trading ships travelled in large , well @-@ armed convoys , French ships were forced to slip between harbours to avoid the British blockade . To counter British control of the seas , the French periodically despatched squadrons of ships to raid British trade lanes , particularly off West Africa and in the South Atlantic , where the stretched Royal Navy maintained only minimal forces .
The large convoys of East Indiamen were among the principal targets for any French raider . These huge ships sailed from Britain with general cargo , or often military stores and troops , to India or other ports in the Indian Ocean , South East Asia , or China . There they would sell their cargoes and take on spices , tea , silk and other luxury goods before making the return journey to Britain . A round trip took over a year and an East Indiaman sailing to Britain would routinely carry hundreds of thousands of pounds worth of trade goods ; one large convoy that sailed from Canton in January 1804 was worth over £ 8 million . East Indiamen were well @-@ protected , armed with up to 30 guns , and generally travelled in large convoys in which the ships could provide one another with mutual protection . Such convoys often had a Royal Navy escort , usually including a ship of the line .
On 6 March 1799 , a French squadron had sailed from Rochefort . Consisting of the frigates Concorde , under Commodore Jean @-@ François Landolphe , Médée , under Captain Jean @-@ Daniel Coudin , and Franchise , under Captain Pierre Jurien , it was a powerful force , capable of inflicting significant damage on lightly defended merchant shipping . Eluding the blockade force off Rochefort , the squadron sailed southwards until it reached the coast of West Africa . There Landolphe 's ships began an extended commerce raiding operation , inflicting severe damage on the West African trade during the rest of the year . Eventually the strain of serving in tropical waters told on the ships and all three were forced to undergo an extensive refit in the nearest available allied shipyards , which were located in the Spanish @-@ held River Plate in South America . Repairs continued for six months , until Landolphe considered the squadron once again ready to sail in the early summer of 1800 . The squadron almost immediately captured an American schooner , which it fitted out as a tender . At the time , France and the United States had been engaged for two years in the Quasi War .
= = Battle = =
The British convoy consisted of the East Indiamen Bombay Castle , Exeter , Dorsetshire , Coutts , and Neptune , the Botany Bay ships Royal Admiral and Ann , and the whaler Seringapatam . The sole British warship was Belliqueux . On 4 August they were near the island of Trinidade off the Brazilian coast . From there the East Indiamen would catch the westerly trade winds that would carry them to Saint Helena , the Cape of Good Hope , and their destinations .
At 07 : 00 on 4 August , while the French squadron was cruising off the Brazilian coast , lookouts sighted sails on the horizon . Uncertain of the identity of the strange ships , the French gradually closed the distance during the morning . Landolphe could see that there were seven large vessels and three smaller ships , all unmistakably British . He was unable however to tell whether they were naval ships of the line or East Indiamen . Initially he thought they might be merchant ships , but at noon he sighted double rows of gunports along the side of each ship and called off the attack , turning away and signalling for his squadron to split up , assuming the enemy to be large warships easily capable of destroying his small force . Captain Jurien protested Landolphe 's order , insisting that the convoy was composed of merchant ships and not warships , but Landolphe over @-@ ruled Jurien 's protests . In fact , Jurien was correct .
With the French in full flight , Bulteel determined to continue the ruse that his convoy consisted of warships . While he and Belliqueux pursued Concorde , he signalled for his largest East Indiamen to follow the other French ships to ensure that they did not return and counterattack the convoy while Belliqueux was engaged . Exeter , under Captain Henry Meriton , and Bombay Castle , under Captain John Hamilton , were to follow Médée while Coutts , under Captain Robert Torin , and Neptune , under Captain Nathaniel Spens , were to follow Franchise . All four vessels were over 1200 tons burthen ( bm ) and carried 30 cannon each , but none had more than 130 crew aboard and could not compete in accuracy or rate of fire with the 315 men aboard each of the French ships . Throughout the afternoon the chase continued , with Belliqueux steadily gaining on the French flagship while Franchise , accompanied by the American schooner , gained on her pursuers . At 17 : 20 , Bulteel was within long range of Landolphe 's ship , which returned fire when possible . During the exchange of gunfire neither side suffered damage or casualties , but the ship of the line was clearly gaining on the frigate and within ten minutes Landolphe surrendered rather than see his ship destroyed and his men killed in an unequal combat .
By 19 : 00 , Franchise had dumped her lifeboats and a large quantity of guns and supplies overboard , lightening the ship enough for her to far outstrip the pursuit . As night fell the French frigate made a full escape from the British force . Médée however had not escaped . Although Bombay Castle was many miles behind , only distantly visible on the horizon , Exeter had been able to follow the frigate closely . Meriton was aware of the disparity between the French warship and his own merchant vessel , but believed that as the frigate had made no effort to fight , her commander must believe Exeter to be a ship of the line . To reinforce this image in the rapidly approaching darkness , Meriton arranged lights behind every gunport , whether or not it contained a cannon , creating an effect described as " a fearsome , leering jack @-@ o ' -lantern " . As his ship drew level with the French frigate , Meriton hailed to the enemy 's deck , calling on them to surrender . Intimidated by this large and seemingly powerful enemy , Coudin decided that his only option was to strike his flag and come aboard the British ship to surrender formally . Arriving on board , he was astonished to see far fewer and smaller guns than a warship normally carried . When Coudin asked to whom he had surrendered , Meriton is said to have replied " To a merchantman " . Appalled , Coudin demanded to be allowed to return to his ship and conduct a formal naval battle , but Meriton refused .
= = Aftermath = =
In the engagement on 4 August 1800 neither side had a single man killed or wounded ; the action still inflicted a severe naval defeat on a powerful French frigate force , ending its cruise . Although Franchise spent another three weeks off the Brazilian coast before returning to France . On 9 August he encountered the merchantman Wellesley , which was on her way to the Cape , but after an engagement of about an hour , the British ship succeeded in driving off her attacker . Jurien followed Wellesley for two days but then gave up the chase ; he then did not see another sail until he left the area .
Bulteel 's convoy continued on , pausing at Rio de Janeiro on 12 August to resupply . The East Indiamen then went on to Saint Helena on their way to Asia . The two Botany Bay ships sailed on to Australia and the whaler Seringapatam sailed for the South Seas .
The captured frigates were valuable prizes but the Royal Navy only acquired Medéee , which it took into service as HMS Medee , which it never commissioned but instead used as a prison ship for a few years before selling her in 1805 . The frigates had come into port shortly before the Peace of Amiens and thus were deemed surplus to Navy requirements . The ships and their stores and equipment were sold privately ; the proceeds from the sale were paid in February 1803 , in addition to the head @-@ money , a financial award for each French sailor captured during the engagement .
Bulteel and Meriton were commended . Meriton was to fight two more naval battles against the French , serving at the successful defence of the China Fleet at the Battle of Pulo Aura in February 1804 , and eventually being badly wounded and captured by a French frigate squadron after a fierce defence at the Action of 3 July 1810 .
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= Ryan Van Bergen =
Ryan Charles Van Bergen , sometimes ( mis ) spelled Ryan VanBergen , ( born March 18 , 1989 ) is a free agent American football defensive end . He had signed as an undrafted free agent with the Carolina Panthers following the 2012 NFL Draft but did not make the roster for the team . He played college football for the Michigan Wolverines football team . As a fifth @-@ year senior for the 2011 Wolverines he was a preseason Hendricks Award watchlist candidate and after posting at least two tackles for a loss ( TFL ) s in each of his final three 2011 Big Ten season games he was recognized as a postseason honorable mention All @-@ Big Ten Conference performer . He started at defensive tackle for the 2009 Wolverines before switching to defensive end in 2010 . In 2011 , he started at end as well as tackle and led the team in quarterback sacks and tackles for a loss . He was awarded the 2007 Detroit Athletic Club Michigan High School Male Athlete of the Year for his performances in football , basketball and track and field .
= = High school = =
Van Bergen attended Shadow Ridge High School in Las Vegas for his freshman year and started on the varsity football team . His family moved to Whitehall , Michigan for his sophomore season . He was the 2007 Detroit Athletic Club Michigan High School Male Athlete of the Year in recognition of his accomplishments in Football , Track & Basketball for Whitehall High School . He was a scholar in high school who maintained a 3 @.@ 7 average and was a member of the National Honor Society .
In track , Van Bergen competed in the discus throw . He went undefeated during the regular season of his junior year and placed 13th at the 2006 Michigan High School Athletic Association ( MHSAA ) Division 2 Lower Peninsula State championships with a throw of 145 feet 11 inches ( 44 @.@ 48 m ) and 5th in the 2007 MHSAA Division 2 finals with a throw of 154 feet 7 inches ( 47 @.@ 12 m ) . Entering the state finals he had been seeded 7th as a junior based on a qualifying throw of 155 feet 11 inches ( 47 @.@ 52 m ) and 9th as a senior with a throw of 151 feet 1 inch ( 46 @.@ 05 m ) . He qualified with these throws as the MHSAA regional champion as both a junior and senior , while also placing in the shot put . Although Van Bergen only ran a 5 @.@ 40 second 40 @-@ yard dash as a freshman , he got the time down to 4 @.@ 89 prior to his senior season .
Van Bergen attended the 2005 and 2006 Michigan Summer Football Camps . He was ranked as the 8th and 18th best class of 2007 high school football defensive end by Scout.com and Rivals.com , respectively . Rivals also rated him as the 10th best high school football player in the state of Michigan . ESPN.com rated him as the 13th best tight end in the country . Van Bergen was originally a recruit of Michigan head coach Lloyd Carr .
= = College = =
Van Bergen made one start as a redshirt freshman for the 2008 Wolverines on October 11 against Toledo . Following the 2008 season , Michigan had to replace three starting senior co @-@ captain defensive linemen : Terrance Taylor , Tim Jamison and Will Johnson . Van Bergen started every game for the 2009 Wolverines at defensive tackle . He totaled 40 tackles , 6 @.@ 5 TFs , five quarterback sacks , one fumble recovery , and four pass breakups as a redshirt sophomore in 2009 . He also posted a touchdown on a fumble recovery against Wisconsin on November 14 . His mid 4th quarter sack against Indiana on September 26 , 2009 set up a 3rd and 23 , a 4th down punt and the subsequent game @-@ winning drive in the 36 – 33 victory .
As a fourth @-@ year junior , Van Bergen started every game for the 2010 Wolverines at defensive end following the departure of defensive end Brandon Graham . He totaled 37 tackles , 8 @.@ 5 TFLs , five sacks and one pass breakup in 2010 . Van Bergen had two solo TFLs on November 13 against Purdue and three solo TFLs in the rivalry game against Ohio State on November 27 . He achieved his first seven tackle ( five solo and two assist ) outing in the January 1 , 2011 Gator Bowl against Mississippi State .
Van Bergen started at both defensive end and defensive tackle in 2011 . He was a 2011 preseason watchlists honoree for the Hendricks Award . He was named the Big Ten Conference Co @-@ defensive Player of the Week on November 14 , 2011 for his 2 @.@ 5 quarterback sack performance against the Illinois Fighting Illini on November 12 . In addition to the two solo and one assist sacks , he had an assist on a TFL and achieved his second seven @-@ tackle effort ( four solo and three assist ) . Van Bergen also was recognized by the College Football Performance Awards as the national defensive performer of the week and defensive lineman of the week . The following week , he had two solo TFLs against Nebraska . In the regular season finale against Ohio State on November 26 he tallied seven tackles one more time ( five solo and two assist ) , including a solo TFL and two assist TFLs . Thus , he concluded his Big Ten career with at least two TFLs in each of his last three regular season games . He was an honorable mention 2011 All @-@ Big Ten Conference selection by both the coaches and the media for the 2011 Wolverines . Van Bergen finished among the conference leaders in several statistics : sacks / game ( .42 , t @-@ 9th ) , tackles for a loss / game ( .96 , t @-@ 10th ) and fumbles recovered / game ( .23 , t @-@ 3rd ) .
= = Professional career = =
Prior to the draft , the Houston Texans informed Van Bergen , that they were targeting him with their sixth round pick , but the team picked up two defensive linemen in earlier rounds ( Whitney Mercilus and Jared Crick ) . Van Bergen signed with the Carolina Panthers minutes after the draft ended . Van Bergen 's tweet actually came one minute before the National Football League tweeted Mr. Irrelevant . Van Bergen was informed by the Panthers late in the draft that " he was their No. 1 free agent target " . Van Bergen was cut on August 31 .
= = Personal = =
Van Bergen is known as a media favorite , according to AnnArbor.com 's Kyle Meinke . He worked in maintenance in high school at Erdman Machine Co . , an aerospace tool manufacturer . At the time of his induction into the Michigan High School Football Association Coaches Hall of Fame , he thanked several members of his extended family including his grandparents Cliff and Gloria Verschueren and Al and Doris Van Bergen . He also mentioned his brother Tyler , who was three classes behind him and went on to play football at Grand Valley State University . Tyler went on to anchor MHSAA regional champions in the 4 × 100 metres relay ( 2009 ) and 4 × 200 metres relay ( 2010 ) . Their parents are Charles and Toni Van Bergen , from Hart , Michigan . His father , who was raised on a farm , is a retired United States Air Force veteran . Charles has eleven older siblings who are from the West Michigan region .
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= Seal of Dartmouth College =
The Seal of Dartmouth College is the official insignia of Dartmouth College , an Ivy League university located in Hanover , New Hampshire , United States . Anglo @-@ American law generally requires a corporate body to seek official government sanction , usually in the form of a charter , in order to operate . Such chartered bodies normally authenticate their official acts by marking them with a distinctive seal . The seal 's design is usually complicated to avoid counterfeiting , but it can also express something about the institution 's history or mission . Dartmouth College is one such chartered body , and it obtained its official seal in 1773 .
= = Design and creation = =
Dartmouth College received a royal charter on December 13 , 1769 through New Hampshire 's colonial governor John Wentworth . The charter required a seal that was to be :
Nevertheless , on March 13 , 1770 , founder Eleazar Wheelock wrote to the trustees of the English fund that was supporting the College ( rather than the American trustees of the institution itself , as the charter stipulated ) to suggest that his :
The English trustees , including Lord Dartmouth , did not take up the suggestion . Evidence exists that they were annoyed with Wheelock 's acquisition of a charter for a college ; they were under the impression that the funds under their control were to be used to support Wheelock 's efforts at educating and Christianizing Native Americans at Moor 's Indian Charity School at Lebanon , Connecticut . Wheelock then designed a seal for his college bearing a striking resemblance to the seal of the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel , a missionary society founded in London in 1701 , in order to maintain the illusion that his college was more for mission work than for higher education . Wheelock arranged for Nathaniel Hurd , a Boston silversmith , to engrave the seal . Hurd had engraved many coats of arms and appears in a John Singleton Copley portrait of ca . 1765 with two books , one of which is A Display of Heraldry by John Guillim ( 1610 ) . Wheelock wrote to Governor Wentworth on May 22 , 1772 , saying " I hope that Mr Hurd will have the College Seal compleated by Commencement . " The seal ( a single @-@ sided " female " die used to form impressions in wax ) was ready by Commencement of 1773 , and Portsmouth resident and former Chief Justice and Treasurer of the Province of New Hampshire George Jaffrey donated it to the College . The trustees officially accepted the seal on August 25 , 1773 , describing it as :
= = History and revisions = =
Former College Librarian William Woodward hid the seal from Dartmouth 's officers along with the charter and four account books after the state of New Hampshire purported to take over the operation of Dartmouth College ( and purported to make Woodward Treasurer of Dartmouth University ) . The Dartmouth College Case named Woodward as the defendant and technically sought to recover the items that he had hidden . The College 's success in the Supreme Court returned the seal to its possession and extinguished the University .
In 1876 , the College switched from having its seal impress wax to having it impress paper . This required a second , " male " die to fit under the original . The seal design was also carved in sandstone on the exterior of Rollins Chapel in 1886 ( see above ) and in wood on the interior of Commons in the Collis Center in 1901 ( see right ) .
On October 28 , 1926 , the trustees affirmed the charter 's reservation of the seal for official corporate documents alone . The College Publications Committee under Ray Nash commissioned typographer W. A. Dwiggins to create a line @-@ drawing version of the seal in 1940 that saw widespread use .
Dwiggins ' design was modified during 1957 to change the date from " 1770 " to " 1769 , " to accord with the date of the College Charter . The trustees commissioned a new set of dies with a date of " 1769 " to replace the old dies , now badly worn after almost two hundred years of use . The 1957 design continues to be used under trademark number 2305032 .
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= Cyclol =
The cyclol hypothesis is the first structural model of a folded , globular protein . It was developed by Dorothy Wrinch in the late 1930s , and was based on three assumptions . Firstly , the hypothesis assumes that two peptide groups can be crosslinked by a cyclol reaction ( Figure 1 ) ; these crosslinks are covalent analogs of non @-@ covalent hydrogen bonds between peptide groups . These reactions have been observed in the ergopeptides and other compounds . Secondly , it assumes that , under some conditions , amino acids will naturally make the maximum possible number of cyclol crosslinks , resulting in cyclol molecules ( Figure 2 ) and cyclol fabrics ( Figure 3 ) . These cyclol molecules and fabrics have never been observed . Finally , the hypothesis assumes that globular proteins have a tertiary structure corresponding to Platonic solids and semiregular polyhedra formed of cyclol fabrics with no free edges . Such " closed cyclol " molecules have not been observed either .
Although later data demonstrated that this original model for the structure of globular proteins needed to be amended , several elements of the cyclol model were verified , such as the cyclol reaction itself and the hypothesis that hydrophobic interactions are chiefly responsible for protein folding . The cyclol hypothesis stimulated many scientists to research questions in protein structure and chemistry , and was a precursor of the more accurate models hypothesized for the DNA double helix and protein secondary structure . The proposal and testing of the cyclol model also provides an excellent illustration of empirical falsifiability acting as part of the scientific method .
= = Historical context = =
By the mid @-@ 1930s , analytical ultracentrifugation studies by Theodor Svedberg had shown that proteins had a well @-@ defined chemical structure , and were not aggregations of small molecules . The same studies appeared to show that the molecular weight of proteins fell into a few well @-@ defined classes related by integers , such as Mw = 2p3q Da , where p and q are nonnegative integers . However , it was difficult to determine the exact molecular weight and number of amino acids in a protein . Svedberg had also shown that a change in solution conditions could cause a protein to disassemble into small subunits , now known as a change in quaternary structure .
The chemical structure of proteins was still under debate at that time . The most accepted ( and ultimately correct ) hypothesis was that proteins are linear polypeptides , i.e. , unbranched polymers of amino acids linked by peptide bonds . However , a typical protein is remarkably long — hundreds of amino @-@ acid residues — and several distinguished scientists were unsure whether such long , linear macromolecules could be stable in solution . Further doubts about the polypeptide nature of proteins arose because some enzymes were observed to cleave proteins but not peptides , whereas other enzymes cleave peptides but not folded proteins . Attempts to synthesize proteins in the test tube were unsuccessful , mainly due to the chirality of amino acids ; naturally occurring proteins are composed of only left @-@ handed amino acids . Hence , alternative chemical models of proteins were considered , such as the diketopiperazine hypothesis of Emil Abderhalden . However , no alternative model had yet explained why proteins yield only amino acids and peptides upon hydrolysis and proteolysis . As clarified by Linderstrøm @-@ Lang , these proteolysis data showed that denatured proteins were polypeptides , but no data had yet been obtained about the structure of folded proteins ; thus , denaturation could involve a chemical change that converted folded proteins into polypeptides .
The process of protein denaturation ( as distinguished from coagulation ) had been discovered in 1910 by Harriette Chick and Charles Martin , but its nature was still mysterious . Tim Anson and Alfred Mirsky had shown that denaturation was a reversible , two @-@ state process that results in many chemical groups becoming available for chemical reactions , including cleavage by enzymes . In 1929 , Hsien Wu hypothesized correctly that denaturation corresponded to protein unfolding , a purely conformational change that resulted in the exposure of amino @-@ acid side chains to the solvent . Wu 's hypothesis was also advanced independently in 1936 by Mirsky and Linus Pauling . Nevertheless , protein scientists could not exclude the possibility that denaturation corresponded to a chemical change in the protein structure , a hypothesis that was considered a ( distant ) possibility until the 1950s .
X @-@ ray crystallography had just begun as a discipline in 1911 , and had advanced relatively rapidly from simple salt crystals to crystals of complex molecules such as cholesterol . However , even the smallest proteins have over 1000 atoms , which makes determining their structure far more complex . In 1934 , Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin had taken crystallographic data on the structure of the small protein , insulin , although the structure of that and other proteins were not solved until the late 1960s . However , pioneering X @-@ ray fiber diffraction data had been collected in the early 1930s for many natural fibrous proteins such as wool and hair by William Astbury , who proposed rudimentary models of secondary structure elements such as the alpha helix and the beta sheet .
Since protein structure was so poorly understood in the 1930s , the physical interactions responsible for stabilizing that structure were likewise unknown . Astbury hypothesized that the structure of fibrous proteins was stabilized by hydrogen bonds in β @-@ sheets . The idea that globular proteins are also stabilized by hydrogen bonds was proposed by Dorothy Jordan Lloyd in 1932 , and championed later by Alfred Mirsky and Linus Pauling . At a 1933 lecture by Astbury to the Oxford Junior Scientific Society , physicist Frederick Frank suggested that the fibrous protein α @-@ keratin might be stabilized by an alternative mechanism , namely , covalent crosslinking of the peptide bonds by the cyclol reaction above . The cyclol crosslink draws the two peptide groups close together ; the N and C atoms are separated by ~ 1 @.@ 5 Å , whereas they are separated by ~ 3 Å in a typical hydrogen bond . The idea intrigued J. D. Bernal , who suggested it to the mathematician Dorothy Wrinch as possibly useful in understanding protein structure .
= = Basic theory = =
Wrinch developed this suggestion into a full @-@ fledged model of protein structure . The basic cyclol model was laid out in her first paper ( 1936 ) . She noted the possibility that polypeptides might cyclize to form closed rings ( true ) and that these rings might form internal crosslinks through the cyclol reaction ( also true , although rare ) . Assuming that the cyclol form of the peptide bond could be more stable than the amide form , Wrinch concluded that certain cyclic peptides would naturally make the maximal number of cyclol bonds ( such as cyclol 6 , Figure 2 ) . Such cyclol molecules would have hexagonal symmetry , if the chemical bonds were taken as having the same length , roughly 1 @.@ 5 Å ; for comparison , the N @-@ C and C @-@ C bonds have the lengths 1 @.@ 42 Å and 1 @.@ 54 Å , respectively .
These rings can be extended indefinitely to form a cyclol fabric ( Figure 3 ) . Such fabrics exhibit a long @-@ range , quasi @-@ crystalline order that Wrinch felt was likely in proteins , since they must pack hundreds of residues densely . Another interesting feature of such molecules and fabrics is that their amino @-@ acid side chains point axially upwards from only one face ; the opposite face has no side chains . Thus , one face is completely independent of the primary sequence of the peptide , which Wrinch conjectured might account for sequence @-@ independent properties of proteins .
In her initial article , Wrinch stated clearly that the cyclol model was merely a working hypothesis , a potentially valid model of proteins that would have to be checked . Her goals in this article and its successors were to propose a well @-@ defined testable model , to work out the consequences of its assumptions and to make predictions that could be tested experimentally . In these goals , she succeeded ; however , within a few years , experiments and further modeling showed that the cyclol hypothesis was untenable as a model for globular proteins .
= = Stabilizing energies = =
In two tandem Letters to the Editor ( 1936 ) , Wrinch and Frank addressed the question of whether the cyclol form of the peptide group was indeed more stable than the amide form . A relatively simple calculation showed that the cyclol form is significantly less stable than the amide form . Therefore , the cyclol model would have to be abandoned unless a compensating source of energy could be identified . Initially , Frank proposed that the cyclol form might be stabilized by better interactions with the surrounding solvent ; later , Wrinch and Irving Langmuir hypothesized that hydrophobic association of nonpolar sidechains provides stabilizing energy to overcome the energetic cost of the cyclol reactions .
The lability of the cyclol bond was seen as an advantage of the model , since it provided a natural explanation for the properties of denaturation ; reversion of cyclol bonds to their more stable amide form would open up the structure and allows those bonds to be attacked by proteases , consistent with experiment . Early studies showed that proteins denatured by pressure are often in a different state than the same proteins denatured by high temperature , which was interpreted as possibly supporting the cyclol model of denaturation .
The Langmuir @-@ Wrinch hypothesis of hydrophobic stabilization shared in the downfall of the cyclol model , owing mainly to the influence of Linus Pauling , who favored the hypothesis that protein structure was stabilized by hydrogen bonds . Another twenty years had to pass before hydrophobic interactions were recognized as the chief driving force in protein folding .
= = Steric complementarity = =
In her third paper on cyclols ( 1936 ) , Wrinch noted that many " physiologically active " substances such as steroids are composed of fused hexagonal rings of carbon atoms and , thus , might be sterically complementary to the face of cyclol molecules without the amino @-@ acid side chains . Wrinch proposed that steric complementarity was one of chief factors in determining whether a small molecule would bind to a protein .
Wrinch speculated that proteins are responsible for the synthesis of all biological molecules . Noting that cells digest their proteins only under extreme starvation conditions , Wrinch further speculated that life could not exist without proteins .
= = Hybrid models = =
From the beginning , the cyclol reaction was considered as a covalent analog of the hydrogen bond . Therefore , it was natural to consider hybrid models with both types of bonds . This was the subject of Wrinch 's fourth paper on the cyclol model ( 1936 ) , written together with Dorothy Jordan Lloyd , who first proposed that globular proteins are stabilized by hydrogen bonds . A follow @-@ up paper was written in 1937 that referenced other researchers on hydrogen bonding in proteins , such as Maurice Loyal Huggins and Linus Pauling .
Wrinch also wrote a paper with William Astbury , noting the possibility of a keto @-@ enol isomerization of the > CαHα and an amide carbonyl group > C = O , producing a crosslink > Cα @-@ C ( OHα ) < and again converting the oxygen to a hydroxyl group . Such reactions could yield five @-@ membered rings , whereas the classic cyclol hypothesis produces six @-@ membered rings . This keto @-@ enol crosslink hypothesis was not developed much further .
= = Space @-@ enclosing fabrics = =
In her fifth paper on cyclols ( 1937 ) , Wrinch identified the conditions under which two planar cyclol fabrics could be joined to make an angle between their planes while respecting the chemical bond angles . She identified a mathematical simplification , in which the non @-@ planar six @-@ membered rings of atoms can be represented by planar " median hexagon " s made from the midpoints of the chemical bonds . This " median hexagon " representation made it easy to see that the cyclol fabric planes can be joined correctly if the dihedral angle between the planes equals the tetrahedral bond angle δ = arccos ( -1 / 3 ) ≈ 109 @.@ 47 ° .
A large variety of closed polyhedra meeting this criterion can be constructed , of which the simplest are the truncated tetrahedron , the truncated octahedron , and the octahedron , which are Platonic solids or semiregular polyhedra . Considering the first series of " closed cyclols " ( those modeled on the truncated tetrahedron ) , Wrinch showed that their number of amino acids increased quadratically as 72n2 , where n is the index of the closed cyclol Cn . Thus , the C1 cyclol has 72 residues , the C2 cyclol has 288 residues , etc . Preliminary experimental support for this prediction came from Max Bergmann and Carl Niemann , whose amino @-@ acid analyses suggested that proteins were composed of integer multiples of 288 amino @-@ acid residues ( n = 2 ) . More generally , the cyclol model of globular proteins accounted for the early analytical ultracentrifugation results of Theodor Svedberg , which suggested that the molecular weights of proteins fell into a few classes related by integers .
The cyclol model was consistent with the general properties then attributed to folded proteins . ( 1 ) Centrifugation studies had shown that folded proteins were significantly denser than water ( ~ 1 @.@ 4 g / mL ) and , thus , tightly packed ; Wrinch assumed that dense packing should imply regular packing . ( 2 ) Despite their large size , some proteins crystallize readily into symmetric crystals , consistent with the idea of symmetric faces that match up upon association . ( 3 ) Proteins bind metal ions ; since metal @-@ binding sites must have specific bond geometries ( e.g. , octahedral ) , it was plausible to assume that the entire protein also had similarly crystalline geometry . ( 4 ) As described above , the cyclol model provided a simple chemical explanation of denaturation and the difficulty of cleaving folded proteins with proteases . ( 5 ) Proteins were assumed to be responsible for the synthesis of all biological molecules , including other proteins . Wrinch noted that a fixed , uniform structure would be useful for proteins in templating their own synthesis , analogous to the Watson @-@ Francis Crick concept of DNA templating its own replication . Given that many biological molecules such as sugars and sterols have a hexagonal structure , it was plausible to assume that their synthesizing proteins likewise had a hexagonal structure . Wrinch summarized her model and the supporting molecular @-@ weight experimental data in three review articles .
= = Predicted protein structures = =
Having proposed a model of globular proteins , Wrinch investigated whether it was consistent with the available structural data . She hypothesized that bovine tuberculin protein ( 523 ) was a C1 closed cyclol consisting of 72 residues and that the digestive enzyme pepsin was a C2 closed cyclol of 288 residues . These residue @-@ number predictions were difficult to verify , since the methods then available to measure the mass of proteins were inaccurate , such as analytical ultracentrifugation and chemical methods .
Wrinch also predicted that insulin was a C2 closed cyclol consisting of 288 residues . Limited X @-@ ray crystallographic data were available for insulin which Wrinch interpreted as " confirming " her model . However , this interpretation drew rather severe criticism for being premature . Careful studies of the Patterson diagrams of insulin taken by Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin showed that they were roughly consistent with the cyclol model ; however , the agreement was not good enough to claim that the cyclol model was confirmed .
= = Downfall = =
The cyclol fabric was shown to be implausible for several reasons . Hans Neurath and Henry Bull showed that the dense packing of side chains in the cyclol fabric was inconsistent with the experimental density observed in protein films . Maurice Huggins calculated that several non @-@ bonded atoms of the cyclol fabric would approach more closely than allowed by their van der Waals radii ; for example , the inner Hα and Cα atoms of the lacunae would be separated by only 1 @.@ 68 Å ( Figure 5 ) . Haurowitz showed chemically that the outside of proteins could not have a large number of hydroxyl groups , a key prediction of the cyclol model , whereas Meyer and Hohenemser showed that cyclol condensations of amino acids did not exist even in minute quantities as a transition state . More general chemical arguments against the cyclol model were given by Bergmann and Niemann and by Neuberger . Infrared spectroscopic data showed that the number of carbonyl groups in a protein did not change upon hydrolysis , and that intact , folded proteins have a full complement of amide carbonyl groups ; both observations contradict the cyclol hypothesis that such carbonyls are converted to hydroxyl groups in folded proteins . Finally , proteins were known to contain proline in significant quantities ( typically 5 % ) ; since proline lacks the amide hydrogen and its nitrogen already forms three covalent bonds , proline seems incapable of the cyclol reaction and of being incorporated into a cyclol fabric . An encyclopedic summary of the chemical and structural evidence against the cyclol model was given by Pauling and Niemann . Moreover , a supporting piece of evidence — the result that all proteins contain an integer multiple of 288 amino @-@ acid residues — was likewise shown to be incorrect in 1939 .
Wrinch replied to the steric @-@ clash , free @-@ energy , chemical and residue @-@ number criticisms of the cyclol model . On steric clashes , she noted that small deformations of the bond angles and bond lengths would allow these steric clashes to be relieved , or at least reduced to a reasonable level . She noted that distances between non @-@ bonded groups within a single molecule can be shorter than expected from their van der Waals radii , e.g. , the 2 @.@ 93 Å distance between methyl groups in hexamethylbenzene . Regarding the free @-@ energy penalty for the cyclol reaction , Wrinch disagreed with Pauling 's calculations and stated that too little was known of intramolecular energies to rule out the cyclol model on that basis alone . In reply to the chemical criticisms , Wrinch suggested that the model compounds and simple bimolecular reactions studied need not pertain to the cyclol model , and that steric hindrance may have prevented the surface hydroxyl groups from reacting . On the residue @-@ number criticism , Wrinch extended her model to allow for other numbers of residues . In particular , she produced a " minimal " closed cyclol of only 48 residues , and , on that ( incorrect ) basis , may have been the first to suggest that the insulin monomer had a molecular weight of roughly 6000 Da .
Therefore , she maintained that the cyclol model of globular proteins was still potentially viable and even proposed the cyclol fabric as a component of the cytoskeleton . However , most protein scientists ceased to believe in it and Wrinch turned her scientific attention to mathematical problems in X @-@ ray crystallography , to which she contributed significantly . One exception was physicist Gladys Anslow , Wrinch 's colleague at Smith College , who studied the ultraviolet absorption spectra of proteins and peptides in the 1940s and allowed for the possibility of cyclols in interpreting her results . As the sequence of insulin began to be determined by Frederick Sanger , Anslow published a three @-@ dimensional cyclol model with sidechains , based on the backbone of Wrinch 's 1948 " minimal cyclol " model .
= = Partial redemption = =
The downfall of the overall cyclol model generally led to a rejection of its elements ; one notable exception was J. D. Bernal 's short @-@ lived acceptance of the Langmuir @-@ Wrinch hypothesis that protein folding is driven by hydrophobic association . Nevertheless , cyclol bonds were identified in small , naturally occurring cyclic peptides in the 1950s .
Clarification of the modern terminology is appropriate . The classic cyclol reaction is the addition of the NH amine of a peptide group to the C = O carbonyl group of another ; the resulting compound is now called an azacyclol . By analogy , an oxacyclol is formed when an OH hydroxyl group is added to a peptidyl carbonyl group . Likewise , a thiacyclol is formed by adding an SH thiol moiety to a peptidyl carbonyl group .
The oxacyclol alkaloid ergotamine from the fungus Claviceps purpurea was the first identified cyclol . The cyclic depsipeptide serratamolide is also formed by an oxacyclol reaction . Chemically analogous cyclic thiacyclols have also been obtained . Classic azacyclols have been observed in small molecules and tripeptides . Peptides are naturally produced from the reversion of azacylols , a key prediction of the cyclol model . Hundreds of cyclol molecules have now been identified , despite Linus Pauling 's calculation that such molecules should not exist because of their unfavorably high energy .
After a long hiatus during which she worked mainly on the mathematics of X @-@ ray crystallography , Wrinch responded to these discoveries with renewed enthusiasm for the cyclol model and its relevance in biochemistry . She also published two books describing the cyclol theory and small peptides in general .
= = Illustration of the scientific method = =
The cyclol model of protein structure is an example of empirical falsifiability acting as part of the scientific method . An original hypothesis is made that accounts for unexplained experimental observations ; the consequences of this hypothesis are worked out , leading to predictions that are tested by experiment . In this case , the key hypothesis was that the cyclol form of the peptide group could be favored over the amide form . This hypothesis led to the predictions of the cyclol @-@ 6 molecule and the cyclol fabric , which in turn suggested the model of semi @-@ regular polyhedra for globular proteins . A key testable prediction was that a folded protein 's carbonyl groups should be largely converted to hydroxyl groups ; however , spectroscopic and chemical experiments showed that this prediction was incorrect . The cyclol model also predicts a high lateral density of amino acids in folded proteins and in films that does not agree with experiment . Hence , the cyclol model could be rejected and the search begun for new hypotheses of protein structure , such as the models of the alpha helix proposed in the 1940s and 1950s .
It is sometimes argued that the cyclol hypothesis should never have been advanced , because of its a priori flaws , e.g. , its steric clashes , its inability to accommodate proline , and the high free energy disfavoring the cyclol reaction itself . Although such flaws rendered the cyclol hypothesis implausible , they did not make it impossible . The cyclol model was the first well @-@ defined structure proposed for globular proteins , and too little was then known of intramolecular forces and protein structure to reject it immediately . It neatly explained several general properties of proteins and accounted for then @-@ anomalous experimental observations . Although generally incorrect , some elements of the cyclol theory were eventually verified , such as the cyclol reactions and the role of hydrophobic interactions in protein folding . A useful comparison is the Bohr model of the hydrogen atom , which was considered implausible from its inception , even by its creator , yet led the way to the ultimately correct theory of quantum mechanics . Similarly , Linus Pauling proposed a well @-@ defined model of DNA that was likewise implausible yet thought @-@ provoking to other investigators .
Conversely , the cyclol model is an example of an incorrect scientific theory of great symmetry and beauty , two qualities that can be regarded as signs of " obviously true " scientific theories . For example , the Watson @-@ Crick double helix model of DNA is sometimes said to be " obvious " because of its plausible hydrogen bonding and symmetry ; nevertheless , other , less symmetrical structures of DNA are favored under different conditions . Similarly , the beautiful theory of general relativity was considered by Albert Einstein as not needing experimental verification ; yet even this theory will require revision for consistency with quantum field theory .
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= Royal Rumble ( 1993 ) =
Royal Rumble ( 1993 ) was the sixth annual Royal Rumble professional wrestling pay @-@ per @-@ view event produced by the World Wrestling Federation ( WWF ) . It took place on January 24 , 1993 at the ARCO Arena in Sacramento , California . The main event was a Royal Rumble match , a battle royal in which two wrestlers started the match in the ring ; every two minutes , another wrestler joined . In total , thirty wrestlers competed to eliminate their competitors by throwing them over the top rope of the wrestling ring onto the arena floor . Yokozuna won the match and was awarded an opportunity to wrestle for the WWF World Heavyweight Championship at WrestleMania IX . Bret Hart also retained his WWF World Heavyweight Championship against Razor Ramon , and Shawn Michaels successfully defended his WWF Intercontinental Championship against Marty Jannetty .
= = Background = =
Royal Rumble 1993 consisted of six matches : four singles matches , one tag team match , and the Royal Rumble match . The buildup to the pay @-@ per @-@ view consisted of feuds scripted by the WWF 's writers . Some of the rivalries dated back several years , while others were created specifically to create excitement about the Royal Rumble .
The primary feud leading up to Royal Rumble 1993 was between WWF Champion Bret Hart and challenger Razor Ramon ( a replacement for The Ultimate Warrior , who had left the previous November ) . Ramon formed an alliance in late 1992 with Ric Flair , who Hart defeated to win the title belt . During an interview in which Hart was talking about the upcoming match , Ramon and Flair came to the ring and attacked Hart . Ramon later escalated the feud by attacking Owen Hart , Bret 's brother .
Another major feud featured at the event was between Shawn Michaels and Marty Jannetty , who had teamed for several years as The Rockers . The team split up in December 1991 , however , when Michaels attacked Jannetty during an episode of Brutus Beefcake 's interview segment , " The Barber Shop " . Michaels became a singles wrestler and won the WWF Intercontinental Championship on October 27 , 1992 from Davey Boy Smith . On the October 31 , 1992 episode of WWF Superstars of Wrestling , Jannetty returned to the WWF after a lengthy absence and confronted Michaels . He attempted to hit Michaels with a mirror , but Michaels pulled his valet , Sensational Sherri in front of him . Sherri was hit with the mirror , which caused friction between her and Michaels . Michaels and Jannetty were scheduled to face each other for the Intercontinental Championship at Royal Rumble 1993 . Leading up to the match , Sherri announced that she would be in the corner of one of the men , but she refused to say which one .
In an undercard match , The Steiner Brothers ( Rick and Scott ) , who made their WWF debut in late 1992 , were scheduled to face the Beverly Brothers ( Beau and Blake ) . There was little buildup for the match , but the Steiners and Beverlys had a rivalry over which was the best team of brothers in the WWF ( although the Beverly Brothers are not related in real life ) .
Several feuds also formed the background for the Royal Rumble match . Virgil had served as Ted DiBiase 's servant and bodyguard for several years . DiBiase treated Virgil poorly , which eventually led Virgil to turn against his employer . At Royal Rumble 1991 , he attacked DiBiase after a match by hitting him with the Million Dollar Championship , a title that DiBiase had awarded himself . Virgil defeated DiBiase for the belt at SummerSlam 1991 , although DiBiase later regained the title . The Undertaker was feuding with manager Harvey Wippleman . He had a series of matches against Kamala in 1992 that included a bout at SummerSlam . The rivalry culminated in a coffin match at Survivor Series 1992 . The Undertaker won the match , but Wippleman vowed revenge . Tito Santana and Rick Martel had formed a tag team known as Strike Force in 1987 , and they held the World Tag Team Championship together for five months . Martel walked away during a match against the Brain Busters at WrestleMania V , leaving Santana to face both opponents alone . The team split up as a result and the former partners had a lengthy feud .
Mr. Perfect served as " executive consultant " to Ric Flair in 1992 , but the relationship broke down toward the end of the year . The partnership split up when Perfect teamed with Randy Savage to face Flair and Razor Ramon at Survivor Series 1992 . Flair legitimately requested a release from his contract , as he felt he would be more successful if he returned to World Championship Wrestling ( WCW ) . WWF owner Vince McMahon agreed and set up a feud between Flair and Perfect to create a storyline for Flair 's departure from the company . Many wrestlers were scheduled to compete at the 1993 Royal Rumble but were either replaced or had left the company before the event . Those who were scheduled to compete were Doink the Clown , Crush , Hacksaw Jim Duggan , The Mountie , and Kamala .
The event also featured the WWF debut of Lex Luger . Luger had previously wrestled in WCW , where he held the WCW World Heavyweight Championship . He had left the wrestling industry to join Vince McMahon 's World Bodybuilding Federation ( WBF ) . After the WBF failed , Luger signed with McMahon 's WWF .
= = Event = =
Five matches with pre @-@ determined results were shown on the pay @-@ per @-@ view telecast . In addition , Doink the Clown defeated Jim Powers by submission in an untelevised dark match before the event . In the first match shown as part of the broadcast , the Steiner Brothers ( Rick and Scott ) faced the Beverly Brothers ( Beau and Blake ) . Scott gained the early advantage over Beau , both men quickly tagged in their partners . Rick performed a body slam on Blake and then tagged Scott back in , who threw Blake with a belly to belly suplex . The Beverlys regained the advantage and took turns attacking Scott 's back . Blake performed a Boston crab hold to put more pressure on Scott 's back and attempt to force him to submit . Scott escaped the hold and threw Blake to the mat by performing a Tiger driver . The Steiners capitalized on their advantage by keeping Blake in the ring and unable to tag his partner . Scott won the match for his team by pinning Blake after executing a Frankensteiner .
In the next match , Sensational Sherri stood at ringside as Shawn Michaels defended his Intercontinental Championship against Marty Jannetty . She did not reveal her allegiance to either man . Jannetty gained the early advantage , knocking Michaels out of the ring and diving onto him through the ropes . He then attacked Michaels by jumping off the top rope , but Michaels countering this move by hitting him on the way down . Michaels hit Jannetty 's shoulder against the ring post and focused on wearing down the shoulder once both men had re @-@ entered the ring . Michaels missed an attack from the top rope , which allowed Jannetty to punch him repeatedly . Michaels recovered and threw Jannetty out of the ring , but Jannetty then suplexed Michaels over the rope and onto the arena floor . Sherri turned on Michaels by slapping him in the face , and Jannetty threw Michaels back into the ring with a belly @-@ to @-@ back suplex . Jannetty performed a powerslam and a DDT on Michaels . Michaels attempted to punch Jannetty but knocked the referee unconscious instead . Sherri came into the ring and tried to hit Michaels with her shoe . Michaels moved out of the way , and Sherri hit Jannetty instead . When the referee recovered , Michaels performed a superkick on Jannetty and pinned him to retain the championship .
The third televised match featured the Big Boss Man facing Bam Bam Bigelow . Bigelow attacked Boss Man before the match and controlled the match 's beginning by using power moves to wear Boss Man down . Boss Man performed two clotheslines on Bigelow to gain the advantage . Bigelow responded by throwing Boss Man with a belly to back suplex , and then threw him out of the ring . He wore Boss Man down with a bear hug . Boss Man briefly regained the advantage by suplexing Bigelow but eventually tried to run at Bigelow to crush him in the corner of the ring . As Boss Man approached , Bigelow kicked him in the face and followed this up by performing a diving headbutt from the top rope to win the match by pinfall .
The next match was for the WWF Championship , as Bret Hart defended the title against Razor Ramon . Ramon got the early advantage by punching Hart repeatedly but accidentally hit his knee against a turnbuckle while running at Hart . Hart applied a figure @-@ four leglock to apply pressure to Ramon 's knee . Ramon escaped the hold and threw Hart against a ring post ; he capitalized on this advantage by attacking Hart 's back . Ramon threw Hart with a fallaway slam and applied a bear hug . Hart escaped the hold by biting Ramon . He threw Ramon out of the ring and performed several of his signature moves , including a Russian legsweep and an elbow drop from the second rope . Hart applied the Sharpshooter , his signature hold , but Ramon grabbed the ropes , which forced the referee to instruct Hart to break the hold . Hart threw Ramon with a belly @-@ to @-@ back suplex , but Ramon responded by attempting to perform the Razor 's Edge , his signature move . Hart reversed this into an unsuccessful pin attempt . With both men exhausted , Hart applied the Sharpshooter and won the match by forcing Ramon to submit .
Before the final match , Bobby Heenan , a manager and commentator , unveiled his newest wrestler , " The Narcissist " Lex Luger . Heenan pointed out Luger 's muscles and announced that Luger would carry on Heenan 's rivalry with Mr. Perfect .
The main event of the broadcast , the Royal Rumble match , came next . For the first time , a stipulation was added that the winner of the match would receive a match for the WWF Championship at that year 's WrestleMania ( a provision that has remained since ) . The match began with two former WWF Champions , as Ric Flair and Bob Backlund entered the ring first . Every two minutes , one of the remaining twenty @-@ eight contestants entered the match according to the number they drew prior to the event . Papa Shango was the third wrestler to enter but was thrown over the top rope and onto the arena floor by Ric Flair , causing Shango to be eliminated . Virgil entered sixth and immediately attacked Ted DiBiase because of their long @-@ standing grudge . When Mr. Perfect entered in the number ten spot , he and Flair fought each other until Perfect eliminated Flair by performing a clothesline to knock Flair onto the floor . Virgil was eliminated by The Berzerker , while Perfect was thrown out of the ring by Jerry Lawler , Koko B. Ware , and Ted DiBiase .
The Undertaker was the fifteenth wrestler to enter ; he eliminated four men before Harvey Wippleman appeared , accompanying a large man ( who was later revealed to be Giant González , billed at eight feet tall ) . González attacked The Undertaker and threw him out of the ring ; as a result , The Undertaker was eliminated from the match . Several referees tried to get González to return to the locker room ; he eventually left , and Paul Bearer , The Undertaker 's manager , came to the ring . He helped The Undertaker revive , and The Undertaker returned to the locker room to find González . Several minutes later , Typhoon entered the match , followed shortly by his tag team partner in The Natural Disasters , Earthquake . Earthquake immediately targeted Typhoon and eliminated him from the match . Earthquake tried to console his partner , who ignored him and left ringside . Later , Tito Santana and Rick Martel were in the ring at the same time ; they fought each other immediately as a result of their five @-@ year @-@ old feud . Yokozuna , weighing over 500 pounds ( 227 kilograms ) , entered in the number twenty @-@ seven spot ; at one point , almost every wrestler worked together in an attempt to eliminate him , but they were unable to lift him .
Former WWF Champion Randy Savage was the last wrestler to enter the match . The wrestlers fought and several men were eliminated in quick succession , leaving Backlund , Martel , Yokozuna , and Savage . Backlund eliminated Martel but was then eliminated by Yokozuna . Backlund was in the ring for one hour , one minute , and ten seconds , which set a new record for time spent in a Royal Rumble match . Savage gained the advantage over Yokozuna ; he knocked him down and performed a diving elbow drop from the top rope . He tried to pin Yokozuna , although pinfalls are not counted during a Royal Rumble . Yokozuna pushed Savage off of him so hard that Savage flew over the top rope and onto the arena floor . As a result , Yokozuna was named the winner of the 1993 Royal Rumble match . During the match , he eliminated seven wrestlers , which broke the previous record for most eliminations in a Royal Rumble match .
= = Aftermath = =
At WrestleMania IX , Yokozuna defeated Bret Hart to win the WWF Championship . His title reign only lasted several minutes , however , as he dropped the belt to Hulk Hogan in an impromptu match . Yokozuna regained the title but dropped it to Hart the following year .
Shawn Michaels continued his feud with Sensational Sherri at WrestleMania IX . Sherri accompanied Tatanka , and Michaels countered this by introducing Luna Vachon , his new valet . After the match , Vachon attacked Sherri . The feud also continued between Michaels and Jannetty , as Jannetty defeated Michaels for the Intercontinental Championship on May 17 , 1993 . Michaels regained the belt in a rematch the following month to end the feud .
Razor Ramon continued to wrestle in high @-@ profile matches but achieved little success until changing his persona to a face after losing to the underdog 1 @-@ 2 @-@ 3 Kid in May 1993 . As a fan favorite , Ramon won his first of four Intercontinental Championships in September 1993 .
The day after Royal Rumble , Flair faced Perfect in a loser leaves town match , in which the loser would be forced to leave the WWF forever . Because Flair had an agreement with McMahon to lose to Mr. Perfect before leaving the promotion , Perfect won the match and Flair did not appear in the WWF again until 2001 . With Flair gone from the promotion , Luger continued Heenan 's feud and defeated Mr. Perfect at WrestleMania IX .
The Beverly Brothers were unable to win the World Tag Team Championship , but the Steiners won the belts on two occasions in 1993 . They feuded with Money Inc . ( DiBiase and Irwin R. Schyster ) , who had held the belts since the previous October , before winning their first championship on June 14 .
Earthquake and Typhoon stopped teaming after their confrontation during the Royal Rumble match . No feud ever materialized , however , as Earthquake was released by the WWF and left to compete in Japan . The rivalry between Virgil and DiBiase was not mentioned again until the following year , when Virgil had a brief feud with Nikolai Volkoff , who was managed by DiBiase . DiBiase was reunited with Virgil , who had been renamed Vincent , when both men were members of WCW 's New World Order in 1996 .
Luger 's status as a heel ( villain ) was short @-@ lived . Yokozuna issued a challenge for any American athlete to try to bodyslam him on the deck of the USS Intrepid on Independence Day that year . Several athletes made the attempt , but nobody was able to lift Yokozuna until Luger arrived in a helicopter and bodyslammed Yokozuna . Luger received a push and was given a match for Yokozuna 's WWF Championship at SummerSlam 1993 , but he was unable to win the belt .
The Undertaker 's feud with Harvey Wippleman escalated in the following months and was featured at two more pay @-@ per @-@ view events in 1993 . The Undertaker faced Giant González at WrestleMania IX ; González was disqualified after attacking The Undertaker with a chloroform @-@ soaked rag provided by Wippleman . Wippleman and González recruited Mr. Hughes , and the three men attacked The Undertaker and Paul Bearer . They stole The Undertaker 's urn , which was said to be the source of his power . The feud culminated in a Rest in Peace match at SummerSlam 1993 , which The Undertaker won to end the feud .
= = = Reception = = =
Writing for Online Onslaught , columnist Adam Gutschmidt stated that the first half of the event is worth watching . He enjoyed the tag team match and the bout between Jannetty and Michaels . He also found the WWF Championship match surprisingly good . He did not , however , feel that the match between Big Boss Man and Bam Bam Bigelow was interesting . He also disliked the Royal Rumble match because too many tag team wrestlers were included , there were few exciting moments , and Giant González did not help the match . Scott Keith reviewed the event for 411mania . He found the opening match between the Steiners and Beverlys to be boring . He enjoyed much of the match between Jannetty and Michaels but found the ending disappointing . He rated the match between Boss Man and Bigelow as a " dud " but enjoyed the WWF Championship bout . He called the Royal Rumble match one of the worst in history , as he found much of the match boring and did not enjoy the debut of González . Overall , he rated the event as " mildly recommended " .
The event drew 16 @,@ 000 spectators , who paid $ 187 @,@ 000 in admission fees . This was down from the previous year 's 17 @,@ 000 fans but higher than the attendance for any of the following three Royal Rumble events . The pay @-@ per @-@ view buyrate of 1 @.@ 25 was also lower than that of Royal Rumble 1992 , which had a 1 @.@ 8 buyrate . It was higher than the buyrates for all of the Royal Rumble events from 1994 to 1998 , however .
Royal Rumble 1993 was released on VHS by Coliseum Video on February 11 , 1993 in North America . It was released on DVD in North America as part of WWE 's Complete Royal Rumble Anthology on November 27 , 2007 . In the United Kingdom , it was released on VHS in 1993 . On June 6 , 2005 , it was packaged together with Royal Rumble 1994 as part of WWE 's Tagged Classics line for its United Kingdom DVD release . This was followed by the Complete Royal Rumble Anthology DVD set , which was released on October 15 , 2007 .
= = Results = =
^ Sensational Sherri was in a neutral corner in the third match .
= = = Royal Rumble entrances and eliminations = = =
A new entrant came out approximately every two minutes .
^ Giant González was not an entrant in the Rumble . This was his WWF debut .
Bob Backlund broke the longevity record by lasting 1 : 01 : 10 , previous records held by Ric Flair at 1 : 00 : 02 .
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= I Not Stupid =
I Not Stupid ( Chinese : 小孩不笨 ; pinyin : Xiǎohái Bù Bèn ; literally : " Children are not stupid " ) is a 2002 Singaporean comedy film about the lives , struggles , and adventures of three Primary 6 pupils who are placed in the academically inferior EM3 stream . Written and directed by Jack Neo , and produced by MediaCorp Raintree Pictures , the movie stars Xiang Yun , Richard Low , Selena Tan , Shawn Lee , Huang Po Ju and Joshua Ang .
Released in cinemas on 9 February 2002 , I Not Stupid earned over S $ 3 @.@ 8 million , becoming the second @-@ highest grossing Singaporean film . Its satirical criticism of the Singaporean education system and social attitudes in Singapore sparked public discussions and parliamentary debates that led to reforms in the education system . Its sequel , I Not Stupid Too , was released in 2006 .
= = Plot = =
The film 's storyline revolves around the lives and families of three students in the EM3 academic stream , Terry Khoo ( Huang Po Ju ) , Liu Kok Pin ( 刘国彬 Liú Guóbīn ; Shawn Lee ) and Ang Boon Hock ( 洪文福 Hóng Wénfú ; Joshua Ang ) . Terry , pampered and from a rich family , is a meek and obedient boy , with a domineering mother ( Selena Tan ) and a negligent businessman father ( Richard Low ) . Kok Pin is pushed to excel at school by his mother ( Xiang Yun ) , but he shows a talent for art , not academics — much to the consternation of his family . Boon Hock and his mother struggle to make ends meet by running a small wonton noodle stall ; to make up for the lack of a father figure , he places high value on loyalty and " manliness " in his friends .
The boys are often bullied for being in the " stupid " stream , which eventually leads to a fight during which one of the bullies is accidentally injured . In the principal 's office , Boon Hock and Kok Pin explain what happened , but Terry declines to testify on their behalf , following his mother 's instructions to " mind his own business " , which infuriates his friends and causes trouble between the boys .
Meanwhile , Terry 's father , Mr. Khoo gets in a fight with a man who turns out to be Kok Pin 's father , Mr. Liu ( Jack Neo ) , over a parking space . Mr. Khoo 's company is a client for Mr. Liu 's firm , an advertising agency , and their new @-@ found enmity causes Mr. Khoo to select the marketing campaign of John , an American expatriate , over that of Mr. Liu . As John 's ideas are totally incompatible with Chinese customs , Mr. Khoo 's business suffers as his customers are driven away .
As the boys deal with their problems , a new teacher at school helps by inspiring Boon Hock to excel in Mathematics , while reaching out to the other boys . Kok Pin continues to struggle , and enlists Boon Hock to help him cheat in the Preliminary examinations , but they are caught . Unable to face his mother , Kok Pin attempts suicide , but fails . When he finally tells her , she tries to punish him but collapses ; a doctor later diagnoses her with leukaemia , and tells Kok Pin that she will die without a bone marrow transplant .
As the end of the year approaches , Boon Hock excels in the PSLE Mathematics exam , while the other boys manage to scrape by — Kok Pin only marginally . Contrary to Kok Pin 's fears , his mother is satisfied because he has tried his best . When visiting Mrs. Liu at the hospital , the EM3 teacher announces that one of Kok Pin 's drawings won second prize in an international competition , but the moment is overshadowed by the rush to save Mrs. Liu 's life . Mr. Khoo passes the transplant test , but refuses to donate after discovering the intended recipient is his enemy 's wife . He eventually relents , but it is revealed that due to a mix @-@ up Terry , not Mr. Khoo , is the suitable donor . Despite protests from his parents , he insists on undergoing the operation , which is a success . A grateful Mr. Liu offers to help Mr. Khoo 's business with his proposal . As a result , Mr. Khoo 's business booms , and the two enemies become good friends . The film ends with Terry being bullied again , as in the beginning of the movie — but this time , he stands up for himself and fights back .
= = Political satire = =
I Not Stupid criticises many aspects of modern Singaporean culture , including streaming in the education system , deference to authority , and sociocultural stereotypes . The film can be read as an allegory for Singaporean society — the pampered protagonist and narrator , Terry , is an " everyman ; " deferent and coddled , with a domineering mother and affluent father . Terry 's intellectual failings lead him to be placed in the inferior EM3 stream , which becomes the driving force behind the storyline . The subsequent stigma placed upon the narrator illustrates how the Singaporean education system promotes academic elitism , with students in lower streams looked down upon as inferior , making it harder for them to catch up and realise their potential ( see golem effect ) , even if they are not necessarily stupid . This kiasu mentality puts mounting pressure upon the protagonists of the film , confounding them as they attempt to improve their standing and ameliorate their reputation in a society which judges them " worthless " .
Terry 's mother , Mrs. Khoo , is a " thinly veiled stand @-@ in for the [ Singapore ] government " , whose " mother @-@ knows @-@ best " mentality is well @-@ meaning , but strips her children of their freedom . She demands total obedience , and her repeated lines " Do you know how lucky you are to have a good and responsible mother ? " and " This is all for your own good " parody the Singapore government 's efforts to convince Singaporeans that government policies and actions is in the best interests of the nation . Mrs. Khoo also uses her position of power to buy off rebellion in her charges with gifts and bribes , in a pointed criticism of the government 's social policies . Other characters in the film comment on this relationship — for instance , in one scene , Mr. Liu states that " it is difficult to catch fish in Singapore , because fish in Singapore are like Singaporeans ; they 'll never open their mouths " , poking fun at the Singaporean trait of obedience and respect for authority .
The film also touches on other issues including Chinese self @-@ loathing ( wherein Singaporean companies regard Western expatriates as inherently superior to local workers ) , suicide , the use of Singlish , and the differences between English and Chinese .
= = Production = =
Jack Neo 's inspiration for the film was the Iranian movie Children of Heaven . Neo and his wife were moved to " holding hands and crying after seeing the love shared by the children " , which motivated him to make his own movie about youth . After speaking with parents in order to find topics to discuss in his film , Neo learned that due to problems with the Singaporean education system , specifically streaming , students face considerable academic and emotional stress . This problem formed the core of his film , which he called I Not Stupid in reference to the social stigma that streaming places on students .
Neo also drew on a dissatisfaction he felt with the way the school system promoted deference to authority over self @-@ reliance ; he wanted his film to tell youth " If you don 't want to change or make a difference , you won 't . It 's all up to you . " In exploring these ideas , Neo spent over two years researching and editing the script — checking scenes for accuracy , verifying facts , and drafting dialogue . Altogether , the work went through thirteen different revisions , and saw over 50 children audition for the lead roles , before Neo decided to send I Not Stupid into production .
This production was carried out by Raintree Pictures on a budget of S $ 900 @,@ 000 , sponsored by Bee Cheng Hiang , Yeo Hiap Seng and Sunshine Bakeries . The production crew included Daniel Yun as executive producer , David Leong and Chan Pui Yin as producers , Ardy Lam as cinematographer and Li Yi as music supervisor . In addition to writing and directing , Neo also composed the theme song , which was sung by Chen Guorong . The actual filming took place at Braddell Westlake Secondary School and Westlake Primary School over a period of 24 days , and the film found distribution through Raintree Pictures and United International Pictures .
= = Reception = =
I Not Stupid earned just S $ 46 @,@ 000 during a limited sneak preview run , prompting Raintree Pictures to embark on a massive publicity campaign , including invitations for teachers to discuss the film . After showing for four months on 30 screens the movie earned S $ 3 @.@ 8 million , becoming the second @-@ highest grossing Singaporean movie after Money No Enough . Following its success in Singapore , I Not Stupid was released in Malaysia , Hong Kong , Taiwan and mainland China . The movie also screened at the Pusan International Film Festival , Tokyo International Film Festival , the Jakarta International Film Festival and the 2005 Singapore Season cultural exhibition in London . Over 50 @,@ 000 VCDs of I Not Stupid were sold and its sole distributor , VideoVan , declared it the " No. 1 selling VCD in Singapore " . This claim was disputed by Alliance Entertainment , which said that 70 @,@ 000 VCDs of Money No Enough were sold , but VideoVan called the comparison inaccurate , as Money No Enough was a mature title , rather than a new release .
Awards that I Not Stupid won include Best Chinese Film at the Golden Bauhinia Awards and Best Chinese Humanitarian Film at the 2002 Taiwan Golden Torch Awards ; the movie was also nominated for Best Asian Film at the Hong Kong Film Awards , losing to My Sassy Girl . Critics praised the film for its humour and uniqueness , noting that it touched a raw nerve among Singaporeans . For example , Sanjuro of LoveHKFilm.com wrote , " I Not Stupid covers a variety of serious subjects , but all the while maintains a light comedic touch . Jack Neo [ makes this film ] a clever , well @-@ crafted social commentary and a damn good film to boot . " Other reviewers described I Not Stupid as " one of the greatest cinematic feats I ’ ve had the pleasure of experiencing " and displaying a " simple and yet excellent execution " . In contrast , FilmAsia reviewer Soh Yun @-@ Huei , found it " most shocking ... that the Singapore censors actually allowed this film through in the first place " .
Despite its political satire , the film received a positive response from the government of Singapore . Goh Chok Tong , then Prime Minister of Singapore , commended Jack Neo 's creative talent during his National Day Rally address on 18 August 2002 . In 2004 , Neo was the first local film @-@ maker to receive a National Day Award , and on 21 October 2005 , he and Dick Lee became the first pop culture artists to receive the Cultural Medallion , Singapore 's highest arts award . The movie sparked public discussion and parliamentary debate about the negative effects of streaming . In 2004 , the Ministry of Education decided to merge the EM1 and EM2 streams , and on 29 September 2006 , it announced that the EM3 stream will be scrapped by 2008 .
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= English cannon =
The first usage of cannon in Great Britain was possibly in 1327 , when they were used in battle by the English against the Scots . Under the Tudors , the first forts featuring cannon batteries were built , while cannon were first used by the Tudor navy . Cannon were later used during the English Civil War for both siegework and extensively on the battlefield .
Cannon were first used abroad by the English during the Hundred Years War , when primitive artillery was used at the Battle of Crécy . With the Age of Discovery and the establishment of the Thirteen Colonies , cannon saw use in British armies in North America , first against the rival colony of New France , and later during the American Revolutionary War . From the 18th century to the present day , the Royal Regiment of Artillery has formed the artillery of the British Army . The Royal Navy developed the carronade in the 18th century , although they disappeared from use in the 1850s . As with other western cannon of the period , cannon used by the British Army and the Royal Navy became longer ranged and more destructive in the 19th and 20th centuries .
= = History = =
= = = Early development = = =
English cannon saw its first use during the Hundred Years War , being used in small numbers during the 1340s . " Ribaldis " were first mentioned in the English Privy Wardrobe accounts during preparations for the Battle of Crécy between 1345 and 1346 . These are believed to have shot large arrows and simplistic grapeshot , but they were so important they were directly controlled by the Royal Wardrobe . According to the contemporary poet Jean Froissart , the English cannon made " two or three discharges on the Genoese " , which is taken to mean individual shots by two or three guns because of the time taken to reload such primitive artillery . Similar cannon appeared at the Siege of Calais later the same year and by the 1380s , the " ribaudekin " had become mounted on wheels .
= = = Tudor navy and the rise of the fort = = =
Towards the end of the Middle Ages , the development of cannon made revolutionary changes to siege warfare throughout Europe , with many castles becoming susceptible to artillery fire . In England , significant changes were evident from the 16th century , when Henry VIII began building Device Forts between 1539 and 1540 as artillery fortresses to counter the threat of invasion from France and Spain . They were built by the state at strategic points to form the first powerful cannon batteries , but , though they had many of the same architectural facets as true castles , they served a purely military function ( rather than serving as residences ) . Deal Castle remains one of the most impressive such Device Forts , and was perfectly symmetrical , with a low , circular keep at its centre . Over 200 cannon and gun ports were set within the walls , and the fort formed a firing platform with a shape that allowed many lines of fire . In addition , its low curved bastions were designed to deflect cannonballs . Cannon were now an inexorable part of English warfare .
Cannon also saw use in the Tudor navy ( where a cannon was a " gun " , and a cannonball a " shot " ) . The French " culverin " was adapted for naval use by the English in the late 16th century , and had a significant advantage over the ballista that had previously been used in naval warfare . This cannon was of relatively long barrel and light construction , and fired solid round shot projectiles at long ranges along a flat trajectory . One of the first ships to be able to fire a full cannon broadside was the English carrack the Mary Rose , built in Portsmouth from 1510 – 1512 , and equipped with 78 guns ( 91 after an upgrade in the 1530s ) . It was one of the earliest purpose @-@ built warships to serve in the English Navy ( thought never to have served as a merchant ship ) , and her crew consisted of 200 sailors , 185 soldiers , and 30 gunners .
With the Age of Discovery , rivalry developed between European colonies and the importance of cannon in naval warfare increased . Many merchant vessels were armed with cannon and the aggressive activities of English privateers , who engaged the galleons of the Spanish treasure fleets , helped provoke the first Anglo @-@ Spanish War , though it was not one of the main factors . A fleet review on Elizabeth I 's accession in 1559 showed the navy to consist of 39 ships and in 1588 , Philip II of Spain launched the Spanish Armada against England . In a running battle lasting over a week , the Armada was scattered and defeated by the English navy .
= = = 17th century = = =
A description of the Gunner 's art is given during the English Civil War period ( mid @-@ 17th century ) by John Roberts , covering the modes of calculation and the ordnance pieces themselves , in his work The Compleat Cannoniere , printed London 1652 by W. Wilson and sold by George Hurlock ( Thames Street ) . The lower tier of English ships of the line at this time were usually equipped with demi @-@ cannon — a naval gun which fired a 32 @-@ pound solid shot . A full cannon fired a 42 @-@ pound shot ( and in fact there was a so @-@ called " royal cannon " that fired a 60 @-@ pound shot ) , but these were discontinued by the 18th century as they were seen as too unwieldy .
With the establishment of the Thirteen Colonies , cannon saw use in English armies in the North American mainland , first against the rival colony of New France . However , although the French were outnumbered , their fortifications and artillery were superior to English cannon . When 34 ships from the English colony of Massachusetts bombarded Quebec in 1690 , they were outmatched by the French batteries , which badly damaged the ships ' hulls and struck off the colours of the English flagship . The English brass field guns landed on the shore were entirely ineffective against the militiamen in the woods , and a spontaneous retreat left five cannon abandoned on the shore . French victory showed that to take Quebec , the cannon of " Old England would have to be brought in " .
= = = 18th century = = =
Before the 18th century , artillery " traynes " were raised by Royal Warrant for specific campaigns and disbanded again when they were over . On 26 May 1716 , however , by Royal Warrant of George I , two regular companies of field artillery , each 100 men strong , were raised at Woolwich . On 1 April 1722 these companies were grouped with independent artillery companies at Gibraltar and Minorca to form the Royal Regiment of Artillery . The regiment expanded rapidly and by 1757 had 24 companies divided into two battalions , as well as a Cadet Company formed in 1741 .
When Quebec was finally captured during the French and Indian War , the British had more cannon installed in the fortifications , and built more embrasures into the walls to maximise their effectiveness against siege batteries . When the French returned in 1760 , the defenders had to leave all but two of their field guns in the retreat into the city . However , British cannon proved effective , as a heavy cannonade on the French batteries allowed them to hold out long enough for reinforcements .
By 1771 , there were 32 companies of the Royal Artillery in four battalions , as well as two Invalid Companies comprising older and unfit men employed in garrison duties . In January 1793 , two troops of Royal Horse Artillery ( RHA ) were raised to provide fire support for the cavalry , joined by two more in November 1793 . All RHA personnel were mounted . The Royal Irish Artillery was absorbed in 1801 .
Additionally , the carronade was adopted by the Royal Navy in 1779 , and the lower muzzle velocity of the round shot was intended to create many more of the deadly wooden splinters when hitting the structure of an enemy vessel ; these in fact were often the main cause of casualties . It was much shorter and a third to a quarter of the weight of an equivalent long gun : for example , a 32 pounder carronade weighed less than a ton , but a 32 pounder long gun weighed over 3 tons . Carronades were manufactured in the usual naval gun calibres , but they were not counted in a ship of the line 's rated number of guns . As a result , the classification of Royal Navy vessels in this period can mislead , since they would often be carrying more pieces of ordnance than they were described as carrying .
The carronade was initially very successful and widely adopted , although in the 1810s and 1820s , greater emphasis was placed on the accuracy of long @-@ range gunfire , and less on the weight of a broadside . The small powder charge of the carronade was only able to project a heavy cannonball over a relatively limited distance . The short barrel , low muzzle velocity and short range also increased the risk that a carronade would eject burning wadding onto nearby combustible materials , increasing the risk of fire . The carronade disappeared from the Royal Navy from the 1850s after the development of steel , jacketed cannon by William George Armstrong and Joseph Whitworth .
= = Operation = =
The 1771 Encyclopædia Britannica describes the operation of 18th @-@ century British cannon . Each cannon would be manned by two gunners , six soldiers , and four artillery officers . The right gunner was to prime the piece and load it with powder , while the left gunner would fetch the powder from the magazine and keep ready to fire the cannon at the officer 's command . Three soldiers stood on each side of the cannon , to ram and sponge the cannon , and hold the lantern and ladle . The second soldier on the left was charged with providing 50 bullets .
Prior to loading , the cannon would be well cleaned with a sponge to remove all sparks , filth , and dirt . The powder was added , followed by a wad of paper or hay , and the ball was thrown in . After ramming the cannon would be aimed with the elevation set using a quadrant and a plummet . At 45 degrees the ball had the utmost range – about ten times the gun 's level range . Any angle above the horizontal line was called random @-@ shot . The officer of artillery had to ensure the cannon was diligently served . Water was available to dip the sponges in and cool the pieces every ten or twelve rounds .
In the late 1770s it was said that a 24 @-@ pounder could fire 90 to 100 shots a day in summer , or 60 to 75 in winter . A 16 or 12 pounder would fire a little more , because they were easier served . The Encyclopædia Britannica mentions " some occasions where 200 shots have been fired from these pieces in the space of nine hours , and 138 in the space of five . "
The introduction of carronades at this time also resulted in guns that were easier to handle and required less than half the gunpowder of long guns , allowing fewer men to crew them than long guns mounted on naval garrison carriages .
During the Napoleonic Wars , a British gun team consisted of 5 numbered gunners - fewer crew than needed in the previous century . The No.1 was the gun commander , and a sergeant , who aimed the gun . The No.2 was the " spongeman " who cleaned the bore with the sponge dampened with water between shots ; the intention being to quench any remaining embers before a fresh charge was introduced . The No.3 , the loader , inserted the bag of powder and then the projectile . The No.2 then used a rammer , or the sponge reversed , to drive it in . At the same time , the No.4 ( " ventsman " ) pressed his thumb on the vent hole to prevent a draught that might fan a flame . The charge loaded , the No.4 pricked the bagged charge through the vent hole and filled the vent with powder . At the No.1 's command the No.5 would fire the piece with his slowmatch .
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= Maternal deprivation =
The term maternal deprivation is a catch @-@ phrase summarising the early work of psychiatrist and psychoanalyst , John Bowlby on the effects of separating infants and young children from their mother ( or mother substitute ) although the effect of loss of the mother on the developing child had been considered earlier by Freud and other theorists . Bowlby 's work on delinquent and affectionless children and the effects of hospital and institutional care lead to his being commissioned to write the World Health Organisation 's report on the mental health of homeless children in post @-@ war Europe whilst he was head of the Department for Children and Parents at the Tavistock Clinic in London after World War II . The result was the monograph Maternal Care and Mental Health published in 1951 , which sets out the maternal deprivation hypothesis .
Bowlby drew together such empirical evidence as existed at the time from across Europe and the USA , including Spitz ( 1946 ) and Goldfarb ( 1943 , 1945 ) . His main conclusions , that " the infant and young child should experience a warm , intimate , and continuous relationship with his mother ( or permanent mother substitute ) in which both find satisfaction and enjoyment " and that not to do so might have significant and irreversible mental health consequences , were both controversial and influential . The monograph was published in 14 different languages and sold over 400 @,@ 000 copies in the English version alone . Bowlby 's work went beyond the suggestions of Otto Rank and Ian Suttie that mothering care was essential for development , and focused on the potential outcomes for children deprived of such care .
The 1951 WHO publication was highly influential in causing widespread changes in the practices and prevalence of institutional care for infants and children , and in changing practices relating to the stays of small children in hospitals so that parents were allowed more frequent and longer visits . Although the monograph was primarily concerned with the removal of children from their homes it was also used for political purposes to discourage women from working and leaving their children in daycare by governments concerned about maximising employment for returned and returning servicemen . The publication was also highly controversial with , amongst others , psychoanalysts , psychologists and learning theorists , and sparked significant debate and research on the issue of children 's early relationships .
The limited empirical data and lack of comprehensive theory to account for the conclusions in Maternal Care and Mental Health led to the subsequent formulation of attachment theory by Bowlby . Following the publication of Maternal Care and Mental Health Bowlby sought new understanding from such fields as evolutionary biology , ethology , developmental psychology , cognitive science and control systems theory and drew upon them to formulate the innovative proposition that the mechanisms underlying an infant 's ties emerged as a result of evolutionary pressure . Bowlby claimed to have made good the " deficiencies of the data and the lack of theory to link alleged cause and effect " in Maternal Care and Mental Health in his later work Attachment and Loss published between 1969 and 1980 .
Although the central tenet of maternal deprivation theory — that children 's experiences of interpersonal relationships are crucial to their psychological development and that the formation of an ongoing relationship with the child is as important a part of parenting as the provision of experiences , discipline and child care — has become generally accepted , " maternal deprivation " as a discrete syndrome is not a concept that is much in current use other than in relation to severe deprivation as in " failure to thrive " . In the area of early relationships it has largely been superseded by attachment theory and other theories relating to even earlier infant – parent interactions . As a concept , parental deficiencies are seen as a vulnerability factor for , rather than a direct cause of , later difficulties . In relation to institutional care there has been a great deal of subsequent research on the individual elements of privation , deprivation , understimulation and deficiencies that may arise from institutional care .
= = History = =
Many traditions have stressed the grief of mothers over deprivation of their children but little has been said historically about young children 's loss of their mothers ; this may have been because loss of the mother in infancy frequently meant death for a breast @-@ fed infant . In the 19th century , French society bureaucratised a system in which infants were breast @-@ fed at the homes of foster mothers , returning to the biological family after weaning , and no concern was evinced at the possible effect of this double separation on the child .
Sigmund Freud may have been among the first to stress the potential effect of loss of the mother on the developing child , but his concern was less with the actual experience of maternal care than with the anxiety the child might feel about the loss of the nourishing breast . As little of Freud 's theory was based on actual observations of infants , little effort was made to consider the effects of real experiences of loss .
Following Freud 's early speculations about infant experience with the mother , Otto Rank suggested a powerful role in personality development for birth trauma . Rank stressed the traumatic experience of birth as a separation from the mother , rather than birth as an uncomfortable physical event . Not long after Rank 's introduction of this idea , Ian Suttie , a British physician whose early death limited his influence , suggested that the child 's basic need is for mother @-@ love , and his greatest anxiety is that such love will be lost .
In the 1930s , David Levy noted a phenomenon he called " primary affect hunger " in children removed very early from their mothers and brought up in institutions and multiple foster homes . These children , though often pleasant on the surface , seemed indifferent underneath . He questioned whether there could be a " deficiency disease of the emotional life , comparable to a deficiency of vital nutritional elements within the developing organism " . A few psychiatrists , psychologists and paediatricians were also concerned by the high mortality rate in hospitals and institutions obsessed with sterility to the detriment of any human or nurturing contact with babies . One rare paediatrician went so far as to replace a sign saying " Wash your hands twice before entering this ward " with one saying " Do not enter this nursery without picking up a baby " .
In a series of studies published in the 1930s , psychologist Bill Goldfarb noted not only deficits in the ability to form relationships , but also in the IQ of institutionalised children as compared to a matched group in foster care . In another study conducted in the 1930s , Harold Skeels , noting the decline in IQ in young orphanage children , removed toddlers from a sterile orphanage and gave them to " feeble @-@ minded " institutionalised older girls to care for . The toddlers ' IQ rose dramatically . Skeels study was attacked for lack of scientific rigour though he achieved belated recognition decades later .
René Spitz , a psychoanalyst , undertook research in the 1930s and ' 40s on the effects of maternal deprivation and hospitalism . His investigation focused on infants who had experienced abrupt , long @-@ term separation from the familiar caregiver , as , for instance , when the mother was sent to prison . These studies and conclusions were thus different from the investigations of institutional rearing . Spitz adopted the term anaclitic depression to describe the child 's reaction of grief , anger , and apathy to partial emotional deprivation ( the loss of a loved object ) and proposed that when the love object is returned to the child within three to five months , recovery is prompt but after five months , they will show the symptoms of increasingly serious deterioration . He called this reaction to total deprivation " hospitalism " . He was also one of the first to undertake direct observation of infants . The conclusions were hotly disputed and there was no widespread acceptance .
During the years of World War II , evacuated and orphaned children were the subjects of studies that outlined their reactions to separation , including the ability to cope by forming relationships with other children . Some of this material remained unpublished until the post @-@ war period and only gradually contributed to understanding of young children 's reactions to loss .
Bowlby , who , unlike most psychoanalysts , had direct experience of working with deprived children through his work at the London Child Guidance Clinic , called for more investigation of children 's early lives in a paper published in 1940 . He proposed that two environmental factors were paramount in early childhood . The first was death of the mother , or prolonged separation from her . The second was the mother 's emotional attitude towards her child . This was followed by a study on forty – four juvenile thieves collected through the Clinic . There were many problematic parental behaviours in the samples but Bowlby was looking at one environmental factor that was easy to document , namely prolonged early separations of child and mother . Of the forty @-@ four thieves , fourteen fell into the category which Bowlby characterised as being of an " affectionless character " . Of these fourteen , twelve had suffered prolonged maternal separations as opposed to only two of the control group .
= = Maternal Care and Mental Health = =
Bowlby 's work on delinquent and affectionless children and the effects of hospital and institutional care lead to his being commissioned to write the World Health Organisation 's report on the mental health of homeless children in post @-@ war Europe whilst he was head of the Department for Children and Parents at the Tavistock Clinic in London after World War II . Bowlby travelled on the Continent and in America , communicating with social workers , paediatricians and child psychiatrists including those who had already published literature on the issue . These authors were mainly unaware of each other 's work , and Bowlby was able to draw together the findings and highlight the similarities described , despite the variety of methods used , ranging from direct observation to retrospective analysis to comparison groups . In addition , there was work from England undertaken by Dorothy Burlingham and Anna Freud on children separated from their families due to wartime disruption , and Bowlby 's own work . The result was the monograph Maternal Care and Mental Health published in 1951 , which sets out the maternal deprivation hypothesis . The WHO report was followed by the publication of an abridged version for public consumption called Child Care and the Growth of Love . This book sold over half a million copies worldwide . Bowlby tackled not only institutional and hospital care , but also policies of removing children from " unwed mothers " and untidy and physically neglected homes , and lack of support for families in difficulties . In a range of areas Bowlby cited the lack of adequate research and suggested the direction this could take .
= = Principal concepts of Bowlby 's theory = =
The quality of parental care was considered by Bowlby to be of vital importance to the child 's development and future mental health . It was believed to be essential that the infant and young child should experience a warm , intimate , and continuous relationship with his mother ( or permanent mother substitute ) in which both found satisfaction and enjoyment . Given this relationship , emotions of guilt and anxiety ( characteristics of mental illness when in excess ) would develop in an organised and moderate way . Naturally extreme emotions would be moderated and become amenable to the control of the child 's developing personality . He stated , " It is this complex rich and rewarding relationship with the mother in the early years , varied in countless ways by relations with the father and with siblings , that child psychiatrists and many others now believe to underlie the development of character and mental health . "
The state of affairs in which the child did not have this relationship he termed " maternal deprivation " . This term covered a range from almost complete deprivation , not uncommon in institutions , residential nurseries and hospitals , to partial deprivation where the mother , or mother substitute , was unable to give the loving care a small child needs , to mild deprivation where the child was removed from the mother 's care but was looked after by someone familiar whom he trusted . Complete or almost complete deprivation could " entirely cripple the capacity to make relationships " . Partial deprivation could result in acute anxiety , depression , neediness and powerful emotions which the child could not regulate . The end product of such psychic disturbance could be neurosis and instability of character . However , the main focus of the monograph was on the more extreme forms of deprivation . The focus was the child 's developing relationships with his mother and father and disturbed parent – child relationships in the context of almost complete deprivation rather than the earlier concept of the " broken home " as such .
In terms of social policy , Bowlby advised that parents should be supported by society as parents are dependent on a greater society for economic provision and " if a community values its children it must cherish its parents " . Also " husbandless " mothers of children under 3 should be supported to care for the child at home rather than the child be left in inadequate care whilst the mother sought work . ( It was assumed the mother of the illegitimate child would usually be left with the child ) . Fathers left with infants or small children on their hands without the mother should be provided with " housekeepers " so that the children could remain at home . Other proposals included the proper payment of foster homes and careful selection of foster carers , and frank , informative discussions with children about their parents and why they ended up in care and how they felt about it rather than the " least said , soonest mended " approach . The point that children were loyal to and loved even the worst of parents , and needed to have that fact understood non @-@ judgementally , was strongly made .
On the issue of removal of children from their homes , Bowlby emphasised the strength of the tie that children feel towards their parents and discussed the reason why , as he put it , " children thrive better in bad homes than in good institutions " . He was strongly in favour of support being provided to parents and extended families to improve the situation and provide care within the family rather than removal if possible .
= = " Maternal " = =
Bowlby used the phrase " mother ( or permanent mother substitute ) " . As it is commonly used , the term maternal deprivation is ambiguous as it is unclear whether the deprivation is that of the biological mother , of an adoptive or foster mother , a consistent caregiving adult of any gender or relationship to the child , of an emotional relationship , or of the experience of the type of care called " mothering " in many cultures . Questions about the exact meaning of this term are by no means new , as the following statement by Mary Ainsworth in 1962 indicates : " Although in the early months of life it is the mother who almost invariably interacts most with the child ... the role of other figures , especially the father , is acknowledged to be significant ... [ P ] aternal deprivation ... has received scant attention ... [ In the case of ] institutionalization ... the term ' parental deprivation ' would have been more accurate , for the child has been ... deprived of interaction with a father @-@ figure as well as a mother @-@ figure ... [ It may be better to ] discourage the use of [ the term ' deprivation ' ] and encourage the substitution of the terms ' insufficiency ' , ' discontinuity ' , and ' distortion ' instead . " Ainsworth implies , neither the word " maternal " nor the word " deprivation " seems to be a literally correct definition of the phenomenon under consideration .
A contemporary of Ainsworth spoke of " the mother , a term by which we mean both the child 's actual mother and / or any other person of either sex who may take the place of the child 's physical mother during a significant period of time " . However , another contemporary referred to " the quasi @-@ mystical union of mother and child , of the dynamic union that mother and child represent " .
= = Influence on institutionalised care = =
The practical effects of the publication of Maternal Care and Mental Health were described in the preface to the WHO 1962 publication Deprivation of Maternal Care : A Reassessment of its Effects as " almost wholly beneficial " with reference to widespread changes in the institutional care of children .
The practice of allowing parents frequent visiting to hospitalised children became the norm and there was a move towards placing homeless children with foster carers , rather than in institutions , and a move towards the professionalisation of alternative carers . In hospitals , the change was given added impetus by the work of social worker and psychoanalyst James Robertson who filmed the distressing effects of separation on children in hospital and collaborated with Bowlby in making the 1952 documentary film A Two @-@ Year Old Goes to the Hospital .
According to Michael Rutter , the importance of Bowlby 's initial writings on " maternal deprivation " lay in his emphasis that children 's experiences of interpersonal relationships were crucial to their psychological development and that the formation of an ongoing relationship with the child was as important a part of parenting as the provision of experiences , discipline and child care . Although this view was rejected by many at the time , the argument focussed attention on the need to consider parenting in terms of consistency of caregivers over time and parental sensitivity to children 's individuality and it is now generally accepted . Bowlby 's theory sparked considerable interest and controversy in the nature of early relationships and gave a strong impetus to what Mary Ainsworth described as a " great body of research " in what was perceived as an extremely difficult and complex area .
= = Psychoanalysis = =
Bowlby departed from psychoanalytical theory which saw the gratification of sensory needs as the basis for the relationship between infant and mother . Food was seen as the primary drive and the relationship , or " dependency " was secondary . He had already found himself in conflict with dominant Kleinian theories that children 's emotional problems are almost entirely due to fantasies generated from internal conflict between aggressive and libidinal drives , rather than to events in the external world . ( His breach with the psychoanalysts only became total and irreparable after his later development of attachment theory incorporating ethological and evolutionary principles , when he was effectively ostracised ) . Bowlby also broke with social learning theory 's view of dependency and reinforcement . Bowlby proposed instead that to thrive emotionally , children needed a close and continuous caregiving relationship .
Bowlby later stated that he had concluded that , contrary to the focus of psychoanalysts on the internal fantasy world of the child , the important area to study was how a child was actually treated by his parents in real life and in particular the interaction between them . He chose the actual removal of children from the home at this particular time because it was a specific event , the effects of which could be studied , and because he believed it could have serious effects on a child 's development and because it was preventable . In addition , views that he had already expressed about the importance of a child 's real life experiences and relationship with carers had been met by " sheer incredulity " by colleagues before World War II . This led him to see that far more systematic knowledge was required of the effects on a child of early experiences . Bowlby and his colleagues were pioneers of the view that studies involving direct observation of infants and children were not merely of interest but were essential to the advancement of science in this area .
= = Animal studies = =
Researchers have for years studied depression , alcoholism , aggression , maternal @-@ infant bonding and other conditions and phenomena in nonhuman primates and other laboratory animals using an experimental maternal deprivation paradigm . Most influentially , Harry Harlow would , in the mid @-@ 1950s , begin raising infant monkeys in his University of Wisconsin- Madison laboratory in total or partial isolation and with inanimate surrogate mothers in an attempt to study maternal @-@ infant bonding as well as various states of mental illness .
In Harlow ’ s laboratory , infant rhesus monkeys were immediately removed from their mothers and placed with cloth or wire surrogate mothers , sometimes called “ iron maidens ” by the researchers . Harlow found that the infants would become attached to their inanimate mothers – both those made of wire and those covered with cloth- and when removed from them they would “ screech in terror ” . Harlow and his colleagues would later develop “ evil artificial mothers ” meant to “ impart fear and insecurity to infant monkeys ” -including one designed with brass spikes- but contrary to the researcher ’ s hypothesis , these animals too demonstrated an attachment to their surrogates .
Subsequent experiments would study the effects of total and partial isolation on the animals ’ mental health and interpersonal bonding using a stainless steel vertical chamber designed by Harlow , named the “ pit of despair ” , which was found to produce “ profound and prolonged depression ” in monkeys . Similarly , Harlow found that extended isolation in bare wire cages left monkeys with “ profound behavioral abnormalities ” including “ self @-@ clutching and rocking ” and later “ apathy and indifference to external stimulation ” . Harlow likened this behavior to catatonic schizophrenia .
Later experiments were devised to test the mother @-@ child bond with mothers who had themselves been reared in isolation as infants . This early deprivation was found to have retarded the mothers ’ emotional development and her ability to engage in intercourse and in turn become pregnant . In response , Harlow and his colleagues created an apparatus to impregnate these mothers they named a “ rape rack ” . Harlow found that once these monkeys gave birth , they cared little for their offspring writing , “ these monkey mothers that had never experienced love of any kind were devoid of love for their infants ” . While some mothers simply ignored their children , Harlow characterized others as “ evil ” and abusive and in some instances reported them “ crushing the infant 's face to the floor , chewing off the infant 's feet and fingers , and in one case … putting the infant 's head in her mouth and crushing it like an eggshell . ”
Harlow ’ s experiments have been heralded as revolutionary and also robustly criticized as scientifically invalid and sadistically cruel . Writing on the researcher ’ s legacy , John Gluck , a former student of Harlow ’ s opined , “ On the one hand , his work on monkey cognition and social development fostered a view of the animals as having rich subjective lives filled with intention and emotion . On the other , he has been criticized for the conduct of research that seemed to ignore the ethical implantations of his own discoveries . "
Maternal deprivation experiments on nonhuman primates have continued into the 21st century and remain controversial . Stephen Suomi , an early collaborator of Harlow , has continued to conduct maternal deprivation experiments on rhesus monkeys in his NIH laboratory and has been vigorously criticized by PETA , Members of Congress and others .
= = Controversy , misinterpretation and criticism = =
Aside from his profound differences with psychoanalytic ideas , the theoretical basis of Bowlby 's monograph was controversial in a number of ways . Some profoundly disagreed with the necessity for maternal ( or equivalent ) love in order to function normally , or that the formation of an ongoing relationship with a child was an important part of parenting . The idea that early experiences have serious consequences for intellectual and psychosocial development was controversial in itself . Others questioned the extent to which his hypothesis was supported by the evidence . There was criticism of the confusion of the effects of privation ( no primary attachment figure ) and deprivation ( loss of the primary attachment figure ) and in particular , of the failure to distinguish between the effects of the lack of a primary attachment figure and the other forms of deprivation and understimulation that might affect children in institutions .
It was also pointed out that there was no explanation of how experiences subsumed under the broad heading of " maternal deprivation " could have effects on personality development of the kinds claimed . Bowlby explained in his 1988 work that the data were not at the time " accommodated by any theory then current and in the brief time of my employment by the World Health Organisation there was no possibility of developing a new one " . He then goes on to describe the subsequent development of attachment theory .
In addition to criticism , his ideas were often oversimplified , misrepresented , distorted or exaggerated for various purposes . This heightened the controversy . In 1962 , the WHO published Deprivation of Maternal Care : A Reassessment of its Effects to which Mary Ainsworth , Bowlby 's close colleague , contributed with his approval , to present the recent research and developments and to address misapprehensions .
Bowlby 's work was misinterpreted to mean that any separation from the natural mother , any experience of institutional care or a multiplicity of " mothers " necessarily resulted in severe emotional deprivation and sometimes , that all children undergoing such experiences would develop into " affectionless children " . As a consequence it was claimed that only 24 @-@ hour care by the same person ( the mother ) was good enough , day care and nurseries were not good enough and mothers should not go out to work . The WHO advised that day nurseries and creches could have a serious and permanent deleterious effect . Such strictures suited the policies of governments concerned about finding employment for returned and returning servicemen after World War II . In fact , although Bowlby was of the view that proper care could not be provided " by roster " , he was also of the view that babies should be accustomed to regular periods of care by another and that the key to alternative care for working mothers was that it should be regular and continuous . He addressed this point in a 1958 publication called Can I Leave My Baby ? . Ainsworth in the WHO 1962 publication also attempted to address this misapprehension by pointing out that the requirement for continuity of care did not imply an exclusive mother – child pair relationship .
Bowlby 's quotable remark , that children thrived better in bad homes than in good institutions , was often taken to extremes leading to reluctance on the part of Children 's Officers ( the equivalent of child care social workers ) to remove children from homes however neglectful and inadequate . In fact , although Bowlby mentioned briefly the issue of " partial deprivation " within the family , this was not fully investigated in his monograph as the main focus was on the risks of complete or almost complete deprivation .
Michael Rutter made a significant contribution to the controversial issue of Bowlby 's maternal deprivation hypothesis . His 1981 monograph and other papers ( Rutter 1972 ; Rutter 1979 ) comprise the definitive empirical evaluation and update of Bowlby 's early work on maternal deprivation . He amassed further evidence , addressed the many different underlying social and psychological mechanisms and showed that Bowlby was only partially right and often for the wrong reasons . Rutter highlighted the other forms of deprivation found in institutional care and the complexity of separation distress ; and suggested that anti @-@ social behaviour was not linked to maternal deprivation as such but to family discord . The importance of these refinements of the maternal deprivation hypothesis was to reposition it as a " vulnerability factor " rather than a causative agent , with a number of varied influences determining which path a child would take .
Rutter has more recently advised attention to the complexity of development and the roles of genetic as well as experiential factors , noting that separation is only one of many risk factors related to poor cognitive and emotional development .
= = = Fathers = = =
In accordance with the prevailing social realities of his time , namely the assumption that the daily care of infants and small children was undertaken by women and in particular , mothers , Bowlby referred primarily to mothers and " maternal " deprivation , although the words " parents " and " parental " are also used . Fathers are mentioned only in the context of the practical and emotional support they provide for the mother but the monograph contains no specific exploration of the father 's role . Nor is there any discussion as to whether the maternal role had , of necessity , to be filled by women as such . Bowlby 's work was misinterpreted by some to mean natural mothers only .
The 1962 WHO publication contains a chapter on the effect of " paternal deprivation " , there having by 1962 been some limited research on the issue which illustrated the importance of the father 's relationship with his children . The hope was expressed by Ainsworth that in the future there would be more such research and indeed her early research , which contributed significantly to attachment theory , covered infants relationships with all family members . It was also stated that in relation to institutional care , " parental deprivation " would have been more accurate , although Ainsworth preferred the terms " insufficiency " , " discontinuity " and " distortion " to either .
Michael Rutter in Maternal Deprivation Reassessed ( 1972 ) , described by New Society as a " classic in the field of child care " , argued that research showed that it did not matter which parent the child got on well with as long as he got on well with one of them , that both parents influence their child 's development and that which parent is more important varies with age , sex and temperamental development . He concluded , " For some aspects of development the same @-@ sexed parent seems to have a special role , for some the person who plays and talks most with the child and for others the person who feeds the child . The father , the mother , brother and sisters , friends , school @-@ teachers and others all affect development , but their influences and importance differ for different aspects of development . A less exclusive focus on the mother is required . Children also have fathers ! "
Within attachment theory , Bowlby , in Attachment and Loss , volume one of Attachment ( 1969 ) , makes it quite clear that infants become attached to carers who are sensitive and responsive in their social interactions with them and that this does not have to be the mother or indeed a female . As a matter of social reality mothers are more often the primary carers of children and therefore are more likely to be the primary attachment figure , but the process of attachment applies to any carer and infants develop a number of attachments according to who relates to them and the intensity of the engagement . However , attachment theory relates to the development of attachment behaviours and relationships after about 7 months of age and there are other theories and research relating to earlier carer – infant interactions .
Schaffer in Social Development ( 1996 ) suggests that the father – child relationship is primarily a cultural construction shaped by the requirements of each society . In societies where the care of infants has been assigned to boys rather than girls , no difference in nurturing capacity was found .
= = = Feminist criticism = = =
There were three broad criticisms aimed at the idea of maternal deprivation from feminist critics . The first was that Bowlby overstated his case . The studies on which he based his conclusions involved almost complete lack of maternal care and it was unwarranted to generalise from this view that any separation in the first three years of life would be damaging . Subsequent research showed good quality care for part of the day to be harmless . The idea of exclusive care or exclusive attachment to a preferred figure , rather than a hierarchy ( subsequently thought to be the case within developments of attachment theory ) had not been borne out by research and this view placed too high an emotional burden on the mother . Secondly , they criticised Bowlby 's historical perspective and saw his views as part of the idealisation of motherhood and family life after World War II . Certainly his hypothesis was used by governments to close down much needed residential nurseries although governments did not seem so keen to pay mothers to care for their children at home as advocated by Bowlby . Thirdly , feminists objected to the idea of anatomy as destiny and concepts of " naturalness " derived from ethnocentric observations . They argued that anthropology showed that it is normal for childcare to be shared by a stable group of adults of which maternal care is an important but not exclusive part .
= = Maternal deprivation today = =
Whilst Bowlby 's early writings on maternal deprivation may be seen as part of the background to the later development of attachment theory , there are many significant differences between the two . At the time of the 1951 publication , there was little research in this area and no comprehensive theory on the development of early relationships . Aside from its central proposition of the importance of an early , continuous and sensitive relationship , the monograph concentrates mostly on social policy . For his subsequent development of attachment theory , Bowlby drew on concepts from ethology , cybernetics , information processing , developmental psychology and psychoanalysis . The first early formal statements of attachment theory were presented in three papers in 1958 , 1959 and 1960 . His major work Attachment was published in three volumes between 1969 and 1980 . Attachment theory revolutionised thinking on the nature of early attachments and extensive research continues to be undertaken .
According to Zeanah , " ethological attachment theory , as outlined by John Bowlby ... 1969 to 1980 ... has provided one of the most important frameworks for understanding crucial risk and protective factors in social and emotional development in the first 3 years of life . Bowlby 's ( 1951 ) monograph , Maternal Care and Mental Health , reviewed the world literature on maternal deprivation and suggested that emotionally available caregiving was crucial for infant development and mental health . " Beyond that broad statement , which is now generally accepted , little remains of the underlying detail of Bowlby 's theory of maternal deprivation that has not been either discredited or superseded by attachment theory and other child development theories and research , except in the area of extreme deprivation .
The opening of East European orphanages in the early 1990s following the end of the Cold War provided substantial opportunities for research on attachment and other aspects of institutional rearing , however such research rarely mentions " maternal deprivation " other than in a historical context . Maternal deprivation as a discrete syndrome is a concept that is rarely used other than in connection with extreme deprivation and failure to thrive . Rather there is consideration of a range of different lacks and deficiencies in different forms of care , or lack of care , of which attachment is only one aspect , as well as consideration of constitutional and genetic factors in determining developmental outcome . Subsequent studies have however confirmed Bowlby 's concept of " cycles of disadvantage " although not all children from unhappy homes reproduce the deficiencies in their own experience . Rather , it is now conceptualised as a series of pathways through childhood and a number of varied influences will determine which path a particular child takes .
= = The maternal deprivation concept outside mainstream psychology = =
The idea that separation from the female caregiver has profound effects is one with considerable resonance outside the conventional study of child development . In United States law , the " tender years " doctrine was long applied when custody of infants and toddlers was preferentially given to mothers . Over the last decade or so , some decisions appear to have been derived from the " tender years " concept , but others involve the contrary assumption that a 2 @-@ year @-@ old is too young to have developed a relationship with either parent .
Concern with the harm of separation from the mother is characteristic of the belief systems behind some complementary and alternative ( CAM ) psychotherapies . Such belief systems are concerned not only with the effect of the young child 's separation from the care of the mother , but with an emotional attachment between mother and child which advocates of these systems believe to develop prenatally . Such attachment is said to lead to emotional trauma if the child is separated from the birth mother and adopted , even if this occurs on the day of birth and even if the adoptive family provides all possible love and care . These beliefs were at one time in existence among some legitimate psychologists of psychoanalytic background . Today , however , beliefs in prenatal communication between mothers and infants are largely confined to unconventional thinkers such as William Emerson .
Belief in prenatal fetal awareness , mental communication between mother and unborn child , and emotional attachment of child to mother as a prenatal phenomenon , are concepts that connect easily to the unfounded assumption that all adopted children suffer emotional disorders . These beliefs are also congruent with CAM psychotherapies such as attachment therapy ( not based on attachment theory ) , which purport to bring about age regression and to recapitulate early development to produce a better outcome .
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= Fijación Oral , Vol . 1 =
Fijación Oral , Vol . 1 ( English : Oral Fixation , Vol . 1 ) is the sixth studio album by Colombian recording artist Shakira . It was released on 3 June 2005 by Epic Records . After attaining international success in 2001 with her first English record , Laundry Service , Shakira wanted to release a fifth Spanish @-@ language project as its followup . In the vein of her earlier work , Fijación Oral , Vol . 1 is a Latin pop album . Shakira enlisted Rick Rubin as executive producer , also working with Gustavo Cerati , Lester Mendez , Luis F. Ochoa and Jose " Gocho " Torres .
At its release Fijación Oral , Vol . 1 received generally favorable reviews from music critics , who complimented Shakira 's evolution from her earlier work . The album debuted at number four on the US Billboard 200 , with first @-@ week sales of 157 @,@ 000 copies . It set a record as the highest debut for a full @-@ length Spanish @-@ language album in the country which still stands . Internationally , the album topped the charts in Argentina , Germany , Mexico and Spain . Fijación Oral , Vol . 1 was the Best Latin Rock / Alternative Album at the 2006 Grammy Awards , and the Album of the Year and the Best Female Pop Vocal Album at the Latin Grammy Awards . Fijación Oral , Vol . 1 became the highest selling Latin pop album of the decade in the United States and the second highest selling Latin album overall . As of May 2013 , over four million copies of the album were sold worldwide and it is one of the best @-@ selling Latin albums in the United States .
Four singles were released to promote the album . Although its lead single ( " La Tortura " ) was the only track to reach the US Billboard Hot 100 , the follow @-@ up singles " No " , " Día de Enero " and " Las de la Intuición " enjoyed moderate success on the Hot Latin Songs , Tropical Songs and Latin Pop Airplay charts . In November 2005 Shakira supplemented the album with her second English @-@ language record , Oral Fixation , Vol . 2 . The two were packaged together as a box set and released as Oral Fixation , Vol . 1 & 2 in January 2007 . The projects were promoted with the Oral Fixation Tour in 2006 and 2007 , which visited the Americas , Africa , Asia and Europe . A performance in Miami , Florida was filmed and released as a live album in November 2007 .
= = Background = =
After achieving international success in 2001 with her first English album , Laundry Service , Shakira released a Spanish @-@ language record as its followup ( her first since 1998 's Dónde Están los Ladrones ? ) . Having co @-@ written nearly sixty songs for the project , she decided to divide the release into two volumes and put herself " on the mission of selecting [ her ] favorite ones " to record . Fijación Oral , Vol . 1 contains all Spanish @-@ language songs and Oral Fixation , Vol . 2 features all English @-@ language tracks . Shakira initially said that the second volume would have a " completely new repertory of songs " , although the completed album included two English translations of songs from the first record . It was reissued in 2006 as an expanded version with an additional translated recording and her future international @-@ hit single , " Hips Don 't Lie " . When recording the albums , she worked with previous collaborators Lester Mendez and Luis Fernando Ochoa and new partners Gustavo Cerati and Jose " Gocho " Torres .
For the album , Shakira wrote all the lyrics , and the majority of the music . " To start seeing people 's first reactions , and how people start relating to these songs and appreciating every single piece of work I have done over the past two years , is the best reward an artist can have after so much hard work , " says Shakira . " I will not lie to you ; it was not a path of roses . It was painful at times to come up with two albums , to write more than 60 songs and to fight my own insecurities and doubts . " While speaking about the difference about expressing herself in Spanish and English , Shakira told , " When I express myself in Spanish , I find elements that help me express an idea in perhaps a different way than when I do it in English . There are different aesthetics , but there is a certain style to the way I write my own songs , a particular way of describing feelings and emotions that I have developed over all these years making songs . I have gotten in touch with my own gift - I am sure , 10 years ago , I was not half as good as I can say I am today , and I am still not good enough . There is a long way to go . "
= = Cover art and release = =
The artwork for both Oral Fixation albums was inspired by Eve , the first woman ; Shakira said she wanted " to attribute to Eve one more reason to bite the forbidden fruit , and that would be her oral fixation " and that " [ she always felt ] that [ she has ] been a very oral person . [ It is her ] biggest source of pleasure " . The first volume 's cover sees Shakira holding a baby girl in her arms ; the artwork for the second album shows a nude Shakira ( covered by tree branches ) , with the infant sitting in the tree . She stated that both covers alluded to psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud 's theory that infants begin discovering the world through their mouths during the oral stage of psychosexual development .
For Jon Pareles of The New York Times , " For obvious reasons , it 's eye @-@ catching , as was the cover of the Spanish @-@ language companion album , " Fijación Oral , Vol . 1 " . In the Middle East version of the album , Shakira was covered up with leaves . Complex magazine selected " Oral Fixation " album cover as the eleventh " sexiest album cover of all time " , writing that it is " the hottest portrayal of Eve in the Garden of Eden we can imagine . " Maxim also listed the album 's cover as one of the " sexiest album covers " , writing that , " A naked girl holding up an apple in a garden is played out , but not when the girl is hip @-@ shaking Shakira . Damn , it could happen all over again , couldn 't it ? . "
On January 23 , 2007 , Fijación Oral , Vol . 1 and Oral Fixation , Vol . 2 were released as a three @-@ disc box set , titled Oral Fixation , Vol . 1 & 2 . Each record was on a separate disc , and was packaged with a DVD featuring music videos and live recordings of album tracks . The compilation peaked at numbers 13 and 27 on the Billboard Latin Pop Albums and Top Latin Albums charts .
= = Composition = =
Fijación Oral , Vol . 1 is a Latin pop album . The introductory track , " En Tus Pupilas " ( " In Your Pupils " ) , incorporates folk music styles and its opening verse includes French @-@ language lyrics . " La Pared " ( " The Wall " ) has been compared stylistically to the 1980s duo Eurythmics . " La Tortura " ( " The Torture " ) features Spanish singer @-@ songwriter Alejandro Sanz , with elements of Colombian cumbia music , dancehall and electronica . " Obtener un Sí " ( " Obtain a Yes " ) is a bossa nova song with cha @-@ cha elements against an orchestral background . " Día Especial " ( " Special Day " ) features Argentinean singer @-@ songwriter Gustavo Cerati on guitar .
The sixth track , " Escondite Inglés " , has a new wave feel . " No " also features Cerati on guitar , using a simple melody to emphasize Shakira 's vocals . " Las de la Intuición " ( " The Ones with the Intuition " ) has synthpop elements , while " Día de Enero " ( " January Day " ) has been compared to Mexican singer @-@ songwriter Natalia Lafourcade . " Lo Imprescindible " ( " Bare Essentials " ) has German @-@ language verses in which Shakira lyrically expresses " Come baby come . Don 't ever leave me " . The disc concludes with an acoustic version of " La Pared " and the Shaketon remix of " La Tortura " .
= = Singles = =
" La Tortura " was released as the lead single from Fijación Oral , Vol . 1 on 12 April 2005 . It features Spanish singer @-@ songwriter Alejandro Sanz , and was praised for its production and reggaeton influence . " La Tortura " was the only single from the album to chart on the US Billboard Hot 100 ( peaking at number twenty @-@ three ) , and reached number one on the Billboard Hot Latin Songs , Tropical Songs , and Latin Pop Airplay charts . The song set a record for the most weeks at number one , and additionally became the best @-@ performing Latin single of the year . The track was eventually certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for shipments of 100 @,@ 000 copies . Internationally , " La Tortura " topped the Hungarian Rádiós Top 40 and the Spanish and Venezuelan singles charts . Its music video was directed by Michael Haussman , depicting a fictionally @-@ romantic Shakira and Sanz .
The follow @-@ up singles were also successful . The second single , " No " , features Argentinian singer @-@ songwriter Gustavo Cerati and reached numbers two and eleven , respectively , on the Billboard Latin Pop Songs and Latin Songs charts . The video was filmed in a black @-@ and @-@ white effect , and was directed by Jaume de Laiguana . After the release of " Don 't Bother " as the lead single from Oral Fixation , Vol . 2 in late 2005 , " Día de Enero " was the third single from Fijación Oral , Vol . 1 . It peaked at numbers seven and twenty @-@ nine on the Billboard Latin Pop Songs and Latin Songs charts , respectively . Like " No " , its accompanying video was directed by de Laiguana . The clip refers to Shakira 's then @-@ boyfriend Antonio de la Rúa as she writes the letters " S y A " in a heart drawn in the sand .
Following the release of " Hips Don 't Lie " and " Illegal " as the second and third singles from Oral Fixation , Vol . 2 , the fourth and final single from Fijación Oral , Vol . 1 , " Las De La Intuición " , reached numbers eleven and thirty @-@ one , respectively , on the Billboard Latin Pop Songs and Latin Songs charts and number 1 in Spain . Its video shows Shakira in a purple wig . Shakira later recorded an English @-@ language version of the song , titled " Pure Intuition " .
= = Promotion = =
To promote Fijación Oral , Vol . 1 and Oral Fixation , Vol . 2 , Shakira began her Oral Fixation Tour on 14 June 2006 at the Feria De Muestras in Zaragoza , Spain . With assistance from the Creative Artists Agency , she visited twenty @-@ seven cities and performed forty @-@ one shows across five continents . The tour was additionally sponsored by Spanish automobile manufacturer SEAT , with whom Shakira also collaborated to support her Pies Descalzos Foundation . The tour concluded on 9 July 2007 at the Turkcell Kuruçeşme Arena in Istanbul , Turkey . It grossed over $ 42 million in North and Latin America , and $ 100 million worldwide . The set list consisted primarily of Spanish @-@ language songs , and included singles from her earlier career .
In November 2007 Epic Records released the Oral Fixation Tour live album on Blu @-@ ray Disc , which was filmed during a December 2006 show in Miami , Florida . William Ruhlmann of AllMusic gave it a positive review , complimenting Shakira 's vocals and dancing talent .
= = Critical reception = =
At Metacritic ( which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics ) Fijación Oral , Vol . 1 received an average score of 79 based on 13 reviews , indicating " generally favorable reviews " . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic said that " it 's hard to wait for Oral Fixation , Vol . 2 to arrive " , given the strength of the " commercial savvy and smart writing " displayed in the first volume . Matt Cibula of PopMatters shared a similar sentiment , adding that his excitement about Oral Fixation , Vol . 2 is a " massive understatement " . Entertainment Weekly 's Ernesto Lechner felt that Shakira " has found herself again " by " placing her operatic vocalizing at the service of Spanish poetry " , adding that this was her strongest album to date .
The Guardian 's Dave Simpson noted that " the songs are catchy , with melodies good enough to tempt non @-@ Spanish speakers to sing along " . Jon Pareles of The New York Times described the album as " blissfully pan @-@ American " , elaborating that " for Shakira it 's all pop , taut structures for volatile passion " . Barry Walters of Rolling Stone said that executive producer Rick Rubin helped " restore Shakira 's artistic integrity by keeping the industry at bay " . Yahoo ! Music 's Tom Townsend praised Shakira for being " wide awake and , as they used to say in Smash Hits , back , back , BACK ! " Paste 's Mark Kemp gave it a mixed review , saying that the record was " stronger overall than Laundry Service but not as warm as Dónde Están los Ladrones ? "
= = Commercial performance = =
In North America , Fijación Oral , Vol . 1 debuted at number four on the US Billboard 200 , with first @-@ week sales of 157 @,@ 000 copies . It set a record for the highest debut of a full @-@ length Spanish @-@ language album in the country ( which it still holds ) , and topped the Billboard Top Latin Albums chart . According to Nielsen SoundScan , the album sold over 1 @,@ 012 @,@ 000 copies as of 2014 in the US . It was later certified platinum times eleven by Latin standards , with shipments of over 1 @,@ 100 @,@ 000 copies . In 2009 , Billboard named Fijación Oral , Vol . 1 as the best @-@ selling Latin pop album of the 2000s . In Mexico , the album debuted at number one , and was later certified triple platinum for shipments of 300 @,@ 000 copies . It was certified gold in Central America .
In South America , Fijación Oral , Vol . 1 peaked at number one in Argentina , and was eventually recognized with triple @-@ platinum certification . The album enjoyed similar success in Venezuela , selling over 34 @,@ 613 copies . Consequently , it was certified platinum in the country . Furthermore , the record sold over 100 @,@ 000 copies in Shakira 's native Colombia , and was later recognized with triple @-@ platinum certification . In Chile , it was certified platinum for shipping 15 @,@ 000 copies .
In Europe , Fijación Oral , Vol . 1 achieved similar success . It debuted at number two on the Austrian albums chart , where it was certified platinum for shipments of 30 @,@ 000 copies . The record peaked at numbers seven and fifteen , respectively , on the Belgian Walloon and Flanders album charts ; it was certified gold for shipments of 25 @,@ 000 copies . On the French albums chart the album reached number six , and was certified gold for shipments of 100 @,@ 000 copies . It topped the German Media Control Charts , receiving a platinum certification for shipments of 200 @,@ 000 copies . The record was certified gold in Greece for shipments of 10 @,@ 000 copies . On the Hungarian albums chart it reached number six , receiving a platinum certification for shipments of 20 @,@ 000 copies . The album peaked at number seven on the Dutch Top 40 . The record topped the Spanish albums chart , receiving triple @-@ platinum certification for shipments of 240 @,@ 000 copies . After peaking at number two on the Swiss Hitparade , the album was certified platinum for shipments of 40 @,@ 000 copies . As of May 2013 , the record has sold over four million copies worldwide .
= = Legacy = =
Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic said that releasing the Spanish @-@ language Fijación Oral , Vol . 1 after the success of the English @-@ language Laundry Service was a " sharp move " , complimenting the album for demonstrating that Shakira " can not only return to her roots , but expand upon them " . He described " La Tortura " as a " natural for American radio " , and felt that the parent album generated anticipation for the upcoming Oral Fixation , Vol . 2 . Writing for PopMatters , Matt Cibula praised the album for its musical departure from Laundry Service , applauding the integration of subtle samples across several songs as " great nods to the sounds of the 1980s " . Dave Simpson of The Guardian compared Shakira to a " Latin American Madonna " , describing her vocals as reminiscent of " Cher and Hazel O 'Connor , produced by Julio Iglesias " .
Jon Pareles of The New York Times found Shakira 's " smart or ambitious " image to be uncharacteristic of a sex symbol . He praised the versatility of her multilingual lyrics and her experimentation in a number of genres , citing the " multiplicity " in " the arrangements , in the mixed emotions of the lyrics , [ and ] in Shakira 's mercurial voice " . Writing for Paste , Mark Kemp complimented Shakira for dispelling notions she is " the Latin Britney , the female Ricky Martin [ and ] the pretty pop tart who sings in Spanish and sounds like Alanis " ; he compared the mix of musical elements in Fijación Oral , Vol . 1 to a Pop @-@ Tart with a " rich and nutritious filling " . Tom Townsend of Yahoo ! Music called her " the greatest pop star we have " , comparing her " consuming artistry " to that of Madonna and Prince . He credited the album for inspiring a revival of pop music , saying that the release proved that the genre " wasn 't dead , just sleeping " .
Shakira 's international success was solidified with Fijación Oral , Vol . 1 's strong commercial performance . After it debuted at number 4 on the US Billboard 200 and became the highest @-@ debuting full @-@ length Spanish album in the country , her label Epic Records called her " the biggest female crossover artist in the world " . The album remains her second @-@ highest @-@ charting release in the nation , behind Laundry Service 's peak position at number 3 . According to Billboard , it was the second best @-@ selling Latin album of the decade in the US after Barrio Fino by Daddy Yankee .
= = = Accolades = = =
At the 2005 Billboard Music Awards , Fijación Oral , Vol . 1 was the Latin Pop Album of the Year . At the 2005 Mexican Oye ! Awards , the album was the Pop Album of the Year by a Female Artist . At the 2005 Premios Shock awards ceremony , it received an award for " Album of the Year " . The album was the Best Latin Rock or Alternative Album at the 2006 Grammy Awards , and was Album of the Year , Best Engineered Album and the Best Female Pop Vocal Album at the Latin Grammy Awards of 2006 . That year , at the 13th Billboard Latin Music Awards , the album was the best Latin Pop Album by a Female . It was the Pop Album of the Year at the 18th Lo Nuestro Awards . Fijación Oral , Vol . 1 received an ALMA Award as Spanish Album of the Year . At the 2006 Groovevolt Music Awards , it was named Best Latin Album . At the Colombian Nuestra Tierra award ceremony , it was nominated Best Album of the Year which went to Fonseca for Corazón .
= = Track listing = =
Credits are adapted from the liner notes of Fijación Oral , Vol . 1 .
Notes
^ a signifies a co @-@ producer
^ b signifies an additional producer
= = Personnel = =
Credits are adapted from Allmusic .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
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= Italian cruiser Iride =
Iride was a torpedo cruiser of the Partenope class built for the Italian Regia Marina ( Royal Navy ) in the 1880s . Laid down in February 1889 at the Regio Cantiere di Castellammare di Stabia shipyard , she was launched in July 1890 and was commissioned in November 1892 . Her main armament were her six torpedo tubes , which were supported by a battery of ten small @-@ caliber guns . Iride spent most of her career in the main Italian fleet , where she was primarily occupied with training exercises . During the Italo @-@ Turkish War in September 1911 , she remained in Italian waters until late in the conflict ; she escorted a troop convoy to North Africa in April 1912 and bombarded Ottoman positions in June and July . Iride was eventually broken up for scrap in December 1920 .
= = Design = =
Iride was 73 @.@ 1 meters ( 239 ft 10 in ) long overall and had a beam of 8 @.@ 22 m ( 27 ft 0 in ) and an average draft of 3 @.@ 48 m ( 11 ft 5 in ) . She displaced 931 metric tons ( 916 long tons ; 1 @,@ 026 short tons ) normally . Her propulsion system consisted of a pair of horizontal triple @-@ expansion steam engines , each driving a single screw propeller , with steam supplied by four coal @-@ fired locomotive boilers . Specific figures for Iride 's engine performance have not survived , but the ships of her class had top speeds of 18 @.@ 1 to 20 @.@ 8 knots ( 33 @.@ 5 to 38 @.@ 5 km / h ; 20 @.@ 8 to 23 @.@ 9 mph ) at 3 @,@ 884 to 4 @,@ 422 indicated horsepower ( 2 @,@ 896 to 3 @,@ 297 kW ) . The ship had a cruising radius of about 1 @,@ 800 nautical miles ( 3 @,@ 300 km ; 2 @,@ 100 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . She had a crew of between 96 and 121 personnel .
Iride was armed with a main battery of one 120 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) / 40 gun and six 57 mm ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) / 43 guns mounted singly.α She was also equipped with three 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) / 20 guns in single mounts . Her primary offensive weapon was her six 450 mm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes . The ship was protected by an armored deck that was up to 1 @.@ 6 in ( 41 mm ) thick ; her conning tower was armored with the same thickness of steel plate .
= = Service history = =
Iride was laid down at the Regio Cantiere di Castellammare di Stabia ( Royal Dockyard in Castellammare di Stabia ) on 21 February 1889 , and was launched on 20 July 1890 . After fitting @-@ out work was completed , the ship was commissioned into the fleet on 1 November 1892 . Iride took part in the annual fleet exercises in 1893 in the " attacking squadron " , which also included six ironclads , her sister ship Euridice and the torpedo cruisers Goito and Monzambano . In 1895 , Iride was stationed in the 2nd Maritime Department , split between Taranto and Naples , along with most of the torpedo cruisers in the Italian fleet . These included her sister ships Partenope , Aretusa , Euridice , Urania , Minerva , and Caprera , the four Goito @-@ class cruisers , and Tripoli .
In 1904 – 05 , Iride was assigned to the Levant Station in the eastern Mediterranean . She took part in the 1907 fleet maneuvers that took place in September and October that year . At the start of the Italo @-@ Turkish War in September 1911 , Iride was stationed in Italy , alternating between the ports of La Spezia and Naples , along with her sister ships Urania and Caprera . By January 1912 , Iride had been stationed in Tripoli to support the garrison there against Ottoman forces . In early April , Iride , the torpedo cruiser Agordat , and six torpedo boats rendezvoused with a troop convoy carrying 10 @,@ 000 men to Zuwarah near the border with Tunisia . In June and July , Iride and the armored cruiser Carlo Alberto bombarded Turkish forces near Zuara . The Ottomans eventually agreed to surrender in October , ending the war .
Italy declared neutrality after the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , but by July 1915 , the Triple Entente had convinced the Italians to enter the war against the Central Powers with promises of territory acquisition in Italia irredenta . The Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy , which had been Italy 's primary rival for decades , was the primary opponent in the conflict . The Austro @-@ Hungarian battle fleet lay in its harbors directly across the narrow Adriatic Sea . Admiral Paolo Thaon di Revel , the Italian naval chief of staff , believed that the narrow waters and numerous islands of the Adriatic allowed Austro @-@ Hungarian submarines and minelayers to operate with a great degree of freedom . The threat from these underwater weapons to his capital ships was too serious for him to use the fleet in an active way . Instead , Revel decided to implement blockade at the relatively safer southern end of the Adriatic with the battle fleet , while smaller vessels , such as the MAS boats , conducted raids on Austro @-@ Hungarian ships and installations . As a result , Iride did not see action during the war . She was sold for scrap in December 1920 and was subsequently broken up for scrap .
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= Walter Krueger =
Walter Krueger ( 26 January 1881 – 20 August 1967 ) was an American soldier and general officer in the first half of the 20th century . He is best known for his command of the Sixth United States Army in the South West Pacific Area during World War II . He rose from the rank of private to general in the United States Army .
Born in Flatow , West Prussia , Krueger migrated to the United States as a boy . He enlisted for service in the Spanish – American War and served in Cuba , and then re @-@ enlisted for service in the Philippine – American War . He was commissioned as a second lieutenant in 1901 . In 1914 he was posted to the Pennsylvania Army National Guard . His regiment was mobilized on 23 June 1916 and served along the Mexican border . After the United States commenced hostilities with Germany in April 1917 , Krueger was assigned to the 84th Infantry Division as its Assistant Chief of Staff G @-@ 3 ( Operations ) , and then its chief of staff . In February 1918 , he was sent to Langres to attend the American Expeditionary Force General Staff School , and in October 1918 , he became Chief of Staff of the Tank Corps .
Between the wars , Krueger served in a number of command and staff positions , and attended the Naval War College at his own request . In 1941 , he assumed command of the Third Army , which he led in the Louisiana Maneuvers . He expected , in view of his age , to spend the war at home training troops , but in 1943 he was sent to General Douglas MacArthur 's Southwest Pacific Area as commander of the Sixth Army and Alamo Force , which he led in a series of victorious campaigns against the Japanese . As an army commander , Krueger had to grapple with the problems imposed by vast distances , inhospitable terrain , unfavorable climate , and an indefatigable and dangerous enemy . He had to balance MacArthur 's need to speed up the tempo of operations in order to win campaigns with the more cautious approach of subordinates who often found themselves confronted by unexpectedly large numbers of Japanese troops . In the Battle of Luzon in 1945 , his largest , longest and last battle , he was finally able to maneuver his army as he had in 1941 against a Japanese army under Tomoyuki Yamashita .
Krueger retired to San Antonio , Texas , where he bought a house and wrote From Down Under to Nippon , an account of his campaigns in the Southwest Pacific . His retirement was marred by family tragedies . His son James was dismissed from the Army in 1947 for conduct unbecoming an officer and a gentleman . His wife 's health deteriorated , and she died of cancer in 1956 . His daughter Dorothy stabbed her husband to death in 1952 . She was sentenced to life imprisonment by a court @-@ martial , but was freed by the Supreme Court in 1957 .
= = Education and early life = =
Walter Krueger was born in Flatow , West Prussia , then part of the German Empire , but now part of Poland . He was the son of Julius Krüger , a Prussian landowner who had served as an officer in the Franco @-@ Prussian War , and his wife , Anna , formerly Hasse . Following Julius 's death , Anna and her three children emigrated to the United States to be near her uncle in St. Louis , Missouri . Walter was then eight years old . In St. Louis , Anna married Emil Carl Schmidt , a Lutheran minister . The family subsequently settled in Madison , Indiana . Krueger was educated at the Upper Seminary School in Madison , and the Cincinnati Technical High School in Cincinnati , Ohio . As a teenager , he wanted to become a naval officer , but when his mother objected he decided to become a blacksmith instead .
= = Early military service = =
On 17 June 1898 , Krueger , along with many of his fellow high @-@ school students , enlisted for service in the Spanish – American War with the 2nd Volunteer Infantry . He reached Santiago de Cuba a few weeks after the Battle of San Juan Hill , and spent eight months there on occupation duties , rising to the rank of sergeant . Mustered out of the volunteers in February 1899 , he returned home to Ohio , planning to become a civil engineer .
However , many of his comrades were re @-@ enlisting for service in the Philippine – American War and in June 1899 Krueger re @-@ enlisted as a private in M Company of the 12th Infantry . Soon he was on his way to fight Emilio Aguinaldo 's Insurrectos as part of Major General Arthur MacArthur , Jr . ' s 2nd Infantry Division . He took part in the advance from Angeles City to Tarlac City , Aguinaldo 's capital . But Aguinaldo had fled , and the 12th Infantry pursued him vainly all the way through Luzon 's central plain to Dagupan City . While serving in an infantry unit in the Philippines , he was promoted to sergeant . On 1 July 1901 , he was commissioned a second lieutenant and posted to the 30th Infantry on Marinduque .
Krueger returned to the United States with the 30th Infantry in December 1903 . The regiment moved to Fort Crook , Nebraska . In September 1904 , he married Grace Aileen Norvell , whom he had met in the Philippines . They had three children : James Norvell , born on 29 July 1905 ; Walter Jr . , born on 25 April 1910 ; and Dorothy Jane , who was born on 24 January 1913 . Both James and Walter Jr. attended the United States Military Academy , James graduating with the class of 1926 , and Walter Jr. with the class of 1931 . Dorothy married an Army officer , Aubrey D. Smith , of the class of 1930 .
In 1904 , Krueger attended and graduated from the Infantry @-@ Cavalry School at Fort Leavenworth , Kansas . This was followed by the Command and General Staff College in 1907 . He then joined the 23rd Infantry at Fort Ontario , New York . After a second tour in the Philippines , he returned to the United States in June 1909 , and was assigned to Department of Languages at Fort Leavenworth as an instructor in Spanish , French and German , which he could speak fluently . He also taught National Guard officers at Camp Benjamin Harrison , Indiana , and Pine Camp , New York . He published translations of several German military texts , most notably William Balck 's Tactics . The book attracted the attention of the Chief of Staff of the United States Army , Major General Leonard Wood , and was widely read .
= = World War I = =
With the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , Krueger was offered a post as an observer with the German Army but was forced to turn it down due to familial commitments . Instead , he was posted to the 10th Infantry of the Pennsylvania Army National Guard . The regiment was mobilized on 23 June 1916 and served along the Mexican border for five months as part of the Mexican Punitive Expedition under Major General John J. Pershing , although no National Guard units fought Mexican troops . The unit was mustered out in October 1916 . Afterwards , Krueger remained with the National Guard . He trained units , and helped establish a school for officers at the University of Pennsylvania . In an article in the Infantry Journal , he called for a large , national , conscript army similar to those of European countries , arguing that this would be in accord with America 's democratic values .
After the United States commenced hostilities against Germany in April 1917 , Krueger was assigned to the 84th Infantry Division at Camp Zachary Taylor as its Assistant Chief of Staff G @-@ 3 ( Operations ) . He became its chief of staff , with the rank of major as of 5 August 1917 . In February 1918 , he was sent to Langres , France , to attend the American Expeditionary Force General Staff School . All officers from divisions that were not under orders for France were ordered to return home in May 1918 , but Krueger stayed on as G @-@ 3 of the 26th Infantry Division . The French Army requested that Krueger be sent home due to his German origin , and Krueger was re @-@ posted to the 84th Division , but he soon returned to France , as the 84th Division embarked for France in August 1918 . In October , he became Chief of Staff of the Tank Corps . After the Armistice with Germany ended the fighting in November 1918 , he became assistant chief of staff of VI and IV Corps on occupation duty , advancing to the rank of temporary colonel . For his service in the war , he was awarded the Distinguished Service Medal in 1919 .
= = Interwar years = =
With the end of the war , Krueger returned to the United States on 22 June 1919 and was initially posted to the Infantry School at Fort Benning , Georgia . In 1920 , he assumed command of the 55th Infantry Regiment at Camp Funston , Kansas . He reverted to his permanent rank of captain on 30 June 1920 but was promoted to the permanent rank of major the next day . He attended the Army War College , graduating in 1921 , and remaining for a year as an instructor , where he taught such classes as the " Art of Command " . He paid a four @-@ month visit to Germany in 1922 as part of the War College 's Historical Section , during which he examined documents related to World War I in the German War Archives . These informed his lectures on the war , and he argued that much of the German Army 's effectiveness was attributable to its system of decentralized command . Krueger urged that American commanders in the field should be given wider latitude in carrying out their orders .
From 1922 to 1925 , Krueger served in the War Plans Division of the War Department General Staff in Washington , DC . Krueger worked on the United States color @-@ coded war plans , particularly War Plan Green , for another war with Mexico , and War Plan Blue , for another civil war in the United States . He traveled to the Panama Canal Zone in January 1923 to report on the state of the defenses there . After he returned , he was assigned to the Joint Army and Navy Planning Committee , an organ of the Joint Army and Navy Board responsible for coordinating war plans between the two services . While with the Joint Planning Committee , he worked on War Plan Orange , the plan for a war with Japan , and War Plan Tan , for a war with Cuba . Krueger considered the problems of inter @-@ service cooperation . At his own request , he attended the Naval War College at Newport , Rhode Island , in 1925 and 1926 . He continued to ruminate on the nature of command . " Doctrine " , he wrote , " knits all the parts of the military force together in intellectual bonds . "
Krueger came to feel that the prospects for promotion in the infantry were very poor , and in 1927 he tried to transfer to the United States Army Air Corps . He attended the Air Corps Primary Flying School at Brooks Field , Texas , but suffered an attack of neuritis in his right arm , and his flight instructor , Lieutenant Claire Lee Chennault , failed him . In December 1927 , he was offered a position as an instructor at the Naval War College , where he taught classes on World War I , and on joint operations .
In June 1932 , Krueger became commander of the 6th Infantry Regiment at Jefferson Barracks , Missouri , where he was promoted to colonel again on 1 August 1932 . Now aged 51 , he became resigned to retiring as a colonel , but in 1934 he returned to the War Plans Division , becoming chief of the division in May 1936 , and was promoted to temporary brigadier general in October 1936 . In September 1938 , Krueger went to Fort George G. Meade , Maryland , as commander of the 16th Infantry Brigade . He was promoted to temporary major general in February 1939 , when he became commander of the 2nd Infantry Division at Fort Sam Houston , Texas . The 2nd Infantry Division was at the time being used as a test of the US Army 's new triangular division concept . As a result , Krueger made a series of suggestions as to how the organization could be improved . He became interested in the possibilities of mechanization and fast @-@ paced modern warfare , which were tested in maneuvers with his division . His troops called themselves the " Blitzkruegers " .
= = World War II = =
= = = Training in the United States = = =
Krueger became commander of IX Corps on 31 January 1940 . This corps was created to control units of the Third Army engaged in large scale maneuvers in 1940 , in which Krueger 's IX Corps conducted a series of mock battles against Walter Short 's IV Corps . On 27 June , Krueger became commander of the VIII Corps . On 16 May 1941 , he was promoted to lieutenant general , in command of the Third Army . He also became commander of the Southern Defense Command on 16 July 1941 . Krueger asked for — and got — Colonel Dwight D. Eisenhower assigned to him as his chief of staff .
The Louisiana Maneuvers pitted Krueger 's Third Army against Lieutenant General Ben Lear 's Second Army . The maneuvers were a test ground for doctrine and equipment , and gave senior commanders experience in maneuvering their formations . In the first phase , Krueger quickly proved himself to be the more modern general . He responded adroitly to a changed battle situation by re @-@ orienting his front from northeast to northwest , and was able to inflict a series of reverses on Lear 's forces . In the second phase , Krueger had a superior force , and had to advance on Shreveport , Louisiana . Lear 's forces conducted a stubborn withdrawal , demolishing bridges in order to slow Krueger down . Krueger responded by sending Major General George S. Patton , Jr . ' s 2nd Armored Division on a wide flanking maneuver through Texas . Afterwards , Eisenhower became the head of the War Plans Division , and was replaced by Colonel Alfred M. Gruenther . After he too was transferred , Krueger replaced him with Colonel George B. Honnen .
Krueger wrote to a friend that
There 's nothing that I should like better than to have a command at the front . I should love to try to " rommel " Rommel . However , I am sure that younger men will be selected for tasks of that nature , in fact for all combat commands . I shall be 62 this coming January [ 1943 ] , and though I am in perfect health , can stand a lot of hardship and people tell me I look and act ten years younger , I do not delude myself .
= = = Sixth Army = = =
It therefore came as a surprise when Krueger was informed that a theater commander had requested his services . General Douglas MacArthur , the Supreme Commander of the Southwest Pacific Area ( SWPA ) , said that he was " especially anxious to have Krueger due to my long and intimate association with him " . This too came as a surprise to Krueger ; while the two men had known each other for forty years , and Krueger had been chief of the War Plans Division when MacArthur was Chief of Staff , the two had never been close .
The War Department approved Krueger 's transfer to SWPA , but did not approve MacArthur 's request for Third Army headquarters . There were only three American divisions in SWPA : the 32nd Infantry Division at Rockhampton , Queensland , the 41st Infantry Division in the Buna area in Papua , and the 1st Marine Division in Melbourne , Victoria . The 1st Cavalry Division and the 24th Infantry Division were scheduled to arrive in 1943 , and other divisions would follow in 1944 , but for the time being there were much fewer troops than an army would normally control . The War Department therefore saw no need for a full strength army headquarters . Instead , Krueger had to make do with him a skeleton staff of a new Sixth Army , which was activated in January 1943 , with less than half the establishment strength of an army headquarters .
Krueger took with him several key members of the Third Army staff , including Brigadier General George Honnen as Chief of Staff , Colonel George H. Decker as Deputy Chief of Staff , Colonel George S. Price as Assistant Chief of Staff , G @-@ 1 ( Personnel ) , Colonel Horton V. White as Assistant Chief of Staff , G @-@ 2 ( Intelligence ) , Clyde Eddleman as Assistant Chief of Staff , G @-@ 3 ( Operations ) and Colonel Kenneth Pierce as Assistant Chief of Staff , G @-@ 4 ( Supply ) . Honnen had health problems , and spent much of April , May and June 1943 in hospital before being ordered home on 18 June . He was replaced by Brigadier General Edwin D. Patrick , who had served on the staff of Admiral William F. Halsey in the South Pacific Area . Patrick did not get along smoothly with Krueger or the rest of the Sixth Army staff , and in May 1944 Patrick was appointed to command the 158th Regimental Combat Team , and Decker became chief of staff .
Command in the Southwest Pacific Area was complicated . Instead of operations being conducted by the Sixth Army , its headquarters was used for what became Alamo Force . As a task force , Alamo Force came directly under MacArthur , rather than under the Allied Land Forces . Krueger noted that " the inherent difficulties faced by my dual headquarters in planning and administration were aggravated by the command setup , which was a novel one to say the least . " Because Alamo Force was a purely operational entity , administration was handled by the United States Army Forces in the Far East . Although there was only one army staff , Alamo Force was in New Guinea while the main body of Sixth Army headquarters was in Brisbane until February 1944 , when the two were finally brought together . They still had a dual role as Alamo Force and Sixth Army until September , when Alamo Force was discontinued and the Sixth Army became directly responsible for operations .
= = = Bismarck Archipelago = = =
The geographical , engineering and logistical difficulties of conducting operations in SWPA were driven home by Alamo Force 's first operation , Operation Chronicle , the occupation of Woodlark and Kiriwina Islands in June 1943 . Despite the fact that the operation was unopposed by the Japanese , it was subject to delays . Krueger visited Kiriwina , where road work and airbase development were held up by heavy rains , on 11 July . He was dissatisfied with the rate of progress and relieved the task force commander . The arrival of additional engineers sped up the base development effort , and No. 79 Squadron RAAF commenced operations from Kiriwina on 18 August .
He was also concerned by reports of the invasion of Kiska in the Aleutian Islands in August 1943 , in which a large Allied force invaded an island that had already been evacuated by the Japanese . If this could happen , it was also possible that a force might attack where the Japanese were unexpectedly strong . Different levels of command sometimes came up with widely varying estimates of Japanese strength because they used different methods to estimate it .
An attempt to obtain information for Operation Dexterity , the attack on New Britain , with a joint Army @-@ Navy reconnaissance team raised issues of inter @-@ service cooperation . The Navy was mainly interested in gathering hydrographic data rather than information on the state of the Japanese defenders . Because of a breakdown in communications , the PT boat that was supposed to collect the team was unable to rendezvous with it , and the team had to spend eleven more days on the island . Finally , the Navy tried to prevent the Army commander from briefing Alamo Force headquarters on what had occurred .
Krueger decided that he needed to have his own strategic reconnaissance capability . In November 1943 , he formed the Alamo Scouts as a special unit for reconnaissance and raiding . An Alamo Scout Training Center for volunteers was established on Fergusson Island , not far from Alamo Force 's headquarters on Goodenough Island , under the command of Colonel Frederick W. Bradshaw , whom Krueger had first encountered during the Louisiana maneuvers . The top graduates of the six @-@ week training course were assigned to the Alamo Scouts ; the other graduates were returned to their units where they could be used for similar work . By the end of the war , Alamo Scouts teams had conducted 106 missions .
In what became a standard procedure in SWPA , MacArthur 's General Headquarters ( GHQ ) nominated the objectives , set the target date , and allocated the troops to the operation , leaving Alamo Force to work out the details . MacArthur was not inflexible , however , and allowed Krueger to alter the staging areas , and postpone the operation by a month . Krueger 's concerns about the possibility of high casualties in securing the Gasmata area , and doubts as to whether the area was suitable for airbase development , led to it being dropped as a target . Arawe was substituted , and the size of the whole operation was scaled back . Krueger hoped to observe the 1st Marine Division 's landing at Cape Gloucester in December 1943 , but was unable to do so until the planning for the January 1944 landing at Saidor was complete . He crossed the Dampier Strait in a PT boat in stormy weather . PBY Catalinas sent to bring him back were unable to land , and he had to return on the destroyer USS Mullany .
Krueger accepted reports of a Japanese counterattack at Saidor , and sent reinforcements in response , but the attack did not eventuate . Because the 32nd Infantry Division was required for the upcoming Hansa Bay operation , he was initially reluctant to authorize it to block the trails behind the American beachhead . When he finally did so , it was too late . The retreating Japanese made good their escape , thereby defeating the whole purpose of the operation . The next operation , the Admiralty Islands campaign in February 1944 , played out differently . Based on Fifth Air Force reports that the islands were unoccupied , MacArthur accelerated his timetable and ordered an immediate reconnaissance in force of the islands . Krueger sent in the Alamo Scouts , who confirmed that the islands were still well @-@ defended .
Krueger did what he could to accelerate the movement of units of Major General Innis P. Swift 's 1st Cavalry Division to the Admiralty Islands in response to urgent pleas from Brigadier General William C. Chase , who managed to defeat the numerically superior Japanese forces . Krueger was unimpressed with Chase . " His task " , Krueger wrote to Swift , " was undoubtedly a difficult one , but did not , in my judgment , warrant the nervousness apparent in some of his despatches . This , and his failure to obey repeated positive orders to furnish detailed information of his situation and his losses , his closing his radio station during long periods , and his evident ignorance that reinforcements could not reach him by the times he demanded , were not calculated to inspire confidence . "
= = = New Guinea Campaign = = =
Over the next few months , the tempo of operations increased , forcing the Sixth Army to plan and execute multiple operations simultaneously . Operations Reckless and Persecution in April 1944 together comprised the largest operation yet in SWPA , with the 24th and 41st Infantry Divisions of Lieutenant General Robert L. Eichelberger 's I Corps landing at Tanahmerah and Humboldt bays near Hollandia , while the 163rd Regimental Combat Team landed at Aitape . Eichelberger was Krueger 's most senior subordinate , but when he did not meet Krueger 's expectation , Krueger let him know in no uncertain terms . " In my more than 40 years as an officer " , Krueger told one of his staff , " I have never raised my voice to an enlisted man , but a corps commander should know better . "
Krueger visited the beachhead with MacArthur and Eichelberger on the first day . After inspecting the beachhead , they went to the USS Nashville for ice cream sodas , whereupon MacArthur suggested , in view of the victory at Hollandia , they could accelerate the campaign timetable by moving on to Wakde @-@ Sarmi immediately . Krueger was willing to consider the idea , although he had already ordered the troops designated for Wakde @-@ Sarmi , the 32nd Infantry Division , to reinforce the position at Aitape , where he expected a major Japanese counterattack . Eichelberger was vehemently opposed , and the matter was dropped .
Krueger moved his headquarters to Hollandia in May 1944 . The swampy area with its restricted anchorages proved unsuitable for a major airbase complex , although fighter strips were constructed , and it was developed as a staging area . MacArthur was compelled to press on with the Wakde @-@ Sarmi project lest his troops become stranded without adequate air cover . A shortage of shipping meant that the operation had to be carried out by the troops in the Hollandia area , so Krueger nominated the 163rd Regimental Combat Team for Wakde , while the rest of the 41st Infantry Division captured Sarmi . However , with only days to go , doubts surfaced about the viability of construction in the Sarmi area , and Biak was substituted . In view of the difficulties involved in changing plans , and moving the troops around , MacArthur agreed to postpone both operations , Wakde until 17 May and Biak to 27 May .
As a result , Alamo Force became involved in desperate fighting on three different fronts simultaneously . The landing at Wakde was opposed by nearly twice as many Japanese troops than had been expected . When Krueger discovered that the Japanese were massing for an assault on the American position , he ordered a pre @-@ emptive attack . " Krueger " , wrote Edward Drea , " was too good a soldier to stand pat and wait for a Japanese attack . " Official historian Robert Ross Smith noted that " This decision , based upon the scanty , incomplete information concerning Japanese strength and dispositions available to General Krueger at the time , was destined to precipitate a protracted and bitter fight . " However , even if Krueger had known the true size of the Japanese force , he might still , under the circumstances , have taken the same approach .
The estimates of the number of Japanese troops on Biak were out by a similar margin , resulting in heavy casualties . In the Battle of Biak , stubborn Japanese resistance halted the 41st Infantry Division , and forced its commander , Major General Horace H. Fuller , to appeal to Krueger for reinforcements . In response , Krueger sent the 163rd Regimental Combat Team from Wakde . MacArthur soon grew impatient , as he needed the airstrips on Biak to support Admiral Chester Nimitz 's Invasion of Saipan . Nimitz 's operation ultimately drew Japanese attention away from Biak . MacArthur put pressure on Krueger for results , and Krueger in turn put pressure on Fuller . Krueger decided that Fuller had too many responsibilities as both task force commander and division commander , and decided to supersede him by sending Eichelberger to take over the task force . Fuller then submitted his resignation . Eichelberger 's chief of staff , Brigadier General Clovis Byers , offered to have Decker intercept and destroy the resignation before Krueger saw it , but Fuller decided against this . The battle raged for nearly a month . Afterwards , Krueger demanded an explanation from Eichelberger as to why he had allowed Fuller to quit .
Meanwhile , Japanese forces under Lieutenant General Hatazō Adachi attacked Alamo Force 's position at Aitape in the Battle of Driniumor River . Krueger called for an energetic defense , but the cautious commander of XI Corps , Major General Charles P. Hall , retained nine battalions around the airbase at Tadji . This left Brigadier General Clarence A. Martin without the resources to implement Krueger 's strategy , and he conducted a fighting withdrawal instead . Krueger travelled to Aitape where Hall presented him a counterattack plan , which he approved . By August , the fighting had ended and Adachi had been defeated .
= = = Philippines Campaign = = =
MacArthur accelerated his timetable yet again in September 1944 , and brought forward the planned invasion of Leyte to October 1944 . That this was the worst time of the year for campaigning on Leyte was not overlooked . Typhoons and heavy rains hampered the efforts to construct and rehabilitate airbases , and without them , large numbers of aircraft could not operate from Leyte . This meant not only that few air strikes could be flown in support of the Sixth Army , but that the Allied Air Forces could not prevent the Japanese from reinforcing Leyte . An additional five Japanese divisions and two mixed brigades were sent to Leyte , and the battle became one of grinding attrition . Able to view his troops in action more often than hitherto , Krueger found much to criticize . He noted that tanks were employed poorly , that the infantry were not aggressive enough , and saw poor sanitation and meals as a sign that officers were not taking adequate care of their men . Krueger 's generalship has also been questioned , with Ronald Spector criticizing " Krueger 's disastrous decision to delay the push into the mountains west of Carigara in favor of beach defense . " Krueger based his cautious appreciation of the situation on various intelligence sources rather than relying solely on Ultra .
In January 1945 , the Sixth Army embarked on its largest , longest and last campaign , the invasion of Luzon . Krueger intended to make " maximum utilization of America 's materiel and industrial superiority " . Once again , intelligence estimates of Japanese strength were questionable . MacArthur 's intelligence officer , Brigadier General Charles A. Willoughby , basing his estimates on Ultra , believed that there were about 172 @,@ 000 Japanese troops on Luzon . Krueger 's intelligence officer , Colonel Horton V. White , reckoned that there were 234 @,@ 000 . MacArthur did not believe there were anywhere near that number . In fact , General Tomoyuki Yamashita had 287 @,@ 000 troops on Luzon . For the first time since Louisiana in 1941 , Krueger was able to maneuver his army as a single body instead of having elements employed on multiple battles on scattered islands . He regarded Yamashita 's employment of armor as poor . Instead of using the 2nd Armored Division for a decisive counterattack against the vulnerable flank , Yamashita frittered away its strength in piecemeal efforts .
As the campaign unfolded , Krueger was pressured by MacArthur to capture Manila . He sent messages reporting what he saw was a lack of drive among the troops , and even moved his theater headquarters forward of Krueger 's . MacArthur tried to exploit Krueger 's rivalry with Eichelberger by allowing the latter 's Eighth Army to conduct its own drive on Manila from the south . Krueger eventually sent a flying column from the 1st Cavalry Division , but MacArthur 's expectation that the Japanese would not defend Manila was proven incorrect . Weeks of ferocious fighting were required to capture the city .
Krueger was promoted to general on 5 March 1945 . MacArthur recommended Krueger for the rank , even as he clashed with him over the drive on Manila , and rated Krueger 's generalship higher than that of Patton or Omar Bradley . Krueger 's campaign on Luzon continued until 30 June 1945 , when he handed over responsibility to Eichelberger in order to prepare for Operation Olympic , the invasion of Kyushu .
This proved unnecessary when Japan surrendered , and in September 1945 the Sixth Army took up occupation duty in Japan . Krueger established his headquarters in Kyoto , and assumed responsibility for Kyushu , Shikoku and southern Honshu . The Sixth Army remained in Japan until it handed over its occupation responsibilities to the Eighth Army on 31 December 1945 . It was deactivated on 25 January 1946 , and Krueger retired in July . For his service as commander of the Sixth Army in World War II , Krueger was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross , an oak leaf cluster to his Distinguished Service Medal , and the Navy Distinguished Service Medal . He was awarded a second oak leaf cluster to his Distinguished Service Medal for his part in the Occupation of Japan .
= = Later life = =
Krueger retired to San Antonio , Texas , where , in February 1946 , he bought a house for the first time . Because of a large income tax bill left over from the war , he was unable to buy it outright and so some of his friends established the Krueger Fund Committee , which paid for much of the house . In retirement , Krueger was involved in a number of charity and community organizations , including the United Service Organization , the Red Cross , and the National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis , and he served as director of civil defense for San Antonio and Bexar County .
Colonel Horton White , Krueger 's former intelligence officer , approached him with an offer from George Edward Brett of Macmillan to publish his memoirs . Krueger did not wish to write an autobiography , which he felt was " invariably apt to be an apologia " , but was willing to write up an account of the Sixth Army 's exploits . He commenced work in 1947 , but the project proceeded slowly . The result was From Down Under to Nippon : The Story of the 6th Army In World War II , which was published in 1953 . Historians were disappointed with the book , as it recounted what was known from the Sixth Army 's reports , but provided little insight into the reasons why operations were conducted the way they were . Krueger kept in contact with his wartime colleagues . He was proud of the subsequent accomplishments of members of his wartime staff , and traveled to New York each year to celebrate MacArthur 's birthday with MacArthur and other former senior commanders of the Southwest Pacific Area . He lectured at Army Schools and civic organizations , offering opinions on subjects such as the value of training , the benefit of universal military service , and the need for a unified defense establishment .
Krueger 's retirement was marred by family tragedies . His son James was dismissed from the Army in 1947 for conduct unbecoming an officer and a gentleman after a drunken incident . Grace 's health deteriorated , and she suffered from heart disease and high blood pressure . She was diagnosed with cancer in 1955 , and died on 13 May 1956 . Most dramatically , on 3 October 1952 , a lonely and depressed Dorothy fatally stabbed her husband , Colonel Aubrey D. Smith , with a hunting knife while he slept in their Army quarters in Japan . Dorothy , who felt that her husband now regarded her no more than " a clinging handicap to his professional career " , had turned to alcohol and drugs .
By six votes to three , a U.S. Army court @-@ martial found Dorothy Krueger guilty of first @-@ degree murder and sentenced her " to be confined at hard labor for the rest of her natural life " . A unanimous verdict of guilty would have made the death sentence mandatory . She was flown back to the United States in a Military Air Transport Service plane and was imprisoned at the Federal Prison Camp , Alderson , in West Virginia . The United States Court of Military Appeals rejected an appeal filed by Krueger 's lawyers that argued that Dorothy was not sane at the time of the incident , and that the testimony that the court @-@ martial had heard to the contrary was military rather than medical .
However , in 1955 , in a similar case involving another woman , Mrs. Clarice B. Covert , who had killed her husband in England with an axe , Federal District Court Judge Edward A. Tamm ruled that civilians who accompany military forces overseas could not be imprisoned by military courts . The two cases , Kinsella v. Krueger and Reid v. Covert , went to the US Supreme Court , which affirmed that military trials of civilians were indeed constitutional , only to reverse itself a year later in a review of the decisions . Dorothy was released , and went to live with Krueger in San Antonio .
When his old friend Fay Babson wrote a letter in 1960 complaining about not being promoted before retirement , Krueger replied that :
I wish you would compare your situation with mine for a moment . You are fortunate in having a loving wife by your side and three wonderful children . I , on the other hand , have lost my precious wife , my son Jimmie 's career ended in disgrace and my only daughter 's tragic action broke my heart . All the promotions and honors that have come to me cannot possibly outweigh these heartaches and disappointments . If true happiness is the aim of life — and I believe it is — then you are more fortunate than I and I would gladly trade with you .
= = Death and legacy = =
Krueger 's health began to decline in the late 1950s . He developed glaucoma in his right eye , and sciatica in his left hip . In 1960 , he had a hernia operation , followed by kidney surgery in 1963 . Nonetheless , he continued to attend MacArthur 's birthday in New York . He died from pneumonia at Valley Forge , Pennsylvania , on 20 August 1967 , and was buried in Section 30 of Arlington National Cemetery , among a number of family members . His papers are in the Cushing Memorial Library at Texas A & M University .
Although Krueger led a large force in operations over a large area for over two years , appearing on the cover of Time magazine on 20 January 1945 , and Krueger Middle School was named after him in San Antonio , Texas , in 1962 , he never became a well @-@ known figure like MacArthur . Krueger 's forte was what is today termed the operational level of war , transforming MacArthur 's strategic vision into reality . Krueger has usually been characterised as " an overly cautious commander who impeded MacArthur 's fast @-@ paced strategy . " William Manchester speculated that " the General knew his plodding subordinate was a useful counterweight to his own bravura " , and Edward Drea noted that at the Battle of the Drinumor , Krueger 's actions were " entirely out of keeping with his otherwise methodical and plodding generalship " . MacArthur wrote :
History has not given him due credit for his greatness . I do not believe that the annals of American history have shown his superior as an Army commander . Swift and sure in the attack , tenacious and determined in defense , modest and restrained in victory — I do not know what he would have been in defeat , because he was never defeated .
= = Awards = =
= = Dates of promotion = =
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= Masashi Hamauzu =
Masashi Hamauzu ( 浜渦 正志 , Hamauzu Masashi , born September 20 , 1971 ) is a Japanese composer , arranger , pianist and lyricist . Hamauzu , who was employed at Square Enix from 1996 to 2010 , was best known during that time for his work on the Final Fantasy and SaGa video game series . Born into a musical family in Germany , Hamauzu was raised in Japan . He became interested in music while in kindergarten , and took piano lessons from his parents .
Hamauzu was hired by Square as a trainee , and his debut as a solo composer came the following year when he scored Chocobo no Fushigina Dungeon . He has collaborated with his friend and fellow composer Junya Nakano on several games , and has worked closely with synthesizer programmer Ryo Yamazaki on most titles since SaGa Frontier 2 .
After Nobuo Uematsu left Square Enix in 2004 , Hamauzu took over as the leading composer of the company 's music team . He was the sole composer for Final Fantasy XIII . He has also become a renowned piano arranger , and has arranged a number of albums , including Yasunori Mitsuda 's Sailing to the World piano score in 2006 . His music incorporates various styles , although he mostly uses classical and ambient music in his pieces . In 2010 , Hamauzu left Square Enix to start his own studio , MONOMUSIK .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
Born in Munich , Germany , Hamauzu 's mother was a piano teacher and his father , Akimori Hamauzu , an opera singer . He developed an interest in music while in kindergarten . Growing up in Germany , Hamauzu received piano and singing lessons from his parents and created his first original compositions during high school . After his brother , Hiroshi , was born , the family moved to Osaka . He enrolled in the Tokyo National University of Fine Arts and Music , where he joined a student ensemble as a pianist . Hamauzu met his wife , Matsue Hamauzu ( née Fukushi ) , at the university , and they have two children . Matsue worked alongside Hamauzu on the soundtrack to Final Fantasy VII as a soprano and Sigma Harmonics as a scat singer ; she was also a soprano for the score to Final Fantasy VIII & a lead vocalist in Final Fantasy XIII . After graduating from the university , he thought about becoming a classical musician , but he eventually found out that he wanted to work with game music instead .
= = = Career = = =
A fan of the Final Fantasy games , Hamauzu decided to apply for a job at Square . Nobuo Uematsu was impressed with his résumé , and employed Hamauzu as a trainee in 1996 . His debut came with the 1996 title Front Mission : Gun Hazard , with Uematsu , Yasunori Mitsuda , and Junya Nakano . Later the same year , he created four tracks for another multi @-@ composer game , Tobal No. 1 . Working with Nakano on these games , Hamauzu admired his musical style , and they became friends ; they have later collaborated on several titles . Hamauzu 's first solo project came in 1997 with Chocobo no Fushigina Dungeon . Shortly after the title 's release , Hamauzu and Yasuo Sako created Chocobo no Fushigina Dungeon Coi Vanni Gialli , an arranged album containing orchestral tracks from the game 's music . Both the soundtrack and Coi Vanni Gialli were praised . For Final Fantasy VII , Hamauzu was the synthesizer programmer for the rendition of Joseph Haydn 's " The Creation " , and provided bass vocals in the eight @-@ person chorus for " One @-@ Winged Angel " .
In 1999 , Hamauzu was assigned with scoring SaGa Frontier 2 , replacing the SaGa series ' long @-@ time composer Kenji Ito . He spent some time conforming to the music Ito had established for the series , but eventually realized that he wanted to use his own unique style . The project introduced him to synthesizer programmer Ryo Yamazaki , whom he has worked with on most of his subsequent soundtracks . Hamauzu also released Piano Pieces " SF2 " ~ Rhapsody on a Theme of SaGa Frontier 2 , an arranged album featuring piano pieces of the game 's music . In 2001 , Hamauzu and Nakano were chosen to assist Uematsu in the production of the score for the critically acclaimed Final Fantasy X , based on their ability to create music that was different from Uematsu 's style . Hamauzu also contributed the Piano Collections arranged album of the game , which he described as his most challenging work , and the track named " feel " , an arrangement of " Hymn of the Fayth " , from the EP feel / Go dream : Yuna & Tidus .
In 2002 , Hamauzu composed the music for Unlimited Saga , a game that would be received negatively by critics due to a variety of gameplay issues . He became the leading composer of Square Enix 's music team in October 2004 , following Uematsu 's departure from the company . In 2005 , Hamauzu , Nakano , and the duo Wavelink Zeal ( Takayuki and Yuki Iwai ) scored Musashi : Samurai Legend , the sequel to the 1998 title Brave Fencer Musashi . Hamauzu composed the highly anticipated but critically unsuccessful Final Fantasy VII follow @-@ up , Dirge of Cerberus : Final Fantasy VII , in 2006 . Later the same year , he arranged the Sailing to the World Piano Score at the request of Mitsuda ; the album was well received by pianists and confirmed Hamauzu 's position as the leading piano arranger of game music .
Hamauzu released a solo album , Vielen Dank , in 2007 after recording it in Munich , Germany . The album includes eleven piano pieces that he composed for personal pleasure after the creation of Piano Pieces " SF2 " ~ Rhapsody on a Theme of SaGa Frontier 2 as well as 14 arrangements of his game compositions . Two tracks from the album were performed at the 2007 Symphonic Game Music Concert in Leipzig . In 2008 , he composed the soundtrack to Sigma Harmonics , with synthesizer programming by Mitsuto Suzuki rather than Yamazaki . At the 2006 E3 event , a Square Enix press conference revealed that Hamauzu would be returning to the Final Fantasy series , scoring Final Fantasy XIII . He left Square Enix on January 19 , 2010 . He went on to form his own studio , Monomusik , which he describes as a personal studio that does not include any other composers . He has since gone on to score Final Fantasy XIII @-@ 2 and Lightning Returns : Final Fantasy XIII , while also rearranging his old compositions for the high definition version of Final Fantasy X.
= = Musical style and influences = =
Hamauzu composes music in a wide variety of styles , often using multiple styles throughout the various pieces of a soundtrack . He mostly creates classical and ambient music , and uses the piano predominantly as an instrument . He frequently uses dissonance to provide an atmospheric effect . In Unlimited Saga , for example , the style of his compositions mix classical marches , tango music , electronic ambiance , instrumental solos , bossa nova , and jazz .
He cites animation composers Hiroshi Miyagawa and Ryuichi Sakamoto of Yellow Magic Orchestra , impressionist composers Maurice Ravel and Claude Debussy , and his father as major musical influences . During his adolescence , he enjoyed listening to the works of Miyagawa and Sakamoto . While attending university , he developed an appreciation for classical music , especially the compositions of Ravel and Debussy .
= = Works = =
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= Draped Bust dollar =
The Draped Bust dollar is a United States dollar coin minted from 1795 to 1803 , and was reproduced , dated 1804 , into the 1850s . The design succeeded the Flowing Hair dollar , which began mintage in 1794 and was the first silver dollar struck by the United States Mint . The designer is unknown , though the distinction is usually credited to artist Gilbert Stuart . The model is also unknown , though Ann Willing Bingham has been suggested .
In October 1795 , newly appointed Mint Director Elias Boudinot ordered that the legal fineness of .892 ( 89 @.@ 2 % ) silver be used for the dollar rather than the unauthorized fineness of .900 ( 90 % ) silver that had been used since the denomination was first minted in 1794 . Due largely to a decrease in the amount of silver deposited at the Philadelphia Mint , coinage of silver dollars declined throughout the latter years of the 18th century . In 1804 , coinage of silver dollars was halted ; the last date used during regular mint production was 1803 .
In 1834 , silver dollar production was temporarily restarted to supply a diplomatic mission to Asia with a special set of proof coins . Officials mistakenly believed that dollars had last been minted with the date 1804 , prompting them to use that date rather than the date in which the coins were actually struck . A limited number of 1804 dollars were struck by the Mint in later years , and they remain rare and valuable .
= = Background = =
Coinage began on the first United States silver dollar , known as the Flowing Hair dollar , in 1794 following the construction and staffing of the Philadelphia Mint . The Coinage Act of 1792 called for the silver coinage to be struck in an alloy consisting of 89 @.@ 2 % silver and 10 @.@ 8 % copper . However , Mint officials were reluctant to strike coins with the unusual fineness , so it was decided to strike them in an unauthorized alloy of 90 % silver instead . This caused depositors of silver to lose money when their metal was coined . During the second year of production of the Flowing Hair dollar , it was decided that the denomination would be redesigned . It is unknown what prompted this change or who suggested it , though numismatic historian R.W. Julian speculates that Henry William de Saussure , who was named Director of the Mint on July 9 , 1795 , may have suggested it , as he had stated a redesign of the American coinage as one of his goals before taking office . It is also possible that the Flowing Hair design was discontinued owing to much public disapproval .
= = = Design = = =
Though the designer of the coin is unknown , artist Gilbert Stuart is widely acknowledged to have been its creator ; Mint Director James Ross Snowden began researching the early history of the United States Mint and its coinage in the 1850s , during which time he interviewed descendants of Stuart who claimed that their ancestor was the designer . It has been suggested that Philadelphia socialite Ann Willing Bingham posed as the model for the coin . Several sketches were approved by Mint engraver Robert Scot and de Saussure and sent to President George Washington and Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson to gain their approval .
After approval was received , the designs were sent to artist John Eckstein to be rendered into plaster models ; during that time , plaster models were used as a guide to cutting the dies , which was done by hand . Eckstein , who was dismissed by Walter Breen as a " local artistic hack " and described by a contemporary artist as a " thorough @-@ going drudge " due to his willingness to carry out most painting or sculptural tasks at the request of clients , was paid thirty dollars for his work preparing models for both the obverse Liberty and reverse eagle and wreath . After the plaster models were created , the engravers of the Philadelphia Mint ( including Scot ) began creating hubs that would be used to make dies for the new coins .
= = Production = =
It is unknown exactly when production of the new design began , as precise records relating to design were not kept at that time . R.W. Julian , however , places the beginning of production in either late September or early October 1795 , while Taxay asserts that the first new silver dollars were struck in October . In September 1795 , de Saussure wrote his resignation letter to President Washington . In his letter , de Saussure mentioned the unauthorized silver standard and suggested that Congress be urged to make the standard official , but this was not done . In response to de Saussure 's letter , Washington expressed his displeasure in the resignation , stating that he had viewed de Saussure 's tenure with " entire satisfaction " . As de Saussure 's resignation would not take effect until October , the president was given time to select a replacement .
The person chosen to fill the position was statesman and former congressman Elias Boudinot . Upon assuming his duties at the Mint on October 28 , Boudinot was informed of the silver standard that had been used since the first official silver coins were struck . He immediately ordered that this practice be ceased and that coinage would begin in the 89 @.@ 2 % fineness approved by the Coinage Act of 1792 . The total production of 1795 dollars ( including both the Flowing Hair and Draped Bust types ) totalled 203 @,@ 033 . It is estimated that approximately 42 @,@ 000 dollars were struck bearing the Draped Bust design . Boudinot soon ordered that production of minor denominations be increased . Later , assayer Albian Cox died suddenly from a stroke in his home on November 27 , 1795 , leaving the vital post of assayer vacant . This , together with Boudinot 's increased focus on smaller denominations , as well as a lull in private bullion deposits ( the fledgling Mint 's only source of bullion ) , caused a decrease in silver dollar production in 1796 . The total mintage for 1796 was 79 @,@ 920 , which amounts to an approximate 62 % reduction from the previous year 's total .
Bullion deposits continued to decline , and in 1797 , silver dollar production reached the lowest point since 1794 with a mintage of just 7 @,@ 776 pieces . During this time , silver deposits declined to such an extent that Thomas Jefferson personally deposited 300 Spanish dollars in June 1797 . In April 1797 , an agreement was reached between the Mint and the Bank of the United States . The Bank agreed to supply the Mint with foreign silver on the condition that the Bank would receive their deposits back in silver dollars . The Mint was closed between August and November 1797 due to the annual yellow fever epidemic in Philadelphia ; that year 's epidemic took the life of the Mint 's treasurer , Dr. Nicholas Way . In November 1797 , the Bank deposited approximately $ 30 @,@ 000 worth of French silver . In early 1798 , the reverse was changed from the small , perched eagle to a heraldic eagle similar to that depicted on the Great Seal of the United States . The agreement reached with the Bank of the United States along with other bullion depositors ( including Boudinot ) led to an increase in the number of silver dollars coined ; mintage for both the small and heraldic eagle types totalled 327 @,@ 536 . Mintage numbers for the dollar remained high through 1799 , with 423 @,@ 515 struck that year .
Toward the end of the 18th century , many of the silver dollars produced by the Mint were shipped to and circulated or melted in China in order to satisfy the great demand for silver bullion in that nation . In 1800 , silver deposits once again began to decline , and the total silver dollar output for that year was 220 @,@ 920 . In 1801 , following complaints from the public and members of Congress regarding the lack of small change in circulation , Boudinot began requesting that silver depositors receive smaller denominations rather than the routinely requested silver dollars , in an effort to supply the nation with more small change . Production dropped to 54 @,@ 454 silver dollars in 1801 and 41 @,@ 650 in 1802 , after Boudinot was able to convince many depositors to accept their silver in the form of small denominations . Although silver bullion deposits at the Mint had increased , Boudinot attempted to end silver dollar production in 1803 , favoring half dollars instead . Mintage of the 1803 dollar continued until March 1804 , when production of silver dollars ceased entirely . In total , 85 @,@ 634 dollars dated 1803 were struck . Following a formal request from the Bank of the United States , Secretary of State James Madison officially suspended silver dollar and gold eagle production in 1806 , although minting of both had ended two years earlier .
= = 1804 dollars = =
In 1831 , Mint Director Samuel Moore filed a request through the Treasury asking president Andrew Jackson to once again allow the coinage of silver dollars ; the request was approved on April 18 . In 1834 , Edmund Roberts was selected as an American commercial representative to Asia , including the kingdoms of Muscat and Siam . Roberts recommended that the dignitaries be given a set of proof coins . The State Department ordered two sets of " specimens of each kind [ of coins ] now in use , whether of gold , silver , or copper " . Though the minting of dollars had been approved in 1831 , none had been struck since 1804 . After consulting with Chief Coiner Adam Eckfeldt ( who had worked at the Mint since its opening in 1792 ) , Moore determined that the last silver dollars struck were dated 1804 . Unknown to either of them , the last production in March 1804 was actually dated 1803 . Since they believed that the last striking was dated 1804 , it was decided to strike the presentation pieces with that date as well . It is unknown why the current date was not used , but R.W. Julian suggests that this was done to prevent coin collectors from being angered over the fact that they would be unable to obtain the newly dated coins .
The first two 1804 dollars ( as well as the other coins for the sets ) were struck in November 1834 . Soon , Roberts ' trip was expanded to Indo @-@ China ( then known as Annam ) and Japan , so two additional sets were struck . The pieces struck under the auspices of the Mint are known as Class I 1804 dollars , and eight of that type are known to exist today . Roberts left for his trip in April 1835 , and he presented one set each to the Sultan of Muscat and the King of Siam . The gift to the Sultan of Muscat was part of an exchange of diplomatic gifts that resulted in the Sultan presenting the Washington Zoo with a full @-@ grown lion and lioness . Roberts fell ill in Bangkok and was taken to Macao , where he died in June 1835 . Following Roberts ' death , the remaining two sets were returned to the Mint without being presented to the dignitaries .
= = = Collecting = = =
Most coin collectors became aware of the 1804 dollar in 1842 , when Jacob R. Eckfeldt ( son of Adam Eckfeldt ) and William E. Du Bois published a book entitled A Manual of Gold and Silver Coins of All Nations , Struck Within the Past Century . In the volume , several coins from the Mint 's coin cabinet , including an 1804 dollar , were reproduced by tracing a pantograph stylus over an electrotype of the coins . In May 1843 , numismatist Matthew A. Stickney was able to obtain an 1804 dollar from the Mint 's coin cabinet by trading a rare pre @-@ federal United States gold coin . Due to an increase in the demand for rare coins , Mint officials , including Director Snowden , began minting an increasing number of coin restrikes in the 1850s . Several 1804 dollars were struck , and some were sold for personal profit on the part of Mint officials . When he discovered this , Snowden bought back several of the coins . One such coin , which Snowden later added to the Mint cabinet , was struck over an 1857 shooting thaler and became known as Class II , the only such piece of that type known to exist today . Six pieces with edge lettering applied after striking became known as Class III dollars .
By the end of the 19th century , the 1804 dollar had become the most famous and widely discussed of all American coins . In 1867 , one of the original 1804 dollars was sold at auction for $ 750 ( $ 12 @,@ 698 today ) . Seven years later , on November 27 , 1874 , a specimen sold for $ 700 ( $ 14 @,@ 640 today ) . In the early 20th century , coin dealer B. Max Mehl began marketing the 1804 dollar as the " King of American Coins " . The coins continued to gain popularity throughout the 20th century , and the price reached an all @-@ time high in 1999 , when an example graded Proof @-@ 68 was sold at auction for $ 4 @,@ 140 @,@ 000 .
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= George Kelly ( baseball ) =
George Lange Kelly ( September 10 , 1895 – October 13 , 1984 ) , nicknamed " Long George " and " High Pockets " , was a Major League Baseball ( MLB ) first baseman . He played most of his MLB career for the New York Giants ( 1915 – 1917 , 1919 – 1926 ) , but also played for the Pittsburgh Pirates ( 1917 ) , Cincinnati Reds ( 1927 – 1930 ) , Chicago Cubs ( 1930 ) , and Brooklyn Dodgers ( 1932 ) .
Kelly is a two @-@ time World Series champion ( 1921 and 1922 ) . He led the National League in home runs once ( 1921 ) and runs batted in twice ( 1920 and 1924 ) , and was elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1973 . However , his selection is regarded as controversial , as many believe he is undeserving of the recognition and was only elected by the Veterans Committee because it consisted of his former teammates .
= = Career = =
Kelly began his professional career for the Victoria Bees of the Class @-@ B Northwestern League in 1914 and 1915 . During the 1915 season , he was purchased by the New York Giants from Victoria for $ 1 @,@ 200 ( equal to $ 28 @,@ 070 today ) . The Giants were rebuilding their team , and they saw Kelly as a possible replacement for Fred Merkle . However , he played sparingly for the Giants in his first MLB seasons , appearing in only 17 games in 1915 and 49 games in 1916 . He was selected off waivers by the Pittsburgh Pirates on July 25 , 1917 to back up Honus Wagner , but did not hit sufficiently . The Pirates waived Kelly , and he was reclaimed by the Giants from the Pirates on August 4 , 1917 . The Giants optioned Kelly to the Rochester Hustlers of the Class @-@ AA International League , where he played the rest of the 1917 season . Kelly did not play professionally in 1918 due to his military service . The Giants sold Kelly to Rochester before the 1919 season to acquire Earl Smith .
Finding success in Rochester , Kelly was purchased by the Giants in 1919 when Hal Chase was suspended . He became a regular in the Giants line @-@ up in 1920 , when he had a league @-@ leading 94 runs batted in ( RBIs ) . He led the league in assists and putouts in 1920 and 1921 ; his 1 @,@ 759 putouts in 1920 remains a league record . Kelly batted in 100 or more runs for four consecutive seasons and hit for a batting average of .300 or higher six consecutive seasons . He opened the 1921 season with at least one hit and one RBI in eight consecutive games , a record that stood until it was broken by Jorge Cantú in 2010 . The Giants appeared in the World Series in 1921 , 1922 , 1923 , and 1924 , winning in 1921 and 1922 . Kelly set a National League record with seven home runs in six consecutive games in 1924 , which has since been matched by Graig Nettles , Walker Cooper , and Willie Mays .
In the final series of the 1924 season , the Giants were playing the Philadelphia Phillies at the Polo Grounds and battling for the pennant with the Brooklyn Dodgers . Jimmy O 'Connell offered Phillies shortstop Heinie Sand $ 500 to intentionally lose the games . Sand rejected the bribe and reported it to Phillies manager Art Fletcher . It eventually led to the lifetime suspension of O 'Connell and Giants coach Crazy Dolan by Commissioner Kenesaw Mountain Landis . O 'Connell implicated Kelly , Frankie Frisch , and Ross Youngs as co @-@ conspirators . However , Commissioner Landis cleared Kelly , Frisch and Youngs of any wrongdoing .
That following offseason , Kelly , Sam Bohne and other Major League Baseball ( MLB ) players agreed to play professional basketball with O 'Connell . National League ( NL ) president John Heydler insisted that anyone who played with O 'Connell could be suspended . The Giants were also displeased with Kelly 's arrangement , as they were concerned about the chance he could injure himself in non @-@ baseball activity . However , Kelly had not played in any games at that point . He was removed from the roster and thus avoided suspension by MLB .
Kelly , naturally a first baseman , saw regular time as a second baseman in 1925 when Frisch injured his hand , while backup Bill Terry began playing first base . With the emergence of Terry , who requested a trade so that he could receive more playing time , and Giants manager John McGraw desiring an improvement in the outfield , Kelly was traded to the Cincinnati Reds prior to the 1927 season for Edd Roush . The Reds traded Roush due to a contract dispute . With Wally Pipp at first base for the Reds , Kelly was slated to play center field . The Reds released Pipp before the 1929 season , and Kelly returned to first base .
Kelly was released by the Reds on July 10 , 1930 , and signed by the minor @-@ league Minneapolis Millers of the Class @-@ AA American Association . The Millers traded Kelly to the Chicago Cubs for Mal Moss and a player to be named later ( Chick Tolson ) late in the 1930 season to fill in for the injured Charlie Grimm . Kelly he was released by the Cubs in February 1931 . He returned to the Millers for the 1931 season , and participated in a tour of Japan along with Frisch , Lou Gehrig , Mickey Cochrane , Al Simmons , Lefty Grove , and Rabbit Maranville , among others .
In April 1932 , the Millers traded Kelly to the Brooklyn Dodgers for Pea Ridge Day . With the Dodgers , he filled in for the injured Del Bissonette . Kelly played his final MLB game on July 27 , 1932 . He returned to the International League to finish the 1932 season with the Jersey City Skeeters , and played the 1933 season for the Oakland Oaks of the Pacific Coast League before retiring .
= = Player profile = =
Kelly was known as an excellent defensive first baseman . His positioning and footwork on hits to the outfield became the standard method for teaching future first basemen to handle relays . Frisch considered Kelly the finest first baseman he had seen .
Kelly also had a reputation as a clutch hitter . McGraw said there was no player he preferred to have bat in a big situation . Waite Hoyt considered him dangerous in clutch situations .
= = Hall of Fame induction = =
To be inducted in the National Baseball Hall of Fame , a player must receive at least 75 % of the vote from the Baseball Writers ' Association of America ( BBWAA ) or the Veterans Committee . Kelly was on the BBWAA ballot seven times , never coming close to being elected , and never garnering more than 1 @.@ 9 % of the vote . By year , voting results for Kelly were : 1947 ( one vote , 0 @.@ 6 % ) , 1948 ( two votes , 1 @.@ 7 % ) , 1949 ( one vote , 0 @.@ 7 % ) , 1956 ( two votes , 1 @.@ 0 % ) , 1958 ( two votes , 0 @.@ 8 % ) , 1960 ( five votes , 1 @.@ 9 % ) , and 1962 ( two votes , 0 @.@ 6 % ) . Despite the lack of support from the BBWAA , he was inducted into the Hall of Fame in 1973 by the Veterans Committee . At the time of Kelly 's election , the writers ' ballot was voted on by approximately 400 writers , while the Veterans Committee had a membership of twelve former players and executives .
The selection of Kelly was controversial , as many felt Kelly was not worthy of enshrinement in the Hall . According to the BBWAA , the Veterans Committee was not selective enough in choosing members . Charges of cronyism were levied against the Veterans Committee . When Kelly was elected , the Veterans Committee included two of his former teammates , Bill Terry and Frankie Frisch , who also shepherded the selections of Giants teammates Jesse Haines in 1970 , Dave Bancroft and Chick Hafey in 1971 , Ross Youngs in 1972 , Jim Bottomley in 1974 , and Freddie Lindstrom in 1976 . This led to the Veterans Committee having its powers reduced in subsequent years . Baseball historian Bill James , while ranking Kelly as the 65th greatest first baseman of all @-@ time , also cites Kelly as " the worst player in the Hall of Fame " .
= = Coaching career = =
Kelly served as a coach for the Cincinnati Reds , managed by former teammate Chuck Dressen , from 1935 to 1937 . Former teammate Casey Stengel hired Kelly to coach the Boston Braves from 1938 to 1943 . He returned to the Reds ' coaching staff in 1947 and 1948 . He coached the Oakland Oaks of the Pacific Coast League in 1949 . In 1954 , Kelly managed the independent Wenatchee Chiefs in the Western International League .
= = Personal life = =
A native San Franciscan , Kelly remained in the San Francisco Bay Area , living in Millbrae , California following his playing career . Kelly 's brother , Ren Kelly , uncle , Bill Lange , and cousin , Rich Chiles , also played in MLB .
Kelly suffered a stroke on October 5 , 1984 and died on October 13 at Peninsula Hospital in Burlingame , California . He is interred at the Holy Cross Cemetery in Colma , California .
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= John T. Hayward =
John Tucker " Chick " Hayward ( 15 November 1908 – 23 May 1999 ) was a World War II naval aviator . He helped develop one of the two atomic bombs that was dropped on Japan in the closing days of the war . Later , he was a pioneer in the development of nuclear propulsion , nuclear weapons , guidance systems for ground- and air @-@ launched rockets , and underwater anti @-@ submarine weapons . A former batboy for the New York Yankees , Hayward dropped out of high school and lied about his age to enlist in the United States Navy at age 16 . He was subsequently admitted to the United States Naval Academy at Annapolis , from which he graduated 51st in his class of 1930 . He volunteered for naval aviation .
During World War II , he served at the Naval Aircraft Factory in Philadelphia , where he was involved in an effort to improve aircraft instrumentation , notably the compass and altimeter . He attended the University of Pennsylvania 's Moore School of Electrical Engineering , and studied nuclear physics . In June 1942 , he assumed command of a new patrol bomber squadron , VB @-@ 106 , equipped with PB4Y @-@ 1 Liberators , which he led in a daring raid on Wake Island , in the Solomon Islands campaign , and in the Southwest Pacific Area . Returning to the United States in 1944 , he was posted was to the Naval Ordnance Test Station at Inyokern , California , where he joined the Manhattan Project , participating in Project Camel , the development of the non @-@ nuclear components of the Fat Man bomb , and in its drop testing .
After the war ended , he travelled to Hiroshima and Nagasaki as part of the team investigating the bomb damage , and during Operation Crossroads , he led the effort to photograph the nuclear explosion at the Bikini Atoll . In 1949 , he assumed command of VC @-@ 5 , the first naval nuclear bomber squadron . In March 1949 , he took off from the carrier USS Coral Sea in the Atlantic in a Lockheed P2V Neptune bomber carrying a dummy Little Boy pumpkin bomb , flew across the United States to make a simulated attack on a test site in California . , and flew back to Patuxent River , where he landed after a total of 23 hours flying . In August 1950 , he was at the controls of the first carrier landing and takeoff of an AJ @-@ 1 Savage heavy attack bomber .
From June 1951 to May 1953 , Hayward was head of the Military Applications Division of the Atomic Energy Commission , where he conducted atomic weapons laboratory work at Los Alamos National Laboratory . In June 1953 , he assumed command of the escort carrier USS Point Cruz , and was involved in the rescue of a baby who was found abandoned in the trash at a U.S. Army depot . In June 1954 , he became the first naval aviator to command the Naval Ordnance Laboratory , where he was involved with the development of the Mark 52 naval mine and the Mark 90 nuclear bomb , a nuclear depth charge . He was Assistant Chief of Naval Operations for Research and Development , and then Deputy Chief of Naval Operations for Development . In 1962 he assumed command of a carrier task force which included the nuclear @-@ powered aircraft carrier USS Enterprise . He commanded the Antisubmarine Warfare Force , Pacific Fleet , from 1963 to 1966 , and then was president of the Naval War College from 1966 until 1968 .
= = Early life = =
Hayward was born in New York City on November 15 , 1908 one of eight children of Charles Brian and Rosa Hayward , née Valdetaro . As a youngster , he was a batboy for the New York Yankees . In May 1925 , he dropped out of high school at Loyola School and enlisted in the United States Navy by lying about his age , which at the time he believed to be only 15 , and forging his father 's signature on the papers . He soon acquired the nickname " Chick " from a bosun who asked " And how in did a little chick like you get in here amongst all these grown men ? " The nickname would remain with him for the rest of his naval career .
Hayward did his initial naval training at the Naval Station Newport at Newport , Rhode Island . He was encouraged by the Chaplain , Father John J. Brady , to try for admission to United States Naval Academy at Annapolis . Brady arranged for Hayward to be sent to the Naval Academy Preparatory School in Norfolk , Virginia , to study for the entrance exams . During World War I , some one @-@ hundred presidential appointments to Annapolis had been set aside for enlisted sailors , but few had applied , and fewer still had passed the entrance exams . Of the 119 sailors who sat the exams in 1926 , only 19 passed , one of whom was Hayward . He entered Annapolis in August 1926 , and was commissioned as an ensign on graduation in June 1930 , ranking 51st in his class of 406 .
After graduation , Hayward volunteered for naval aviation , and learned to fly in a Consolidated NY seaplane at Naval Air Station Hampton Roads . A tour of sea duty on the cruiser USS Richmond followed , after which he was posted to the Naval Air Station Pensacola to complete his flight training . He received his aviator 's wings in July 1932 . While there he met a local woman , Leila Marion ( Lili ) Hyer , and the two were married at St John 's Church in Warrington , Florida on 15 October 1932 . Their marriage would produce five children .
Hayward was posted to a scout bombing squadron , VS @-@ 1B , flying Vought SBU Corsairs , on the aircraft carrier USS Langley on the West Coast , and was soon promoted to the rank of lieutenant ( junior grade ) , but owing to government austerity measures , was not paid as such . In 1935 , the squadron was transferred to the USS Saratoga . Coming in for a landing , a fuel line on his aircraft broke , spraying him with fuel and damaging his left eye . After he recovered , and his flight status was restored , he was sent to VP @-@ 2 , which was stationed in the Panama Canal Zone , flying Martin PM patrol aircraft . Following a two @-@ year tour there , he was assigned to the SON Seagull detachment aboard the newly commissioned cruiser USS Philadelphia , where he was promoted to lieutenant on 30 June 1937 . He then repeated the procedure of commissioning the aircraft detachment of a new cruiser on another ship of the same class , the USS Phoenix in 1938 .
= = World War II = =
= = = Pacific Theater = = =
Hayward was posted to the Naval Aircraft Factory in Philadelphia in June 1940 , where he continued graduate studies at Temple University that he had begun in 1937 , and then attended the University of Pennsylvania 's Moore School of Electrical Engineering , where he studied nuclear physics . At the Naval Aircraft Factory , he was involved in an effort to improve aircraft instrumentation , notably the compass and altimeter . He was promoted to lieutenant commander in January 1942 .
In June 1942 , Hayward assumed command of a new patrol bomber squadron , VB @-@ 106 , equipped with PB4Y @-@ 1 Liberators . He was promoted to commander in August 1942 . VB @-@ 106 trained in Hawaii , and flew its first combat mission against Wake Island in October 1943 . For this mission , he was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross . His citation read :
For extraordinary achievement while participating in aerial flight as Squadron Commander of a Heavy Bombing Squadron during the attack by U.S. Naval Forces against Wake Island on 5 October 1943 . He led the attack by his squadron and personally directed the operations against enemy objectives during which time he successfully and effectively bombed , strafed enemy installations , and obtained many valuable photographs of the island in the face of intense anti @-@ aircraft fire . His aggressive and skillful leadership and constant devotion to duty contributed directly to the success of this action against the enemy and were in keeping with the highest traditions of the United States Naval Service .
Hayward was awarded a second Distinguished Flying Cross on the recommendation of Captain Arleigh Burke for leading his squadron in the South Pacific Area . His citation read :
For extraordinary achievement while participating in aerial flight against the enemy as Commanding Officer of a Navy Bombing Squadron operating in the South Pacific area from 8 November 1943 to 24 February 1944 . During this period , Commander Hayward completed many combat and search missions over Japanese territory , frequently encountering heavy anti @-@ aircraft fire . Several of the missions were made , despite adverse weather conditions . On 8 November while on a routine search , he bombed Kapingimarangi Island , scoring four direct hits on an enemy bivouac area . On 20 and 31 December and 8 January he bombed , strafed and sank enemy supply barges on each occasion . On 24 February , his efficient spotting enabled our destroyers to destroy three Japanese cargo vessels in Kavieng Harbor . His superior airmanship and outstanding leadership contributed materially to the success of the squadron in inflicting severe damage on the Japanese forces in the area . His courageous conduct was in keeping with the highest traditions of the United States Naval Service .
In March 1944 , VB @-@ 106 was transferred to Nadzab in the Southwest Pacific Area , where it came under the command of the Fifth Air Force . It thus served in three different theaters in the Pacific . Hayward was awarded a third Distinguished Flying Cross :
For extraordinary achievement while participating in aerial flight from 13 April 1944 to 23 April 1944 . Captain Hayward completed twenty flights in a combat area where enemy anti @-@ aircraft fire was expected to be effective or where enemy aircraft patrols usually occurred .
He was also awarded the Legion of Merit with the valor device :
for exceptionally meritorious conduct in the performance of outstanding services to the Government of the United States as Commanding Officer of Bombing Squadron One Hundred Six ( VB @-@ 106 ) , in connection with operations against enemy Japanese forces in the Pacific Ocean Area from 25 March to 1 June 1944 . During this period , Captain Hayward successfully carried out three hundred and five long @-@ range search operations , armed reconnaissance and offensive strikes against the enemy . His competent leadership , professional skill and initiative were contributing factors in the success of his squadron in sinking twelve enemy cargo vessels and thirteen barges ; and in shooting down twelve aircraft and damaging three in aerial combat . Captain Hayward 's aggressiveness and unwavering devotion to duty were in keeping with the highest traditions of the United States Naval Service .
Somewhat depleted in both aircraft and aircrews , VB @-@ 106 handed over its three PB4Ys with the least hours on the clock to its relief , VB @-@ 115 , on 27 May 1944 , and returned to the United States .
= = = Manhattan Project = = =
Hayward 's next posting was to the Naval Ordnance Test Station at Inyokern , California . Initially he was involved with test firing rockets from various aircraft , including the Grumman F6F Hellcat and the twin engine Grumman F7F Tigercat . Once his security clearance was complete , he was assigned to the Manhattan Project . He participated in Project Camel , the development of the non @-@ nuclear components of the Fat Man bomb , and in its drop testing . This involved flying the four engine Boeing B @-@ 29 Superfortress . After the war ended , he travelled to Hiroshima and Nagasaki as part of the Manhattan Project team investigating the bomb damage . He was promoted to captain on 10 December 1945 . During Operation Crossroads , he led the effort to photograph the nuclear explosion at the Bikini Atoll .
= = Post war = =
= = = Nuclear weapons = = =
After a series of clashes with his superior at Inyokern , Captain James B. Sykes , Hayward left to become the Director for Plans and Operations for Armed Forces Special Weapons Project , Sandia National Laboratories on 1 August 1947 . On 1 January 1948 , he was reduced in rank to commander again . The Air Force offered a commission as a brigadier general , and Convair offered a job working on the SM @-@ 65 Atlas missile , but Hayward elected to stay in the navy . He participated in the Operation Sandstone nuclear tests in the Pacific in April 1948 .
After World War II , the US Navy sought to acquire a nuclear strike capability , and the Deputy Chief of Naval Operations for Air , Rear Admiral Arthur W. Radford wanted them to operate from aircraft carriers . There were practical problems with this . Nuclear weapons at that time were bulky and required a large aircraft to carry them . After Operation Crossroads , Radford asked Hayward if the Navy had such an aircraft , and Hayward suggested modifying the Lockheed P2V Neptune for carrier operations using jet @-@ assisted takeoff ( JATO ) rocket boosters . It was an interim solution , as it a could not carry a Fat Man , but only the smaller Little Boy bomb ; it could only be operated by the large Midway class aircraft carriers , which still had to be modified for the task ; and initially had no tailhook , so it was unable to land on a carrier , and a mission would have to end with it either landing at a land base or ditching at sea .
On 28 April 1948 , two P2Vs were launched from a carrier , the USS Coral Sea , for the first time . The intention was that each of the three Midway @-@ class carriers would have a nuclear attack squadron . The first of these , Composite ( Heavy Attack ) Squadron 5 ( VC @-@ 5 ) was formed at Moffett Field , California , on 9 September 1948 , with Commander Frederick L. " Dick " Ashworth , who had been weaponeer on the Nagasaki raid , as its acting commander . However , Rear Admiral Deak Parsons felt that Ashworth did not have sufficient flight time for the role , so it was decided that Hayward would command VC @-@ 5 . He assumed command on 3 January 1949 , with Ashworth as his executive officer . Hayward intended that Ashworth would take command of the next squadron , VC @-@ 6 , when it was formed .
Hayward was promoted to captain again on 19 February 1949 . On 7 March , he took off Coral Sea in the Atlantic in a P2V carrying a dummy Little Boy pumpkin bomb , and flew across the United States to make a simulated attack on the Salton Sea test site near El Centro , California . He then flew to Patuxent River , where he landed after a total of 23 hours flying . Hayward had tailhooks fitted to a pair of P2Vs , and made practice landings on a carrier deck painted on the ground at NAS Patuxent River , Maryland , He made some touch and go passes at the USS Franklin D. Roosevelt , but a carrier landing was considered too dangerous for regular crews to attempt .
The P2Vs would be first augmented , and then replaced , by the more capable North American AJ Savage as they became available . These could take off and land on a carrier , carrying a Fat Man . On 21 August 1950 , Hayward was at the controls of the first carrier landing and takeoff of an AJ @-@ 1 Savage heavy attack bomber , on the Coral Sea with the Commander of Naval Air Forces Atlantic Fleet ( COMAIRLANT ) , Vice Admiral Felix Stump , in the back seat . However by mid @-@ December VC @-@ 5 still only had six AJ @-@ 1s .
From June 1951 to May 1953 , Hayward was head of the Military Applications Division of the Atomic Energy Commission , where he conducted atomic weapons laboratory work at Los Alamos National Laboratory . He also worked on the foundation of the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory program in 1952 in close collaboration with Edward Teller . The culmination of this was working on the Ivy Mike nuclear test .
= = = Point Cruz = = =
In June 1953 , Hayward took command of the escort carrier USS Point Cruz . He confessed to the crew that he did not know what he was doing , and urged any crewman who felt he was doing something wrong to tell him so at once . At the end of the Korean War , the carrier was deployed at Inchon , where a baby was found abandoned in the trash at a U.S. Army depot . The baby was brought to an orphanage , and Hayward sent Point Cruz 's chaplain in response to a request for assistance . The nun running the orphanage felt the blue @-@ eyed baby would not be safe if he remained in Korea . Hayward is said to have told the chaplain : " You are not to return to this vessel until you have procured that baby . "
Hayward is credited with putting his naval career " on the line " by bringing the baby on the ship , which was against regulations , and he subsequently received orders to get the baby off the ship . However , having a baby on board boosted sailors ' morale , and Hayward later said that a leader must " know when to intelligently disregard regulations . " A visa was obtained by intervention of Richard Nixon 's staffers , and a passport was secured by winning a poker game against the South Korean who issued passports . The baby , adopted by Navy surgeon Hugh Keenan , who was also in port at Inchon , was later named Daniel , and was transferred to a civilian ship in Japan . Daniel Keenan was raised in Seattle and began attending reunions of the crew of the Point Cruz in 1993 . The story of Daniel Keenan was made into a television movie , A Thousand Men and a Baby , which aired on CBS in 1997 .
= = = Later career = = =
Hayward assumed command of the Naval Ordnance Laboratory at White Oak , Maryland in June 1954 . He was the first naval aviator to do so , all the previous commanders having been naval ordnance officers . Under his guidance , the Naval Ordnance Laboratory developed the Mark 52 naval mine , an air @-@ delivered weapon with acoustic , magnetic and pressure sensors . Hayward encountered some resistance with this project , as mine warfare was a neglected field in the Navy . The Naval Ordnance Laboratory also developed the Mark 90 nuclear bomb , a nuclear depth charge , which was tested during Operation Wigwam in May 1955 .
From a naval career point of view , Hayward 's most notable drawback was his lack of time in command of a ship at sea . Admiral Arleigh Burke , now Chief of naval Operations , arranged for Hayward to be given command of the aircraft carrier Franklin D. Roosevelt in February 1956 . This would normally be the climax of naval aviator 's career , but that year he was selected for promotion to rear admiral . His record of 13 @,@ 200 flight hours was the highest ever achieved by a flag officer . On 7 January 1957 , he was assigned to the office of the Assistant Chief of Naval Operations for Plans and Operations . In October , he became Assistant Chief of Naval Operations for Research and Development . The very public failure of Project Vanguard resulted in Hayward being called to appear before a Congressional Committee , where he was grilled by its chairman , Senator Lyndon B. Johnson . The post was upgraded to Deputy Chief of Naval Operations for Development in 1959 , and he was promoted to vice admiral . He pushed the development of a number of new weapons systems , including the Lockheed P @-@ 3 Orion and the nuclear @-@ powered aircraft carrier USS Enterprise . Between 1959 and 1961 , Defense expenditure on research and development grew from $ 525 million ( roughly equivalent to $ 4 @.@ 26 billion in 2016 ) to $ 4 billion ( roughly equivalent to $ 31 @.@ 7 billion in 2016 ) .
In 1962 , President John F. Kennedy offered Hayward four stars and the job of Deputy Director of the Central Intelligence Agency . Hayward turned it down , accepting a demotion to rear admiral on 9 March 1962 to take command of Carrier Division 2 , which included the nuclear @-@ powered Enterprise Long Beach , Bainbridge and Truxtun . In October 1962 , his ships participated in the Cuban Missile Crisis . In June 1963 , he was restored to the rank of vice admiral , which was backdated to 25 April 1959 , the day he had first been promoted . He commanded the Antisubmarine Warfare Force , Pacific Fleet , from 13 June 1963 to 12 January 1966 , for which he was awarded the Navy Distinguished Service Medal for his " leadership , judgment and foresight in research and development associated with antisubmarine warfare and the training of Antisubmarine Warfare Groups during his tenure of command .
Hayward was president of the Naval War College in Newport , Rhode Island from 1966 until 1968 . He strove to transform the Naval War College into the Navy 's premier postgraduate school , one from which graduation would fit officers for , and mark them out as future flag officers . Heading a captain 's selection board in May 1967 , he disapproved of two officers with spotless records . " You mean they never argued , never had a difference of opinion ? " he remarked . " What kind of man is that ? "
Hayward was awarded a second Navy Distinguished Service Medal for his service as president of Naval War College . He retired in 1968 , but returned to serve to duty as a rear admiral from November 1970 to December 1971 as Commander , 14th Naval District , Commander Fleet Air Hawaii and Commander , Naval Base Pearl Harbor . His responsibilities included " the planning , training and execution of highly successful recoveries of Apollo spacecraft in the Mid @-@ Pacific " , for which he was awarded a third Legion of Merit .
= = Later life = =
After retiring from the Navy , Hayward worked for General Dynamics as a vice president for international programs until 1973 , and then as a consultant until 1979 . He then worked with the Draper Laboratory and the Hertz Foundation . He became an American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics Fellow in 1998 , and was inducted into the Naval Aviation Hall of Honor in 2004 .
Hayward died of cancer on 23 May 1999 in Atlantic Beach , Florida , and was buried in Arlington National Cemetery , along with his wife Leila , who had died the year before . He was survived by his son and four daughters . His papers are in the Naval History & Heritage Command at the Washington Navy Yard .
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= David Bedell @-@ Sivright =
David Revell " Darkie " Bedell @-@ Sivright ( 8 December 1880 – 5 September 1915 ) was a Scottish international rugby union forward who captained both Scotland and the British Isles . Born in Edinburgh , and educated at Fettes College where he learned to play rugby , he studied at Cambridge University and earned four Blues playing for them in the Varsity Match . He was first selected for Scotland in 1900 in a match against Wales . After playing in all of Scotland 's Home Nations Championship matches in 1901 , 1902 and 1903 , Bedell @-@ Sivright toured with the British Isles – now known as the British and Irish Lions – side that toured South Africa in 1903 . After playing the first 12 matches of the tour , he was injured and so did not play in any of the Test matches against South Africa .
The next year Bedell @-@ Sivright was appointed captain for the British Isles team that toured Australia and New Zealand . Due to a broken leg he played only one Test match during the tour – against Australia – but was involved in a notable incident during a non @-@ Test match . Despite not playing , Bedell @-@ Sivright pulled the British team from the field for 20 minutes after disputing the decision by a local referee to send @-@ off one of their players . Bedell @-@ Sivright eventually allowed his side to resume play , but without their ejected teammate .
Following the tour Bedell @-@ Sivright briefly settled in Australia , before returning to Scotland to study medicine . He captained Scotland against the touring New Zealanders in 1905 , and in 1906 helped his country defeat the visiting South Africans 6 – 0 . After retiring from international rugby in 1908 he went on to become Scotland 's amateur boxing champion . A surgeon by profession , he joined the Royal Navy during the First World War , and died on active service during the Gallipoli Campaign .
Bedell @-@ Sivright had a reputation as an aggressive and hard rugby player , as well as a ferocious competitor . He was an inaugural inductee into the Scottish Rugby Hall of Fame , and in 2013 was inducted into the International Rugby Board ( IRB ) Hall of Fame .
= = Personal history = =
David Bedell @-@ Sivright was born in Edinburgh in 1880 to William Henry Revell Bedell @-@ Sivright of North Queensferry . Bedell @-@ Sivright was educated at Fettes College. before going to Trinity College , Cambridge in 1899 to read medicine . He later completed his medical training at the University of Edinburgh . His brother John played for Cambridge University RFC , and gained a single international cap in 1902 .
There are many tales surrounding Bedell @-@ Sivright , and it is difficult to separate fact from fiction . He had a reputation for aggression , and in 1909 became Scottish amateur boxing champion . After one international he rugby tackled a cart horse in Princes Street in Edinburgh after apparently laying down on a city tram track – this held up the traffic for an hour as no policeman would approach him . It is not clear exactly where Bedell @-@ Sivright picked up the nickname " Darkie " . One explanation is that it was due to " cynical " tactics he employed as captain , the other is that it was due to the dark rings around his eyes .
On 25 January 1915 Bedell @-@ Sivright was commissioned as a surgeon in the Royal Navy . He was posted to the Hawke Battalion of the Royal Naval Division stationed at Gallipoli during the Dardanelles Campaign in May 1915 . He was loaned to the Royal Scots Fusiliers from 8 to 20 June , and was then posted to the Portsmouth Battalion of Royal Marine Light Infantry . After a period onshore in the trenches while serving at an advanced dressing station , he was bitten by an unidentified insect . He complained of being fatigued and was taken offshore and transferred to the hospital ship HMHS Dunluce Castle . Two days later , on 5 September , he died of septicaemia and was buried at sea off Cape Helles . He is commemorated on the Portsmouth Naval Memorial .
= = Rugby career = =
Bedell @-@ Sivright learned his rugby while a student at Fettes College , but first came to note as a player when he represented Cambridge University in the Varsity matches – contested against Oxford University – between 1899 and 1902 ; this won him four sporting Blues . He was first capped for Scotland in 1900 in a match against Wales at St Helen 's , Swansea . The match was a turning point for Welsh rugby , who won 12 – 3 , but the selectors stuck with Bedell @-@ Sivright who won another 21 caps for his country . He is the only Scottish player to have won three Triple Crowns – wins over Ireland , Wales and England within the same Home Nations Championship ( now the Six Nations ) – in 1901 , 1903 and 1907 .
In 1903 Bedell @-@ Sivright was selected for his first match with invitational touring side the Barbarians . He played a total of five games for the side between 1903 and 1907 , and captained them against Cardiff RFC in 1907 .
Bedell @-@ Sivright was later chosen to tour with two different British Isles teams . The first was the 1903 tour of South Africa under the captaincy of fellow Scottish international Mark Morrison . Although at the centre of the British Isles pack , Beddel @-@ Sivright did not play in any of the test matches . He played in the first 12 tour matches , where the team won six and lost six , but was injured thereafter .
In 1904 , at the request of the England Rugby Board ( known as the Rugby Football Union ) , Bedell @-@ Sivright was selected to lead a British Lions team on a tour of Australia and New Zealand . He only played in one Test , against Australia , because of a broken leg , but the team did go undefeated in Australia – winning all their matches there , and the three Test matches 17 – 0 , 17 – 3 and 16 – 0 . A notable incident on the Australian leg of the tour was a dispute between the British side and one of the Australian referees . The referee – Hugh Dolan – had ordered off British Isles player Denys Dobson after claiming Dobson had directed a personal insult at him . Bedell @-@ Sivright was not playing , but pulled his team from the field for 20 minutes while disputing the decision with Dolan and the other officials . Eventually the British side returned to play , but without Dobson . Following the match Bedell @-@ Sivright accused the referee of incompetence , and an inquiry eventually cleared Dobson of using indecent language , but he became the first British Isles player ever ordered off .
The five @-@ match New Zealand leg of the tour was far less successful for the British team . The tourists won their first two matches , but their third – the sole Test against New Zealand – was lost 9 – 3 . Bedell @-@ Sivright did not play in the Test after injuring himself in the teams ' first New Zealand tour match , but blamed that loss , and their subsequent draw and loss ( the final loss was 13 – 0 to Auckland ) on fatigue after their tour of Australia . According to a New Zealand newspaper , Bedell @-@ Sivright only ever claimed his side was " stale " after a loss , and never before . A New Zealand representative side was scheduled to tour the British Isles in 1905 , and Bedell @-@ Sivright did not report favourably on their chances of success . This may have contributed to the Home Nations underestimating the All Blacks – as the 1905 team become known – who ended up winning all but one of their 35 matches .
Bedell @-@ Sivright was so impressed with Australia that he decided to settle there . After a year he became bored of jackarooing ( stock @-@ rearing ) , and decided to leave and head back to Scotland to study medicine . While studying in Edinburgh he joined the Edinburgh University RFC – captaining them for two seasons in 1906 – 07 and 1908 – 09 . He had returned to Scotland in time to face the touring New Zealanders , and so he captained his country against them at Inverleith . The All Blacks had not been troubled in any of their previous matches on tour , scoring 612 points , and conceding only 15 . Rugby writer Winston McCarthy described the Scottish forwards as " fast , vigorous and good dribblers " , and they led 7 – 6 at half @-@ time . However the New Zealanders were the better team , and scored six unanswered points in the second half to win 12 – 6 .
In 1906 the South Africans were touring the British Isles , and Bedell @-@ Sivright was selected for the Scotland side that defeated them 6 – 0 . This was the last Home Nations team to defeat South Africa in nearly 60 years . Hence he became the first Home Nations ' player to contest a Test match against each of Australia , New Zealand , and South Africa .
Bedell @-@ Sivright was one of the inaugural inductees into the Scottish Rugby Hall of Fame in 2010 , and in 2013 was inducted into the IRB Hall of Fame in a ceremony that honoured players from the British and Irish Lions ( as the British Isles team is now known ) and Australia during that year 's Lions tour of Australia . Edinburgh University RFC have a scholarship in Bedell @-@ Sivright 's honour ; the scholarships of between £ 500 and £ 2000 per year are intended " to attract the best young talent in the UK [ United Kingdom ] to play and study at The University of Edinburgh " .
Writing in 1919 , rugby journalist and author E. H. D. Sewell said of Bedell @-@ Sivright " If a plebiscite was taken on the question : " Who was the hardest forward who ever played International football ? " Sivright would get most votes if the voting was confined to players , and probably so in any event . " Bedell @-@ Sivright is described as one of the " hardest " men to ever play for Scotland , with author Nick Oswald – who wrote a book on the history of Scottish rugby – describing him as " a very aggressive forward . He didn 't excel in any one aspect of the game , but he was an absolutely ferocious competitor . " On hearing of his death , it was reported that :
= = International record = =
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= Curtis Glencross =
Curtis Jack Glencross ( born December 28 , 1982 ) is a Canadian former professional ice hockey player . An undrafted player , he signed with the Anaheim Mighty Ducks as a free agent in 2004 and made his NHL debut with the team in 2007 . He has also played for the Columbus Blue Jackets , Edmonton Oilers , Calgary Flames and Washington Capitals . He was an effective goal scorer and active within the community during his time in Calgary , which led to the team naming him its recipient of the Ralph T. Scurfield Humanitarian Award in 2012 . After splitting the 2014 – 15 season between Calgary and Washington , Glencross was unable to reach a contract deal with any NHL team and opted to retire as a player . During his playing career , Glencross was a spokesman for the Special Olympics . He has also participated with Rae Croteau Jr . ' s chuckwagon racing team in the summer .
= = Early life = =
Glencross was born December 28 , 1982 , in Kindersley , Saskatchewan , but grew up in Provost , Alberta . He is the son of Mel and Robin Glencross , and has a younger brother , Matthew , and sister , Kari . His parents both played hockey and say he inherited an intense competitive nature from them . His family moved to Red Deer , Alberta when he was a teenager as his parents began a livestock auction business . Glencross was small for his age , standing less than five feet tall when he was 15 , and as a result was often left off the top teams in minor hockey despite having the talent to play ; he played Midget C hockey in Provost . He experienced a rapid growth spurt , growing a full foot in a period of 17 months , and was recruited to play Junior A hockey for the expansion Brooks Bandits of the Alberta Junior Hockey League ( AJHL ) in 2000 . He went on to become the first Bandit alumnus to play in the National Hockey League ( NHL ) , and his number 17 was retired by the team in 2011 .
= = Playing career = =
= = = College and minor professional = = =
The Bandits were a last @-@ place team both years Glencross played , but he was among the AJHL 's leading goalscorers in 2001 – 02 with 42 goals . He went undrafted by an NHL team , but received interest from National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) schools and was considering returning to Brooks for a third season of junior . Jack Kowal , assistant coach of the University of Alaska @-@ Anchorage Seawolves , had scouted Glencross during the season . Impressed with his ability and intensity on the ice , offered Glencross a full scholarship to play for his school . Glencross played two seasons at Alaska @-@ Anchorage between 2002 and 2004 , scoring 32 goals and 57 points in 72 games . He was named the Western Collegiate Hockey Association offensive player of the week for December 15 , 2003 , after scoring a hat trick against the Colorado College Tigers in a 5 – 2 win . He led the Seawolves in goals ( 21 ) and points ( 34 ) in 2002 – 03 .
Glencross chose to forgo his final two years of college eligibility , signing a professional contract with the Anaheim Mighty Ducks on March 25 , 2004 . He was assigned to the team 's American Hockey League ( AHL ) affiliate , the Cincinnati Mighty Ducks , to complete the 2003 – 04 season . He scored two goals in seven regular season games , and one more in nine playoff games . He remained with Cincinnati in 2004 – 05 , appearing in 51 games and scoring nine points . He was moved to the Portland Pirates , also of the AHL , in 2005 – 06 and improved to 15 goals and 25 points in 41 games while also appearing in 19 post @-@ season games .
= = = Ducks , Blue Jackets and Oilers = = =
Glencross ' 2006 – 07 season was split between four teams . Glencross began with the Pirates , but at mid @-@ season earned his first call @-@ up and made his NHL debut on January 13 , 2007 . He scored his first goal on his first NHL shot that night , against Peter Budaj , in a 3 – 2 loss against the Colorado Avalanche . He played two games with Anaheim before he was traded , along with Zenon Konopka and a 7th round draft pick , to the Columbus Blue Jackets in exchange for Mark Hartigan , Joe Motzko and a 4th round pick on January 26 . Glencross appeared in seven games with the Blue Jackets but finished the season in the AHL with the Syracuse Crunch .
Glencross established himself as an NHL regular in 2007 – 08 . He appeared in 36 games for the Blue Jackets before being traded to the Edmonton Oilers in exchange for Dick Tarnstrom on February 1 , 2008 . Glencross appeared in 26 games for the Oilers , scoring 15 goals and 25 points in 61 games combined between Columbus and Edmonton . Though he played well with Edmonton , the Oilers did not make a contract offer , making him an unrestricted free agent . Glencross hoped to remain in Edmonton as it was close to his Red Deer home . But after the Oilers made little effort to negotiate with him , he chose to sign a three @-@ year , $ 3 @.@ 6 million deal with Edmonton 's provincial rival , the Calgary Flames .
= = = Calgary Flames = = =
In his first year with the Flames , Glencross set new personal highs in games played ( 74 ) , goals ( 13 ) and points ( 40 ) . He missed six games in December 2008 with a knee injury , and three more early in the 2009 – 10 NHL season after he was suspended for a blind @-@ side hit on Chris Drury of the New York Rangers . He set a new personal best with 15 goals on the season that included his first NHL hat trick in a victory over the Carolina Hurricanes . His season was ended on March 17 after suffering a leg injury when he was struck by Matt Hendricks of the Colorado Avalanche in a knee @-@ on @-@ knee collision .
Playing in the final year of his contract , Glencross set personal highs of 24 goals and 43 points in 2010 – 11 . While the Flames received offers from other teams for Glencross at the trade deadline , the team chose to hold on to him though they risked losing him as an unrestricted free agent following the season . Glencross chose to remain in Calgary , agreeing to a four @-@ year , $ 10 @.@ 2 million contract with the Flames on May 17 , 2011 . Glencross felt that he could have earned a bigger contract on the open market , but chose to take less money to remain in Calgary . With 26 goals in 2011 – 12 , Glencross finished second on the team to Jarome Iginla 's 32 . He was the league 's most efficient scorer , scoring on 23 @.@ 6 percent of his shots on net .
Glencross reached several milestones in the lockout @-@ shortened 2012 – 13 season en route to leading the Flames with 15 goals . After scoring his 100th career goal , he recorded both his 100th assist and 200th point in a 5 – 4 victory over the Phoenix Coyotes on February 24 , 2013 . His season was ended prematurely by a knee injury after Anaheim 's Ben Lovejoy stuck his leg out to cause a knee @-@ on @-@ knee collision . The injury forced Glencross out of the team 's final four games of the season .
Injuries plagued Glencross throughout the 2013 – 14 season as he missed 15 games to a sprained knee , then suffered a high ankle sprain three weeks after his December 10 return . The injury forced him out of the lineup for nearly three months ; he missed an additional 29 games before returning to action . In just the sixth game after his return , he scored his third career hat @-@ trick in an 8 @-@ 1 victory against the Edmonton Oilers .
= = = Washington Capitals = = =
As Glencross ' contract was set to expire at the end of the 2014 – 15 season , his future in Calgary was placed in doubt ; the team asked him for a list of teams he would agree to waive his no trade clause to as the March 2 , 2015 , trade deadline approached . Though the team was in playoff contention at the deadline , it still opted to move Glencross . He was traded to the Washington Capitals on March 1 , in exchange for second and third round picks at the 2015 NHL Entry Draft . He made his debut with Washington two nights later . Combined between Calgary and Washington , Glencross scored 13 goals and 35 points in 71 games played .
Despite his reduced offensive output relative to previous seasons , Glencross expected to sign with a new team as a free agent . However , when no contract offers materialized , Glencross instead accepted a professional tryout offer with the Toronto Maple Leafs . Toronto opted against signing Glencross and , after releasing him from the try @-@ out , Glencross signed another tryout offer , with the Colorado Avalanche . After two scoreless pre @-@ season games he was released by the Avalanche on October 5 , 2015 . His first pre @-@ season game with the Avalanche was in Calgary ; the Flames recognized Glencross ' contributions with the team during the game , a gesture he appreciated . However , the Avalanche also released Glencross , leaving his career in limbo as the 2015 – 16 NHL season began . He opted against playing in Europe in favour of remaining in Canada with his young family and , on October 20 , 2015 , announced his retirement as a player . Glencross played 507 games , scored 134 goals and had 275 points .
= = Personal life = =
While Glencross grew up around the rodeo circuit , he did not enter into the sport until he met World Professional Chuckwagon Association driver Rae Croteau Jr. in 2005 . He became interested in chuckwagon racing at the time , and while he does not race , Glencross was a part of Croteau 's team in 2007 and 2008 , helping around the stables .
Glencross and his wife Tanya have two daughters and a son . An active member of the community during his playing career , Glencross served as a spokesman for the Special Olympics program , and hosted an annual charity golf tournament in support of Calgary Crime Stoppers . The first event , held in 2009 , raised C $ 100 @,@ 000 . Glencross is also involved with the Alberta Children 's Hospital . In recognition of his community efforts , the Flames named him the 2012 recipient of the Ralph T. Scurfield Humanitarian Award , given by the team in recognition of on @-@ ice leadership coupled with community service .
= = Career statistics = =
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= SpongeBob SquarePants ( season 1 ) =
The first season of the American animated television series SpongeBob SquarePants , created by former marine biologist and animator Stephen Hillenburg , aired from May 1 , 1999 to April 8 , 2000 , and consisted of 20 episodes . The series chronicles the exploits and adventures of the title character and his various friends in the fictional underwater city of Bikini Bottom . The shows features the voices of Tom Kenny as SpongeBob SquarePants , Bill Fagerbakke as Patrick Star , Rodger Bumpass as Squidward Tentacles , Clancy Brown as Mr. Krabs , Carolyn Lawrence as Sandy Cheeks , and Mr. Lawrence as Plankton . Among the first guest stars in the show were Ernest Borgnine and Tim Conway voicing the superhero characters of Mermaid Man and Barnacle Boy , respectively .
Hillenburg initially conceived the show in 1984 and began to work on it shortly after the cancellation of Rocko 's Modern Life in 1996 . To voice the character of SpongeBob , Hillenburg approached Tom Kenny , who had worked with him on Rocko 's Modern Life . The show was originally to be called SpongeBoy Ahoy ! , but the name SpongeBoy was already in use for a mop product . Upon finding it out , Hillenburg decided to use the name " SpongeBob " . He chose " SquarePants " as a family name as it referred to the character 's square shape and it had a " nice ring to it " .
Several compilation DVDs that contained episodes from the season were released . The SpongeBob SquarePants : The Complete 1st Season DVD was released in Region 1 on October 28 , 2003 , Region 2 on November 7 , 2005 , and Region 4 on November 30 , 2006 . The pilot episode , " Help Wanted " , was not included on the DVD due to copyright issues with the song " Living in the Sunlight " by Tiny Tim , which appears in the episode , but was later released as a bonus feature on various series DVDs , including that of the third season . The season received positive reviews from media critics upon release .
= = Development = =
Creator Stephen Hillenburg initially conceived SpongeBob SquarePants in 1984 , while he was teaching and studying marine biology at what is now the Orange County Ocean Institute . During this period , Hillenburg became fascinated with animation , and wrote a comic book entitled The Intertidal Zone starring various anthropomorphic forms of sea life , many of which would evolve into SpongeBob SquarePants characters , including " Bob the Sponge " , who was the co @-@ host of the comic and resembled an actual sea sponge , as opposed to SpongeBob who resembles a kitchen sponge . In 1987 , Hillenburg left the institute to pursue his dream of becoming an animator , and began to envision the possible concept of a project involving anthropomorphic sea life , drawing several rough sketches . In 1992 , Hillenburg began to attend the California Institute of the Arts to study animation , having been accepted into the institute by Jules Engel , who was impressed with Hillenburg 's previous work .
While attending animation school , Hillenburg received a job on the children 's television series Mother Goose and Grimm , and worked on the series from 1991 to 1993 . When attending the California Institute of the Arts , he made his thesis film entitled Wormholes , which was funded by the Princess Grace Foundation and was later displayed at various animation festivals . In 1995 , Joe Murray , creator of Rocko 's Modern Life , met Hillenburg at an animation festival , and offered him a job as a director of the series .
Rocko 's Modern Life ended in 1996 . Shortly following this , Hillenburg began working on SpongeBob SquarePants , teaming up with several Nickelodeon veterans and Rocko crew members , including creative director Derek Drymon , writers and directors Sherm Cohen and Dan Povenmire , writer Tim Hill , actor and writer Martin Olson , animation director Alan Smart , and story editor Merriwether Williams . To voice the character of SpongeBob , Hillenburg approached Tom Kenny , who had worked with him on Rocko 's Modern Life . Originally the character was to be named SpongeBoy and the show would be called SpongeBoy Ahoy ! . However , the Nickelodeon legal department discovered that the name SpongeBoy was already in use for a mop product . This was discovered after voice acting for the original seven @-@ minute pilot was recorded in 1997 . Upon finding this out , Hillenburg decided that the character 's given name still had to contain " Sponge " so viewers would not mistake the character for a " Cheese Man " . Hillenburg decided to use the name " SpongeBob " . He chose " SquarePants " as a family name as it referred to the character 's square shape and it had a " nice ring to it " .
= = Production = =
= = = Cast = = =
The first season had a cast of six main actors . Tom Kenny provided the voice of the title character SpongeBob SquarePants and his pet snail Gary . SpongeBob 's best friend , a starfish named Patrick Star , was voiced by Bill Fagerbakke , while Rodger Bumpass played the voice of Squidward Tentacles , an arrogant and ill @-@ tempered octopus . Other members of the cast were Carolyn Lawrence as Sandy Cheeks , a squirrel from Texas ; Clancy Brown as Mr. Krabs , a miserly crab obsessed with money and SpongeBob 's boss at the Krusty Krab ; and Mr. Lawrence as Plankton , a small green copepod and Mr. Krabs ' business rival .
While Hillenburg , Derek Drymon , and Tim Hill were writing the pilot " Help Wanted " , Hillenburg was also conducting auditions to find voices for the show characters . He had created the character of SpongeBob with Tom Kenny , in which he utilised Kenny 's and other people 's personalities to help create SpongeBob 's personality . The voice of SpongeBob was originally used by Kenny for a very minor female alligator character named Al in Rocko 's Modern Life . Kenny forgot the voice initially as he created it only for that single use . Hillenburg , however , remembered it when he was coming up with SpongeBob and used a video clip of the episode to remind Kenny of the voice . Kenny says that SpongeBob 's high pitched laugh was specifically aimed at being unique , stating that they wanted an annoying laugh in the tradition of Popeye and Woody Woodpecker . Hillenburg originally had Mr. Lawrence for the role of voicing Squidward . Drymon said " We knew Doug from Rocko , where he was a storyboard director and where he also did the voice of Filburt . We were showing Doug the storyboard , and he started reading back to us in his Tony the Tiger / Gregory Peck voice . It was really funny , and we wound up having SpongeBob use a deep voice when he entered the Krusty Krab for the first time . " Hillenburg loved the voice and decided to give Lawrence the part of the series villain , Plankton .
The season had a number of secondary characters including Jill Talley as Plankton 's computer wife , Karen ; Mary Jo Catlett as Mrs. Puff , SpongeBob 's driving instructor ; Lori Alan as Pearl , Mr. Krabs ' daughter ; and Brian Doyle @-@ Murray as the Flying Dutchman . In addition to the regular cast members , episodes feature guest voices from many ranges of professions , including actors , musicians , and artists . Former McHale 's Navy actors Ernest Borgnine and Tim Conway reunited for their first joint TV project in 33 years as guest actors portraying SpongeBob 's favorite superheroes , Mermaid Man and Barnacle Boy , respectively . Borgnine said " We [ he and Conway ] played off each other . Tim 's such a performer - a little more caustic than I am . We were making all sorts of noise . People outside the room were guffawing . We 're supposed to be underwater , you know . " They would reprise their role in the episode " Mermaid Man and Barnacle Boy II " , which also guest starred Charles Nelson Reilly as their nemesis , the Dirty Bubble . In the episode " Scaredy Pants " , a Halloween special , American band the Ghastly Ones performed a special musical performance , while Brian Doyle @-@ Murray voiced the Flying Dutchman . American country guitarist and singer Junior Brown made a vocal cameo , performing the song " Texas " in the episode of the same name . In " Neptune 's Spatula " , John O 'Hurley appeared as King Neptune . John Lurie and Jim Jarmusch ( who collaborated to make the films Stranger Than Paradise and Down by Law ) made a cameo as themselves in the episode " Hooky " , through excerpts from the Bravo serial , Fishing with John .
= = = Writing = = =
Prior to start of production on the show , Hillenburg decided early that he wanted SpongeBob SquarePants to be a storyboard @-@ driven show , rather than script @-@ driven . Storyboard @-@ driven is an approach that required artists who could take a skeletal story outline and flesh it out with sight gags , dialogue and a structure that " would strike a balance between narrative and whimsy . " Hillenburg originally wanted " a team of young and hungry people " to work on the show . The group , who worked with Hillenburg on Rocko 's Modern Life before , consisted of Alan Smart , Nick Jennings , and Derek Drymon . Tim Hill was asked about if he want to work as story editor , but was unavailable at the time . The crew got Peter Burns to work as story editor who developed the idea for the episode " Ripped Pants " about SpongeBob ripping his pants .
During the first season , the writing staff used most of the story ideas that were in Hillenburg 's series bible and they had problems on how to generate new ideas . At one point , the writing staff went to the beach for inspiration for a possible episode . However , the day " was overcast and cold , so we [ the writers ] had to stay in the car . " Drymon said " We didn 't come up with too many ideas that day . " Story editor Peter Burns left , and the crew had Merriwether Williams to overtake . Hillenburg said to Williams that " it was her responsibility to get us [ the writers ] to come up with new ideas . " Drymon said " [ It ] is a tall order . " Williams gave Drymon a book called Zen in the Art of Writing , written by Ray Bradbury , that catalogs a collection of essays about writing processes . One of the ways in the book to inspire plots was " to write nouns that interested him [ Bradbury ] on a note card and hang them in his office . He felt just having the word in his eyesight would get his mind working . " Williams took this scheme and made it into " a writing exercise . " In writing meetings , the staff would all enumerate 10 nouns on strips of paper and place them in a hat . The hat would be passed throughout and a writer would have a limited time to spawn an idea based on the noun he wrote . Drymon said " It would almost always start a discussion , and we wound up getting a lot of episodes out of it . " Furthermore , Drymon said that Williams " really came up with a great addition to the process . "
One time , Hillenburg came to Williams and said , " Why don 't you go read a bunch of books about writing . " Hillenburg wanted to keep the enthusiasm in the writing room , because , according to Williams , " sometimes it can be a slog . " She went off , read more books about writing , and came up with two more exercises for writing meetings .
= = = Animation and design = = =
The animation was handled overseas in South Korea at Rough Draft Studios . Throughout the season 's run , from 1999 to 2000 , SpongeBob was animated using cel animation . The show shifted to digital ink and paint animation during its second season in 2000 . Executive producer Paul Tibbitt , in 2009 , said " [ ... ] The first season of SpongeBob was done the old @-@ fashioned way on cells , and every cell had to be part @-@ painted , left to dry , paint some other colors . It 's still a time @-@ consuming aspect of the process now , but the digital way of doing things means it doesn 't take long to correct . " The season was storyboarded and by Sherm Cohen , Derek Drymon , Steve Fonti , Stephen Hillenburg , Chuck Klein , Jay Lender , Chris Mitchell , Mark O 'Hare , Aaron Springer , Paul Tibbitt , Ennio Torresan , Vincent Waller , and Erik Wiese .
When the crew began production on the pilot , they were tasked to design the stock locations where " [ ... ] the show would return to again and again , and in which most of the action would take place , such as the Krusty Krab and SpongeBob 's pineapple house . " Hillenburg had a " clear vision " of what he wanted the show to look like . The idea was " to keep everything nautical " so the crew used lots of rope , wooden planks , ships ' wheels , netting , anchors , and boilerplate and rivets .
The season marked the introduction of the " sky flowers " as the main background . It first appeared in the pilot and has since become a common feature throughout the series . When series background designer Kenny Pittenger was asked " What are those things ? , " he answered " They function as clouds in a way , but since the show takes place underwater , they aren 't really clouds . " Since the show was influenced by tiki , the background painters have to use a lot of pattern . Pittenger said " So really , the sky flowers are mostly a whimsical design element that Steve [ Hillenburg ] came up with to evoke the look of a flower @-@ print Hawaiian shirt — or something like that . I don 't know what they are either . "
= = Reception = =
The season was critically acclaimed . Three of its episodes won Best Sound Editing in Television Animation at the 2000 Golden Reel Awards . It consisted of the episodes " Mermaid Man and Barnacle Boy " and " Pickles " for Music , while the " Karate Choppers " won for the Sound . In 2001 , " Rock Bottom " and " Arrgh ! " also won the Golden Reel Awards for Best Sound Editing in Television Animation — Sound , while " Fools in April " and " Neptune 's Spatula " were nominated for Best Sound Editing in Television Animation — Music .
In his review for the Variety , Noel Holston said " [ The show ] is smarter and freakier than most of the prime @-@ time animated series that have popped up in the past year . " Furthermore , most of the first season DVD reviews were positive towards the series as being one of the best American comedy shows . In a DVD review by Bill Treadway for DVD Verdict , he called the show " the best animated American comedy since The Simpsons , it is a claim I stand behind . " Treadway said the show is " accessible to all " that " adults will enjoy the witty satire and sly in @-@ jokes subtly inserted into every episode . " He also mentioned that " children will love the bright colors , spunky pace , and lively characters " and that " parents will not have to worry about violence or crude humor . " Jason Bovberg of DVD Talk called SpongeBob SquarePants " the coolest Saturday morning cartoon since the heyday of Warner Bros. " In a separate review for the season 's DVD release , Bovberg " highly recommended " the set and wrote " I love the show so much , I can 't see any way around giving this one a recommendation . " Bovberg was particular on the exclusion of the pilot episode " Help Wanted " , saying " But why is ' Help Wanted ' missing ? I suppose I 'll have to buy a " theme " disc down the road to secure that one . Sigh . " Furthermore , he described it as " the only disappointment of the set . " Ron J. Epstein , also from DVD Talk , said that the character of SpongeBob is " one of the strangest cartoon characters I have ever had the pleasure to watch . " He said that " Unlike most cartoons today , SpongeBob SquarePants caters to both a child and an adult audience . "
In his review for The Washington Post , Michael Cavna rewatched the pilot episode " Help Wanted " in 2009 and said " so much of the style and polish are already in place . " He ranked the episode at No. 3 at his The Top Five SpongeBob Episodes : We Pick ' Em list . Nancy Basile of the About.com said " [ The ] humor and optimistic essence of SpongeBob is evident even in this first episode . "
= = Episodes = =
Key
The following episodes listed in the chart are arranged according to their production order , rather than by their original air dates .
= = DVD release = =
The DVD boxset for season one was released by Paramount Home Entertainment and Nickelodeon in the United States and Canada in October 2003 , three years after it had completed broadcast on television . The DVD release features bonus materials including audio commentaries , featurettes , and music videos . The pilot episode " Help Wanted " was excluded in the DVD release due to copyright issues . According to Derek Drymon , the episode was not included because Nickelodeon did not want to pay Tiny Tim 's estate for the DVD rights . " Help Wanted " was later released on the SpongeBob SquarePants : The Complete 3rd Season DVD as a bonus feature on September 27 , 2005 . It was also released on the SpongeBob SquarePants : The First 100 Episodes DVD , alongside all the episodes of seasons one through five . The DVD included a featurette called " Help Wanted " the Seven Seas Edition that featured " Help Wanted " in numerous languages . The episode was also a bonus feature in the series DVD called SpongeBob SquarePants : 10 Happiest Moments that was released on September 14 , 2010 . Upon release , the DVD set was quickly sold out at Best Buy and was selling " briskly " at online retailers , including Amazon.com , Barnes & Noble and Walmart . In 2012 , the DVD was released in slim packaging .
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= Einherjar =
In Norse mythology , the einherjar ( Old Norse " single ( or once ) fighters " ) are those who have died in battle and are brought to Valhalla by valkyries . In Valhalla , the einherjar eat their fill of the nightly @-@ resurrecting beast Sæhrímnir , and are brought their fill of mead ( from the udder of the goat Heiðrún ) by valkyries . The einherjar prepare daily for the events of Ragnarök , when they will advance for an immense battle at the field of Vígríðr ; the battle which the " ein " ( here meaning single @-@ time ) refers to . Heimdall occasionally returned the best of Einherjar to Midgard or Jotunheim with the purpose of killing giants , but they were forbidden to talk with the living .
The einherjar are attested in the Poetic Edda , compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources , the Prose Edda , written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson , the poem Hákonarmál ( by the 10th century skald Eyvindr skáldaspillir ) as collected in Heimskringla , and a stanza of an anonymous 10th century poem commemorating the death of Eric Bloodaxe known as Eiríksmál as compiled in Fagrskinna .
Scholarly theories have been proposed etymologically connecting the einherjar to the Harii ( a Germanic tribe attested in the 1st century AD ) , the eternal battle of Hjaðningavíg , and the Wild Hunt . The einherjar have been the subject of works of art and poetry . Valhalla is the place of Odin . It is told in Norse mythology that einherjar are those with golden auras only seen by Valkyries . The einherjar are the Warriors trained by Asgardians .
= = Attestations = =
= = = Poetic Edda = = =
In the poem Vafþrúðnismál , Odin engages the wise jötunn Vafþrúðnir in a game of wits . Disguised as Gagnráðr , Odin asks Vafþrúðnir " where men fight in courts every day . " Vafþrúðnir responds that ( here einherjar is translated as einheriar ) :
In the poem Grímnismál , Odin ( disguised as Grímnir ) tells the young Agnar that the cook Andhrímnir boils the beast Sæhrímnir , which he refers to as " the best of pork " , in the container Eldhrímnir , yet adds that " but few know by what the einheriar are nourished . " Further into Grímnismál , Odin gives a list of valkyries ( Skeggjöld , Skögul , Hildr , Þrúðr , Hlökk , Herfjötur , Göll , Geirahöð , Randgríð , Ráðgríð , and Reginleif ) , and states that they bear ale to the einherjar . Towards the end of the poem , another reference to the einherjar appears when Odin tells the king Geirröd ( unaware that the man he has been torturing is Odin ) that Geirröd is drunk , and that Geirröd loses much when he loses his favor and the favor of " all the Einherjar . "
In the poem Helgakviða Hundingsbana I , the hero Sinfjötli flyts with Guðmundr . Sinfjötli accuses Guðmundr of having once been a female , including that he was " a witch , horrible , unnatural , among Odin 's valkyries " and that all of the einherjar " had to fight , headstrong women , on your account " .
= = = Prose Edda = = =
In the Prose Edda book Gylfaginning , the einherjar are introduced in chapter 20 . In chapter 20 , Third tells Gangleri ( described as king Gylfi in disguise ) that Odin is called Valföðr ( Old Norse " father of the slain " ) " since all those who fall in battle are his adopted sons , " and that Odin assigns them places in Valhalla and Vingólf where they are known as einherjar . In chapter 35 , High quotes the Grímnismál valkyrie list , and says that these valkyries wait in Valhalla , and there serve drink , and look after tableware and drinking vessels in Valhalla . In addition , High says that Odin sends valkyries to every battle , that they allot death to men , and govern victory .
In chapter 38 , High provides more detail about the einherjar . Gangleri says that " you say that all those men that have fallen in battle since the beginning of the world have now come to Odin in Val @-@ hall . What has he got to offer them food ? I should have thought that there must be a pretty large number there . " High replies that it is true there are a pretty large number of men there , adding many more have yet to arrive , yet that " there will seem too few when the wolf comes . " However , High adds that food is not a problem because there will never be too many people in Valhalla that the meat of Sæhrímnir ( which he calls a boar ) cannot sufficiently feed . High says that Sæhrímnir is cooked every day by the cook Andhrímnir in the pot Eldhrimnir , and is again whole every evening . High then quotes the stanza of Grímnismál mentioning the cook , meal , and container in reference .
Further into chapter 38 , Gangleri asks if Odin consumes the same meals as the einherjar . High responds that Odin gives the food on his table to his two wolves Geri and Freki , and that Odin himself needs no food , for Odin gains sustenance from wine as if it were drink and meat . High then quotes another stanza from Grímnismál in reference . In chapter 39 , Gangleri asks what the einherjar drink that is as plentiful as their food , and if they drink water . High responds that it is strange that Gangleri is asking if Odin , the All @-@ Father , would invite kings , earls , and other " men of rank " to his home and give them water to drink . High says that he " swears by his faith " that many who come to Valhalla would think that he paid a high price for a drink of water if there were no better beverages there , after having died of wounds and in agony . High continues that atop Valhalla stands the goat Heiðrún , and it feeds on the foliage of the tree called Læraðr . From Heiðrún 's udders flow mead that fills a vat a day . The vat is so large that all of the einherjar are able to drink to their fullness from it .
In chapter 40 , Gangleri says that Valhalla must be an immense building , yet it must often be crowded around the doorways . High responds that there are plenty of doors , and that crowding doesn 't occur around them . In support , High again quotes a stanza from Grímnismál . In chapter 41 , Gangleri notes that there are very many people in Valhalla , and that Odin is a " very great lord when he commands such a troop " . Gangleri then asks what entertainment the einherjar have when they 're not drinking . High responds that every day , the einherjar get dressed and " put on war @-@ gear and go out into the courtyard and fight each other and fall upon each other . This is their sport . " High says that when dinner time arrives , the einherjar ride back to Valhalla and sit down to drink . In reference , High quotes a stanza from Grímnismál .
In chapter 51 , High foretells the events of Ragnarök . After the god Heimdallr awakens all the gods by blowing his horn Gjallarhorn , they will assemble at a thing , Odin will ride to the well Mímisbrunnr and consult Mímir on behalf of himself and his people , the world tree Yggdrasil will shake , and then the Æsir and the einherjar will don their war gear . The Æsir and einherjar will ride to the field Vígríðr while Odin rides before them clad in a golden helmet , mail , and holding his spear Gungnir , and heading towards the wolf Fenrir .
In chapter 52 , Gangleri asks what will happen after the heavens , earth , and all of the world are burned and the gods , einherjar and all of mankind have died , noting that he had previously been told that " everyone will live in some world or other for ever and ever . " High replies with a list of locations , and then describes the re @-@ emerging of the world after Ragnarök . The einherjar receive a final mention in the Prose Edda in chapter 2 of the book Skáldskaparmál , where a quote from the anonymous 10th century poem Eiríksmál is provided ( see the Fagrskinna section below for more detail and another translation from another source ) :
= = = Heimskringla = = =
At the end of the Heimskringla saga Hákonar saga góða , the poem Hákonarmál ( by the 10th century skald Eyvindr skáldaspillir ) is presented . The saga relates that king Haakon I of Norway died in battle , and yet though he is Christian , he requests that since he has died " among heathens , then give me such burial place as seems most fitting to you . " The saga relates that , shortly after , Haakon died on the same slab of rock that he was born upon , that he was greatly mourned by friend and foe alike , and that his friends moved his body northward to Sæheim in North Hordaland . Haakon was there buried in a large burial mound in full armor and his finest clothing , yet with no other valuables . Further , " words were spoken over his grave according to the custom of heathen men , and they put him on the way to Valhalla . " The poem Hákonarmál is then provided .
In Hákonarmál , Odin sends forth the two valkyries Göndul and Skögul to " choose among the kings ' kinsmen " and who in battle should dwell with Odin in Valhalla . A battle rages with great slaughter . Haakon and his men die in battle , and they see the valkyrie Göndul leaning on a spear shaft . Göndul comments that " groweth now the gods ' following , since Hákon has been with host so goodly bidden home with holy godheads . " Haakon hears " what the valkyries said , " and the valkyries are described as sitting " high @-@ hearted on horseback , " wearing helmets , carrying shields and that the horses wisely bore them . A brief exchange follows between Haakon and the valkyrie Skögul :
Skögul says that they shall now ride forth to the " green homes of the godheads " to tell Odin the king will come to Valhalla . In Valhalla , Haakon is greeted by Hermóðr and Bragi . Haakon expresses concern that he shall receive Odin 's hate ( Lee Hollander theorizes this may be due to Haakon 's conversion to Christianity from his native heathenism ) , yet Bragi responds that he is welcome :
= = = Fagrskinna = = =
In chapter 8 of Fagrskinna , a prose narrative states that , after the death of her husband Eric Bloodaxe , Gunnhild Mother of Kings had a poem composed about him . The composition is by an anonymous author from the 10th century and is referred to as Eiríksmál , and describes Eric Bloodaxe and five other kings arriving in Valhalla after their death . The poem begins with comments by Odin ( as Old Norse Óðinn ) :
The god Bragi asks where a thundering sound is coming from , and says that the benches of Valhalla are creaking — as if the god Baldr had returned to Valhalla — and that it sounds like the movement of a thousand . Odin responds that Bragi knows well that the sounds are for Eric Bloodaxe , who will soon arrive in Valhalla . Odin tells the heroes Sigmund and Sinfjötli to rise to greet Eric and invite him into the hall , if it is indeed he .
Sigmund asks Odin why he would expect Eric more than any other king , to which Odin responds that Eric has reddened his gore @-@ drenched sword with many other lands . Eric arrives , and Sigmund greets him , tells him that he is welcome to come into the hall , and asks him what other lords he has brought with him to Valhalla . Eric says that with him are five kings , that he will tell them the name of them all , and that he , himself , is the sixth .
= = Theories and proposed etymological connections = =
According to John Lindow , Andy Orchard , and Rudolf Simek , scholars have commonly connected the einherjar to the Harii , a Germanic tribe attested by Tacitus in his 1st @-@ century AD work Germania . Tacitus writes :
As for the Harii , quite apart from their strength , which exceeds that of the other tribes I have just listed , they pander to their innate savagery by skill and timing : with black shields and painted bodies , they choose dark nights to fight , and by means of terror and shadow of a ghostly army they cause panic , since no enemy can bear a sight so unexpected and hellish ; in every battle the eyes are the first to be conquered .
Lindow says that " many scholars think there may be basis for the myth in an ancient Odin cult , which would be centered on young warriors who entered into an ecstatic relationship with Odin " and that the name Harii has been etymologically connected to the -herjar element of einherjar . Simek says that since the connection has become widespread , " one tends to interpret these obviously living armies of the dead as religiously motivated bands of warriors , who led to the formation of the concept of the einherjar as well as the Wild Hunt [ ... ] " . Simek continues that the notion of an eternal battle and daily resurrection appears in book I of Saxo Grammaticus ' Gesta Danorum and in reports of the eternal battle of Hjaðningavíg .
According to Guðbrandur Vigfússon , the concept of the einherjar links directly to the Old Norse name Einarr . Vigfússon comments that " the name Einarr is properly = einheri " , and points to a relation to the term with the Old Norse common nouns einarðr ( meaning " bold " ) and einörð ( meaning " valour " ) .
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= Italian cruiser Etna =
Etna was a protected cruiser of the Italian Regia Marina ( Royal Navy ) built in the 1880s . She was the lead ship of the Etna class , which included three sister ships . Named for Mount Etna on the island of Sicily , the ship was laid down in January 1883 , was launched in September 1885 , and was completed in December 1887 . She was armed with a main battery of two 10 @-@ inch ( 254 mm ) and six 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) guns , and could steam at a speed of around 17 knots ( 31 km / h ; 20 mph ) .
Etna frequently cruised abroad throughout her career , including visits to the United States for the World 's Columbian Exposition and the Hudson @-@ Fulton Celebration in 1893 and 1909 , respectively . She served as a training ship for naval cadets from 1907 . She saw action during the Italo @-@ Turkish War of 1911 – 12 , primarily providing gunfire support to Italian troops ashore in Libya . By the outbreak of World War I in 1914 , Etna had been withdrawn from service and was employed as a headquarters ship for the commander of the Italian fleet at Taranto and later for the light forces based at Brindisi . The old cruiser was finally sold for scrap in May 1921 .
= = Description = =
Etna was 283 feet 6 inches ( 86 @.@ 4 m ) between perpendiculars , with a beam of 42 feet 6 inches ( 13 @.@ 0 m ) . She had a mean draft of 19 feet ( 5 @.@ 8 m ) and displaced between 3 @,@ 474 long tons ( 3 @,@ 530 t ) . Her crew numbered 12 officers and 296 men . The ship had two horizontal compound steam engines , each driving a single propeller , with steam provided by four double @-@ ended cylindrical boilers . Etna was credited with a top speed of 17 @.@ 8 knots ( 33 @.@ 0 km / h ; 20 @.@ 5 mph ) from 7 @,@ 480 indicated horsepower ( 5 @,@ 580 kW ) . She had a cruising radius of 5 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 9 @,@ 300 km ; 5 @,@ 800 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
The main armament of the ships consisted of two Armstrong 10 @-@ inch ( 254 mm ) , 30 @-@ caliber breech @-@ loading guns mounted in barbettes fore and aft . She was also equipped with six 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) , 32 @-@ caliber , breech @-@ loading guns that were carried in sponsons along the sides of the ship . For anti @-@ torpedo boat defense , Etna was fitted with five 57 @-@ millimeter ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) 6 @-@ pounder Hotchkiss guns and five 37 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) 1 @-@ pounder Hotchkiss guns . Etna was also armed with four 14 @-@ inch ( 356 mm ) torpedo tubes . One was mounted in the bow underwater and the other three were above water . She was protected with an armored deck below the waterline with a maximum thickness of 1 @.@ 5 inches ( 38 mm ) . The conning tower had .5 in ( 13 mm ) worth of armor plating .
From 1905 to 1907 the ship was rebuilt with forecastle and poop decks added and her armament was revised . The heavy 10 @-@ inch guns were replaced with two quick @-@ firing ( QF ) 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch ( 120 mm ) guns and the six breech @-@ loading 6 @-@ inch guns were replaced by four QF 6 @-@ inch guns , two on each side amidships .
= = Service history = =
Etna was built by the Castellammare shipyard ; her keel was laid down on 19 January 1883 and her completed hull was launched on 26 September 1885 . After fitting @-@ out work was finished , she was commissioned into the Italian fleet on 3 December 1887 . Etna served in the Squadra Permamente ( Permanent Squadron ) from her commissioning to 1893 and then served in North and South American waters until the end of 1895 . During this period , Etna and the protected cruisers Dogali and Giovanni Bausan represented Italy at the international naval review in New York , held at the start of the World 's Columbian Exposition in Chicago in 1893 . The Exposition marked the 400th anniversary of Christopher Columbus 's arrival in North America . Contingents from France , Germany , Britain , Spain , and several other nations also participated in the celebration . During the visit , she flew the flag of Rear Admiral G. B. Magnaghi ,
During the First Italo @-@ Ethiopian War of 1895 – 6 she was stationed in the Red Sea . She thereafter supported Italian interests during the Cretan Revolt of 1898 . In 1897 , Etna was assigned to the cruiser squadron along with Lombardia and Dogali . The ship was then transferred to the Far East , during which time she made a visit to Sydney , Australia . She returned home in 1902 and was disarmed ; she was then commissioned as the flagship of the Superior Torpedo @-@ Boat Command in 1904 . In 1907 , Etna was converted into a training cruiser for naval cadets . Etna visited the United States in September 1909 for the Hudson @-@ Fulton Celebration in New York City , which also included ships from the German , British , and French fleets , among others , in addition to the hosting US Navy . On this occasion , she was joined by the cruiser Etruria .
Etna saw limited action during the Italo @-@ Turkish War in 1911 – 12 . At the outbreak of the war in September 1911 , she was stationed in eastern Africa , where Italy had colonies in Eritrea and Somaliland . She was joined there by the cruisers Elba , Liguria , Piemonte and Puglia . In December 1911 , she was stationed at Tobruk , where she , the battleship Vittorio Emanuele , the cruiser Etruria , and twelve torpedo boats provided gunfire support to the Italians defending the city . She remained there through January 1912 while the bulk of the Italian fleet returned to Italy for repairs . In April , Etna bombarded Ottoman positions outside Benghazi , and in August , she sent men ashore at Zuwarah to relieve the garrison there . On 13 September she shelled Ottoman troops near the ruins of ancient Tripoli . The following month , the Ottomans agreed to surrender , ending the war .
In September 1914 , Etna was withdrawn from service as a training ship and used instead as a floating headquarters . Italy entered World War I in May 1915 and the ship was thereafter used as a harbor defense ship before returning to her previous role as a headquarters ship for the commander in chief of the Italian fleet at Taranto . By May 1917 , she had been transferred to Brindisi , where she served as the headquarters ship for Rear Admiral Alfredo Acton during the Battle of the Strait of Otranto . The old cruiser was sold for scrapping on 15 May 1921 , and was the last surviving ship of her class .
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= Hotarubi no Mori e =
Hotarubi no Mori e ( Japanese : 蛍火の杜へ , lit . " Into the Forest of Fireflies ' Light " ) is a one @-@ shot shōjo manga written by Yuki Midorikawa . It was published in the July 2002 issue of LaLa DX in Japan , and in July 2003 it was reprinted in a tankōbon short story collection of the same name , which included four romantic one @-@ shot stories written by Midorikawa . Hotarubi no Mori e tells the story of a young girl named Hotaru and her friendship with Gin , a strange young man wearing a mask , who she meets at the age of six in a mountain forest near her grandfather 's country home . Hotaru learns that her friend is supernatural and that touching Gin will cause him to disappear forever . Hotaru returns every summer to spend time with Gin , and their relationship matures as both struggle with its limitations . The inspiration to write the story came suddenly to Midorikawa , who immediately drew the manga — a process that went smoothly despite some initial conflicting elements . Hotarubi no Mori e is considered a starting point for Midorikawa 's best known work , Natsume 's Book of Friends .
A 44 @-@ minute anime film with the same title was produced in 2011 at the anime studio Brain 's Base and directed by Takahiro Omori . The film starred Japanese voice actors Ayane Sakura and Kōki Uchiyama , and its soundtrack included music by Makoto Yoshimori . The film maintained a strong following for months in Japan after its opening on September 17 , 2011 . The European premiere of Hotarubi no Mori e was on October 8 , 2011 at the Scotland Loves Animation festival , where it won the Jury Prize . It was screened at the Leeds International Film Festival , Anime Contents Expo and Anime Expo convention , and also won the Animation Film Award at the 66th Annual Mainichi Film Awards .
The anime was released on Blu @-@ ray Disc ( BD ) and DVD in Japan on February 22 , 2012 . An additional story related to the original manga and anime film , titled Hotarubi no Mori e Tokubetsuhen ( 蛍火の杜へ 特別編 ) , was released in a keepsake edition of the manga 12 days prior to the release of the anime . Both the keepsake edition manga and the limited edition BD ranked No. 13 on Japan 's Oricon sales chart shortly after their release . Sakura reported experiencing a strong emotional reaction to the story while recording the voice of Hotaru , and Midorikawa acknowledged that the story had a positive impact on her career . Reviewers universally praised the anime film for its beauty , simplicity , and tenderness , likening it to the works of Hayao Miyazaki of Studio Ghibli and Makoto Shinkai . There were few criticisms , most commonly focusing on its short length .
= = Plot = =
The original Hotarubi no Mori e shōjo manga and subsequent film tell the story of a six @-@ year @-@ old girl named Hotaru Takegawa , who gets lost in a forest inhabited by a yamagami , or mountain spirit , as well as yōkai ( strange apparitions from Japanese folklore ) . She is found by a mask @-@ wearing , human @-@ like entity named Gin , who informs Hotaru that he will disappear forever if he is touched by a human . Gin then leads Hotaru out of the forest . Hotaru returns to visit Gin in the forest over the next few days and they become friends despite the limitations on their interactions . Although at summer 's end she must leave Gin to return to the city and her studies , Hotaru promises to return to visit him every summer holiday . As the years go by , Gin hardly ages while Hotaru physically matures and grows closer to his apparent age . Upon reaching adolescence Hotaru begins to struggle with their budding romance and their uncertain future together , while Gin wishes he could touch and hold the young woman that Hotaru has become . When Hotaru reaches high school , Gin takes her on a date to a festival in the forest hosted by the spirits . The night ends in tragedy when Gin mistakenly touches a young boy who sneaked into the spirit festival , though before he disappears , he and Hotaru embrace and confess their love for one another . The story ends with Hotaru accepting her pain and moving on with her life . The 2011 anime film adaptation of the story follows all of the events from the manga , adding only a few additional scenes .
Hotarubi no Mori e Tokubetsuhen ( 蛍火の杜へ 特別編 ) , published in 2011 , expands on the original story with a short episode told from Gin 's perspective . When Hotaru is a teenager , she shares some pudding with Gin before she leaves at the end of the summer . After Hotaru leaves , the yōkai attempt to cheer Gin up by bringing him a couple persimmons , one of the most prized treats on the mountain . Impressed with the taste , Gin thinks of sharing one of these persimmons with Hotaru next year . After discussing ways to preserve the persimmon with the yōkai and a spirit named Matsumino , Gin sets off to find ice on the highest mountain peak , but is disappointed to find none during the summer . When Gin returns scratched up from his fruitless search for ice , Matsumino feels sorry for him and offers to deliver the persimmon to Hotaru for him . However , not knowing where she lives , Matsumino gets lost and grows hungry . After he returns from his unsuccessful attempt to find Hotaru , Matsumino apologizes to Gin for eating the persimmon and Gin forgives him . The story concludes with Gin seeing Hotaru the following summer and wondering if he will be able to tell her about his feelings for her .
= = Production = =
= = = Manga = = =
The author , Yuki Midorikawa , explained in the postscript of the Aizoban Hotarubi no Mori e reprint that the idea for the story came to her more easily than for any other work up until that point . Although she had been planning to write a story as challenging as Hotarubi no Mori e once she had gained more experience writing manga , she decided to undertake the project sooner when the idea for the story suddenly came to her . Afraid that she might lose the idea , she promptly began to draw it , and Midorikawa 's writing progressed smoothly despite having numerous conflicting ideas for the development of the story .
The story came from Midorikawa 's desire to draw several scenes . She was interested in drawing a scene where a boy dodges a girl who is falling towards him . She also wanted to draw a shadowy summertime forest , which would allow her to expand the range of tones and blacks used in the manga . A third inspiration was the desire to depict a more tranquil summer festival than those she had drawn before . She was also eager to create the mask worn by Gin at the festival , which resembled the face of a fox whose typical slitted eyes were replaced by oval ones to give the mask a " creepy " hybrid fox @-@ primate appearance .
The supernatural love story between Hotaru and Gin is considered a starting point for Midorikawa 's best known work , Natsume 's Book of Friends , which also depicts ill @-@ fated interactions between humans and yōkai ( sometimes referred to as ayakashi ) . In both stories , differences in lifespan and other insurmountable barriers mar their relationships and attempts to understand each other .
Prior to the anime film 's theatrical release in 2011 , Midorikawa published an additional chapter to the story , Hotarubi no Mori e Tokubetsuhen . Since the original story was already complete and she initially felt uncomfortable about adding to it , she opted instead to expand on the story from Gin 's perspective .
= = = Anime = = =
According to the animation director , Yumi Satou , the anime project originated with his personal wish to animate original manga , which he enjoyed . The project was given approval in early 2011 , and according to the film 's producer , Shuko Yokoyama , the anime was originally planned as an OVA ( Original video animation ) , which would not have been released in theaters . However , the popularity of Natsume 's Book of Friends , which was also written by Midorikawa and developed by the same production staff , gave them the support they needed to create an anime film . The film was produced by the studio Brain 's Base and directed by Takahiro Omori , starring Japanese voice actors Ayane Sakura as Hotaru and Kōki Uchiyama as Gin . Satou had frequently worked together with Yokoyama on previous projects . Other staff included Akira Takata ( character design ) , Yukihiro Shibuya ( art ) , Hiromi Miyawaki ( color design ) , Hitoshi Tamura ( photography ) , and Kazuhiko Seki ( editor ) . The anime film had a very small staff because it was a very short film and was produced domestically , unlike the TV series , Natsume 's Book of Friends , which was primarily outsourced to other countries — a common trend in anime production .
In March 2011 , midway through production , the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami struck Japan . Despite the national tragedy , the production crew continued its work , and according to Omori , the team hoped that their work would help soothe the nation after it had time to recover . Omori speculated that this was part of the reason for the strong positive reception and the awards the anime later received .
The setting in the manga was based on a shrine in the Kumamoto Prefecture of Japan , known as Kamishikimi Kumanoimasu Shrine , which is dedicated to Izanagi @-@ no @-@ Mikoto and Izanami @-@ no @-@ Mikoto from Japanese mythology . The animation crew spent two hours searching the location for settings on which they could base their art . Because the story was set in the forest of a mountain god , Omori intended the art to represent a " different world " where the background scenery was obscure and the blue sky was slightly brighter than normal . Omori and his crew devoted extra attention to lighting and coloring , making the forest dim with light coming through the canopy and landing on the characters with the appropriate intensity . The contrast between light and dark was also used during the festival scene to emphasize its bizarre nature , reminding the audience that Hotaru should not be there . Because of the significance of the summer season to the story , Omori deliberately loaded the film with summer scenes , such as rustling leaves and chirring of cicadas .
According to the Omori , the idea for the opening scene was suggested by Yokoyama ; following traditional cinematography , the images of scenes indirectly related to the main story were played while the opening credits appeared . Originally intended to show Gin 's life before meeting Hotaru , Omori allowed the viewer to decide its relationship in time with the main story . Omori also opted to start Hotaru 's narration from a time after the story 's main events ; showing Hotaru as an 18 @-@ year @-@ old who had just graduated high school and heading back to visit her relatives near the forest . By having Hotaru tell the story in retrospect , Omori thought it provided a more human feel and gave more meaning to the final scene , where Hotaru expresses her hopes for the future by saying , " Come on , let 's go . "
One of the difficulties in adapting the manga to anime , according to Omori , was that the developing relationship between Hotaru and Gin had to be shown visually , rather than through monologue . One way in which this was done used Hotaru 's yearly change in height — by subtly showing the convergence of the length of their strides when walking , the audience is led to perceive a change in their relationship . Omori also wanted to portray more depth to Hotaru 's character by expanding on her school life . Although the manga depicted a brief flash of her life in middle school , the anime depicted scenes from both aspects of her life .
Omori shared a draft of the film with composer Makoto Yoshimori so that he could write music to match the tempo . However , there was some disagreement over the ending theme , which Omori and Yoshimori discussed at length over email . Although neither would compromise on key points , the issue was eventually settled and the ending theme was finalized .
Hotaru 's voice actor in the anime film , Ayane Sakura , was a fan of Midorikawa and owned the original manga . In an interview , she mentioned that she was thrilled to get an audition and ultimately the role , and also admitted that she shed tears while recording . Kōki Uchiyama , who played Gin , read the manga for the audition , and confessed that he was concerned at first about how to portray his character , though his work made him feel good . The film was initially pre @-@ scored , where the voice acting was recorded prior to the creation of the animation , but later re @-@ recorded for the final version . According to Omori , this allowed the animation to emphasize natural pauses in the dialogue and let the cast set the rhythm and tempo .
= = Media = =
= = = Manga = = =
The manga was first published in the July 2002 issue of Hakusensha 's LaLa DX in Japan . It was first reprinted on July 10 , 2003 in the tankōbon entitled Hotarubi no Mori e , which included four previously published romantic one @-@ shot stories by Yuki Midorikawa . In addition to the titular short story , the book included " Hanauta Nagaruru " ( April 2003 ) , " Kurukuru Ochiba " ( November 2002 ) , and " Hibi Fukaku " ( January 2003 ) . As part of the 2003 tankōbon short story collection , each of the four one @-@ shot stories were set in a different season : " Hanauta Nagaruru " in spring , " Hotarubi no Mori e " in summer , " Kurukuru Ochiba " in fall , and " Hibi Fukaku " in winter . Within the tankōbon , the stories were arranged in order from spring to winter , although they were originally published in a different order . As of May 15 , 2012 , the tankōbon was on its 19th printing .
On September 5 , 2011 , 12 days prior to the anime movie 's premiere in Japan , a new story related to Hotarubi no Mori e was published as part of a keepsake edition of the original manga , Aizoban Hotarubi no Mori e ( 愛蔵版 蛍火の杜へ ) . The 12 @-@ page story , titled " Hotarubi no Mori e Tokubetsuhen " ( 蛍火の杜へ 特別編 ) , is one of four short stories included in the keepsake edition , which also includes the original " Hotarubi no Mori e " and two other older works by Midorikawa : " Taion no Kakera " ( 体温のかけら ) ( 2003 ) and " Hoshi mo Mienai " ( 星も見えない ) ( 2005 ) .
= = = Anime = = =
The anime film , Hotarubi no Mori e , is categorized as a drama / romance , with a running time of 44 minutes . In March 2011 , the anime version was to be put on display at the Anime Contents Expo in Chiba , Japan , along with new work on Natsume 's Book of Friends , but the event was canceled following the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami . The opening date for the film was announced on June 4 on the film 's official website . On June 18 , special pre @-@ order tickets were sold along with the limited offer of a free poster . Around a week later , four television commercials focused on the anime 's main characters were streamed from the film 's official website . Sixteen days before the official release , a 96 @-@ second trailer was posted on Cinema Today , a Japanese movie website .
The film opened in Japan on September 17 , 2011 , playing at Theater Umeda in Osaka and Ikebukuro 's Cine Libre in Tokyo . The European premiere of Hotarubi no Mori e was on October 8 , 2011 at the Scotland Loves Animation festival in Glasgow , followed by interviews and a Q / A session with the animation director and the producer . It was screened again at the Scotland Loves Animation festival in Edinburgh on October 14 , along with two other short films produced by Brain 's Base studio . It was also a late addition to the 2011 Leeds International Film Festival and shown as a free presentation on November 18 in Leeds Town Hall . Hotarubi no Mori e was one of 60 titles screened at the first Anime Contents Expo held at Makuhari Messe in Chiba in late March 2012 . It was also shown on June 30 , 2012 at the Anime Expo convention at the Los Angeles Convention Center .
Limited edition copies of the Blu @-@ ray Disc and DVD were released in Japan on February 22 , 2012 . The limited edition sets included card set illustrations , stickers , a 40 @-@ page booklet , a strap with an attached mask ( like Gin 's ) , and other limited time specials . The DVD was also released at the same time without these extras .
= = = = Music = = = =
The original soundtrack ( catalog number : SVWC @-@ 7783 ) was released on August 24 , 2011 , less than a month prior to the release of the anime film . The music was recorded by Makoto Yoshimori , and the ending theme , " Natsu o Miteita " ( 夏を見ていた , lit . " I Was Watching Summer " ) , was sung by Shizuru Ōtaka .
All songs written and composed by Makoto Yoshimori .
= = Reception = =
The keepsake edition manga , Aizoban Hotarubi no Mori e by Midorikawa , ranked No. 13 on Japan 's Oricon comic sales chart during September 5 – 11 , 2011 , with 40 @,@ 641 copies sold during its first week .
In Japan , the anime was considered a hit , attracting many fans at each screening in Tokyo for several months . Following its European premiere at the Scotland Loves Animation festival in Glasgow , Hotarubi no Mori e was awarded the Jury Award . In January 2012 , it won the Animation Film Award at the 66th Annual Mainichi Film Awards and received at the awards ceremony held on February 13 , 2012 in Kawasaki , Japan . The limited edition Blu @-@ ray Disc also ranked No. 13 on Oricon 's weekly BD sales chart between February 20 – 26 , 2012 , with 7 @,@ 171 copies sold in the five days following its release .
The anime film of Hotarubi no Mori e was well received by its reviewers , and likened to the works of Hayao Miyazaki of Studio Ghibli and Makoto Shinkai . UK Anime Network 's Andy Hanley , who attended a screening at the Scotland Loves Animation festival , said it is " beautiful in its simplicity " , though noting that the climax seemed a bit rushed and sudden , leaving the audience to struggle with their emotions .
Nick Browne of T.H.E.M. Anime Reviews described it as a " vignette of bittersweet nostalgia " , praising the anime for being a " gorgeously detailed piece with beautiful animation . " Browne also wrote favorably of the story 's progression , noting that its dark undertones grew heavier as the main character matured , and that the consistent characterization of Hotaru from childhood to her early teens was impressive , especially given the film 's length . Browne 's criticisms were limited to noting the film 's short length , a clash between the cartoonish depictions of the forest spirits and the rest of the movie , and an issue with one element of plot development near the end of the film . He did note that sensitive viewers may interpret some aspects of the story as inappropriate , such as the initial age difference between the main characters and the way Gin punishes Hotaru as a child when she tries to touch him . In the case of the former , Browne noted that their romance developed only when Hotaru began to approach Gin 's physical age , and with the latter , he noted that no harm was intended . In both cases , he also mentioned that cultural differences must be considered .
Both Yokoyama and Satou noted the " Japanese @-@ ness " of the anime during the panel discussion following the main showing at the Scotland Loves Animation festival . Yokoyama had originally been concerned that foreign audiences would not fully understand and appreciate the work , but the reaction of the audience at the Glasgow showing alleviated his concerns . According to Yokoyama and Satou , elements of the story that exhibited strong elements of Japanese culture included the watermelon eating scene , the part where Gin hits young Hotaru over the head with a stick , and the scene where young Hotaru gets scared at night when she sees the face of a yōkai in the patterns of the wood panels on the ceiling .
Midorikawa attributed the success of Hotarubi no Mori e to the quality of the story , noting even those readers of the original manga who were critical of her artwork were drawn to read the story from start to finish . She speculated that hiding Gin 's face behind a mask had helped mitigate some of the artistic issues for which her earlier work had been criticized . The intense pressure experienced by Midorikawa early in her manga writing career was relieved as a result of the positive feedback she received upon her success with Hotarubi no Mori e . In 2011 , she expressed excitement for the new anime film and having the manga reprinted in a new short story collection , remarking that her attempts to write about her feelings and recent experiences in relation to Hotarubi no Mori e brought tears to her eyes . She described the story as a " precious work " that had help her build social connections .
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= Nicola Zagame =
Nicola Maree " Ziggy " Zagame ( born 11 August 1990 in Sydney ) is an Australian water polo centre back / driver . She attended Kirrawee High School in New South Wales . One of her hobbies is art , and some of it was displayed as part of an exhibit at the Hazelworth Regional Gallery and Arts Centre in 2008 . She became a water polo player after being recruited from surf lifesaving when she was thirteen . She has had a water polo scholarship with the New South Wales Institute of Sport . She plays for the Cronulla Sharks in the National Water Polo League where she has twice set single season scoring records . She has represented her country as a member of Australia women 's national water polo team on both the junior and senior levels , and was part of the silver winning team at the 2010 FINA Women 's Water Polo World Cup . She represented Australia at the 2012 Summer Olympics .
= = Personal = =
Zagame , nicknamed Ziggy and Nicky , was born on 11 August 1990 in Sydney and grew up attending Kirrawee High School . Currently residing in Gymea Bay , New South Wales , the 174 cm ( 5 ft 9 in ) tall 73 kilograms ( 161 lb ) right handed Zagame disclosed her hobbies to be surfing , art , scrapbooking , and reading . Her art was displayed at the Hazelworth Regional Gallery and Arts Centre in 2008 as part of an exhibition of works of young local artists . She is " intrigued by the animal @-@ like qualities often found in people , both in physical appearance and personality " and integrated this theme into her works which were on display . She attended Sydney University where she was part of a course related to medical radiation science @-@ diagnostic radiography . She is a water polo coach and works at a shop making sandwiches .
= = Water polo = =
Zagame plays as a centre back / driver and prefers to wear cap number twelve . She keeps a rock that she considers lucky in her pool bag . She started playing water polo as a thirteen @-@ year @-@ old in Sutherland , New South Wales having been recruited from Cronulla SLSC where was involved with surf lifesaving . At the time of her transition to water polo , she was a better surf swimmer than a stillwater swimmer . She has held a scholarship for water polo at the New South Wales Institute of Sport . In 2008 , she competed in the Women 's International Series .
= = = Club team = = =
Zagame is a member of and plays club water polo for the Cronulla Sharks Water Polo Club in the National Water Polo League . During the 2009 season , she scored 76 goals . She played for the team in 2010 , including the finals tournament , during which she was named in the league final 's All Star team . She has twice set season goal @-@ scoring records while playing in the league , with the second time coming in a 2010 game when her team beat Adelaide at home in the Sutherland Leisure Centre . She challenges opposition players in such a way that it frequently results in her fouling out of games . She was the captain of the team during the 2011 season . In 2012 , she played briefly with the club before taking a break from the team following their 18 February 2012 game to attend the national team training camp . Her last game before the break was against the Balmain Tigers . As a member of the team , she helped win the first two games of the season 8 – 4 and 7 – 4 .
= = = Junior national team = = =
Zagame has represented Australia on the junior national level . In July 2006 , she was a member of the Youth Girls squad that competed in an international series in Auckland , New Zealand .
= = = Senior national team = = =
Zagame is a member of the Australia women 's national water polo team , nicknamed the Stingers . She made her senior team debut in May 2009 . In 2009 , she was part of the Australian side that finished third at the FINA World Leaue Super Finals in Kirishi , Russia . This was her first major international tournament as a member of the senior squad . In 2009 , she was part of the team that finished sixth at the FINA World Championships in Rome , Italy in 2009 . She was also part of the Australian side that won the 2009 Holiday Cup in the United States .
Zagame was a member of the 2010 Stingers squad that competed at the FINA World Cup in Christchurch , New Zealand where Australia finished second . In the team 's quarter finals 10 – 8 victory over the United States women 's national water polo team , she scored three goals . In May 2010 , she was a member of the team that competed at the FINA World League Asia @-@ Oceania zone held in Osaka , Japan and Tianjin , China .
Zagame was part of the Australian side that won a silver medal at the 2011 Kirishi Cup in June . In the game for the medal , they played Kazakhstan women 's national water polo team . In that match , she scored two goals . In July 2011 , she was a member of the Australian Stingers that competed in the 2011 FINA World Championships in Shanghai . In preparation for this tournament , she attended a team training camp in Perth , Western Australia .
In January 2012 , Zagame competed in the Pan Pacific Championships for the Stingers , and was a member of the squad that competed the three @-@ game test series against the United States . The Australian team won two of the three matches , with scores of 12 – 13 in an opening series loss , winning 11 – 6 in the second match and winning the third match 12 – 7 clash at Sutherland Leisure Centre . Zagame scored a goal in the second half of the final match in the series . This test series was the first time she had played an international match in her home swimming pool , Sutherland Leisure Centre .
In February 2012 , Zagame was named in the 17 @-@ member training squad for the 2012 Summer Olympics , and attended a training camp that started on 20 February 2012 at the Australian Institute of Sport . She was part of the Stingers squad that competed in a five @-@ game test against Great Britain at the AIS in late February 2012 . This was the team 's first matches against Great Britain 's national team in six years . The team will be cut to thirteen before the team departs for the Olympic games , with the announcement scheduled on 13 June .
Zagame is planning to stay in the sport and hopes to qualify for the 2016 Summer Olympics .
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= 4 Walls =
4 Walls is the fourth studio album by South Korea @-@ based girl group f ( x ) , released by S.M. Entertainment on October 27 , 2015 . Lee Soo @-@ man , former president of S.M. Entertainment , served as the executive producer of the album . It marked the group 's first release as a four @-@ member group after former member Sulli left the group in August 2015 .
To promote the album , f ( x ) appeared and performed on several music programs including M Countdown , Music Bank and Show ! Music Core . The group further embarked on its first concert tour Dimension 4 – Docking Station ( 2016 ) , which visited South Korea and Japan in January and February 2016 . The title track " 4 Walls " was released as a single in conjunction with the release of the album . The record 's musical styles are diverse , incorporating the group 's signature electropop and synthpop sound with elements of various genres including house , EDM and UK garage .
The album received favorable reviews from music critics , who noted that the other members had the opportunity to showcase their vocal abilities more following the departure of Sulli . The release peaked atop South Korea 's Gaon Album Chart and has sold over 76 @,@ 000 physical copies in the country as of January 2016 ; in addition , 4 Walls topped the Billboard World Albums Chart and charted at number thirty @-@ nine on the Japanese Oricon Albums Chart . The single " 4 Walls " , meanwhile , peaked at numbers two on the Gaon Digital Chart and the Billboard World Digital Songs .
= = Background = =
South Korea @-@ based girl group f ( x ) had been known as a five @-@ member girl group , with its original lineup consisting of members Krystal , Amber , Victoria , Sulli , and Luna . The group 's last release as a five @-@ member group was Red Light , released in July 2014 . During the promotion of Red Light , member Sulli did not participate in live performances due to her " suffering from continual negative comments and false rumors , " according to the group 's parent company S.M. Entertainment 's official statement on July 25 , 2014 @.@ f ( x ) ' s promotional activities thereafter involved the four other members , while Sulli took a career hiatus . On August 7 , 2015 , it was announced that Sulli had officially withdrawn from the group to focus on her acting career , and f ( x ) would continue to promote as a four @-@ member group .
= = Release and promotion = =
f ( x ) was announced to be working on its then @-@ forthcoming studio album on September 11 , 2015 , when the group traveled to Jeju Island to film a music video . The album , titled 4 Walls , was released digitally worldwide on October 27 , 2015 by S.M. Entertainment . In South Korea , the album was distributed digitally and physically by S.M. Entertainment and KT Music . The music video for the title track " 4 Walls " was released simultaneously . The song impacted Korean Broadcasting System 's " K @-@ Pop Connection " radio on October 29 .
Following the release of the album , f ( x ) appeared and performed on several music programs . Its first televised appearance was on July 29 , 2014 on Mnet 's M Countdown , where the group performed " 4 Walls " and " Diamond " . The group subsequently appeared on KBS ' Music Bank and MBC 's Show ! Music Core on the two following days , respectively . To further promote the album , f ( x ) embarked on the concert tour Dimension 4 – Docking Station , which was its first concert tour since their debut in 2009 . The tour kicked off in Seoul , South Korea at Olympic Park from January 29 to 31 , 2016 , and further included six shows in four cities of Japan : Tokyo , Fukuoka , Osaka and Nagoya . The tour lasted from February 20 to 28 , 2016 .
= = Musical styles = =
The album , in the words of Pitchfork Media , keeps up with f ( x ) ' s signature electropop and synthpop styles that the group cultivated through its previous albums Pink Tape ( 2013 ) and Red Light ( 2014 ) . Jeff Benjamin of Billboard noted the emphasis on house and dance genres on the album . The opening track " 4 Walls " was described as a tropical house song with " slinky " synthesizers and " dreamy " hooks by The Star . It was characterized as an " update " of UK garage by Spin , while Billboard detailed it as having a deep house sound . The next song , " Glitter " , is an R & B and synthpop number . " Deja Vu " mixes industrial beats with glitch pop sounds , while " X " draws influences from the 1980s funk , 1990s disco and R & B.
" Rude Love " is described as a piano house song with dance fusion . " Diamond " is an electropop song , while " Traveler " features retro @-@ styled melodies and smooth rap verses . The track " Papi " , instrumented by synthesizers , infuses Latin music and EDM styles . " Cash Me Out " is an EDM song that incorporates elements of American electropop . The album closer " When I 'm Alone " is a synthpop track which was initially written by Canadian singer Carly Rae Jepsen during recording sessions for her third studio album Emotion ( 2015 ) , but its inclusion was withdrawn and its rights were later purchased by S.M. Entertainment .
= = Critical reception = =
4 Walls was subject to favorable reviews from music critics . Jeff Benjamin from Billboard shared that despite the fact that the album was " arguably worse " than f ( x ) ' s previous albums Pink Tape ( 2013 ) and Red Light ( 2014 ) , it allowed the other members to showcase their vocal abilities more following the departure of Sulli . He praised it as a " rarity in K @-@ pop to do once " by " finding the right sonicscapes " and appreciated the " house and trendy dance " production . Benjamin subsequently named 4 Walls the second best K @-@ pop album of 2015 , writing : " Known for crafting some of the best full @-@ length K @-@ pop albums , f ( x ) did not disappoint with their long @-@ awaited 4 Walls comeback . "
Jakob Dorof on behalf of Pitchfork Media labeled the record a " superficial rebirth " following f ( x ) ' s lineup change and commented that the other members had the chance to express their talents more , particularly with Amber 's alto " harmonies " on " Rude Love " . He , upon reviewing the album for Spin , disliked the songs " Deja Vu " , " Papi " , " Cash Me Out " and " When I 'm Alone " . He nonetheless labeled them " minor misgivings " and complimented 4 Walls on featuring " sophisticated and innovative " musical styles that could " signal a surprise second life for the world 's greatest living pop group . " Echoing Dorof 's viewpoint , Chester Chin of The Star was not impressed by the inclusion of the " derivative " tracks " Glitter " and " Cash Me Out " , yet expressed his admiration for the " solid and edgy " album 's " more cohesive " sound as well as " more polished and sharper " beats .
= = Commercial performance = =
4 Walls was a commercial success in South Korea , and also charted in Japan and the United States . It debuted atop South Korea 's Gaon Album Chart on the chart issue dated October 25 – 31 , 2015 . It was the fourth best @-@ selling physical album of October 2015 in South Korea , with sales figures standing at 65 @,@ 933 copies . The album was additionally the eighteenth highest @-@ selling album of November with 7 @,@ 820 units sold . Overall , it ranked at number thirty @-@ three on the Gaon 's 2015 year @-@ end album chart , with accumulated sales of 75 @,@ 625 copies . 4 Walls debuted at number thirty @-@ nine on Japan 's Oricon Albums Chart on November 16 , 2015 . It peaked at number one on the U.S. Billboard World Albums Chart on November 14 , 2015 , becoming f ( x ) ' s second number one on the chart following 2013 's Pink Tape . 4 Walls was the group 's best @-@ charting album on the U.S. Heatseekers Albums Chart , where it charted at number seven . The single " 4 Walls " debuted at number two on South Korea 's Gaon Digital Chart for the week of October 25 , 2015 . It was the twenty @-@ sixth best @-@ selling single of October 2015 ( 199 @,@ 976 digital units sold ) , and the twelfth best @-@ selling single of November 2015 ( 247 @,@ 232 digital units sold ) in South Korea . The track debuted at number two on the U.S. Billboard World Digital Songs , becoming their highest @-@ charting song on the chart .
= = Track listing = =
= = Chart performance = =
= = Release history = =
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= 1st Croatian Guards Corps =
The 1st Croatian Guards Corps ( Croatian : 1 @.@ hrvatski gardijski zbor ) was a special formation of the Croatian Army ( Hrvatska vojska – HV ) directly subordinated to the Ministry of Defence rather than the General Staff of the Armed Forces of the Republic of Croatia and reporting directly to the President of Croatia . The corps was established in 1994 by the amalgamation of various HV special forces . The 2 @,@ 500 @-@ strong unit was organised into the 1st Croatian Guards Brigade ( 1 @.@ hrvatski gardijski zdrug – HGZ ) , a multi @-@ purpose special forces combat unit , and four battalions tasked with ensuring the security of the President of Croatia and carrying out ceremonial duties . The HGZ took part in a number of military operations during the Croatian War of Independence and the Bosnian War . It was disbanded in 2000 , when its components were amalgamated with other HV units to form the Special Operations Battalion , the 305th Military Intelligence Battalion , and the Honour Guard Battalion .
= = Establishment = =
On 25 February 1994 , the special forces of the Croatian Army ( Hrvatska vojska – HV ) were reorganised when all HV 's special forces units were combined to form the 1st Croatian Guards Corps ( 1 @.@ hrvatski gardijski zbor ) . In April , personnel of the 8th Military Police Light Assault Brigade ( itself only established in September 1993 ) were also transferred to the corps , ultimately making the corps 2 @,@ 500 @-@ strong . In addition to special forces operations , the corps was also tasked with providing security for the President of Croatia . The corps was organised into four specialised battalions and the 1st Croatian Guards Brigade ( 1 @.@ hrvatski gardijski zdrug – HGZ ) , a multi @-@ purpose special forces combat unit . The HGZ was considered the elite unit of the HV . The entire corps was directly subordinated to the Ministry of Defence rather than the General Staff of the Armed Forces of the Republic of Croatia , and reported directly to the president . It was commanded by Major General Mile Ćuk . Ćuk and his deputy were based in the Presidential Palace , while the bulk of the corps was based in nearby Tuškanac barracks . The HGZ was capable of fielding up to 300 troops in combat . It was commanded by Colonel ( later Major General ) Miljenko Filipović , who had previously commanded the Zrinski Battalion — one of the special forces units amalgamated into the corps .
= = Combat service = =
The HGZ took part in several battles of the Croatian War of Independence and the Bosnian War . In late November and December 1994 , it participated in Operation Winter ' 94 , the joint offensive of the HV and the Croatian Defence Council ( Hrvatsko vijeće obrane – HVO ) which pushed the Army of Republika Srpska ( Vojska Republike Srpske – VRS ) from the western parts of the Livanjsko field in Bosnia and Herzegovina . Elements of the HGZ also saw action along the Novska – Okučani axis of advance in the HV 's Operation Flash offensive that took place in western Slavonia in early May 1995 . By this time , the HGZ also commanded its own artillery and Mil Mi @-@ 24 helicopter gunships , in addition to Mil Mi @-@ 8 transport helicopters . The HGZ redeployed west of Livno once again in early June to take part in Operation Leap 2 , extending the salient that had been created in late 1994 west towards Bosansko Grahovo and Glamoč . The unit participated in the capture of those towns in late July 1995 during Operation Summer ' 95 .
In preparation for Operation Storm , the HV 4th Guards and 7th Guards Brigades were pulled back from positions facing the VRS that had been established during Operation Summer ' 95 , and were reoriented south towards the Army of the Republic of Serb Krajina ( ARSK ) . The ARSK was protecting the northern approaches to Knin − the capital of the unrecognised Republic of Serbian Krajina − which Croatia claimed as part of its own territory . As the two brigades turned over the positions north and west of Bosansko Grahovo to the HV 81st Guards Battalion , the HGZ was deployed to the rear of the battalion , tasked with intervening in case of any VRS attack towards Bosansko Grahovo . On the second day of the operation , 6 August , after Knin was captured by the HV , the HGZ was airlifted from the Livanjsko field to the village of Rovanjska north of Zadar . They then linked up with the 2nd Battalion of the 9th Guards Brigade and advanced east to capture the villages of Muškovac and Kaštel Žegarski . On 8 August , the HGZ participated in an operation against the last significant ARSK pocket in the area of Donji Lapac and Srb , alongside the three guards brigades and special police forces .
In September 1995 , the HGZ took part in Operation Mistral 2 , which extended HV and HVO control in western Bosnia and Herzegovina and captured the towns of Jajce , Šipovo and Drvar , moving the confrontation line north towards the Bosnian Serb capital of Banja Luka . In October , the HGZ also participated in Operation Southern Move , which captured the town of Mrkonjić Grad , and reached the southern slopes of Mount Manjača , 25 kilometres ( 16 miles ) south of Banja Luka .
= = Reorganisation = =
The corps was disbanded in 2000 and its constituents reorganised . A part of the HGZ was amalgamated with the Special Combat Skills Centre Šepurine to form the Special Operations Battalion . The remainder of the brigade was amalgamated with the Reconnaissance @-@ Sabotage Company based in Pula , the 350th Sabotage Detachment , the 280th Unmanned Aerial Vehicle Platoon , and the 275th Electronic Warfare Company to form the 305th Military Intelligence Battalion . The elements of the corps which were tasked with security of the President of Croatia and ceremonial duties were reformed and the Honour Guard Battalion was established in their place .
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= 1993 – 94 South @-@ West Indian Ocean cyclone season =
The 1993 – 94 South @-@ West Indian Ocean cyclone season was the most active since the start of reliable satellite coverage in 1967 , with 15 named storms including one named tropical depression . Activity lasted from mid @-@ November , when Moderate Tropical Storm Alexina formed , until mid @-@ April , when Tropical Cyclone Odille became extratropical . Four tropical cyclones – Daisy , Geralda , Litanne , and Nadia – struck eastern Madagascar , of which Geralda was the costliest and deadliest . With gusts as strong as 350 km / h ( 220 mph ) accompanied by heavy rainfall , the cyclone destroyed more than 40 @,@ 000 homes and left 356 @,@ 000 people homeless . Geralda killed 231 people and left more than $ 10 million in damage . Cyclone Nadia was the second deadliest cyclone , having killed 12 people in northern Madagascar and later severely damaging portions of northeastern Mozambique , killing about 240 people and leaving $ 20 million in damage in the latter country . In February , Cyclone Hollanda struck Mauritius near peak intensity , causing $ 135 million in damage and two deaths .
Three storms – Alexina , Bettina , and Cecilia – formed in late 1993 , of which Cecilia affected land ; it produced heavy rainfall in Réunion while dissipating . Cyclone Daisy was the first storm in 1994 , which struck Madagascar twice and affected many areas that were later struck by Geralda . One cyclone – Farah – previously formed in the Australian basin as Tropical Cyclone Pearl before crossing into the south @-@ west Indian Ocean . Tropical Cyclone Ivy threatened Mauritius just days after Hollanda struck , and Intense Tropical Cyclone Litanne in March was the third of the season to hit northeastern Madagascar . The basin is defined as the area west of 90 ° E and south of the Equator in the Indian Ocean , which includes the waters around Madagascar westward to the east coast of Africa . Tropical cyclones in this basin are monitored by the Regional Specialised Meteorological Centre in Réunion ( MFR ) , as well as by the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) .
= = Seasonal summary = =
On July 1 , 1993 , the Météo @-@ France office in Réunion ( MFR ) became a Regional Specialized Meteorological Center , as designated by the World Meteorological Organization . In the year , MFR tracked tropical cyclones south of the equator from the coast of Africa to 90 ° E. Due to the high activity during the season , MFR issued twice the number of advisories as in the previous year . Every six hours in the season , the agency issued bulletins when there was a tropical system within the basin . Storms were named by advisory centers in Mauritius and Madagascar .
During the year , there were neutral El Niño Southern Oscillation conditions , and for several months there was a well @-@ established monsoon trough that extended into the Australian basin . The average storm duration was 9 days , although the final storm , Odille , lasted 16 days , a record at the time . The season was the most active on record since the start of reliable satellite coverage in 1967 . Due to the high number of storms , there were a record number of cyclone days – days in which a tropical cyclone is active – as well as intense tropical cyclone days , the latter with 27 . The next season approach either total was the 2001 – 02 season . MFR had an alphabetically prepared list of names for the season , the last seven of which went unused : Pemma , Ronna , Sydna , Telia , Valentina , Williana , and Yvanna .
In addition to the named storms , MFR tracked three other tropical systems that did not last for more than 24 hours . The first , designated Tropical Depression C1 , formed on December 5 near the eastern portion of the basin , and quickly dissipated . The other two , designated E1 and H1 , formed in January and February , respectively . In addition , Tropical Cyclone Willy crossed into the basin as a dissipating tropical depression , for which MFR did not issue advisories .
= = Storms = =
= = = Moderate Tropical Storm Alexina = = =
The first storm of the season formed from a low pressure area with associated convection that persisted east of the Chagos Archipelago on November 7 . It formed in tandem with two tropical depressions in the North Indian ocean . The JTWC began tracking the system that day , although MFR did not follow suit until two days later . On November 10 , the depression intensified into Moderate Tropical Storm Alexina , having developed a central dense overcast . A narrow eastward @-@ moving trough caused the storm to move generally southward for its entire duration , the only such storm of the season to maintain a largely north @-@ south track . On November 11 , MFR estimated that Alexina attained peak winds of 85 km / h ( 55 mph ) , while JTWC estimated peak winds of 110 km / h ( 70 mph ) . Increased wind shear disrupted the convection , while a building ridge to the south caused its movement to slow . By late on November 12 , Alexina weakened to tropical depression status , which subsequently drifted to the west until dissipating on November 16 .
= = = Severe Tropical Storm Bettina = = =
On November 23 , the intertropical convergence zone spawned a low pressure area in the far northeastern portion of the basin , which the JTWC assessed as having formed in the western Australian basin . Located north of a large ridge , the system tracked southwestward initially before turning more to the west . Late on November 25 , MFR began classifying the system as a tropical disturbance , and within 12 hours the agency upgraded it to Moderate Tropical Storm Bettina . On November 26 , the storm turned to the southwest . The next day , Bettina developed an eye feature , and MFR upgraded it to a severe tropical storm , with winds of 110 km / h ( 70 mph ) . By comparison , the JTWC estimated winds of 100 km / h ( 65 mph ) . After wind shear increased sharply on November 28 , the storm quickly weakened and within 24 hours was devoid of convection . Bettina again turned to the west as a tropical depression , moving around the large ridge . It briefly re @-@ intensified on December 1 , but dissipated on December 3 south of the Mascarene Islands .
= = = Severe Tropical Storm Cecilia = = =
The intertropical convergence zone spawned a tropical disturbance in the northeast portion of the basin on December 9 . Initially the system did not develop , and MFR did not classify it until December 12 . The next day , the depression intensified into a moderate tropical storm , and was named Cecilia . The strengthening was short @-@ lived , and the storm quickly weakened to tropical depression status on December 14 . After initially tracking to the southwest , Cecilia turned to the west on December 15 due to a strengthening ridge to the south , by which time it had restrengthened and developed a central dense overcast . On December 17 , MFR upgraded the storm toa severe tropical storm , with winds of 100 km / h ( 65 mph ) according to MFR . The next day , JTWC estimated that Cecilia intensified to reach winds of 160 km / h ( 100 mph ) . While near peak intensity , the storm turned to the southwest and began weakening after wind shear increased . By December 19 , Cecilia had weakened to tropical depression status , and dissipated on December 21 after passing west of Réunion . An approaching trough had caused thunderstorms to reform in the eastern portion of the circulation , which resulted in heavy rainfall over Mauritius and later Réunion . In the latter island , the rainfall was heaviest in the northern portion , peaking at 475 mm ( 18 @.@ 7 in ) in Salazie in 24 hours ; the same station recorded 286 mm ( 11 @.@ 3 in ) in a 6 hour period , including 47 mm ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) in just 30 minutes .
= = = Tropical Cyclone Daisy = = =
In early January , the intertropical convergence zone persisted off the northeast coast of Madagascar , spawning a low pressure area on January 6 . The next day , the system developed into a tropical disturbance , which initially moved to the east due to high pressure to the south . On January 8 , the system developed a curved area of convection , which later developed into a central dense overcast . Initially located within a broader trough , the disturbance gradually became better defined as a distinct system . On January 10 , it intensified into Moderate Tropical Storm Daisy while passing near St. Brandon . A trough to the south weakened the ridge , causing the storm to turn to the southwest toward Madagascar . Daisy intensified into a severe tropical storm on January 11 , and later into a tropical cyclone the next day . At around 1200 UTC on January 13 , the cyclone made landfall near Brickaville in eastern Madagascar , with MFR estimating winds of about 155 km / h ( 100 mph ) ; at around the same time , the JTWC estimated peak winds of 175 km / h ( 110 mph ) . At landfall , Daisy had a symmetrical cloud pattern 400 km ( 250 mi ) in diameter . The high mountains of Madagascar caused the storm to quickly weaken , although it emerged into the Mozambique Channel as a tropical disturbance on January 15 . That day , a trough turned Daisy to the south , and it briefly re @-@ intensified into a tropical storm over warm waters . On January 16 , Daisy made a second landfall in southern Madagascar and dissipated the next day .
When Daisy struck Madagascar , it produced 200 km / h ( 120 mph ) wind gusts on Île Sainte @-@ Marie , along with heavy rainfall . The storm destroyed over 90 schools and government buildings and damaged the road network . Madagascar 's capital Antananarivo was flooded , forcing 6 @,@ 000 people to evacuate . Many of the same areas affected by Daisy were later affected by Geralda in February .
= = = Severe Tropical Storm Edmea = = =
The intertropical convergence zone spawned a low pressure area south of the Chagos archipelago on January 12 , and developed a large area of convection the next day . On January 13 , MFR began classifying the system as a tropical depression , and following further intensification , the agency upgraded the depression to Moderate Tropical Storm Edmea later that day . With a ridge to the southeast , the storm tracked generally to the southwest . Its initial strengthening rate slowed until Edmea reached peak winds of 95 km / h ( 60 mph ) on January 17 . An approaching trough turned the storm to the south away from any landmasses , and also increased shear which caused weakening . Turning to the southeast on January 18 , Edmea became extratropical the following day and was later absorbed by the trough .
= = = Tropical Cyclone Pearl – Farah = = =
On January 11 , a tropical low formed northwest of Broome , Western Australia . It was named Pearl a few hours later by the Bureau of Meteorology . The cyclone continued westward and reached a peak intensity of 155 km / h ( 100 mph ) . As the system moved west of 90 ° E , MFR took over warning responsibility on January 18 and renamed the cyclone Farah . At that time , MFR estimated winds of about 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) . After having moved westward due to a ridge to the south , Farah turned to the south upon entering the basin due to an approaching trough , which previously absorbed Edmea . High wind shear caused rapid weakening , and by January 19 , there was little remaining convection . The next day , Farah weakened to tropical depression status and turned to the southeast . The ridge built behind the trough , causing the depression to stall and drift northward , and by February 22 , Farah dissipated .
= = = Intense Tropical Cyclone Geralda = = =
Cyclone Geralda originated from an area of low pressure from the monsoon trough on January 25 . Over the following few days , the depression underwent gradual intensification , and MFR estimated peak winds of 200 km / h ( 125 mph ) on January 31 . Cyclone Geralda made landfall near Toamasina , Madagascar after weakening from its peak intensity . Within hours of moving onshore , the system had substantially weakened , and by February 5 , Geralda had degenerated into a land depression . After briefly emerging into the Mozambique Channel , Geralda crossed southern Madagascar , and it became extratropical on February 8 . Geralda was the strongest of the season and the strongest to hit Madagascar since a cyclone in March 1927 .
Geralda was the second cyclone in as many months to strike eastern Madagascar , after Daisy in January . Geralda produced wind gusts as strong as 350 km / h ( 220 mph ) , which were the highest worldwide for several decades . The cyclone also dropped heavy rainfall that caused flooding , particularly in valleys . About 80 % of the city of Toamasina was destroyed , including most schools , homes , and churches . The cyclone heavily damaged roads and rail lines , which later disrupted relief efforts . In the capital Antananarivo , Geralda killed 43 people after flooding many houses . Overall , more than 40 @,@ 000 homes were destroyed , leaving 356 @,@ 000 people homeless . Nationwide , the cyclone killed 231 people and caused over $ 10 million in damage . Relief work in the storm 's aftermath was hampered by lack of coordination , and the Malagasy military were deployed to help storm victims . Few stocks were pre @-@ positioned , causing food prices to rise greatly . Several countries and departments of the United Nations donated money or supplies to the country .
= = = Tropical Cyclone Hollanda = = =
The monsoon trough remained active , spawning a tropical depression on February 6 south of the Chagos archipelago . The system moved generally southwestward for much of its duration , steered by a ridge to the south . On February 8 , the depression intensified into Moderate Tropical Storm Hollanda , and the next day became a tropical cyclone , developing a small 20 km ( 12 mi ) eye . On February 10 , the cyclone attained peak winds of 155 km / h ( 100 mph ) , as assessed by MFR , and that day Hollanda struck the island of Mauritius at that intensity . Subsequently , the cyclone weakened while turning more to the south . A trough turned Hollanda to the east on February 13 , and the next day the storm became extratropical .
While moving across the island , Hollanda produced wind gusts of 216 km / h ( 134 mph ) in the capital city of Port Louis , while heavy rainfall reached 711 mm ( 28 @.@ 0 in ) in Mare aux Vacoas . The cyclone destroyed or severely damaged 450 houses , which left at least 1 @,@ 500 people homeless . High winds downed about 30 % of the island 's trees and left half of the island without power . Hollanda also caused severe crop damage ; nearly half of the island 's sugar crop was destroyed , which necessitated for the government to assist in replanting efforts . Hollanda killed two people and caused $ 135 million in damage on Mauritius . The highest rainfall from the cyclone fell on Réunion , with 741 mm ( 29 @.@ 2 in ) recorded at Grand Coude . On that island , there was also damage to crops and power lines .
= = = Tropical Cyclone Ivy = = =
The origins of Cyclone Ivy were from a disturbance that the JTWC began tracking on February 6 in the Australian basin . The next day , the disturbance crossed into the south @-@ west Indian Ocean , and on February 8 , MFR began tracking it . A ridge to the south imparted a general westward movement . With the convection gradually organizing , MFR upgraded the system to a tropical depression on February 9 and later to Moderate Tropical Storm Ivy the next day . A trough associated with the stronger Cyclone Hollanda turned the storm to the southwest . Although the JTWC upgraded Ivy to the equivalent of a minimal hurricane on February 12 , MFR estimated the storm weakened slightly , due to wind shear obscuring the center . By the following day , convection reorganized and the storm re @-@ strengthened , first to severe tropical storm status on February 15 and then to tropical cyclone status the next day . Around that time , Ivy approached within 100 km ( 62 mi ) of Rodrigues , where gusts reached 130 km / h ( 81 mph ) , and there was some damage .
After passing near Rodrigues , Ivy strengthened further , developing a well @-@ defined eye 50 km ( 31 mi ) in diameter , while turning more to the south due to a trough associated with the remnants of Hollanda . The JTWC estimated peak winds of 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) on February 17 , around the same time MFR estimated peak winds of 140 km / h ( 85 mph ) . The strengthening ridge caused Ivy to slow its motion to the southwest while increased shear caused weakening . On February 18 , the cyclone weakened to tropical storm status , and by the next day was downgraded to tropical depression status . On February 20 , Ivy became extratropical , which dissipated the subsequent day .
= = = Tropical Depression Julita = = =
In the middle of February , the monsoon trough persisted over the Mozambique Channel and spawned a circulation on February 15 to the west of Juan de Nova Island . Thunderstorms increased around the circulation , and later that day , MFR began tracking the system as a tropical depression . Despite warm air temperatures , the system did not develop a warm core like most tropical cyclones as it moved to the southeast . On February 16 , the storm passed about 40 km ( 25 mi ) south of Juan de Nova Island , producing gusts of 75 km / h ( 47 mph ) . The next day , MFR estimated peak winds of about 55 km / h ( 35 mph ) ; despite that the system did not intensify into a moderate tropical storm , the Meteorological Service of Madagascar named the depression Julita on February 17 . It weakened as its structure deteriorated , and Julita moved ashore in western Madagascar near Morondava early on February 18 . It dissipated shortly thereafter . Julita affected areas impacted by earlier cyclones Daisy and Geralda , but caused minimal damage and no deaths .
= = = Moderate Tropical Storm Kelvina = = =
The intertropical convergence zone spawned an area of convection on March 5 off the northeast coast of Madagascar , which was classified by both JTWC and MFR that day . A large anticyclone to the east caused the system to track generally to the south , and initially wind shear prevented significant strengthening . On March 6 , the Meteorological Service of Madagascar named the system Kelvina , although the depression did not intensify into a moderate tropical storm until the next day . At around that time , the convection became better organized , extending away from the center to the east . On March 8 , MFR estimated peak winds of about 85 km / h ( 50 mph ) , although further strengthening was prevented by an increase in wind shear . On March 10 , Kelvina passed near Reunion , where it dropped heavy rainfall . The next day , the storm became extratropical , which continued south for several days , eventually degenerating into a trough that influenced the tracks of subsequent tropical cyclones .
= = = Intense Tropical Cyclone Litanne = = =
In late February , low pressure area developed near the Cocos Islands , associated with the monsoon trough . After initially moving eastward , a ridge turned it to the west , and on March 7 , the system crossed 90 ° E into the south @-@ west Indian Ocean as a developing tropical depression . The next day , MFR upgraded it to Tropical Storm Litanne . For much of its track , Litanne moved generally to the west @-@ southwest , to the north of a large ridge . The storm quickly intensified , developing an eye feature within its central dense overcast by late on March 8 . Late on March 9 , MFR upgraded Litanne to a tropical cyclone , after the storm developed a small , well @-@ defined eye 20 km ( 12 mi ) in diameter . With warm sea surface temperatures , Litanne intensified into an intense tropical cyclone by late on March 10 , although it subsequently weakened slightly . The cyclone turned to the southwest due to a trough from the remnants of Kelvina . Around 2000 UTC on March 12 , Litanne passed near St. Brandon , and the next day the cyclone passed about 300 km ( 190 mi ) north of Réunion island . At the time , the storm 's eye was 40 km ( 25 mi ) wide , and the wind radius was about 175 km ( 109 mi ) wide . The islands reported high surf but little effects . Subsequently , the storm turned more to the west , and Litanne restrengthened into an intense tropical cyclone while approaching the eastern coastline of Madagascar . MFR estimated peak winds of 195 km / h ( 120 mph ) on March 14 .
Weakening slightly after peaking in intensity , Cyclone Litanne continued to the west , making landfall near Brickaville in east @-@ central Madagascar at 1600 UTC on March 15 . This occurred months after cyclones Daisy and Geralda affected the same general area . Four hours before landfall , the storm had peak winds of 165 km / h ( 105 mph ) . A strengthening trough turned Litanne southward over the eastern portion of the country , and the storm dropped heavy rainfall . Flooding was limited , although high winds severely damaged the rice crop . Increasing wind shear removed the convection , causing quick weakening . On March 17 , Litanne emerged from southeastern Madagascar into the Indian Ocean as a tropical depression , and the next day transitioned into an extratropical cyclone after being absorbed by a nearby trough . Five days later after accelerating to the southeast , the storm dissipated about 2 @,@ 000 km ( 1 @,@ 200 mi ) south of where it first developed .
= = = Severe Tropical Storm Mariola = = =
The monsoon trough persisted east of the Cocos Islands in early March in the Australian basin , spawning the earlier Cyclone Litanne and the system that would eventually become Mariola . An area of convection developed on March 5 , and gradually organized with favorable upper @-@ level winds . The JTWC began tracking it on March 7 , and MFR followed suit the next day , when the system was located about 2 @,@ 000 km ( 1 @,@ 200 mi ) east of Litanne . On March 10 , the MFR estimated the system became a tropical depression once it developed a central dense overcast , and that night the system crossed into the basin as a moderate tropical storm , making it one of three concurrent storms , along with Kelvina and Litanne . With the ridge to the south , the storm tracked generally westward for much of its duration . After MFR named the storm Mariola early on March 11 , steady strengthening continued . On March 12 , a small eye feature developed , indicating the storm was near tropical cyclone intensity . MFR estimated peak winds of 115 km / h ( 70 mph ) , and JTWC estimated peak winds of 165 km / h ( 105 mph ) .
Due to Litanne crossing the same path three days earlier , Mariola was unable to intensify further . It began weakening shortly after peak intensity , and the structure gradually deteriorated . The storm turned slightly to the south @-@ west due to the remnants of Kelvina disrupting the ridge , although a west motion resumed after the ridge restrengthened . Cooler and drier air weakened the convection , and Mariola weakened below tropical storm status on March 18 . The next day , the depression dissipated north of Reunion .
= = = Intense Tropical Cyclone Nadia = = =
Cyclone Nadia formed on March 16 and moved westward for the first ten days of its duration , due to a ridge to the south . Warm waters and low wind shear allowed for the storm to gradually strengthen , first into a moderate tropical storm on March 19 and later into a tropical cyclone on March 21 . After developing a well @-@ defined eye , Nadia intensified to reach winds of 175 km / h ( 110 mph ) early on March 22 , according to MFR . The JTWC estimated winds of about 220 km / h ( 140 mph ) . On March 23 , the cyclone struck northern Madagascar , causing flooding and localized damage where it moved ashore . There were 12 deaths in the country . Nadia emerged into the Mozambique Channel as a weakened storm , although it reintensified slightly before making landfall in northeastern Mozambique on March 24 . The storm turned southward through the country , emerging over water on March 26 . It turned to the northeast and meandered over waters before dissipating on April 1 .
Damage was heaviest in Mozambique , estimated at about $ 20 million . Cyclone Nadia severely affected four provinces in the country , primarily Nampula Province where it moved ashore . There , 85 % of the houses were destroyed , and across its path , the cyclone left 1 @.@ 5 million people homeless . High winds caused widespread power outages , left areas without water , and significantly damaged crops , notably the cashew crop . The storm struck before the harvest , and lack of food caused 300 deaths in the months after the storm . Across Mozambique , Nadia directly caused 240 deaths and injured thousands . Effects spread as far inland as Malawi .
= = = Intense Tropical Cyclone Odille = = =
Around March 26 , an area of disturbed weather persisted just east of 90 ° E , associated with a low pressure area . That day , the JTWC began tracking the system . Located north of an anticyclone , the system tracked slowly to the south before curving to the west . On March 30 , it became a tropical depression , and that day crossed into the basin . The next day , the depression was named Odille after it intensified further . With low wind shear , the storm steadily intensified as it moved to the west , reaching severe tropical cyclone status on April 2 after an eye feature developed . The JTWC estimated winds of 150 km / h ( 90 mph ) on April 3 , equivalent to a minimal hurricane , although subsequently Odille weakened after turning to the northwest and experiencing increased wind shear . By April 6 , the system had weakened to a tropical disturbance with a poorly defined center , which was dislocated from the remainder of the convection .
On April 4 , Odille began redeveloping convection and re @-@ intensified into a moderate tropical storm , after entering an area of more favorable conditions . Around that time , it began moving to the southwest due to a break between the ridge . On April 10 , Odille intensified into a tropical cyclone while moving slowly around a ridge . The next day , it intensified into an intense tropical cyclone while passing near St. Brandon and turning to the southeast due to an approaching trough . Odille developed a well @-@ defined eye 45 km ( 28 mi ) in diameter , and MFR estimated peak winds of 175 km / h ( 110 mph ) , while the JTWC estimated winds of 195 km / h ( 120 mph ) . On April 12 , the cyclone passed about 150 km ( 95 mi ) west of Rodrigues , where wind gusts reached 125 km / h ( 78 mph ) at Port Mathurin . Steady weakening occurred as Odille accelerated and experienced increasing shear , weakening below tropical cyclone status on April 13 . The next day , the storm became extratropical , which lasted three more days until it was absorbed by the cold front .
= = Season effects = =
This table lists all the cyclones that developed in the Indian Ocean , during the 1993 – 94 South @-@ West Indian Ocean cyclone season . It includes their intensity , duration , name , landfalls , deaths , and damages .
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= Lafayette College =
Lafayette College is a private liberal arts college located in Easton , Pennsylvania , United States . The school , founded in 1826 by James Madison Porter , son of General Andrew Porter of Norristown , and the citizens of Easton , first began holding classes in 1832 . The founders voted to name the school after General Lafayette , who famously toured the country in 1824 – 25 , as " a testimony of respect for [ his ] talents , virtues , and signal services ... in the great cause of freedom " .
Located on College Hill in Easton , the campus is situated in the Lehigh Valley , about 70 mi ( 110 km ) west of New York City and 60 mi ( 97 km ) north of Philadelphia . Lafayette College guarantees campus housing to all enrolled students . The school requires students to live in campus housing unless approved for residing in private off @-@ campus housing or home as a commuter .
Lafayette College is one of the most highly selective institutions in the United States . The student body , consisting entirely of undergraduates , comes from 46 U.S. states and Territories and 48 countries . Students at Lafayette are involved in over 250 clubs and organizations including athletics , fraternities and sororities , special interest groups , community service clubs and honor societies . Lafayette College 's athletic program is notable for The Rivalry with nearby Lehigh University . Since 1884 , the two football teams have met 151 times , making it the most played rivalry in the history of college football .
The College leads American liberal arts colleges with the most Goldwater Scholarship recipients in the past six years .
Notable people of Lafayette College include CEOs Ian Murray ( Vineyard Vines ) and Chip Bergh ( Levi Strauss & Co . ) , author Jay Parini , coach Pete Carril , and politicians William E. Simon ( Secretary of the Treasury ) , John W. Griggs ( Attorney General ) , and Marcia Bernicat ( U.S. Ambassador to Bangladesh ) . Additionally , Lafayette counts two Nobel Laureates as alumni , along with dozens of prominent bankers , judges , and scientists .
= = History = =
= = = Founding = = =
A group of Easton citizens led by James Madison Porter met on December 27 , 1824 at White 's Tavern to explore the possibility of opening a college . The recent visit of General Lafayette to New York during his grand tour of the US in 1824 and 1825 prompted the founders to name the school after the French military officer . The group also established the 35 @-@ member Board of Trustees , a system of governance that has remained at the college to this day . In need of an education plan , the meeting gave the responsibility to Porter , lawyer Jacob Wagener , and Yale @-@ educated lawyer Joel Jones . The charter gained approval and on March 9 , 1826 , Pennsylvania Governor John Andrew Shulze 's signature made the college official . Along with establishing Lafayette as a Liberal Arts College , the charter called for religious equality amongst professors , students , and staff .
The Board of Trustees met on May 15 , 1826 for the election of officers , resulting with Thomas McKeen as Treasurer , Joel Jones as Secretary , and James Madison Porter as the first President of the College . Over the next few years , the Board met several times to discuss property and funding for the college 's start @-@ up . Six years after the first meeting , Lafayette began to enroll students .
The College opened on May 1 , 1829 , with four students under the guidance of Rev. John Monteith . At the start of the next year , the Rev. George Junkin , a Presbyterian minister , was elected President of the college and moved the all @-@ male Manual Labor Academy of Pennsylvania from Germantown to Easton . Classes began on May 9 , 1832 , with the instruction of 43 students on the south bank of the Lehigh River in a rented farmhouse . In order to earn money to support the program students had to labor in the fields and workshops . This manual labor infused College took the place of the original Military / Civil Engineering focus on which the school was founded , and would remain part of the curriculum until 1839 . Later that year , Lafayette purchased property on what is now known as " College Hill " – nine acres of elevated land across Bushkill Creek . The College 's first building was constructed two years later on the current site of South College .
A dispute between Porter and Rev. Junkin led to his resignation of the presidency in 1841 . Though still young , Lafayette was beginning to take shape , grappling with the possibility of religious affiliation for financial stability . In 1854 , Lafayette College became affiliated with the Presbyterian Church . By relinquishing their control , the College was able to collect $ 1000 a year from the Presbyterian Church Board of Education as regularly as the latter could pay it . In the time from 1855 to 1856 , Lafayette experienced a new peak enrollment of 112 students , leading to the " famous class " of 1857 . This close @-@ knit class of 27 men worked in secrecy to establish charters in national fraternities , thus instating the first Greek Fraternities at Lafayette College . These Fraternities remained secret and discouraged by the authorities until 1915 .
= = = World War I = = =
In preparation for World War I , Lafayette announced that their current students would be awarded their degrees in absentia if they enlisted or went to work for farms to support the war effort . Professor Beverly Kunkel organized The Lafayette Ambulance United , Section 61 , United States Army Ambulance Corps . During the summer of 1917 , Dr. MacCracken arranged to turn the campus into a war camp for the War Department . Men trained to serve in mechanical trades . Lafayette remained a war camp until January 2 , 1919 when the regular course of study was re @-@ established at Lafayette .
= = = Lafayette in The Depression = = =
A drastic change in numbers of undergraduate and graduate students occurred between 1930 and 1934 during the Great Depression . The college made efforts to bolster enrollment including creation of new scholarship opportunities as well as scholarship loans . Lafayette College also founded an Engineering Guidance Conference for boys . The Conference was two weeks long and introduced twenty @-@ one high school students to the concepts of engineering . This program continued until the outbreak of World War II . Though the College faced its own deficits , it aided the larger community by offering a series of classes to unemployed men free of charge beginning in 1932 . They also made athletic facilities available to unemployed members of the community . Enrollment began to rise again for the 1935 – 1936 school year .
= = = Decade of Progress campaign = = =
As the college moved out of the great depression , the college 's new President , William Mather Lewis , began what it called the Decade of Progress campaign . It started as a celebration of the 70th anniversary of Lafayette 's engineering program . President Lewis regarded this 70 @-@ year period as a period , which " covers the great development in American engineering which has now seemed to reach its peak . " The goal of this campaign was to raise $ 500 @,@ 000 for payments on Gates hall , renovation of Van Wickle Memorial Library as well as equipment upgrades in other departments . By the time the campaign closed in 1944 , the total amount received was $ 280 @,@ 853 @.@ 34 .
= = = World War II = = =
Initially , Lafayette College on the student and faculty level was committed to keeping peace in the Western Hemisphere . When President Roosevelt addressed the Pan @-@ American Congress stating that it was America 's duty to protect American 's science , culture , freedom and civilization , thirty @-@ seven Lafayette faculty members wired the President objecting to his sentiments . When the country was left with no other option in the wake of Pearl Harbor , The College Council of Defense was organized and overseen by the Northampton County Council of Defense . The college took official action as well . It bolstered its ROTC program and improved their facilities to prepare for air raid tests . The college continued to thrive until the draft age was lowered from 20 to 18 in November 1942 . Lafayette College was one of 36 academic institutions selected to train engineering and aviation cadets by the War Department . After the war The Serviceman 's Readjustment Act of 1944 caused enrollment at Lafayette to jump dramatically peaking in 1949 with approximately 2000 students .
= = = Coeducational institution = = =
In 1967 , faculty requested that a special committee be formed to discuss making Lafayette a co @-@ educational institution . That committee issued a formal recommendation the following year . In September 1970 Lafayette College welcomed its first official coeducational class with 146 women ( 123 freshmen , and 23 transfers ) .
= = = 21st century = = =
In 2004 , a report on religious life at Lafayette College was compiled . This report recommended a review of the college 's formal relationship with the Presbyterian church . To date , however , this affiliation remains in place , although the college is not a member of the Association of Presbyterian Colleges and Universities .
In 2007 , the college commemorated the 250th birthday of General Lafayette through a series of lectures and campus dedications . Major festivities were held on September 6 , 2007 , Lafayette 's birthday , and were kicked off the night before with a lecture by renowned historian David McCullough . Lafayette commemorated the recognition of the College Charter by the Pennsylvania Legislature on March 9 , with a campus wide and alumni toast around the world .
On January 16 , 2013 , Dr. Alison R. Byerly was announced as Lafayette 's 17th and first female President . She took office on July 1 , 2013 , replacing outgoing president Daniel Weiss .
= = Academics = =
Lafayette College offers a bachelor of arts ( B.A. ) degree in 37 fields . Lafayette also offers 14 bachelor of science ( B.S. ) degrees , 10 in areas of science and four in fields of engineering . The most popular majors are in the fields of Social Sciences , Engineering , Biology , English , and Psychology . Students may also create their own major by combining courses from different programs .
Lafayette College offers engineering programs within its liberal arts setting . The engineering programs offer five concentrations : Chemical , Civil , Electrical & Computer , Mechanical , and Engineering studies . In 2012 , 94 % of Lafayette 's candidates ( currently enrolled ) passed the Fundamentals of Engineering Examination . This is the first requirement toward getting a professional engineering license . The National average varies from 70 – 87 % depending on the type of engineering .
In the recent years , Lafayette College students earned numerous national and international scholarships , For the class of 2012 , Lafayette gave financial aid to 66 % of the students , with the average package amounting to $ 26 @,@ 850 for all students . The college also offers a merit @-@ based academic scholarship – the Marquis Scholarship , which provides $ 20 @,@ 000 per year . Lafayette 's endowment is more than $ 580 million , with total assets amounting to more than $ 1 billion .
Lafayette is also a Hidden Ivy
= = Rankings and reputation = =
= = = Admissions = = =
= = = Overlap Schools = = =
The most common overlap schools , as of 2015 , are Bucknell University , Cornell University , Lehigh University , Princeton University , and Villanova University
= = = Admission = = =
Admission to Lafayette has become increasingly competitive over the last few years ; in 2013 the acceptance rate was 34 % but it dropped to 28 % in 2016 .
= = Campus overview = =
= = = Campus = = =
Lafayette College is settled at the top of College Hill in Easton , Pennsylvania , located in the Lehigh Valley . The campus location is about 70 mi ( 110 km ) west of New York City and 60 mi ( 97 km ) north of Philadelphia . Its 340 @-@ acre campus houses 69 buildings , comprising approximately 1 @.@ 76 million square feet , which includes a 230 @-@ acre athletic campus . Lafayette 's campus buildings range in architectural style from Pardee Hall 's Second Empire design and Hogg Hall 's Collegiate Gothic , to the late modern architecture of the Williams Center for the Arts , the William E. and Carol G. Simon Wing of Skillman Library and the Farinon College Center .
= = = Academic facilities = = =
Williams Center for the Arts is the college 's performing arts center . Completed in 1983 , the building houses the Performance Series , the Williams Art Gallery and College Collections , the College Theater program , the departments of Art and Music , and the student @-@ led Arts Society . The centerpiece of the Williams Center is the 400 @-@ seat theater / concert hall and also contains a versatile art gallery , a 100 @-@ seat black box theater , and classrooms and studios for music and art .
Pardee Hall was completed in 1873 and remains one of the earliest buildings at Lafayette College . When initially constructed it was one of the largest academic buildings of its era . Pardee was first designed to hold all of the science programs ; currently it holds most of Lafayette 's humanities and social science departments .
The Kirby Hall of Civil Rights was constructed in the late 1920s between the First World War and the Great Depression . It was donated by the entrepreneur : Fred Morgan Kirby . In accordance to its time , the design " rumored to be per square foot the most expensive building of its day . " Lafayette selected the architectural firm Warren and Wetmore , known for their project designs with the New York Yacht Club , the Biltmore Hotel and Grand Central Station . The building 's exterior embraces styles of Republic Rome , the Renaissance , 17th English classicism , and Beaux @-@ Arts . The interior lobby area contains broad staircases and is constructed of travertine marble . The building currently houses the Government and Law department , giving students access to the Kirby library , with its twenty @-@ foot ceilings and oak @-@ paneled book cases .
Markle Hall , now the main administrative building , home of the Offices of Admissions and Financial Aid , originally was designated the Hall of Mining Engineering . An online historical survey of campus buildings is maintained by the College 's Special Collections .
The David Bishop Skillman library built in 1961 is the main library on campus with the addition of the Simon Wing in 1986 and $ 22 million renovation and expansion in 2004 . The library contains over 500 @,@ 000 volumes in its collections and is subscribed to thousands of magazines , journals , and newspapers in the electronic and paper format . In addition , the college 's Special Collections and College Archives are located inside for research and displays holdings related to the Marquis de Lafayette . Inside also contains reading and study areas and computer labs available to the students .
= = = Housing and student life facilities = = =
Lafayette College guarantees campus housing to all enrolled students . The school requires students to live in campus housing unless approved for residing in private off @-@ campus housing or home as a commuter . The College offers on @-@ campus housing options including traditional halls , Greek chapter houses , suite @-@ style halls , and group living units ; where some halls are single gender while others may be co @-@ ed by floor , wing , room , or suite . In addition , Lafayette College provides specialty housings that ties to specific academic departments , student organizations , or religious affiliations . Other residences include the McKelvy House , the Arts Houses , the French / German House , Hispanic Society of Lafayette , and the Hillel House .
Lafayette College offers a variety of dining options for the campus residents . Farinon College Center houses two of the main dining halls on campus . The top floor of Farinon is an " all @-@ you @-@ can @-@ eat " style buffet , while ground level is a food court . Marquis Hall , the second largest dining hall on campus , is the second dining hall with an " all @-@ you @-@ can @-@ eat " style buffet . Marquis also houses regularly themed events and contests . Gilbert 's Cafe , a coffeehouse located on the ground floor of Kirby House , was opened in 1999 to provide a late @-@ night hangout and food for students . Simon 's , a sandwich shop is located in the ground floor of Kamine , a residence hall . The Skillman Café located in the Skillman Library sells Starbucks coffee and fresh @-@ baked items made by the college . Lafayette also maintains an off @-@ campus organic farm , Lafarm , which provides vegetables to the dining halls and employment for interested students .
= = Athletics = =
The Lafayette Leopards compete in the Patriot League under the guidance of current Athletic Director Bruce McCutcheon . Lafayette offers students the opportunity to participate in 23 NCAA Division I sports , 18 club sports , and over 30 intramural sports . The student @-@ athletes are considered students first , and athletes second . Lafayette currently ranks 3rd nationally in student @-@ athlete graduation success rate , according to the most recent NCAA study .
Among other firsts , Lafayette became the first non @-@ Ivy League school to win a national football championship in 1896 . Additionally , other American football innovations at Lafayette include the first use of the huddle and the invention of the head harness , precursor to the football helmet . The men 's basketball program also encompasses a decorated history , peaking in the late nineties under the leadership of Fran O 'Hanlon , who led the Leopards to back @-@ to @-@ back Patriot League championships and NCAA Tournament appearances in 1999 and 2000 . These seasons were documented by John Feinstein in his book , The Last Amateurs .
Affiliation : NCAA Division I , Football : Football Championship Subdivision
Conference : Patriot League
Team name : Leopards
Team colors : Maroon and white
Arch rival : Lehigh University
Other rivals : Bucknell University , Colgate University , Princeton University , University of Pennsylvania , Harvard University
Facilities : Fisher Field at Fisher Stadium ( Football ) , Kirby Sports Center ( Basketball ) , Metzgar Fields Athletic Complex
= = = Varsity sports = = =
= = = The Rivalry ( Lafayette @-@ Lehigh ) = = =
Lafayette College 's athletic program is notable for " The Rivalry " with nearby Lehigh University . Since 1884 , the two football teams have met 150 times , making it the most played rivalry in the history of American college football , and also one of the oldest when including high school or secondary school contests . It is also the longest running rivalry in college football , with the teams playing at least once every year since 1897 . The Rivalry is considered one of the best in all of college athletics by ESPNU , which recently ranked it # 8 among the Top Ten College Football Rivalries .
Lafayette leads the all @-@ time series 78 – 67 – 5 . In the most recent contest , Lafayette won against Lehigh on Saturday , November 22 , 2014 by a score of 27 – 7 at Yankee Stadium ( storied home of the New York Yankees baseball team since 1923 , in The Bronx , New York ) . It was also the most well @-@ attended game in the series , with 48 @,@ 256 people .
= = Student life = =
Students at Lafayette are involved in over 250 clubs and organizations including athletics , fraternities and sororities , special interest groups , community service clubs and honor societies . The Lafayette College Student Government , consisting of fifteen elected students , is responsible for most of the student organizations on campus , and is responsible for the budget , emergency allocation , programming . These programs and activities are meant to promote student involvements around campus and to provide a space for interactions outside of the classroom . Further , Student Government actively collaborates with different bodies on campus to better the community , as well as maintains an influential relationship with the faculty , administration , and Board of Trustees in order to best meet the needs of the students .
= = = Greek life = = =
Lafayette College encompasses a lively Greek community . Though students are not eligible to join these organizations until sophomore year , approximately 40 @.@ 20 % of eligible students join the school 's four fraternities and six sororities . All but two of the Greek organizations at Lafayette are located on campus , making it a viable living option . Additionally , members of each house commit themselves to various philanthropic ventures throughout the academic year as these groups work together with the college , local , and national affiliates to help achieve the goals and ideals their organizations were founded upon .
= = = Fraternities = = =
= = = Sororities = = =
In addition to the 10 social fraternities and sororities , there are also a number of academic honor societies on campus .
= = = Academic honor societies = = =
= = = Newspaper = = =
The Lafayette , Lafayette 's weekly student newspaper , was founded in 1870 and is the oldest college newspaper in Pennsylvania . It is available in both print and online form . The newspaper has been published continuously since its creation , with the exception of during World War II , when operations were suspended between fall 1943 and March 1945 . Over 4 @,@ 200 digitized issues of The Lafayette are available online .
= = = Investment Club = = =
Founded in 1946 , it is the oldest student @-@ run investment club in the country . The club made national news in 2016 , when CNN profiled their investment skills that led to returns of over 175 times their initial investment over 70 years ( from $ 3 @,@ 000 in 1946 to $ 530 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) , thereby beating the S & P 500 Index . As of March 2016 , the portfolio contains 41 stocks .
= = = Engineers Without Borders = = =
The club was founded in 2003 and is a member of EWB @-@ USA . Members of the club represent many disciplines in engineering and the liberal arts . The club is linked with rural villages in the Yoro region of Honduras . EWB 's mission is to design and implement projects in these villages that help promote better life . The club has focused its efforts on water treatment systems .
El Convento , which is located in the Yoro district of central Honduras , will be the third sustainable water project EWB @-@ LC students have worked on in the country since 2003 when the club was founded . The group has implemented gravity @-@ fed water systems in neighboring Lagunitas and La Fortuna . In La Fortuna , the group utilized a slow sand filter in its system . The group 's previous work garnered national media exposure for being one of six national institutions to receive a $ 75 @,@ 000 grant from the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency .
= = = Volunteer opportunities = = =
= = = = Landis Center = = = =
The Landis Center , Lafayette College 's community outreach program , provides students with service opportunities . Landis ' mission is to cultivate personal , civic and intellectual growth for students through meaningful and effective service experiences . The program also strives to foster college @-@ community partnerships that contribute to the well @-@ being of the community , both locally and globally .
= = = = Alternative School Break = = = =
Another volunteering alternative to the aforementioned Engineers Without Borders and Landis is Alternative School Break ( ASB ) . Students travel in teams during the January interim or spring break and help communities build homes , paint , and tutor . Recent destinations have included the Dominican Republic , Ecuador , New Orleans , Chicago , and New York City . Students raise money through various fundraising events to mitigate the cost of the trip .
= = = Lafayette Activities Forum = = =
The Lafayette Activities Forum is a student @-@ run organization that strives to promote campus interaction and student relations by incorporating programs and entertainment that reflect the interests of the general student body . LAF is made up of three committees : Live Entertainment , Campus Culture , and Marketing & Public Relations . They are in charge of planning events such the Spring Concert , Fall Fest , the Spot Underground , Open Mic nights , and Live Comedy .
= = Notable alumni = =
Lafayette alumni include two Nobel Laureates and five Governors : Alexander Ramsey ( Class of 1836 ) , Henry M. Hoyt ( Class of 1849 ) , John W. Griggs ( Class of 1868 ) , Robert B. Meyner ( Class of 1930 ) , and Wayne Dumont ( Class of 1935 ) . Additionally , the College counts sixteen current and former members of the United States Congress as alumni .
Other notable alumni :
Philip S. Hench ( Class of 1916 ) – Winner of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1950 for the discovery of the hormone cortisone
Joel Silver ( Class of 1974 ) – Head of Hollywood 's Silver Pictures and producer of films including the Die Hard , Lethal Weapon , and The Matrix series
Jed Plafker ( Class of 1992 ) – President of Franklin Templeton Investments
Michael F. Weinstein ( Class of 1970 ) – Former CEO of Snapple
Haldan K. Hartline ( Class of 1923 ) – Winner of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1967 for his work in analyzing the neurophysiological mechanisms of vision
S. Donald Stookey ( Class of 1938 ) – Inventor of Corningware who earned his master 's degree in chemistry in the 1930s .
William E. Simon ( Class of 1952 ) – 63rd Secretary of the Treasury and president of the United States Olympic Committee
William F. Durand ( Class of 1888 ) – Mechanical engineer and first civilian chair of the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics
Peyton C. March ( Class of 1886 ) – Former Army Chief of Staff
James McKeen Cattell ( Class of 1880 ) – First professor of psychology in the United States at the University of Pennsylvania .
Charles Bergstresser ( Class of 1881 ) – Founder of Dow Jones & Company .
Chip Bergh ( Class of 1979 ) – CEO of Levi Strauss & Co .
A. Mitchell Palmer ( Class of 1893 ) - 50th U.S. Attorney General and overseer of the " Palmer Raids "
Stephen Messer ( Class of 1993 ) – Founder of Rakuten Linkshare and angel investor .
Pete Carril ( Class of 1952 ) – Head coach of Princeton University and creator of the " Princeton offense "
Jim Rosenhaus – Broadcaster for the Cleveland Indians
Richard Roberts ( Class of 1875 ) – Personal assistant to General George Armstrong Custer
Sarkis Acopian ( Class of 1951 ) – Inventor of the solar radio and philanthropist
Maynard Bixby ( Class of 1876 ) – Discoverer of bixbyite and explorer
Jay Weiss ( Class of 1962 ) – Experimental psychologist and a 1984 MacArthur Fellow
Beth Mowins ( Class of 1989 ) – ESPN announcer and one of the first women color analysts on the network
Peter Simon ( Class of 1975 ) – Co @-@ owner of the NHL 's New Jersey Devils
D. Herbert Lipson ( Class of 1952 ) – Publisher and executive chairman of Philadelphia
Brent Glass ( Class of 1969 ) – Director of Smithsonian National Museum of American History
Joe Maddon ( Class of 1976 ) – Manager of the Chicago Cubs .
Al LeConey ( Class of 1923 ) – 1924 Summer Olympics gold medalist in the 4 × 100 metres relay , later featured on a U.S. postal stamp
William McMurtrie ( Class of 1871 ) – Chief Chemist for the United States Department of Agriculture and President of American Chemical Society
George Barclay ( Class of 1898 ) – Inventor of the football helmet
Walter E. Hanson ( Class of 1949 ) – Former chairman of KPMG
Michael S. Schmidt ( Class of 2005 ) Washington correspondent for The New York Times .
Frank Reed Horton ( Class of 1918 ) – Founder of Alpha Phi Omega .
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= Neurolinguistics =
Neurolinguistics is the study of the neural mechanisms in the human brain that control the comprehension , production , and acquisition of language . As an interdisciplinary field , neurolinguistics draws methods and theories from fields such as neuroscience , linguistics , cognitive science , neurobiology , communication disorders , neuropsychology , and computer science . Researchers are drawn to the field from a variety of backgrounds , bringing along a variety of experimental techniques as well as widely varying theoretical perspectives . Much work in neurolinguistics is informed by models in psycholinguistics and theoretical linguistics , and is focused on investigating how the brain can implement the processes that theoretical and psycholinguistics propose are necessary in producing and comprehending language . Neurolinguists study the physiological mechanisms by which the brain processes information related to language , and evaluate linguistic and psycholinguistic theories , using aphasiology , brain imaging , electrophysiology , and computer modeling .
= = History = =
Neurolinguistics is historically rooted in the development in the 19th century of aphasiology , the study of linguistic deficits ( aphasias ) occurring as the result of brain damage . Aphasiology attempts to correlate structure to function by analyzing the effect of brain injuries on language processing . One of the first people to draw a connection between a particular brain area and language processing was Paul Broca , a French surgeon who conducted autopsies on numerous individuals who had speaking deficiencies , and found that most of them had brain damage ( or lesions ) on the left frontal lobe , in an area now known as Broca 's area . Phrenologists had made the claim in the early 19th century that different brain regions carried out different functions and that language was mostly controlled by the frontal regions of the brain , but Broca 's research was possibly the first to offer empirical evidence for such a relationship , and has been described as " epoch @-@ making " and " pivotal " to the fields of neurolinguistics and cognitive science . Later , Carl Wernicke , after whom Wernicke 's area is named , proposed that different areas of the brain were specialized for different linguistic tasks , with Broca 's area handling the motor production of speech , and Wernicke 's area handling auditory speech comprehension . The work of Broca and Wernicke established the field of aphasiology and the idea that language can be studied through examining physical characteristics of the brain . Early work in aphasiology also benefited from the early twentieth @-@ century work of Korbinian Brodmann , who " mapped " the surface of the brain , dividing it up into numbered areas based on each area 's cytoarchitecture ( cell structure ) and function ; these areas , known as Brodmann areas , are still widely used in neuroscience today .
The coining of the term " neurolinguistics " is attributed to Edith Crowell Trager , Henri Hecaen and Alexandr Luria , in the late 1940s and 1950s ; Luria 's book " Problems in Neurolinguistics " is likely the first book with Neurolinguistics in the title . Harry Whitaker popularized neurolinguistics in the United States in the 1970s , founding the journal " Brain and Language " in 1974 .
Although aphasiology is the historical core of neurolinguistics , in recent years the field has broadened considerably , thanks in part to the emergence of new brain imaging technologies ( such as PET and fMRI ) and time @-@ sensitive electrophysiological techniques ( EEG and MEG ) , which can highlight patterns of brain activation as people engage in various language tasks ; electrophysiological techniques , in particular , emerged as a viable method for the study of language in 1980 with the discovery of the N400 , a brain response shown to be sensitive to semantic issues in language comprehension . The N400 was the first language @-@ relevant brain response to be identified , and since its discovery EEG and MEG have become increasingly widely used for conducting language research .
= = Neurolinguistics as a discipline = =
= = = Interaction with other fields = = =
Neurolinguistics is closely related to the field of psycholinguistics , which seeks to elucidate the cognitive mechanisms of language by employing the traditional techniques of experimental psychology ; today , psycholinguistic and neurolinguistic theories often inform one another , and there is much collaboration between the two fields .
Much work in neurolinguistics involves testing and evaluating theories put forth by psycholinguists and theoretical linguists . In general , theoretical linguists propose models to explain the structure of language and how language information is organized , psycholinguists propose models and algorithms to explain how language information is processed in the mind , and neurolinguists analyze brain activity to infer how biological structures ( populations and networks of neurons ) carry out those psycholinguistic processing algorithms . For example , experiments in sentence processing have used the ELAN , N400 , and P600 brain responses to examine how physiological brain responses reflect the different predictions of sentence processing models put forth by psycholinguists , such as Janet Fodor and Lyn Frazier 's " serial " model , and Theo Vosse and Gerard Kempen 's " unification model " . Neurolinguists can also make new predictions about the structure and organization of language based on insights about the physiology of the brain , by " generalizing from the knowledge of neurological structures to language structure " .
Neurolinguistics research is carried out in all the major areas of linguistics ; the main linguistic subfields , and how neurolinguistics addresses them , are given in the table below .
= = = Topics considered = = =
Neurolinguistics research investigates several topics , including where language information is processed , how language processing unfolds over time , how brain structures are related to language acquisition and learning , and how neurophysiology can contribute to speech and language pathology .
= = = = Localizations of language processes = = = =
Much work in neurolinguistics has , like Broca 's and Wernicke 's early studies , investigated the locations of specific language " modules " within the brain . Research questions include what course language information follows through the brain as it is processed , whether or not particular areas specialize in processing particular sorts of information , how different brain regions interact with one another in language processing , and how the locations of brain activation differs when a subject is producing or perceiving a language other than his or her first language .
= = = = Time course of language processes = = = =
Another area of neurolinguistics literature involves the use of electrophysiological techniques to analyze the rapid processing of language in time . The temporal ordering of specific patterns of in brain activity may reflect discrete computational processes that the brain undergoes during language processing ; for example , one neurolinguistic theory of sentence parsing proposes that three brain responses ( the ELAN , N400 , and P600 ) are products of three different steps in syntactic and semantic processing .
= = = = Language acquisition = = = =
Another topic is the relationship between brain structures and language acquisition . Research in first language acquisition has already established that infants from all linguistic environments go through similar and predictable stages ( such as babbling ) , and some neurolinguistics research attempts to find correlations between stages of language development and stages of brain development , while other research investigates the physical changes ( known as neuroplasticity ) that the brain undergoes during second language acquisition , when adults learn a new language . Neuroplasticity is observed when both Second Language acquisition and Language Learning experience are induced , the result of this language exposure concludes that an increase of gray and white matter could be found in children , young adults and the elderly .
Ping Li , Jennifer Legault , Kaitlyn A. Litcofsky , May 2014 . Neuroplasticity as a function of second language learning : Anatomical changes in the human brain Cortex : A Journal Devoted to the Study of the Nervous System & Behavior , 410 @.@ 1016 / j.cortex.2014.05.00124996640
= = = = Language pathology = = = =
Neurolinguistic techniques are also used to study disorders and breakdowns in language — such as aphasia and dyslexia — and how they relate to physical characteristics of the brain .
= = Technology used = =
Since one of the focuses of this field is the testing of linguistic and psycholinguistic models , the technology used for experiments is highly relevant to the study of neurolinguistics . Modern brain imaging techniques have contributed greatly to a growing understanding of the anatomical organization of linguistic functions . Brain imaging methods used in neurolinguistics may be classified into hemodynamic methods , electrophysiological methods , and methods that stimulate the cortex directly .
= = = Hemodynamic = = =
Hemodynamic techniques take advantage of the fact that when an area of the brain works at a task , blood is sent to supply that area with oxygen ( in what is known as the Blood Oxygen Level @-@ Dependent , or BOLD , response ) . Such techniques include PET and fMRI . These techniques provide high spatial resolution , allowing researchers to pinpoint the location of activity within the brain ; temporal resolution ( or information about the timing of brain activity ) , on the other hand , is poor , since the BOLD response happens much more slowly than language processing . In addition to demonstrating which parts of the brain may subserve specific language tasks or computations , hemodynamic methods have also been used to demonstrate how the structure of the brain 's language architecture and the distribution of language @-@ related activation may change over time , as a function of linguistic exposure .
In addition to PET and fMRI , which show which areas of the brain are activated by certain tasks , researchers also use diffusion tensor imaging ( DTI ) , which shows the neural pathways that connect different brain areas , thus providing insight into how different areas interact . Functional near @-@ infrared spectroscopy ( fNIRS ) is another hemodynamic method used in language tasks .
= = = Electrophysiological = = =
Electrophysiological techniques take advantage of the fact that when a group of neurons in the brain fire together , they create an electric dipole or current . The technique of EEG measures this electric current using sensors on the scalp , while MEG measures the magnetic fields that are generated by these currents . In addition to these non @-@ invasive methods , electrocorticography has also been used to study language processing . These techniques are able to measure brain activity from one millisecond to the next , providing excellent temporal resolution , which is important in studying processes that take place as quickly as language comprehension and production . On the other hand , the location of brain activity can be difficult to identify in EEG ; consequently , this technique is used primarily to how language processes are carried out , rather than where . Research using EEG and MEG generally focuses on event @-@ related potentials ( ERPs ) , which are distinct brain responses ( generally realized as negative or positive peaks on a graph of neural activity ) elicited in response to a particular stimulus . Studies using ERP may focus on each ERP 's latency ( how long after the stimulus the ERP begins or peaks ) , amplitude ( how high or low the peak is ) , or topography ( where on the scalp the ERP response is picked up by sensors ) . Some important and common ERP components include the N400 ( a negativity occurring at a latency of about 400 milliseconds ) , the mismatch negativity , the early left anterior negativity ( a negativity occurring at an early latency and a front @-@ left topography ) , the P600 , and the lateralized readiness potential .
= = Experimental design = =
= = = Experimental techniques = = =
Neurolinguists employ a variety of experimental techniques in order to use brain imaging to draw conclusions about how language is represented and processed in the brain . These techniques include the subtraction paradigm , mismatch design , violation @-@ based studies , various forms of priming , and direct stimulation of the brain .
= = = = Subtraction = = = =
Many language studies , particularly in fMRI , use the subtraction paradigm , in which brain activation in a task thought to involve some aspect of language processing is compared against activation in a baseline task thought to involve similar non @-@ linguistic processes but not to involve the linguistic process . For example , activations while participants read words may be compared to baseline activations while participants read strings of random letters ( in attempt to isolate activation related to lexical processing — the processing of real words ) , or activations while participants read syntactically complex sentences may be compared to baseline activations while participants read simpler sentences .
= = = = Mismatch paradigm = = = =
The mismatch negativity ( MMN ) is a rigorously documented ERP component frequently used in neurolinguistic experiments . It is an electrophysiological response that occurs in the brain when a subject hears a " deviant " stimulus in a set of perceptually identical " standards " ( as in the sequence s s s s s s s d d s s s s s s d s s s s s d ) . Since the MMN is elicited only in response to a rare " oddball " stimulus in a set of other stimuli that are perceived to be the same , it has been used to test how speakers perceive sounds and organize stimuli categorically . For example , a landmark study by Colin Phillips and colleagues used the mismatch negativity as evidence that subjects , when presented with a series of speech sounds with acoustic parameters , perceived all the sounds as either / t / or / d / in spite of the acoustic variability , suggesting that the human brain has representations of abstract phonemes — in other words , the subjects were " hearing " not the specific acoustic features , but only the abstract phonemes . In addition , the mismatch negativity has been used to study syntactic processing and the recognition of word category .
= = = = Violation @-@ based = = = =
Many studies in neurolinguistics take advantage of anomalies or violations of syntactic or semantic rules in experimental stimuli , and analyzing the brain responses elicited when a subject encounters these violations . For example , sentences beginning with phrases such as * the garden was on the worked , which violates an English phrase structure rule , often elicit a brain response called the early left anterior negativity ( ELAN ) . Violation techniques have been in use since at least 1980 , when Kutas and Hillyard first reported ERP evidence that semantic violations elicited an N400 effect . Using similar methods , in 1992 , Lee Osterhout first reported the P600 response to syntactic anomalies . Violation designs have also been used for hemodynamic studies ( fMRI and PET ) : Embick and colleagues , for example , used grammatical and spelling violations to investigate the location of syntactic processing in the brain using fMRI . Another common use of violation designs is to combine two kinds of violations in the same sentence and thus make predictions about how different language processes interact with one another ; this type of crossing @-@ violation study has been used extensively to investigate how syntactic and semantic processes interact while people read or hear sentences .
= = = = Priming = = = =
In psycholinguistics and neurolinguistics , priming refers to the phenomenon whereby a subject can recognize a word more quickly if he or she has recently been presented with a word that is similar in meaning or morphological makeup ( i.e. , composed of similar parts ) . If a subject is presented with a " prime " word such as doctor and then a " target " word such as nurse , if the subject has a faster @-@ than @-@ usual response time to nurse then the experimenter may assume that word nurse in the brain had already been accessed when the word doctor was accessed . Priming is used to investigate a wide variety of questions about how words are stored and retrieved in the brain and how structurally complex sentences are processed .
= = = = Stimulation = = = =
Transcranial magnetic stimulation ( TMS ) , a new noninvasive technique for studying brain activity , uses powerful magnetic fields that are applied to the brain from outside the head . It is a method of exciting or interrupting brain activity in a specific and controlled location , and thus is able to imitate aphasic symptoms while giving the researcher more control over exactly which parts of the brain will be examined . As such , it is a less invasive alternative to direct cortical stimulation , which can be used for similar types of research but requires that the subject 's scalp be removed , and is thus only used on individuals who are already undergoing a major brain operation ( such as individuals undergoing surgery for epilepsy ) . The logic behind TMS and direct cortical stimulation is similar to the logic behind aphasiology : if a particular language function is impaired when a specific region of the brain is knocked out , then that region must be somehow implicated in that language function . Few neurolinguistic studies to date have used TMS ; direct cortical stimulation and cortical recording ( recording brain activity using electrodes placed directly on the brain ) have been used with macaque monkeys to make predictions about the behavior of human brains .
= = = Subject tasks = = =
In many neurolinguistics experiments , subjects do not simply sit and listen to or watch stimuli , but also are instructed to perform some sort of task in response to the stimuli . Subjects perform these tasks while recordings ( electrophysiological or hemodynamic ) are being taken , usually in order to ensure that they are paying attention to the stimuli . At least one study has suggested that the task the subject does has an effect on the brain responses and the results of the experiment .
= = = = Lexical decision = = = =
The lexical decision task involves subjects seeing or hearing an isolated word and answering whether or not it is a real word . It is frequently used in priming studies , since subjects are known to make a lexical decision more quickly if a word has been primed by a related word ( as in " doctor " priming " nurse " ) .
= = = = Grammaticality judgment , acceptability judgment = = = =
Many studies , especially violation @-@ based studies , have subjects make a decision about the " acceptability " ( usually grammatical acceptability or semantic acceptability ) of stimuli . Such a task is often used to " ensure that subjects [ are ] reading the sentences attentively and that they [ distinguish ] acceptable from unacceptable sentences in the way the [ experimenter ] expect [ s ] them to do . "
Experimental evidence has shown that the instructions given to subjects in an acceptability judgment task can influence the subjects ' brain responses to stimuli . One experiment showed that when subjects were instructed to judge the " acceptability " of sentences they did not show an N400 brain response ( a response commonly associated with semantic processing ) , but that they did show that response when instructed to ignore grammatical acceptability and only judge whether or not the sentences " made sense " .
= = = = Probe verification = = = =
Some studies use a " probe verification " task rather than an overt acceptability judgment ; in this paradigm , each experimental sentence is followed by a " probe word " , and subjects must answer whether or not the probe word had appeared in the sentence . This task , like the acceptability judgment task , ensures that subjects are reading or listening attentively , but may avoid some of the additional processing demands of acceptability judgments , and may be used no matter what type of violation is being presented in the study .
= = = = Truth @-@ value judgment = = = =
Subjects may be instructed not to judge whether or not the sentence is grammatically acceptable or logical , but whether the proposition expressed by the sentence is true or false . This task is commonly used in psycholinguistic studies of child language .
= = = = Active distraction and double @-@ task = = = =
Some experiments give subjects a " distractor " task to ensure that subjects are not consciously paying attention to the experimental stimuli ; this may be done to test whether a certain computation in the brain is carried out automatically , regardless of whether the subject devotes attentional resources to it . For example , one study had subjects listen to non @-@ linguistic tones ( long beeps and buzzes ) in one ear and speech in the other ear , and instructed subjects to press a button when they perceived a change in the tone ; this supposedly caused subjects not to pay explicit attention to grammatical violations in the speech stimuli . The subjects showed a mismatch response ( MMN ) anyway , suggesting that the processing of the grammatical errors was happening automatically , regardless of attention — or at least that subjects were unable to consciously separate their attention from the speech stimuli .
Another related form of experiment is the double @-@ task experiment , in which a subject must perform an extra task ( such as sequential finger @-@ tapping or articulating nonsense syllables ) while responding to linguistic stimuli ; this kind of experiment has been used to investigate the use of working memory in language processing .
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= York Community Stadium =
The York Community Stadium is a proposed multi @-@ purpose stadium in Huntington , York , England . It will be owned by City of York Council , and be shared by York City Football Club and York City Knights Rugby League Football Club . The projected capacity of the all @-@ seater stadium is 8 @,@ 005 .
The move to a new stadium was necessitated by the terms of the loan York City secured from the Football Stadia Improvement Fund to purchase their Bootham Crescent ground . Planning permission for the current design , put forward by Greenwich Leisure Ltd , was granted in March 2015 . Construction is expected to begin in the summer of 2016 , for completion in early 2018 . In addition to the stadium , the site will house a leisure complex and a community hub .
= = Background = =
York City F.C. ceased ownership of their Bootham Crescent ground in the summer of 1999 , after the club 's real property assets were transferred to a holding company called Bootham Crescent Holdings . The club secured a £ 2 million loan from the Football Stadia Improvement Fund ( FSIF ) to buy the ground in February 2004 . The terms of this loan required the club to identify a site for a new stadium by 2007 , and have detailed planning permission by 2009 , to avoid financial penalties . Once plans for a new stadium were in place , the loan would turn into a grant to assist in funding the relocation .
As part of the loan agreement , Persimmon have first refusal on purchasing Bootham Crescent once York City leave , for 10 % lower than its market value . Persimmon still intend to build 93 homes on the site , and the proceeds of the sale would go towards building the new stadium . In March 2008 , York City 's managing director Jason McGill cited " the annual cost of £ 60 @,@ 000 for the maintenance and upkeep of a 1932 stadium with few commercial and income @-@ generating opportunities " as the reason for the continued need to move to a new stadium .
= = Planning history = =
York City had identified a preferred site for a new stadium by April 2007 , but were unable to disclose the location due to confidentiality clauses . Despite the club failing to formally identify a site by the end of 2007 , financial penalties were not incurred , as the FSIF were satisfied with the progress made . However , McGill said plans with the preferred site had stalled by March 2008 . City of York Council announced its commitment to building a community stadium in May 2008 , which would be used by York City and the city 's rugby league club , York City Knights RLFC .
A project board was established in January 2009 , with the objective of ensuring the stadium be built by 2012 . City councillors approved the outline business case for the stadium in June 2009 , meaning officials could start searching for sites . Four sites were put forward to the council in June 2010 , and York City favoured the option of building a 6 @,@ 000 all @-@ seater stadium at Monks Cross in Huntington , to the north of York , on the site of Huntington Stadium , which would be ready by 2014 at the earliest . Mark Stead of The Press noted the advantages of this site , including the potential for land value to include , the opportunity to build health and fitness facilities and commercial interest , and the disadvantages , including a scheduled ancient monument being located on adjacent land and traffic concerns . In July 2010 , this location was chosen by the council executive as their preferred option .
Developers Oakgate ( Monks Cross ) Ltd submitted a planning application for a community stadium , for use by York City and York City Knights , and a retail park in September 2011 . The council granted planning permission for the development in May 2012 , with the stadium expected to be ready during the 2014 – 15 season . Gavin Aitchison of The Press commented that " one of York ’ s biggest planning controversies in years finally came to a head " after the planning committee meeting that lasted over eight hours . Critics argued the development would damage the city centre economy , with a report by Deloitte saying the development would cost the city centre £ 50 million a year . In November 2012 , construction was delayed until June 2014 , for a completion date of July 2015 . A delay to the construction of the shopping park in June 2013 , caused by the discovery of protected great crested newts at the site , meant the stadium completion date was moved to January 2016 .
In August 2014 , Greenwich Leisure Ltd ( GLL ) were named as the council 's preferred bidder to deliver an 8 @,@ 000 all @-@ seater stadium , to be shared by York City and York City Knights , and a leisure complex and a community hub . Construction was due to start during spring 2015 , for a completion date of July 2016 . York City were given responsibility for operating and managing the stadium on an initial 13 @-@ year contract . A planning application for the GLL plan was submitted to the council in December 2014 , which was passed in March 2015 . The cost of the stadium and leisure complex , including a replacement athletics track at another site , stood at £ 37 million .
In July 2015 , construction was delayed as contracts were still being finalised , and the completion date was moved to during the 2016 – 17 season . Construction was delayed again a month later , with work to begin in February or March 2016 , for completion in April or May 2017 . With construction costs increasing due to more detailed design work , construction inflation and delays , the council pledged an additional £ 7 @.@ 2 million in March 2016 , raising the total cost of the project to £ 44 @.@ 2 million . Construction was delayed to the summer of 2016 , for completion in early 2018 .
= = Structure and facilities = =
The stadium is projected to have an all @-@ seated capacity of 8 @,@ 005 . It will comprise four stands ; the East Stand ( Main Stand ) , the West Stand , the North Stand and the South Stand . The three @-@ floored East Stand is to accommodate hospitality guests , players , officials and the media , and will be connected to the adjacent retail and community facilities . The stands will stretch the length of the playing field , and each corner will host stadium facilities , including matchday emergency services , stewarding , groundsman accommodation , plant space and a fan zone . The seats will be coloured red , white and blue , a combination of the colours of both teams .
The pitch will use reinforced natural grass , with provision to counter frost . The dimensions for football matches will be 105 by 68 metres ( 115 by 74 yd ) , with 3 @-@ metre @-@ wide run @-@ offs on the sides and 6.5- metre @-@ wide run @-@ offs behind the goals , which will meet FIFA recommendations . The dimensions for rugby league matches will be 100 by 68 metres ( 109 by 74 yd ) , with 6 @-@ metre in @-@ goal areas , and 3 @-@ metre @-@ wide run @-@ offs on the sides and after the dead ball lines .
Adjoining the stadium will be the leisure complex , which will include a 25 @-@ metre , six @-@ lane swimming pool , a sports hall for netball , badminton and basketball , a gym with dance and spinning studios , an adventure sports zone and three 3G five @-@ a @-@ side pitches . A community hub will house health and well @-@ being services for York residents and visitors , including clinical services , an independent living assessment centre and a library .
= = Transport = =
Regular bus services will serve the stadium from the city centre , and additional services to other areas will be considered if there is sufficient demand . A review of the park and ride operating times will take place , with an extension to the service to be sought . On matchdays , 400 car parking places and 355 cycle parking places will be available at the stadium . A cycle route exists between the site and the city centre .
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= Patrick Moore =
Sir Patrick Alfred Caldwell @-@ Moore CBE , FRS , FRAS ( 4 March 1923 – 9 December 2012 ) was an English amateur astronomer who attained prominent status in that field as a writer , researcher , radio commentator and television presenter .
Moore was president of the British Astronomical Association , co @-@ founder and president of the Society for Popular Astronomy ( SPA ) , author of over 70 books on astronomy , and presenter of the world 's longest @-@ running television series with the same original presenter , the BBC 's The Sky at Night . As an amateur astronomer , he became known as a specialist in Moon observation and for creating the Caldwell catalogue . Idiosyncrasies such as his rapid diction and monocle made him a popular and instantly recognisable figure on British television .
Moore was also a self @-@ taught xylophonist , glockenspiel player and pianist , as well as an accomplished composer . He was a former amateur cricketer , golfer and chess player . In addition to many popular science books , he wrote numerous works of fiction . Moore was an opponent of fox hunting , an outspoken critic of the European Union , supporter of the UK Independence Party and served as chairman of the short @-@ lived anti @-@ immigration United Country Party . He served in the Royal Air Force during World War II . He never married or had children .
= = Early life = =
Moore was born in Pinner , Middlesex on 4 March 1923 to Capt. Charles Trachsel Caldwell @-@ Moore MC ( died 1947 ) and Gertrude ( née White ) ( died 1981 ) . His family moved to Bognor Regis , and subsequently to East Grinstead where he spent his childhood . His youth was marked by heart problems , which left him in poor health and he was educated at home by private tutors . He developed an interest in astronomy at the age of six and joined the British Astronomical Association at the age of eleven . He was invited to run a small observatory in East Grinstead at the age of 14 , after his mentor – who ran the observatory – was killed in a road accident . At the age of 16 he began wearing a monocle after an oculist told him his right eye was weaker than his left . Three years later , he began wearing a full set of dentures .
During World War II , Moore joined the Home Guard in East Grinstead where his father had been elected platoon commander . Despite recounting in his autobiography that he had lied about his age to join the Royal Air Force in 1940 at age 16 , records show that he enlisted in the Royal Air Force Volunteer Reserve in December 1941 at age 18 and was not called up for service until July 1942 as an Aircraftman , 2nd Class . After basic training at various RAF bases in England , he went to Canada under the British Commonwealth Air Training Plan and completed training at RAF Moncton in New Brunswick as a navigator and pilot . During his time in Canada , he met Albert Einstein and Orville Wright while on leave in New York . Returning to England in June 1944 , he was commissioned as a Pilot officer and was posted to RAF Millom in Cumbria , where he was a navigator in the crew of a Vickers Wellington bomber , engaged in maritime patrolling and bombing missions to mainland Europe . After the end of hostilities , Moore became an adjutant and then an Area Meteorological Officer , finally demobilized in October 1945 with the rank of Flying officer . The war had a significant influence on his life - he said his only romance ended when his fiancée Lorna , a nurse , was killed in London in 1943 by a bomb which struck her ambulance . Moore subsequently remarked that he never married because " there was no one else for me ... second best is no good for me ... I would have liked a wife and family , but it was not to be . " In his autobiography he said that after sixty years he still thought about her , and because of her death " if I saw the entire German nation sinking into the sea , I could be relied upon to help push it down . " In May 2012 he said to the " Radio Times " magazine , " We must take care . There may be another war . The Germans will try again , given another chance . A Kraut is a Kraut is a Kraut . And the only good Kraut is a dead Kraut . "
Moore said he was " exceptionally close " to his mother Gertrude , a talented artist who shared his Selsey home , which was decorated with her paintings of " bogeys " – little friendly aliens – which she produced and sent out annually as the Moores ' Christmas cards . Moore wrote the foreword for his mother 's 1974 book , Mrs Moore In Space .
= = Career in astronomy = =
After the war , Moore rejected a grant to study at the University of Cambridge , citing a wish to " stand on my own two feet " . He wrote his first book , Guide to the Moon ( later retitled Patrick Moore on the Moon ) in 1952 and it was published a year later . He wrote it on a 1908 Woodstock typewriter , which he used for every book he published . He was a teacher in Woking and at Holmewood House School in Langton Green , from 1945 to 1953 . His second book was a translation of a work of French astronomer Gérard de Vaucouleurs ( Moore spoke fluent French ) . After his second original science book , Guide to the Planets , he penned his first work of fiction , The Master of the Moon , the first of numerous young @-@ adult fiction space adventure books ( including the late 1970s series the Scott Saunders Space Adventure ) ; he wrote a more adult novel and a farce titled Ancient Lights , though he did not wish either to be published .
While teaching at Holmewood he set up a 12 ½ inch reflector telescope at his home , which he kept into his old age . He developed a particular interest in the far side of the Moon , a small part of which is visible from Earth as a result of the Moon 's libration ; the Moon was his specialist subject throughout his life . He claimed to have discovered and named the Mare Orientale ( Eastern Sea ) in 1946 , along with H P Wilkins , though he later conceded that German astronomer Julius Heinrich Franz should be credited with the discovery . The feature had been observed several times since telescopic observations began . Moore described the short @-@ lived glowing areas on the lunar surface , and gave them the name transient lunar phenomena in 1968 .
His first television appearance was in a debate about the existence of flying saucers following a spate of reported sightings in the 1950s ; Moore argued against Lord Dowding and other UFO proponents . He was invited to present a live astronomy programme and said the greatest difficulty was finding an appropriate theme tune ; the opening of Jean Sibelius 's Pelléas et Mélisande was chosen and used throughout the programme 's existence . The programme was originally named Star Map before The Sky at Night was chosen in the Radio Times . On 24 April 1957 , at 10 : 30 pm , Moore presented the first episode about the Comet Arend – Roland . The programme was pitched to casual viewers up to professional astronomers , in a format which remained consistent from its inception . Moore presented every monthly episode except for one in July 2004 when he suffered a near @-@ fatal bout of food poisoning caused by eating a contaminated goose egg and was replaced for that episode by Chris Lintott . Moore appears in the Guinness World Records book as the world 's longest @-@ serving TV presenter having presented the programme since 1957 . From 2004 to 2012 , the programme was broadcast from Moore 's home , when arthritis prevented him from travelling to the studios . Over the years he received many lucrative offers to take his programme onto other networks , but rejected them because he held a ' gentlemen 's agreement ' with the BBC .
A highlight of the series in 1959 was when the Russians allowed Moore to be the first Westerner to see the photographic results of the Luna 3 probe , and to show them live on air . Less successful was the transmission of the Luna 4 probe , which ran into technical difficulties and around this time Moore famously swallowed a large fly ; both episodes were live and Moore had to continue regardless . He was invited to visit the Soviet Union , where he met Yuri Gagarin , the first man to journey into outer space . For the fiftieth episode of The Sky at Night , in September 1961 , Moore 's attempt to be the first to broadcast a live direct telescopic view of a planet resulted in another unintended ' comedy episode ' , as cloud obscured the sky .
In 1965 , he was appointed director of the newly constructed Armagh Planetarium in Northern Ireland , a post he held until 1968 . His stay outside England was short partly because of the beginning of The Troubles , a dispute Moore wanted no involvement in . He was appointed Armagh County secretary of the Scout movement , but resigned after being informed that Catholics could not be admitted . In developing the Planetarium , Moore travelled to Japan to secure a Goto Mars projector . He helped with the redevelopment of the Birr Telescope in the Republic of Ireland . He was a key figure in the development of the Herschel Museum of Astronomy in Bath .
In June 1968 he returned to England , settling in Selsey after resigning his post in Armagh . During the NASA Apollo programme , presenting on the Apollo 8 mission , he said that " this is one of the great moments of human history " , only to have his broadcast interrupted by the children 's programme Jackanory . He was a presenter for the Apollo 9 and Apollo 10 missions , and a commenter , with Cliff Michelmore and James Burke , for BBC television 's coverage of the Moon landing missions . Moore could not remember his words at the " Eagle has landed " moment , and the BBC has lost the tapes of the broadcast . A homemade recording reveals that the studio team was very quiet during the landing sequence , leaving the NASA commentary clear of interruptions . Some 14 seconds after " contact " Burke says " They 've touched " . At 36 seconds he says " Eagle has landed " . Between 53 and 62 seconds he explains the upcoming stay / no @-@ stay decision and NASA announces the T1 stay at 90 seconds after contact . At 100 seconds the recorded sequence ends . Thus any real @-@ time comment Moore made was not broadcast live and the recording ends before Burke polls the studio team for comment and reaction . Moore participated in TV coverage of Apollo missions 12 to 17 .
He was elected a member of the International Astronomical Union in 1966 ; having twice edited the Union 's General Assembly newsletters . He attempted to establish an International Union of Amateur Astronomers , which failed due to lack of interest . During the 1970s and 80s , he reported on the Voyager and Pioneer programs , often from NASA headquarters . At this time he became increasingly annoyed by conspiracy theorists and reporters who asked him questions such as " Why waste money on space research when there is so much to be done here ? " . He said that when asked these type of questions " I know that I 'm dealing with an idiot . " Another question that annoyed him was " what is the difference between astronomy and astrology ? " Despite this he made a point of responding to all letters delivered to his house , and sent a variety of standard replies to letters asking basic questions , as well as those from conspiracy theorists , proponents of hunting and ' cranks ' . Despite his fame , his telephone number was always listed in the telephone directory and he was happy to show members of the public his observatory .
He compiled the Caldwell catalogue of astronomical objects and in 1982 , asteroid 2602 Moore was named in his honour . In February 1986 he presented a special episode of The Sky at Night on the approach of Halley 's Comet , though he later said the BBC 's better @-@ funded Horizon team " made a complete hash of the programme . " In January 1998 , a tornado destroyed part of Moore 's garden observatory ; it was subsequently rebuilt . Moore campaigned unsuccessfully against the closure of the Royal Observatory , Greenwich in 1998 . Among Moore 's favourite episodes of The Sky at Night were those that dealt with eclipses , and he said " there is nothing in nature to match the glory of a total eclipse of the Sun . "
Moore was a BBC presenter for the total eclipse in England in 1999 , though the view he and his team had from Cornwall was obscured by cloud . Moore was the patron of the South Downs Planetarium & Science Centre , which opened in 2001 .
On 1 April 2007 , a 50th anniversary semi @-@ spoof edition of the programme was broadcast on BBC One , with Moore depicted as a Time Lord and featured special guests , amateur astronomers Jon Culshaw ( impersonating Moore presenting the first The Sky at Night ) and Brian May . On 6 May 2007 , a special edition of The Sky at Night was broadcast on BBC One , to commemorate the programme 's 50th anniversary , with a party in Moore 's garden at Selsey , attended by amateur and professional astronomers . Moore celebrated the record @-@ breaking 700th episode of The Sky at Night at his home in Sussex on 6 March 2011 . He presented with the help of special guests Professor Brian Cox , Jon Culshaw and Lord Rees , the Astronomer Royal .
It was reported in January 2012 that because of arthritis and the effects of an old spinal injury he was no longer able to operate a telescope . However , he was still able to present The Sky at Night from his home .
He died aged 89 at 12 : 25 p.m. on 9 December 2012 at his home in Selsey , West Sussex .
On 9 December 2014 it was reported that the Science Museum , London had acquired a large collection of Patrick Moore 's objects and manuscripts and memorabilia , including The Sky at Night scripts , and about 70 of his observation books , over more than 60 years , and manuscripts for astronomy and fiction books , and a 12 @.@ 5 inch reflecting telescope .
= = Activism and political beliefs = =
Moore was known for his conservative political views . In the 1970s , he was chairman of the anti @-@ immigration United Country Party , a position he held until the party was absorbed by the New Britain Party in 1980 . He campaigned for the politician Edmund Iremonger in the 1979 British general election , as they agreed the French and Germans were not to be trusted . Iremonger and Moore gave up political campaigning after deciding they were Thatcherites . Moore campaigned on behalf of Douglas Denny ( UKIP ) for the Chichester constituency in 2001 . A Tory voter for many years , he was a supporter and patron of the eurosceptic UK Independence Party until his death . He briefly supported the Liberal Party in the 1950s , though condemned the Liberal Democrats , saying he believed they could alter their position radically and that they " would happily join up with the BNP or the Socialist Workers Party ... if [ by doing so ] they could win a few extra votes . " He admired the Official Monster Raving Loony Party and was briefly their financial advisor . He wrote in his autobiography that Liechtenstein – a constitutional monarchy headed by a prince – had the best political system in the world . Moore was a critic of the Iraq War , and said " the world was a safer place when Ronald Reagan was in the White House " . He was a patron of the British Weights and Measures Association .
Proudly declaring himself to be English ( rather than British ) with " not the slightest wish to integrate with anybody " , he stated his admiration for controversial MP Enoch Powell . Moore devoted an entire chapter ( " The Weak Arm of the Law " ) of his autobiography to denouncing modern British society , particularly " motorist @-@ hunting " policemen , sentencing policy , the Race Relations Act , Sex Discrimination Act and the " Thought Police / Politically Correct Brigade " . He wrote that " homosexuals are mainly responsible for the spreading of AIDS ( the Garden of Eden is home of Adam and Eve , not Adam and Steve ) " .
In an interview with Radio Times , he asserted that the BBC was being " ruined by women " , commenting that : " The trouble is that the BBC now is run by women and it shows : soap operas , cooking , quizzes , kitchen @-@ sink plays . You wouldn 't have had that in the golden days . " In response , a BBC spokeswoman described Moore as being one of TV 's best @-@ loved figures and remarked that his " forthright " views were " what we all love about him " . In his June 2002 appearance on Room 101 he banished female news readers into Room 101 .
" I may be accused of being a dinosaur , but I would remind you that dinosaurs ruled the Earth for a very long time . "
Moore cited his opposition to fox hunting , blood sports and capital punishment to rebut claims that he had ultra right @-@ wing views . Though not a vegetarian , he held " a deep contempt for people who go out to kill merely to amuse themselves . " He was an animal lover , supporting many animal welfare charities ( particularly Cats Protection ) . He had a particular affinity for cats and stated that " a catless house is a soulless house " .
= = Other interests and popular culture = =
Because of his long @-@ running television career and eccentric demeanour , Moore was widely recognised and became a popular public figure . In 1976 it was used to good effect for an April Fools ' Day spoof on BBC Radio 2 , when Moore announced a once @-@ in @-@ a @-@ lifetime astronomical event that meant that if listeners could jump at that exact moment , 9 @.@ 47 a.m. they would experience a temporary sensation of weightlessness . The BBC received many telephone calls from listeners alleging they experienced the sensation . He was a key figure in the establishment of the International Birdman event in Bognor Regis , which was initially held in Selsey .
Moore appeared in other television and radio shows , including Just a Minute and , from 1992 until 1998 , playing the role of GamesMaster in the television show of the same name : a character who professed to know everything there is to know about video gaming . He would issue video game challenges and answered questions on cheats and tips . The show 's host , Dominik Diamond , claimed that Moore did not understand anything that he said on the show , yet managed to record his contributions in single takes .
Moore was a keen amateur actor , appearing in local plays . He appeared in self @-@ parodying roles , in several episodes of The Goodies and on the Morecambe and Wise show , and broadcast with Kenneth Horne only a few days before Horne 's death . He had a minor role in the fourth radio series of The Hitchhiker 's Guide to the Galaxy , and a lead role in the Radio 1 sci @-@ fi BBC / 20th Century Fox radio play , Independence Day UK in which amongst other things , Moore fills in as a navigator . He appeared in It 's a Celebrity Knockout , Blankety Blank and Face the Music . He appeared on television at least once in a film prop space suit .
He expressed appreciation for the science fiction television series Doctor Who and Star Trek , but stated that he had stopped watching when " they went PC - making women commanders , that kind of thing " . Despite this he subsequently made a cameo appearance in the Doctor Who episode " The Eleventh Hour " in 2010 , which was Matt Smith 's debut as the Eleventh Doctor . In the 1960s , Moore had been approached by the Doctor Who story editor Gerry Davis to act as a scientific advisor on the series to help with the accuracy of stories , a position ultimately taken by Kit Pedler .
A keen amateur chess player , Moore carried a pocket set and was vice president of Sussex Junior Chess Association . In 2003 , he presented Sussex Junior David Howell with the best young chess player award on Carlton Television 's Britain 's Brilliant Prodigies show . Moore had represented Sussex in his youth .
Moore was an enthusiastic amateur cricketer , playing for the Selsey Cricket Club well into his seventies . He played for the Lord 's Taverners , a cricketing charity team , as a bowler with an unorthodox action . Though an accomplished leg spin bowler , he was a number 11 batsman and a poor fielder . The jacket notes to his book " Suns , Myths and Men " ( 1968 ) said his hobbies included " chess , which he plays with a peculiar leg @-@ spin , and cricket . " He played golf , and won a Pro @-@ Am competition in Southampton in 1975 .
Until forced to give up because of arthritis , Moore was a keen pianist and accomplished xylophone player , having first played the instrument at the age of 13 . He composed a substantial corpus of works , including two operettas . Moore had a ballet , Lyra 's Dream , written to his music . He performed at a Royal Command Performance , and performed a duet with Evelyn Glennie .
In 1998 , as a guest on Have I Got News for You , he accompanied the show 's closing theme tune on the xylophone and as a pianist , he once accompanied Albert Einstein playing The Swan by Camille Saint @-@ Saëns on the violin ( no recording was made ) . In 1981 he performed a solo xylophone rendition of the Sex Pistols ' " Anarchy in the U.K. " in a Royal Variety Performance . He did not enjoy most popular music : when played ten modern rock songs by such artists as Hawkwind , Muse and Pink Floyd , in a 2009 interview with journalist Joel McIver , he explained , " To my ear , all these songs are universally awful . "
Before encountering health problems he was an extensive traveller , and had visited all seven continents , including Antarctica ; he said his favourite two countries were Iceland and Norway . On 7 March 2006 he was hospitalised and fitted with a pacemaker because of a cardiac abnormality . He spoke in favour of Esperanto on the hundredth anniversary of the help @-@ language .
He was a friend of Queen guitarist and astrophysicist Brian May , who was an occasional guest on The Sky at Night . May bought Moore 's Selsey home in 2008 , leasing it back to him for a peppercorn rent the same day to provide financial security . May , Moore and Chris Lintott co @-@ wrote a book Bang ! The Complete History of the Universe . In February 2011 , Moore completed ( with Robin Rees and Iain Nicolson ) his comprehensive Patrick Moore 's Data Book of Astronomy for Cambridge University Press . In 1986 he was identified as the co @-@ author of a book published in 1954 called Flying Saucer from Mars , attributed to Cedric Allingham , which was intended as a money @-@ making venture and practical joke on UFO believers ; Moore never admitted his involvement . He once joined the Flat Earth Society as an ironic joke .
Moore believed himself to be the only person to have met the first aviator , Orville Wright , the first man in space , Yuri Gagarin , and the first man on the moon , Neil Armstrong .
In March 2015 , BBC Radio 4 broadcast a 45 @-@ minute play based on the life of Moore , The Far Side of the Moore by Sean Grundy , starring Tom Hollander as Moore and Patricia Hodge as his mother .
= = Honours and appointments = =
In 1945 , Moore was elected a fellow of the Royal Astronomical Society ; in 1977 he was awarded the society 's Jackson @-@ Gwilt Medal . In 1968 , he was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire ( OBE ) and promoted to a Commander ( CBE ) of the order in 1988 . In 1999 he became the honorary president of the East Sussex Astronomical Society , a position he held until his death . In 2001 , he was knighted for " services to the popularisation of science and to broadcasting " .
In 2001 , he was appointed an Honorary Fellow of the Royal Society , the only amateur astronomer ever to achieve the distinction . In June 2002 , he was appointed as the honorary vice president of the Society for the History of Astronomy . Also in 2002 , Buzz Aldrin presented him with a British Academy of Film and Television Arts ( BAFTA ) award for services to television . He was patron of Torquay Boys ' Grammar School in south Devon . Moore had a long association with the University of Leicester and its Department of Physics and Astronomy , and was awarded an honorary Doctor of Science degree in 1996 and a Distinguished Honorary Fellowship in 2008 , the highest award that the university can bestow .
In 2009 , after saving Airdrie Public Observatory from closure in 2002 , Moore accepted the position of Honorary President of Airdrie Astronomical Association , a position which he held until his death .
= = Film and television appearances = =
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